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Contents 1
2
Summum bonum
1
1.1
Plato and Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.2
Hellenic syncretism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.3
Later developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.4
Judgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Intrinsic value (ethics)
3
2.1
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.1.1
Other names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.1.2
Similar concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.1.3
End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.2
Life stances and intrinsic value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.3
Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
2.3.1
Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
2.3.2
Intrinsic multism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
2.3.3
Total intrinsic value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
2.3.4
UnspeciďŹ ed aliquidism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Concrete and abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
2.4.1
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
2.4.2
Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Absolute and relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.5.1
Absolute intrinsic value denial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.6
Positive and negative intrinsic value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.4
2.5
3
Meaning of life
6
3.1
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
3.2
ScientiďŹ c inquiry and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
i
ii
CONTENTS 3.2.1
Psychological signiďŹ cance and value in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
3.2.2
Origin and nature of biological life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
3.2.3
Origins and ultimate fate of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
3.2.4
ScientiďŹ c questions about the mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
3.2.5
Nature of meaning in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Western philosophical perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.3.1
Ancient Greek philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.3.2
Enlightenment philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.3.3
19th century philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.3.4
20th-century philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
East Asian philosophical perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.4.1
Mohism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.4.2
Confucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.4.3
Legalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Religious perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.5.1
Western religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.5.2
South Asian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
3.5.3
East Asian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.6
In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.7
Popular views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.7.1
To realize one's potential and ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.7.2
To achieve biological perfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.7.3
To seek wisdom and knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3.7.4
To do good, to do the right thing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7.5
Meanings relating to religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7.6
To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.7.7
To have power, to be better . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.7.8
Life has no meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.7.9
One should not seek to know and understand the meaning of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.7.10 To continue life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
Omnibenevolence
34
4.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
4.2
Philosophical perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
4.3
Religious perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
4.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.3
3.4
3.5
4
CONTENTS
iii
5
Virtue
37
5.1
Ancient history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2
Classical antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2.1
Platonic virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.2.2
Aristotelian virtue
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.2.3
Prudence and virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
5.2.4
Roman virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Religious traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.3.1
Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.3.2
Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.3.3
Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.3.4
Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.3.5
Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.3.6
Bahá'í faith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.3.7
Daoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.4
Samurai virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
5.5
Philosophers' views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.5.1
René Descartes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.5.2
Immanuel Kant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.5.3
Friedrich Nietzsche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
5.5.4
Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Contemporary views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
5.6.1
Virtues as emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
5.6.2
In Objectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
5.6.3
In modern psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
5.7
Vice as opposite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
5.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
Good and evil
47
6.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.2
Origin of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.2.1
Ancient world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.2.2
Classical world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.2.3
Medieval period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.2.4
Modern Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
Theories of moral goodness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.3.1
Chinese moral philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.3.2
Western philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.3.3
Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
5.3
5.6
6
6.3
iv
CONTENTS 6.3.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
6.4
Descriptive, meta-ethical, and normative fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
6.5
Theories of the intrinsically good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
6.5.1
Transcendental realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
6.5.2
Perfectionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
6.5.3
Welfarist theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
Philosophical questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
6.6.1
Universality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
6.6.2
Usefulness as a term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
6.6.3
Necessary evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Goodness and agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.7.1
Goodwill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.7.2
Society, life and ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
6.7.3
History and novelty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
6.8
Goodness and morality in biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
6.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
6.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
6.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
6.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
Eudaimonia
62
7.1
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
7.2
Main views on eudaimonia and its relation to aretē . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.2.1
Socrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
7.2.2
Plato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
7.2.3
Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
7.2.4
Epicurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
7.2.5
The Stoics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
7.3
Eudaimonia and modern moral philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
7.4
Eudaimonia and modern psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
7.4.1
Parenting and eudaimonia
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
7.4.2
Self-acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
7.4.3
Purpose in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
7.4.4
Eudaimonia in adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
7.4.5
Genetics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
7.5
Etymology and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
7.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
7.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
7.8
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
7.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
6.6
6.7
7
8
Happiness
Religion
75
CONTENTS
v
8.1
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
8.2
Research results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
8.3
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
8.3.1
Terror management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
8.3.2
Religious views on happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
9
8.4
Spirituality
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
8.5
Philosophical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
8.6
Economic and political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
8.7
Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
8.8
Physical mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
8.9
Correlation of precuneus gray matter volume, meditation and subjective happiness score
. . . . . .
81
8.10 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
8.11 At work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
8.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
8.13 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
8.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
8.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
Positive psychology
88
9.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
9.1.1
The goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
9.2.1
Historical roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
9.3.1
Neuroscientific approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.3.2
Evolutionary approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
General findings by topic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
9.4.1
Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.4.2
Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.4.3
Health
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
9.4.4
Personal finances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.4.5
Education and intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.4.6
Parenthood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
9.4.7
Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
9.4.8
Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
9.4.9
Social ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
9.4.10 Modernity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
9.4.11 Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
9.4.12 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
9.4.13 Spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
9.4.14 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
9.4.15 Political views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
9.2 9.3
9.4
vi
CONTENTS
9.5
9.6
9.4.16 Addiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
9.4.17 Suffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
9.4.18 Changes in happiness levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
9.5.1
Broad theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
9.5.2
The pleasant life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.5.3
The good life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.5.4
Flourishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.5.5
The meaningful life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 9.6.1
Happiness measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.6.2
Early “positive psychology”techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.6.3
Physical education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.6.4
In education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.6.5
In youth development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.6.6
Clinical psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.6.7
In the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.6.8
In offender rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.6.9
Post-traumatic growth in constructive journalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.6.10 Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 9.6.11 Other future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 9.7
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 9.8.1
9.9
Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 9.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 10 Nicomachean Ethics
119
10.1 Title and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 10.2 Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 10.3 Book I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 10.3.1 Who should study ethics, and how . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 10.3.2 Defining “happiness”(eudaimonia) and the aim of the Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 10.3.3 Questions that might be raised about the definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 10.3.4 From defining happiness to discussion of virtue: introduction to the rest of the Ethics . . . . 123 10.4 Books II–V: Concerning excellence of character or moral virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.4.1 Book II: That virtues of character can be described as means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 10.4.2 Book III. Chapters 1–5: Moral virtue as conscious choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 10.4.3 Book III. Chapters 6–12, First examples of moral virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 10.4.4 Book IV. The second set of examples of moral virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10.4.5 Book V: Justice and fairness: a moral virtue needing special discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 130
CONTENTS
vii
10.5 Book VI: Intellectual virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 10.6 Book VII. Impediments to virtue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 10.6.1 Book VII. Chapters 1–10: Self-mastery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 10.6.2 Book VII. Chapters 11–14: Pleasure as something to avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10.7 Books VIII and IX: Friendship and partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 10.8 Book X: Pleasure, happiness, and up-bringing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.8.1 Book X. Chapters 1–5: The theory of pleasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 10.8.2 Book X. Chapters 6-8: Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 10.8.3 Book X. Chapter 9: The need for education, habituation and good laws . . . . . . . . . . . 136 10.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.10Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 10.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 10.11.1 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 10.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 11 Utilitarianism
141
11.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 11.2 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 11.3 Classical utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11.3.1 Jeremy Bentham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 11.3.2 John Stuart Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 11.4 Twentieth-century developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 11.4.1 Ideal utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 11.4.2 Act and rule utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 11.4.3 Two-level utilitarianism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
11.4.4 Preference utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 11.5 More varieties of utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 11.5.1 Negative utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 11.5.2 Motive utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 11.6 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 11.6.1 Ignores justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 11.6.2 Predicting consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 11.6.3 Demandingness objection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 11.6.4 Aggregating utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 11.6.5 Calculating utility is self-defeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 11.6.6 Karl Marx's criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.6.7 John Paul II's personalist criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.7 Additional considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.7.1 Average v. total happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 11.7.2 Motives, intentions, and actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 11.8 Application to specific issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 11.8.1 Nonhuman animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
viii
CONTENTS 11.8.2 World poverty
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
11.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 11.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 11.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 11.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 12 Well-being
163
12.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 12.2 Cognitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 12.3 Aective
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
12.4 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 12.5 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 12.6 Financial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 12.7 Subjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 12.8 Ethnic identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.9 Individual roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.10Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.11Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 12.14Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 13 Hedonism
168
13.1 Etymology and lexicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2 History of development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2.1 Sumerian civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2.2 Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2.3 Classic schools of antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 13.2.4 Mohism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.2.5 Christian hedonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.2.6 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.2.7 Utilitarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 13.2.8 Contemporary approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 13.3 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 14 Pleasure
175
14.1 Neuropsychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
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14.1.1 Neurobiological basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14.1.2 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 14.2 Philosophical views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.2.1 Philosophies of pleasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.3 As a uniquely human experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 14.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 15 Great Work
179
15.1 In Hermeticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 15.2 In Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 15.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 16 Hermeticism
181
16.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 16.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 16.2.1 Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 16.2.2 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 16.2.3 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 16.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 16.3.1 Prisca theologia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 16.3.2 “As above, so below.� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 16.3.3 The three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 16.3.4 Posthumous lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 16.3.5 Good and evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 16.3.6 Cosmogony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 16.4 As a religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 16.4.1 Religious and philosophical texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 16.5 Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.5.1 Rosicrucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.5.2 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.5.3 Esoteric Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.5.4 Mystical Neopaganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 16.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 16.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 17 Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica
190
17.1 Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 17.2 Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
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CONTENTS 17.3 Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 17.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 17.5 The Gnostic Creed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 17.5.1 Explication of the Creed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 17.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 17.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 17.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 17.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
18 The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn
193
18.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.2 Membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.3 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 19 Kenneth Anger
195
19.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 19.1.1 1927–35: Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 19.1.2 1937–46: First films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 19.1.3 1947–49: Fireworks and early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 19.1.4 1950–53: France, Rabbit's Moon and Eaux d'Artifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 19.1.5 1953–60: Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and Hollywood Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 19.1.6 1961–65: Scorpio Rising and Kustom Kar Kommandos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 19.1.7 1966–69: The hippie movement and Invocation of My Demon Brother . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 19.1.8 1970–81: Lucifer Rising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 19.1.9 1982–99: Retirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 19.1.10 2000–present: Return to filmmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 19.2 Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 19.3 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 19.4 Filmography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 19.5 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 19.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 19.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 19.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 20 Augustus Sol Invictus
205
20.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 20.2 Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 20.3 Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
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20.3.1 Call to War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 20.3.2 Antifa and denial of entry to Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 20.4 Policy positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 20.5 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 20.6 Electoral history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 20.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 21 Aeon (Thelema)
208
21.1 Aeons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 21.1.1 Aeon of Isis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 21.1.2 Aeon of Osiris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 21.1.3 Aeon of Horus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 21.1.4 Other Aeons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 21.2 Diering views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 21.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 22 True Will
210
22.1 Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 22.2 Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 22.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 22.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 23 Holy Guardian Angel
212
23.1 Aleister Crowley's teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 23.1.1 Methods of achieving knowledge and conversation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
23.1.2 Variations in Crowley's teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 23.2 Peter Carroll's teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 23.3 Enochian teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 23.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 23.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 23.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
23.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 24 Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu 24.1 Origins
215
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
24.2 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 24.2.1 Obverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 24.2.2 Reverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 24.3 Interpretation by Aleister Crowley and Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 24.4 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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25 93 (Thelema)
218
25.1 Other correspondences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 25.2 As salutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 25.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 25.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 25.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 26 Abyss (Thelema)
220
26.1 Theory and practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 26.2 The Book of Lies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 26.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 26.4 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 27 Gematria
222
27.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 27.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 27.3 Textual sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 27.4 Values table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 27.5 Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 27.6 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 27.7 Mathematical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 27.8 Absolute value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 27.9 Use in other languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.11Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 27.12References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 28 Subtle body
227
28.1 History of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.2 Eastern esotericism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 28.2.1 Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 28.2.2 Meher Baba's teachings
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
28.3 Western esotericism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 28.3.1 Theosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 28.3.2 Post Theosophists
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
28.3.3 Fourth Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 28.4 Aleister Crowley and the Body of Light
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
28.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 28.6 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
28.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 28.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
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29 Night of Pan
234
29.1 The City of the Pyramids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 29.2 In writings by Crowley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 29.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 29.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 30 Occult science
236
30.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 30.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 30.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 30.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 31 Hermetic Qabalah
237
31.1 Teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 31.1.1 Conception of Divinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 31.1.2 The Sephiroth in Hermetic Qabalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 31.1.3 Tarot and the Tree of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 31.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 31.2.1 Hermetic views of Qabalah origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 31.2.2 Renaissance occultism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 31.2.3 Enlightenment era esoteric societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 31.2.4 Nineteenth-century magical revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 31.2.5 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 31.2.6 After the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 31.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 31.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 31.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 31.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 32 Goetia
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32.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 32.2 Renaissance magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 32.3 The Ars Goetia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 32.4 The Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 32.5 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 32.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 32.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 32.8 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
32.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 32.10Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 32.10.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 32.10.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
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CONTENTS 32.10.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter 1
Summum bonum Summum bonum is a Latin expression meaning “the highest good”, which was introduced by Cicero,* [1] to correspond to the Idea of the Good in ancient Greek philosophy. The summum bonum is generally thought of as being an end in itself, and at the same time containing all other goods. The term was used in medieval philosophy and in Kantianism, to describe the ultimate importance, the singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue. In the Thomist synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christianity, the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led in communion with God and according to God's precepts.* [1]
natura boni (On the Nature of Good, c. 399). Augustine denies the positive existence of absolute evil, describing a world with God as the supreme good at the center, and defining different grades of evil as different stages of remoteness from that center.
1.3 Later developments The summum bonum has continued to be a focus of attention in Western philosophy, secular and religious. Hegel replaced Plato's dialectical ascent to the Good by his own dialectical ascent to the Real.* [9]
G. E. Moore placed the highest good in personal relations and the contemplation of beauty – even if not all his fol1.1 Plato and Aristotle lowers in the Bloomsbury Group may have appreciated what Clive Bell called his “all-important distinction bePlato's The Republic argued that,“In the world of knowltween 'Good on the whole' and 'Good as a whole'”.* [10] edge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen...to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right” Lacan considered that “the sovereign good, if this con.* [2] Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation fusing term must be retained, can be found again only at the level of the law”,* [11] i.e. the symbolic order, of the Idea of the Good.* [3] offsetting Kant with De Sade to undercut nobler but oneAristotle in his Nichomachean Ethics accepted that the dimensional notions of the Good.* [12] Earlier he had retarget of human activity,“Must be the 'Good', that is, the gretted the way the psychoanalyst must know,“Not only supreme good.”, but challenged Plato's Idea of the Good doesn't he have that Sovereign Good that is asked of him, with the pragmatic question: “Will one who has had a but he also knows there isn't any”.* [13] vision of the Idea itself become thereby a better doctor or general?”.* [4] However, arguably at least, Aristotle's concept of the unmoved mover owed much to Plato's Idea of the Good.* [5] 1.4 Judgments For more details on this topic, see Intrinsic value (ethics) § Life stances and intrinsic value.
1.2 Hellenic syncretism
Philo of Alexandria conflated the Old Testament God Judgments on the highest good have generally fallen into with the unmoved mover and the Idea of the Good.* [6] four categories:* [1] Plotinus, the neoplatonic philosopher, built on Plato's Good for his concept of the supreme One, while Plutarch • Utilitarianism, when the highest good is identified drew on Zoroastrianism to develop his eternal principle with the maximum possible psychological happiness of good.* [7] for the maximum number of people; Augustine of Hippo in his early writings offered the sum• Eudaemonism or virtue ethics, when the highest mum bonum as the highest human goal, but was later to good is identified with flourishing; identify it as a feature of the Christian God* [8] in De 1
2
CHAPTER 1. SUMMUM BONUM • Rational deontologism, when the highest good is identified with virtue or duty; • Rational eudaemonism, or tempered deontologism, when both virtue and happiness are combined in the highest good.
1.5 See also • Intrinsic value (ethics) • Meaning of life • Omnibenevolence
1.6 Notes [1] Dinneen 1909. [2] B. Jowett trans, The Essential Plato (1999) p. 269 [3] A. Kojeve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (1980) p. 108 [4] H, Tredennick revd, The Ethics of Aristotle (1976) p. 63 and p. 72 [5] Tredennick, p. 352 [6] J. Boardman ed., The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 703 [7] Boardman, p. 705-7 [8] J. McWilliam, Augustine (1992) p. 152-4 [9] Kojeve, p. 181-4 [10] Quoted in H. Lee, Virginia Woolf (1996) p. 253 [11] Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis (1994) p. 242 [12] Lacan, Concepts p. 276 [13] Jacques Lacan, The Ethics of Psychoanalysis (1992) p. 300
Attributon This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Dinneen, M.F. (1909). "The Highest Good". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. 6. New York: Robert Appleton.
1.7 External links • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Summum Bonum". Encyclopædia Britannica. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 81.
Chapter 2
Intrinsic value (ethics) • The relative intrinsic value is roughly synonymous with the ethic ideal.
For intrinsic value of animals, see Intrinsic value (animal ethics).
• Inherent value may be regarded a first grade instruIntrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It mental value when a personal experience is the inis the ethical or philosophic value that an object has “in trinsic value. itself”or “for its own sake”, as an intrinsic property. An object with intrinsic value may be regarded as an end or (in Kantian terminology) end-in-itself.* [1] 2.1.3 End It is contrasted with instrumental value (or extrinsic value), the value of which depends on how much it generates intrinsic value.* [2] For an eudaemonist, happiness (human flourishing) has intrinsic value, while having a family may not have intrinsic value, yet be instrumental, since it generates happiness. Intrinsic value is a term employed in axiology, the study of quality or value.
In philosophy and ethics, an end is the ultimate goal in a series of steps. For example, according to Aristotle the end of everything we do is happiness. It is contrasted to a means, which is something that helps you achieve that goal. For example, money or power may be said to be a means to the end of happiness. Nevertheless, some objects may be ends and means at the same time.
2.1 Terminology
Similar concepts
2.1.1
End is roughly similar, and often used as a synonym, for the following concepts:
Other names
Other names for intrinsic value are terminal value, essential value, principle value or ultimate importance. See also Robert S. Hartman's use of the term in the article Science of Value.
2.1.2
• Purpose or aim: in its most general sense the anticipated result which guides action. • Goal or objective consists of a projected state of affairs which a person or a system plans or intends to achieve or bring about
Similar concepts
Intrinsic value is mainly used in ethics, but the concept is 2.2 Life stances and intrinsic value also used in philosophy, with terms that essentially may refer to the same concept. This is a table which attempts to summarize the main intrinsic value of different life stances and other views, al• As“ultimate importance”it is what is related to by though there may be great diversity within them: a sentient being in order to constitute a life stance. Further information: Life stance § Values and purposes • It is synonymous with the meaning of life, as this may be expressed as what is meaningful or valuable* [3] in life. However, meaning of life is more vague, with other uses as well.
2.3 Quantity
• Summum bonum is basically its equivalent in There may be zero,* [5] one, or several* [5] things in the medieval philosophy. world with intrinsic value. 3
4
CHAPTER 2. INTRINSIC VALUE (ETHICS) • Intrinsic nihilism, or simply nihilism (from Latin 2.3.3 Total intrinsic value nihil“nothing”) holds that there are zero quantities with intrinsic value. The total intrinsic value of an object is the product of its average intrinsic value, average value intensity and value • Intrinsic aliquidism, or simply aliquidism* [6] duration. It may be either an absolute or relative value. (from Latin aliquid “something”) holds that there The total intrinsic value and total instrumental value tois one or more. This may be of several quantities, gether make the total whole value of an object. ranging from one single to all possible. • Intrinsic monism (from Greek monos “sin- 2.3.4 Unspecified aliquidism gle”) holds that there is one thing with intrinsic value. This view may hold only lifestances that Main article: Ietsism accept this object as intrinsically valuable. • Intrinsic multism (from Latin multus“many” ) holds that there are many things with intrinsic value. In other words, this view may hold the instrinsic values of several life stances as intrinsically valuable.
Ietsism (Dutch ietsisme“somethingism”) is a Dutch language term for a range of beliefs held by people who, on the one hand, inwardly suspect—or indeed believe—that there is“More between Heaven and Earth”than we know about, but on the other hand do not accept or subscribe to • Intrinsic panism (from Greek pan “every- the established belief system, dogma or view of the nature thing”) holds that everything has an intrinsic of God offered by any particular religion. value. In this sense, it may roughly be regarded as aliquidism, without further specification. For instance, most lifestances include the acceptance of “there is something, some meaning of life, something that is an end-in-itself 2.3.1 Equality or something more to existence, and it is...”, assuming various objects or “truths”, while ietsism, on the other Further information: Ethic value equality hand accepts “there is something”, without further assumption to it. Among followers of aliquidistic lifestances regarding more than one thing as having intrinsic value, these may be regarded as equally intrinsically valuable or unequally so. However, in practice, they may in any case be un- 2.4 Concrete and abstract equally valued because of their instrumental values resulting in unequal whole values. The object with instrinsic value, the end, may be both a concrete object or an abstract object.
2.3.2
Intrinsic multism
This view may hold the instrinsic values of several life stances as intrinsically valuable. Note the difference between this and regarding several intrinsic values as more or less instrumentally valuable, since intrinsic monistic views also may hold other intrinsic values than their own chosen one as valuable, but then only to the degree other intrinsic values contribute indirectly to their own chosen intrinsic value.
2.4.1 Concrete In the case where concrete objects are accepted as ends, they may be either single particulars or generalized to all particulars of one or more universals. However, the majority of life stances choose all particulars of universals as ends. For instance, Humanism doesn't assume individual humans as ends but rather all humans of humanity.
The most simple form of intrinsic multism is intrinsic bi- 2.4.2 Continuum ism (from Latin two), which holds two objects as having intrinsic value, such as happiness and virtue. When generalizing multiple particulars of a single uniHumanism is an example of a life stance that accepts that versal it may not be certain whether the end is actually the individual particulars or the rather abstract universal. several things have intrinsic value.* [5] Multism may not necessarily include the feature of in- In such cases, a life stance may rather be a continuum trinsic values to have a negative side, e.g. the feature of between having a concrete and abstract end. utilitarianism to accept both pain as well as pleasure to be This may render life stances of being both intrinsic multiof intrinsic value, since they may be viewed as different stic and intrinsic monistic at the same time. Such a quansides of the same coin. tity contradiction, however, may be of only minor prac-
2.8. REFERENCES tic significance, since splitting an end into many ends decreases the whole value but increases the value intensity.
2.5 Absolute and relative There may be a distinction between absolute and relative ethic value regarding intrinsic value. Relative intrinsic value is subjective, depending on individual and cultural views and/or the individual choice of life stance. Absolute intrinsic value, on the other hand, is philosophically absolute and independent of individual and cultural views, as well as independent on whether it discovered or not what object has it.
2.5.1
Absolute intrinsic value denial
5 • Autotelic • Extrinsic value (ethics) • Ophelimity • Value system • Value theory
2.8 References [1] Ivo de Gennaro, Value: Sources and Readings on a Key Concept of the Globalized World, BRILL, 2012, p. 138. [2] Environmental Values, based on Singer, Peter “The Environmental Challenge”, Ian Marsh, edit., Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire, 1991, 0-582-87125-5. pp. 12
There is an ongoing discussion whether absolute intrinsic value exists at all, for instance in pragmatism.
[3] Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002).“Education and the Meaning of Life” (PDF). Philosophy of Education. University of Helsinki. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
Pragmatism
[4] The Catholic encyclopedia, Volume 6, Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1913, p. 640.
Further information: Pragmatism In pragmatism, John Dewey's* [7] empirical approach did not accept intrinsic value as an inherent or enduring property of things. He saw it as an illusory product of our continuous ethic valuing activity as purposive beings. When held across only some contexts, Dewey held that goods are only intrinsic relative to a situation. In other words, he only believed in relative intrinsic value, but not any absolute intrinsic value. He held that across all contexts, goodness is best understood as instrumental value, with no contrasting intrinsic goodness. In other words, Dewey claimed that anything can only be of intrinsic value if it is a contributory good.
[5] Haught, James A.“Meaning and Nothingness: A personal journey”. Free Inquiry magazine. Council for Secular Humanism. 22 (1). [6]“Metaphysical Nihilism or Aliquidism? Against an Empty World,”presented at the Kentucky Philosophical Association, Transylvania University, Lexington, KY, 28 October 2006. [7] Theory of Valuation by John Dewey
2.9 External links • Zimmerman, Michael J. “Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Discussion of different types of values
2.6 Positive and negative intrinsic value There may be both positive and negative value regarding intrinsic value, wherein something of positive intrinsic value is something that for itself is purposed to be pursued or maximized, while is something of negative intrinsic value is best to avoid or minimize. For instance, in utilitarianism, pleasure has positive intrinsic value and suffering has negative intrinsic value.
2.7 See also • Animal ethics
Chapter 3
Meaning of life 3.1 Questions Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed in a broad variety of ways, including the following: • What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? Who are we?* [1]* [2]* [3] Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?, one of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin's most famous paintings
The meaning of life, or the answer to the question “What is the meaning of life?", pertains to the significance of living or existence in general. Many other related questions include “Why are we here?", “What is life all about?", and “What is the purpose of existence?" or even “Does life exist at all?" There have been a large number of proposed answers to these questions from many different cultural and ideological backgrounds. The search for life's meaning has produced much philosophical, scientific, theological, and metaphysical speculation throughout history. Different people and cultures believe different things for the an- Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by Rembrandt swer to this question. Most religions believe that life is a test from God. Some believe the prosperous journey of adjustment to any given environment to develop a sense • Why are we here? What are we here of comfort and happiness in which enables reproduction for?* [4]* [5]* [6] and the ability to influence what you create, can be un• What is the origin of life?* [7] derstood as the meaning of life. The meaning of life as we perceive it is derived from our philosophical and religious contemplation of, and scientific inquiries about existence, social ties, consciousness, and happiness. Many other issues are also involved, such as symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scientific contributions focus primarily on describing related empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context and parameters concerning the “how”of life. Science also studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit of well-being and a related conception of morality. An alternative, humanistic approach poses the question, “What is the meaning of my life?"
• What is the nature of life? What is the nature of reality?* [7]* [8]* [9] • What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of one's life?* [8]* [10]* [11] • What is the significance of life?* [11] – see also Psychological significance and value in life • What is meaningful and valuable in life?* [12] • What is the value of life?* [13] • What is the reason to live? What are we living for?* [6]* [14] 6
3.2. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND PERSPECTIVES
7
These questions have resulted in a wide range of compet- narios such as trolley problems. It has shown that many ing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures, philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations. suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are culture specific. The findings show actual human ethical reasoning to be at odds with most logical philosophical 3.2 Scientific inquiry and perspec- theories, for example consistently showing distinctions between action by cause and action by omission which tives would be absent from utility based theories. Cognitive science has theorized about differences between conserFurther information: Eudaimonia § Eudaimonia and vative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on different metaphors from family life such as strong famodern psychology, and Meaningful Life thers vs nurturing mother models. Many members of the scientific community and philosophy of science communities think that science can provide the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety. Scientific inquiry facilitates this through nomological investigation into various aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang, the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying the objective factors which correlate with the subjective experience of meaning and happiness.
3.2.1
Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experience. Some researchers have suggested that the human brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and that living without using them for their evolved purposes may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported conflicted results on correlating happiness with religious belief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.
Sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists, broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that human meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death, and values are selected when they allow us to escape the Psychological significance and value mental reminder of death.
in life
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease,* [19] reduced risk of heart attack among individuals with coronary heart disease,* [20] reduced risk of stroke,* [21] and increased longevity in both American and Japanese samples.* [22] In 2014, the British National Health Service began recommending a five step plan for mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps are: (1) Connect with community and family; (2) Physical exercise; (3) Lifelong learning; (4) Giving to others; (5) Mindfulness of the world around you.* [23]
Researchers in positive psychology study empirical factors that lead to life satisfaction,* [15] full engagement in activities,* [16] making a fuller contribution by utilizing one's personal strengths,* [17] and meaning based on investing in something larger than the self.* [18] Largedata studies of flow experiences have consistently suggested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment when mastering challenging tasks, and that the experience comes from the way tasks are approached and performed rather than the particular choice of task. For example, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic example* [16] is of two workers on an apparently boring pro- 3.2.2 Origin and nature of biological life duction line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: noshe can make each unit, and achieves flow in the process. table hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis (RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world hyNeuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation pothesis (metabolism without genetics). The process by in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the which different lifeforms have developed throughout hislimbic system and the ventral tegmental area in partic- tory via genetic mutation and natural selection is exular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to max- plained by evolution.* [24] At the end of the 20th century, imize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows based upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view normative predictions about how to act to achieve this. of evolution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of Dawkins, and David Haig, among others, concluded that morality – the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all con- if there is a primary function to life, it is the replication scious creatures. of DNA and the survival of one's genes.* [25]* [26] This Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research col- view has not achieved universal agreement; Jeremy Griflects data about human ethical decisions in controlled sce- fith is a notable exception, maintaining that the meaning
8
CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE entropy at the expense of some form of energy taken in from the environment.* [33]* [34] Biologists generally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems which regulate their internal environments as to maintain this organized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and reproduction causes life to continue over a span of multiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to stimuli and genetic information changes from generation to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution; this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual organism and its descendants respectively.* [35] Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are generally not considered to be organisms because they are incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. This classification is problematic, though, since some parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of independent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of different forms of life on other worlds, including replicating structures made from materials other than DNA.
3.2.3 Origins and ultimate fate of the universe
The metric expansion of space. The inflationary epoch is the expansion of the metric tensor at left.
Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepticism when first introduced, it has become well-supported by several independent observations.* [36] However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10* −43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corDNA, the molecule containing the genetic instructions for the de- responds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum velopment and functioning of all known living organisms. gravity would be required to understand events before that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and of life is to be integrative.* [27] Responding to an inter- how the universe came into being.* [37] For example, view question from Richard Dawkins about “what it is one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coinciall for”, James Watson stated “I don't think we're for dentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it anything. We're just the products of evolution.”* [28] is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a * Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, multiverse. [38] defining life in unequivocal terms is still a chal- The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly humanlenge.* [29]* [30] Physically, one may say that life“feeds ity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will on negative entropy"* [27]* [31]* [32] which refers to the eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big process by which living entities decrease their internal Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch.
3.2. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY AND PERSPECTIVES
9
Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative speculative models for the origin and fate of the universe beyond the big bang theory. A recent trend has been models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black holes, with our own big bang resulting from the formation of a black hole in another parent universe. Multiverse theories claim that every possibility of quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.
3.2.4
Scientific questions about the mind
The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science. The explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience (e.g. the neuroscience of free will) and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.* [39]* [40] Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, thus adhering to biological naturalism.* [40]* [41]* [42] On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.* [43] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime explain consciousness in describing a“space of conscious elements”,* [43] often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.* [44] Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciousness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experience, there is however disagreement about the implementations of such a theory relating to other workings of the mind.* [45]* [46] Quantum mind theories use quantum Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Ex- light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of nearplaining the process of free will through quantum phe- death experiences. nomena is a popular alternative to determinism. Parapsychology Based on the premises of non-materialistic explanations of the mind, some have suggested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting that consciousness is actually the “ground of all being”.* [9]* [47]* [48] Proponents of this view cite accounts of paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory perceptions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated various experiments, but successful results might be due to poor ex-
perimental controls and might have alternative explanations.* [49]* [50]* [51]* [52]
3.2.5 Nature of meaning in life The most common definitions of meaning in life involves three components. First, Reker and Wong defined personal meaning as the “cognizance of order, coherence and purpose in one’s existence, the pursuit and attainment of worthwhile goals, and an accompanying sense of fulfillment”(p. 221).* [53] Recently, Martela and Steger have defined meaning as coherence, purpose,
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CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE
and significance.* [54] In contrast, Wong has proposed a four-component solution to the question of meaning in life.* [55]* [56] The four components are purpose, understanding, responsibility, and enjoyment (PURE): 1. You need to choose a worthy purpose or a significant life goal. 2. You need to have sufficient understanding of who you are, what life demands of you, and how you can play a significant role in life. 3. You and you alone are responsible for deciding what kind of life you want to live, and what constitutes a significant and worthwhile life goal. 4. You will enjoy a deep sense of significance and satisfaction only when you have exercised your responsibility for self-determination and actively pursue a worthy life goal. Thus, a sense of significance permeates every dimension of meaning, rather than stands as a separate factor. Although most psychology researchers consider meaning in life as a subjective feeling or judgment, most philosophers (e.g., Thaddeus Metz, Daniel Haybron) propose that there are also objective, concrete criteria for what constitutes meaning in life.* [57]* [58] Wong has proposed that whether life is meaningful depends not only on subjective feelings but, more importantly, on whether a person’s goal striving and life as a whole is meaningful according to some objective normative standard.* [56]
3.3 Western philosophical perspectives
Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco, by Raphael. Plato is pointing heavenwards to the sky, and Aristotle is gesturing to the world.
In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the Good, from which all good and just things derive utility and value.
Aristotelianism Main article: Aristotelian ethics
The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are those ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowlabstractions defined by humans. edge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice 3.3.1 Ancient Greek philosophy in order to become “good"; thus if the person were to virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue become Platonism is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Main article: Platonism Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his idealism of believing in the existence of universals. His Theory of Forms proposes that universals do not physically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the dialogue of The Republic, the character of Socrates describes the Form of the Good. His theory on justice in the soul relates to the idea of happiness relevant to the question of the meaning of life.
Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor [...] Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is “good”. —Nicomachean Ethics 1.1
3.3. WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other “goods”desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, usually translated as “happiness”, “wellbeing”, “flourishing”, and “excellence”.
What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness. —Nicomachean Ethics 1.4
Cynicism Main article: Cynicism (philosophy) Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life of Virtue which agrees with Nature. Happiness depends upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental attitude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant vicious character.
11 Epicureanism Main article: Epicureanism Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos, taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, temperate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and freedom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicurus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic “abstention”from sex and the appetites: “When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do, by some, through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.”* [63]
The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body. There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because “Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is and that which lacks sensation is nothThe Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth, without sensation, * ing to us.” [64] power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions acquired in pursuing the conventional.* [59]* [60] As reasoning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rig- Stoicism orous training, by living in a way natural to human beings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering Main article: Stoicism is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what is worthless per the customs and conventions of society. Zeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established the school which teaches that living according to reason and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine Cyrenaicism order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos, or reason, an essential value of all people. The meanMain article: Cyrenaics ing of life is “freedom from suffering" through apatheia (Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having“clear Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an judgement”, not indifference. early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of Socrates's teachings - that happiness is one of the ends of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good; thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.* [61]* [62]
Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflection, and concentration.
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The Stoic ethical foundation is that “good lies in the state of the soul”, itself, exemplified in wisdom and selfcontrol, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature.” * [64] The principle applies to one's personal relations thus: “to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy”.* [64]
3.3.2
Enlightenment philosophy
Further information: Enlightenment philosophy The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the nature of European philosophy and exported it worldwide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equality, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and more on the relationship between individuals and their society. This era is filled with theories that equate meaningful existence with the social order.
Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of the late Enlightenment.
Classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a set of ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of conflicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and the established aristocratic and religious orders that dominated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with inalienable natural rights (including the right to retain the wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out means to balance rights across society. Broadly speaking, it considers individual liberty to be the most important goal,* [65] because only through ensured liberty are the other inherent rights protected. There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for existence through labor and property, and using social contracts to create an environment that supports those efforts.
maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim in the world without contradiction. In Groundwork, Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction because if it were a universal action, no person would lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty). Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his reasoning being that the physical world is outside one's full control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the events that occur in it.
3.3.3 19th century philosophy Further information: 19th century philosophy
Kantianism Kantianism is a philosophy based on the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological theory where there is a single moral obligation, the "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in accordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categorical imperative.
Utilitarianism
The origins of utilitarianism can be traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, it is credited to Jeremy Bentham,* [66] who found that“nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure”, then, from that moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility: “that the good is whatever brings Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people”.
3.3. WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
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The End of the World, by John Martin.
world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which Man can cling, and by which he can orient himself.* [70]
The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the absurdity of the human condition is that people search for external values and meaning in a world which has none, Jeremy Bentham and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists such as Meursault,* [71] but also of values in a nihilistic He defined the meaning of life as the "greatest happiness world, that people can instead strive to be “heroic niprinciple". hilists”, living with dignity in the face of absurdity, livJeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a ing with “secular saintliness”, fraternal solidarity, and significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stu- rebelling against and transcending the world's indiffer* art Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's ence. [72] principles, including transcribing and summarizing much of his father's work.* [67]
3.3.4 20th-century philosophy
Nihilism Nihilism suggests that life is without objective meaning. Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; succinctly, nihilism is the process of “the devaluing of the highest values”.* [68] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was something to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's lifenegating values returned meaning to the Earth.* [69] To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby "being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value, in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.* [68] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche, saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source for nihilism:
Further information: 20th-century philosophy The current era has seen radical changes in both formal and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowledge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewritten the relationship of humankind to the natural world. Advances in medicine and technology have freed humans from significant limitations and ailments of previous eras;* [73] and philosophy—particularly following the linguistic turn —has altered how the relationships people have with themselves and each other are conceived. Questions about the meaning of life have also seen radical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human existence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity (existentialism, secular humanism). Pragmatism
If God, as the supra-sensory ground and goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory
Pragmatism, originated in the late-19th-century U.S., to
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concern itself (mostly) with truth, positing that “only in struggling with the environment”do data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that consequences, like utility and practicality, are also components of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything useful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most contributes to the most human good in the long course is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practically verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of humankind should guide human intellectual inquiry. Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, useful understanding of life is more important than searching for an impractical abstract truth about life. William James argued that truth could be made, but not sought.* [74]* [75] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is discoverable only via experience. Theism Main article: Philosophical theism Theists believe God created the universe and that God had a purpose in doing so. Theists also hold the view that humans find their meaning and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. Theists further hold that if there were no God to give life ultimate meaning, value and purpose, then life would be absurd.* [76] Existentialism Main article: Meaning (existential) According to existentialism, each man and each woman creates the essence (meaning) of their life; life is not determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are action, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life, the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in life, in course of which using only reason as a source of meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and the concomitant awareness of death. According to JeanPaul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of one's life arises only after one comes to existence.
Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential angst.
drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.* [78]* [79] For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw nihilism (“all that happens is meaningless”) as without goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations take place from a particular perspective.* [69] Absurdism Main article: Absurdism "... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible – no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other – no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek help he would prefer to be himself – with all the tortures of hell, if so it must be."
Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing that life is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to Søren Kierkegaard, The Sickness Unto Death* [80] doing so.* [77]
Arthur Schopenhauer answered: “What is the meaning In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the funof life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and damental disharmony between the individual's search for that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the uni-
3.3. WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
15
nature, which is self-existing.* [82]* [83] Human knowledge comes from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what people discern it to be.* [82] Likewise, "values and realities”are determined “by means of intelligent inquiry” • Suicide (or, “escaping existence”): a solution in * [82] and “are derived from human need and interwhich a person simply ends one's own life. Both est as tested by experience”, that is, by critical intelliKierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this gence.* [84]* [85] “As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting option. in a social and cultural context.”* [83] • Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a solution in which one believes in the existence of People determine human purpose without supernatural a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, influence; it is the human personality (general sense) has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in that is the purpose of a human being's life. Humanism * anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational seeks to develop and fulfill: [82] “Humanism affirms but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of peran intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now sonal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of hu* commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, manity”. [84] Humanism aims to promote enlightened Camus regarded this solution as“philosophical sui- self-interest and the common good for all people. It is based on the premises that the happiness of the incide”. dividual person is inextricably linked to the well-being • Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one of all humanity, in part because humans are social anaccepts and even embraces the Absurd and con- imals who find meaning in personal relations and betinues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this cause cultural progress benefits everybody living in the solution (notably in his 1947 allegorical novel The culture.* [83]* [84] Plague or La Peste), while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as“demoniac madness": "He rages most of The philosophical subgenres posthumanism and all at the thought that eternity might get it into its head transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the to take his misery from him!"* [81] advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance Secular humanism humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific culture. In this light, every living creature has the right Further information: Secular Humanism to determine its personal and social “meaning of life” Per secular humanism, the human species came to .* [86] verse. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma. Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942):
From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as “What is the meaning of my life?"* [87] This approach emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids focusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarching purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this question. For example, Viktor Frankl argues for “Dereflection”, which translates largely as: cease endlessly reflecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole, the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what is the meaning of life? —evaporates when one is fully engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more specific worries such as “What delusions am I under?"; “What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; “Why do I neglect loved-ones?".) See also: Existential Therapy and Irvin Yalom
Logical positivism The "Happy Human" symbol representing Secular Humanism.
Logical positivists ask: “What is the meaning of life?", be by reproducing successive generations in a progres- “What is the meaning in asking?"* [88]* [89] and“If there sion of unguided evolution as an integral expression of are no objective values, then, is life meaningless?"* [90]
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Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said:“Expressed in language, the question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement the “meaning of x”, usually denotes the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x, etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals“x”, in the statement the“meaning of x”, the statement becomes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a meaning in life. The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, cannot be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for themselves, others) as the life events resulting from their achievements, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of significance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:* [64] When we try to be definite, as to what we mean when we say that this or that is “the Good,”we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is the Good, roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen to have the better case —or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence, either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others ... Questions as to“values”—that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects —lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that, in this, they are right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to “values”lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this, or that, has “value”, we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact, which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.* [91]
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human nature as constructed by language, or by structures and institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of philosophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on analyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rationalize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a “meaning of life”, in postmodernist terms, can only be understood within a social and linguistic framework, and must be pursued as an escape from the power structures that are already embedded in all forms of speech and interaction. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the constraints of language as necessary to escaping those constraints, but different theorists take different views on the nature of this process: from radical reconstruction of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism) to theories in which individuals are primarily extensions of language and society, without real autonomy (as in poststructuralism). In general, postmodernism seeks meaning by looking at the underlying structures that create or impose meaning, rather than the epiphenomenal appearances of the world.
Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pantheism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after nature and the environment.
Limits of the Body In questioning the meaning of life, many thinkers have discussed the limit of the human body and the inability to imagine a world beyond it. Such attitudes can be seen in the writings of Wittgenstein, for instance, “What you say, you say in a body; you can say nothing outside this body”and“Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent”and Einstein, who responded in a letter to the question of why we are alive, "“The question‘Why’in the human sphere is easy to answer: to create satisfaction for ourselves and for other people. In the extra-human sphere the question has no meaning. Also the belief in God is in no way out for in this case you may ask ‘Why God’.”
3.4 East Asian philosophical perspectives
Postmodernism Further information: Postmodernism
Further information: Chinese philosophy and Japanese philosophy
3.5. RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES
3.4.1
Mohism
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3.5.1 Western religions
Further information: Mohism The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life was universal, impartial love. Mohism promoted a philosophy of impartial caring - a person should care equally for all other individuals, regardless of their actual relationship to him or her.* [92] The expression of this indiscriminate caring is what makes man a righteous being in Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a target of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools, most notably the Confucians who believed that while love should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate. For example, children should hold a greater love for their parents than for random strangers.
3.4.2
Confucianism
Further information: Confucianism Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because humankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, “we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence.”* [93]
Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Further information: Abrahamic religion and Iranian philosophy
Judaism
In the Judaic world view, the meaning of life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and prepare it for the 3.4.3 Legalism world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the messianic era. This is called Tikkun Olam (“Fixing the World”). Olam HaBa Further information: Legalism (Chinese philosophy) can also mean the spiritual afterlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological order. However, Judaism The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life is not focused on personal salvation, but on communal was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practi- (between man and man) and individual (between man and cal knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the God) spiritualised actions in this world. function and performance of the state. Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible, absolute Being, who created and governs the universe. Closeness with the God of Israel is through study of His 3.5 Religious perspectives Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws). In The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant those ideologies which explain life in terms of an im- with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving plicit purpose not defined by humans. According to the the Jewish commandments. Torah comprises the written Charter for Compassion signed by many of the world's Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further deleading religious and secular organizations, the core of veloped through the generations. The Jewish people are as “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” religion is the golden rule of `treat others as you would intended * [94] and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other have them treat you'. The Charter's founder, Karen Armpeoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of strong, quotes the ancient Rabbi Hillel who suggested that The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this Noah. `the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the comdual path to God. mentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that its study, interpretation and ritual are the means by which Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative and prohibitive injunctions. Modern Jewish denominareligious people internalize and live the golden rule.
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tions differ over the nature, relevance and emphases of mitzvot. Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not affected or benefited, but the individual and society benefit by drawing close to God. The rationalist Maimonides sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophical understanding of God, with its love and awe.* [95] Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, prosperity, humility, and education.* [96]* [97] The world to come,* [98] prepared in the present, elevates man to an everlasting connection with God.* [99] Simeon the Righteous says, “the world stands on three things: on Torah, on worship, and on acts of loving kindness.”The prayer book relates, “blessed is our God who created us for his honor...and planted within us everlasting life.”Of this context, the Talmud states,“everything that God does is for the good,”including suffering. The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complimentary esoteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a paradoxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine feminine). Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Divine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the messianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's persona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), through the actions of Jewish observance.* [100] Through this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential“desire”of God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence through materiality, achieved by man from within his limited physical realm, when the body will give life to the soul.* [101]
Christ the Redeemer statue on Corcovado mountain in Rio de Janeiro is symbolic of Christianity,* [102] illustrating the concept of seeking redemption through Jesus Christ.
have been saved through faith; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God; * [9]not as a result of works, that no one should boast.”(New American Standard Bible; 1973). A recent alternative Christian theological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response to human suffering.* [103] Nonetheless the conventional Christian position is that people are justified by belief in the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross. The Gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that sin has created between man and God is destroyed, and allows Christianity God to change people and instill in them a new heart after his own will, and the ability to do it. This is what the Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and shares much of the latter faith's ontology, its central beliefs derive from terms “reborn”or “saved”almost always refer to. the teachings of Jesus Christ, as presented in the New In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is: Testament. Life's purpose in Christianity is to seek divine “What is the chief end of Man?", that is,“What is Man's salvation through the grace of God and intercession of main purpose?". The answer is: “Man's chief end is to Christ. (cf. John 11:26) The New Testament speaks of glorify God, and enjoy him forever”. God requires one to God wanting to have a relationship with humans both in obey the revealed moral law saying: “love the Lord your this life and the life to come, which can happen only if God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your one's sins are forgiven (John 3:16–21; 2 Peter 3:9). strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour as * In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image yourself”. [104] The Baltimore Catechism answers the of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the question “Why did God make you?" by saying “God progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin. The made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in sacrifice of Christ's passion, death and resurrection pro- *this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven.” vide the means for transcending that impure state (Ro- [105] mans 6:23). The means for doing so varies between different groups of Christians, but all rely on belief in Jesus, his work on the cross and his resurrection as the fundamental starting point for a relationship with God. Faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:8–9 – "* [8]For by grace you
The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech on the Areopagus in Athens: “And He has made from one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should
3.5. RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES
19
seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him and in the "Day of Judgment".* [112] The Qur'an deand find Him, though He is not far from each one of us.” scribes the purpose of creation as follows: “Blessed be * [106] he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through things, who created death and life that he might examine the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola: which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the “The human person is created to praise, reverence, and forgiving”(Qur'an 67:1–2) and “And I (Allâh) created serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obesoul. All other things on the face of the earth are created dient (to Allah).”(Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for which they are created. It follows from this that one must attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves) determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or use other created things, in so far as they help towards * day of Judgeone's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are to Jahannam (Hell). [113] However, on the ment the final decision is of Allah alone.* [114] obstacles to one's end. To do this, we need to make ourselves indifferent to all created things, provided the mat- The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to evter is subject to our free choice and there is no other pro- ery Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith); hibition. Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not salat (ritual prayer); Zakah (charity); Sawm (fasting durwant health more than illness, wealth more than poverty, ing Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).* [115] fame more than disgrace, a long life more than a short They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Alone, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The five pillars are not menand choose only what helps us more towards the end for tioned directly in the Quran. which we are created.”* [107] Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni and the Mormonism teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to gain knowledge and experience and to have joy.* [108] Mormons believe that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Father, and thus have the potential to progress to become like Him. Mormons teach that God provided his children the choice to come to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their development —wherein a mortal body, coupled with the freedom to choose, makes for an environment to learn and grow.* [108] The Fall of Adam is not viewed as an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's original plan for a paradise, rather the opposition found in mortality is an essential element of God's plan because the process of enduring and overcoming challenges, difficulties, and temptations provides opportunities to gain wisdom and strength, thereby learning to appreciate and choose good and reject evil.* [109]* [110] Because God is just, he allows those who were not taught the gospel during mortality to receive it after death in the spirit world,* [111] so that all of his children have the opportunity to return to live with God, and reach their full potential.
Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine decree;* [116] likewise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize. The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith qudsi that states “I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I might be known.”One possible interpretation of this view is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to reveal that nature, and to prove its value as the ultimate treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in various forms and interpreted in various ways by people, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá of the Bahá'í Faith,* [117] and in Ibn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.* [118] Bahá'í Faith
Islam In Islam, humanity's ultimate purpose is to discover their creator Allah (English: God) through His signs, and be grateful to Him through sincere love and devotion. This is practically shown by following the Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. Earthly life is a test, determining one's position of close- The Ringstone symbol represents humanity's connection to God ness to Allah in the hereafter. A person will either be close to Him and His Love in Jannah (Paradise) or far The Bahá'í Faith emphasizes the unity of humanaway in Jahannam (Hell). ity.* [119] To Bahá'ís, the purpose of life is focused on For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must spiritual growth and service to humanity. Human beings believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. People's lives
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CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE
in this material world provide extended opportunities to was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu grow, to develop divine qualities and virtues, and the doctrines are supplementary and complementary in naprophets were sent by God to facilitate this.* [120]* [121] ture, generally non-exclusive, suggestive and tolerant in content.* [123] Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul) —the person's true self —is eternal.* [124] In part, this Zoroastrianism stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development occurs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy named afstate of development of the individual. There are four ter its prophet Zoroaster, which is believed to have inpossible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas fluenced the beliefs of Judaism and its descendant reli(ordered from least to greatest): Kāma (wish, desire, love gions.* [122] Zoroastrians believe in a universe created by and sensual pleasure), Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory), a transcendental God, Ahura Mazda, to whom all worship Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics), is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's creation is asha, encompassing notions such as ahimsa (non-violence) and truth and order, and it is in conflict with its antithesis, satya (truth) and Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation from druj, falsehood and disorder. (See also Zoroastrian esSaṃsāra, the cycle of reincarnation).* [125]* [126]* [127] chatology). In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up Since humanity possesses free will, people must be rein the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cysponsible for their moral choices. By using free will, peocle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Exisple must take an active role in the universal conflict, with tence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (simgood thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure hapilar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous piness and to keep chaos at bay. lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation from karma. Particular goals for life are generally subsumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (cor3.5.2 South Asian religions rect living) which are intended to create more favorable Further information: Indian religions and Indian philos- reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism ofophy ten worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improveHindu philosophies ment. In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about Further information: Hinduism, Hindu philosophy, and oneself. This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas Dharma ("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), “Aham Brahmāsmi”, Hinduism is a religious category including many be“Prajñānam Brahma”and “Ayam Ātmā Brahma”(the soul and the world are one)).
Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism Further information: Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on Brahman, “The One Without a Second”,* [128] as a central God-like figure. In monist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indistinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to know or realize that one's ātman (soul) is identical to Brahman.* [129] To the Upanishads, whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realizes identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha (liberation, freedom).* [124]* [130]* [131] Dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a A golden Aum written in Devanagari. The Aum is sacred in dualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme being with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions. depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of liefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of ex- life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon pressing meaningful living for a long time, before there His grace.* [130]
3.5. RELIGIOUS PERSPECTIVES Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu or Narayana as the one supreme God. This belief contrasts with the Krishna-centered traditions, such as Vallabha, Nimbaraka and Gaudiya, in which Krishna is considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the source of all avataras.* [132] Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja). The practices of deity worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra and various Samhitas.* [133]
21 Buddhism Earlier Buddhism Buddhists practice to embrace with mindfulness the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that is present in life. Buddhists practice to see the causes of ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the causes of suffering is unhealthy attachment to objects material or non-material. The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do not speak about“the meaning of life”or“the purpose of life”, but about the potential of human life to end suffering, for example through embracing (not suppressing or denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means freedom from both suffering and rebirth.* [136]
One popular school of thought, Gaudiya Vaishnavism, teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda. In this, Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all living entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devotion. The purpose of human life especially is to think beyond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating and defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the lost relationship with Krishna.
Jainism Further information: Jainism and Jain philosophy Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the living become attached to the non-living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.* [134] Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jiva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul. Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.* [135]
The eight-spoked Dharmachakra
Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally “Teaching of Analysis” , which says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. The way to attain Nirvana is by following and practicing the Noble Eightfold Path. Mahayana Mahayana
Buddhism Further
information:
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from
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CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE
individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.
following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: “The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him.”* [137] Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.* [138] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.* [139]
Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such as Chan/Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon schools, explicitly teach that bodhisattvas should refrain from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincarnated into the world until all beings achieve enlightenment. Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that accumulation to aid all.
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a nonanthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,* [140] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be seen from “the inward eye”, or the “heart”, of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.* [140]
Sikhism
3.5.3 East Asian religions Taoism
The Khanda, an important symbol of Sikhism.
The monotheistic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev, the term “Sikh”means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally “the counsel of the gurus”) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang.
Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of selfcultivation and self-realization. All adherents should understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize
3.6. IN POPULAR CULTURE the temporal nature of the existence.“Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living ... the simple answer is here within ourselves.”* [141]
23
3.6 In popular culture
Shinto
Shinto torii, a traditional Japanese gate
Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto means“the path of the kami", but more specifically, it can be taken to mean “the divine crossroad where the kami chooses his way”. The“divine”crossroad signifies that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative process. Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.* [142]
Charles Allan Gilbert's All is Vanity, an example of vanitas, depicts a young woman gazing at her reflection in a mirror, but all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull appear.
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art. In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several allusions to the meaning of life. At the end of the film, a character played by Michael Palin is handed an envelope containing “the meaning of life”, which he opens and reads out to the audience:“Well, it's nothing very special. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a good book every now and then, get some walking in, and try to live together in peace and harmony with people of all creeds and nations.”* [143]* [144]* [145]
Many other Python sketches and songs are also existential in nature, questioning the importance we place on life ("Always Look on the Bright Side of Life") and other meaning-of-life related questioning. John Cleese also There are many new religious movements in East Asia, Basil Fawlty contemplating the had his sit-com character and some with millions of followers: Chondogyo, futility of his own existence in Fawlty Towers. Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New religions typically have unique explanations for the meaning of life. In Douglas Adams' popular comedy book, movie, teleFor example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to live a Joyous vision, and radio series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Life by participating in practices that create happiness for Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the oneself and others. Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution New religions
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CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE
"42", after seven and a half million years of calculation by 3.7.1 To realize one's potential and ideals a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. When this • To chase dreams.* [150] answer is met with confusion and anger from its constructors, Deep Thought explains that “I think the problem, • To live one's dreams.* [151] to be quite honest with you, is that you've never actually known what the question is.”* [3]* [146]* [147]* [148] In • To spend it for something that will outlast it.* [152] the continuation of the book, the question is proposed to • To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have be “How many roads must a man walk down, before made some difference that you lived at all.* [152] you can call him a man”from Bob Dylan's "Blowin' in the Wind.”In the sequel, The Restaurant at the End of • To expand one's potential in life.* [151] the Universe, it states that the question is 6x9. While 6 x 9 is written as 54 in base 10, it would be written as 42 • To become the person you've always wanted to in base 13, which author Adams claimed was completely be.* [153] serendipitous. • To become the best version of yourself.* [154] • To seek happiness* [155]* [156] and flourish.* [3] • To be a true authentic human being.* [157] • To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feelings, one's work, one's beliefs.* [152] • To follow or submit tiny.* [158]* [159]* [160]
to
our
des-
• To achieve eudaimonia,* [161] a flourishing of human spirit.
3.7.2 To achieve biological perfection • To survive,* [162] that is, to live as long as possible,* [163] including pursuit of immortality (through scientific means).* [164] To live forever* [164] or die trying.* [165] Hamlet with Yorick's skull
In The Simpsons episode "Homer the Heretic", a representation of God agrees to tell Homer what the meaning of life is, but the show's credits begin to roll just as he starts to say what it is.* [149] In Red vs. Blue season 1 episode 1 the character Simmons asks Grif the question“Why are we here?" and is a major line in the series.
• To adapt. Often to improve one's chances of success in another purpose; sometimes, as a purpose in itself (adapting to adapt). • To evolve.* [166] • To replicate, to reproduce.* [150] “The 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells.” * [167]* [168]* [169]* [170]
In Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure, the characters are 3.7.3 To seek wisdom and knowledge asked how we should live our lives, and reply with a ver• To expand one's perception of the world.* [151] sion of the golden rule `be excellent to each other' followed by 'party on, dudes!'. • To follow the clues and walk out the exit.* [171]
3.7 Popular views “What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context “What is the purpose of life?".* [10] Some popular answers include:
• To learn as many things as possible in life.* [172] To know as much as possible about as many things as possible.* [173] • To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and find happiness.* [174] • To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers us.* [158]
3.7. POPULAR VIEWS
25
• To find the meaning or purpose of life.* [175]* [176] • To find a reason to live.* [177] • To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understanding the nature of reality.* [178]
3.7.4
To do good, to do the right thing
• To leave the world as a better place than you found it.* [150] To do your best to leave every situation better than you found it.* [150] • To benefit others.* [6] • To give more than you take.* [150] • To end suffering.* [179]* [180]* [181] • To create equality.* [182]* [183]* [184] • To challenge oppression.* [185]
Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy
• To distribute wealth.* [186]* [187] • To be generous.* [188]* [189] • To contribute to the well-being and spirit of others.* [190]* [191]
• To know oneself, know others, and know the will of heaven.* [199]
• To help others,* [3]* [189] to help one another.* [192] To take every chance to help another while on your journey here.* [150]
• To love something bigger, greater, and beyond ourselves, something we did not create or have the power to create, something intangible and made holy by our very belief in it.* [150]
• To be creative and innovative.* [190]
• To love God* [197] and all of his creations.* [200]
• To forgive.* [150] To accept and forgive human flaws.* [193]* [194]
• To glorify God ever.* [104]* [201]
• To be emotionally sincere.* [152]
• To spread your religion and share it with others.* [202]
• To be responsible.* [152]
by
enjoying
him
for-
• To be honorable.* [152]
• To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your God.* [203]
• To seek peace.* [152]
• To be fruitful and multiply.* [204] (Genesis 1:28) • To obtain freedom. (Romans 8:20-21)
3.7.5
Meanings relating to religion
• [He] [God] who created death and life to test you [as to] who is best in deed and He is Exalted in Might, the Forgiving. Surat Almulk 67. Verse 2. • To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.* [195]
• To fill the Earth and subdue it.* [204] (Genesis 1:28) • To serve humankind,* [205] to prepare to meet * [206] and become more like God,* [207]* [208]* [209]* [210] to choose good over evil,* [211] and have joy.* [212]* [213]
• To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of 3.7.6 the Divine.* [196] • To have a pure soul and experience God.* [152] • To understand the mystery of God. [158] *
• To know or attain union with God.* [197]* [198]
To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living
• To love more.* [150] • To love those who mean the most. Every life you touch will touch you back.* [150]
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CHAPTER 3. MEANING OF LIFE
• To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.* [150] 3.7.10
To continue life
• To seek beauty in all its forms.* [150]
• The universe was created intentionally.
• To have fun or enjoy life.* [158]* [190]
• Our purpose here is to ensure that life always continues to exist.
• To seek pleasure* [152] and avoid pain.* [214] • To be compassionate.* [152] • To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try to help them out of love and compassion.* [150] • To love others as best we possibly can.* [150] • To eat, drink, and be merry.* [215]
3.7.7
To have power, to be better
• When this universe becomes unstable the life that resides in it should have come up with means to create another one. • The second purpose is to enjoy it. It doesn't have to be anymore complicated than that.
3.8 See also Origin and nature of life and reality
• To strive for power* [69] and superiority.* [214]
• Abiogenesis
• To rule the world.* [159]
• Awareness
• To know and master the world.* [202]* [216]
• Being
• To know and master nature.* [217]
• Biosemiotics • Existence
3.7.8
Life has no meaning
• Logos
• Life or human existence has no real meaning or purpose because human existence occurred out of a random chance in nature, and anything that exists by chance has no intended purpose.* [178]
• Metaphysical naturalism
• Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to associate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our existence.* [150]
• Simulated reality
• There is no point in life, and that is exactly what makes it so special.* [150]
• Teleology
3.7.9
• Perception • Reality
• Theory of everything
• Ultimate fate of the universe
One should not seek to know and un- Value of life derstand the meaning of life
• Culture of life
• The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to be known and understood.* [178] • You will never live if you are looking for the meaning of life.* [150]
• Bioethics • Quality of life • Value of life
• The meaning of life is to forget about the search for Purpose of life the meaning of life.* [150] • Ultimately, a person should not ask what the meaning of their life is, but rather must recognize that it is they themselves who are asked. In a word, each person is questioned by life; and they can only answer to life by answering for their own life; to life they can only respond by being responsible.* [218]
• Destiny • Ethical living • Intentional living • Life extension
3.9. REFERENCES • Man's Search for Meaning • Means to an end Miscellaneous • Life stance • Perennial philosophy • Vale of tears • World riddle • World view
3.9 References [1] Jonathan Westphal (1998). Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0-41517053-2. [2] Robert Nozick (1981). Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-66479-5. [3] Julian Baggini (September 2004). What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life. USA: Granta Books. ISBN 1-86207-661-8.
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[12] Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002).“Education and the Meaning of Life” (PDF). Philosophy of Education. University of Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-26. [13] Stan Van Hooft (2004). Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics. Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-19123. [14] Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 14051-2951-4. [15] E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). “Subjective WellBeing Is Essential to Well-Being.”Psychological Inquiry, Lawrence Erlbaum [16] Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2. [17] Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5. “See brief summary”. [18] Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-74322297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 07432-2298-9)
[4] Ronald F. Thiemann; William Carl Placher (1998). Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 1-56338-236-9.
[19] Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Effect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer disease and mild cognitive impairment in communitydwelling older persons. Archives of General Psychiatry. 2010;67:304–310.
[5] Dennis Marcellino (1996). Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand). Lighthouse Pub. ISBN 0945272-10-3.
[20] Kim E, Sun J, Park N, Kubzansky L, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among older U.S. adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. (2):124–133.
[6] Hsuan Hua (2003). Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. ISBN 088139-302-9.
[21] Kim ES, Sun JK, Park N, Peterson C. Purpose in life and reduced incidence of stroke in older adults: The Health and Retirement Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2013;74(5):427–432.
[7] Paul Davies (March 2000). The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-86309-X. Retrieved 2016-09-17. [8] Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie BassHaugen (2005). Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being. SLACK Incorporated. ISBN 1-55642-530-9. [9] Evan Harris Walker (2000). The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life. Perseus Books. ISBN 0-7382-0436-6. [10] “Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life?". Philosophy Now. Issue 59. Retrieved 2007-07-26. [11] Jiddu Krishnamurti (2001). What Are You Doing With Your Life?. Krishnamurti Foundation of America. ISBN 1-888004-24-X.
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[216] Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71345-2. [217] Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-173-4. [218] Man's Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl. Beacon Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8070-1426-4
3.10 External links • Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy • The Meaning of Life in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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Chapter 4
Omnibenevolence Omnibenevolence (from Latin omni- meaning “all”, and benevolent, meaning “good”) is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “unlimited or infinite benevolence". Some philosophers have argued that it is impossible, or at least improbable, for a deity to exhibit such a property alongside omniscience and omnipotence, as a result of the problem of evil. However, some philosophers, such as Alvin Plantinga, argue the plausibility of co-existence. The word is primarily used as a technical term within academic literature on the philosophy of religion, mainly in context of the problem of evil and theodical responses to such. Although even in said contexts the phrases “perfect goodness”or “moral perfection”are often preferred because of the difficulties in defining what exactly constitutes 'infinite benevolence'.
4.1 Etymology “Omnibenevolence”appears to have a very casual usage among some Protestant Christian commentators. The earliest record for its use in English, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is in 1679. The Catholic Church does not appear to use the term“omnibenevolent”in the liturgy or Catechism. Modern users of the term include George H. Smith in his book Atheism: The Case Against God (1980),* [1] where he argued that divine qualities are inconsistent. However, the term is also used by authors who defend the coherence of divine attributes, including but not limited to, Jonathan Kvanvig in The Problem of Hell (1993),* [2] and Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz in The Divine Attributes (2002).* [3]
conceptions of an “all-good, all-knowing, all-powerful” deity. Philosophers and theologians more commonly use phrases like “perfectly good”,* [5] or simply the term “benevolence”. The word “omnibenevolence”may be interpreted to mean perfectly just, all-loving, fully merciful, or any number of other qualities, depending on precisely how“good”is understood. As such, there is little agreement over how an “omnibenevolent”being would behave. The notion of an omnibenevolent, infinitely compassionate deity, has raised certain atheistic objections, such as the problem of evil and the problem of hell. Responses to such problems are called theodicies and can be general, arguing for the coherence of the divine, such as Swinburne's Providence and the Problem of Evil, or they can address a specific problem, such as Charles Seymour's A Theodicy of Hell. Proponents of Pandeism contend that benevolence (much less omnibenevolence) is simply not required to account for any property of our Universe, as a morally neutral deity which was powerful enough to have created our Universe as we experience it would be, by definition, able to have created our Universe as we experience it. William C. Lane contended that Pandeism thereby offered an escape from the evidential argument from evil:* [6] In 2010, author William C. Lane contended that:
The terminology has been used by some prominent Roman Catholic figures, examples being Father Robert Barron, Doctor of Sacred Theology in his 2011 book Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith.* [4]
4.2 Philosophical perspectives The term is patterned on, and often accompanied by, the terms omniscience and omnipotence, typically to refer to 34
In pandeism, God is no superintending, heavenly power, capable of hourly intervention into earthly affairs. No longer existing “above,”God cannot intervene from above and cannot be blamed for failing to do so. Instead God bears all suffering, whether the fawn's* [7] or anyone else's. Even so, a skeptic might ask, “Why must there be so much suffering,? Why could not the world's design omit or modify the events that cause it?" In pandeism, the reason is clear: to remain unified, a world must convey information through transactions. Reliable conveyance requires relatively simple, uniform laws. Laws designed to skip around sufferingcausing events or to alter their natural consequences (i.e., their consequences under sim-
4.4. SEE ALSO ple laws) would need to be vastly complicated or (equivalently) to contain numerous exceptions.* [6]* :76–77
4.3 Religious perspectives Belief in God's omnibenevolence is an essential foundation in traditional Christianity; this can be seen in Scriptures such as Psalms 18:30: “As for God, his way is perfect: the word of the Lord is tried: he is a buckler to all those that trust in him,”and Ps.19:7: “The law of the Lord is good, converting the soul: the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple.”This understanding is evident in the following statement by the First Vatican Council: The Holy, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church believes and acknowledges that there is one true and living God, Creator and Lord of Heaven and earth, almighty, eternal, immeasurable, incomprehensible, infinite in will, understanding and every perfection. Since He is one, singular, completely simple and unchangeable spiritual substance, He must be declared to be in reality and in essence, distinct from the world, supremely happy in Himself and from Himself, and inexpressibly loftier than anything besides Himself which either exists or can be imagined.* [8] The philosophical justification stems from God's aseity: the non-contingent, independent and self-sustained mode of existence that theologians ascribe to God. For if He was not morally perfect, that is, if God was merely a great being but nevertheless of finite benevolence, then his existence would involve an element of contingency, because one could always conceive of a being of greater benevolence.* [9] Hence, omnibenevolence is a requisite of perfect being theology.* [10] Theologians in the Wesleyan Christian tradition (see Thomas Jay Oord) argue that omnibenevolence is God's primary attribute. As such, God's other attributes should be understood in light of omnibenevolence. Christians believe in the idea of unconditional love. But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. (Romans 5:8 NIV) Some Hyper-Calvinist interpretations reject omnibenevolence. For example, the Westboro Baptist Church is infamous for its expression of this stance.
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4.4 See also • Benevolence (disambiguation) • Dystheism • Good and evil • Light and darkness • Misotheism • Omnipresence • Theodicy
4.5 Notes [1] Smith, George H. (1980). Atheism: The Case Against God. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-124-X. [2] Kvanvig, Jonathan L. (1993). The Problem of Hell. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-19-508487-X. [3] Hoffman, Joshua; Gary Rosenkrantz (2002). The Divine Attributes. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-21154-3. Used throughout the book. [4] Robert Barron (2011). Catholicism: A Journey to the Heart of the Faith. ISBN 0307720519. [5] This phrase is used in many notable encyclopedia and dictionary entries, such as: • Tooley, Michael.“The Problem of Evil”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Blackburn, Simon. “Evil, the Problem of”. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. [6] Lane, William C. (January 2010). “Leibniz's Best World Claim Restructured”. American Philosophical Journal. 47 (1): 57–84. Retrieved 9 March 2014. [7] William Rowe used, as an example of needless suffering, a fawn horribly burned in a forest fire and unable to move, yet suffering for additional days before its death. [8] “First Vatican Council”. dailycatholic.org. Retrieved 2008-05-02. [9] “The infinity of God”. Catholic Encyclopaedia. newadvent.org. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
Christian apologist William Lane Craig argues that Islam [10] “Perfect Being Theology”. Retrieved 20 May 2014. does not hold to the idea of omnibenevolence:* [11] But in — [11] William Lane Craig. “Is the Islamic Concept of God fact, one of the 99 Names of God in Islam is“Al-Barr” The Benificent. Morally Inadequate?". Reasonable Faith.
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4.6 Further reading • Oord, Thomas Jay The Nature of Love: A Theology (2010) ISBN 978-0-8272-0828-5 • Basinger, David. “In what sense must God be omnibenevolent?" International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, Vol. 14, No. 1 (March 1983), pp. 3–15. • Flemming, Arthur. “Omnibenevolence and evil” Ethics, Vol. 96, No. 2 (Jan. 1986), pp. 261–281. • Wierenga, Edward. “Intrinsic maxima and omnibenevolence.”International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, Vol. 10, No. 1 (March 1984), pp. 41–50. • Smith, George H. Atheism: The Case Against God,(Skeptic's Bookshelf) Prometheus Books (June 1980). ISBN 978-0-8402-1115-6 • Oppy, Graham.“Ontological Arguments and Belief in God”(Cambridge University Press) (1995), pp. 171–2. • Bruch, George Bosworth. Early Medieval Philosophy, King's Crown, 1951. pp. 73–77.
4.7 External links • The Goodness of God • Jewish principles of faith • Notes on God's Omnibenevolence
CHAPTER 4. OMNIBENEVOLENCE
Chapter 5
Virtue “Virtuous”redirects here. For the 2014 film, see Virtuous of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are (2014 film). characteristics valued as promoting collective and indiFor other uses, see Virtue (disambiguation). vidual greatness. The opposite of virtue is vice. Virtue (Latin: virtus, Ancient Greek: ἀρετή "arete") is
5.1 Ancient history During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Ma'at (thought to have been pronounced *[muʔ.ʕat]), also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies and injustice.* [2]* [3]
5.2 Classical antiquity 5.2.1 Platonic virtue The four classic cardinal virtues are:* [4] • temperance: σωφροσύνη (sōphrosynē) • prudence: φρόνησις (phronēsis) • courage: ἀνδρεία (andreia) • justice: δικαιοσύνη (dikaiosynē) This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed by Plato in addition to piety: ὁσιότης (hosiotēs), with the exception that wisdom replaced prudence as virtue.* [5] Some scholars* [6] consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, and whether Plato subscribed to a unified view * Personification of virtue (Greek ἀρετή) in Celsus Library in of virtues. [7] In Protagoras and Meno, for example, he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently Ephesos, Turkey and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality deemed wisdom, yet in an unjust way; or acting with bravery (forto be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation titude), yet without wisdom. 37
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CHAPTER 5. VIRTUE tween self-deprecation and vanity. In Aristotle's sense, virtue is excellence at being human.
5.2.3 Prudence and virtue Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. Thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that people only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added “correct belief”as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and “tethered”.
5.2.4 Roman virtues
Maat, to ancient Egyptians, personified the virtue of truth and justice. Her feather represents truth.* [1]
5.2.2
The word “Virtue”itself is derived from the Latin “virtus” (the personification of which was the deity Virtus), and had connotations of “manliness”, “honour”, worthiness of deferential respect, and civic duty as both citizen and soldier. This virtue was but one of many virtues which Romans of good character were expected to exemplify and pass on through the generations, as part of the Mos Maiorum; ancestral traditions which defined“Roman-ness”. Romans distinguished between the spheres of private and public life, and thus, virtues were also divided between those considered to be in the realm of private family life (as lived and taught by the paterfamilias), and those expected of an upstanding Roman citizen. Most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were:
Aristotelian virtue
In his work Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait.* [8] The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the “mean”(mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: “at the right times, about the right things, towards the right people, for the right end, and in the right way, is the intermediate and best condition, and this is proper to virtue.”* [9] This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes. For example, generosity is a virtue between the two extrema of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include: courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence be-
• Auctoritas –“spiritual authority”– the sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order. • Comitas – “humour”– ease of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness. • Constantia –“perseverance”– military stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship. • Clementia – “mercy”– mildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions. • Dignitas –“dignity”– a sense of self-worth, personal self-respect and self-esteem.
5.3. RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS
39
• Disciplina – “discipline”– considered essential to virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapmilitary excellence; also connotes adherence to the ters of the Book of Proverbs and is not only the source legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship. of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God (Proverbs 8:12-31). Wisdom is also celebrated in • Firmitas – “tenacity”– strength of mind, and the the Book of Wisdom. ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without waA classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the vering. first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jew• Frugalitas – “frugality”– economy and simplicity ish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as in lifestyle, without being miserly. such, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. • Gravitas –“gravity”– a sense of the importance of Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest. concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg):“That which is hateful to you, do not do to your • Honestas – “respectability”– the image that one fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; presents as a respectable member of society. go and learn.”* [10] • Humanitas –“humanity”– refinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured.
5.3.2 Christianity
• Industria – “industriousness”– hard work. • Iustitia –“justice”– sense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis. • Pietas – “dutifulness”– more than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the patron and client relationship, considered essential to an orderly society. • Prudentia – “prudence”– foresight, wisdom, and personal discretion. • Salubritas –“wholesomeness”– general health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus. • Severitas – “sternness”– self-control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas. • Veritas – “truthfulness”– honesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous. • Virtus – “manliness”– valor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. 'Vir' is Latin for “man”.
5.3 Religious traditions 5.3.1
Judaism
Main article: Jewish ethics
Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the Niederhaslach Church
Main article: Christian ethics See also: Seven virtues and Evangelical counsels
Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the Ten Commandments, are central to Jewish conceptions of In Christianity, the three theological virtues are faith,
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CHAPTER 5. VIRTUE
hope and love, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνὶ δὲ μένει πίστις, ἐλπίς, ἀγάπη, τὰ τρία ταῦτα·μείζων δὲ τούτων ἡ ἀγάπη (pistis (faith), elpis (hope), agape (love))). The same chapter describes love as the greatest of the three, and further defines love as “patient, kind, not envious, boastful, arrogant, or rude.” (The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called charity and at other times a Greek word agape is used to contrast the love of God and the love of humankind from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection.) Christian scholars frequently add the four Greek cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, and courage) to the theological virtues to give the seven virtues; for example, these seven are the ones described in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, sections 1803–1829. The Bible mentions additional virtues, such as in the "Fruit of the Holy Spirit,”found in Galatians 5:22-23: “By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit it is benevolent-love: joy, peace, longsuffering, kindness, benevolence, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is absolutely no law against such a thing.”* [11]
5.3.3
Islam
Main article: Islamic views on virtue
For Muslims fulfilling the human rights are valued as an important building block of Islam, According to Muslim beliefs Allah will forgive individual sins but the bad treatment of humans and injustice with others will only be pardoned by the humans and not by Allah.
5.3.4 Hinduism Main article: Hindu ethics Virtue is a much debated* [12] and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism.* [13]* [14] The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, Apastamba explained it thus: “virtue and vice do not go about saying - here we are!; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us - this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life.* [15] Virtues lead to punya (Sanskrit: पुण्य,* [16] holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to pap (Sanskrit: पाप,* [17] sin). Sometimes, the word punya is used interchangeably with virtue.* [18]
The virtues that constitute a dharmic life - that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life - evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars, some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live Virtue is defined in hadith. It is reported by An-Nawwas a dharmic life: Dhriti (courage), Kshama (forgiveness), Dama (temperance), Asteya (Non-covetousness/Nonbin Sam'an: stealing), Saucha (inner purity), Indriyani-graha (control of senses), dhi (reflective prudence), vidya (wis“The Prophet Muhammad said, dom), satyam (truthfulness), akrodha (freedom from “Piety/virtue is good manner, and sin is anger).* [19] In later verses, this list was reduced to five that which creates doubt and you do not like virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a people to know it."" more broader concept. The shorter list of virtues be—Sahih Muslim, 32:6195,Sahih Muslim, came: Ahimsa (Non-violence), Dama (self restraint), 32:6196 Asteya (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), Saucha (inner purity), Satyam (truthfulness).* [20]* [21] In Islam, the Qur'an is believed to be the literal word of God, and the definitive description of virtue. Muhammad is considered an ideal example of virtue in human form. The hadiths, his reported sayings, are central to the Islamic understanding of virtue.
Wabisah bin Ma’bad reported: “I went to Messenger of Allah and he asked me: “Have you come to inquire about Piety/virtue?”I replied in the affirmative. Then he said: “Ask your heart regarding it. Piety/virtue is that which contents the soul and comforts the heart, and sin is that which causes doubts and perturbs the heart, even if people pronounce it lawful and give you verdicts on such matters again and again.” —Ahmad and Ad-Darmi
The Bhagavad Gita - considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong - argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational; for example, it explains a virtue such as Ahimsa must be re-examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity or ignorance of others.* [22]* [23]* [24]
5.3.5 Buddhism Main article: Buddhist ethics
5.4. SAMURAI VIRTUE
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Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path 5.3.7 Daoism can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues. “Virtue”, translated from Chinese de (德), is also an 1. Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. De (Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé; Wade–Giles: te) (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma). originally meant normative“virtue”in the sense of“per2. Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for sonal character; inner strength; integrity”, but semantiwhat they are with clear consciousness (samyak- cally changed to moral “virtue; kindness; morality”. Note the semantic parallel for English virtue, with an arsmṛti, sammā-sati). chaic meaning of “inner potency; divine power”(as in 3. Right Concentration - Wholesome one-pointedness “by virtue of”) and a modern one of“moral excellence; goodness”. of mind (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi). In early periods of Confucianism, moral manifestations ( Divine States”) can be of“virtue”include ren ("humanity"), xiao ("filial piety"), Buddhism's four brahmavihara “ more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. and li ("proper behavior, performance of rituals"). The They are: notion of ren - according to Simon Leys - means “humanity”and “goodness”. Ren originally had the ar1. Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope chaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of“virilbut progressively took on shades of ethical meanthat a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish ity”, * ing. [28] Some scholars consider the virtues identified in that all sentient beings, without any exception, be early Confucianism as non-theistic philosophy.* [29] * happy. [25] The Daoist concept of De, compared to Confucianism, is 2. Karuṇā: compassion; the hope that a person's suf- more subtle, pertaining to the“virtue”or ability that an inferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all dividual realizes by following the Dao (“the Way”). One sentient beings to be free from suffering.* [25] important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of 3. Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy is the In the Analects, Confucius explains de as follows: “He wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and who exercises government by means of his virtue may be virtues of all sentient beings.* [25] compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place * 4. Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to ac- and all the stars turn towards it.” [30] In later periods, cept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism of and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and as practiced, absorbed and melded its own concepts * virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism. [29] for others. Equanimity means not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but to regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation.* [26]
5.4 Samurai virtue
In Hagakure, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his * There are also the Paramitas (“perfections”), which views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily: [31] are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa* [27] 1. Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or there are Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo). In Mahayana bushido. Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika), there 2. To be of good use to the master. are Six Perfections; while in the Ten Stages (Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed. 3. To be filial to my parents.
5.3.6
Bahá'í faith
4. To manifest great compassion and act for the sake of Man.
In the Bahá'í Faith, virtues are direct spiritual qualities that the human soul possesses, inherited from God Him- Yamamoto goes on to say: self. The development and manifestation of these virtues If one dedicates these four vows to the gods is the theme of the Hidden Words of Bahá'u'lláh and are discussed in great detail as the underpinnings of a and Buddhas every morning, he will have the divinely-inspired society by `Abdu'l-Bahá in such texts as strength of two men and never slip backward. The Secret of Divine Civilization. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit
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CHAPTER 5. VIRTUE by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.
The Bushidō code is typified by seven virtues:* [32] • Rectitude (義,gi)
ones, you have behaved unjustly, and it is out of the domain of principles and true virtue. Kant applies the approach of four temperaments to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with melancholy frame of mind is the most virtuous whose thoughts, words and deeds are on the bases of principles.
• Courage (勇,yuu) • Benevolence (仁,jin) • Respect (礼,rei) • Honesty (誠,sei) • Honor (誉,yo) • Loyalty (忠,chuu) Others that are sometimes added to these: • Filial piety (孝,kō) • Wisdom (智,chi) • Care for the aged (悌,tei)
5.5 Philosophers' views 5.5.1
René Descartes
5.5.3 Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche's view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people. For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between master morality and slave morality. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls “higher men”, people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers (“the men of great creativity”- “the really great men according to my understanding”(WP 957)). According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a “unifying project”, revere themselves and are healthy and lifeaffirming.* [34] Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type “strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority…”(BGE 26). The 'Higher type' also “instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities”(WP 944) in the form of an “organizing idea”for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength.* [34] The fact that the higher types are “healthy”for Nietzsche does not refer to physical health as much as a psychological resilience and fortitude. Finally, a Higher type affirms life because he is willing to accept the eternal return of his life and affirm this forever and unconditionally.
For the Rationalist philosopher René Descartes, virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the sovereign good that Descartes, following Zeno, identifies with virtue, as this produces a solid blessedness or pleasure. For Epicurus the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is In the last section of Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue outlines his thoughts on the noble virtues and places produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily solitude as one of the highest virtues: pleasure. Regarding Aristotle's opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny And to keep control over your four virtues: that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that courage, insight, sympathy, solitude. Because they are in great proportion outside one's own control, solitude is a virtue for us, since it is a sublime whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.* [33] inclination and impulse to cleanliness which shows that contact between people “ ( society”) inevitably makes things unclean. Somewhere, 5.5.2 Immanuel Kant sometime, every community makes people – “base.”(BGE §284) Immanuel Kant, in his Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, expresses true virtue as different from what commonly is known about this moral trait. In Nietzsche also sees truthfulness as a virtue: Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympaGenuine honesty, assuming that this is our thetic is not regarded as true virtue. The only aspect that virtue and we cannot get rid of it, we free spirits makes a human truly virtuous is to behave in accordance – well then, we will want to work on it with all with moral principles. Kant presents an example for more the love and malice at our disposal and not get clarification; suppose that you come across a needy pertired of ‘perfecting’ourselves in our virtue, son in the street; if your sympathy leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. In the only one we have left: may its glory come to this example, since you do not afford helping all needy rest like a gilded, blue evening glow of mockery
5.6. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS over this aging culture and its dull and dismal seriousness! (Beyond Good and Evil, §227)
5.5.4
Benjamin Franklin
43 10. Cleanliness: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation. 11. Tranquility: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable. 12. Chastity: Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation. 13. Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
5.6 Contemporary views 5.6.1 Virtues as emotions Marc Jackson in his book Emotion and Psyche puts forward a new development of the virtues. He identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions “The first group consisting of love, kindness, joy, faith, awe and pity is good”* [36] These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting. Virtue, spear in hand, with her foot on the prostrate form of Tyranny on the Great Seal of Virginia
Virtue is an aspect of love, as demonstrated in various works of pop culture. In August 2015 the iPhone game Couple Test —Check Your Love was released, capitalizing on this idea.
These are the virtues* [35] that Benjamin Franklin used to develop what he called 'moral perfection'. He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived 5.6.2 up to his virtues.
In Objectivism
They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autoAyn Rand held that her morality, the morality of reabiography. son, contained a single axiom: existence exists, and a single choice: to live. All values and virtues proceed from 1. Temperance: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Ele- these. To live, man must hold three fundamental values vation. that one develops and achieves in life: Reason, Purpose, and Self-Esteem. A value is“that which one acts to gain 2. Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or and/or keep ... and the virtue[s] [are] the act[ions] by yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation. which one gains and/or keeps it.”The primary virtue in 3. Order: Let all your Things have their Places. Let Objectivist ethics is rationality, which as Rand meant it is “the recognition and acceptance of reason as one's only each Part of your Business have its Time. source of knowledge, one's only judge of values and one's 4. Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought. only guide to action.”* [37] These values are achieved Perform without fail what you resolve. by passionate and consistent action and the virtues are * 5. Frugality: Make no Expense but to do good to others the policies for achieving those fundamental values. [38] Ayn Rand describes seven virtues: rationality, producor yourself; i.e. Waste nothing. tiveness, pride, independence, integrity, honesty and jus6. Industry: Lose no Time. Be always employed in tice. The first three represent the three primary virtues something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions. that correspond to the three fundamental values, whereas the final four are derived from the virtue of rationality. 7. Sincerity: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently She claims that virtue is not an end in itself, that virtue and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly. is not its own reward nor sacrificial fodder for the reward 8. Justice: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting of evil, that life is the reward of virtue and happiness is the goal and the reward of life. Man has a single basic the Benefits that are your Duty. choice: to think or not, and that is the gauge of his virtue. 9. Moderation: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting In- Moral perfection is an unbreached rationality, not the dejuries so much as you think they deserve. gree of your intelligence but the full and relentless use
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CHAPTER 5. VIRTUE
of your mind, not the extent of your knowledge but the acceptance of reason as an absolute.* [39]
5.6.3
In modern psychology
Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, two leading researchers in positive psychology, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues".* [40] After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having “a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross-cultural convergence.”* [41] These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom.* [42] Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths.* [43]
ISBN 978-0-300-05598-6. [3] Jan Assmann, Translated by Rodney Livingstone, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies, Stanford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8047-4523-4 [4] Stanley B. Cunningham (2002), Review of Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy, Dialogue, Volume 21, Issue 01, March 1982, pp. 133–37 [5] Den Uyl, D. J. (1991), The virtue of prudence, P. Lang., in Studies in Moral Philosophy. Vol. 5 General Editor: John Kekes [6] Carr, D. (1988), The cardinal virtues and Plato's moral psychologym The Philosophical Quarterly, 38(151), pp. 186–200 [7] Gregory Vlastos, The Unity of the Virtues in the “Protagoras”, The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Mar., 1972), pages 415-458 [8] Aristotle. “Sparknotes.com”. Sparknotes.com. Retrieved 2014-01-01. [9] “Nicomachean Ethics”. Home.wlu.edu. Retrieved 201401-01.
5.7 Vice as opposite
[10] Babylonian Talmud, tractate Shabbat 31a. See also the ethic of reciprocity or “The Golden rule.”
Main article: Vice See also: List of virtues
[11] Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger and Allen Wikgren, The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Federal Republic of Germany: United Bible Societies, 1993, c1979)
The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Vice is a habitual, re[12] Roderick Hindery (2004), Comparative Ethics in Hindu peated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing and Buddhist Traditions, ISBN 978-8120808669; pages the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. 268-72; As Aristotle noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates in medio stat virtus - in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more “modern”virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues - but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.
• Quote: "(In Hinduism), srutis did not pretend to deal with all situations or irregularities in the moral life, leaving these matters to human reasons (Mbh Xii.109); Accordingly, that again which is virtue may, according to time and place, be sin (...); Under certain conditions, acts that are apparently evil (such as violence) can be permitted if they produce consequences that are good (protection of children and women in self-defense when the society is attacked in war) • Quote: "(The Hindu scripture) notes the interrelationship of several virtues, consequentially. Anger springs from covetousness; (the vice of) envy disappears in consequence of (the virtues) of compassion and knowledge of self (Mbh Xii.163);
5.8 See also
[13] Crawford, S. Cromwell (1982), The evolution of Hindu ethical ideals, Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii Press
5.9 References
[14] Becker and Becker (2001), Encyclopedia of Ethics, ISBN 978-0415936729, 2nd Edition, Routledge, pages 845-848
[1] Karenga, M. (2004), Maat, the moral ideal in ancient Egypt: A study in classical African ethics, Routledge [2] Norman Rufus Colin Cohn (1993). Cosmos, Caos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith.
[15] Phillip Wagoner, see Foreword, in Srinivasan, Dharma: Hindu Approach to a Purposeful Life, ISBN 978-162209-672-5; • Also see: Apastamba, Dharma Sutra, 1.20.6
5.10. FURTHER READING
45
[16] puNya Spoken Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany (2010)
[32] see Random House's Japanese-English, English-Japanese Dictionary
[17] search for pApa Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany (2008)
[33] Blom, John J., Descartes. His moral philosophy and psychology. New York University Press. 1978. ISBN 08147-0999-0
[18] What Is Hinduism?, Himalayan Academy (2007), ISBN 978-1-934145-00-5, page 377 [19] Tiwari, K. N. (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought: A Philosophical Study of Hindu, Jaina, and Buddhist Morals, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81208-1608-4, pp 52-55 [20] Gupta, B. (2006). BHAGAVAD GĪTĀ AS DUTY AND VIRTUE ETHICS. Journal of Religious Ethics, 34(3), 373-395. [21] Mohapatra & Mohapatra, Hinduism: Analytical Study, ISBN 978-8170993889; see pages 37-40 [22] Subedi, S. P. (2003). The Concept in Hinduism of ‘Just War’. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 8(2), pages 339-361 [23] Klaus K. Klostermaier (1996), in Harvey Leonard Dyck and Peter Brock (Ed), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective, see Chapter on Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism, ISBN 978-0802007773, University of Toronto Press, pages 230-234 [24] Bakker, F. L. (2013), Comparing the Golden Rule in Hindu and Christian Religious Texts. Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses, 42(1), pages 38-58 [25] “Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students, Unit 6: The Four Immeasurables”. Buddhanet.net. Retrieved 201401-01. [26] A View on Buddhism, The four immeasurables: Love, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity [27] Buddhavamsa, chapter 2. For an on-line reference to the Buddhavamsa's seminality in the Theravada notion of parami, see Bodhi (2005). In terms of other examples in the Pali literature, Rhys Davids & Stede (1921-25), p. 454, entry for “Pāramī,” (retrieved 2007-06-24) cites Jataka i.73 and Dhammapada Atthakatha i.84. Bodhi (2005) also mentions Acariya Dhammapala's treatise in the CariyapitakaAtthakatha and the Brahmajala Sutta subcommentary (tika). [28] Lin Yu-sheng: “The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy,”Monumenta Serica, vol.31, 1974-75 [29] Yang, C. K. (1971), Religion in Chinese society: a study of contemporary social functions of religion and some of their historical factors, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-88133-621-4 [30] Lunyu 2/1, tr. James Legge [31] Hagakure: The Secret Wisdom of the Samurai, by Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Translated by Alexander Bennett, Tuttle Publishing, 2014, ISBN 978-4-8053-1198-1 (Full Translation)
[34] Leiter, Brian. “Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). [35] Franklin's 13 Virtues Extract of Franklin's autobiography, compiled by Paul Ford. [36] Marc Jackson (2010) Emotion and Psyche. O-books. p. 12 (ISBN 978-1-84694-378-2) [37] Rand, Ayn The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism, p. 27 [38] Gotthelf, Allan On Ayn Rand; p. 86 [39] Rand, Ayn (1961) For the New Intellectual Galt’s Speech, "For the New Intellectual: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand", pp. 131, 178. [40] Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. Oxford University Press. (ISBN 0-19-516701-5) [41] Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. Oxford University Press. p. 36. (ISBN 0-19-516701-5) [42] Peterson, C., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. Oxford University Press. pp. 36-39. (ISBN 0-19516701-5) [43] Jessica Shryack, Michael F. Steger, Robert F. Krueger, Christopher S. Kallie. 2010. The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths. Elsevier.
5.10 Further reading • Newton, John, Ph.D. Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century, 2000. ISBN 0967370574. • Hein, David.“Christianity and Honor.”The Living Church, August 18, 2013, pp. 8–10. • Den Uyl, Douglas (2008). “Virtue”. In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 521– 22. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
5.11 External links • Practice Virtues Daily for a More Extraordinary Life
46 • The Large Clickable List of Virtues at VirtueScience.com • An overview of Aristotle's ethics, including an explanation and chart of virtues • Virtue Epistemology • Virtue, a Catholic perspective • Virtue, a Buddhist perspective • Greek Virtue (quotations) • Peterson & Seligman findings on virtues and strengths (landmark psychological study) • Illustrated account of the images of the Virtues in the Thomas Jefferson Building, Library of Congress, Washington DC • The Science of Virtues Project at the University of Chicago • Roman virtues
CHAPTER 5. VIRTUE
Chapter 6
Good and evil “Evil”redirects here. For other uses, see Evil (disambiguation). For other uses, see Good and evil (disambiguation). “Good against evil”redirects here. For other uses, see Conflict between good and evil. Not to be confused with Beyond Good and Evil.
Satan, as seen in Codex Gigas. Demons are generally seen as evil beings, and Satan as the greatest of these (in the Christian tradition). In religion, ethics, philosophy and psychology "good and evil" is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated.* [1] In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā meaning emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil being two opposing principles but not a reality, emptying the duality of them, and achieving a oneness.* [1] Evil, in a general context, is the absence or opposite of In many religions, that which is described as being good. Often, evil is * angels are considered good beings. In the Judeo- used to denote profound immorality. [2] In certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural Christian tradition, God —being the creator of all life — * force. [2] Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis is seen as the personification of good. of its motives.* [3] However, elements that are commonly associated with evil involve unbalanced behavior involving expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or neglect.* [4] How to achieve good is also discussed in the social sciences and in biology.
47
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CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL
The philosophical question of whether morality is abso- posing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and lute, relative, or illusory leads to questions about the na- Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) which were in conflict. ture of evil, with views falling into one of four opposed Main article: Gnosticism camps: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, and moral universalism. For the western world, this idea developed into a religion which spawned many sects, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the material world 6.1 Etymology should be shunned and the spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions* [9] which teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be reached by practising philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers, total for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others.* [10]
6.2.2 Classical world One of the five paintings of Extermination of Evil portrays Sendan Kendatsuba, one of the eight guardians of Buddhist law, banishing evil.
In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are “bad, cowardly”and “good, brave, capable”, and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular Democritus.* [11] Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, together with the emergence of monotheistic thought (notably in Euthyphro, which ponders the concept of piety (τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers.
The modern English word evil (Old English yfel) and its cognates such as the German Übel and Dutch euvel are widely considered to come from a Proto-Germanic reconstructed form of *ubilaz, comparable to the Hittite huwapp- ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European form *wap- and suffixed zero-grade form *up-elo-. Other later Germanic forms include Middle English evel, ifel, ufel, This development from the relative or habitual to the abOld Frisian evel (adjective and noun), Old Saxon ubil, solute is also evident in the terms ethics and morality both Old High German ubil, and Gothic ubils. being derived from terms for“regional custom”, Greek The root meaning of the word is of obscure origin though ήθος and Latin mores, respectively (see also siðr). shown* [5] to be akin to modern German Das Übel (although evil is normally translated as Das Böse) with the 6.2.3 Medieval period basic idea of transgressing.* [6]
6.2 Origin of the concept Further information: Origins of morality and Morality
Medieval theology was largely shaped by St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Thomas Aquinas. According to the classical definition of St. Augustine of Hippo sin is “a word, deed, or desire in opposition to the eternal law of God."[3][4]
Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and Every language has a word expressing good in the sense narrowed the basic concept of Good and evil until it came of“having the right or desirable quality”(ἀρετή) and bad to have several, sometimes complex definitions* [12] such in the sense“undesirable”. A sense of moral judgment as: and a distinction “right and wrong, good and bad”are • a personal preference or subjective judgment recultural universals.* [7] garding any issue which might be earn praise or punishment from the religious authorities
6.2.1
Ancient world
Main article: Zoroastrianism In the eastern part of ancient Persia almost three thousand years ago a religious philosopher called Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of early Iranian gods* [8] into two op-
• religious obligation arising from Divine law leading to sainthood or damnation. • a generally accepted cultural standard of behaviour which might enhance group survival or wealth • natural law or behaviour which induces strong emotional reaction
6.3. THEORIES OF MORAL GOODNESS • statute law imposing a legal duty
6.2.4
Modern Ideas
Today the basic dichotomy often breaks down along these lines: • Good is a broad concept often associated with life, charity, continuity, happiness, love, or justice.
49 Religious and philosophical views tend to agree that, while “good and evil”is a concept and therefore an abstraction, goodness is intrinsic to human nature and is ultimately based on the natural love, bonding, affection that people grow to feel for other people. Likewise, most religious and philosophical interpretations agree that evil is ultimately based in an ignorance of truth (i.e. human value, sanctity, divinity), and evil behavior itself is an aberration —one that defies any understanding save that the path to evil is one of confusion and excessive desire (greed). In physics and statistical thermodynamics, the property of goodness or order is often referred to as a state of low entropy.
• Evil is often associated with conscious and deliberate wrongdoing, discrimination designed to harm others, humiliation of people designed to diminish As a philosophical abstraction, goodness represents a their psychological needs and dignity, destructivehope that natural love be continuous, expansive, and allness, and acts of unnecessary and/or indiscriminate inclusive. In religious context, it is by this hope that an * violence. [13] important concept of God is derived —as an infinite projection of love, manifest as goodness in the lives of peoThe nature of being good has been given many treatments; ple. The belief in such hope is often translated as "faith", one is that the good is based on the natural love, bond- and wisdom itself is largely defined within religious docing, and affection that begins at the earliest stages of per- trine as a knowledge and understanding of innate goodsonal development; another is that goodness is a prod- ness. The concepts of innocence, spiritual purity, and uct of knowing truth. Differing views also exist as to salvation are likewise related to a concept of being in, or why evil might arise. Many religious and philosophical returning to, a state of goodness—one that, according to traditions claim that evil behavior is an aberration that various teachings of "enlightenment", approaches a state results from the imperfect human condition (e.g. "The of holiness, righteousness, (or Godliness). Fall of Man"). Sometimes, evil is attributed to the existence of free will and human agency. Some argue that evil itself is ultimately based in an ignorance of truth (i.e., 6.3.1 Chinese moral philosophy human value, sanctity, divinity). A variety of Enlightenment thinkers have alleged the opposite, by suggesting Main: Confucian Ethics, Confucianism and that evil is learned as a consequence of tyrannical social Taoist Ethics structures.
6.3 Theories of moral goodness
As with Buddhism below, in Confucianism or Taoism, there is no direct analogue to the way good and evil are opposed although reference to demonic influence is common in Chinese folk religion. Confucianism's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man. Thus evil would correspond to wrong behavior. Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of dualism in that system, but the opposite of the basic virtues of Taoism, compassion, moderation, and humility can be inferred to be the analogue of evil in it.* [14]* [15]
Philosophers inquire into what sorts of things are good, and what the word "good" really means in the abstract. As a philosophical concept, goodness might represent a hope that natural love be continuous, expansive, and allinclusive. In a monotheistic religious context, it is by this hope that an important concept of God is derived —as an infinite projection of love, manifest as goodness in the lives of people. In other contexts, the good is viewed to be whatever produces the best consequences upon the lives of people, especially with regard to their states of well 6.3.2 being.
Western philosophy
For other uses of “good”, see Good (disambiguation). Spinoza In religion, ethics, and philosophy, goodness and evil, or simply good and evil, is the concept of all human desires and behaviors as conforming to a dualistic spectrum — wherein in one direction are aspects that are wisely reverent of life and continuity ("good"), and in the other are aspects that are vainly reverent of death and destruction ("evil").
Benedict de Spinoza states: 1. By good, I understand that which we certainly know is useful to us. 2. By evil, on the contrary I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good.* [16]
50
CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL
Spinoza assumes a quasi-mathematical style and states 6.3.4 Religion these further propositions which he purports to prove or demonstrate from the above definitions in part IV of his Main article: Problem of evil Ethics :* [16] • Proposition 8 "Knowledge of good or evil is nothing but affect of joy or sorrow in so far as we are conscious of it."
Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith asserts that evil is non-existent and that it is a concept for the lacking of good, just as cold is the • Proposition 30 "Nothing can be evil through that state of no heat, darkness is the state of no light, forgetwhich it possesses in common with our nature, but fulness the lacking of memory, ignorance the lacking of in so far as a thing is evil to us it is contrary to us." knowledge. All of these are states of lacking and have no * • Proposition 64 "The knowledge of evil is inadequate real existence. [19] knowledge." Thus, evil does not exist, and is relative to man. `Abdu'lBahá, son of the founder of the religion, in Some An• Corollary "Hence it follows that if the human swered Questions states: mind had none but adequate ideas, it would “Nevertheless a doubt occurs to the mind—that is, scorform no notion of evil." pions and serpents are poisonous. Are they good or evil, • Proposition 65 "According to the guidance of reason, for they are existing beings? Yes, a scorpion is evil in reof two things which are good, we shall follow the lation to man; a serpent is evil in relation to man; but in greater good, and of two evils, follow the less." relation to themselves they are not evil, for their poison is their weapon, and by their sting they defend themselves.” • Proposition 68 "If men were born free, they would * [19] form no conception of good and evil so long as they Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true were free." reality. Since God is good, and upon creating creation he confirmed it by saying it is Good (Genesis 1:31) evil Nietzsche cannot have a true reality.* [19] Friedrich Nietzsche, in a rejection of the Judeo-Christian morality, addresses this in two works, Beyond Good and Buddhism Evil and On the Genealogy of Morals, where he essentially says that the natural functional non-good has been socially transformed into the religious concept of evil by the slave mentality of the weak and oppressed masses who resent their masters (the strong).
6.3.3
Psychology
Carl Jung Carl Jung, in his book Answer to Job and elsewhere, depicted evil as the dark side of the Devil. People tend to believe evil is something external to them, because they project their shadow onto others. Jung interpreted the story of Jesus as an account of God facing his own shadow.* [17] Philip Zimbardo
Extermination of Evil, The God of Heavenly Punishment, from the Chinese tradition of yin and yang. Late Heian period (12th Century Japan)
In 2007, Philip Zimbardo suggested that people may act in evil ways as a result of a collective identity. This hypothesis, based on his previous experience from the Stanford prison experiment, was published in the book Main article: Buddhist Ethics The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and Turn Evil.* [18]
6.3. THEORIES OF MORAL GOODNESS enlightenment, so the good vs. evil splitting has no direct analogue in it. One may infer however from the general teachings of the Buddha that the catalogued causes of suffering are what correspond in this belief system to 'evil.* [20]* [21] Practically this can refer to 1) the three selfish emotions —desire, hate and delusion; and 2) to their expression in physical and verbal actions. See ten unvirtuous actions in Buddhism. Specifically, evil means whatever harms or obstructs the causes for happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and complete enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi).
51 • Karodh, or Wrath • Kaam, or Lust • Ahankar, or Egotism One who gives in to the temptations of the Five Thieves is known as "Manmukh", or someone who lives selfishly and without virtue. Inversely, the "Gurmukh, who thrive in their reverence toward divine knowledge, rise above vice via the practice of the high virtues of Sikhism. These are:* [26]
“What is evil? Killing is evil, lying is evil, slandering is • Sewa, or selfless service to others. evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to cling to false doctrine is evil; all these things are • Nam Simran, or meditation upon the divine name. evil. And what is the root of evil? Desire is the root of evil, illusion is the root of evil.”Gautama Siddhartha, the Islam founder of Buddhism, 563-483 B.C. Hinduism In Hinduism the concept of Dharma or righteousness clearly divides the world into good and evil, and clearly explains that wars have to be waged sometimes to establish and protect Dharma, this war is called Dharmayuddha. This division of good and evil is of major importance in both the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, the main emphasis in Hinduism is on bad action, rather than bad people. The Hindu holy text, the Bhagavad Gita, speaks of the balance of good and evil. When this balance goes off, divine incarnations come to help to restore this balance.* [22]
There is no concept of absolute evil in Islam, as a fundamental universal principle that is independent from and equal with good in a dualistic sense. Within Islam, it is considered essential to believe that all comes from Allah, whether it is perceived as good or bad by individuals; and things that are perceived as evil or bad are either natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by humanity's free will to disobey Allah's orders. See Devil (Islam). According to the Ahmadiyya understanding of Islam, evil does not have a positive existence in itself and is merely the lack of good, just as darkness is the result of lack of light.* [27] Judaism
Sikhism In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of evil changes depending on one's position on the path to liberation. At the beginning stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may seem neatly separated. However, once one's spirit evolves to the point where it sees most clearly, the idea of evil vanishes and the truth is revealed. In his writings Guru Arjan explains that, because God is the source of all things, what we believe to be evil must too come from God. And because God is ultimately a source of absolute good, nothing truly evil can originate from God.* [23]
See also: Yetzer hara In Judaism, no individual can be defined as categorically, absolutely“good”or“evil.”Judaism recognizes human beings' psychological complexity. God gave the Children of Israel the Torah as a guide to overcome evil. A common theme of medieval Jewish philosophy is that people who do good deeds will be rewarded in olam haba.* [28]
Judaism has two conflicting attitudes toward the existence of evil. In one interpretation, evil is not real, it is per se not part of God's creation, but comes into existence through man's bad actions. In the other interpretation, Nevertheless, Sikhism, like many other religions, does in- evil was created by God since God created everything corporate a list of “vices”from which suffering, cor- and to suggest otherwise would be to engage in dualism, ruption, and abject negativity arise. These are known as and is therefore antithetical to the core Jewish belief in the Five Thieves, called such due to their propensity to monotheism.* [28] cloud the mind and lead one astray from the prosecution of righteous action.* [24] These are:* [25] Christianity • Moh, or Attachment • Lobh, or Greed
See also: Devil § Christianity
52 Evil according to a Christian worldview is any action, thought or attitude that is contrary to the character or will of God. This is shown through the law given in both the Old and New Testament. There is no moral action given in the Bible that is contrary to God's character or God's will. Therefore, evil in a Christian world view is contrasted by and in conflict with God's character or God's will. This evil shows itself through deviation from the character or will of God.
CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL In Mormonism, mortal life is viewed as a test of faith, where one's choices are central to the Plan of Salvation. See Agency (LDS Church). Evil is that which keeps one from discovering the nature of God. It is believed that one must choose not to be evil to return to God. Christian Science believes that evil arises from a misunderstanding of the goodness of nature, which is understood as being inherently perfect if viewed from the correct (spiritual) perspective. Misunderstanding God's reality leads to incorrect choices, which are termed evil. This has led to the rejection of any separate power being the source of evil, or of God as being the source of evil; instead, the appearance of evil is the result of a mistaken concept of good. Christian Scientists argue that even the most evil person does not pursue evil for its own sake, but from the mistaken viewpoint that he or she will achieve some kind of good thereby. Zoroastrianism In the originally Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, the world is a battle ground between the god Ahura Mazda (also called Ormazd) and the malignant spirit Angra Mainyu (also called Ahriman). The final resolution of the struggle between good and evil was supposed to occur on a day of Judgement, in which all beings that have lived will be led across a bridge of fire, and those who are evil will be cast down forever. In Afghan belief, angels and saints are beings sent to help us achieve the path towards goodness.
6.4 Descriptive, meta-ethical, and normative fields The devil, in opposition to the will of God, represents evil and tempts Christ, the personification of the character and will of God. Ary Scheffer, 1854.
It is possible to treat the essential theories of value by the use of a philosophical and academic approach. In properly analyzing theories of value, everyday beliefs are not only carefully catalogued and described, but also rigorChristian theology draws its concept of evil from the ously analyzed and judged. Old and New Testaments. The Christian Bible exercises “the dominant influence upon ideas about God There are at least two basic ways of presenting a theory and evil in the Western world.”* [29] In the Old Tes- of value, based on two different kinds of questions: tament, evil is understood to be an opposition to God as well as something unsuitable or inferior such as the • What do people find good, and what do they despise? leader of the fallen angels Satan* [30] In the New Testa• What really is good, and what really is bad? ment the Greek word poneros is used to indicate unsuitability, while kakos is used to refer to opposition to God in the human realm.* [31] Officially, the Catholic Church The two questions are subtly different. One may answer extracts its understanding of evil from its canonical an- the first question by researching the world by use of sotiquity and the Dominican theologian, Thomas Aquinas, cial science, and examining the preferences that people who in Summa Theologica defines evil as the absence assert. However, one may answer the second question or privation of good.* [32] French-American theologian by use of reasoning, introspection, prescription, and genHenri Blocher describes evil, when viewed as a theologi- eralization. The former kind of method of analysis is cal concept, as an“unjustifiable reality. In common par- called "descriptive", because it attempts to describe what lance, evil is 'something' that occurs in experience that people actually view as good or evil; while the latter is ought not to be.”* [33] called "normative", because it tries to actively prohibit
6.5. THEORIES OF THE INTRINSICALLY GOOD
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evils and cherish goods. These descriptive and normative approaches can be complementary. For example, tracking the decline of the popularity of slavery across cultures is the work of descriptive ethics, while advising that slavery be avoided is normative.
self is largely defined within some religious doctrines as a knowledge and understanding of innate goodness. The concepts of innocence, spiritual purity, and salvation are likewise related to a concept of being in, or returning to, a state of goodness—one that, according to various teachMeta-ethics is the study of the fundamental questions ings of "enlightenment", approaches a state of holiness (or concerning the nature and origins of the good and the Godliness).\ evil, including inquiry into the nature of good and evil, as well as the meaning of evaluative language. In this re6.5.2 Perfectionism spect, meta-ethics is not necessarily tied to investigations into how others see the good, or of asserting what is good. Aristotle believed that virtues consisted of realization of
6.5 Theories of the intrinsically good A satisfying formulation of goodness is valuable because it might allow one to construct a good life or society by reliable processes of deduction, elaboration, or prioritization. One could answer the ancient question, “How should we then live?" among many other important related questions. It has long been thought that this question can best be answered by examining what it is that necessarily makes a thing valuable, or in what the source of value consists.
6.5.1
Transcendental realism
One attempt to define goodness describes it as a property of the world with transcendental realism. According to this claim, to talk about the good is to talk about something real that exists in the object itself, independent of the perception of it. Plato advocated this view, in his expression that there is such a thing as an eternal realm of forms or ideas, and that the greatest of the ideas and the essence of being was goodness, or The good. The good was defined by many ancient Greeks and other ancient philosophers as a perfect and eternal idea, or blueprint. The good is the right relation between all that exists, and this exists in the mind of the Divine, or some heavenly realm. The good is the harmony of a just political community, love, friendship, the ordered human soul of virtues, and the right relation to the Divine and to Nature. The characters in Plato's dialogues mention the many virtues of a philosopher, or a lover of wisdom.
potentials unique to humanity, such as the use of reason. This type of view, called perfectionism, has been recently defended in modern form by Thomas Hurka. An entirely different form of perfectionism has arisen in response to rapid technological change. Some technooptimists, especially transhumanists, avow a form of perfectionism in which the capacity to determine good and trade off fundamental values, is expressed not by humans but by software, genetic engineering of humans, artificial intelligence. Skeptics assert that rather than perfect goodness, it would be only the appearance of perfect goodness, reinforced by persuasion technology and probably brute force of violent technological escalation, which would cause people to accept such rulers or rules authored by them.
6.5.3 Welfarist theories Welfarist theories of value say things that are good are such because of their positive effects on human wellbeing. Subjective theories of well-being It is difficult to figure out where an immaterial trait such as “goodness”could reside in the world. A counterproposal is to locate values inside people. Some philosophers go so far as to say that if some state of affairs does not tend to arouse a desirable subjective state in self-aware beings, then it cannot be good.
Most philosophers that think goods have to create desirable mental states also say that goods are experiences of self-aware beings. These philosophers often distinguish the experience, which they call an intrinsic good, from A theist is a person who believes that the Supreme Be- the things that seem to cause the experience, which they ing exists or gods exist (monotheism or polytheism). A call“inherent”goods. Failing to distinguish the two leads theist may, therefore, claim that the universe has a pur- to a subject–object problem in which it is not clear who pose and value according to the will of such creator(s) that is evaluating what object. lies partially beyond human understanding. For instance, Some theories describe no higher collective value than Thomas Aquinas—a proponent of this view—believed he that of maximizing pleasure for individual(s). Some even had proven the existence of God, and the right relations define goodness and intrinsic value as the experience of that humans ought to have to the divine first cause. pleasure, and bad as the experience of pain. This view Monotheists might also hope for infinite universal love. is called hedonism, a monistic theory of value. It has two Such hope is often translated as "faith", and wisdom it- main varieties: simple, and Epicurean.
54 Simple hedonism is the view that physical pleasure is the ultimate good. However, the ancient philosopher Epicurus used the word 'pleasure' in a more general sense that encompassed a range of states from bliss to contentment to relief. Contrary to popular caricature, he valued pleasures of the mind to bodily pleasures, and advocated moderation as the surest path to happiness. Jeremy Bentham's book The Principles of Morals and Legislation prioritized goods by considering pleasure, pain and consequences. This theory had a wide effect on public affairs, up to and including the present day. A similar system was later named Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. More broadly, utilitarian theories are examples of Consequentialism. All utilitarian theories are based upon the maxim of utility, which states that good is whatever provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It follows from this principle that what brings happiness to the greatest number of people, is good.
CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL ther of evil tendencies, becomes through good deeds the hero of its own defeat. When the evil tendencies are completely replaced by good tendencies, selfishness is transformed into selflessness, i.e., individual selfishness loses itself in universal interest.”* [35] Objective theories of well-being See also: Wealth § separate analysis
The idea that the ultimate good exists and is not orderable but is globally measurable is reflected in various ways in economic (classical economics, green economics, welfare economics, gross national happiness) and scientific (positive psychology, the science of morality) wellbeing measuring theories, all of which focus on various ways of assessing progress towards that goal, a so-called genuine progress indicator. Modern economics thus reA benefit of tracing good to pleasure and pain is that flects very ancient philosophy, but a calculation or quanboth are easily understandable, both in oneself and to an titative or other process based on cardinality and statistics extent in others. For the hedonist, the explanation for replaces the simple ordering of values. helping behaviour may come in the form of empathy— the ability of a being to “feel”another's pain. Peo- For example, in both economics and in folk wisdom, the ple tend to value the lives of gorillas more than those of value of something seems to rise so long as it is relatively mosquitoes because the gorilla lives and feels, making it scarce. However, if it becomes too scarce, it leads often easier to empathize with them. This idea is carried for- to a conflict, and can reduce collective value. ward in the ethical relationship view and has given rise to In the classical political economy of Adam Smith and the animal rights movement and parts of the peace move- David Ricardo, and in its critique by Karl Marx, human ment. The impact of sympathy on human behaviour is labour is seen as the ultimate source of all new economic compatible with Enlightenment views, including David value. This is an objective theory of value (see value theHume's stances that the idea of a self with unique iden- ory), which attributes value to real production-costs, and tity is illusory, and that morality ultimately comes down ultimately expenditures of human labour-time (see also to sympathy and fellow feeling for others, or the exercise law of value). It contrasts with marginal utility theory, of approval underlying moral judgments. which argues that the value of labour depends on subjecA view adopted by James Griffin attempts to find a sub- tive preferences by consumers, which may however also jective alternative to hedonism as an intrinsic value. He be objectively studied. argues that the satisfaction of one's informed desires constitutes well-being, whether or not these desires actually bring the agent happiness. Moreover, these preferences must be life-relevant, that is, contribute to the success of a person's life overall.
The economic value of labour may be assessed technically in terms of its use-value or utility or commercially in terms of its exchange-value, price or production cost (see also labour power. But its value may also be socially assessed in terms of its contribution to the wealth Desire satisfaction may occur without the agent's aware- and well-being of a society. ness of the satisfaction of the desire. For example, if a In non-market societies, labour may be valued primarman wishes for his legal will to be enacted after his death, ily in terms of skill, time, and output, as well as moral and it is, then his desire has been satisfied even though he or social criteria and legal obligations. In market sociwill never experience or know of it. eties, labour is valued economically primarily through the Meher Baba proposed that it is not the satisfaction of de- labour market. The price of labour may then be set by sires that motivates the agent but rather “a desire to be supply and demand, by strike action or legislation, or by free from the limitation of all desires. Those experiences legal or professional entry-requirements into occupations. and actions which increase the fetters of desire are bad, and those experiences and actions which tend to emancipate the mind from limiting desires are good.”* [34] It is through good actions, then, that the agent becomes free from selfish desires and achieves a state of well-being: “The good is the main link between selfishness thriving and dying. Selfishness, which in the beginning is the fa-
Mid-range theories Conceptual metaphor theories argue against both subjective and objective conceptions of value and meaning, and focus on the relationships between body and other essential elements of human life. In effect, conceptual
6.6. PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS metaphor theories treat ethics as an ontology problem and the issue of how to work-out values as a negotiation of these metaphors, not the application of some abstraction or a strict standoff between parties who have no way to understand each other's views.
6.6 Philosophical questions 6.6.1
Universality
55 objective meaning of any act accurately described by that word is to wrongfully kill a selected group of people, which is an action that at least their victims will understand to be evil. Universalists consider evil independent of culture, and wholly related to acts or intents. Thus, while the ideological leaders of Nazism and the Hutu Interhamwe accepted (and considered it moral) to commit genocide, the belief in genocide as fundamentally or universally evil holds that those who instigated this genocide are actually evil. Other universalists might argue that although the commission of an evil act is always evil, those who perpetrate may not be wholly evil or wholly good entities. To say that someone who has stolen a candy bar, for instance, becomes wholly evil is a rather untenable position. However, universalists might also argue that a person can choose a decidedly evil or a decidedly good life career, and genocidal dictatorship plainly falls on the side of the former. Views on the nature of evil tend to fall into one of four opposed camps: • Moral absolutism holds that good and evil are fixed concepts established by a deity or deities, nature, morality, common sense, or some other source. • Amoralism claims that good and evil are meaningless, that there is no moral ingredient in nature. • Moral relativism holds that standards of good and evil are only products of local culture, custom, or prejudice.
Adolf Hitler is sometimes used as a modern definition of evil.* [36] Hitler's policies and orders resulted in the deaths of about 50 million people.* [37]
A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendent definition of evil, or whether evil is determined by one's social or cultural background. C. S. Lewis, in The Abolition of Man, maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder. However the numerous instances in which rape or murder is morally affected by social context call this into question. Up until the mid-19th century, the United States —along with many other countries — practiced forms of slavery. As is often the case, those transgressing moral boundaries stood to profit from that exercise. Arguably, slavery has always been the same and objectively evil, but men with a motivation to transgress will justify that action. The Nazis, during World War II, considered genocide to be acceptable,* [38] as did the Hutu Interahamwe in the Rwandan genocide.* [39]* [40] One might point out, though, that the actual perpetrators of those atrocities probably avoided calling their actions genocide, since the
• Moral universalism is the attempt to find a compromise between the absolutist sense of morality, and the relativist view; universalism claims that morality is only flexible to a degree, and that what is truly good or evil can be determined by examining what is commonly considered to be evil amongst all humans. Plato wrote that there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are countless ways to do evil, which can therefore have a much greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other beings capable of suffering.* [41]
6.6.2 Usefulness as a term One school of thought that holds that no person is evil, and that only acts may be properly considered evil. Psychologist and mediator Marshall Rosenberg claims that the root of violence is the very concept of evil or badness. When we label someone as bad or evil, Rosenberg claims, it invokes the desire to punish or inflict pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the person we are harming. He cites the use of language in Nazi Germany as being a key to how the German people were able to do things to other human beings that they normally would not do. He links the concept of evil to our judicial
56 system, which seeks to create justice via punishment — punitive justice —punishing acts that are seen as bad or wrong.He contrasts this approach with what he found in cultures where the idea of evil was non-existent. In such cultures when someone harms another person, they are believed to be out of harmony with themselves and their community, are seen as sick or ill and measures are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relations with themselves and others.
CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL • Is unable to think from the viewpoint of their victim • Has a covert intolerance to criticism and other forms of narcissistic injury He also considers certain institutions may be evil, as his discussion of the My Lai Massacre and its attempted coverup illustrate. By this definition, acts of criminal and state terrorism would also be considered evil.
Psychologist Albert Ellis agrees, in his school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, or 6.6.3 REBT. He says the root of anger, and the desire to harm someone, is almost always related to variations of implicit or explicit philosophical beliefs about other human beings. He further claims that without holding variants of those covert or overt belief and assumptions, the tendency to resort to violence in most cases is less likely.
Necessary evil
American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck on the other hand, describes evil as militant ignorance.* [42] The original Judeo-Christian concept of sin is as a process that leads one to miss the mark and not achieve perfection. Peck argues that while most people are conscious of this at least on some level, those that are evil actively and militantly refuse this consciousness. Peck describes evil as a malignant type of self-righteousness which results in a projection of evil onto selected specific innocent victims (often children or other people in relatively powerless positions). Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through selfdeception) and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in sociopaths. According to Peck, an evil person:* [42]* [43]
Martin Luther believed that occasional minor evil could have a positive effect
• Is consistently self-deceiving, with the intent of avoiding guilt and maintaining a self-image of Martin Luther argued that there are cases where a little perfection evil is a positive good. He wrote, “Seek out the society of your boon companions, drink, play, talk bawdy, and • Deceives others as a consequence of their own selfamuse yourself. One must sometimes commit a sin out deception of hate and contempt for the Devil, so as not to give him • Psychologically projects his or her evils and sins the chance to make one scrupulous over mere nothings... * onto very specific targets, scapegoating those targets .” [46] while treating everyone else normally (“their insen- According to certain schools of political philosophy, leadsitivity toward him was selective”)* [44] ers should be indifferent to good or evil, taking actions • Commonly hates with the pretense of love, for the based only upon practicality; this approach to politics purposes of self-deception as much as the deception was put forth by Niccolò Machiavelli, a 16th-century Florentine writer who advised politicians "...it is far safer of others to be feared than loved.”* [47] • Abuses political or emotional power (“the impo- The international relations theories of realism and sition of one's will upon others by overt or covert neorealism, sometimes called realpolitik advise politicoercion”)* [45] cians to explicitly ban absolute moral and ethical consid• Maintains a high level of respectability and lies in- erations from international politics, and to focus on selfinterest, political survival, and power politics, which they cessantly in order to do so hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view • Is consistent in his or her sins. Evil people are de- as explicitly amoral and dangerous. Political realists usufined not so much by the magnitude of their sins, but ally justify their perspectives by laying claim to a higher by their consistency (of destructiveness) moral duty specific to political leaders, under which the
6.7. GOODNESS AND AGENCY
57
greatest evil is seen to be the failure of the state to protect itself and its citizens. Machiavelli wrote: "...there will be traits considered good that, if followed, will lead to ruin, while other traits, considered vices which if practiced achieve security and well being for the Prince.”* [47]
this would mean is that the outcome of the Orange's distribution would not be such a simple process for Kant as the reason why it would be wanted by both parties would necessarily have to be a part of the Judgement process, thus eliminating the problem that Rawls' account suffers Anton LaVey, founder of the Church of Satan, was a ma- here. terialist and claimed that evil is actually good. He was responding to the common practice of describing sexual6.7.2 Society, life and ecology ity or disbelief as evil, and his claim was that when the word evil is used to describe the natural pleasures and inMany views value unity as a good: to go beyond stincts of men and women, or the skepticism of an inquireudaimonia by saying that an individual person's flour* ing mind, the things called evil are really good. [48] ishing is valuable only as a means to the flourishing of society as a whole. In other words, a single person's life is, ultimately, not important or worthwhile in itself, but is 6.7 Goodness and agency good only as a means to the success of society as a whole. Some elements of Confucianism are an example of this, encouraging the view that people ought to conform as in6.7.1 Goodwill dividuals to demands of a peaceful and ordered society. John Rawls' book A Theory of Justice prioritized social arrangements and goods based on their contribution to justice. Rawls defined justice as fairness, especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if rational individuals' goods are considered fairly. Rawls's crucial invention was the original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one's moral calculations. One problem with the thinkings of Rawls is that it is overly procedural. Procedurally fair processes of the type used by Rawls may not leave enough room for judgment, and therefore, reduce the totality of goodness. For example, if two people are found to own an orange, the standard fair procedure is to cut it in two and give half to each. However, if one wants to eat it while the other wants the rind to flavor a cake, cutting it in two is clearly less good than giving the peel to the baker and feeding the core to the eater. Applying procedural fairness to an entire society therefore seems certain to create recognizable inefficiencies , and therefore be unfair, and (by the equivalence of justice with fairness) unjust. However, procedural processes are not always necessarily damning in this way. Immanuel Kant, a great influence for Rawls, similarly applies a lot of procedural practice within the practical application of The Categorical Imperative, however, this is indeed not based solely on 'fairness'. Even though an example like the one above regarding the orange would not be something that required the practical application of The Categorical Imperative, it is important to draw distinction between Kant and Rawls, and note that Kant's Theory would not necessarily lead to the same problems Rawls' does —i.e., the cutting in half of the orange. Kant's Theory promotes acting out of Duty —acting for the Summum Bonum for him, The Good Will - and in fact encourages Judgement, too. What
According to the naturalistic view, the flourishing of society is not, or not the only, intrinsically good thing. Defenses of this notion are often formulated by reference to biology, and observations that living things compete more with their own kind than with other kinds. Rather, what is of intrinsic good is the flourishing of all sentient life, extending to those animals that have some level of similar sentience, such as Great Ape personhood. Others go farther, declaring that life itself is of intrinsic value. By another approach, one achieves peace and agreement by focusing, not on one's peers (who may be rivals or competitors), but on the common environment. The reasoning: As living beings it is clearly and objectively good that we are surrounded by an ecosystem that supports life. Indeed, if we weren't, we could neither discuss that good nor even recognize it. The anthropic principle in cosmology recognizes this view. Under materialism or even embodiment values, or in any system that recognizes the validity of ecology as a scientific study of limits and potentials, an ecosystem is a fundamental good. To all who investigate, it seems that goodness, or value, exists within an ecosystem, Earth. Creatures within that ecosystem and wholly dependent on it, evaluate good relative to what else could be achieved there. In other words, good is situated in a particular place and one does not dismiss everything that is not available there (such as very low gravity or absolutely abundant sugar candy) as “not good enough”, one works within its constraints. Transcending them and learning to be satisfied with them, is thus another sort of value, perhaps called satisfaction. Values and the people that hold them seem necessarily subordinate to the ecosystem. If this is so, then what kind of being could validly apply the word “good” to an ecosystem as a whole? Who would have the power to assess and judge an ecosystem as good or bad? By what criteria? And by what criteria would ecosystems be modified, especially larger ones such as the
58
CHAPTER 6. GOOD AND EVIL
atmosphere (climate change) or oceans (extinction) or ture were like those to other people, and Animism reforests (deforestation)?* [49] inforced this by giving nature “personality”via myth. “Remaining on Earth”as the most basic value. While Anthropological theories of value explore these quesgreen ethicists have been most forthright about it, and tions. have developed theories of Gaia philosophy, biophilia, bioregionalism that reflect it, the questions are now universally recognized as central in determining value, e.g. the economic "value of Earth" to humans as a whole, or the "value of life" that is neither whole-Earth nor human. Many have come to the conclusion that without assuming ecosystem continuation as a universal good, with attendant virtues like biodiversity and ecological wisdom it is impossible to justify such operational requirements as sustainability of human activity on Earth.
Most people in the world reject older situated ethics and localized religious views. However small-communitybased and ecology-centric views have gained some popularity in recent years. In part, this has been attributed to the desire for ethical certainties. Such a deeply rooted definition of goodness would be valuable because it might allow one to construct a good life or society by reliable processes of deduction, elaboration or prioritisation. Ones that relied only on local referents one could verify for oneself, creating more certainty and therefore less inOne response is that humans are not necessarily confined vestment in protection, hedging and insuring against conto Earth, and could use it and move on. A counter- sequences of loss of the value. argument is that only a tiny fraction of humans could do this —and they would be self-selected by ability to do technological escalation on others (for instance, the ability to create large spacecraft to flee the planet in, and simultaneously fend off others who seek to prevent 6.7.3 History and novelty them). Another counter-argument is that extraterrestrial life would encounter the fleeing humans and destroy them An event is often seen as being of value simply because of as a locust species. A third is that if there are no other its novelty in fashion and art. By contrast, cultural history worlds fit to support life (and no extraterrestrials who and other antiques are sometimes seen as of value in and compete with humans to occupy them) it is both futile to of themselves due to their age. Philosopher-historians flee, and foolish to imagine that it would take less energy Will and Ariel Durant spoke as much with the quote,“As and skill to protect the Earth as a habitat than it would the sanity of the individual lies in the continuity of his take to construct some new habitat. memories, so the sanity of the group lies in the continuity Accordingly, remaining on Earth, as a living being sur- of its traditions; in either case a break in the chain invites rounded by a working ecosystem, is a fair statement of a neurotic reaction”(The Lessons of History, 72). the most basic values and goodness to any being we are Assessment of the value of old or historical artifacts able to communicate with. A moral system without this takes into consideration, especially but not exclusively: axiom seems simply not actionable. the value placed on having a detailed knowledge of the However, most religious systems acknowledge an afterlife past, the desire to have tangible ties to ancestral history, and improving this is seen as an even more basic good. In and/or the increased market value scarce items traditionmany other moral systems, also, remaining on Earth in a ally hold. state that lacks honor or power over self is less desirable —consider seppuku in bushido, kamikazes or the role of suicide attacks in Jihadi rhetoric. In all these systems, remaining on Earth is perhaps no higher than a third-place value. Radical values environmentalism can be seen as either a very old or a very new view: that the only intrinsically good thing is a flourishing ecosystem; individuals and societies are merely instrumentally valuable, good only as means to having a flourishing ecosystem. The Gaia philosophy is the most detailed expression of this overall thought but it strongly influenced Deep Ecology and the modern Green Parties. It is often claimed that aboriginal peoples never lost this sort of view. Anthropological linguistics studies links between their languages and the ecosystems they lived in, which gave rise to their knowledge distinctions. Very often, environmental cognition and moral cognition were not distinguished in these languages. Offenses to na-
Creativity and innovation and invention are sometimes upheld as fundamentally good especially in Western industrial society —all imply newness, and even opportunity to profit from novelty. Bertrand Russell was notably pessimistic about creativity and thought that knowledge expanding faster than wisdom necessarily was fatal.
6.8 Goodness and morality in biology The issue of good and evil in the human visuality, often associated with morality, is regarded by some biologists (notably Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.* [50]* [51]* [52]* [53]
6.10. REFERENCES
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6.9 See also
[18] Book website
6.10 References
[19] 'Abdu'l-Bahá (1982). Some answered questions. Translated by Laura Clifford. Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publ. Trust. ISBN 0-87743-162-0.
Specific references [1] Paul O. Ingram, Frederick John Streng. BuddhistChristian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation. University of Hawaii Press, 1986. P. 148-149. [2] “Evil”. Oxford University Press. 2012. [3] Ervin Staub. Overcoming evil: genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press, Pp. 32. [4] Caitlin Matthews, John Matthews. Walkers Between the Worlds: The Western Mysteries from Shaman to Magus. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, Jan 14, 2004. P. 173.
[20] Philosophy of Religion Charles Taliaferro, Paul J. Griffiths, eds. Ch. 35, Buddhism and Evil Martin Southwold p 424 [21] Lay Outreach and the Meaning of 'Evil Person' Taitetsu Unno [22] Bhagavad Gita 4.07-08 [23] Singh, Gopal (1967). Sri guru-granth sahib [english version]. New York: Taplinger Publishing Co. [24] Singh, Charan. “Ethics and Business: Evidence from Sikh Religion”. Social Science Research Network. Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore.
[6] Harper, Douglas (2001). “Etymology for evil”.
[25] Sandhu, Jaswinder (February 2004). “The Sikh Model of the Person, Suffering, and Healing: Implications for Counselors”. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. 26 (1): 33–46.
[7] Donald Brown (1991) Human Universals. Philadelphia, Temple University Press (online summary).
[26] Singh, Arjan (January 2000). “The universal ideal of sikhism”. Global Dialogue. 2 (1).
[5] See 'Evil' entry in OED
[8] Boyce 1979, pp. 6–12. [9] John Hinnel (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Religion. Penguin Books UK.
[27] Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth (PDF). p. 193. Retrieved June 25, 2014. [28]“Good & Evil.”Jewish Virtual Library. 2008. 19 October 2016.
[10] Churton, Tobias (2005). Gnostic Philosophy: From Ancient Persia to Modern Times. Inner Traditions – Bear & Company. ISBN 978-159477-035-7.
[29] David Ray Griffin, God, Power, and Evil: a Process Theodicy (Westminster, 1976/2004), 31.
[11] Charles H. Kahn, Democritus and the Origins of Moral Psychology, The American Journal of Philology (1985)
[30] Hans Schwarz, Evil: A Historical and Theological Perspective (Lima, Ohio: Academic Renewal Press, 2001): 42– 43.
[12] Farley, E (1990). Good and Evil: Interpreting a Human Condition. Fortress Press / Vanderbilt University. ISBN 978-0800624477. [13] Ervin Staub. Overcoming evil: genocide, violent conflict, and terrorism. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, Pp. 32. [14] Good and Evil in Chinese Philosophy C.W. Chan [15] History of Chinese Philosophy Feng Youlan, Volume II The Period of Classical Learning (from the Second Century B.C. to the Twentieth Century A.D). Trans. Derk Bodde. Ch. XIV Liu Chiu-Yuan, Wang Shou-jen, and Ming Idealism. part 6 § 6 Origin of Evil. Uses strikingly similar language to that in the etymology section of this article, in the context of Chinese Idealism. [16] Benedict de Spinoza, Ethics, Part IV Of Human Bondage or of the Strength of the Affects Definitions translated by W. H. White, Revised by A. H. Stirling, Great Books vol 31, Encyclopædia Britannica 1952 p. 424 [17] Stephen Palmquist, Dreams of Wholeness: A course of introductory lectures on religion, psychology and personal growth (Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press, 1997/2008), see especially Chapter XI.
[31] Schwarz, Evil, 75. [32] Thomas Aquinas, SUMMA THEOLOGICA, translated by the Fathers of the English Dominican Province (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947) Volume 3, q. 72, a. 1, p. 902. [33] Henri Blocher, Evil and the Cross (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994): 10. [34] Baba, Meher. Discourses. 1. 1967. Sufism Reoriented. p. 93. ISBN 1-880619-09-1. [35] Baba, Meher. Discourses. 1. 1967. Sufism Reoriented. p. 31. ISBN 1-880619-09-1. [36] Sanburn, Josh (February 4, 2011).“Top 25 Political Icons - Adolf Hitler”. Time. Retrieved August 27, 2011. [37] Del Testa, David W; Lemoine, Florence; Strickland, John (2003). Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-57356-153-2. [38] Gaymon Bennett, Ted Peters, Martinez J. Hewlett, Robert John Russell (2008). The evolution of evil. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p.318. ISBN 3-525-56979-3
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[39] Gourevitch, Philip (1999). We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will be Killed With our Families. Picador. ISBN 0-312-24335-9. [40] “Frontline: the triumph of evil.”. Retrieved 2007-04-09. [41] Cherniss, Harold (1954). The Sources of Evil According to Plato. American Philosophical Society. pp. 23–30. ISBN 9004052356. JSTOR 3143666. [42] Peck, M. Scott. (1983;1988). People of the Lie: The hope for healing human evil. Century Hutchinson. [43] Peck, M. Scott. (1978;1992), The Road Less Travelled. Arrow. [44] Peck, 1983/1988,p105 [45] Peck,1978/1992,p298 [46] Martin Luther, Werke, XX, p58 [47] Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, Dante University of America Press, 2003, ISBN 0-937832-38-3 ISBN 9780-937832-38-7 [48] Anton LaVey, The Satanic Bible, Avon, 1969, ISBN 0380-01539-0 [49] For discussion, permaculture.
see debates on monoculture and
[50] Wilson, Edward Osborne (2012). The Social Conquest of Earth. ISBN 9780871404138. [51] Griffith, Jeremy (2011). Good vs Evil. The Book of Real Answers to Everything!. ISBN 9781741290073. [52] Wilson, Edward Osborne (2007). Evolution for Everyone: How Darwin's Theory Can Change the Way We Think About Our Lives. ISBN 9780385340922. [53] de Waal, Frans (2012). Moral behavior in animals.
General references • Atkinson, Philip. Recognising Good And Evil from ourcivilisation.com • Aristotle. “Nicomachean Ethics”. 1998. USA: Oxford University Press. (1177a15) • Bentham, Jeremy. The Principles of Morals and Legislation. 1988. Prometheus Books. • Dewey, John. Theory of Valuation. 1948. University of Chicago Press. • Durant, Ariel and W. Durant. The Lessons of History. 1997. MJF Books. (p72) • Garcia, John David. The Moral Society —A Rational Alternative to Death. 2005. Whitmore Publishing. • Griffin, James. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement and Moral Importance. 1986. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Hume, David. A Treastise of Human Nature. 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Hurka, Thomas. Perfectionism. 1993. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. 1996. Cambridge University Press. Third section, [446]-[447]. • Kierkegaard, Søren. Either/Or. 1992. Penguin Classics. • Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. 1999. Belknap Press. • Romero, Rhys. “Just Being a Student”. 2009. Austin Student Press.
6.11 Further reading • Baumeister, Roy F. (1999) Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty. New York: A. W. H. Freeman / Owl Book • Bennett, Gaymon, Hewlett, Martinez J, Peters, Ted, Russell, Robert John (2008). The Evolution of Evil. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 9783-525-56979-5 • Katz, Fred Emil (1993) Ordinary People and Extraordinary Evil, [SUNY Press], ISBN 0-79141442-6; • Katz, Fred Emil (2004) Confronting Evil, [SUNY Press], ISBN 0-7914-6030-4. • Neiman, Susan. Evil in Modern Thought - An Alternative History of Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002. • Oppenheimer, Paul (1996). Evil and the Demonic: A New Theory of Monstrous Behavior. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-6193-3. • Shermer, M. (2004). The Science of Good & Evil. New York: Time Books. ISBN 0-8050-7520-8 • Steven Mintz, John Stauffer, eds. (2007). The Problem of Evil: Slavery, Freedom, and the Ambiguities of American Reform. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-570-8. • Stapley, A. B. & Elder Delbert L., Using Our Free Agency. Ensign May 1975: 21 • Stark, Ryan. Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England. (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009), 115-45.
6.12. EXTERNAL LINKS • Vetlesen, Arne Johan (2005) Evil and Human Agency - Understanding Collective Evildoing New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521-85694-2 • Wilson, William McF., and Julian N. Hartt. Farrer's Theodicy. In David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson (eds), Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer. New York and London: T & T Clark / Continuum, 2004. ISBN 0-56702510-1
6.12 External links • • Evil on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now) • Good and Evil in (Ultra Orthodox) Judaism • ABC News: Looking for Evil in Everyday Life • Psychology Today: Indexing Evil • Booknotes interview with Lance Morrow on Evil: An Investigation, October 19, 2003. • Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. The Discussion of Evil in Christianity in Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India 118 (9):540-542 (2013). ISSN 0032-6178 • Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. Prolegomenon to the Study of Evil. in Prabuddha Bharata or Awakened India 118 (4):278-281 (2013). ISSN 0032-6178 • Contestabile, Bruno (2016). “The Denial of the World from an Impartial View”. Contemporary Buddhism.
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Eudaimonia For the moth, see Eudaemonia (moth). For other uses, good for human beings, but that there is substantial dissee Eudaemon (disambiguation). agreement on what sort of life counts as doing and living well; i.e. eudaimon: Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία [eu̯ dai̯moníaː]), sometimes anglicized as eudaemonia or eudemonia /juːdᵻˈmoʊniə/, is a Greek word commonly translated as happiness or welfare; however, “human flourishing” has been proposed as a more accurate translation.* [1] Etymologically, it consists of the words "eu" (“good” ) and "daimōn" (“spirit”). It is a central concept in Aristotelian ethics and political philosophy, along with the terms "aretē", most often translated as "virtue" or “excellence”, and "phronesis", often translated as “practical or ethical wisdom”.* [2] In Aristotle's works, eudaimonia was (based on older Greek tradition) used as the term for the highest human good, and so it is the aim of practical philosophy, including ethics and political philosophy, to consider (and also experience) what it really is, and how it can be achieved. Discussion of the links between virtue of character (ethikē aretē) and happiness (eudaimonia) is one of the central concerns of ancient ethics, and a subject of much disagreement. As a result there are many varieties of eudaimonism. Two of the most influential forms are those of Aristotle* [3] and the Stoics. Aristotle takes virtue and its exercise to be the most important constituent in eudaimonia but acknowledges also the importance of external goods such as health, wealth, and beauty. By contrast, the Stoics make virtue necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia and thus deny the necessity of external goods.* [4]
Verbally there is a very general agreement; for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement say that it is [eudaimonia], and identify living well and faring well with being happy; but with regard to what [eudaimonia] is they differ, and the many do not give the same account as the wise. For the former think it is some plain and obvious thing like pleasure, wealth or honour…[1095a17]* [5] So, as Aristotle points out, saying that eudaimon life is a life which is objectively desirable, and means living well, is not saying very much. Everyone wants to be eudaimon; and everyone agrees that being eudaimon is related to faring well and to an individual’s well being. The really difficult question is to specify just what sort of activities enable one to live well. Aristotle presents various popular conceptions of the best life for human beings. The candidates that he mentions are a (1) life of pleasure, (2) a life of political activity and (3) a philosophical life.
One important move in Greek philosophy to answer the question of how to achieve eudaimonia is to bring in another important concept in ancient philosophy, “arete” ("virtue"). Aristotle says that the eudaimon life is one of “virtuous activity in accordance with reason”[1097b22– 1098a20]. And even Epicurus who argues that the eudaimon life is the life of pleasure maintains that the life of pleasure coincides with the life of virtue. So the ancient ethical theorists tend to agree that virtue is closely bound 7.1 Definition up with happiness (areté is bound up with eudaimonia). However, they disagree on the way in which this is so. We The Definitions, a dictionary of Greek philosophical shall consider the main theories in a moment, but first a terms attributed to Plato himself but believed by modern warning about the proper translation of areté. scholars to have been written by his immediate followers As already noted, the Greek word areté is usually transin the Academy, provides the following definition of the lated into English as“virtue”. One problem with this is word eudaimonia: “The good composed of all goods; an that we are inclined to understand virtue in a moral sense, ability which suffices for living well; perfection in respect which is not always what the ancients had in mind. For a of virtue; resources sufficient for a living creature.” Greek, areté pertains to all sorts of qualities we would not In his Nicomachean Ethics, (§21; 1095a15–22) Aristotle regard as relevant to ethics, for example, physical beauty. says that everyone agrees that eudaimonia is the highest So it is important to bear in mind that the sense of‘virtue’ 62
7.2. MAIN VIEWS ON EUDAIMONIA AND ITS RELATION TO ARETĒ operative in ancient ethics is not exclusively moral and includes more than states such as wisdom, courage and compassion. The sense of virtue which areté connotes would include saying something like “speed is a virtue in a horse”, or“height is a virtue in a basketball player” . Doing anything well requires virtue, and each characteristic activity (such as carpentry, flute playing, etc.) has its own set of virtues. The alternative translation “excellence”(or“a desirable quality”) might be helpful in conveying this general meaning of the term. The moral virtues are simply a subset of the general sense in which a human being is capable of functioning well or excellently.
7.2 Main views on eudaimonia and its relation to aretē 7.2.1
Socrates
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quite radical form of eudaimonism (see above): he seems to have thought that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. Socrates is convinced that virtues such as self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and related qualities of mind and soul are absolutely crucial if a person is to lead a good and happy (eudaimon) life. Virtues guarantee a happy life eudaimonia. For example, in the Meno, with respect to wisdom, he says: “everything the soul endeavours or endures under the guidance of wisdom ends in happiness”[Meno 88c]. In the Apology, Socrates clearly presents his disagreement with those who think that the eudaimon life is the life of honour or pleasure, when he chastises the Athenians for caring more for riches and honour than the state of their souls. Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation, and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth or the best possible state of your soul [29e].* [6] …it does not seem like human nature for me to have neglected all my own affairs and to have tolerated this neglect for so many years while I was always concerned with you, approaching each one of you like a father or an elder brother to persuade you to care for virtue. [31a–b; italics added]
French painter David portrayed the philosopher in The Death of Socrates (1787).
What we know of Socrates' philosophy is almost entirely derived from Plato's writings. Scholars typically divide Plato's works into three periods: the early, middle, and late periods. They tend to agree also that Plato's earliest works quite faithfully represent the teachings of Socrates and that Plato's own views, which go beyond those of Socrates, appear for the first time in the middle works such as the Phaedo and the Republic. This division will be employed here in dividing up the positions of Socrates and Plato on eudaimonia. As with all other ancient ethical thinkers Socrates thought that all human beings wanted eudaimonia more than anything else. (see Plato, Apology 30b, Euthydemus 280d– 282d, Meno 87d–89a). However, Socrates adopted a
It emerges a bit further on that this concern for one’s soul, that one’s soul might be in the best possible state, amounts to acquiring moral virtue. So Socrates’point that the Athenians should care for their souls means that they should care for their virtue, rather than pursuing honour or riches. Virtues are states of the soul. When a soul has been properly cared for and perfected it possesses the virtues. Moreover, according to Socrates, this state of the soul, moral virtue, is the most important good. The health of the soul is incomparably more important for eudaimonia than (e.g.) wealth and political power. Someone with a virtuous soul is better off than someone who is wealthy and honoured but whose soul is corrupted by unjust actions. This view is confirmed in the Crito, where Socrates gets Crito to agree that the perfection of the soul, virtue, is the most important good: And is life worth living for us with that part of us corrupted that unjust action harms and just action benefits? Or do we think that part of us, whatever it is, that is concerned with justice and injustice, is inferior to the body? Not at all. It is much more valuable…? Much more …(47e–48a)
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Here Socrates argues that life is not worth living if the soul is ruined by wrongdoing.* [7] In summary, Socrates seems to think that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. A person who is not virtuous cannot be happy, and a person with virtue cannot fail to be happy. We shall see later on that Stoic ethics takes its cue from this Socratic insight.
7.2.2
Plato
Plato’s great work of the middle period, the Republic, is devoted to answering a challenge made by the sophist Thrasymachus, that conventional morality, particularly the ‘virtue’of justice, actually prevents the strong man from achieving eudaimonia. Thrasymachus’s views are restatements of a position which Plato discusses earlier on in his writings, in the Gorgias, through the mouthpiece of Callicles. The basic argument presented by Thrasymachus and Callicles is that justice (being just) hinders or prevents the achievement of eudaimonia because conventional morality requires that we control ourselves and hence live with un-satiated desires. This idea is vividly illustrated in book 2 of the Republic when Glaucon, taking up Thrasymachus’challenge, recounts a myth of the magical ring of Gyges. According to the myth, Gyges becomes king of Lydia when he stumbles upon a magical ring, which, when he turns it a particular way, makes him invisible, so that he can satisfy any desire he wishes without fear of punishment. When he discovers the power of the ring he kills the king, marries his wife and takes over the throne. The thrust of Glaucon’s challenge is that no one would be just if he could escape the retribution he would normally encounter for fulfilling his desires at whim. But if eudaimonia is to be achieved through the satisfaction of desire, whereas being just or acting justly requires suppression of desire, then it is not in the interests of the strong man to act according to the dictates of conventional morality. (This general line of argument reoccurs much later in the philosophy of Nietzsche.) Throughout the rest of the Republic, Plato aims to refute this claim by showing that the virtue of justice is necessary for eudaimonia. The argument of the Republic is lengthy and complex. In brief, Plato argues that virtues are states of the soul, and that the just person is someone whose soul is ordered and harmonious, with all its parts functioning properly to the person’s benefit. In contrast, Plato argues that the unjust man’s soul, without the virtues, is chaotic and at war with itself, so that even if he were able to satisfy most of his desires, his lack of inner harmony and unity thwart any chance he has of achieving eudaimonia. Plato’ s ethical theory is eudaimonistic because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. On Plato’s version of the relationship, virtue is depicted as the most crucial and the dominant constituent of eudaimonia.
The School of Athens by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509, showing Plato (left) and Aristotle (right)
7.2.3 Aristotle Aristotle's account is articulated in the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics. In outline, for Aristotle, eudaimonia involves activity, exhibiting virtue (aretē sometimes translated as excellence) in accordance with reason. This conception of eudaimonia derives from Aristotle’s essentialist understanding of human nature, the view that reason (logos sometimes translated as rationality) is unique to human beings and that the ideal function or work (ergon) of a human being is the fullest or most perfect exercise of reason. Basically, well being (eudaimonia) is gained by proper development of one's highest and most human capabilities and human beings are “the rational animal”. It follows that eudaimonia for a human being is the attainment of excellence (areté) in reason. According to Aristotle, eudaimonia actually requires activity, action, so that it is not sufficient for a person to possess a squandered ability or disposition. Eudaimonia requires not only good character but rational activity. Aristotle clearly maintains that to live in accordance with reason means achieving excellence thereby. Moreover, he claims this excellence cannot be isolated and so competencies are also required appropriate to related functions. For example, if being a truly outstanding scientist requires impressive math skills, one might say “doing mathematics well is necessary to be a first rate scientist” . From this it follows that eudaimonia, living well, consists in activities exercising the rational part of the psyche in accordance with the virtues or excellency of rea-
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son [1097b22–1098a20]. Which is to say, to be fully engaged in the intellectually stimulating and fulfilling work at which one achieves well-earned success. The rest of the Nicomachean Ethics is devoted to filling out the claim that the best life for a human being is the life of excellence in accordance with reason. Since reason for Aristotle is not only theoretical but practical as well, he spends quite a bit of time discussing excellence of character, which enables a person to exercise his practical reason (i.e., reason relating to action) successfully. Aristotle’s ethical theory is eudaimonist because it maintains that eudaimonia depends on virtue. However, it is Aristotle’s explicit view that virtue is necessary but not sufficient for eudaimonia. While emphasizing the importance of the rational aspect of the psyche, he does not ignore the importance of other ‘goods’such as friends, wealth, and power in a life that is eudaimonic. He doubts the likelihood of being eudaimonic if one lacks certain external goods such as ‘good birth, good children, and beauty’. So, a person who is hideously ugly or has“lost children or good friends through death”(1099b5–6), or who is isolated, is unlikely to be eudaimon. In this way, “dumb luck”(chance) can preempt one's attainment of eudaimonia.
7.2.4
Epicurus
Epicurus' ethical theory is hedonistic. (His view proved very influential on the founders and best proponents of utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.) Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and that pain is the only intrinsic bad. An object, experience or state of affairs is intrinsically valuable if it is good simply because of what it is. Intrinsic value is to be contrasted with instrumental value. An object, experience or state of affairs is instrumentally valuable if it serves as a means to what is intrinsically valuable. To see this, consider the following example. Suppose a person spends their days and nights in an office, working at not entirely pleasant activities, such as entering data into a computer, for the purpose of receiving money. Someone asks them “why do you want the money?", and they answer: “So, I can buy an apartment overlooking the Mediterranean, and a red Ferrari.”This answer expresses the point that money is instrumentally valuable because it is a means to getting an apartment and a red Ferrari. The value of making money is dependent on the value of commodities. It is instrumentally valuable: valuable only because of what one obtains by means of it. Epicurus identifies the eudaimon life with the life of pleasure. He understands eudaimonia as a more or less continuous experience of pleasure, and also, freedom from pain and distress. But it is important to notice that Epicurus does not advocate that one pursue any and every pleasure. Rather, he recommends a policy whereby pleasures are maximized “in the long run”. In other words, Epicurus claims that some pleasures are not worth hav-
Epicurus identified eudaimonia with the life of pleasure.
ing because they lead to greater pains, and some pains are worthwhile when they lead to greater pleasures. The best strategy for attaining a maximal amount of pleasure overall is not to seek instant gratification but to work out a sensible long term policy. Ancient Greek ethics is eudaimonist because it links virtue and eudaimonia, where eudaimonia refers to an individual’s (objective) well being. Epicurus' doctrine can be considered eudaimonist since Epicurus argues that a life of pleasure will coincide with a life of virtue. He believes that we do and ought to seek virtue because virtue brings pleasure. Epicurus' basic doctrine is that a life of virtue is the life which generates the most amount of pleasure, and it is for this reason that we ought to be virtuous. This thesis—the eudaimon life is the pleasurable life—is not a tautology as“eudaimonia is the good life”would be: rather, it is the substantive and controversial claim that a life of pleasure and absence of pain is what eudaimonia consists in. One important difference between Epicurus' eudaimonism and that of Plato and Aristotle is that for the latter virtue is a constituent of eudaimonia, whereas Epicurus makes virtue a means to happiness. To this difference,
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consider Aristotle’s theory. Aristotle maintains that eudaimonia is what everyone wants (and Epicurus would agree). He also thinks that eudaimonia is best achieved by a life of virtuous activity in accordance with reason. The virtuous person takes pleasure in doing the right thing as a result of a proper training of moral and intellectual character (See e.g., Nicomachean Ethics 1099a5). However, Aristotle does not think that virtuous activity is pursued for the sake of pleasure. Pleasure is a byproduct of virtuous action: it does not enter at all into the reasons why virtuous action is virtuous. Aristotle does not think that we literally aim for eudaimonia. Rather, eudaimonia is what we achieve (assuming that we aren't particularly unfortunate in the possession of external goods) when we live according to the requirements of reason. Virtue is the largest constituent in a eudaimon life. By contrast, Epicurus holds that virtue is the means to achieve happiness. His theory is eudaimonist in that he holds that virtue is indispensable to happiness; but virtue is not a constituent of a eudaimon life, and being virtuous is not (external goods aside) identical with being eudaimon. Rather, according to Epicurus, virtue is only instrumentally related to happiness. So whereas Aristotle would not say that one ought to aim for virtue in order to attain pleasure, Epicurus would endorse this claim.
7.2.5
The Stoics
ment with nature”, and Chrysippus believed it was“living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature.”* [8] Stoic ethics is a particularly strong version of eudaimonism. According to the Stoics, virtue is necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. (This thesis is generally regarded as stemming from the Socrates of Plato’s earlier dialogues.) We saw earlier that the conventional Greek concept of arete is not quite the same as that denoted by virtue, which has Christian connotations of charity, patience, and uprightness, since arete includes many non-moral virtues such as physical strength and beauty. However, the Stoic concept of arete is much nearer to the Christian conception of virtue, which refers to the moral virtues. However, unlike Christian understandings of virtue, righteousness or piety, the Stoic conception does not place as great an emphasis on mercy, forgiveness, self-abasement (i.e. the ritual process of declaring complete powerlessness and humility before God), charity and self-sacrificial love, though these behaviors/mentalities are not necessarily spurned by the Stoics (they are spurned by some other philosophers of Antiquity). Rather Stoicism emphasizes states such as justice, honesty, moderation, simplicity, self-discipline, resolve, fortitude, and courage (states which Christianity also encourages). The Stoics make a radical claim that the eudaimon life is the morally virtuous life. Moral virtue is good, and moral vice is bad, and everything else, such as health, honour and riches, are merely ‘neutral’.* [8] The Stoics therefore are committed to saying that external goods such as wealth and physical beauty are not really good at all. Moral virtue is both necessary and sufficient for eudaimonia. In this, they are akin to Cynic philosophers such as Antisthenes and Diogenes in denying the importance to eudaimonia of external goods and circumstances, such as were recognized by Aristotle, who thought that severe misfortune (such as the death of one’s family and friends) could rob even the most virtuous person of eudaimonia. This Stoic doctrine re-emerges later in the history of ethical philosophy in the writings of Immanuel Kant, who argues that the possession of a “good will”is the only unconditional good. One difference is that whereas the Stoics regard external goods as neutral, as neither good nor bad, Kant’s position seems to be that external goods are good, but only so far as they are a condition to achieving happiness.
7.3 Eudaimonia and modern moral philosophy Zeno, thought happiness was a “good flow of life.”
Stoic philosophy begins with Zeno of Citium c.300 BC, and was developed by Cleanthes (331–232 BC) and Chrysippus (c.280–c.206 BC) into a formidable systematic unity.* [8] Zeno believed happiness was a“good flow of life"; Cleanthes suggested it was “living in agree-
Interest in the concept of eudaimonia and ancient ethical theory more generally enjoyed a revival in the twentieth century. G. E. M. Anscombe in her article “Modern Moral Philosophy”(1958) argued that duty-based conceptions of morality are conceptually incoherent for they are based on the idea of a“law without a lawgiver”.* [9]
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She claims a system of morality conceived along the lines of the Ten Commandments depends on someone having made these rules.* [10] Anscombe recommends a return to the eudaimonistic ethical theories of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, which ground morality in the interests and well being of human moral agents, and can do so without appealing to any such lawgiver.
individual who strives to lead a fulfilled life must endorse.* [13] She states that the pursuit and acquisition of positive relationships is an intrinsically motivated desire that is endorsed cross-culturally as a route to being void of ill-being as well as leading a meaningful life.
7.4 Eudaimonia and modern psychology
A more recent study confirming Ryff's notion of maintaining positive relations with others as a way of leading a meaningful life involved comparing levels of selfreported life satisfaction and subjective well-being (positive/negative affect). Results suggested that individuals whose actions had underlying eudaimonic tendencies as indicated by their self-reports (e.g., “I seek out situations that challenge my skills and abilities”) were found to possess higher subjective well-being and life satisfaction scores compared to participants who did not.* [16] Individuals were grouped according to their chosen paths/strategies to happiness as identified by their answers on an Orientation to Happiness Questionnaire.* [17] The questionnaire describes and differentiates individuals on the basis of three orientations to happiness which can be pursued, though some individuals do not pursue any. The “pleasure”orientation describes a path to happiness that is associated with adopting hedonistic life goals to satisfy only one’s extrinsic needs. Engagement and meaning orientations describe a pursuit of happiness that integrates two positive psychology constructs“flow/engagement”and“eudaimonia/meaning” . Both of the latter orientations are also associated with aspiring to meet intrinsic needs for affiliation and community and were amalgamated by Anić and Tončić into a single “eudaimonic”path to happiness that elicited high scores on all measures of well-being and life satisfaction. Importantly, she also produced scales for assessing mental health.* [12] This factor structure has been debated,* [18]* [19] but has generated much research in wellbeing, health, and successful aging.
A study conducted in the early 1990s exploring the relationship between well-being and those aspects of positive Julia Driver in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy functioning that were put forth in Ryff's model indicates explains: that persons who aspired more for financial success relative to affiliation with others or their community scored lower on various measures of well-being.* [14] Anscombe's article Modern Moral Philosophy stimulated the development of virtue Individuals that strive for a life defined by affiliation, ethics as an alternative to Utilitarianism, Kanintimacy, and contributing to one's community can be tian Ethics, and Social Contract theories. Her described as aspiring to fulfil their intrinsic psychologiprimary charge in the article is that, as seccal needs. In contrast, those individuals who aspire for ular approaches to moral theory, they are wealth and material, social recognition, fame, image, or without foundation. They use concepts such attractiveness can be described as aiming to fulfil their as “morally ought”, “morally obligated”, extrinsic psychological needs. The strength of an indi“morally right”, and so forth that are legalvidual's intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) aspirations as inistic and require a legislator as the source of dicated by rankings of importance correlates with an armoral authority. In the past God occupied that ray of psychological outcomes. Positive correlations have role, but systems that dispense with God as part been found with indications of psychological well-being: of the theory are lacking the proper foundapositive affect, vitality, and self-actualization. Negative tion for meaningful employment of those concorrelations have been found with indicators of psychocepts.* [11] logical ill-being: negative affect, depression, and anxiety.* [15]
Further information: Meaningful life
Psychological well-being and
Models of eudaimonia in psychology emerged from early work on self-actualization and the means of its accomplishment by researchers such as Erik Erikson, Gordon Allport, and Abraham Maslow.* [12] The psychologist C. D. Ryff highlighted the distinction between eudaimonia wellbeing, which she identified as psychological well-being, and hedonic wellbeing or pleasure. Building on Aristotelian ideals of belonging and benefiting others, flourishing, thriving and exercising excellence, she conceptualised eudaimonia as a six-factor structure: 1. Autonomy 2. Personal growth 3. Self-acceptance 4. Purpose in life 5. Environmental mastery 6. Positive relations with others. Ryff's six-factor model of eudaimonic well-being describes the six aspects of positive functioning that an
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Eudaimonic well-being has been found to be empirically encourage internal structure, self-discipline, responsibildistinguishable from hedonic well-being.* [20]* [21] ity, and vision, and simultaneously fulfill a child’s needs for autonomy. The research concludes that parents who want their children to experience eudaimonia must firstly themselves “mentor”their children in the approaches 7.4.1 Parenting and eudaimonia to attain eudaimonia. To encourage eudaimonia verbally is not sufficient enough to suffice eudaimonia into adultThe subject of eudaimonia and the link between one's behood. Parents must clearly role model eudaimonia for it havior from childhood & into adulthood is a new area of to truly be present in the child's life.* [22] research in the field of positive psychology. In the last decade researchers have been interested in the link between the behavior of one’s parents and parenting techniques when one was a child; and if their parents had ei- 7.4.2 Self-acceptance ther verbally endorsed eudaimonia or actually role modDefinitions and characteristics eled it by pursuing eudaimonia themselves. Researchers implemented the Huta & Ryan Scale: Four Self-acceptance is one of the six factors in Carol D. Ryff’ Eudaimonic Measurement Questionnaire to analyze the s structure for eudaimonic well-being. It can be defined participants eudaimonic motives, through motivation to- as: wards activities. The investigation was conducted on Canadian university undergraduates. The four eudaimonic pursuits as described by Huta & Ryan are: 1. “Seeking to pursue excellence or a personal ideal”2. “Seeking to use the best in yourself” 3. “Seeking to develop a skill, learn, or gain insight into something”4.“Seeking to do what you believe in”.* [22]
• the awareness of one’s strengths and weaknesses, • the realistic (yet subjective) appraisal of one’s talents, capabilities, and general worth, and, • feelings of satisfaction with one’s self despite deficiencies and regardless of past behaviors and choices.* [24]* [25]* [26]
The study determined that participants derived well-being from eudaimonic pursuits only if their parents had role modeled eudaimonia, but not if their parents had merely A person who scores high on self-acceptance: verbally endorsed eudaimonia.* [23]
Studies were also conducted on responsiveness and de• has a positive self-attitude, mandingness. The studies participants were American university undergraduates. The terms are described as • acknowledges and accepts all aspects of themselves follows; responsiveness satisfies the basic psychological (including the good and bad), need for autonomy. This is relevant to eudaimonia because it supports and implements the values of initia• is not self-critical or confused about their identity, tive, effort, and persistence, and integration of one’s and, behaviour’s values, and true-self. Autonomy is an important psychological factor because it provides the in• does not wish they were any different from who they dividual with independence. Demandingness cultivates already are.* [24]* [27] many of the qualities needed for eudaimonia, including structure, self-discipline, responsibility, and vision. Responsiveness and demandingness are reported to be good Past and current views in psychology aspects of parenting. The studies report both of these In the past, the practice of self-acceptance was reproved qualities as important factors to well-being.* [23] by the Greeks. However, the need to know about and The study addressed parenting style by assessing and us- understand “the self”eventually became an important, ing adaptions of Baumrind's Parent Behaviour Rating In- underlying point in several psychological theories, such terview. Adaptions of this interview were made into as: a seventy-five question based survey; participants answered questions organized into fifteen subscales. The • Jahoda’s work on mental health, study determined that eudaimonically oriented participants reported their parents had been both demanding • Carl Rogers’Theory of Personality, and responsive towards them. A multiple regression showed that demandingness and responsiveness together • Gordon Allport’s Eight Stages of Self (Proprium) explained as much as twenty-eight percent of the variance Development, and, in eudaimonia, this suggests parenting played a major role • Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs under the “selfin the development of this pursuit. This supported the actualization”category.* [27] expectation that eudaimonia is cultivated when parents
7.4. EUDAIMONIA AND MODERN PSYCHOLOGY In addition to that, the life-span theories of Erikson and Neugarten mention the importance of self-acceptance including one’s past life, and Carl Jung’s process of individuation also emphasizes coming to terms with the dark side of one’s self, or “the shadow”.* [27] Relation to positive psychology With respect to positive psychology, self-acceptance, as a component of eudaimonic well-being (EWB), is an indicator and a measure of psychological wellbeing.* [28]* [29] For instance, Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, observed that people who thought of themselves as inferior also observed a depreciation of others.* [26]
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7.4.3 Purpose in life Purpose in life refers broadly to the pursuit of life satisfaction. It has also been found that those with high purpose in life scores have strong goals and sense of direction. They feel there is meaning to their past and present life, and hold beliefs that continue to give their life purpose. Research in the past has focused on purpose in the face of adversity (what is awful, difficult, or absurd in life). Recently, research has shifted to include a focus on the role of purpose in personal fulfillment and self-actualization. Identified here are three theoretical approaches to purpose in life, including:
Psychological benefits
1. Terror management theory
Some psychological benefits of self-acceptance include mood regulation, a decrease in depressive symptoms, and an increase in positive emotions.* [30] An example of this can be seen in a 2014 study that looked at affective profiles. The results yielded suggest that individuals categorized as self-fulfilling (as compared to the other profiles) tended to score higher on all the factors of Ryff’ s eudaimonic well-being dimensions (self-acceptance included).* [31] In addition to that, self-acceptance (and environmental mastery) specifically and significantly predicted harmony in life across all affective profiles.* [31]
2. Self-control
Other psychological benefits include: • a heightened sense of freedom, • a decrease in fear of failure, • an increase in self-worth, • an increase in independence (autonomy), • an increase in self-esteem,
3. Intrinsic motivation Terror management theory was originally proposed in 1986 by Jeff Greenberg, Sheldon Solomon, and Tom Pyszczynski, based on the work of Ernest Becker in 1973.* [33] It proposes that we are driven by fear caused by awareness of our own mortality. To alleviate the anxiety, we seek symbolic immortality in works, monuments, offspring, and other outputs. This can be illustrated in the words taken from the Discworld series by author Sir Terry Pratchett “a man is not dead while his name is still spoken.”* [34] Leaving a legacy serves to reduce the fear of death and increase self-esteem by living up to the ideals of society. The self-control approach, as expounded by C. R. Snyder, focusses on exercising self-control to achieve self-esteem by fulfilling goals and feeling in control of our own success. This is further reinforced by a sense of intentionality in both efforts and outcomes.* [35]
• less desire to win the approval of others,
The intrinsic motivation approach of Viktor Frankl emphasized finding value in three main areas: creative, ex• less self-critique and more self-kindness when misperiential, and attitudinal. Creative values are expressed takes occur, in acts of creating or producing something. Experiential • more desire to live life for one’s self (and not oth- values are actualized through the senses, and may overlap the hedonistic view of happiness. Attitudinal values are ers), and, prominent for individuals who are unable to pursue the • the ability to take more risks without worrying about preceding two classes of values. Attitudinal values are the consequences.* [32] believed to be primarily responsible for allowing individuals to endure suffering with dignity.* [35] Self-acceptance is also thought to be necessary for good A personal sense of responsibility is required for the purmental health.* [25] suit of the values that give life meaning, but it is the rePhysical benefits
alization that one holds sole responsibility for rendering life meaningful that allows the values to be actualized and life to be given true purpose. Determining what is meaningful for one’s self provides a sense of autonomy and control which promotes self-esteem.* [35]
In addition to psychological benefits, self-acceptance may have physical benefits as well.* [28] For example, the results of a 2008 study propose that older women with higher levels of environmental mastery, positive relations with others, and self-acceptance showed lower levels of Purpose in life is positively correlated with education glycosylated hemoglobin, which is a marker for glucose level and volunteerism. However, it has also been found to decrease with age. Purpose in life is both highly levels/insulin resistance.* [27]
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CHAPTER 7. EUDAIMONIA
individual, and what specifically provides purpose will of opportunities (activities).* [40] Socioeconomic context change over the course of one’s lifetime.* [36] also affected the results, as not all individuals could acAll three of the above theories have self-esteem at their cess the activities that may be more in-line with their true core. Self-esteem is often viewed as the most significant selves. measure of psychological well-being, and highly correlated with many life-regulating skills. Purpose in life promotes and is a source of self-esteem; it is not a by-product of self-esteem.
The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire (PEAQ) was used to conduct their study. Adolescence was the youngest age group that the PEAQ was used on. The PEAQ asked adolescents to self-report on activities they participate in and describe themselves with selfdefining activities.* [41] It was reported that 80% of adolescents defined themselves with two to four self-defining 7.4.4 Eudaimonia in adolescence activities signifying an understanding in adolescence of self-concept through the domains of leisure, work and There has been a significant focus in past research on academia.* [42] adulthood, in regards to well-being and development and although eudaimonia is not a new field of study, there has Leisure activities were found to have the largest impact on been little research done in the areas of adolescence and individuals because these activities were the most selfyouth. Research that has been done on this age group had directed of the three domains, as adolescents had the previously explored more negative aspects, such as prob- choice of activity, and were more likely to be able to align it with their true selves. The study found that subjeclem and risk behaviours (i.e. drug and alcohol use). tive experiences were more important than the activities Researchers who conducted a study in 2013 recognized themselves and that adolescents reported higher levels of the absence of adolescents in eudaimonic research and well-being. They reported that when adolescents express the importance of this developmental stage. Adolescents themselves through self-defining activities across multiple rapidly face cognitive, social and physical changes, mak- domains, that they have a clearer image of themselves, ing them prime subjects to study for development and what they want to achieve and higher wellness. Goalwell-being. The eudaimonic identity theory was used in setting was found to be a unique predictor; when adolestheir research to examine the development of identity cents work towards goals set by themselves and accomthrough self-discovery and self-realization. They empha- plish them, they are likely to have a clearer emerging idensize the personal value found in discovering and appeas- tity and higher well-being. Researchers found that more ing ones “daimon”(daemon) through subjective expe- adolescents were happy when they were involved in selfriences that develop eudaimonic happiness from aligning chosen activities because the activities were chosen in line with one’s true self.* [37] with their true self.* [43] Researchers focused their studies on PYD (positive youth development) and the eudaimonic identity theory in the context of 3 developmental elements: self-defining activi- 7.4.5 Genetics ties, personal expressiveness and goal-directed behaviours. Individual differences in both overall Eudaimonia, idenThey determined that adolescents sample multiple self- tified loosely with self-control, and in the facets of eudaidefining activities; these activities aid in identity forma- monia are heritable. Evidence from one study supports tion, as individuals choose activities that they believe rep- 5 independent genetic mechanisms underlying the Ryff resents who they are. These self-defining activities also facets of this trait, leading to a genetic construct of euhelp determine the adolescent’s social environments. For daimonia in terms of general self-control, and four subexample, an adolescent involved in sports, would likely sidiary biological mechanisms enabling the psychological surround themselves with like-minded active and com- capabilities of purpose, agency, growth, and positive sopetitive people. cial relations * [44] Personal expressiveness, as coined by psychologist A. S. Waterman, are the activities that we choose to express and connect with our “daimon”through subjective ex- 7.5 Etymology and translation periences.* [38] Finally, goal-directed behaviours, are developed through goal setting, where individuals work towards identity establishment. Adolescents recognize their passions, abilities and talents and aim to fulfill their goals and behave in a way that appeases their true self.* [39]
In terms of its etymology, eudaimonia is an abstract noun derived from eu meaning “well”and daimon (daemon), which refers to a minor deity or a guardian spirit.* [3]
Eudaimonia implies a positive and divine state of being that humanity is able to strive toward and possibly reach. The study was conducted in Italy, Chile and the United A literal view of eudaimonia means achieving a state of States, which produced slightly varied outcomes. Out- being similar to benevolent deity, or being protected and comes were contingent on availability, access and choice looked after by a benevolent deity. As this would be con-
7.6. SEE ALSO sidered the most positive state to be in, the word is often translated as 'happiness' although incorporating the divine nature of the word extends the meaning to also include the concepts of being fortunate, or blessed. Despite this etymology, however, discussions of eudaimonia in ancient Greek ethics are often conducted independently of any super-natural significance. In his Nicomachean Ethics, (1095a15–22) Aristotle says that eudaimonia means ’doing and living well’. It is significant that synonyms for eudaimonia are living well and doing well. On the standard English translation, this would be to say that ‘happiness is doing well and living well’ . The word‘happiness’ does not entirely capture the meaning of the Greek word. One important difference is that happiness often connotes being or tending to be in a certain pleasant state of consciousness. For example, when we say that someone is“a very happy person,”we usually mean that they seem subjectively contented with the way things are going in their life. We mean to imply that they feel good about the way things are going for them. In contrast, eudaimonia is a more encompassing notion than feeling happy since events that do not contribute to one’s experience of feeling happy may affect one’s eudaimonia. Eudaimonia depends on all the things that would make us happy if we knew of their existence, but quite independently of whether we do know about them. Ascribing eudaimonia to a person, then, may include ascribing such things as being virtuous, being loved and having good friends. But these are all objective judgments about someone’s life: they concern a person’s really being virtuous, really being loved, and really having fine friends. This implies that a person who has evil sons and daughters will not be judged to be eudaimonic even if he or she does not know that they are evil and feels pleased and contented with the way they have turned out (happy). Conversely, being loved by your children would not count towards your happiness if you did not know that they loved you (and perhaps thought that they did not), but it would count towards your eudaimonia. So eudaimonia corresponds to the idea of having an objectively good or desirable life, to some extent independently of whether one knows that certain things exist or not. It includes conscious experiences of well being, success, and failure, but also a whole lot more. (See Aristotle’s discussion: Nicomachean Ethics, book 1.10–1.11.)
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7.6 See also • Eudaemon (mythology) • Eudaemons • Eupraxsophy • Humanism • Maslow's hierarchy of needs • Nicomachean Ethics • Phronesis • Social quality • Summum bonum • Virtue ethics
7.7 References [1] Daniel N. Robinson. (1999). Aristotle's Psychology. Published by Daniel N. Robinson. ISBN 0-9672066-0-X ISBN 978-0967206608 [2] Rosalind Hursthouse (July 18, 2007). “Virtue Ethics” . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 201006-05. But although modern virtue ethics does not have to take the form known as “neo-Aristotelian”, almost any modern version still shows that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy by the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are areté (excellence or virtue) phronesis (practical or moral wisdom) and eudaimonia (usually translated as happiness or flourishing.) As modern virtue ethics has grown and more people have become familiar with its literature, the understanding of these terms has increased, but it is still the case that readers familiar only with modern philosophy tend to misinterpret them.
[3] Verena von Pfetten (4 September 2008).“5 Things Happy People Do”. Huffington Post. Retrieved 2010-06-05. But researchers now believe that eudaimonic well-being may be more important. Cobbled from the Greek eu “ ( good”) and daimon “spirit” ( or“deity”), eudaimonia means striving toward excellence based on one's unique talents and Because of this discrepancy between the meaning of eupotential—Aristotle considered it to be the noblest goal daimonia and happiness, some alternative translations in life. In his time, the Greeks believed that each child have been proposed. W.D. Ross suggests “well-being” was blessed at birth with a personal daimon embodying the highest possible expression of his or her nature. One and John Cooper proposes“flourishing”. These translaway they envisioned the daimon was as a golden figurine tions may avoid some of the misleading associations carthat would be revealed by cracking away an outer layer ried by “happiness”although each tends to raise some of cheap pottery (the person's baser exterior). The efproblems of its own. In some modern texts therefore, the fort to know and realize one's most golden self—"personal other alternative is to leave the term in an English form growth,”in today's vernacular—is now the central concept of the original Greek, as “eudaimonia”. of eudaimonia, which has also come to include continually taking on new challenges and fulfilling one's sense of purpose in life.
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[4] Klein, Jacob (2012). Reason, Religion, and Natural Law: From Plato to Spinoza. OUP USA. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9780199767175. LCCN 2012001316. According to Irwin, the Stoic thesis that loss and tragedy do not affect an agent’s welfare does not imply that a rational agent has no reason to regret such a loss, for on Irwin’s account of Stoic theory the life of virtue and happiness and the life that accords with nature constitute independently rational aims... A number of considerations tell against this interpretation, however. One such consideration is merely an ex silentio appeal. No Stoic source, to my knowledge, suggests that actions may be justified with respect to anything other than what contributes to the end of happiness, and virtue alone does this in the Stoics view. A few texts, moreover, are explicit on this point. Cicero’s summary of Stoics’ethics in De finibus 3 considers and rejects the suggestion that Stoic theory is implicitly committed to two final ends, virtue and a life that accords with nature, where these are conceived as independent objectives at which a rational agent might aim... Independent, that is, in the strong sense according to which one of these rational objectives may be realized while the other is not. See Irwin (2007), p. 316: 'Virtuous action. therefore, is not sufficient for achieving the life according to nature, which includes the natural advantages.' Irwin is certainly correct to point out that virtue is not sufficient for attaining the natural advantages, preferred indifferents such as health and wealth. But it is the Stoics’critics, not the Stoics themselves, who maintain that the actual possession of these items is a necessary condition of the life according to nature. [5] Aristotle, also David Ross, Lesley Brown (1980). “The Nicomachean Ethics”. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Verbally there is very general agreement, for both the general run of men and people of superior refinement... [6] Uncertain (19 September 2008).“How“God”functioned in Socrates' life”. DD:Religion. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy, to exhort you and in my usual way to point out to any of you whom I happen to meet: “Good Sir, you are an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest city with the greatest reputation for both wisdom and power; are you not ashamed of your eagerness to possess as much wealth, reputation and honors as possible, while you do not care for nor give thought to wisdom or truth, or the best possible state of your soul?"
CHAPTER 7. EUDAIMONIA
consists in was not at all straightforward.) Zeno's answer was“a good flow of life”(Arius Didymus, 63A) or“living in agreement”, and Cleanthes clarified that with the formulation that the end was “living in agreement with nature”(Arius Didymus, 63B). Chrysippus amplified this to (among other formulations)“living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature"; later Stoics inadvisably, in response to Academic attacks, substituted such formulations as “the rational selection of the primary things according to nature.”The Stoics' specification of what happiness consists in cannot be adequately understood apart from their views about value and human psychology. [9] “The ethics of virtue: The Ethics of Virtue and the Ethics of Right Action”. wutsamada.com. 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-06-05. legalistic ethics rest on the incoherent notion of a“law”without a lawgiver: DCT unacceptable; and the alternative sources of moral “legislation” are inadequate substitutes [10] G. E. M. Anscombe (January 1958).“Modern Moral Philosophy”. Philosophy 33, No. 124. Retrieved 2010-0605. Originally published in Philosophy 33, No. 124 (January 1958). ... The first is that it is not profitable for us at present to do moral philosophy; that should be laid aside at any rate until we have an adequate philosophy of psychology, in which we are conspicuously lacking. The second is that the concepts of obligation, and duty—moral obligation and moral duty, that is to say—and of what is morally right and wrong, and of the moral sense of“ought”, ought to be jettisoned if this is psychologically possible; because they are survivals, or derivatives from survivals, from an earlier conception of ethics which no longer generally survives, and are only harmful without it. My third thesis is that the differences between the well‑known English writers on moral philosophy from Sidgwick to the present day are of little importance. [11] Julia Driver (Jul 21, 2009).“Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret Anscombe: 5.1 Virtue Ethics”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. In the past God occupied that role, but systems that dispense with God as part of the theory are lacking the proper foundation for meaningful employment of those concepts. [12] Ryff, C. D. (1989). “Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 57: 1069– 1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069.
[13] Ryff, Carol D.; Singer, Burton H. (2006-10-05). “Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Ap[7] Richard Parry (Aug 7, 2009). “Ancient Ethical Theory” proach to Psychological Well-Being”. Journal of Hap. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010piness Studies. 9 (1): 13–39. doi:10.1007/s10902-00606-05. Socrates says that a man worth anything at all does 9019-0. ISSN 1389-4978. not reckon whether his course of action endangers his life or threatens death. He looks only at one thing —whether [14] Kasser, Tim; Ryan, Richard M. (1993). “A Dark Side what he does is just or not, the work of a good or of a bad of the American Dream: Correlates of Financial Success man (28b–c). as a Central Life Aspiration”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 65 (2): 410–422. doi:10.1037/0022[8] Dirk Baltzly (Feb 7, 2008). “Stoicism”. Stanford Ency3514.65.2.410. PMID 8366427. clopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2010-06-05. But what is happiness? The Epicureans' answer was deceptively [15] Kasser, Tim; Ryan, Richard M. (1996-03-01). “Furstraightforward: the happy life is the one which is most ther Examining the American Dream: Differential Corpleasant. (But their account of what the highest pleasure relates of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals”. Personal-
7.7. REFERENCES
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[28] Ryan, Richard M.; Huta, Veronika; Deci, Edward L. (29 September 2006).“Living well: a self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia”. Journal of Happiness Studies. 9 (1): 139–170. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-90234. [29] Sin, Nancy L.; Lyubomirsky, Sonja (May 2009). “Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: a practice-friendly meta-analysis”. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 65 (5): 467–487. doi:10.1002/jclp.20593. PMID 19301241. [30] Jimenez, Sherlyn S.; Niles, Barbara L.; Park, Crystal L. (October 2010). “A mindfulness model of affect regulation and depressive symptoms: Positive emotions, mood regulation expectancies, and self-acceptance as regulatory mechanisms”. Personality and Individual Differences. 49 (6): 645–650. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.041. [31] Garcia, Danilo; Al Nima, Ali; Kjell, Oscar N.E. (13 February 2014). “The affective profiles, psychological well-being, and harmony: environmental mastery and self-acceptance predict the sense of a harmonious life”. PeerJ. 2: e259. doi:10.7717/peerj.259. [32] McQuillan, Susan. “Radiate Self-Acceptance”. Psychology Today. Sussex Publishers. Retrieved 12 August 2015. [33] Becker. Birth and Death of Meaning: An Interdisciplinary Perspective on the Problem of Man. ISBN 0029021901. [34] Pratchett, Terry. Going Postal. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-06050293-5. [35] Feldman, David B.; Snyder, C. R. (2005). “Hope and the Meaningful Life: Theoretical and Empirical Associations Between Goal–Directed Thinking and Life Meaning”. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 24 (3): 401–421. doi:10.1521/jscp.24.3.401.65616. ISSN 0736-7236. [36] Ryff, Carol D.; Singer, Burton H. (2006).“Know Thyself and Become What You Are: A Eudaimonic Approach to Psychological Well-Being”. Journal of Happiness Studies. 9 (1): 13–39. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0. ISSN 1389-4978. [37] Coatsworth, J. D.; Sharp, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. p. 250. [38] Waterman, A.S. (1993). “Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 64: 678–691. doi:10.1037/00223514.64.4.678. [39] Coatsworth, J. D.; Shap, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. p. 251. [40] Coatsworth, J. D.; Sharp, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. p. 254.
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[41] Coatsworth, J. D.; Sharp, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. p. 260. [42] Coatsworth, J. D.; Sharp, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. p. 255.
CHAPTER 7. EUDAIMONIA • Plato. Plato's Complete Works, John M. Cooper, ed. Translated by D. S. Hutchinson. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1997. ISBN 0-87220-3492 • Urmson, J. O. (1988) Aristotle’s Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell.
[43] Coatsworth, J. D.; Sharp, E. H. (2013). The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia. Washington: American Psychological Association. pp. 257–259.
• Vlastos, G. (1991) Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9787-6
[44] D. Archontaki, G. J. Lewis and T. C. Bates. (2012). Genetic influences on psychological well-being: A nationally representative twin study. Journal of Personality10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00787.x
• McMahon, Darrin M., Happiness: A History, Atlantic Monthly Press, November 28, 2005. ISBN 0-87113-886-7
7.8 Further reading
• McMahon, Darrin M., The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780, Daedalus journal, Spring 2004.
• Ackrill, J. L. (1981) Aristotle the Philosopher. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-2891189 • Anscombe, G. E. M. (1958) Modern Moral Philosophy. Philosophy 33; repr. in G.E.M. Anscombe (1981), vol. 3, 26–42. • Aristotle. The Nichomachean Ethics, translated by Martin Oswald (1962). New York: The BobsMerrill Company. • Aristotle. The Complete Works of Aristotle, vol. 1 and 2, rev. ed. Jonathan Barnes, ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, [1984]. Bollingen Foundation, 1995. ASIN: B000J0HP5E • Broadie, Sarah W. (1991) Ethics with Aristotle. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ASIN: B000VM6T34 • Cicero. De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum: “On Ends”, H. Rackham, trans. Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914). Latin text with old-fashioned and not always philosophically precise English translation. • Epicurus. “Letter to Menoeceus, Principal Doctrines, and Vatican Sayings,”28–40 in B. Inwood and L. Gerson, Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Readings, Second Edition Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co., 1998. ISBN 0-87220-378-6 • Irwin, T. H. (1995) Plato’s Ethics, Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Long, A. A., and D.N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, vol 1 and 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) • Norton, David L. (1976) Personal Destinies, Princeton University Press.
7.9 External links • Ancient Ethical Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Aristotle's Ethics, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • Aristotle: Ethics, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Chapter 8
Happiness Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Happiness (disambiguation), Happy (disambiguation), Gladness (disambiguation) and Jolly (disambiguation). “Rejoicing”redirects here. For the album, see Rejoicing (album).
in 1776 as it does today, an error committed even by history professors such as Arthur Schlesinger, as cited in the previous source. In fact, happiness meant “prosperity, thriving, wellbeing”in the 18th century.* [5] Nowadays, happiness is a fuzzy concept and can mean many different things to many people. Part of the challenge of a science of happiness is to identify different concepts of happiness, and where applicable, split them into their components. Related concepts are well-being, quality of life and flourishing. At least one author defines happiness as contentment.* [6] Some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way.* [7]
Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being defined by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy.* [1] Happy mental states may also reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being.* [2] A variety of biological, psychological, economic, religious and philosophical approaches have striven to define happiness and identify its sources. Various research groups, including positive psychology and happiness economics are employing the scientific method to research questions about what“happiness”is, and how The 2012 World Happiness Report stated that in subit might be attained. jective well-being measures, the primary distinction is The United Nations declared 20 March the International between cognitive life evaluations and emotional reDay of Happiness to recognise the relevance of happiness ports.* [8] Happiness is used in both life evaluation, as and well-being as universal goals. in“How happy are you with your life as a whole?”, and in emotional reports, as in “How happy are you now?,” and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these verbal contexts. Using these measures, the World 8.1 Definition Happiness Report identifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness. Philosophers and religious thinkers often define happiness in terms of living a good life, or flourishing, rather than simply as an emotion. Happiness in this sense was used to translate the Greek eudaimonia, and is still used in 8.2 Research results virtue ethics. There has been a transition over time from emphasis on the happiness of virtue to the virtue of hap- See also: Positive psychology Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conpiness.* [3] Since the turn of the millennium, the human flourishing approach, advanced particularly by Amartya ducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, includSen has attracted increasing interest in psychological, es- ing gerontology, social psychology, clinical and medical pecially prominent in the work of Martin Seligman, Ed research and happiness economics. During the past two Diener and Ruut Veenhoven, and international develop- decades, however, the field of happiness studies has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and ment and medical research in the work of Paul Anand. A widely discussed political value expressed in the United has produced many different views on causes of* happiStates Declaration of Independence of 1776, written by ness, and on factors that correlate with happiness, [9] but Thomas Jefferson, is the universal right to“the pursuit of no validated method has been found to substantially imhappiness.”* [4] This seems to suggest a subjective inter- prove long-term happiness in a meaningful way for most pretation but one that nonetheless goes beyond emotions people. alone. In fact, this discussion is often based on the naive Sonja Lyubomirsky concludes in her book The How of assumption that the word happiness meant the same thing Happiness that 50 percent of a given human's happiness 75
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CHAPTER 8. HAPPINESS money on others actually makes us happier than spending it on ourselves”.* [16] Meditation has been found to lead to high activity in the brain's left prefrontal cortex, which in turn has been found to correlate with happiness.* [17]
A smiling 95-year-old man from Pichilemu, Chile.
Psychologist Martin Seligman asserts that happiness is not solely derived from external, momentary pleasures,* [18] and provides the acronym PERMA to summarize Positive Psychology's correlational findings: hulevel is genetically determined (based on twin studies), mans seem happiest when they have 10 percent is affected by life circumstances and situation, and a remaining 40 percent of happiness is subject to self1. Pleasure (tasty food, warm baths, etc.), control. 2. Engagement (or flow, the absorption of an enjoyed Biological psychologist Meike Bartels also concluded that yet challenging activity), happiness is partly genetically based.* [10]* [11] 3. Relationships (social ties have turned out to be exThe results of the 75-year Grant Study of Harvard undertremely reliable indicator of happiness), graduates show a high correlation of loving relationship, 4. Meaning (a perceived quest or belonging to someespecially with parents, with later life wellbeing.* [12] thing bigger), and In the 2nd Edition of the Handbook of Emotions (2000), evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John 5. Accomplishments (having realized tangible goals). Tooby say that happiness comes from“encountering unexpected positive events”. In the 3rd Edition of the There have also been some studies of how religion reHandbook of Emotions (2008), Michael Lewis says“hap- lates to happiness. Causal relationships remain unclear, piness can be elicited by seeing a significant other”. Ac- but more religion is seen in happier people. This correlacording to Mark Leary, as reported in a November 1995 tion may be the result of community membership and not issue of Psychology Today,“we are happiest when bask- necessarily belief in religion itself. Another component ing in the acceptance and praise of others”. Sara Algoe may have to do with ritual.* [19] and Jonathan Haidt say that “happiness”may be the la- Abraham Harold Maslow, an American professor of psybel for a family of related emotional states, such as joy, chology, founded humanistic psychology in the 1930s. amusement, satisfaction, gratification, euphoria, and tri- A visual aid he created to explain his theory, which umph.* [13] he called the hierarchy of needs, is a pyramid depictA smiling Rebecca L. Felton
It has been argued that money cannot effectively “buy” much happiness unless it is used in certain ways.* [14] “Beyond the point at which people have enough to comfortably feed, clothe, and house themselves, having more money - even a lot more money - makes them only a little bit happier.”In the book Lucky Go Happy : Make Happiness Happen!, Paul van der Merwe uses a graph to illustrate that money cannot make people happy.* [15] A Harvard Business School study found that “spending
ing the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, selfsufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi.
8.3. RELIGION
77
Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to abuse, since the use of psychotropic substances is somethree needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. times considered abuse.* [28]* [29]* [30]* [31]* [32]* [33] Cross-sectional studies worldwide support a relationship between happiness and fruit and vegetable intake. Those eating fruits and vegetables each day have a higher likelihood of being classified as “very happy,”suggesting a strong and positive correlation between fruit and vegetable consumption and happiness.* [20] Whether it be in South Korea,* [21] Iran,* [22] Chile,* [23] USA,* [24] or UK,* [25] greater fruit and vegetable consumption had a positive association with greater happiness, independent of factors such as smoking, exercise, body mass index, or socio-economic factors.
The Handbook of Religion and Health describes a survey by Feigelman (1992) that examined happiness in Americans who have given up religion, in which it was found that there was little relationship between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness.* [34] A survey by Kosmin & Lachman (1993), also cited in this handbook, indicates that people with no religious affiliation appear to be at greater risk for depressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion.* [35] A review of studies by 147 independent investigators found, “the correlation between religiousness and depressive symptoms was −.096, indicating that greater religiousness is mildly associated with fewer symptoms.”* [36]
8.3 Religion
The Legatum Prosperity Index reflects the repeated finding of research on the science of happiness that there is a positive link between religious engagement and wellSee also: Religious studies and Positive psychology being: people who report that God is very important in their lives are on average more satisfied with their lives, Religion and happiness have been studied by a number of after accounting for their income, age and other individresearchers, and religion features many elements address- ual characteristics.* [37] ing the components of happiness, as identified by positive psychology. Its association with happiness is facilitated in Surveys by Gallup, the National Opinion Research Cenpart by the social connections of organized religion,* [26] tre and the Pew Organisation conclude that spiritually and by the neuropsychological benefits of prayer* [27] and committed people are twice as likely to report being “very happy”than the least religiously committed peobelief. ple.* [38] An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that “high religiousness predicts a lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with sex life and a sense of wellbeing. However, the links between religion and happiness are always very broad in nature, highly reliant on scripture and small sample number. To that extent there is a much larger connection between religion and suffering (Lincoln 1034).”* [36] And a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem and lower levels of hypertension, depression, and clinical delinquency.* [39] A meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better self-actualization.* [40] Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that “the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated Joy, Tacuinum Sanitatis Casanatensis (14th century) with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfacThere are a number of mechanisms through which reli- tion, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and thoughts and behaviour, gion may make a person happier, including social con- with less depression, suicidal * [41] drug/alcohol use/abuse.” tact and support that result from religious pursuits, the mental activity that comes with optimism and volunteering, learned coping strategies that enhance one's ability to deal with stress, and psychological factors such as “reason for being.”It may also be that religious people engage in behaviors related to good health, such as less substance
However, there remains strong disagreement among scholars about whether the effects of religious observance, particularly attending church or otherwise belonging to religious groups, is due to the spiritual or the social
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CHAPTER 8. HAPPINESS
aspects—i.e. those who attend church or belong to similar religious organizations may well be receiving only the effects of the social connections involved. While these benefits are real enough, they may thus be the same one would gain by joining other, secular groups, clubs, or similar organizations.* [42]
8.3.1
Terror management
Terror management theory maintains that people suffer cognitive dissonance (anxiety) when they are reminded of their inevitable death. Through terror management, individuals are motivated to seek consonant elements – symbols which make sense of mortality and death in satisfactory ways (i.e. boosting self-esteem). Research has found that strong belief in religious or secular meaning systems affords psychological security and hope. It is moderates (e.g. agnostics, slightly religious individuals) who likely suffer the most anxiety from their meaning systems. Religious meaning systems are especially adapted to manage death anxiety because they are unlikely to be disconfirmed (for various reasons), they are all encompassing, and they promise literal immortality.* [43]* [44] Whether emotional effects are beneficial or adverse seems to vary with the nature of the belief. Belief in Tibetan Buddhist monk a benevolent God is associated with lower incidence of general anxiety, social anxiety, paranoia, obsession, and compulsion whereas belief in a punitive God is associ- Judaism ated with greater symptoms. (An alternative explanation is that people seek out beliefs that fit their psychological Main article: Happiness in Judaism and emotional states.)* [45] Citizens of the world's poorest countries are the most likely to be religious, and researchers suggest this is because of religion's powerful coping abilities.* [46]* [47] Luke Galen also supports terror management theory as a partial explanation of the above findings. Galen describes evidence (including his own research) that the benefits of religion are due to strong convictions and membership in a social group.* [48]* [49]* [50]
8.3.2
Religious views on happiness
Happiness or simcha (Hebrew: )שמחהin Judaism is considered an important element in the service of God.* [54] The biblical verse “worship The Lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs,”(Psalm 100:2) stresses joy in the service of God. A popular teaching by Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a 19th-century Chassidic Rabbi, is "Mitzvah Gedolah Le'hiyot Besimcha Tamid,” it is a great mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. When a person is happy they are much more capable of serving God and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.* [55]
Buddhism Catholicism Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings.* [51] For ultimate freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. More mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). Buddhism also encourages the generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all beings.* [52]* [53]
The primary meaning of “happiness”in various European languages involves good fortune, chance or happening. The meaning in Greek philosophy, however, refers primarily to ethics. In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, Latin equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia, or “blessed happiness” , described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God's essence in the next life.* [56] Human complexities, like reason and
8.5. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS
79
cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. In temporal life, the contemplation of God, the infinitely Beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. Beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.* [57]
ago sought to give advice to the ruthless political leaders of the warring states period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the “lesser self” (the physiological self) and the“greater self”(the moral self) and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if we did not feel satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's“vital force”with“righteous deeds”, that force would shrivel up (Mencius,6A:15 2A:2). More specifically, he men8.4 Spirituality tions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially through muWhile religion is often formalised and community- sic.* [59] oriented, spirituality tends to be individually based and not as formalised. In a 2014 study, 320 children, ages 8– Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) the Muslim Sufi thinker wrote 12, in both public and private schools, were given a Spir- the Alchemy of Happiness, a manual of spiritual instrucitual Well-Being Questionnaire assessing the correlation tion throughout the Muslim world and widely practiced between spirituality and happiness. Spirituality – and not today. religious practices (praying, attending church services) – The Hindu thinker Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras, correlated positively with the child's happiness; the more wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and ontospiritual the child was, the happier the child was. Spiritu- logical roots of bliss.* [60] ality accounted for about 3–26% of the variance in hapIn the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle piness.* [58] stated that happiness (also being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for its own sake, unlike riches, honor, health or friendship. He observed that men 8.5 Philosophical views sought riches, or honor, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. Note that eudaimonia, the term we translate as “happiness”, is for Aristotle an activity rather than an emotion or a state.* [61] Thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way. Specifically, Aristotle argues that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. He arrives at this claim with the Function Argument. Basically, if it's right, every living thing has a function, that which it uniquely does. For humans, Aristotle contends, our function is to reason, since it is that alone that we uniquely do. And performing one's function well, or excellently, is one's good. Thus, the life of excellent rational activity is the happy life. Aristotle does not leave it that, however. For he argues that there is a second best life for those incapable of excellent rational activity.This second best life is the life of moral virtue. Many ethicists make arguments for how humans should behave, either individually or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Utilitarians, such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle as a guide for ethical behavior.
The Love Letter by Federico Andreotti
Main article: Philosophy of happiness The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who 2300 years
Friedrich Nietzsche savagely critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the greatest happiness, stating “Man does not strive for happiness, only the Englishman does.”Nietzsche meant that the making happiness one's ultimate goal, the aim of one's existence “makes one contemptible;" Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than “mere happiness.”Thus Nietzsche introduces the quasi-dystopic figure of the “last man”as a kind of thought experi-
80 ment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers; these small, “last men”who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle are meant to seem contemptible to Nietzsche's reader. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy.* [62]* [63]
CHAPTER 8. HAPPINESS Main article: Happiness economics Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a measure of successful policy. On average richer nations tend to be happier than poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.* [67]* [68] This has been explained by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the same percentual increase in the GNP produces the same increase in happiness for wealthy countries as for poor countries.* [69]* [70]* [71]* [72] Increasingly, academic economists and international economic organisations are arguing for and developing multi-dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. Work by Paul Anand and colleagues helps to highlight the fact that there many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgement reflect, in part, the presence of salient constraints, and that fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course.
According to St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, man's last end is happiness: “all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness.”* [64] However, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.* [65] In turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to happiness is according to Aquinas caused by laws: natural law and divine law. These laws, in turn, were according to Aquinas caused by a first cause, or God. Libertarian think tank Cato Institute claims that According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an “opera- economic freedom correlates strongly with happition of the speculative intellect": “Consequently happi- ness* [73] preferably within the context of a western ness consists principally in such an operation, viz. in the mixed economy, with free press and a democracy. contemplation of Divine things.”And,“the last end can- According to certain standards, East European countries not consist in the active life, which pertains to the practi- (ruled by Communist parties) were less happy than cal intellect.”So: “Therefore the last and perfect hap- Western ones, even less happy than other equally poor piness, which we await in the life to come, consists en- countries.* [74] tirely in contemplation. But imperfect happiness, such as However, much empirical research in the field of can be had here, consists first and principally in contem- happiness economics, such as that by Benjamin Radcliff, plation, but secondarily, in an operation of the practical professor of Political Science at the University of Notre intellect directing human actions and passions.”* [66] Dame, supports the contention that (at least in democratic
8.6 Economic and political views
countries) life satisfaction is strongly and positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong labor unions.* [75] Similarly, there is evidence that public policies that reduce poverty and support a strong middle class, such as a higher minimum wage, strongly affects average levels of well-being.* [76] It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a supplement.* [77] According to professor Edward Glaeser, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, because they have also more important aims. Therefore, the government should not decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by patronizing them but let the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.* [78]
Newly commissioned officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the U.S. Naval Academy class of 2011 graduation and commissioning ceremony.
It has been argued that happiness at work is one of the driving forces behind positive outcomes at work, rather than just being a resultant product.* [79]
8.10. HEALTH
8.7 Measures
81 correlate with a significant gray matter increase within the precuneus.* [90]* [91]* [92]* [93]* [94]
Several scales have been used to measure happiness:
A study on Brahma Kumaris Raja yoga meditators showed them having higher happiness (Oxford happiness * • The Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) is a four- questionnaire) than the control group. [95] item scale, measuring global subjective happiness. The scale requires participants to use absolute ratings to characterize themselves as happy or unhappy 8.10 Health individuals, as well as it asks to what extent they identify themselves with descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals.* [80]* [81] • The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is used to detect the relation between personality traits and positive or negative affects at this moment, today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past year, and generally (on average). PANAS is a 20-item questionnaire, which uses a five-point Likert scale (1 = very slightly or not at all, 5 = extremely).* [82]* [83] A longer version with additional affect scales is available in a manual.* [84] • The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) is a global cognitive assessment of life satisfaction developed by Ed Diener. The SWLS requires a person to use a seven-item scale to state their agreement or disagreement (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = neither agree nor disagree, 7 = strongly agree) with five statements about their life.* [85]* [86]
The UK began to measure national well being in 2012,* [87] following Bhutan which already measured gross national happiness.
8.8 Physical mechanisms Happy St. Patrick's Day from Boston
A correlation has been found between hormone levels and happiness. SSRIs, such as Prozac, are used to adjust the levels of seratonin in the clinically unhappy. Researchers, such as Alexander, have indicated that many peoples usage of narcotics may be the unwitting result of attempts to readjust hormone levels to cope with situations that make them unhappy.* [88]
In 2005 a study conducted by Andrew Steptow and Michael Marmot at University College London, found that happiness is related to biological markers that play an important role in health.* [96] The researchers aimed to analyze whether there was any association between wellbeing and three biological markers: heart rate, cortisol levels, and plasma fibrinogen levels. Interestingly, the participants who rated themselves the least happy had 8.9 Correlation of precuneus gray cortisol levels that were 48% higher than those who rated themselves as the most happy. The least happy subjects matter volume, meditation and also had a large plasma fibrinogen response to two stressinducing tasks: the Stroop test, and tracing a star seen in subjective happiness score a mirror image. Repeating their studies three years later A positive relationship has been found between Steptow and Marmot found that participants who scored the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus high in positive emotion continued to have lower levels of area of the brain and the subject's subjective happi- cortisol and fibrinogen, as well as a lower heart rate. ness score.* [89] Interestingly meditation, including In Happy People Live Longer (2011),* [97] Bruno Frey mindfulness, based interventions have been found to reported that happy people live 14% longer, increasing
82 longevity 7.5 to 10 years and Richard Davidson's bestseller (2012) The Emotional Life of Your Brain argues that positive emotion and happiness benefit long-term health. However, in 2015 a study building on earlier research found that happiness has no effect on mortality.* [98] “This “basic belief that if you're happier you're going to live longer. That's just not true.”* [99] Consistent results are that“apart from good health, happy people were more likely to be older, not smoke, have fewer educational qualifications, do strenuous exercise, live with a partner, do religious or group activities and sleep for eight hours a night.”* [99] Happiness does however seem to have a protective impact on immunity. The tendency to experience positive emotions was associated with greater resistance to colds and flu in interventional studies irrespective of other factors such as smoking, drinking, exercise, and sleep.* [100]* [101]
8.11 At work Main article: Happiness at work
CHAPTER 8. HAPPINESS
8.13 References [1] “happiness”. Wolfram Alpha. [2] Anand, P (2016). Happiness Explained. Oxford University Press. [3] McMahon, Darrin M. (2004). “From the happiness of virtue to the virtue of happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780”. Daedalus. 133 (2): 5–17. doi:10.1162/001152604323049343. JSTOR 20027908. [4] Schlesinger, Arthur M. (1964). “The Lost Meaning of “The Pursuit of Happiness"". The William and Mary Quarterly. 21 (3): 325–7. doi:10.2307/1918449. JSTOR 1918449. [5] Two American Dreams: how a dumbed-down nation lost sight of a great idea, the Guardian [6] Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. pp. 6–10. ISBN 978-14787-2259-5. [7] Deci, Edward L.; Ryan, Richard M. (2006). “Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: an introduction”. Journal of Happiness Studies. 9 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s10902006-9018-1. [8] Helliwell, John; Layard, Richard; Sachs, Jeffrey, eds. (2012). World Happiness Report 2012. ISBN 978-09968513-0-5.
Despite a large body of positive psychological research into the relationship between happiness and productivity,* [102]* [103]* [104] happiness at work has traditionally been seen as a potential by-product of positive out- [9] comes at work, rather than a pathway to success in business. However a growing number of scholars, including Boehm and Lyubomirsky, argue that it should be viewed as one of the major sources of positive outcomes in the [10] workplace.* [79]* [105]
Wallis, Claudia (2005-01-09). “Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction”. TIME. Archived from the original on November 15, 2010. Retrieved 201102-07. Happiness being partly in our genes
[11] Meike Bartels confirming genetic basis for happiness
8.12 See also • Aversion to happiness • Biopsychosocial model • Extraversion, introversion and happiness • Hedonic treadmill • Mania • Paradox of hedonism • Philosophy of happiness • Pleasure • Psychological well-being • Serotonin • Subjective well-being
[12] Scott Stossel. “What Makes Us Happy, Revisited - Scott Stossel”. The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-04-26. [13] Algoe, Sara B.; Haidt, Jonathan (2009). “Witnessing excellence in action: the 'other-praising' emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration”. The Journal of Positive Psychology. 4 (2): 105–127. doi:10.1080/17439760802650519. PMC 2689844 . PMID 19495425. [14] Boston.com, August 23, 2009 [15] Van der Merwe, Paul (2016). Lucky Go Happy : Make Happiness Happen!. South Africa: Reach Publishers. p. 74. ISBN 9781496941640. [16] Dunn, E. W.; Aknin, L. B.; Norton, M. I. (2008).“Spending Money on Others Promotes Happiness”. Science. 319 (5870): 1687–8. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1687D. doi:10.1126/science.1150952. PMID 18356530.. [17] Claire Bates (2012-10-31). “Is this the world's happiest man? Brain scans reveal French monk found to have 'abnormally large capacity' for joy, and it could be down to meditation”. Mail Online. Retrieved 2013-04-26.
8.13. REFERENCES
[18] Seligman, Martin E. P. (2004). “Can happiness be taught?". Daedalus. 133 (2): 80–87. doi:10.1162/001152604323049424. JSTOR 20027916. [19] 2009 article in Frontiers in Evolutionary Neuroscience
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[30] McCullough, Michael E; Larson, David B (1999). “Religion and depression: a review of the literature”. Twin Research. 2 (2): 126–36. doi:10.1375/136905299320565997. PMID 10480747.
[20] Rooney, Ciara; McKinley, Michelle C.; Woodside, Jayne V. (2013). “The potential role of fruit and vegetables in aspects of psychological well-being: a review of the literature and future directions”. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 72 (4): 420–32. doi:10.1017/S0029665113003388. PMID 24020691.
[31] Strawbridge, William J.; Shema, Sarah J.; Cohen, Richard D.; Kaplan, George A. (2001). “Religious attendance increases survival by improving and maintaining good health behaviors, mental health, and social relationships”. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 23 (1): 68–74. doi:10.1207/S15324796ABM2301_10. PMID 11302358.
[21] Kye, Su Yeon; Park, Keeho (2014). “Health-related determinants of happiness in Korean adults”. International Journal of Public Health. 59 (5): 731–8. doi:10.1007/s00038-014-0588-0. PMID 25033934.
[32] Burris, C.T. (1999). “Religious Orientation Scale”. In Hill, Peter C.; Hood, Ralph W. Measures of Religiosity. Birmingham: Religious Education Press. pp. 144–53. ISBN 978-0-89135-106-1.
[22] Fararouei, M.; Brown, I.J.; Akbartabar Toori, M.; Estakhrian Haghighi, R.; Jafari, J. (2013). “Happiness and health behaviour in Iranian adolescent girls”. Journal of Adolescence. 36 (6): 1187– 92. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.09.006. PMID 24215965.
[33] Paul, Pamela (2005-01-09). “The New Science of Happiness”. Time.
[34] Koenig. Harold G., Larson, David B., and Mcculloug, Michael E. –Handbook of Religion and Health (see article), p.122, Oxford University Press (2001), ISBN 08133-6719-0 [23] Piqueras, José A; Kuhne, Walter; Vera-Villarroel, Pablo; Feigelman et al. (1992) examined happiness in Amerivan Straten, Annemieke; Cuijpers, Pim (2011). “Hapcans who have given up religion. Using pooled data from piness and health behaviours in Chilean college students: the General Social Surveys conducted between 1972 and A cross-sectional survey”. BMC Public Health. 11: 1990, investigators identified more than 20,000 adults for 443. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-443. PMC 3125376 . their study. Subjects of particular interest were “disaffilPMID 21649907. iates” —those who were affiliated with a religion at age 16 but who were not affiliated at the time of the survey (dis[24] Boehm, Julia K.; Williams, David R.; Rimm, Eric affiliates comprised from 4.4% to 6.0% of respondents B.; Ryff, Carol; Kubzansky, Laura D. (2013). per year during the 18 years of surveys). “Actives”were “Association Between Optimism and Serum Andefined as persons who reported a religious affiliation at tioxidants in the Midlife in the United States age 16 and a religious affiliation at the time of the surStudy”. Psychosomatic Medicine. 75 (1): 2–10. vey (these ranged from 84.7% to 79.5% of respondents doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31827c08a9. PMC 3539819 . per year between 1972 and 1990). Happiness was meaPMID 23257932. sured by a single question that assessed general happiness (very happy, pretty happy, not too happy). When disaffili[25] Blanchflower, David G.; Oswald, Andrew J.; Stewartates (n = 1,420) were compared with actives (n = 21,052), Brown, Sarah (2012). “Is Psychological Well-Being 23.9% of disaffiliates indicated they were “very happy, ” Linked to the Consumption of Fruit and Vegetaas did 34.2% of actives. When the analysis was stratified bles?". Social Indicators Research. 114 (3): 785–801. by marital status, the likelihood of being very happy was doi:10.1007/s11205-012-0173-y. about 25% lower (i.e., 10% difference) for married religious disaffiliates compared with married actives. Multi[26] Routledge, Clay (2012). “Are Religious People Happle regression analysis revealed that religious disaffiliation pier Than Non-religious People?". Psychology Today. Reexplained only 2% of the variance in overall happiness, trieved 2014-01-24. after marital status and other covariates were controlled. Investigators concluded that there was little relationship [27] Tahor, Grundtvig (2011-04-01).“Praying for Dopamine” between religious disaffiliation and unhappiness (quality (PDF). Lab Times. p. 12. Retrieved 2014-01-24. Relirating 7) gious prayer is a form of frequently recurring behaviour capable of stimulating the dopaminergic reward system [35] Koenig. Harold G., Larson, David B., and Mcculin practicing individuals loug, Michael E. –Handbook of Religion and Health(see article), p.111, Oxford University Press (2001) [28] Baetz, Marilyn; Toews, John (2009). “Clinical impliCurrently, approximately 8% of the U.S. population claim cations of research on religion, spirituality, and mental no religious affiliation (Kosmin & Lachman, 1993). Peohealth”. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 54 (5): 292– ple with no affiliation appear to be at greater risk for de301. PMID 19497161. pressive symptoms than those affiliated with a religion. In [29] Ellison, Christopher G.; George, Linda K. (1994). “Rea sample of 850 medically ill men, Koenig, Cohen, Blazer, ligious Involvement, Social Ties, and Social Support in Pieper, et al. (1992) examined whether religious affila Southeastern Community”. Journal for the Scientific iation predicted depression after demographics, medical Study of Religion. 33 (1): 46–61. doi:10.2307/1386636. status, and a measure of religious coping were controlled. JSTOR 1386636. They found that, when relevant covariates were controlled,
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men who indicated that they had “no religious affiliation”had higher scores on the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (an observer-administered rating scale) than did men who identified themselves as moderate Protestants, Catholics, or nontraditional Christians. [36] Smith, Timothy B.; McCullough, Michael E.; Poll, Justin (2003). “Religiousness and depression: Evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events”. Psychological Bulletin. 129 (4): 614–36. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.614. PMID 12848223. [37] The 2008 Legatum Prosperity Index, Summary p.40. Research suggests that religious people's happiness is less vulnerable to fluctuations in economic and political uncertainty, personal unemployment and income changes. The Prosperity Index identifies similar effects at the country level, with a number of highly religious countries reporting higher levels of happiness than might be expected based on the standard of living alone: this effect is most pronounced in Mexico, El Salvador, the Dominican republic, Indonesia, Venezuela and Nigeria. [38] Is Religion Dangerous?p156, citing David Myers The Science of Subjective Well-Being Guilford Press 2007 [39] Is Religion Dangerous? cites similar results from theHandbook of Religion and Mental Health Harold Koenig (ed.) ISBN 978-0-12-417645-4 [40] Hackney, Charles H.; Sanders, Glenn S. (2003). “Religiosity and Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis of Recent Studies”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 42 (1): 43–55. doi:10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160. [41] Moreira-Almeida, Alexander; Lotufo Neto, Francisco; Koenig, Harold G (2006). “Religiousness and mental health: a review”. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria. 28 (3): 242–50. doi:10.1590/S1516-44462006005000006. PMID 16924349. [42] Robert D. Putnam makes this argument in his book (with David Campell) American Grace (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012). [43] Vail, K. E.; Rothschild, Z. K.; Weise, D. R.; Solomon, S.; Pyszczynski, T.; Greenberg, J. (2010). “A Terror Management Analysis of the Psychological Functions of Religion”. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 14 (1): 84–94. doi:10.1177/1088868309351165. PMID 19940284. [44] Fletcher. “Reasonable Doubts: Episode 81 Sacrificial Lambs”. doubtreligion.blogspot.com. [45] Silton, Nava R.; Flannelly, Kevin J.; Galek, Kathleen; Ellison, Christopher G. (2014). “Beliefs About God and Mental Health Among American Adults”. Journal of Religion and Health. 53 (5): 1285–96. doi:10.1007/s10943013-9712-3. PMID 23572240. [46] Religiosity Highest in World's Poorest Nations, Gallup Global Reports, August 31, 2010. [47] Religion Provides Emotional Boost to World’s Poor, Gallup Global Reports, March 6, 2009.
[48] Luke Galen Center Stage Podcast, Episode 104 - Profiles of the Godless: Results from the Non-Religious Identification Survey. [49] Galen, Luke W.; Kloet, Jim (2011). “Personality and Social Integration Factors Distinguishing Nonreligious from Religious Groups: The Importance of Controlling for Attendance and Demographics”. Archive for the Psychology of Religion. 33 (2): 205–28. doi:10.1163/157361211X570047. [50] Jeremy.“Reasonable Doubts: RD Extra: Denying Death” . doubtreligion.blogspot.com. [51] “In Buddhism, There Are Seven Factors of Enlightenment. What Are They?". About.com Religion & Spirituality. Retrieved 2016-03-26. [52] “Buddhist studies for primary and secondary students, Unit Six: The Four Immeasurables”. Buddhanet.net. Retrieved 2013-04-26. [53] Bhikkhu, Thanissaro (1999). “A Guided Meditation”. [54] Yanklowitz, Shmuly. “Judaism's value of happiness living with gratitude and idealism.” Bloggish. The Jewish Journal. March 9, 2012. [55] Breslov.org. Archived November 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Accessed November 11, 2014. [56] Aquinas, Thomas. “Question 3. What is happiness”. Summa Theologiae. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. [57] “CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Happiness”. newadvent.org. [58] Holder, Mark D.; Coleman, Ben; Wallace, Judi M. (2008). “Spirituality, Religiousness, and Happiness in Children Aged 8–12 Years”. Journal of Happiness Studies. 11 (2): 131–50. doi:10.1007/s10902-008-9126-1. [59] Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ, US: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01964-9. [60] Levine, Marvin (2000). The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga : Paths to a Mature Happiness. Lawrence Erlbaum. ISBN 0-8058-3833-3. [61] Eudaimonia (Greek: εὐδαιμονία) is a classical Greek word commonly translated as 'happiness' or, better yet, 'flourishing'. Etymologically, it consists of the word“eu” (“good”or “well being”) and “daimōn”(“spirit” or“minor deity”, used by extension to mean one's lot or fortune). [62] “Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy”. stanford.edu. [63] “Friedrich Nietzsche (1844—1900)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. [64] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: Man's last end (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 1)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 201304-26.
8.13. REFERENCES
[65] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: Secunda Secundae Partis”. Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2013-04-26. [66] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: What is happiness (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 3)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 201304-26. [67] Frey, Bruno S.; Alois Stutzer (December 2001). Happiness and Economics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06998-0. [68] “In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy?". The Cato institute. 2007-0411. [69] “Wealth and happiness revisited Growing wealth of nations does go with greater happiness” (PDF). Retrieved 2013-04-26. [70] Leonhardt, David (2008-04-16). “Maybe Money Does Buy Happiness After All”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-04-10. [71] “Economic Growth and Subjective Well-Being: Reassessing the Easterlin Paradox” (PDF). bpp.wharton.upenn.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2012. [72] “Boston.com”. Boston.com. 2008-11-23. Retrieved 2013-04-26. [73] In Pursuit of Happiness Research. Is It Reliable? What Does It Imply for Policy? The Cato institute. April 11, 2007 [74] The Scientist's Pursuit of Happiness Archived February 23, 2010, at the Wayback Machine., Policy, Spring 2005. [75] Radcliff, Benjamin (2013) The Political Economy of Human Happiness (New York: Cambridge University Press). See also this collection of full-text peer reviewed scholarly articles on this subject by Radcliff and colleagues (from “Social Forces,”“The Journal of Politics,”and “Perspectives on Politics,”among others) [76] Michael Krassa (14 May 2014).“Does a higher minimum wage make people happier?". Washington Post. [77] Weiner, Eric J. (2007-11-13). “Four months of boom, bust, and fleeing foreign credit”. Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. [78] Coercive regulation and the balance of freedom, Edward Glaeser, Cato Unbound 11.5.2007 [79] Boehm, J. K.; Lyubomirsky, S. (2008).“Does Happiness Promote Career Success?". Journal of Career Assessment. 16 (1): 101–16. doi:10.1177/1069072707308140. [80] “Archived copy” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 22, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2012. [81] Lyubomirsky, Sonja; Lepper, Heidi S. (February 1999). “A Measure of Subjective Happiness: Preliminary Reliability and Construct Validation”. Social Indicators Research. 46 (2): 137–55. doi:10.1023/A:1006824100041. JSTOR 27522363. [82] Search | Rutgers University-Camden
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[83] Watson, David; Clark, Lee A.; Tellegen, Auke (1988). “Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 54 (6): 1063–70. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063. PMID 3397865. [84] Watson, David; Clark, Lee Anna (1994). The PANASX: Manual for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Expanded Form. The University of Iowa. [85] “SWLS Rating Form”. tbims.org. [86] Diener, Ed; Emmons, Robert A.; Larsen, Randy J.; Griffin, Sharon (1985). “The Satisfaction With Life Scale” . Journal of Personality Assessment. 49 (1): 71–5. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13. PMID 16367493. [87] “Measuring National Well-being: Life in the UK, 2012” . Ons.gov.uk. 2012-11-20. Retrieved 2013-04-26. [88] Alexander, Bruce K. (1981). “Rat Park”. Psychopharmacology. [89] Sato, Wataru; Kochiyama, Takanori; Uono, Shota; Kubota, Yasutaka; Sawada, Reiko; Yoshimura, Sayaka; Toichi, Motomi (2015). “The structural neural substrate of subjective happiness”. Scientific Reports. 5: 16891. Bibcode:2015NatSR...516891S. doi:10.1038/srep16891. PMC 4653620 . PMID 26586449. [90] Black, David S.; Kurth, Florian; Luders, Eileen; Wu, Brian (2014). “Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxelbased Morphometry”. Neuro. 1 (1): 23–26. doi:10.17140/NOJ-1-106. PMC 4306280 . PMID 25632405. [91] Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Vangel, Mark; Congleton, Christina; Yerramsetti, Sita M.; Gard, Tim; Lazar, Sara W. (2011). “Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density”. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 191 (1): 36– 43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979 . PMID 21071182. [92] Kurth, Florian; MacKenzie-Graham, Allan; Toga, Arthur W.; Luders, Eileen (2015). “Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization” . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (1): 55– 61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu029. PMID 24643652. [93] Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). “Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners”. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269. [94] Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Evans, Karleyton C.; Hoge, Elizabeth A.; Dusek, Jeffery A.; Morgan, Lucas; Pitman, Roger K.; Lazar, Sara W. (2010).“Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala”. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 5 (1): 11– 7. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp034. PMC 2840837 . PMID 19776221.
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[95] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC3843423 [96] Steptoe, A.; Wardle, J.; Marmot, M. (2005). “Positive affect and health-related neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory processes”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (18): 6508–12. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.6508S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0409174102. PMC 1088362 . PMID 15840727. [97] Frey, B. S. (2011). “Happy People Live Longer”. Science. 331 (6017): 542–3. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..542F. doi:10.1126/science.1201060. PMID 21292959.
CHAPTER 8. HAPPINESS • Van der Merwe, Paul, Lucky Go Happy : Make Happiness Happen!, Reach Publishers, 2016. ISBN 9781496941640 • Anand Paul “Happiness Explained: What Human Flourishing Is and What We Can Do to Promote It”, Oxford, Oxford University Press 2016. ISBN 0198735456 • Michael Argyle “The psychology of happiness”, 1987 • Boehm, J K. & S. Lyubomirsky, Journal of Career Assessment. Vol 16(1), Feb 2008, 101–116.
[98] Liu, Bette; Floud, Sarah; Pirie, Kirstin; Green, Jane; Peto, Richard; Beral, Valerie (2016). “Does happiness itself directly affect mortality? The prospective UK Million Women Study”. The Lancet. 387 (10021): 874–81. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01087-9. PMID 26684609.
• Norman M. Bradburn“The structure of psychological well-being”, 1969
[99] Alexander, Harriet (13 December 2015). “UNSW research finds happy people do not live longer when ill health is removed from equation”. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
• Gregg Easterbrook “The progress paradox – how life gets better while people feel worse”, 2003
[100] Cohen, Sheldon; Doyle, William J.; Turner, Ronald B.; Alper, Cuneyt M.; Skoner, David P. (2003). “Emotional Style and Susceptibility to the Common Cold”. Psychosomatic Medicine. 65 (4): 652– 7. doi:10.1097/01.PSY.0000077508.57784.DA. PMID 12883117. [101] Cohen, Sheldon; Alper, Cuneyt M.; Doyle, William J.; Treanor, John J.; Turner, Ronald B. (2006). “Positive Emotional Style Predicts Resistance to Illness After Experimental Exposure to Rhinovirus or Influenza A Virus”. Psychosomatic Medicine. 68 (6): 809– 15. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000245867.92364.3c. PMID 17101814. [102] Carr, A.:“Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness and Human Strengths”Hove, Brunner-Routledge 2004 [103] Isen, A. (2000). “Positive Affect and Decision-making” . In Lewis, Michael; Haviland-Jones, Jeannette M. Handbook of Emotions (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. pp. 417–36. ISBN 978-1-57230-529-8. [104] Buss, David M. (2000). “The evolution of happiness”. American Psychologist. 55 (1): 15–23. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.15. PMID 11392858. [105] Lyubomirsky, Sonja; King, Laura; Diener, Ed (2005). “The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?". Psychological Bulletin. 131 (6): 803–55. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803. PMID 16351326.
8.14 Further reading Books
• C. Robert Cloninger, Feeling Good: The Science of Well-Being, Oxford, 2004.
• Michael W. Eysenck“Happiness – facts and myths” , 1990 • Daniel Gilbert, Stumbling on Happiness, Knopf, 2006. • Carol Graham“Happiness Around the World: The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires”, OUP Oxford, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19954905-4 • W. Doyle Gentry“Happiness for dummies”, 2008 • James Hadley, Happiness: A New Perspective, 2013, ISBN 978-1493545261 • Joop Hartog & Hessel Oosterbeek “Health, wealth and happiness”, 1997 • Hills P., Argyle M. (2002).“The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences”. Psychological Wellbeing. 33: 1073–1082. doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6. • Robert Holden “Happiness now!", 1998 • Barbara Ann Kipfer, 14,000 Things to Be Happy About, Workman, 1990/2007, ISBN 978-0-76114721-3. • Neil Kaufman “Happiness is a choice”, 1991 • Stefan Klein, The Science of Happiness, Marlowe, 2006, ISBN 1-56924-328-X. • Koenig HG, McCullough M, & Larson DB. Handbook of religion and health: a century of research reviewed (see article). New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.
8.15. EXTERNAL LINKS • McMahon, Darrin M., Happiness: A History, Atlantic Monthly Press, November 28, 2005. ISBN 0-87113-886-7 • McMahon, Darrin M., The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780, Daedalus journal, Spring 2004.
87 • Journal of happiness studies: an interdisciplinary forum on subjective well-being, International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (ISQOLS), quarterly since 2000, also online • A Point of View: The pursuit of happiness (January 2015), BBC News Magazine
• Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons From A New Science, Penguin, 2005, ISBN 978-0-14-101690-0.
• Srikumar Rao: Plug into your hard-wired happiness – Video of a short lecture on how to be happy
• Luskin, Frederic, Kenneth R. Pelletier, Dr. Andrew Weil (Foreword). “Stress Free for Good: 10 Scientifically Proven Life Skills for Health and Happiness.”2005
• Dan Gilbert: Why are we happy? – Video of a short lecture on how our“psychological immune system” lets us feel happy even when things don’t go as planned.
• James Mackaye “Economy of happiness”, 1906
• TED Radio Hour: Simply Happy - various guest speakers, with some research results
• Desmond Morris“The nature of happiness”, 2004 • David G. Myers, Ph. D., The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy—and Why, William Morrow and Co., 1992, ISBN 0-688-10550-5. • Niek Persoon “Happiness doesn't just happen”, 2006 • Benjamin Radcliff The Political Economy of Human Happiness (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013). • Ben Renshaw “The secrets of happiness”, 2003 • Fiona Robards, “What makes you happy?" Exisle Publishing, 2014, ISBN 978-1-921966-31-6 • Bertrand Russell“The conquest of happiness”, orig. 1930 (many reprints) • Martin E.P. Seligman, Authentic Happiness, Free Press, 2002, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9.
8.15 External links • History of Happiness – concise survey of influential theories • The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry “Pleasure”– ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists' approaches to happiness • The World Happiness Forum promotes dialogue on tools and techniques for human happiness and wellbeing. • Action For Happiness is a UK movement committed to building a happier society • Improving happiness through humanistic leadership- University of Bath, U.K.
• Alexandra Stoddard“Choosing happiness – keys to a joyful life”, 2002
• The World Database of Happiness – a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life.
• Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Analysis of Happiness, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1976
• Oxford Happiness Questionnaire – Online psychological test to measure your happiness.
• Elizabeth Telfer “Happiness : an examination of a hedonistic and a eudaemonistic concept of happiness and of the relations between them...”, 1980
• Track Your Happiness - research project with downloadable app that surveys users periodically and determines personal factors
• Ruut Veenhoven “Bibliography of happiness – world database of happiness : 2472 studies on subjective appreciation of life”, 1993
• Pharrell Williams - Happy (Official Music Video) added to YouTube by P. Williams: i Am Other Retrieved 2015-11-21
• Ruut Veenhoven“Conditions of happiness”, 1984 • Joachim Weimann, Andreas Knabe, and Ronnie Schob, eds. Measuring Happiness: The Economics of Well-Being (MIT Press; 2015) 206 pages • Eric G. Wilson "Against Happiness", 2008 Articles and videos
Chapter 9
Positive psychology For the positive mental attitude, see Optimism. For the good life.”Martin Seligman referred to the good life as belief that positive thoughts result in positive life events, “using your signature strengths every day to produce ausee Law of attraction (New Thought). thentic happiness and abundant gratification.”* [5] Topics of interest to researchers in the field are: states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by social systems and institutions.* [6] Positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: (1) positive experiences, (2) enduring psychological traits, (3) positive relationships and (4) positive institutions.* [7] Some thinkers and researchers, like Seligman, have collected data to support Positive psychology is a relatively new field of academic the development of guiding theories (e.g. “P.E.R.M.A.” study with the first positive psychology summit taking , or The Handbook on Character Strengths and Virtues). place in 1999 and the first International Conference on Research from this branch of psychology has seen variPositive Psychology taking place in 2003. ous practical applications. The basic premise of positive The findings of positive psychology indicate that happi- psychology is that human beings are often, perhaps more ness is improved and affected in a large number of dif- often, drawn by the future than they are driven by the past. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi define positive psyferent ways. Social ties with a spouse, family, friends and wider networks through work, clubs or social organisa- chology as “the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the tions are of particular importance. Happiness increases institutional, cultural, and with increasing financial income but reaches a plateau at biological, personal, relational, global dimensions of life.”* [8] L.M. Keyes and Shane which point no further gains are made. Physical exercise is correlated with improved mental well being as is living Lopez illustrate the four typologies of mental health functioning: flourishing, struggling, floundering and languishin flow and meditation. ing. However, complete mental health is a combination of high emotional well-being, high psychological wellbeing, and high social well-being, along with low mental 9.1 Overview illness.* [9] Positive psychology is the branch of psychology that uses scientific understanding and effective intervention to aid in the achievement of a satisfactory life,* [1]* [2]* [3] rather than treating mental illness. The focus of positive psychology is on personal growth rather than on pathology, as is common among other frameworks within the field of psychology.
The“positive”branch complements, without intention to replace or ignore, the traditional areas of psychology. By adding an important emphasis to use the scientific method to study and determine positive human development, this area of psychology fits well with the investigation of how human development can falter. This field brings attention to the possibility that focusing only on disorder could result in a partial, and limited, understanding of a person's condition.* [4] The words,“the good life”are derived from speculation about what holds the greatest value in life – the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived and fulfilling life. While there is not a strict definition of the good life, positive psychologists agree that one must live a happy, engaged, and meaningful life in order to experience “the
Most psychologists focus on a person's most basic emotions. There are thought to be between seven and fifteen basic emotions. The emotions can be combined in many ways to create more subtle variations of emotional experience. This suggests that any attempt to wholly eliminate negative emotions from our life would have the unintended consequence of losing the variety and subtlety of our most profound emotional experiences. Efforts to increase positive emotions will not automatically result in decreased negative emotions, nor will decreased negative emotions necessarily result in increased positive emotions.* [10] Russell and Feldman Barrett (1992) described emotional reactions as core affects, which are primitive emotional reactions that are consistently experienced but often not acknowledged; they blend pleasant and unpleasant as well as activated and deactivated dimensions that
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we carry with us at an almost unconscious level.* [11] From the time it originated in 1998, this field invested tens of millions of dollars in research, published numerous scientific papers, established several masters and Ph. D programs, and has been involved in many major news outlets. The International Positive Psychology Association (IPPA) is a recently established association that has expanded to thousands of members from 80 different countries. The IPPA’s missions include: (1) “further the science of positive psychology across the globe and to ensure that the field continues to rest on this science” (2) “work for the effective and responsible application of positive psychology in diverse areas such as organizational psychology, counselling and clinical psychology, business, health, education, and coaching”,(3) “foster education and training in the field.”* [12]
9.1.1
The goal
In cognitive therapy, the goal is to help people change negative styles of thinking as a way to change how they feel. This approach has been very successful, and changing how we think about other people, our future, and ourselves is partially responsible for this success. The thinking processes that effect our emotional states vary considerably from person to person. An ability to pull attention away from the chronic inner chatter of our thoughts can be quite advantageous to well-being. A change in our orientation to time can dramatically affect how we think about the nature of happiness. Seligman identified other possible goals: families and schools that allow children to grow, workplaces that aim for satisfaction and high productivity, and teaching others about positive psychology.* [13]
To Martin Seligman, psychology (particularly its positive branch) can investigate and promote realistic ways of fostering more wellbeing in individuals and communities.
ness”,* [18]* :xi expanding on Maslow’s comments.* [19] He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.* [3]
The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.* [3] More attention was given by the general public in 2006 when, using the same framework, a course at Harvard University became particularly popular.* [20] In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place at the University of Pennsylvania.* [21] Positive psychology is the latest effort by human beings to understand the nature of happiness and well-being, but it is by no means the first attempt to solve 9.2 Background that particular puzzle. Different westerners have their own individual views of what positive psychology actually Several humanistic psychologists —such as Abraham is. Hedonism focuses on pleasure as the basic component Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm—developed the- of the good life. ories and practices pertaining to human happiness and The Early Hebrews believed in the divine command theflourishing. More recently, positive psychologists have ory which finds happiness by living according to the comfound empirical support for the humanistic theories of mands or rules set down by a Supreme Being. The Greeks flourishing. In addition, positive psychology has moved thought that happiness could be discovered through logic ahead in a variety of new directions. and rational analysis. In Islam, happiness comes from“a Positive psychology began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association,* [14] though the term originates with Maslow, in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality,* [15] and there have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have been increasingly focused on the promotion of mental health rather than merely treating illness.* [16]* [17] In the first sentence of his book Authentic Happiness, Seligman claimed: “for the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only – mental ill-
contented heart,”which can only be achieved via the remembrance and good pleasure of God (e.g. “The hearts of those who believe find contentment in the remembrance of Allah; for without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find contentment.”[Sûrah al-Ra`d: 28]. Christianity was based on finding happiness in the message and life of Jesus, which is one of love and compassion. In the Baha'i Faith, happiness is closely related to the positive psychology principle of virtue. Virtue is seen as reflecting the names and attributes of God, and is considered the purpose of life.
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Buddhism has some very specific roots in the understanding of the mind and happiness. The historical Buddha taught that there is dukkha in life (suffering, stress, discontent) that arises from our clinging to certain unskillful ideas and expectations about life and the nature of reality. That through the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path (a series on interconnected principles of how to live an ethical and compassionate life), we can gradually eradicate our sense of unhealthy self and the suffering that accompanies unrealistic views of life. Presently a number of scientists are studying the teachings of the Buddha and interrelating them to what neuroscience is now learning about mindfulness, meditation, and an approach to life that cultivates freedom from unhealthy attachments, toward a more skillful, ethical and happy life.
During the Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment, individualism was valued. Simultaneously, creative individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered artists, not just craftsmen. Utilitarian philosophers such as John Stuart Mill believed moral actions were actions that maximized happiness for the most number of people; they suggested an empirical science of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral (a science of morality). Thomas Jefferson and other proponents of democracy believed "Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" are inalienable rights, and violation of these justifies the overthrow of the government.* [3]
The Romantics valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional “true selves,”which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and The field of positive psychology today is most advanced intimacy became main motivations for marriage.* [3] in the United States and Western Europe. Even though positive psychology offers a new approach to the study of positive emotions and behavior, the ideas, theories, research, and motivation to study the positive side of human 9.3 Methods behavior is as old as humanity.* [22]
9.2.1
Historical roots
Positive psychology has roots in the humanistic psychology of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. As scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century, earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources. (See History of psychology) The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. Socrates advocated self-knowledge as the path to happiness. Plato's allegory of the cave influenced western thinkers who believed that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed happiness, or eudaimonia is constituted by rational activity in accordance with virtue over a complete life. The Epicureans believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The Stoics believed they could remain happy by being objective and reasonable, and described many“spiritual exercises”comparable to the psychological exercises employed in cognitive behavioral therapy and positive psychology.* [3]* [23]
Positive psychology is concerned with three issues: positive emotions, positive individual traits, and positive institutions. Positive emotions are concerned with being content with one's past, being happy in the present and having hope for the future. Positive individual traits focus on one's strengths and virtues. Finally, positive institutions are based on strengths to better a community of people.* [13] “Happiness”encompasses different emotional and mental phenomena. One method of assessment is Ed Diener's Satisfaction with Life Scale. According to Diener, this five-question survey corresponds well with impressions from friends and family, and low incidence of depression.* [26]
Rather than long-term, big picture appraisals, some methods attempt to identify the amount of positive affect from one activity to the next. Scientists use beepers to remind volunteers to write down the details of their current situation. Alternatively, volunteers complete detailed diary entries each morning about the day before.* [26] An interesting discrepancy arises when researchers compare the results of these short-term “experience sampling” methods, with long-term appraisals. Namely, the latter may not be very accurate; people may not know what makes their life pleasant from one moment to the next. For instance, parents' appraisals mention their children as Judaism has 3,000-year tradition of wisdom regarding sources of pleasure, while “experience sampling”indihappiness.* [3]* [24]* [25] It also promotes a Divine com- cates parents were not enjoying caring for their children, mand theory of happiness: happiness and rewards follow compared to other activities.* [26]* [27] from following the commands of the divine. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains this discrepancy Christianity continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the Middle Ages, Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the afterlife. The seven deadly sins are about earthly selfindulgence and narcissism. On the other hand, the Four Cardinal Virtues and Three Theological Virtues were supposed to keep one from sin.* [3]
by differentiating between happiness according to the “experiencing self”compared to the“remembering self": when asked to reflect on experiences, memory biases like the Peak-End effect (e.g. we mostly remember the dramatic parts of a vacation, and how it was at the end) play a large role. A striking finding was in a study of colonoscopy patients. Adding 60 seconds to this inva-
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just by looking at fMRI brain scans.* [31] By identifying neural correlates for emotions, scientists may be able to use methods like brain scans to tell us more about the different ways of being“happy”. Richard Davidson has conducted research to determine which parts of the brain are involved in positive emotions. He found that the left prefrontal cortex is more activated when we are happy and is also associated with greater ability to recover from negative emotions as well as enhanced ability to suppress negative emotions. Interestingly, Davidson found that people can train themselves to increase activation in this area of their brains.* [32] It is thought that our brains can change throughout our lives as a result of our experiences; this is known as neuroplasticity. Determining whether emotions have a genetic trait or not were studied by David Lykken and Auke Tellegen. They found that up to 80% of a longterm sense of well-being is due to heredity. Basically, our families are important to our eventual emotional lives as adults because they provide us with genetic material that largely determines our base emotional responsiveness to the world. Therefore, genetic makeup is far more important to the long-term quality of our emotional lives than is learned behavior or the quality of our early childThe “Remembering self”may not be the best source of infor- hood environment, at least as found in our current sociomation for pleasing the “Experiencing self” economic paradigm.* [33] The remaining 20%, however, still leaves room for significant change in thoughts and behavior from environmental/learned sources that should sive procedure, Kahneman found participants reported not be understated. the colonoscopy as more pleasant. This was attributed to making sure the colonoscopy instrument was not moved during the extra 60 seconds – movement is the source of the most discomfort. Thus, Kahneman was appealing to the remembering self's tendency to focus on the end of 9.3.2 Evolutionary approach the experience. Such findings help explain human error in affective forecasting – people's ability to predict their The evolutionary perspective offers an alternative apfuture emotional states.* [27] proach to understanding happiness and quality of life. Psychologists Peter Hills and Michael Argyle developed Key guiding questions: What features are included in the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire* [28] as a broad the brain that allow humans to distinguish between posimeasure of psychological well-being. The approach was tive and negative states of mind? How do these features criticized for lacking a theoretical model of happiness and improve humans' ability to survive and reproduce? The for overlapping too much with related concepts such as evolutionary perspective claims that the answers to these self-esteem, sense of purpose, social interest, kindness, questions point towards an understanding of what hapsense of humor and aesthetic appreciation.* [29] piness is about and how to best exploit the capacities of the brain with which humans are endowed. This perspective is presented formally and in detail by the evolution9.3.1 Neuroscientific approach ary biologist Bjørn Grinde in his book Darwinian Happiness.* [34] Neuroscience and brain imaging have shown increasing potential for helping science understand happiness and sadness. Though it may be impossible to achieve any comprehensive objective measure of happiness, some physiological correlates to happiness can be measured. Stefan Klein, in his book The Science of Happiness, links 9.4 General findings by topic the dynamics of neurobiological systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psy- Happiness has become a common discussion topic in popchology and social psychology.* [30] ular culture, especially in the Western world. Many studNobel prize winner Eric Kandel and researcher Cyn- ies have undertaken to demystify the factors involved in thia Fu described very accurate diagnoses of depression happiness. The following describes related research.
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CHAPTER 9. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Age
The midlife crisis may mark the first reliable drop in happiness during an average human's life. Evidence suggests most people generally become happier with age, with the exception of the years 40 – 50, which is the typical age at which a crisis might occur. Researchers specify that people in both their 20s and 70s are happier than during midlife, although the extent of happiness changes at different rates. For example, feelings of stress and anger tend to decline after age 20, worrying drops after age 50, and enjoyment very slowly declines in adulthood but finally starts to rise after age 50.* [26]* [35]* [36] These findings are based on decades of data, and control for cohort groups; the data avoids the risk that the drops in happiness during midlife are due to populations' unique midlife experiences, like a war. The studies have also controlled for income, job status and parenting (as opposed to childlessness) to try to isolate the effects of age. Researchers found support for the notion of age changes inside the individual that affect happiness. This could be for any number of reasons. Psychological factors could include: greater awareness of one's self and preferences; an ability to control desires and have more realistic expectations – unrealistic expectations tend to foster unhappiness; moving closer to death may motivate people to pursue personal goals; improved social skills, like forgiveness, may take years to develop – the practice of forgiveness seems linked to higher levels of happiness; or happier people may live longer and are slightly overrepresented in the elderly population. Age-related chemical changes might also play a role.* [35]* [36]* [37]* [38]
culate positive self-esteem, active leisure and mental control.* [42] Therefore, neither men nor women are at greater risk for being less happy than the other. Earlier in life, women are more likely than men to fulfill their goals (material goals and family life aspirations), thereby increasing their life satisfaction and overall happiness. However, it is later in life that men fulfill their goals, are more satisfied with their family life and financial situation and, as a result, their overall happiness surpasses that of women.* [43] Possible explanations include the unequal division of labor within the household,* [44] or that women experience more variance (more extremes) in emotion but are generally happier.* [38] Effects of gender on well-being are paradoxical: men report feeling less happy than women,, however, women are more susceptible to depression.* [45] A study was conducted by Siamak Khodarahimi to determine the roles of gender and age on positive psychology constructs – psychological hardiness, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and happiness – among 200 Iranian adolescents and 200 young adults who were questioned through various tests. The study found that the males of the sample showed significantly higher rates in psychological hardiness, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and happiness than females, regardless of age.* [46]
9.4.3 Health Positive emotional states have a favorable effect on mortality and survival in both healthy and diseased populations. Even at the same level of smoking, drinking, exercise, and sleep, happier people seem to live longer.* [47] Interventional trials conducted to establish a cause-effect relationship indicate positive emotions to be associated with greater resistance to objectively verifiable colds and flu.* [48]* [49]
Other studies have found older individuals reported more health problems, but fewer problems overall. Young adults reported more anger, anxiety, depression, financial problems, troubled relationships and career stress. Researchers also suggest depression in the elderly is often due largely to passivity and inaction – they recommend There is growing evidence that a diet rich in fruits and people continue to undertake activities that bring happi- vegetables is related to greater happiness, life satisfacness, even in old age.* [39] tion, and positive mood as well. This evidence cannot The activity restriction model of depressed affect sug- be entirely explained by demographic or health variables gests that stressors that disrupt traditional activities of including socio-economic status, exercise, smoking, and * daily life can lead to a decrease in mental health. The body mass index, suggesting a causal link. [50] Further elderly population is vulnerable to activity restriction be- studies have found that fruit and vegetable consumption cause of the disabling factors related to age. Increases in predicted improvements in positive mood the next day, scheduled activity as well as social support can decrease not vice versa. On days when people ate more fruits and vegetables, they reported feeling calmer, happier, and the chances of activity restriction.* [40] more energetic than normal, and they also felt more positive the next day.* [51]
9.4.2
Gender
Over the last 33 years, a significant decrease in women's happiness leads researchers to believe that men are happier than women.* [41] Part of these findings could be due to the way men and women differ in calculating their happiness. Women calculate the positive self-esteem, closeness in their relationships and religion. Men cal-
Cross-sectional studies worldwide support a relationship between happiness and fruit and vegetable intake. Whether it be in South Korea,* [52] Iran,* [53] Chile,* [54] or USA,* [55] those eating greater fruits and vegetables each day have a higher likelihood of being classified as“very happy.”This could be due to the protective benefits from chronic diseases and a greater intake of nutrients important for psychological health.* [56]
9.4. GENERAL FINDINGS BY TOPIC
9.4.4
Personal finances
93 periences, rather than physical things.* [64] Lottery winners report higher levels of happiness immediately following the event. But research shows winner's happiness levels drop and return to normal baseline rates within months to years. This finding suggests money does not cause long-term happiness.* [65]
9.4.5 Education and intelligence
Money, once one reaches middle class, may be best spent ensuring one's job and social ties are enjoyable
English poet Thomas Gray said "Where ignorance is bliss, ’Tis folly to be wise."* [66] Research suggests neither a good education nor a high IQ reliably increases happiness.* [26] Anders Ericsson argued an IQ above 120 has a decreasing influence on success. Presumably, IQs above 120 do not additionally cause other happiness indicators like success (with the exception of careers like Theoretical physics, where high IQs are more predictive of success). Above that IQ level, other factors, like social skills and a good mentor, matter more.* [67] As these relate to happiness, intelligence and education may simply allow one to reach a middle-class level of need satisfaction (as mentioned above, being richer than this seems to hardly affect happiness).* [68] According to the findings of the study, Using Theatrical Concepts for Role-plays with Educational Agents by Klesen, she expresses how role- playing embeds information and educational goals and causes people to learn unintentionally. Studies has shown that enjoyment in things as simple as role playing increases a person's IQ and their happiness.* [69]
In his book Stumbling on Happiness, psychologist Daniel Gilbert described research suggesting money makes a significant difference to the poor (where basic needs are not yet met), but has a greatly diminished effect once one reaches middle class (i.e. the Easterlin paradox).* [57] One study found money ceased to aid level of happiness after a person makes over US $75,000 a year, and people overestimate the influence of wealth by 100%.* [58] Professor of Economics Richard Easterlin noted job satisfaction does not depend on salary. In other words, having extra money for luxuries does not increase happiness as much as enjoying one's job or social network.* [59] Gilbert is thus adamant, people should go to great lengths to figure out which jobs they would enjoy, and to find a Martin Seligman has said: “As a professor, I don't like way to do one of those jobs for a living (that is, provided this, but the cerebral virtues—curiosity, love of learning —are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal one is also attentive to social ties). virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love.” A more recent study has challenged the Easterlin paradox. * [26] Using recent data from a broader collection of countries, a positive link was found between GDP and well-being; and there was no point at which wealthier countries' subjective 9.4.6 Parenthood well-being ceased to increase. It was concluded economic growth does indeed increase happiness.* [60] While the mantle of parenting is sometimes held as the Wealth is strongly correlated with life satisfaction but the necessary path of adulthood, study findings are actually correlation between money and emotional well-being was mixed as to whether parents report higher levels of hapweak.* [61] The pursuit of money may lead people to ig- piness relative to non-parents. Folk wisdom suggests nore leisure time and relationships, both of which may a child brings partners closer; research has found coucause and contribute to happiness.* [58] The pursuit of ples actually become less satisfied after the birth of the * money at the risk of jeopardizing one's personal relation- first child. [70] The joys of having a child are overshad* ships and sacrificing enjoyment from one's leisure activi- owed by the responsibilities of parenthood. [71] Based on quantitative self-reports, researchers found parents ties seems an unwise approach to finding happiness. prefer doing almost anything else to looking after their Money, or its hectic pursuit, has been shown to hinder children. By contrast, parents' self-report levels of happeople's savoring ability, or the act of enjoying everyday piness are higher than those of non-parents. This may be positive experiences and emotions. In a study looking at due to already happy people having more children than working adults, wealthy individuals reported lower levels unhappy people. In addition, it might also be that, in of savoring ability (the ability to prolong positive emo- the long-term, having children gives more meaning to tion) relative to their poorer peers.* [62] life.* [72]* [73] One study found having up to three chilStudies have routinely shown that nations are happier dren increased happiness among married couples, but not when people's needs are met.* [63] Some studies suggest, among other groups with children.* [74] Proponents of however, people are happier after spending money on ex- Childfreedom maintain this is because one can enjoy a
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happy, productive life without the trouble of ever being a being less happy than previously and single men reporting parent. being happier than previously.* [84] A two-factor theory By contrast, many studies found having children makes of love was developed by Barnes and Sternberg. This theparents less happy. Compared with non-parents, parents ory is composed of two components: passionate love and with children have lower levels of well-being and life sat- companionate love. Passionate love is considered to be an isfaction.* [75] In addition, parents report more feelings intense longing for a loved one. This love is often experiof depression* [71] and anxiety* [76] than non-parents. enced through joy and sexual fulfillment, or even through However, when adults without children are compared to rejection. On the other hand, companionate love is associated with affection, friendship and commitment. Both empty nest parents, parenthood is positively associated for * with emotional well being. [71] People found parenthood passionate and companionate love are the foundations every variety of love that one may experience.* [85] to be more stressful in the 1970s than they did in the 1950s. This is thought to be because of social changes in regards to employment and marital status.* [76]
9.4.8 Personality
Males apparently become less happy after the birth of a child due to added economic pressure and taking on the role of being a parent.* [70] A conflict between partners can arise when the couple does not desire traditional roles, or has an increasing number of roles.* [70] Unequal responsibilities of child-rearing between men and women account for this difference in satisfaction. Fathers who worked and shared an equal part in child-raising responsibilities were found to be the least satisfied.* [77] Research shows that single parents have higher levels of distress and report more mental health problems than married persons.* [71]
Ed Diener et al. (1999) suggested this equation: positive emotion – negative emotion = subjective well-being. Since tendency to positive emotion has a correlation of 0.8 with extroversion and tendency towards negative emotion is indistinguishable from neuroticism, the above equation could also be written as extroversion – neuroticism = happiness. These two traits could account for between 50% to 75% of happiness.* [86] These are all referring to the Big Five personality traits model of personality.
An emotionally stable (the opposite of Neurotic) personality correlates well with happiness. Not only does emotional stability make one less prone to negative emo9.4.7 Marriage tions, it also predicts higher social intelligence – which Seligman writes: “Unlike money, which has at most helps to manage relationships with others (an important * a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happi- part of being happy, discussed below). [38] ness.... In my opinion, the jury is still out on what causes Cultivating an extroverted temperament may correlate the proven fact married people are happier than unmar- with happiness for the same reason: it builds relationried people.”(pp. 55–56* [18]). Married persons re- ships and support groups. Some people may be forport higher levels of happiness and well being than sin- tunate, from the standpoint of personality theories that gle folks.* [78] Other data has shown a spouse's happi- suggest individuals have control over their long-term beness depends on the happiness of their partner. When haviors and cognitions. Genetic studies indicate genes asked, spouses reported similar happiness levels to each for personality (specifically extroversion, neuroticism and other. The data also shows the spouses' happiness level conscientiousness), and a general factor linking all 5 fluctuates similarly to one another. If the husband is hav- traits, account for the heritability of subjective welling a bad week, the wife will similarly report she had a being.* [87] Recent research suggests there is a happiness bad week.* [79] There is also little data on alternatives like gene, the 5-HTT gene.* [88] polyamory, although one study stated wife order in polygyny did not have a substantial effect on life or marital satisfaction over all.* [80] This study also found younger 9.4.9 Social ties wives were happier than older wives. On the other hand, at least one large study in Germany found no difference in In the article“Finding Happiness after Harvard”, George happiness between married and unmarried people.* [81] Vaillant concluded a study on what aspects of life are Studies have shown that married couples are consistently important for “successful living”. In the 1940s, Arhappier and more satisfied with their life than those who lie Bock, while in charge of the Harvard Health Services, are single.* [82] Some research findings have indicated started a study, selecting 268 Harvard students from gradthat marriage is the only real significant bottom-up pre- uating classes of 1942, '43, and '44. He sought to identify dictor of life satisfaction for men and women and those the aspects of life contributing to “successful living”. people who have a higher life satisfaction prior to mar- In 1967, the psychiatrist George Vaillant continued the riage, tend to have a happier marriage.* [83] Surprisingly, study, undertaking follow-up interviews to gauge the lives there has been a steady decline in the positive relation- of many of the students. In 2000, Vaillant again intership between marriage and well-being in the United States viewed these students as to their progress in life. Vailsince the 1970s. This decline is due to women reporting lant observed: health, close relationships, and how par-
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ticipants dealt with their troubles. Vaillant found a key westerners expected the former's happiness ratings to be aspect to successful living is healthy and strong relation- higher due to a sunnier environment. In fact, the Caliships.* [89] fornian and Midwestern happiness ratings did not show * A widely publicized study from 2008 in the British Med- a significant difference. [26] Other researchers say the daily dose of sunlight is as little as ical Journal reported happiness in social networks may necessary minimum * 30 minutes. [98] * spread from person to person. [90] Researchers followed nearly 5000 individuals for 20 years in the long-standing Framingham Heart Study and found clusters of happiness and unhappiness that spread up to 3 degrees of separation on average. Happiness tended to spread through close relationships like friends, siblings, spouses, and nextdoor neighbors; researchers reported happiness spread more consistently than unhappiness through the network. Moreover, the structure of the social network appeared to affect happiness, as people who were very central (with many friends, and friends of friends) were significantly happier than those on the network periphery. People closer with others are more likely to be happy themselves.* [90] Overall, the results suggest happiness can spread through a population like a virus.* [91]* [92] Having a best friend buffers one's negative life experiences. When one's best friend is present Cortisol levels are decreased and feelings of self-worth increase.* [93]
That is not to say weather is never a factor for happiness. Perhaps the changing norms of sunlight cause seasonal affective disorder, which undermines level of happiness.
9.4.12 Religion See also: Psychology of religion
Religiousness and spirituality are closely related but distinct topics. Religion is any organized, and often institutionalized, system of cultural practices and beliefs pertaining to the meaning of human existence. It occurs within a traditional context such as a formal religious institution.* [99] Spirituality, on the other hand, is a general term applied to the process of finding meaning and a better understanding of one's place in the universe. It is the Neuroeconomist Paul Zak studies morality, oxytocin, and individual or collective search for that which is sacred or trust, among other variables. Based on research findings, meaningful in life.* [100] One may therefore be religious Zak recommends: people hug others more often to get but not spiritual, and vice versa. into the habit of feeling trust. He explains “eight hugs Religiousness has often been found to correlate with posa day, you'll be happier, and the world will be a better itive health attributes. People who are more religious * place”. [94] show better emotional well-being and lower rates of delinRecently, Anderson et al. found that sociometric status quency, alcoholism, drug abuse, and other social prob(the amount of respect one has from face-to-face peer lems.* [101] group) is significantly and causally related to happiness Six separate factors are cited as evidence for religion's as measured by subjective well-being.* [95] effect on well-being: religion (1) provides social support, (2) supports healthy lifestyles, (3) promotes personality integration, (4) promotes generativity and altruism, 9.4.10 Modernity (5) provides unique coping strategies, and (6) provides a sense of meaning and purpose.* [102] Many religious Much research has pointed at the rising rates of deindividuals experience emotions that create positive conpression, leading people to speculate that modernizanections among people and allow them to express their tion may be a factor in the growing percentage of devalues and potential. These four emotions are known as pressed people. One study found that women in urban “sacred emotions,”which are said to be (1) gratitude and America were much more likely to experience depresappreciation, (2) forgiveness, (3) compassion and empasion than those in rural Nigeria.* [96] Other studies have thy, and (4) humility.* [103] found a positive correlation between a country's GDP per capita, as quantitative measure of modernization, and Social interaction is necessarily a part of the religious lifetime risk of a mood disorder trended toward signifi- experience. Religiosity has been identified to correlate positively with prosocial behavior in trauma patients, and cance (p=0.06).* [97] prosocial behavior is furthermore associated with wellMany people believe it is the increased number of presbeing.* [104] It also has stronger associations with wellsures and expectations, increased isolation, increased inbeing in individuals genetically predisposed towards sodividualism, and increased inactivity that contribute to cial sensitivity in environments where religion prioritizes higher rates of depression in modern societies. social affiliation.* [105] It has also been linked to greater resilience against stress* [106] as well as higher measures of self-actualization* [107] and success in romantic rela9.4.11 Weather tionships and parental responsibilities.* [108] Some evidence suggests sunnier climates do not predict These benefits, while being correlational, may come happiness. In one study both Californians and Mid- about as a result of becoming more religiously involved.
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The benefit of having a secure social group likely plays a key part in religion's positive effects. One form of Christian counseling uses religion through talk therapy and assessments to promote mental health.* [109] In another instance, people who were not Buddhist, but were exposed to Buddhist concepts, scored higher on measures of outgroup acceptance and prosociality.* [110] This effect was found not only in Western countries, but also in places where Buddhism is prevalent, indicating a general association of Buddhism with acceptance. This finding seems to indicate that merely encountering a religious belief system such as Buddhism may allow some of its effects to be transferred to nonbelievers.
itive personality traits and acceptance.* [116] However, the results are typically associative and not causal. Research that includes both spirituality and virtues (love, kindness, etc.) reports the effects of spirituality are better explained by virtues.* [117]
Reaching the sacred as a personal goal, also called spiritual striving, has been found to correlate highest with well-being compared to other forms of striving.* [118] This type of striving can improve a sense of self and relationships and creates a connection to the transcendent* [115] Additionally, multiple studies have shown that self-reported spirituality is related to lower rates of mortality and depression and higher rates of happiHowever, many disagree that the benefits the religious ex- ness.* [119]* [120]* [121] perience are due to their beliefs, and some find there to Currently, most research on spirituality examines ways be no conclusive psychological benefits of belief at all. in which spirituality can help in times of crisis. SpiriFor example, the health benefit that the elderly gain from tuality has been found to remain constant when experigoing to church may in fact be the reason they are able to encing traumatic events and/or life stressors such as acgo to church; the less healthy cannot leave their homes. cidents, war, sickness, and death of a loved one. When Meta analysis has found that find studies purporting the confronted with an obstacle, people might turn to prayer beneficial results of religiosity often fail to fully repre- or meditation. Coping mechanisms involving spiritualsent data correctly due to a number of issues such as self- ity include meditative meditation, creating boundaries to report bias, the use of inappropriate comparison groups, preserve the sacred, spiritual purification to return to the and the presence of criterion contamination.* [111] Other righteous path, and spiritual reframing which focuses on studies have disputed the efficacy of intercessory prayer maintaining belief. One clinical application of spiritupositively affecting the health of those being prayed for. ality and positive psychology research is the “psychosThey have shown that, when scientifically rigorous stud- piritual intervention,”which represents the potential that ies are performed (by randomizing the patients and pre- spirituality has to increase well-being.* [115] These copventing them from knowing that they are being prayed ing mechanisms that aim to preserve the sacred have been for), there is no discernible effect.* [112]* [113] found by researchers to increase well being and return the Religion has power as a cohesive social force, and whether individual back to the sacred.* [115] or not it is always beneficial is debated. Irrespective Overall, spirituality is a process that occurs over a lifeof a group's beliefs, many find that simply belonging to time and includes searching, conserving, and redefining a tight social group reduces anxiety and mental health what is sacred in an extremely individualized manner. It problems. In addition, there may be a degree of self- does not always have a positive effect and in fact has been selectivity amongst the religious; the behavioral benefits associated with very negative events and life changes. Rethey display may simply be common aspects of those who search is lacking in spirituality but it is necessary because choose to or are able to practice religion. As a result, spirituality can assist in enhancing the experiences of the whether or not religion can be prescribed scientifically uncontrollable parts of life. as a means of self-betterment is unclear.
9.4.13
Spirituality
Many people describe themselves as both religious and spiritual, but spirituality represents just one particular function of religion. Spirituality as related to positive psychology can be defined as “a search for the sacred” .* [114] What is defined as sacred can be related to God, life itself, or almost any other facet of existence. It simply must be viewed as having spiritual implications which are transcendent of the individual.* [115] Spiritual wellbeing addresses this human need for transcendence and involves social as well as existential well-being. Spiritual well-being is associated with various positive outcomes such as better physical and psychological wellbeing, lower anxiety, less depression, self-actualization, positive relationships with parents, higher rates of pos-
9.4.14 Culture Main article: Culture and positive psychology Various cultures have various perspectives on the nature of positive human functioning. For example, studies on aversion to happiness, or fear of happiness, indicates that some individuals and cultures are averse to the experience of happiness, because they believe happiness may cause bad things to happen.* [122] Empirical evidence indicates that there are fundamental differences in the ways well-being is construed in Western and nonWestern cultures, including the Islamic and East Asian cultures.* [123] Exploring various cultural perspectives on well-being, Joshanloo (2014) identifies and discusses six broad differences between Western and non-Western
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conceptions of well-being. For example, whereas Western cultures tend to emphasize the absence of negative emotions and autonomy in defining well-being, Eastern cultures tend to emphasize virtuous or religious activity, self-transcendence, and harmony.* [124]
have the ability to become addictive. When happiness comes to us so easily, it comes with a price we may not realize. This price comes when taking these shortcuts is the only way to become happy, otherwise viewed as an addiction.* [132] A review by Amy Krentzman on the ApEunkook M. Suh (University of California) and Shigehiro plication of Positive Psychology to Substance Use, AdOishi (University of Minnesota; now at University of Vir- diction, and Recovery Research, identified, in the field of ginia) examined the differences of happiness on an inter- positive psychology, three domains that allow an individual to thrive and contribute to society. national level and different cultures' views on what creates well-being and happiness. In a study, of over 6,000 stu- One of these, A Pleasant Life, involves good feelings dents from 43 nations, to identify mean life satisfaction, about the past, present, and future. To tie this with adon a scale of 1–7, the Chinese ranked lowest at 3.3; and diction, they chose an example of alcoholism. Research Dutch scored the highest at 5.4. When asked how much on positive affect and alcohol showed a majority of the subjective well-being was ideal, Chinese ranked lowest at population associates drinking with pleasure. The plea4.5, and Brazilians highest at 6.2, on a scale of 1–7. The sure one feels from alcohol is known as somatic pleastudy had three main findings: (1) People living in indi- sure, which is immediate but a short lived sensory devidualistic, rather than collectivist, societies are happier; light. The researchers wanted to make clear pleasure (2) Psychological attributes referencing the individual are alone does not amount to a life well lived; there is more to more relevant to Westerners; (3) Self-evaluating happi- life than pleasure. Secondly, the Engaged Life is associness levels depend on different cues, and experiences, ated with positive traits such as strength of character. A from one's culture.* [125] few examples of character strength according to Character Strength and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification The results of a study by Chang E. C. showed that by Seligman and Peterson (2004) are bravery, integrity, Asian Americans and Caucasian Americans have simicitizenship, humility, prudence, gratitude, and hope, all lar levels of optimism but Asian Americans are far more of which are shown in the rise to recovery. To descend pessimistic than Caucasian Americans. However, there into an addiction shows a lack of character strength; howwere no major differences in depression across cultures. ever, rising to recovery shows the reinstatement of charOn the other hand, pessimism was positively linked to acter strengths, including the examples mentioned above. problem solving behaviors for Asian Americans, but was Thirdly, the Meaningful Life is service and membership * negatively linked for Caucasian Americans. [126] to positive organizations. Examples of positive organizations include family, workplace, social groups, and society in general. Organizations, like Alcoholics Anony9.4.15 Political views mous, can be viewed as a positive organization. MemberPsychologists in the happiness community feel politics ship fosters positive affect, while also promoting characshould promote population happiness. Politics should ter strengths, which as seen in the Engaged Life, can aid * also consider level of human happiness among future gen- in beating addiction. [132] erations, concern itself with life expectancy, and focus on the reduction of suffering.* [127] Based on political affiliation, some studies argue conservatives, on average, are happier than liberals. A potential explanation is greater acceptance of income inequalities in society leads to a less worried nature.* [128] Luke Galen, Associate Professor of Psychology at Grand Valley State University, mentioned political commitments as important because they are a sort of secular world view that, like religion, can be generally beneficial to coping with death anxiety (see also Terror management theory and religion and happiness).* [129]* [130]* [131]
9.4.16
9.4.17 Suffering Research has shown it is possible to help suffering people by building their strengths. In addition, prevention researchers have discovered strengths act as buffers against mental illness. The strengths that represent major strides in prevention include: courage, future mindedness, optimism, faith, work ethic, hope, honesty, perseverance, and the capacity for flow and insight.* [133] “ ”
Addiction
Arguably, some people pursue ineffective shortcuts to feeling good. These shortcuts create positive feelings, but are problematic, in part because of the lack of effort involved. Some examples of these shortcuts include shopping, drugs, chocolate, loveless sex, and TV. These are problematic pursuits because all of these examples
Suffering can indicate behavior worthy of change, as well as ideas that require a person's careful attention and consideration.* [134] Generally, psychology acknowledges suffering can not be completely eliminated, but it is possible to successfully manage and reduce suffering. The University of Pennsylvania's Positive Psychology Center explains: “Psychology’s concern with remedying hu-
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man problems is understandable and should certainly not 9.4.18 be abandoned. Human suffering demands scientifically informed solutions. Suffering and well being, however, are both part of the human condition, and psychologists should be concerned with both.”* [133] Positive psychology, inspired by empirical evidence, focuses on productive approaches to pain and suffering, as well the importance of cultivating strengths and virtues to keep suffering to a minimum* [133]* [135] (see also Character strengths and virtues (book)).
Changes in happiness levels
According to Peterson, the Buddhist saying that“Life is Suffering” can be understood as a reality that humans must accept, as well Daniel Kahneman as a call to cultivate virtues.
In reference to the Buddhist saying “Life is suffering”, researcher and clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson suggested this view as realistic, not pessimistic, where acceptance of the reality life is harsh, provides a freedom from the expectation one should always be happy. This realization can assist in the management of inevitable suffering. To Peterson, virtues are important because they provide people with essential tools to escape suffering (e.g., the strength to admit dissonant truths to themselves). Peterson maintained suffering is made worse by false philosophy (i.e., denial that natural suffering is inevitable).* [136]
Humans exhibit a variety of abilities. This includes an ability of emotional Hedonic Adaptation, an idea suggesting that beauty, fame and money do not generally have lasting effects on happiness (this effect has also been called the Hedonic treadmill). In this vein, some research has suggested that only recent events, meaning those that occurred within the last 3 months, affect happiness levels.* [139] The tendency to adapt, and therefore return to an earlier level of happiness, is illustrated by studies showing lottery winners are no happier in the years after they've won.* [26] Other studies have shown paraplegics are nearly as happy as control groups that are not paralyzed (p. 48* [18]), after equally few years. Daniel Kahneman explains: “they are not paraplegic full time...It has to do with allocation of attention”. Thus, contrary to our impact biases, lotteries and paraplegia do not change experiences to as great a degree as we would believe.
Similarly, Seligman believes positive psychology is “not a luxury”, saying“most of Positive Psychology is for all of us, troubled or untroubled, privileged or in privation, suffering or carefree. The pleasures of a good conversation, the strength of gratitude, the benefits of kindness or wisdom or spirituality or humility, the search for meaning and the antidote to “fidgeting until we die”are the birthrights of us all.”* [137] Adaptation can be very slow and incomplete process. Positive coping is defined as“a response aimed at dimin- Distracting life changes such as the death of a spouse or ishing the physical, emotional, and psychological burden losing one's job can show measurable changes in happithat is linked to stressful life events and daily hassles” ness levels for several years.* [26] Even the “adapted” * [138] It is found that proper coping strategies will re- paraplegics mentioned above did ultimately report lower duce the burden of short-term stress and will help relieve levels of pleasure (again, they were happier than one long-term stress. Stress can be reduced by building re- would expect, but not fully adapted).* [140] Thus, adapsources that inhibit or buffer future challenges. For some tation is a complex process, and while it does mitigate the people, these effective resources could be physiological, emotional effects of many life events it cannot mitigate them entirely. psychological or social.* [138]
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Happiness set point
for an individual always requires genetics, environment, and behaviour too, so it is nonsensical to claim that an The happiness set point idea is that most people return individual's happiness is due to only one ingredient. to an average level of happiness – or a set point – after Only differences in happiness can be attributed to diftemporary highs and lows in emotionality. People whose ferences in factors. In other words, Lyubomirsky's reset points lean toward positive emotionality tend to be search does not discuss happiness in one individual; it cheerful most of the time and those whose set points tend discusses differences in happiness between two or more to be more negative emotionality tend to gravitate toward people. Specifically, Lyubomirsky suggests that 30–40% pessimism and anxiety. Lykken found that we can inof the difference in happiness levels is due to genetics (i.e. fluence our level of well-being by creating environments heritable). In other words, still, Diener says it makes no more conductive to feelings of happiness and by working sense to say one person's happiness is “due 50% to gewith our genetic makeup.* [33] A reason why subjective netics”, but it does make sense to say one person's difwell being is for the most part stable is because of the ference in happiness is 50% due to differences in their great influence genetics have. Although the events of life genetics (and the rest is due to behaviour and environhave some effect on subjective well being, the general ment).* [33]* [140] population returns to their set point* [141] Findings from twin studies support the findings just menFujita and Diener found that 24% of people changed sigtioned. Twins reared apart had nearly the same levnificantly between the first five years of the study and the els of happiness thereby suggesting the environment is last five years. Almost one in four people showed changes not entirely responsible for differences in people's hapin their well-being over the years; indeed sometimes those piness.* [33] Importantly, an individual's baseline happichanges were quite dramatic.* [142] Bruce Headey found ness is not entirely determined by genetics, and not even that 5–6% of people dramatically increased their life satby early life influences on one's genetics. Whether or not isfaction over a 15- to 20-year period and that the goals a person manages to elevate their baseline to the heights people pursued significantly affected their life satisfacof their genetic possibilities depends partly on several tion.* [143] factors, including actions and habits. Some happinessTwo different goals on the continuum are known as boosting habits seem to include gratitude, appreciation, nonzero-sum goals and zero-sum goals. Nonzero-sum and even altruistic behavior.* [26] Other research-based goals are associated with greater life satisfaction consisted habits and techniques for increasing happiness are disof commitments to family and friends, social or political cussed on this page. involvement, and altruism. This term implies that the perBesides the development of new habits, the use of anson involved and others can both benefit. Zero-sum goals tidepressants, effective exercise, and a healthier diet have are associated with a person who gains advantage at the proven to affect mood significantly. In fact, exercise is expense of others, did not promote life satisfaction. sometimes called the “miracle”or “wonder”drug – alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits it provides.* [144]* [145] It is worth mentioning that a recent book, Anatomy of an Epidemic, challenges the use of nonconservative usage of medications for mental patients, specially with respect to their long-term positive feedback effects.* [146]
9.5 Theory 9.5.1 Broad theories
In the recipe for one person's happiness, it is nonsensical to blame one ingredient (because all are necessary). However, when comparing two people's happiness, ingredients like genetics can account for as much as half the difference.
In her book The How of Happiness, Sonja Lyubomirsky similarly argued people's happiness varies around a genetic set point. Diener warns, however, that it is nonsensical to claim that “happiness is influenced 30–50% by genetics”. Diener explains that the recipe for happiness
Some positive psychology researchers* [18]* :275 posit three overlapping areas of investigation: 1. Research into the Pleasant Life, or the “life of enjoyment”, examines how people optimally experience, forecast, and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.). Despite the attention given, Martin Seligman says this most transient element of happiness may be the least important.* [26]
100 2. Investigation of the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and flow, felt by individuals when optimally engaged with their primary activities, is the study of the Good Life, or the “life of engagement”. Flow is experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and their current task, i.e. when one feels confident of accomplishing a chosen or assigned task. (See related concepts: Self-efficacy and play)
CHAPTER 9. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY ships to other parts of life.* [153]* [154] Finding meaning is learning that there is something greater than you. Despite potential challenges, working with meaning drives people to continue striving for a desirable goal.
Accomplishments are the pursuit of success and mastery.* [148] Unlike the other parts of PERMA, they are sometimes pursued even when it does not result in positive emotions, meaning, or relationships. That being noted, accomplishment can activate the other elements * 3. Inquiry into the Meaningful Life, or “life of af- of PERMA, such as pride under positive emotion. [155] filiation”, questions how individuals derive a pos- Accomplishments can be individual or community based, itive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and fun or work based. purpose from being part of and contributing back to The five PERMA elements were selected according to something larger and more permanent than them- three criteria: selves (e.g., nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems). 1. It contributes to well-being. These categories appear neither widely disputed nor adopted by researchers across the 12 years that this academic area has been in existence. Although Seligman originally proposed these 3 categories, he has since suggested the last category, “meaningful life”, be considered as 3 different categories. The resulting acronym is PERMA (Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments) and is a mnemonic for the five elements of Martin Seligman's well-being theory.* [147] Positive emotions include a wide range of feelings, not just happiness and joy.* [148] Included are emotions like excitement, satisfaction, pride and awe, amongst others. These emotions are frequently seen as connected to positive outcomes, such as longer life and healthier social relationships.* [149] Engagement refers to involvement in activities that draws and builds upon one's interests. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi explains true engagement as flow, a feeling of intensity that leads to a sense of ecstasy and clarity.* [150] The task being done needs to call upon higher skill and be a bit difficult and challenging yet still possible. Engagement involves passion for and concentration on the task at hand and is assessed subjectively as to whether the person engaged was completely absorbed, losing selfconsciousness.* [148] Relationships are all important in fueling positive emotions, whether they are work-related, familial, romantic, or platonic. As Dr. Christopher Peterson puts it simply, “Other people matter.”* [151] Humans receive, share, and spread positivity to others through relationships. They are important in not only in bad times, but good times as well. In fact, relationships can be strengthened by reacting to one another positively. It is typical that most positive things take place in the presence of other people.* [152]
2. It is pursued for its own sake. 3. It is defined and measured independently of the other elements. PERMA not only plays a role in our own personal lives but also can be used for public major news stories. With this model, journalists can instead focus on the positives of a story and ask questions about how conflicts or even tragedies have brought people together, how someone has experienced post traumatic growth, and more. News stories then shift the perspective from a victimizing one to an uplifting one. Positive psychology is slowly but steadily making its way through news reporting via constructive journalism. PERMA helps journalists ask the right questions to continue that progress by bringing the focus of a potentially negative story to the positives and solutions.* [156] The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions suggests positive emotions (e.g. happiness, interest, anticipation)* [157] broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence. Positive emotions are contrasted with negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of anxiety leads to the specific fight-or-flight response for immediate survival.* [157]
Philip Zimbardo suggests we might also analyze happiness from a “Time Perspective”. Zimbardo suggested the sorting of people's focus in life by valence (positive or negative) and also by their time perspective (past, present, or future orientation). Doing so may reveal some individual conflicts, not over whether an activity is enjoyed, but Meaning is also known as purpose, and prompts the whether one prefers to risk delaying gratification further. question of“Why?" Discovering and figuring out a clear Zimbardo also believes research reveals an optimal bal“why”puts everything into context from work to relation- ance of perspectives for a happy life; commenting, our
9.5. THEORY
101 Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs. Foremost, primitive needs must be met (basic physiological, and sense of safety) before social needs can be met (e.g., intimacy). Subsequently, one can pursue more conceptual needs (e.g. morality and self-actualization). Evidence suggests negative emotions can be damaging. In an article titled “The undoing effect of positive emotions”, Barbara Fredrickson et al. hypothesized positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience stress, they show increased heart rate, higher blood sugar, immune suppression, and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If unregulated, the prolonged physiological activation can lead to illness, coronary heart disease, and heightened mortality. Both lab and survey research substantiate that positive emotions help people under stress to return to a preferable, healthier physiological baseline.* [160] Other research shows that improved mood is one of the various benefits of physical exercise.* [159]
9.5.3 The good life
A portrait commemorating a family's day together
focus on reliving positive aspects of our past should be high, followed by time spent believing in a positive future, and finally spending a moderate (but not excessive) amount of time in enjoyment of the present.* [158] Although Seligman's categorizations are still fuzzy classifications, the research presented below is sorted according to which of Seligman's categories may be most (but not strictly) related (i.e. the “pleasant”, “good”, or “meaningful”life). Research mentioned in one section may be quite relevant in another.
9.5.2
The pleasant life
Simple exercise, such as running, is cited as key to feeling happy.* [159]
Ideas of well-being as a good life stem from Aristotelian ideas of eudaimonia. Related emerging concepts include: self-efficacy, personal effectiveness, flow, and mindfulness. Self-efficacy refers to a belief that one's ability to accomplish a task is a function of personal effort. Low selfefficacy, or a disconnect between ability and personal effort, is associated with depression; by comparison, high self-efficacy is associated with positive change, including overcoming abuse, overcoming eating disorders, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also has positive benefits for one's immune system, aids in stress management, and decreases pain.* [161] A related concept, Personal effectiveness, is primarily concerned with planning and the implementation of methods of accomplishment. Flow Flow refers to a state of absorption where one's abilities are well-matched to the demands at-hand. Flow is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense “time is flying.”Flow is intrinsically rewarding; it can also assist in the achievement of goals (e.g., winning a game) or improving skills (e.g., becoming a better chess player).* [162] Anyone can experience flow, in different domains, such as play, creativity, and work. Flow is achieved when the challenge of the situation meets one's personal abilities. A mismatch of challenge for someone of low skills results in a state of anxiety; insufficient challenge for someone highly skilled results in boredom.* [162] The effect of challenging situations means that flow is often temporarily exciting and
102 variously stressful, but this is considered Eustress, which is also known as “good”stress. Eustress is arguably less harmful than chronic stress, although the pathways of stress-related systems are similar. Both can create a “wear and tear”effect, however, the differing physiological elements and added psychological benefits of eustress might well balance any wear and tear experienced.
CHAPTER 9. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Another study surveyed a U.S. sample of 3,032 adults, aged 25–74. Results showed 17.2 percent of adults were flourishing, while 56.6 percent were moderately mentally healthy. Some common characteristics of a flourishing adult included: educated, older, married and wealthy. The study findings suggest there is room for adults to improve as less than 20 percent of Americans are living a * Csikszentmihalyi identified nine indicator elements of flourishing life. (Keyes, 2002). [170] flow: 1. Clear goals exist every step of the way, 2. Imme- Benefits from living a flourishing life emerge from rediate feedback guides one's action, 3. There is a balance search on the effects of experiencing a high ratio of posibetween challenges and abilities, 4. Action and awareness tive to negative affect. The studied benefits of positive afare merged, 5. Distractions are excluded from conscious- fect are increased responsiveness,“broadened behavioral ness, 6. Failure is not worrisome, 7. Self-consciousness repertoires”, increased instinct, and increased perception disappears, 8. Sense of time is distorted, and 9. The and imagination (Fredrickson, 2005, p. 678).* [165] In activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its addition, the good feelings associated with flourishing reown sake)* [163] His studies also show that flow is greater sult in improvements to immune system functioning, carduring work while happiness is greater during leisure ac- diovascular recovery, lessened effects of negative affect, tivities.* [164] and frontal brain asymmetry (Fredrickson, 2005).* [165] Other benefits to those of moderate mental health or moderate levels of flourishing were: stronger psychological and social performance, high resiliency, greater cardio9.5.4 Flourishing vascular health, and an overall healthier lifestyle (Keyes, 2007).* [171] The encountered benefits of flourishing sugFlourishing, in positive psychology, refers to optimal gest a definition: "[flourishing] people experience high human functioning. It comprises four parts: good- levels of emotional, psychological and social well being ness, generativity, growth, and resilience (Fredrickson, due to vigor and vitality, self-determination, continuous 2005).* [165] According to Fredrickson (2005), good- self- growth, close relationships and a meaningful and ness is made up of: happiness, contentment, and effec- purposeful life”(Siang-Yang, 2006, p. 70).* [172] tive performance; generativity is about making life better for future generations, and is defined by “broadened thought-action repertoires and behavioral flexibilMindfulness ity”; growth involves the use of personal and social assets; and resilience reflects survival and growth after enduring a hardship (p. 685).* [165] A flourishing life stems Main article: Mindfulness (psychology) from mastering all four of these parts. Two contrasting Mindfulness is an intentionally focused awareness of ideologies are languishing and psychopathology. On the one's immediate experience. “Focused awareness”is mental health continuum, these are considered interme- a conscious moment-by-moment attention to situational elements of an experience: i.e., thoughts, emotions, physdiate mental health disorders, reflecting someone living an unfulfilled and perhaps meaningless life. Those who ical sensations, and surroundings. An aim of mindfulness is to become grounded in the present moment; one learns languish experience more emotional pain, psychosocial deficiency, restrictions in regular activities, and missed to observe the arising and passing of experience. One does not judge the experiences and thoughts, nor do they workdays (Fredrickson, 2005).* [165] try to 'figure things out' and draw conclusions, or change Fredrickson & Losada (2005)* [165] conducted a study anything – the challenge during mindfulness is to simon university students, operationalizing positive and neg- ply observe.* [175]* [176] Benefits of mindfulness pracative affect. Based on a mathematical model which has tice include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and been strongly criticized,* [166] and now been formally chronic pain.* [177] See also Reverence (emotion). withdrawn by Fredrickson as invalid,* [167] Fredrickson & Losada claimed to have discovered a critical positiv- Ellen J. Langer argued people slip into a state of“mindity ratio, above which people would flourish and below lessness”by engaging in rote behavior, performing faas if on which they would not. Although Fredrickson claims that miliar, scripted actions without much cognition, * autopilot (see also flow, discussed above). [178] * her experimental results are still valid, [168] these experimental results have also been questioned due to poor sta- Advocates of focusing on present experiences also mentistical methodology, and Alan Sokal has pointed out that tion research by Psychologist Daniel Gilbert, who sug“given [Fredrickson and Losada's] experimental design gested daydreaming, instead of a focus on the present, and method of data analysis, no data whatsoever could may impede happiness.* [173]* [179] Fellow researcher, possibly give any evidence of any nonlinearity in the re- Matt Killingsworth, found evidence to support the harm lationship between “flourishing”and the positivity ratio of daydreaming. Fifteen thousand participants from —much less evidence for a sharp discontinuity.”* [169] around the world provided over 650 000 reports (using an
9.5. THEORY
103 Mindfulness to Kashdan is very resource-intensive processing; he warned it is not simply better at all times. To illustrate, when a task is best performed with very little conscious thought (e.g., a paramedic performing practiced, emergency maneuvers).* [180] Nevertheless, development of the skill lends to its application at certain times, which can be useful for the reasons just described; Professor of Psychology and Psychiatry Richard J. Davidson highly recommends “mindfulness meditation" for use in the accurate identification and management of emotions.* [181]* [182]
9.5.5 The meaningful life After several years of researching disgust, Jonathan Haidt, and others, studied its opposite; the term “elevation”was coined. Elevation is a pleasant moral emotion, involving a desire to act morally and do “good”. As an emotion it has a biological basis, and is sometimes characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.* [183]* [184]
Researchers recommend attending to the past to find fond memories, and the future to find hope, but ultimately focussing mostly on the present.* [158] Daydreaming usually precedes drops in happiness. Mindfulness and activities that bring focus to the present (like Roller Coasters) may bring happiness partly by shifting people's focus away from the slightly saddening question “Am I happy?".* [173]* [174]
Optimism and helplessness
online application on their phones that requested data at random times). Killingsworth found people who reported daydreaming soon reported less happiness; daydreaming is extremely common.* [174] Zimbardo (see“Time Perspectives”above) bestowed the merits of a present-focus, and recommended occasional recall of past positive experiences. Reflecting on past positive experiences can influence current mood, and assist in building positive expectations for the future. J.B. MacKinnon recommended taking full responsibility for one There is research that suggests a person's focus influences level of happiness, where thinking too much about happiness can be counter-productive. Rather than asking: “Am I happy?" – which when posed just 4 times a day, starts to decrease happiness, it might well be better to reflect on one's values (e.g., “Can I muster any hope?").* [180] Asking different questions can assist in redirecting personal thoughts, and perhaps, lead to taking steps to better apply one's energies. The personal answer to any particular question can lead to positive actions, and hopefulness, which is a very powerful, and positive feeling. Hopefulness is more likely to foster happiness, while feelings of hopelessness tend to undermine happiness.
small, but clear improvement for the world (the way energysaving activists did by promoting a new kind of lamp). Inspired by sociological research, MacKinnon said “vertical agitation” helps reduce feelings of helplessness.
Learned optimism refers to development of one's potential for a sanguine outlook. Optimism is learned as personal efforts and abilities are linked to personally desired outcomes. In short, it is the belief one can influence the future in tangible and meaningful ways. Learned optimism contrasts with learned helplessness, which consists of a belief, or beliefs, one has no control over what occurs, and that something external dictates outcomes, e.g., success. Optimism is learned by consciously challenging Todd Kashdan, researcher and author of “Designing negative self talk. This includes self talk on any event Positive Psychology”, explained early science's findings viewed as a personal failure that permanently affects all should not be overgeneralized or adopted too uncritically. areas of the person's life.
104 Intrapersonal, or internal, dialogues influence one's feelings. To illustrate, reports of happiness are correlated with the general ability to “rationalize or explain”social and economic inequalities.* [185] Hope is a powerful positive feeling, linked to a learned style of goal-directed thinking. Hope is fostered when a person utilizes both pathways thinking (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and agency thinking (the requisite motivations to use those routes).* [186] Author and journalist J.B. MacKinnon suggested the cognitive tool of “Vertical Agitation”can assist in avoiding helplessness (e.g., paralysis in the face of earth's many problems). The concept stemmed from research on denial by sociologist Stanley Cohen. Cohen explained: in the face of massive problems people tend towards learned helplessness rather than confronting the dissonant facts of the matter. Vertical Agitation involves focusing on one part of a problem at a time, while holding oneself accountable for solving the problem – all the way to the highest level of government, business and society (such as advocating strongly for something: eco-friendly lightbulbs). This allows each individual in society to make vital “trivial”(read: small) changes, without being intimidated by the work needed to be done as a whole. Mackinnon added: a piecemeal approach also keeps individuals from becoming too 'holier than thou' (harassing friends and family about every possible improvement), where widespread practice of Vertical Agitation would lead to much improvement.* [187]
Good work Psychologist Howard Gardner has extensively researched the merit of undertaking good work at one's job. He suggested young generations (particularly in the United States) are taught to focus on the selfish pursuit of money for its own sake, although having money does not reliably engender happiness. Gardner's proposed alternatives loosely follow the pleasant/good/meaningful life classifications outlined above; he believes young people should be trained to pursue excellence in their field, as well as engagement (see flow, above) in accordance with their moral belief systems.* [188]
CHAPTER 9. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY A study, regarding rewards for children, conducted in 1971 by psychologist, Edward L. Deci, at the University of Rochester, is still referenced today. Featured in the New York Times, it focused on the short- and longterm effects of rewards for positive behavior. Deci suggested rewards for positive behavior is an effective incentive for only a short period. At the outset, rewards can support motivation to work hard and strive towards personal goals. However, once rewards cease, children showed less interest in the task relative to participants who never received rewards. Deci pointed out, at a young age, children's natural instinct is to resist people who try to control their behavior, which he cited as support for his conclusion rewards for good behavior have limited effectiveness. In contrast, the New York Times featured research findings that supported the merits of offering rewards to children for good behavior. Expert economists argued children experiencing trouble with their behavior or schoolwork should have numerous helpful options, including rewards. Although children might well experience an initial attraction to financial or material, a love for learning could develop subsequently. Despite the controversy regarding the use of rewards, some experts believe the best way to motivate a child is to offer rewards at the beginning of the school year, but if unsuccessful they recommend teachers and parents stop using the reward system. Because of individual differences among children, no one method will work for everyone. Some children respond well to the use of rewards for positive behavior, while others evidence negative effects. The results seem to depend on the person. Strengths and virtues
The development of the Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV) handbook represented the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provided a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identified 6 classes of According to a study reported in the NY Post Newspaper, virtues (i.e., “core *virtues”), underlying 24 measurable 48% of parents reward their children's good grades with character strengths. [189] cash or something else of meaning. Among many fami- The CSV suggested these 6 virtues have a historical basis lies in the United States, this is controversial. Although in the vast majority of cultures; in addition, these virtues psychology experts support the offer of reward for good and strengths can lead to increased happiness when built behavior as a better alternative than the use of punishment upon. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, for bad behavior, in some circumstances, families can- this suggestion of universality hints threefold: 1. The not afford to give their children an average of 16 dollars study of positive human qualities broadens the scope of for every good grade earned. Alternatives for money in- psychological research to include mental wellness, 2. the clude allowing a child extra time on a computer or staying leaders of the positive psychology movement are chalup later than usual. Some psychology experts believe the lenging moral relativism, suggesting people are “evobest reward is praise and encouragement because material lutionarily predisposed”toward certain virtues, and 3. rewards can cause long-term negative effects for children. virtue has a biological basis.* [189]* :51
9.6. APPLICATION
105
The organization of the 6 virtues and 24 strengths is as includes those not suffering from mental illness or disorfollows: der. Researcher Dianne Hales described an emotionally 1. Wisdom and Knowledge: creativity, curiosity, healthy person as someone who exhibits: flexibility and open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, adaptability to different circumstances, a sense of meaninnovation ing and affirmation in life, an“understanding that the self is not the center of the universe”, compassion and the 2. Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality, ability to be unselfish, an increased depth and satisfaction zest in intimate relationships, and a sense of control over the mind and body.* [193] 3. Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence 4. Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership 5. Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility, prudence, self control
9.6.1 Happiness measurement
Some policy analysts, citing positive psychology,* [194] 6. Transcendence: appreciation of beauty and propose replacing the gross domestic product with gross national happiness as the predominant measure of a naexcellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality tion's success. Recent research challenged the need for 6 virtues. Instead, researchers suggested the 24 strengths are more accurately grouped into just 3 or 4 categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths* [190] or alternatively, Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness* [191] These strengths, and their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. Paul Thagard described examples; these included Jeff Shrager's workshops to discover the habits of highly creative people.* [192] Some research indicates that wellbeing effects that appear to be due to spirituality are actually better described as due to virtue.* [117]
9.6 Application
In the 1970s, pioneering“happiness researcher”Michael W. Fordyce statistically related personal attributes to subjective well-being. His results, published in Social Indicators Research, rank in the journal's top 2.4% most-cited articles.* [195]
9.6.2 Early “positive niques
psychology”tech-
The easiest and best possible way to increase one's happiness is by doing something that increases the ratio of positive to negative emotions. Contrary to some beliefs, in many scenarios, people are actually very good at determining what will increase their positive emotions.* [196] There have been many techniques developed to help increase one's happiness. One such technique, Fordyce's Happiness Training Program (14 episodes, 1979), presented the empirically validated “fourteen fundamentals of happiness”(1981) in the following categories: (1) change your activities, (2) change your thinking, (3) nurture relationships, (4) value personal growth, and (5) decrease negative emotions. Although slightly outdated, the material is archived online in a 21-page Happiness Booklet* [197] and 2-volume Happiness Series.
5 steps to a happier life. Infographic based on Haidt, Jonathan (2005). The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. New York: Basic Books
A practical application of positive psychology is to assist individuals and organizations in identifying strengths so as to increase and sustain well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, various psychological professionals, HR departments, business strategists, and others, are using new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of a wide population of individuals. This
A second technique is known as the“Sustainable Happiness Model (SHM).”This model proposes that long-term happiness is determined upon: (1) one's genetically determined set-point, (2) circumstantial factors, and (3) intentional activities. Lyubomirsky, Sheldon and Schkade suggest to make these changes in the correct way in order to have long-term happiness.* [198] One final suggestion of how to increase one's happiness is through a procedure called “Hope Training.”Hope Training is primarily focused on hope due to the belief that hope drives the positive emotions of well-being.* [199] This training is based on the hope theory, which states that well-being can increase once people have developed goals and be-
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lieve themselves to achieve those goals.* [200] One of the tent to cheat. The results of their research: ‘an effective main purposes of hope training is to eliminate individuals working model of heroism in the context of the academic from false hope syndrome. False hope syndrome partic- environment’(Staats, Hupp & Hagley, 2008).* [206] ularly occurs when one believes that changing their behavior is easy and the outcomes of the change will be evidenced in a short period of time.* [201]
9.6.5 In youth development
The field of Positive Youth Development offers another practical use for positive psychology, as it focuses on the promotion of healthy development rather than viewing As a basic building block to a better existence, positive youth as prone to problems needing to be addressed. This psychology aims to improve the quality of experiences. is accomplished through programs and efforts by commuWithin its framework, students could learn to become ex- nities, schools, and government agencies.* [207] cited about physical activity. Playing comes natural to children; positive psychology seeks to preserve this zest (a sense of excitement and motivation for life)* [202] for movement in growing and developing children. If offered 9.6.6 Clinical psychology in an interesting, challenging and pleasurable way physical activity would thus internalize an authentic feeling of A strengths-based approach to personal positive change happiness in students. Positive psychology's approach to aims to have clinical psychology place an equal weight physical activity could give students the means of acquir- on both positive and negative functioning when attempting to understand and treat distress.* [208] This ratioing an engaged, pleasant and meaningful life.* [203] nale is based on empirical findings. Because positive characteristics interact with negative life events to predict disorder the exclusive study of negative life 9.6.4 In education events could produce misleading results.* [209] IntervenPositive psychology is beneficial to schools and students tions focusing on strengths and positive emotions can because it encourages individuals to strive to do their best; be as effective in treating disorder as other more comwhereas, scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and monly used approaches such as cognitive behavioral ther* * Rath* [204] discussed research conducted by Dr. Eliz- apy. [210] [211] abeth Hurlock in 1925, where fourth, fifth and sixth Psychologists are looking to use positive psychology to graders were either praised, criticized or ignored, based treat patients. Amy Krentzman discussed positive interon their work on math problems. Praised students im- vention as a way to treat patients. She defined positive proved by 71%, those criticized improved by 19%, and intervention as a therapy or activity primarily aimed at instudents provided with no feedback improved a mere 5%. creasing positive feelings, positive behaviors, or positive Praise seems an effective method of fostering improve- cognitions, as opposed to focusing on negative thoughts ment. or dysfunctional behaviors. A way of using positive in* According to Clifton and Rath [204] ninety nine out of tervention as a clinical treatment is to use positive activone hundred people prefer the influence of positive peo- ity interventions. Positive activity interventions, or PAIs, ple. The benefits include: increased productivity, and are brief self-administered exercises that promote posicontagious positive emotions, which assists one in work- tive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Two widely used ing to the best of her, or his, abilities. Even a single nega- PAIs are“Three Good Things”and“Best Future Self.” tive person can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environ- “Three Good Things”requires a patient to daily document. Clifton and Rath* [204] cited ‘positive emotions ment, for a week, three events that went well during the day, and the respective cause, or causes. “Best Future as an essential daily requirement for survival’. Self”has a patient “think about their life in the future, In 2008, in conjunction with the Positive Psychology and imagine that everything has gone as well as it possibly Center at the University of Pennsylvania, a whole-of- could. They have worked hard and succeeded at accomschool implementation of Positive Psychology was under- plishing all of their life goals. Think of this as the realizataken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia). tion of all of their life dreams.”The patient is then asked This involved training of teaching staff in the principles to write down what they imagined. These positive interand skills of positive psychology. Ongoing support was ventions have been shown to decrease depression.* [212] provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff, who Positive psychology seeks to inform clinical psychology remained in-residence for the entire year.* [205] of the potential to expand its approach, and of the merit Staats, Hupp and Hagley (2008) used positive psychol- of the possibilities. Given a fair opportunity, positive psyogy to explore academic honesty. They identified pos- chology might well change priorities to better address the itive traits displayed by heroes, then determined if the breadth and depth of the human experience in clinical presence of these traits in students predicted future in- settings.
9.6.3
Physical education
9.6. APPLICATION
9.6.7
In the workplace
Main article: Positive psychology in the workplace Positive psychology has been implemented in business management practice, but has faced challenges. Wong & Davey (2007)* [213] noted managers can introduce positive psychology to a workplace, but they might struggle with positive ways to apply it to employees. Furthermore, for employees to welcome and commit to positive psychology, its application within an organization must be transparent.* [214] Managers must also understand the implementation of positive psychology will not necessarily combat any commitment challenges that exist. However, with its implementation employees might become more optimistic and open to new concepts or management practices.* [215] In their article “The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?",* [216] S. Lyubomirsky et al. report: “Study after study shows that happiness precedes important outcomes and indicators of thriving, including fulfilling and productive work” . Positive psychology, when applied correctly, can provide employees with a greater opportunity to use skills and vary work duties. However, changing work conditions and roles can lead to stress among employees if they are improperly supported by management. This is particularly true for employees who must meet the expectations of organizations with unrealistic goals and targets.* [217] Thomas and Tasker (2010) showed less worker autonomy, fewer opportunities for development, less-enriched work roles, and lower levels of supervisor support reflected the effect of industry growth on job satisfaction.* [218] Can an organization implement positive change? Lewis et al. (2007) developed appreciative inquiry (AI), which is an integrated, organizational-level methodology for approaching organizational development. Appreciative inquiry is based on the generation of organizational resourcefulness, which is accomplished by accessing a variety of human psychological processes, such as: positive emotional states, imagination, social cohesion, and the social construction of reality.* [219] A relatively new practice in the workplace is recruiting and developing people based on their strengths (what they love to do, are naturally good at and energises them). Standard Chartered Bank pioneered this approach in the early 2000s. More and more organisations are realising the benefit of recruiting people who are in their element in the job as opposed to simply having the right competencies for the job. Aviva, Morrisons (a large UK supermarket) and Starbucks have all adopted this approach.* [220]
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9.6.8 In offender rehabilitation Traditional work with offenders has focused on their deficits (e.g., with respect to socialization, and schooling) and other “criminogenic”risk-factors. Rehabilitation more often than not has taken the form of forced treatment or training, ostensibly for the good of the offender, and the community. Arguably, this approach has shortcomings, suggesting a need to make available additional positive options to treatment staff so they can best assist offenders, and so that offenders can better find their way forward. Positive psychology has made recent inroads with the advent of the“Good Lives Model”, developed by Tony Ward, Shadd Maruna, and others. With respect to rehabilitation: “Individuals take part ... because they think that such activities might either improve the quality of their life (an intrinsic goal) or at least look good to judges, parole boards and family members (an extrinsic goal).”* [221] Positive criminology and positive victimology Positive criminology and positive victimology are conceptual approaches, developed by the Israeli criminologist Natti Ronel and his research team, that follow principles of positive psychology and apply them into the fields of criminology and victimology, respectively. Positive criminology and victimology both place an emphasis on social inclusion and on unifying and integrating forces at individual, group, social and spiritual levels that are associated with the limiting of crime and recovery from victimization. In traditional approaches the study of crime, violence and related behaviors emphasizes the negative aspects in people's lives that are associated with deviance, criminality and victimization. A common understanding is that human relationships are affected more by destructive encounters than by constructive or positive ones. Positive criminology and victimology argue that a different approach is viable, based on three dimensions – social integration, emotional healing and spirituality – that constitute positive direction indicators.
9.6.9 Post-traumatic growth in constructive journalism Posttraumatic growth (PTG) is a possible outcome after a traumatic event, besides posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Following a traumatic event, for instance rape, incest, cancer, attack, or combat, “it is normal to experience debilitating symptoms of depression and anxiety.” * [222] A person who shows PTG however, will experience these negative outcomes for a time and then show an increase in well-being, higher than it was before the trauma occurred. Martin Seligman, a founder of positive psychology, emphasizes that “arriving at a higher level of psychological functioning than before”is a key point in PTG.* [223] If instead an individual experiences a de-
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pressive period but recovers from an incident and returns to their normal level of psychological functioning, they are demonstrating resilience.* [223] This suggests that in PTG, the trauma acts as a turning point for the person to achieve greater well-being. Seligman recognizes “the fact that trauma often sets the stage for growth”and given the right tools, individuals can make the most of that opportunity.”* [223] When reflecting on a traumatic growth, Seligman suggests using the following five elements to facilitate PTG: understand the response to trauma, reduce anxiety, utilize constructive disclosure, create a trauma narrative, and articulate life principles and stances that are more robust to challenge.* [223] Someone experiencing PTG will achieve elements of Seligman’s “good life”theory, including a more meaningful and purposeful valuing of life, improved positive relationships, accomplishment, and a more optimistic and open mindset according to the broaden-and-build theory.* [224] The phenomenon of PTG is applicable to many disciplines. The construct is important not only for just soldiers, emergency responders, and survivors of traumatic events, but average, everyday citizens facing typical adversity. One way to expose citizens to stories of PTG is through constructive journalism. Constructive journalism, as defined by PhD student Karen McIntyre at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, is “an emerging style of journalism in which positive psychology techniques are applied to news work with the aim of engaging readers by creating more productive news stories, all while maintaining core journalistic functions” .* [225] Cathrine Gyldensted, an experienced reporter with a Masters in applied positive psychology and coauthor of two books, demonstrated that typical news reporting, which is associated with negative valence, harms mood.* [226] Using PTG to focus on victims' strengths and instances of overcoming adversity encourages readers to implement similar ideals in their own lives. “So the goal of positive psychology in well-being theory is to measure and to build human flourishing.”* [227] Combining positive psychology constructs like PTG, PERMA, and “broaden and build”with journalism could potentially improve affect and inspire individuals about the benefits of positive psychology.
9.6.10
Coaching
9.6.11 Other future research Positive psychology research and practice is currently conducted and developed in various countries throughout the world. To illustrate, in Canada, Charles Hackney of Briercrest College applies positive psychology to the topic of personal growth through martial arts training; Paul Wong, president of the International Network on Personal Meaning,* [229] is developing an existential approach to positive psychology.* [230]* [231] This existential positive psychology approach has been developed into second wave positive psychology (PP 2.0).* [232]* [233] Cognitive and behavioral change, although sometimes slight and complex, can produce an 'intense affect'. The benefits argue for this focus becoming a legitimate area of study, specifically regarding links in cognition and motivational responses. Isen (2009) remarked, further progress requires suitable research methods, and appropriate theories on which to base contemporary research.* [234] Chang (2008) suggested researchers have a number of paths to pursue regarding the enhancement of emotional intelligence, even though emotional intelligence does not guarantee the development of positive affect; in short, more study is required to track the gradient of positive affect in psychology.* [235]
9.7 Criticism According to Kirk Schneider, positive psychology fails to explain past heinous behaviors such as those perpetrated by the Nazi party, Stalinist marches, Klan gatherings, to identify but a few. Furthermore, Schneider pointed to a body of research showing high positivity correlates with positive illusion, which effectively distorts reality.* [236] The extent of the downfall of high positivity (also known as flourishing) is one could become incapable of psychological growth, unable to self-reflect, and tend to hold racial biases. By contrast, negativity, sometimes evidenced in mild to moderate depression, is correlated with less distortion of reality. Therefore, negativity might play an important role within the dynamics of human flourishing. To illustrate, conflict engagement and acknowledgement of appropriate negativity, including certain negative emotions like guilt, might better promote flourishing.* [165] Overall, Schneider provided perspective: “perhaps genuine happiness is not something you aim at, but is a by-product of a life well lived, and a life well lived does not settle on the programmed or neatly calibrated”.* [237] Seligman has acknowledged in his work the point about positive illusion,* [238] and is also a critic of merely feeling good about oneself apart from reality and recognises the importance of negativity / dysphoria.* [239]
Positive psychology coaching is the application of positive psychology in the practice of coaching, which is backed by scientific research, with availability of intervention tools and assessments that positive psychology trained coaches can utilized to support the coaching process. Positive psychology coaching uses scientific evi- Ian Sample, writing for The Guardian, noted that,“Posdence and insights gained in these areas to work with itive psychologists also stand accused of burying their heads in the sand and ignoring that depressed, even clients in their goals.* [228]
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merely unhappy people, have real problems that need • Positive education dealing with.”Sample also quoted Steven Wolin, a clini• World Kindness Movement cal psychiatrist at George Washington University, as saying that the study of positive psychology is just a reiteration of older ways of thinking, and that there is not much scientific research to support the efficacy of 9.8.1 Precursors this method.* [240] Gable responds to criticism on their • New Thought pollyanna view on the world by saying that they are just bringing a balance to a side of psychology that is glaringly • Humanistic psychology understudied.* [241] • Maslow's hierarchy of needs Barbara Held argued that while positive psychology makes contributions to the field of psychology, it has its • Needs and Motives (Henry Murray) faults. She offered insight into topics including the negative side effects of positive psychology, negativity within • Logotherapy (Viktor Frankl) the positive psychology movement, and the current division in the field of psychology caused by differing opinions of psychologists on positive psychology. In addition, 9.9 References she noted the movement's lack of consistency regarding the role of negativity. She also raised issues with the sim[1] Seligman, Martin E.P.; Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (2000). plistic approach taken by some psychologists in the ap“Positive Psychology: An Introduction”. American Psyplication of positive psychology. A “one size fits all” chologist. 55 (1): 5–14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5. approach is not arguably beneficial to the advancement PMID 11392865. of the field of positive psychology; she suggested a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its ap- [2] Seligman, M.E.P (1998). Learned optimism (2nd ed.). New York: Pocket Books. plication.* [242]
9.8 See also • Outline of psychology • Culture and positive psychology • Happiness economics • Meaning of life • Second wave positive psychology • Positive education • Psychological resilience • Theory of humor • Rational ignorance • Pragmatism • Anatomy of an Epidemic • Positive Youth Development • Aversion to happiness • World Kindness Day • Random Acts of Kindness Day • Cool To Be Kind • Sex-positive movement • Positive Youth Development
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Psychology at Harvard in 2006, a record 855 undergraduate students signed up for his class. Droves of students at the academically-intense university came to learn, as the course description puts it, about “psychological aspects of a fulfilling and flourishing life.”
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morality. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived. Washing- [199] Lopez, S. J, Floyd, R. K., Ulven, J.C., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). “Hope therapy: Building a house of hope”. In ton DC: American Psychological Association. (pp. 275– C.R. Snyder. The handbook of hope: Theory, measures, 289). and applications. New York: Academic Press. pp. 123– Bryner, Jeanna. “Conservatives Happier Than Liberals” 148. . LiveScience.com. Retrieved 2008-06-18. [200] Rand, Kevin L., & Cheaven, Jennifer S (2009). “Hope Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, theory”. In Lopez, Shane, J., Snyder, C.R. Oxford handmeasures, and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic book of positive psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY, US: Press. Oxford University Press. pp. 323–333. “In an Age of Eco-Uncertainty: Vertical Agitation, Eco-Douchebags, Cohen' s Rule, and Lifestyle as Social [201] Polivy, J.; Peter, H. (2000). “The false-hope syndrome: Unfulfilled expectations of self-change”. CurChange”. Utne.com. Retrieved 2011-02-07. rent Directions in Psychological Science. 9 (4): 128–131. Howard Gardner, TVOpodcast Excellence in edudoi:10.111/1467-8721.00076. cation, http://www.tvo.org/TVOsites/WebObjects/ TvoMicrosite.woa?bi?1260050400000 [202] Minarik, Susan K. (January 18, 2013). “Increase your happiness: add some zest to your life”. Positive-LivingPeterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin E.P. (2004). Now. Retrieved April 6, 2015. Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19[203] Cherubini, Jeffrey (September 2009). “Positive Psychol516701-5. ogy and Quality Physical Education”. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance. 80 (7): 42–47, 51. Shryack, J.; Steger, M. F.; Krueger, R. F.; Kallie, C. S. doi:10.1080/07303084.2009.10598356. (2010). “The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths”. Personality and Individual Differ- [204] Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005,‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, ences. 48 (6): 714–719. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.01.007. Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47–51 Brdr, I.; Kashdan, T.B. (2010). “Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of struc- [205] Seligman M, Ernst R, Gillham J, Reivich K, Links M ture and correlates”. Journal of Research in Personality. (2009). “Positive education: positive psychology and 44: 151–154. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.12.001. classroom interventions”. Oxford Review of Education. 35 (3): 293–311. doi:10.1080/03054980902934563. Thagard, P. (2005). How to be a successful scientist. In M. E. Gorman, R. D. Tweney, D. C. Gooding & A. P. [206] Staats S, Hupp JM, Hagley AM (July 2008). “HonKincannon (Eds.), Scientific and technological thinking esty and heroes: a positive psychology view of heroism (pp. 159- 171). Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoand academic honesty”. J Psychol. 142 (4): 357–72. ciates. doi:10.3200/JRLP.142.4.357-372. PMID 18792648. Dianne Hales (2010). “An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010–2011 Edition”. [207] “Positive Youth Development in the U.S.: Research Findings on Evaluations of Positive Youth Development ProWadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 26. Retrieved 2010grams”. Retrieved April 9, 2014. 05-18.
[194] “Chip Conley: Measuring what makes life worthwhile | [208] Lee Duckworth A, Steen TA, Seligman ME Video on”. Ted.com. Retrieved 2011-02-07. (2005). “Positive psychology in clinical pracAnnu Rev Clin Psychol. 1: 629–51. tice”. [195] Michalos, Alex.“Citation Classics from Social Indicators doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144154. PMID Research”. Social Indicators Research. Springer Science. 17716102. Retrieved 1 July 2013. [196] Thayer, R. E.; Newman, J. R.; McClain, T. M. (1994). [209] Cohen LH, McGowan J, Fooskas S, Rose S (1984).“Pos“Self-regulation of mood: strategies for changing in a bad itive Life Events and Social Support and the Relationship mood, raising energy, and reducing tension”. Journal Between Life Stress and Psychological Disorder”. Amerof Personality and Social Psychology. 67 (5): 910–25. ican Journal of Community Psychology. 12 (5): 567–587. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.5.910. PMID 7983582. doi:10.1007/BF00897213.
9.9. REFERENCES
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[210] Seligman ME, Steen TA, Park N, Peterson C (2005). [227] Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). “1”. Flourish: A vision“Positive psychology progress: empirical validation ary new understanding of happiness and wellbeing. New of interventions”. Am Psychol. 60 (5): 410–21. York, NY: Free Press. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410. PMID 16045394. [228] Biswas-Diener, Robert (2010). Practicing Positive Psy[211] Sin, N. L.; Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). “Enhancing wellchology Coaching: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Intervenbeing and alleviating depressive symptoms with position. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-53676-6. tive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly metaanalysis” (PDF). Journal of Clinical Psychology. 65 (5): [229] “International Network on Personal Meaning and Mean467–487. doi:10.1002/jclp.20593. PMID 19301241. ing of Life”. Meaning.ca. 1999-03-15. Retrieved 201102-07. [212] Krentzman, A. R. (2012, September 17). Review of the Application of Positive Psychology to Substance Use, Ad[230] Wong, P. T. P. (2009). Existential positive psychology. diction, and Recovery Research. Psychology of Addictive In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Encyclopedia of positive psychology Behaviors. Advance online publication (Vol. 1, pp. 361-368). Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. [213] “Wong & Davey (2007)" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-02-07.
[231] Wong, P. T. P., Ivtzan, I., & Lomas, T. (2016). Good work: A meaning-centred approach. In L. G. Oades, M. F. Steger, A. Delle Fave, & J. Passmore (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of the psychology of positivity and strengths-based approaches at work (pp. 0-0). West Sus[215] Britton, Pam. “What Is Happiness Psychology and Why sex, UK: Wiley Blackwell. Should Smart Entrepreneurs Care?". Retrieved 11 October 2011. [232] Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards [214] Linley, P. Alex; Harrington, Susan (2010). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work. Oxford University Press. p. 327. ISBN 978-0-19-533544-6.
a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian [216] Lyubomirsky, S.; King, L.; Diener, E. (2005).“The BenPsychology, 52(2), 69-81. efits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 131 (6): 803– [233] Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., & Worth, P. (2015). 855. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803. Second wave positive psychology: Embracing the dark side of life. London, UK: Routledge. [217] Snyder, C & Lopez, J. (2002). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. [218] Thomas, J. C.; Tasker, T. E. (2010).“Life, liberty, work, and the pursuit of happiness”. Psyccritiques. 55 (51). doi:10.1037/a0022089.
[234] Isen, A.M (2009).“Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength”. In C. R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez. Handbook of positive psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 179–195. Retrieved April 2010. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
[219] Lewis S, Passmore J, Cantore S (2008). “Positive psychology and managing change”. The Psychologist. 21 [235] Chang, Kelly B. T (2008). “Can We Improve Emotional (11): 932–4. Intelligence”. Emotional Intelligence; Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology. New York: Peter Lang [220] “How Strengths-based Recruitment Transforms OrganiPublishing Inc. pp. 25–45. ISBN 9781433101960. sations” (PDF). engagingminds.co.uk. 2013. [221] Ward, Tony; Maruna, Shadd (2007). Rehabilitation. Lon- [236] Schneider, K. (2011). “Toward a Humanistic Positive Psychology”. Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society don, New York: Routledge. p. 120. for Existential Analysis. 22 (1): 32–38. [222] Reivich, K, Shatte, A. (2003). The Resilience Factor: Seven Essential Skills For Overcoming Life's Inevitable Ob- [237] Schneider 2011, p. 35 stacles (Reprint ed.). Three Rivers Press. pp. 9–59. [238] Seligman, Martin E. (1995). The Optimistic Child. [223] Seligman, M. E. P. (2011).“Ch. 8”. Flourish: A visionHoughton Mifflin Company. pp. 295–299. ary new understanding of happiness and wellbeing. New York, NY: Free Press. [239] Seligman 1995, pp. 41–42 [224] Tedeschi, R.; Calhoun, L. (1996). “The Posttraumatic [240] Sample, I. (19 November 2003). “How to be happy”. Growth Inventory: Measuring the Positive Legacy of The Guardian. Trauma”. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 9 (3): 455–471. doi:10.1002/jts.2490090305. [241] Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology?. Review of general psychology, 9(2), [225] McIntyre, K. (2014). “My current research focus is the 103. subject of my dissertation: constructive journalism”. [226] Gyldensted, C. (2011). Innovating News Journalism [242] Held, Barbara S. (January 2004). “The Negative Side of through Positive Psychology (Master Thesis). University Positive Psychology”. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. of Pennsylvania. 44 (1): 9–41. doi:10.1177/0022167803259645.
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9.10 Bibliography • Argyle, Michael (2001). The Psychology of Happiness. Routledge. • Benard, Bonnie (2004). Resiliency: What We Have Learned. San Francisco: WestEd. • Fromm, Eric (1973). The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. New York: New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0-03-007596-3. • Kahneman, Daniel; Diener, Ed; Schwarz, Norbert (2003). Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. Russell Sage Foundation Publications. • Kashdan, T.B. (2009). Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life. New York, NY: HarperCollins. • Keyes & J. Haidt (eds.). Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 275–289. • McMahon, Darrin M. (2006). Happiness: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. • Robbins B.D (2008). “What is the good life? Positive psychology and the renaissance of humanistic psychology” (PDF). The Humanistic Psychologist. 36 (2): 96–112. doi:10.1080/08873260802110988. • Seligman, Martin (1990). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Free Press. • Seligman, M.E.P. (Spring 2004). “Can Happiness be Taught?". Daedalus. 133 (2): 80–87. doi:10.1162/001152604323049424. • Snyder, C.R., and Lopez, Shane J. (2001). Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. • Stebbins, R.A. (2015). Leisure and Positive Psychology: Linking Activities with Positiveness. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. • Biswas-Diener, Robert, & Diener, Ed. (2004). “The psychology of subjective well-being”. Daedalus. 133 (2): 18–25. doi:10.1162/001152604323049352. • Held, BS (January 2004). “The Negative Side of Positive Psychology”. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 44 (1): 9–41. doi:10.1177/0022167803259645. • Zagano, Phyllis; Gillespie, C. Kevin (2006). “Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology”. The Way. 45 (4): 41–58. (Tr. to Italian: “La Spiritualita Ignaziana e la psicologia positiva”La relazione d'aiuto: il counseling tra psicologia e fede, Ed. Andrea Toniolo, Padua, (November 2008) 29–44)
CHAPTER 9. POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY • Peterson, Christopher (2009). “Positive Psychology”. Reclaiming Children and Youth. 18 (2): 3–7.
9.11 External links • Economic Downturn: Can Money Buy Happiness? WhyFiles.org • Niemiec, R., & Wedding D. (2008). Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths. Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe. • Martin Seligman presentation on positive psychology (Video) at TED conference • The Karma of Happiness: A Buddhist Monk Looks at Positive Psychology by Thanissaro Bhikkhu • http://lifeskills.ge/
Chapter 10
Nicomachean Ethics The Nicomachean Ethics (/ˌnɪkoʊˈmækiən/ Greek: Ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια) is the name normally given to Aristotle's best-known work on ethics. The work, which plays a pre-eminent role in defining Aristotelian ethics, consists of ten books, originally separate scrolls, and is understood to be based on notes from his lectures at the Lyceum. The title is often assumed to refer to his son Nicomachus, to whom the work was dedicated or who may have edited it (although his young age makes this less likely). Alternatively, the work may have been dedicated to his father, who was also called Nicomachus. The theme of the work is a Socratic question previously explored in the works of Plato, Aristotle's friend and teacher, of how men should best live. In his Metaphysics, Aristotle described how Socrates, the friend and teacher of Plato, had turned philosophy to human questions, whereas Pre-Socratic philosophy had only been theoretical. Ethics, as now separated out for discussion by Aristotle, is practical rather than theoretical, in the original Aristotelian senses of these terms.* [1] In other words, it is not only a contemplation about good living, because it also aims to create good living. It is therefore connected to Aristotle's other practical work, the Politics, which similarly aims at people becoming good. Ethics is about how individuals should best live, while the study of politics is from the perspective of a law-giver, looking at the good of a whole community.
sial but also influential. (Marsilius is for example sometimes said to have influenced the controversial English political reformer Thomas Cromwell.) A critical period in the history of this work's influence is at the end of the Middle Ages, and beginning of modernity, when several authors such as Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes, argued forcefully and largely successfully that the medieval Aristotelian tradition in practical thinking had become a great impediment to philosophy in their time.* [2] However, in more recent generations, Aristotle's original works (if not those of his medieval followers) have once again become an important source. More recent authors influenced by this work include Alasdair MacIntyre, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Martha Nussbaum and Avital Ronell.
The Nicomachean Ethics is widely considered one of the most important historical philosophical works, and had an important impact upon the European Middle Ages, becoming one of the core works of medieval philosophy. It therefore indirectly became critical in the development of all modern philosophy as well as European law and theology. Many parts of the Nicomachean Ethics are well known in their own right, within different fields. In the Middle Ages, a synthesis between Aristotelian ethics and Christian theology became widespread, in Europe as introduced by Albertus Magnus. While various philosophers had influenced Christendom since its earliest times, in Western Europe Aristotle became “the Philosopher” , partly inspired by the Spanish Muslim philosopher Averroes. The most important version of this synthesis First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek was that of Thomas Aquinas. Other more "Averroist" and Latin. Aristotelians such as Marsilius of Padua were controver-
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10.1 Title and abbreviations The English version of the title derives from Greek Ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια, transliterated Ethika Nikomacheia, which is sometimes also given in the genitive form as Ἠθικῶν Νικομαχείων, Ethikōn Nikomacheiōn. The Latin, which is also commonly used, can be Ethica Nicomachea or, De Moribus ad Nicomachum. The Nicomachean Ethics is very often abbreviated“NE”, or“EN”, and books and chapters are generally referred to by Roman and Arabic numerals, respectively, along with corresponding Bekker numbers. (Thus, “NE II.2, 1103b1”means "Nicomachean Ethics, book II, chapter 2, Bekker page 1103, Bekker column b, line number 1” .) In many ways this work parallels the similar Eudemian Ethics, which has only eight books, and the two works can be fruitfully compared. Books V, VI, and VII of the Nicomachean Ethics are identical to Books IV, V, and VI of the Eudemian Ethics. Opinions about the relationship between the two works—for example, which was written first, and which originally contained the three common books, are divided.
10.2 Synopsis The first philosopher to write ethical treatises, Aristotle argues that the correct approach for studying such controversial subjects as Ethics or Politics, which involve discussing what is beautiful or just, is to start with what would be roughly agreed to be true by people of good upbringing and experience in life, and to work from there to a higher understanding.* [3]* [4] Taking this approach, Aristotle begins by saying that the highest good for humans, the highest aim of all human practical thinking, is eudaimonia, a Greek word often translated as well-being or happiness. Aristotle in turn argues that happiness is properly understood as an ongoing and stable dynamic, a way of being in action (energeia), specifically appropriate to the human "soul" (psuchē), at its most “excellent”or virtuous (virtue translates aretē in Greek). If there are several virtues then the best and most complete or perfect of them will be the happiest one. An excellent human will be a person good at living life, who does it well and beautifully (kalos). Aristotle says that such a person would also be a serious (spoudaios) human being, in the same sense of “serious”that one contrasts serious harpists with other harpists. He also asserts as part of this starting point that virtue for a human must involve reason in thought and speech (logos), as this is an aspect (an ergon, literally meaning a task or work) of human living.* [5] From this starting point, Aristotle goes into discussion of what ethics, a term Aristotle helped develop, means. Aristotelian Ethics is about what makes a virtuous character (ethikē aretē) possible, which is in turn necessary
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS if happiness is to be possible. He describes a sequence of necessary steps to achieve this: First, righteous actions, often done under the influence of teachers, allow the development of the right habits. These in turn can allow the development of a good stable character in which the habits are voluntary, and this in turn gives a chance of achieving eudaimonia.* [6] Character here translates ēthos in Greek, related to modern words such as ethics, ethical and ethos. Aristotle does not however equate character with habit (ethos in Greek, with a short “e” ) because real character involves conscious choice, unlike habit. Instead of being habit, character is a hexis like health or knowledge, meaning it is a stable disposition that must be pursued and maintained with some effort. However, good habits are described as a precondition for good character.* [7] Aristotle then turns to examples, reviewing some of the specific ways that people are thought worthy of blame or praise. As he proceeds, he describes how the highest types of praise, so the highest types of virtue, imply having all the virtues of character at once, and these in turn imply not just good character, but a kind of wisdom.* [8] The four virtues that he says require the possession of all the ethical virtues together are: • Being of “great soul”(magnanimity), the virtue where someone would be truly deserving of the highest praise and have a correct attitude towards the honor this may involve. This is the first case mentioned, and it is mentioned within the initial discussion of practical examples of virtues and vices at 1123b Book IV.* [9] • The type of justice or fairness of a good ruler in a good community is then given a similar description, during the special discussion of the virtue (or virtues) of justice at 1129b in Book V.* [10] • Phronesis or practical judgment as shown by good leaders is the next to be mentioned in this way at 1144b in Book VI.* [11] • The virtue of being a truly good friend is the final example at 1157a in Book VIII.* [12] (In the Eudemian Ethics (Book VIII, chapter 3) Aristotle also uses the word "kalokagathia", the nobility of a gentleman (kalokagathos), to describe this same concept of a virtue containing all the moral virtues.) This style of building up a picture wherein it becomes clear that praiseworthy virtues in their highest form, even virtues like courage, seem to require intellectual virtue, is a theme of discussion Aristotle chooses to associate in the Nicomachean Ethics with Socrates, and indeed it is an approach we find portrayed in the Socratic dialogues of Plato.* [13] Aristotle also does this himself, and though he professes to work differently from Plato by trying to start with what well-brought up men would agree with, by book
10.3. BOOK I VII Aristotle eventually comes to argue that the highest of all human virtues is itself not practical, being contemplative wisdom (theōria 1177a). But achieving this supreme condition is inseparable from achieving all the virtues of character, or “moral virtues”.* [14] The way Aristotle sketches the highest good for man as involving both a practical and theoretical side, with the two sides necessary for each other, is also in the tradition of Socrates and Plato—as opposed to pre-Socratic philosophy. As Burger (2008) points out (p. 212):- “The Ethics does not end at its apparent peak, identifying perfect happiness with the life devoted to theōria; instead it goes on to introduce the need for a study of legislation, on the grounds that it is not sufficient only to know about virtue, but one should try to put that knowledge to use.”At the end of the book, according to Burger, the thoughtful reader is led to understand that“the end we are seeking is what we have been doing”while engaging with the Ethics (p. 215).
10.3 Book I Book I attempts to both define the subject matter itself and justify the method that has been chosen (in chapters 3, 4, 6 and 7). As part of this, Aristotle considers common opinions along with the opinions of poets and philosophers.
10.3.1
Who should study ethics, and how
Concerning accuracy and whether ethics can be treated in an objective way, Aristotle points out that the “things that are beautiful and just, about which politics investigates, involve great disagreement and inconsistency, so that they are thought to belong only to convention and not to nature". For this reason Aristotle claims it is important not to demand too much precision, like the demonstrations we would demand from a mathematician, but rather to treat the beautiful and the just as “things that are so for the most part.”We can do this because people are good judges of what they are acquainted with, but this in turn implies that the young (in age or in character), being inexperienced, are not suitable for study of this type of political subject.* [15] Chapter 6 contains a famous digression in which Aristotle appears to question his “friends”who “introduced the forms”. This is understood to be referring to Plato and his school, famous for what is now known as the Theory of Forms. Aristotle says that while both “the truth and one's friends”are loved, “it is a sacred thing to give the highest honor to the truth”. The section is yet another explanation of why the Ethics will not start from first principles, which would mean starting out by trying to discuss“The Good”as a universal thing that all things called good have in common. Aristotle says that while all
121 the different things called good do not seem to have the same name by chance, it is perhaps better to “let go for now”because this attempt at precision“would be more at home in another type of philosophic inquiry”, and would not seem to be helpful for discussing how particular humans should act, in the same way that doctors do not need to philosophize over the definition of health in order to treat each case.* [16] In other words, Aristotle is insisting on the importance of his distinction between theoretical and practical philosophy, and the Nicomachean Ethics is practical.
10.3.2 Defining “happiness”(eudaimonia) and the aim of the Ethics The main stream of discussion starts the opening of Chapter 1, with the assertion that all technical arts, all investigations (every methodos, including the Ethics itself), indeed all deliberate actions and choice, all aim at some good apart from themselves. Aristotle points to the fact that many aims are really only intermediate aims, and are desired only because they make the achievement of higher aims possible.* [17] In chapter 2, Aristotle asserts that there is one highest aim, eudaimonia (traditionally translated as“happiness” ), and it must be the same as the aim politics should have, because what is best for an individual is less beautiful (kalos) and divine (theios) than what is good for a people (ethnos) or city (polis). Politics rules over practical life so the proper aim of politics should include the proper aim of all other pursuits, so that “this end would be the human good (tanthrōpinon agathon)". The human good is a practical target, and contrasts with Plato's references to “the Good itself”. He concludes what is now known as Chapter 2 of Book 1 by stating that ethics (“our investigation”or methodos) is “in a certain way political” .* [18] Chapter 3 goes on to elaborate on exactness. Ethics, unlike some other types of philosophy, is inexact and uncertain. Aristotle says that it would be unreasonable to expect strict mathematical style demonstrations, but “each man judges correctly those matters with which he is acquainted”.* [19] Chapter 4 states that while most would agree to call the highest aim of humanity (eudaimonia), and also to equate this with both living well and doing things well, there is dispute between people, and between the majority (hoi polloi) and“the wise”.* [20] Chapter 5 distinguishes three distinct ways of life that different people associate with happiness.* [21] • The slavish way of pleasure, which is the way the majority of people think of happiness. • The refined and active way of politics, which aims at honor, (honor itself implying the higher divinity
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CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS of those who are wise and know and judge, and potentially honor, political people).
As an example of popular opinions about happiness, Aristotle cites an “ancient one and agreed to by the philosophers”. According to this opinion, which he says is right, • The way of contemplation. the good things associated with the soul are most governing and especially good, when compared to the good Aristotle also mentions two other possibilities that he ar- things of the body, or good external things. Aristotle gues can be put aside: says that virtue, practical judgment and wisdom, and also pleasure, all associated with happiness, and indeed an as• Having virtue but being inactive, even suffering evils sociation with external abundance, are all consistent with and misfortunes, which Aristotle says no one would this definition. consider unless they were defending a hypothesis. If happiness is virtue, or a certain virtue, then it must not (As Sachs points out, this is indeed what Plato dejust be a condition of being virtuous, potentially, but an picts Socrates doing in his Gorgias.) actual way of virtuously "being at work" as a human. For • Money making, which Aristotle asserts to be a life as in the Ancient Olympic Games, “it is not the most based on aiming at what is pursued by necessity in beautiful or the strongest who are crowned, but those who order to achieve higher goals, an intermediate good. compete”. And such virtue will be good, beautiful and pleasant, indeed Aristotle asserts that in most people difEach of these three commonly proposed happy ways of ferent pleasures are in conflict with each other while“the life represents targets that some people aim at for their things that are pleasant to those who are passionately deown sake, just like they aim at happiness itself for its own voted to what is beautiful are the things that are pleasant sake. Concerning honor, pleasure, and intelligence (nous) by nature and of this sort are actions in accordance with and also every virtue, though they lead to happiness, even virtue”. External goods are also necessary in such a virtuous life, because a person who lacks things such as good if they did not we would still pursue them. family and friends might find it difficult to be happy.* [25] Happiness in life then, includes the virtues, and Aristotle adds that it would include self-sufficiency (autarkeia), not the self-sufficiency of a hermit, but of someone with 10.3.3 Questions that might be raised a family, friends and community. By itself this would about the definition make life choiceworthy and lacking nothing. To describe more clearly what happiness is like, Aristotle next asks In chapters 9-12, Aristotle addresses some objections or what the work (ergon) of a human is. All living things questions that might be raised against his definition of have nutrition and growth as a work, all animals (accord- happiness thus far. ing to the definition of animal Aristotle used) would have perceiving as part of their work, but what is more particu• First he considers the definition of happiness in conlarly human? The answer according to Aristotle is that it trast to an old Socratic question (found for example must involve articulate speech (logos), including both bein Plato's Meno) of whether happiness might be a ing open to persuasion by reasoning, and thinking things result of learning or habit or training, or perhaps dithrough. Not only will human happiness involve reason, vine lot or even chance. Aristotle says that it admits but it will also be an active being-at-work (energeia), not of being shared by some sort of learning and taking just potential happiness. And it will be over a lifetime, pains. But despite this, even if not divine, it is one because “one swallow does not make a spring”. The of the most divine things, and “for what is greatest definition given is therefore: and most beautiful to be left to chance would be too discordant”.* [26] The Good of man is the active exercise of his soul's faculties in conformity with excellence or virtue, or if there be several human • Aristotle justifies saying that happiness must be conexcellences or virtues, in conformity with the sidered over a whole lifetime because otherwise best and most perfect among them. Moreover, Priam, for example, would be defined as unhappy to be happy takes a complete lifetime; for one only because of his unhappy old age.* [27] swallow does not make a spring. —Rackham translation of I.7.1098a.* [22] • Concerning the importance of chance to happiness, Aristotle argues that a happy person at work in accordance with virtue “will bear what misfortune And because happiness is being described as a work or brings most beautifully and in complete harmony function of humans, we can say that just as we contrast in every instance”. Only many great misfortunes harpists with serious harpists, the person who lives well will limit how blessed such a life can be, but “even and beautifully in this actively rational and virtuous way in these circumstances something beautiful shines will be a “serious”(spoudaios) human.* [23]* [24] through”.* [28]
10.4. BOOKS II–V: CONCERNING EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER OR MORAL VIRTUE
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The virtues then are similarly divided, into intellectual (dianoetic) virtues, and the virtues of character (ethical or moral virtues) pertaining to the irrational part of the soul, which can take part in reason.* [31] These virtues of character, or“moral virtues”as they are often translated, become the central topic in Book II. The intellectual aspect of virtue will be discussed in Book VI.
Neoptolemus killing Priam. Aristotle accepted that it would be wrong to call Priam unhappy only because his last years were unhappy.
• Addressing an opinion that he expected amongst his contemporaries about happiness, Aristotle says that it “seems too unfeeling and contrary to people's opinions”to claim that “the fortunes of one's descendants and all one's friends have no influence at all”. But he says that it seems that if anything at all gets through to the deceased, whether good or the reverse, it would be something faint and small” .* [29] • Once again turning to the divinity of happiness Aristotle distinguishes virtue and happiness saying that virtue, through which people “become apt at performing beautiful actions”is praiseworthy, while happiness is something more important, like god, “since every one of us does everything else for the sake of this, and we set down the source and cause of good things as something honored and divine”.* [30]
10.3.4
From defining happiness to discussion of virtue: introduction to the rest of the Ethics
Aristotle asserts that we can usefully accept some things said about the soul (clearly a cross reference to Plato again), including the division of the soul into rational and irrational parts, and the further division of the irrational parts into two parts also: • One irrational part of the human soul is“not human” but “vegetative”and at most work during sleep, when virtue is least obvious. • A second irrational part of the human soul is however able to share in reason in some way. We see this because we know there is something “desiring and generally appetitive”in the soul that can, on different occasions in different people, either oppose reason, or obey it—thus being rational just as we would be rational when we listen to a father being rational.
10.4 Books II–V: Concerning excellence of character or moral virtue 10.4.1 Book II: That virtues of character can be described as means Aristotle says that whereas virtue of thinking needs teaching, experience and time, virtue of character (moral virtue) comes about as a consequence of following the right habits. According to Aristotle the potential for this virtue is by nature in humans, but whether virtues come to be present or not is not determined by human nature.* [32] Trying to follow the method of starting with approximate things gentlemen can agree on, and looking at all circumstances, Aristotle says that we can describe virtues as things that are destroyed by deficiency or excess. Someone who runs away becomes a coward, while someone who fears nothing is rash. In this way the virtue“bravery” can be seen as depending upon a“mean”between two extremes. (For this reason, Aristotle is sometimes considered a proponent of a doctrine of a golden mean.* [33]) People become habituated well by first performing actions that are virtuous, possibly because of the guidance of teachers or experience, and in turn these habitual actions then become real virtue where we choose good actions deliberately.* [34] According to Aristotle, character properly understood (i.e. one's virtue or vice), is not just any tendency or habit but something that affects when we feel pleasure or pain. A virtuous person feels pleasure when she performs the most beautiful or noble (kalos) actions. A person who is not virtuous will often find his or her perceptions of what is most pleasant to be misleading. For this reason, any concern with virtue or politics requires consideration of pleasure and pain.* [35] When a person does virtuous actions, for example by chance, or under advice, they are not yet necessarily a virtuous person. It is not like in the productive arts, where the thing being made is what is judged as well made or not. To truly be a virtuous person, one's virtuous actions must meet three conditions: (a) they are done knowingly, (b) they are chosen for their own sakes, and (c) they are chosen according to a stable disposition (not at a whim, or in any way that the acting person might easily change his choice about). And just knowing what would be virtuous is not enough.* [36] Ac-
124 cording to Aristotle's analysis, three kinds of things come to be present in the soul that virtue is: a feeling (pathos), an inborn predisposition or capacity (dunamis), or a stable disposition that has been acquired (hexis).* [37] In fact, it has already been mentioned that virtue is made up of hexeis, but on this occasion the contrast with feelings and capacities is made clearer—neither is chosen, and neither is praiseworthy in the way that virtue is.* [38] Comparing virtue to productive arts (technai) as with arts, virtue of character must not only be the making of a good human, but also the way humans do their own work well. Being skilled in an art can also be described as a mean between excess and deficiency: when they are well done we say that we would not want to take away or add anything from them. But Aristotle points to a simplification in this idea of hitting a mean. In terms of what is best, we aim at an extreme, not a mean, and in terms of what is base, the opposite.* [39]
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS • Voluntary (ekousion) acts. • Involuntary or unwilling (akousion) acts, which is the simplest case where people do not praise or blame. In such cases a person does not choose the wrong thing, for example if the wind carries a person off, or if a person has a wrong understanding of the particular facts of a situation. Note that ignorance of what aims are good and bad, such as people of bad character always have, is not something people typically excuse as ignorance in this sense. “Acting on account of ignorance seems different from acting while being ignorant”. •“Non-voluntary”or“non willing”actions (ouk ekousion) that are bad actions done by choice, or more generally (as in the case of animals and children when desire or spirit causes an action) whenever“the source of the moving of the parts that are instrumental in such actions is in oneself”and anything “up to oneself either to do or not”. However, these actions are not taken because they are preferred in their own right, but rather because all options available are worse.
Chapter 7 turns from general comments to specifics. Aristotle gives a list of character virtues and vices that he later discusses in Books II and III. As Sachs points out, (2002, p. 30) it appears the list is not especially fixed, because it differs between the Nicomachean and Eudemian Ethics, and also because Aristotle repeats several times It is concerning this third class of actions that there is that this is a rough outline.* [40] doubt about whether they should be praised or blamed or Aristotle also mentions some“mean conditions”involv- condoned in different cases. ing feelings: a sense of shame is sometimes praised, or Several more critical terms are defined and discussed: said to be in excess or deficiency. Righteous indignation (Greek: nemesis) is a sort of mean between joy at the • Deliberate choice (proairesis),“seems to determine misfortunes of others and envy. Aristotle says that such one's character more than one's actions do”. Things cases will need to be discussed later, before the discussion done on the spur of the moment, and things done by of Justice in Book V, which will also require special disanimals and children can be willing, but driven by cussion. But the Nicomachean Ethics only discusses the desire and spirit and not what we would normally sense of shame at that point, and not righteous indignacall true choice. Choice is rational, and according tion (which is however discussed in the Eudemian Ethics to the understanding of Aristotle, choice can be in Book VIII). opposition to desire. Choice is also not wishing for In practice Aristotle explains that people tend more by nathings one does not believe can be achieved, such as ture towards pleasures, and therefore see virtues as being immortality, but rather always concerning realistic relatively closer to the less obviously pleasant extremes. aims. Choice is also not simply to do with opinWhile every case can be different, given the difficulty of ion, because our choices make us the type of pergetting the mean perfectly right it is indeed often most son we are, and are not simply true or false. What important to guard against going the pleasant and easy distinguishes choice is that before a choice is made way.* [41] However this rule of thumb is shown in later there is a rational deliberation or thinking things parts of the Ethics to apply mainly to some bodily pleathrough.* [43] sures, and is shown to be wrong as an accurate general • Deliberation (bouleusis), at least for sane people, rule in Book X. does not include theoretical contemplation about universal and everlasting things, nor about things that might be far away, nor about things we can know 10.4.2 Book III. Chapters 1–5: Moral precisely, such as letters. “We deliberate about virtue as conscious choice things that are up to us and are matters of action” and concerning things where it is unclear how they Chapter 1 distinguishes actions chosen as relevant to will turn out. Deliberation is therefore not how we virtue, and whether actions are to be blamed, forgiven, reason about ends we pursue, health for example, or even pitied.* [42] but how we think through the ways we can try to Aristotle divides actions into three categories instead of achieve them. Choice then is decided by both desire two:and deliberation.* [44]
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• Wishing (boulēsis) is not deliberation. We cannot say that what people wish for is good by definition, and although we could say that what is wished for is always what appears good, this will still be very variable. Most importantly we could say that a worthy (spoudaios) man will wish for what is“truly”good. Most people are mislead by pleasure, “for it seems to them to be a good, though it is not”.* [45]
The courageous man, says Aristotle, sometimes fears even terrors that not everyone feels the need to fear, but he endures fears and feels confident in a rational way, for the sake of what is beautiful (kalos)—because this is what virtue aims at. Beautiful action comes from a beautiful character and aims at beauty. The vices opposed to courage were discussed at the end of Book II. Although there is no special name for it, people who have excessive fearlessness would be mad, which Aristotle remarks that some describe Celts as being in his time. Aristotle also Chapter 5 considers choice, willingness and deliberation remarks that “rash”people (thrasus), those with excesin cases that exemplify not only virtue, but vice. Virtue sive confidence, are generally cowards putting on a brave and vice according to Aristotle are “up to us”. This face.* [48] means that although no one is willingly unhappy, vice by definition always involves actions decided on willingly. Apart from the correct usage above, the word courage (As discussed earlier, vice comes from bad habits and is applied to five other types of character according to * aiming at the wrong things, not deliberately aiming to be Aristotle: [49]unhappy.) Lawmakers also work in this way, trying to encourage and discourage the right voluntary actions, but don't concern themselves with involuntary actions. They also tend not to be lenient to people for anything they could have chosen to avoid, such as being drunk, or being ignorant of things easy to know, or even of having allowed themselves to develop bad habits and a bad character. Concerning this point, Aristotle asserts that even though people with a bad character may be ignorant and even seem unable to choose the right things, this condition stems from decisions that were originally voluntary, the same as poor health can develop from past choices— and, “While no one blames those who are ill-formed by nature, people do censure those who are that way through lack of exercise and neglect.” The vices then, are voluntary just as the virtues are. He states that people would have to be unconscious not to realize the importance of allowing themselves to live badly, and he dismisses any idea that different people have different innate visions of what is good.* [46] Hektor, the Trojan hero. Aristotle questions his courage.
10.4.3
Book III. Chapters 6–12, First examples of moral virtues
Aristotle now deals separately with some of the specific character virtues, in a form similar to the listing at the end of Book II, starting with courage and temperance.
Courage Courage means holding a mean position in one's feelings of confidence and fear. Courage, however, is not thought to relate to fear of evil things it is right to fear, like disgrace—and courage is not the word for a man who does not fear danger to his wife and children, or punishment for breaking the law. Instead courage usually refers to confidence and fear concerning the most fearful thing, death, and specifically the most potentially beautiful form of death, death in battle.* [47]
• The courage of citizen soldiers. Aristotle says this is largely a result of penalties for cowardice and honors for bravery, but that it is the closest type of seeming courage to real courage, is very important for making an army fight as if brave, but it is different from true courage because not based on voluntary actions aimed at being beautiful in their own right. Aristotle perhaps surprisingly notes that the Homeric heroes such as Hector had this type of courage. • People experienced in some particular danger often seem courageous. This is something that might be seen amongst professional soldiers, who do not panic at false alarms. In another perhaps surprising remark Aristotle specifically notes that such men might be better in a war than even truly courageous people. However, he also notes that when the odds change such soldiers run.
126 • Spirit or anger (thumos) often looks like courage. Such people can be blind to the dangers they run into though, meaning even animals can be brave in this way, and unlike truly courageous people they are not aiming at beautiful acts. This type of bravery is the same as that of a mule risking punishment to keep grazing, or an adulterer taking risks. Aristotle however notes that this type of spirit shows an affinity to true courage and combined with deliberate choice and purpose it seems to be true courage.
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS concerned with pleasures of the soul, honor, learning, for example, or even excessive pleasure in talking, are not usually referred to as the objects of being temperate or dissipate. Also, not all bodily pleasures are relevant, for example delighting in sights or sounds or smells are not things we are temperate or profligate about, unless it is the smell of food or perfume that triggers another yearning. Temperance and dissipation concern the animal-like, Aphrodisiac, pleasures of touch and taste, and indeed especially a certain type of touch, because dissipated people do not delight in refined distinguishing of flavors, and nor indeed do they delight in feelings one gets during a workout or massage in a gymnasium.* [51]
• The boldness of someone who feels confident based on many past victories is not true courage. Like a person who is overconfident when drunk, this apparent courage is based on a lack of fear, and will dis- Chapter 11. Some desires like that of food and drink, appear if circumstances change. A truly courageous and indeed sex, are shared by everyone in a certain way. person is not certain of victory and does endure fear. But not everyone has the same particular manifestations of these desires. In the “natural desires”says Aristotle, • Similarly, there are people who are overconfident few people go wrong, and then normally in one direcsimply due to ignorance. An overconfident person tion, towards too much. What is just to fulfill one's need, might stand a while when things do not turn out as whereas people err by either desiring beyond this need, expected, but a person confident out of ignorance is or else desiring what they ought not desire. But regarding pains, temperance is different from courage. A temperlikely to run at the first signs of such things. ate person does not need to endure pains, but rather the intemperate person feels pain even with his pleasures, but Chapter 9. As discussed in Book II already, courage also by his excess longing. might be described as achieving a mean in confidence and fear, but we must remember that these means are not nor- The opposite is rare, and therefore there is no special mally in the middle between the two extremes. Avoiding name for a person insensitive to pleasures and delight. fear is more important in aiming at courage than avoiding The temperate person desires the things that are not imoverconfidence. As in the examples above, overconfident pediments to health, nor contrary to what is beautiful, nor people are likely to be called courageous, or considered beyond that person's resources. Such a person judges acclose to courageous. Aristotle said in Book II that—with cording to right reason (orthos logos).* [52] the moral virtues such as courage—the extreme one's nor- Chapter 12. Intemperance is a more willingly chosen mal desires tend away from are the most important to aim vice than cowardice, because it positively seeks pleasure, towards. while cowardice avoids pain, and pain can derange a perWhen it comes to courage, it heads people towards pain in some circumstances, and therefore away from what they would otherwise desire. Men are sometimes even called courageous just for enduring pain. There can be a pleasant end of courageous actions but it is obscured by the circumstances. Death is, by definition, always a possibility—so this is one example of a virtue that does not bring a pleasant result.* [50]
son's choice. So we reproach intemperance more, because it is easier to habituate oneself so as to avoid this problem. The way children act also has some likeness to the vice of akolasia. Just as a child needs to live by instructions, the desiring part of the human soul must be in harmony with the rational part. Desire without understanding can become insatiable, and can even impair reason.* [53]
Aristotle's treatment of the subject is often compared to Plato's treatment of the same subject is once again frePlato's. Courage was dealt with by Plato in his Socratic quently compared to Aristotle's, as was apparently Aristotle's intention (see Book I, as explained above): dialogue named the Laches. Temperance (sōphrosunē) Temperance (sōphrosunē, also translated as soundness of mind, moderation, discretion) is a mean with regards to pleasure. He adds that it is only concerned with pains in a lesser and different way. The vice that occurs most often in the same situations is excess with regards to pleasure (akolasia, translated licentiousness, intemperance, profligacy, dissipation etc.). Pleasures can be divided into those of the soul and of the body. But those who are
Every virtue, as it comes under examination in the Platonic dialogues, expands far beyond the bounds of its ordinary understanding: but sōphrosunē undergoes, in Plato's Charmides, an especially explosive expansion – from thee first definition proposed; a quiet temperament (159b), to “the knowledge of itself and other knowledges”(166e). —Burger (2008) p.80
10.4. BOOKS II–V: CONCERNING EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER OR MORAL VIRTUE Aristotle discusses this subject further in Book VII.
10.4.4
Book IV. The second set of examples of moral virtues
The set of moral virtues discussed here involves getting the balance of one's behavior right in social or political situations, leading to themes that become critical to the development of some of the most important themes.
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and badly brought-up. Also, a wasteful person at least benefits someone. Aristotle points out also that a person with this virtue would not get money from someone he should not get it, in order to give “for a decent sort of taking goes along with a decent sort of giving.”Having said this however, most people we call wasteful are not only wasteful in the sense opposed to being generous, but also actually unrestrained and have many vices at once. Such people are actually often wasteful and stingy at the same time, and when trying to be generous they often take from sources whence they should not (for example pimps, loan sharks, gamblers, thieves), and they give to the wrong people. Such people can be helped by guidance, unlike stingy people, and most people are somewhat stingy. In fact, ends Aristotle, stinginess is reasonably called the opposite of generosity, “both because it is a greater evil than wastefulness, and because people go wrong more often with it than from the sort of wastefulness described”.* [54]
Book IV is sometimes described as being very bound to the norms of an Athenian gentleman in Aristotle's time. While this is consistent with the approach Aristotle said he would take in Book I, in contrast to the approach of Plato, there is long running disagreement concerning whether this immersion within the viewpoint of his probable intended readership is just a starting point to build up to more general conclusions, for example in Book VI, or else shows that Aristotle failed to successfully generalize, and that his ethical thinking was truly based upon the beliefs of a Greek gentleman of his time. Magnificence
Magnificence is described as a virtue similar to generosity except that it deals with spending large amounts of wealth. Aristotle says that while “the magnificent man This is a virtue we observe when we see how people act is liberal, the liberal man is not necessarily magnificent” with regards to giving money, and things whose worth . The immoderate vices in this case would be concerning is thought of in terms of money. The two un-virtuous “making a great display on the wrong occasions and in extremes are wastefulness and stinginess (or meanness). the wrong way”. The extremes to be avoided in order to Stinginess is most obviously taking money too seriously, achieve this virtue are paltriness (Rackham) or chintzibut wastefulness, less strictly speaking, is not always ness (Sachs) on the one hand and tastelessness or vulgarthe opposite (an under estimation of the importance of ity on the other. Aristotle reminds us here that he has money) because it is also often caused by being unre- already said that moral dispositions (hexeis) are caused strained. A wasteful person is destroyed by their own by the activities (energeia) we perform, meaning that a acts, and has many vices at once. Aristotle's approach magnificent person's virtue can be seen from the way he to defining the correct balance is to treat money like any chooses the correct magnificent acts at the right times. other useful thing, and say that the virtue is to know how The aim of magnificence, like any virtue, is beautiful acto use money: giving to the right people, the right amount tion, not for the magnificent man himself but on public at the right time. Also, as with each of the ethical virtues, things, such that even his private gifts have some resemAristotle emphasizes that such a person gets pleasures and blance to votive offerings. Because he is aiming at a specpains at doing the virtuous and beautiful thing. Aristotle tacle, a person with this virtue will not be focusing on dogoes slightly out of his way to emphasize that generosity is ing things cheaply, which would be petty, and he or she not a virtue associated with making money, because, he may well overspend. So as with liberality, Aristotle sees points out, a virtuous person is normally someone who a potential conflict between some virtues, and being good causes beautiful things, rather than just being a recipient. with money. But he does say that magnificence requires Aristotle also points out that we do not give much grat- spending according to means, at least in the sense that itude and praise at all to someone simply for not taking poor man can not be magnificent. The vices of paltriness (which might however earn praise for being just). Aristo- and vulgar chintziness “do not bring serious discredit, tle also points out that “generous people are loved prac- since they are not injurious to others, nor are they excestically the most of those who are recognized for virtue, sively unseemly”.* [55] since they confer benefits, and this consists in giving” and he does not deny that generous people often won't be good at maintaining their wealth, and are often easy Magnanimity or “greatness of soul” to cheat. Aristotle goes further in this direction by saying that it might seem that it is better to be wasteful than Book IV, Chapter 3. Magnanimity is a latinization of to be stingy: a wasteful person is cured by age, and by the original Greek used here, which was megalopsuchia, running out of resources, and if they are not merely unre- which means greatness of soul. Although the word magstrained people then they are foolish rather than vicious nanimity has a traditional connection to Aristotelian phiLiberality or generosity (eleutheriotēs)
128 losophy, it also has its own tradition in English, which now causes some confusion.* [56] This is why some modern translations refer literally to greatness of soul. In particular, the term implied not just greatness, but a person who thought of themselves worthy of great thing, or in other words a sort of pride. (Michael Davis translates it as pride.* [57]) Although the term could imply a negative insinuation of lofty pride, Aristotle as usual tries to define what the word should mean as a virtue. He says that“not everybody who claims more than he deserves is vain”and indeed “most small-souled of all would seem to be the man who claims less than he deserves when his deserts are great”. Being vain, or being small-souled, are the two extremes that fail to achieve the mean of the virtue of magnanimity.* [58] The small souled person, according to Aristotle, “seems to have something bad about him”.* [59] To have the virtue of greatness of soul, and be worthy of what is greatest, one must be good in a true sense, and possess what is great in all virtues. As Sachs points out: “Greatness of soul is the first of four virtues that Aristotle will find to require the presence of all the virtues of character.”* [8] The others are a type of justice (1129b in Book V), phronesis or practical judgment as shown by good leaders (1144b in Book VI), and truly good friends (1157a in Book VIII). Aristotle views magnanimity as“a sort of adornment of the moral virtues; for it makes them greater, and it does not arise without them.”* [60] Aristotle also focuses on the question of what the greatest things one may be worthy of. At first he says this is spoken of in terms of external goods, but he observes that the greatest of these must be honor, because this is what we assign to gods, and this is what people of the highest standing aim at. But he qualifies this by saying that actually great souled people will hold themselves moderately toward every type of good or bad fortune, even honor. It is being good, and being worthy of honor that is more important. (The disdain of a great souled person towards all kinds of non-human good things can make great souled people seem arrogant, like an un-deserving vain person.)* [61] Leo Strauss notes that“there is a close kinship between Aristotle's justice and biblical justice, but Aristotle's magnanimity, which means a man's habitual claiming for himself great honors while he deserves these honors, is alien to the Bible". Strauss describes the Bible as rejecting the concept of a gentleman, and that this displays a different approach to the problem of divine law in Greek and Biblical civilization.* [62] See also below concerning the sense of shame. Aristotle lists some typical characteristics of great souled people:* [63] • They do not take small risks, and are not devoted to risk taking, but they will take big risks, without regard for their life, because a worse life is worth less than a great life. Indeed, they do few things, and are slow to start on things, unless there is great
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS honor involved. • They do not esteem what is popularly esteemed, nor what others are good at. They take few things seriously, and are not anxious. • They gladly do favors but are ashamed to receive them, being apt to forget a favor from another, or to do a greater one in return. They are pleased to hear discussion about the favors they have done for others, but not about favors done for them. • They are apt to act more high handedly to a person of high station than a person of middle or low standing, which would be below them. • They are frank in expressing opinions and open about what they hate and love. Not to be so would be due to fear, or the esteem one has of other's opinions over your own. • They lead life as they choose and not as suits others, which would be slave-like. • They are not given to wonder, for nothing seems great to them. • Because they expect others to be lesser, and are not overly concerned with their praise, they are not apt to bear grudges, they are not apt to gossip, and they are not even interested in speaking ill of enemies, except to insult them. • They are not apt to complain about necessities or small matters, nor to ask for help, not wanting to imply that such things are important to them. • They tend to possess beautiful and useless things, rather than productive ones. • They tend to move slowly and speak with a deep steady voice, rather than being hasty or shrill, which would be due to anxiety. A balanced ambitiousness concerning smaller honors Book IV, Chapter 4.* [64] In parallel with the distinction of scale already made between normal generosity and magnificence, Aristotle proposes that there are two types of virtue associated with honors, one concerned with great honors, Magnanimity or “greatness of soul” and one with more normal honors. This latter virtue is a kind of correct respect for honor, which Aristotle had no Greek word for, but which he said is between being ambitious (philotimos honor-loving) and unambitious (aphilotimos not honor loving) with respect to honor. It could include a noble and manly person with appropriate ambition, or a less ambitious person who is moderate and temperate. (In other words, Aristotle makes it clear that he does not think being more philotimos than average is necessarily inappropriate.) To have the correct balance in
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this virtue means pursuing the right types of honor from According to Aristotle, getting this virtue right also the right types of source of honor. In contrast, the ambi- involves:tious man would get this balance wrong by seeking excess honor from the inappropriate sources, and the unambi• Dealing differently with different types of people, tious man would not desire appropriately to be honored for example people in a higher position than oneself, for noble reasons. people more or less familiar to you, and so on.
Gentleness (praótēs) concerning anger Book IV Chapter 5.* [65] The virtue of praótēs is the correct mean concerning anger. In contrast, an excessive tendency or vice concerning anger would be irascibility or quickness to anger. Such a person would be unfair in responses, angry at wrong people, and so on. The deficient vice would be found in people who won't defend themselves. They would lack spirit, and be considered foolish and servile. Aristotle does not deny anger a place in the behavior of a good person, but says it should be “on the right grounds and against the right persons, and also in the right manner and at the right moment and for the right length of time”.* [66] People can get this wrong in numerous ways, and Aristotle says it is not easy to get right. So in this case as with several others several distinct types of excessive vice possible. One of the worst types amongst these is the type that remains angry for too long. According to Aristotle, the virtue with regards to anger would not be led by the emotions (pathoi), but by reason (logos). So according to Aristotle, anger can be virtuous and rational in the right circumstances, and he even says that a small amount of excess is not something worth blaming either, and might even be praised as manly and fit for command. The person with this virtue will however tend to err on the side of forgiveness rather than anger, and the person with a deficiency in this virtue, despite seeming foolish and servile, will be closer to the virtue than someone who gets angry too easily.
Something like friendship, between being obsequious and surly Book IV Chapter 6.* [67] These characteristics concern the attitude people have towards whether they cause pain to others. The obsequious (areskos) person is overconcerned with the pain they cause others, backing down too easily, even when it is dishonorable or harmful to do so, while a surly (duskolos) or quarrelsome (dusteris) person objects to everything and does not care what pain they cause others, never compromising. Once again Aristotle says he has no specific Greek word to give to the correct virtuous mean that avoids the vices, but says it resembles friendship (philia). The difference is that this friendly virtue concerns behavior towards friends and strangers alike, and does not involve the special emotional bond that friends have. Concerning true friendship see books VIII and IX.
• Sometimes being able to share in the pleasure of one's companions at some expense to oneself, if this pleasure not be harmful or dishonorable. • Being willing to experience pain in the short term for longer run pleasure of a greater scale. Apart from the vice of obsequiousness, there is also flattery, which is the third vice whereby someone acts in an obsequious way to try to gain some advantage to themselves. Honesty about oneself: the virtue between boasting and self-deprecation Book IV Chapter 7.* [68] In translations such as Rackham's the vice at issue here is sometimes referred to in English as boastfulness (Greek alazoneia) and this is contrasted to a virtue concerning truthfulness. The reason is that Aristotle describes two kinds of untruthful pretense vices—one that exaggerates things, boastfulness, and one that under-states things. Aristotle points out that this is a very specific realm of honesty, that which concerns oneself. Other types of dishonesty could involve other virtues and vices, such as justice and injustice. This is a similar subject to the last one discussed concerning surliness and obsequiousness, in that it concerns how to interact socially in a community. In that discussion, the question was how much to compromise with others if it would be painful, harmful or dishonorable. Now the discussion turns to how frank one should be concerning one's own qualities. And just as in the previous case concerning flattery, vices that go too far or not far enough might be part of one's character, or they might be performed as if they were in character, with some ulterior motive. Such dishonesty could involve vices of dishonesty other than boastfulness or self-deprecation of course, but the lover of truth, who is truthful even when nothing depends on it, will be praised and expected to avoid being dishonest when it is most disgraceful. Once again, Aristotle said that he had no convenient Greek word to give to the virtuous and honest mean in this case, but a person who boasts claims qualities inappropriately, while a person who self-deprecates excessively makes no claim to qualities they have, or even disparages himself. Aristotle therefore names the virtuous man as a person who claims the good qualities he has without exaggeration or understatement. As in many of these examples, Aristotle says the excess (boastfulness) is more blameworthy than the deficiency (being self-disparaging).
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CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS at our leisure, which Aristotle says is a necessary part of life.* [69] In contrast a buffoon can never resist making any joke, and the deficient vice in this case is an uncultivated person who does not get jokes, and is useless in playful conversation. It is hard to set fixed rules about what is funny and what is appropriate, so a person with this virtue will tend to be like a law maker making suitable laws for themselves. Sense of shame (not a virtue) Chapter 9. The sense of shame is not a virtue, but more like a feeling than a stable character trait (hexis). It is a fear, and it is only fitting in the young, who live by feeling, but are held back by the feeling of shame. We would not praise older people for such a sense of shame according to Aristotle, since shame should concern acts done voluntarily, and a decent person would not voluntarily do something shameful. Aristotle mentions here that selfrestraint is also not a virtue, but refers us to a later part of the book (Book VII) for discussion of this.* [70]
Socrates used irony, which Aristotle considers an acceptable type of dishonesty. But many philosophers can get away with dishonest bragging, which is worse.
Leo Strauss notes that this approach, as well as Aristotle's discussion of magnanimity (above), are in contrast to the approach of the Bible.* [71]
10.4.5 Book V: Justice and fairness: a moral virtue needing special discusUnlike the treatment of flattery, described simply as a sion vice, Aristotle describes ways in which a person might be relatively blameless if they were occasionally dishonest about their own qualities, as long as this does not become a fixed disposition to boast. Specifically, according to Aristotle boasting would not be very much blamed if the aim is honor or glory, but it would be blameworthy if the aim is money. Parts of this section are remarkable because of the implications for the practice of philosophy. At one point Aristotle says that examples of areas where dishonest boasting for gain might go undetected, and be very blameworthy, would be prophecy, philosophy, or medicine, all of which have both pretense and bragging. This appears to be a criticism of contemporary sophists. But even more remarkable is the fact that one of the vices under discussion, self-deprecation (Greek eirôneia from which modern English "irony") is an adjective that was and is often used to describe Socrates. Aristotle even specifically mentions Socrates as an example, but at the same time mentions (continuing the theme) that the less excessive vice is often less blameworthy.
Book V is the same as Book IV of the Eudemian Ethics, the first of three books common to both works. It represents the special discussion on justice (dikaiosunē) already foreseen in earlier books, which covers some of the same material as Plato's Republic, though in a strikingly different way. Burger (2008) points that although the chapter nominally follows the same path (methodos) as previous chapters“it is far from obvious how justice is to be understood as a disposition in relation to a passion: the proposed candidate, greed (pleonexia), would seem to refer, rather, to the vice of injustice and the single opposite of the virtue.”In other words, it is not described as a mean between two extremes. Indeed, as Burger point out, the approach is also quite different from previous chapters in the way it categorizes in terms of general principles, rather than building up from commonly accepted opinions.
As Aristotle points out, his approach is partly because people mean so many different things when they use the word justice. The primary division he observes in what kind of person would be called just is that, on the one Being witty or charming hand, it could mean “law abiding”or lawful (nominos), and on the other, it could mean equitable or fair (isos). Book IV Chapter 8. The subject matter of this discus- Aristotle points out that, “Whatever is unfair is lawless, sion is a virtue of being witty, charming and tactful, and but not everything lawless is unfair,”and,“It would seem generally saying the right things when speaking playfully, that to be a good man is not in every case the same thing
10.4. BOOKS II–V: CONCERNING EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER OR MORAL VIRTUE as to be a good citizen.”These two common meanings of justice coincide, to the extent that any set of laws is itself good, something only lawmakers can affect, and this allencompassing meaning equates to the justice of a good lawmaker, which becomes Aristotle's point of reference for further discussion. Justice in such a simple and complete and effective sense would according to Aristotle be the same as having a complete ethical virtue, a perfection of character, because this would be someone who is not just virtuous, but also willing and able to put virtue to use amongst their friends and in their community. According to Aristotle, “there are many who can practise virtue in their own private affairs but cannot do so in their relations with another”.* [72]
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ethical virtues, Aristotle says that justice involves “at least four terms, namely, two persons for whom it is just and two shares which are just."(1131a) The just must fall between what is too much and what is too little and the just requires the distribution to be made between people of equal stature. But in many cases, how to judge what is a mean is not clear, because as Aristotle points out,“if the persons are not equal, they will not have equal shares; it is when equals possess or are allotted unequal shares, or persons not equal equal shares, that quarrels and complaints arise.” (1131a23-24). What is just in distribution must also take into account some sort of worth. The parties involved will be different concerning what they deserve, and the importance of this is a key difference between distributive justice and rectificatory justice because distribution can only take place among equals. Aristotle does not state how to decide who deserves more, implying that this depends on the principles accepted in each type of community, but rather he states it is some sort of proportion in which the just is an intermediate between all four elements (2 for the goods and 2 for the people). A final point that Aristotle makes in his discussion of distributive justice is that when two evils must be distributed, the lesser of the evils is the more choice worthy and as such is the greater good (1131b21-25).
Aristotle, however, says that—apart from the complete virtue that would encompass not only all types of justice, but all types of excellence of character—there is a partial virtue that gets called justice, which is clearly distinct from other character flaws. Cowardice for example, might specifically cause a soldier to throw away his shield and run. However, not everyone who runs from a battle does so from cowardice. Often, Aristotle observes, these acts are caused by over-reaching or greed (pleonexia) and are ascribed to injustice. Unlike the virtues discussed so far, an unjust person does not necessarily desire what is bad for himself or herself as an individual, nor does he or she even necessarily desire too much of things, if too The second part of particular justice is rectificatory and much would be bad for him or her. Such “particular in- it consists of the voluntary and involuntary. This sort of justice”is always greed aimed at particular good things justice deals with transactions between people who are such as honor or money or security.* [73] not equals and looks only at the harm or suffering caused To understand how justice aims at what is good, it is nec- to an individual. This is a sort of blind justice since it essary to look beyond particular good or bad things we treats both parties as if they were equal regardless of their might want or not want a share of as individuals, and this actual worth: “It makes no difference whether a good includes considering the viewpoint of a community (the man has defrauded a bad man or a bad one a good one” subject of Aristotle's Politics). Alone of the virtues, says . Once again trying to describe justice as a mean, he says Aristotle, justice looks like “someone else's good”, an that“men require a judge to be a middle term or medium —indeed in some places judges are called mediators—, argument also confronted by Plato in his Republic. Particular justice is however the subject of this book, for they think that if they get the mean they will get what and it has already been divided into the lawful and the is just. Thus the just is a sort of mean, inasmuch as the fair, which are two different aspects of universal justice judge is a medium between the litigants”. To restore both or complete virtue. Concerning areas where being law- parties to equality, a judge must take the amount that is abiding might not be the same as being fair, Aristotle says greater than the equal that the offender possesses and give that this should be discussed under the heading of Poli- that part to the victim so that both have no more and no to rectify tics.* [74] He then divides particular justice further into less than the equal. This rule should be applied * both voluntary and involuntary transactions. [76] two parts: distribution of divisible goods and rectificaFinally, Aristotle turns to the idea that reciprocity (“an eye for an eye") is justice, an idea he associates with the Pythagoreans.* [77] The problem with this approach to justice, although it is normal in politics and law-making, is that it ignores the difference between different reasons for doing a crime. For example, it could have been done out of passion or ignorance, and this makes a critical difference when it comes to determining what is the just reaction. This in turn returns Aristotle to mention the fact that laws are not normally exactly the same as In trying to describe justice as a mean, as with the other what is just: “Political Justice *is of two kinds, one natural, the other conventional.” [78] In a famous statetion in private transactions. The first part relates to members of a community in which it is possible for one person to have more or less of a good than another person. The second part of particular justice deals with rectification in transactions and this part is itself divided into two parts: voluntary and involuntary, and the involuntary are divided further into furtive and violent divisions.* [75] The following chart showing divisions with Aristotle's discussion of Justice in Book V, based on Burger (2008) Appendix 3.
132 ment, Aristotle makes a point that, like many points in Book 5, is thought to refer us to consideration of Plato's Republic. “Some people think that all rules of justice are merely conventional, because whereas a law of nature is immutable and has the same validity everywhere, as fire burns both here and in Persia, rules of justice are seen to vary.”* [79] Aristotle insists that justice is both fixed in nature in a sense, but also variable in a specific way: “the rules of justice ordained not by nature but by man are not the same in all places, since forms of government are not the same, though in all places there is only one form of government that is natural, namely, the best form.”* [80] He believed people can generally see which types of rules are conventional, and which by nature—and he felt that most important when trying to judge whether someone was just or unjust was determining whether someone did something voluntarily or not. Some people commit crimes by accident or due to vices other than greed or injustice.
10.5 Book VI: Intellectual virtue Book VI of the Nicomachean Ethics is identical to Book V of the Eudemian Ethics. Earlier in both works, both the Nicomachean Ethics Book IV, and the equivalent book in the Eudemian Ethics (Book III), though different, ended by stating that the next step was to discuss justice. Indeed, in Book I Aristotle set out his justification for beginning with particulars and building up to the highest things. Character virtues (apart from justice perhaps) were already discussed in an approximate way, as like achieving a middle point between two extreme options, but this now raises the question of how we know and recognize the things we aim at or avoid. Recognizing the mean means recognizing the correct boundary-marker (horos) which defines the frontier of the mean. And so practical ethics, having a good character, requires knowledge. Near the end of Book I Aristotle said that we may follow others in considering the soul (psuchē) to be divided into a part having reason and a part without it. Until now, he says, discussion has been about one type of virtue or excellence (aretē) of the soul —that of the character (ēthos, the virtue of which is ēthikē aretē, moral virtue). Now he will discuss the other type: that of thought (dianoia). The part of the soul with reason is divided into two parts: • One whereby we contemplate or observe the things with invariable causes • One whereby we contemplate the variable things— the part with which we deliberate concerning actions
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS grows naturally into two parts, specialised in these two types of cause.* [81] Aristotle enumerates five types of hexis (stable dispositions) that the soul can have, and which can disclose truth:* [82] 1. Art (Techne). This is rational, because it involves making things deliberately, in a way that can be explained. (Making things in a way that could not be explained would not be techne.) It concerns variable things, but specifically it concerns intermediate aims. A house is built not for its own sake, but to have a place to live, and so on. 2. Knowledge (Episteme). “We all assume that what we know is not capable of being otherwise.”And“it escapes our notice when they are or not”.“Also, all knowledge seems to be teachable, and what is known is learnable.”* [83] 3. Practical Judgement (Phronesis). This is the judgement used in deciding well upon overall actions, not specific acts of making as in techne. While truth in techne would concern making something needed for some higher purpose, phronesis judges things according to the aim of living well overall. This, unlike techne and episteme, is an important virtue, which will require further discussion. Aristotle associates this virtue with the political art. Aristotle distinguishes skilled deliberation from knowledge, because we do not need to deliberate about things we already know. It is also distinct from being good at guessing, or being good at learning, because true consideration is always a type of inquiry and reasoning. 4. Wisdom (Sophia). Because wisdom belongs to the wise, who are unusual, it can not be that which gets hold of the truth. This is left to nous, and Aristotle describes wisdom as a combination of nous and episteme (“knowledge with its head on”). 5. Intellect (Nous). Is the capacity we develop with experience, to grasp the sources of knowledge and truth, our important and fundamental assumptions. Unlike knowledge (episteme), it deals with unarticulated truths.* [84] Both phronēsis and nous are directed at limits or extremities, and hence the mean, but nous is not a type of reasoning, rather it is a perception of the universals that can be derived from particular cases, including the aims of practical actions. Nous therefore supplies phronēsis with its aims, without which phronēsis would just be the “natural virtue”(aretē phusikē) called cleverness (deinotēs).* [85]
Aristotle states that if recognition depends upon likeness In the last chapters of this book (12 and 13) Aristotle and kinship between the things being recognized and the compares the importance of practical wisdom (phroneparts of the soul doing the recognizing, then the soul sis) and wisdom (sophia). Although Aristotle describes
10.6. BOOK VII. IMPEDIMENTS TO VIRTUE
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sophia as more serious than practical judgement, because it is concerned with higher things, he mentions the earlier philosophers, Anaxagoras and Thales, as examples proving that one can be wise, having both knowledge and intellect, and yet devoid of practical judgement. The dependency of sophia upon phronesis is described as being like the dependency of health upon medical knowledge. Wisdom is aimed at for its own sake, like health, being a component of that most complete virtue that makes happiness.
the virtue of temperance, and self-restraint, because selfrestraint might restrain good desires, or weak unremarkable ones. Furthermore, a truly temperate person would not even have bad desires to restrain.
• Being beast-like, or brutish (thêoriotês), the opposite of something more than human, something heroic or god-like such as Homer attributes to Hector. (Aristotle notes that these terms beast-like and god-like are strictly speaking only for humans, because real beasts or gods would not have virtue or vice.)* [86]
For Aristotle, akrasia, “unrestraint”, is distinct from animal-like behavior because it is specific to humans and involves conscious rational thinking about what to do, even though the conclusions of this thinking are not put into practice. When someone behaves in a purely animallike way, then for better or worse they are not acting based upon any conscious choice.
Aristotle reviews various opinions held about selfmastery, most importantly one he associates with Socrates. According to Aristotle, Socrates argued that all unrestrained behavior must be a result of ignorance, whereas it is commonly thought that the unrestrained person does things that they know to be evil, putting aside Aristotle closes by arguing that in any case, when one con- their own calculations and knowledge under the influence siders the virtues in their highest form, they would all exist of passion. Aristotle begins by suggesting Socrates must together. be wrong, but comes to conclude at the end of Chapter 3 that “what Socrates was looking for turns out to be the case”.* [88] His way of accommodating Socrates relies 10.6 Book VII. Impediments to on the distinction between knowledge that is activated or not, for example in someone drunk or enraged. People in virtue such a state may sound like they have knowledge, like an actor or student reciting a lesson can. This book is the last of three books that are identical in In chapter 4 Aristotle specifies that when we call someone both the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics. It unrestrained, it is in cases (just in the cases where we say is Book VI in the latter. It extends previously developed someone has the vice of akolasia in Book II) where bodily discussions, especially from the end of Book II, in relation pleasure or pain, such as those associated with food and to vice akolasia and the virtue of sophrosune. sex, has caused someone to act in a shameful way against Aristotle names three things humans should avoid that their own choice and reason. Other types of failure to master oneself are akrasia only in a qualified sense, for have to do with character:example akrasia“in anger”or“in the pursuit of honor”. These he discusses next, under tendencies that are neither • Evils or vices (kakia), the opposites of virtues. vice nor akrasia, but more animal-like.* [89] These have been discussed already in Book II because, like the virtues, vices are stable disposi- Aristotle makes a nature and nurture distinction between tions (hexeis),“knowingly and deliberately chosen” different causes of bestial behavior he says occurs “in some cases from natural disposition, and in others from (Sachs p. 119). habit, as with those who have been abused from child• Incontinence (akrasia), the opposite of self- hood.”He refers to these as animal-like and disease-like restraint. Unlike true vices, these are weaknesses conditions.* [90] Aristotle says that“every sort of sensewhere someone passively follows an urge rather lessness or cowardice or dissipation or harshness that goes than a deliberate choice. to excess is either animal-like or disease-like”.* [91]
Because vice (a bad equivalent to virtue) has already been Returning to the question of anger or spiritedness (thudiscussed in Books II-V, in Book VII then, first akrasia, mos) then, Aristotle distinguishes it from desires because he says it listens to reason, but often hears wrong, like and then bestiality are discussed. a hasty servant or a guard dog. He contrasts this with desire, which he says does not obey reason, although 10.6.1 Book VII. Chapters 1–10: Self- it is *frequently responsible for the weaving of unjust plots. [92] He also says that a bad temper is more natural mastery and less blamable than desire for excessive unnecessary pleasure.* [93] And he claims that acts of hubris never reAccording to Aristotle, akrasia and self-restraint, are not sult from anger, but always have a connection to pleasure to “be conceived as identical with Virtue and Vice, nor seeking, whereas angry people act from pain, and often * yet as different in kind from them”. [87] Aristotle arregret it.* [94] gues that a simple equation should not be made between
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So there are two ways that people lose mastery of their own actions and do not act according to their own deliberations. One is through excitability, where a person does not wait for reason but follows the imagination, often having not been prepared for events. The other, worse and less curable case, is that of a weak person who has thought things through, but fails to do as deliberated because they are carried in another direction by a passion.* [95] Nevertheless, it is better to have akrasia than the true vice of akolasia, where intemperate choices are deliberately chosen for their own sake. Such people do not even know they are wrong, and feel no regrets. These are even less curable.* [96] Finally Aristotle addresses a few questions raised earlier, on the basis of what he has explained:• Not everyone who stands firm on the basis of a rational and even correct decision has self-mastery. Stubborn people are actually more like a person without self-mastery, because they are partly led by the pleasure coming from victory.
that are pleasant by nature are activities that are pleasant in themselves and involve no pain or desire. The example Aristotle gives of this is contemplation. Thirdly, such pleasures are ways of being at work, ends themselves, not just a process of coming into being aimed at some higher end. Even if a temperate person avoids excesses of some pleasures, they still have pleasures.* [99] Chapter 13 starts from pain, saying it is clearly bad, either in a simple sense or as an impediment to things. He argues that this makes it clear that pleasure is good. He rejects the argument of Speusippus that pleasure and pain are only different in degree because this would still not make pleasure, bad, nor stop it, or at least some pleasure, even from being the best thing. Aristotle focuses from this on to the idea that pleasure is unimpeded, and that while it would make a certain sense for happiness (eudaimonia) to be a being at work that is unimpeded in some way, being impeded can hardly be good. Aristotle appeals to popular opinion that pleasure of some type is what people aim at, and suggests that bodily pleasure, while it might be the most obvious type of pleasure, is not the only type of pleasure. He points out that if pleasure is not good then a happy person will not have a more pleasant life than another, and would have no reason to avoid pain.* [100]
• Not everyone who fails to stand firm on the basis of his best deliberations has a true lack of self-mastery. As an example he gives the case of Neoptolemus (in Sophocles' Philoctetes) refusing to lie despite being Chapter 14 first points out that any level of pain is bad, part of a plan he agreed with.* [97] while concerning pleasure it is only excessive bodily plea• A person with practical judgment (phronesis) can sures that are bad. Finally, he asks why people are so not have akrasia. Instead it might sometimes seem attracted to bodily pleasures. Apart from natural depravso, because mere cleverness can sometimes recite ities and cases where a bodily pleasure comes from bewords that might make them sound wise, like an ing restored to health Aristotle asserts a more complex actor or a drunk person reciting poetry. As dis- metaphysical reason, which is that for humans change is cussed above, a person lacking self-mastery can sweet, but only because of some badness in us, which is have knowledge, but not an active knowledge that that part of every human has a perishable nature, and “a nature that needs change [..] is not simple nor good”. they are paying attention to.* [98] God, in contrast, “enjoys a single simple pleasure perpetually”.* [101]
10.6.2
Book VII. Chapters 11–14: Pleasure as something to avoid
10.7 Books VIII and IX: Friend-
Aristotle discusses pleasure in two separate parts of the ship and partnership Nicomachean Ethics (book 7 chapters 11-14 and book 10 chapters 1-5). Plato had discussed similar themes in several dialogues, including the Republic and the Philebus Book II Chapter 6 discussed a virtue like friendship. Aristotle now says that friendship (philia) itself is a virtue, and Gorgias. or involves virtue. It is not only important for living well, In chapter 11 Aristotle goes through some of the things as a means, but is also a noble or beautiful end in itself that said about pleasure and particularly why it might be bad. receives praise in its own right, and being a good friend But in chapter 12 he says that none of these things show is sometimes thought to be linked to being a good perthat pleasure is not good, nor even the best thing. First, son.* [102] what is good or bad need not be good or bad simply, but can be good or bad for a certain person at a certain time. The treatment of friendship in the NicoSecondly, according to Aristotle's way of analyzing caumachean Ethics is longer than that of any other sation, a good or bad thing can either be an activity ( topic, and comes just before the conclusion “being at work”, energeia), or else a stable disposition (hexis). The pleasures from being restored into a natural of the whole inquiry. Books VIII and IX are hexis are accidental and not natural, for example the temcontinuous, but the break makes the first book porary pleasure that can come from a bitter taste. Things focus on friendship as a small version of the
10.8. BOOK X: PLEASURE, HAPPINESS, AND UP-BRINGING political community, in which a bond stronger than justice holds people together, while the second treats it as an expansion of the self, through which all one's powers can approach their highest development. Friendship thus provides a bridge between the virtues of character and those of intellect. —Sachs (2002) p.209
Aristotle says speculations (for example about whether love comes from attractions between like things) are not germane to this discussion, and he divides aims of friendships or love into three types—each giving feelings of good will that go in two directions: • Utility or usefulness • Pleasure • The pursuit of good
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money or honor or pleasure. This can sometimes be complex because parties may not be equals. Aristotle notes that the type of friendship most likely to be hurt by complaints of unfairness is that of utility and reminds that “the objects and the personal relationships with which friendship is concerned appear [...] to be the same as those which are the sphere of justice.”* [107] And it is the transactions of friends by utility that sometimes require the use of written laws.* [108] Furthermore, all associations and friendships are part of the greater community, the polis,* [109] and different relationships can be compared to the different types of constitution, according to the same classification system Aristotle explains in his Politics (Monarchy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Oligarchy, Timocracy, and Democracy).* [110]
10.8 Book X: Pleasure, happiness, and up-bringing
Two are inferior to the other because of the motive: 10.8.1 Book X. Chapters 1–5: The theory of pleasure friendships of utility and pleasure do not regard friends as people, but for what they can give in return.* [103] Pleasure is discussed throughout the whole Ethics, but is Friendships of utility are relationships formed without regiven a final more focused and theoretical treatment in gard to the other person at all. With these friendships are Book X. Aristotle starts by questioning the rule of thumb classed family ties of hospitality with foreigners, types of accepted in the more approximate early sections, whereby friendships Aristotle associates with older people. Such people think pleasure should be avoided—if not because friends are often not very interested in being together, and it is bad simply, then because people tend too much tothe relationships are easily broken off when they cease to wards pleasure seeking. He argues that people's actions * be useful. [104] show that this is not really what they believe. He reviews At the next level, friendships of pleasure are based on some arguments of previous philosophers, including first fleeting emotions and are associated with young people. Eudoxus and Plato, to argue that pleasure is clearly a good However, while such friends do like to be together, such pursued for its own sake even if it is not The Good, or in friendships also end easily whenever people no longer en- other words that which all good things have in common. joy the shared activity, or can no longer participate in it In chapter 3 Aristotle applies to pleasure his theory of together.* [104] motion (kinēsis) as an energeia as explained in his Physics Friendships based upon what is good are the perfect form of friendship, where both friends enjoy each other's virtue. As long as both friends keep similarly virtuous characters, the relationship will endure and be pleasant and useful and good for both parties, since the motive behind it is care for the friend themselves, and not something else. Such relationships are rare, because good people are rare, and bad people do not take pleasure in each other.* [105]
and Metaphysics. In terms of this approach, pleasure is not a movement or (kinēsis) because unlike the movement of walking across a specific room, or of building a house, or a part of a house, it has no end point when we can say it is completed. It is more like seeing which is either happening in a complete way or not happening. “Each moment of pleasurable consciousness is a perfect whole.” * [111]
A sense perception like sight is in perfect activity (teleia energeia) when it is in its best conditions and directed at the best objects. And when any sense is in such perfect activity, then there is pleasure, and similarly thinking (dianoia) and contemplation (theōria) have associated pleasures. But seeing, for example is a whole, as is the associated pleasure. Pleasure does not complete the seeing or thinking, but is an extra activity, just as a healthy person * Book IX and the last sections of Book VIII turn to the can have an extra good “bloom of well-being”. [112] question of how friends and partners generally should re- This raises the question of why pleasure does not last, but ward each other and treat each other, whether it be in seem to fade as if we get tired. Aristotle proposes as a Aristotle suggests that although the word friend is used in these different ways, it is perhaps best to say that friendships of pleasure and usefulness are only analogous to real friendships. It is sometimes possible that at least in the case of people who are friends for pleasure familiarity will lead to a better type of friendship, as the friends learn to admire each other's characters.* [106]
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solution to this that pleasure is pursued because of desire to live. Life is an activity (energeia) made up of many activities such as music, thinking and contemplation, and pleasure brings the above-mentioned extra completion to each of these, bringing fulfillment and making life worthy of choice. Aristotle says we can dismiss the question of whether we live for pleasure or choose pleasure for the sake of living, for the two activities seem incapable of being separated.* [113] Different activities in life, the different sense perceptions, thinking, contemplating, bring different pleasures, and these pleasures make the activities grow, for example a flute player gets better at it as they also get more pleasure from it. But these pleasures and their associated activities also impede with each other just as a flute player cannot participate in an argument while playing. This raises the question of which pleasures are more to be pursued. Some pleasures are more beautiful and some are more base or corrupt. Aristotle ranks some of them as follows:* [114] 1. thinking 2. sight 3. hearing and smell 4. taste
activity, Aristotle says, must be contemplation or speculative thinking (energeia ... theōrētikē). This is also the most sustainable, pleasant, self-sufficient activity; something aimed at for its own sake. (In contrast to politics and warfare it does not involve doing things we'd rather not do, but rather something we do at our leisure.) However, Aristotle says this aim is not strictly human, and that to achieve it means to live in accordance not with our mortal thoughts but with something immortal and divine which is within humans. According to Aristotle, contemplation is the only type of happy activity it would not be ridiculous to imagine the gods having. The intellect is indeed each person's true self, and this type of happiness would be the happiness most suited to humans, with both happiness (eudaimonia) and the intellect (nous) being things other animals do not have. Aristotle also claims that compared to other virtues, contemplation requires the least in terms of possessions and allows the most self-reliance, “though it is true that, being a man and living in the society of others, he chooses to engage in virtuous action, and so will need external goods to carry on his life as a human being”.* [117]
10.8.3 Book X. Chapter 9: The need for education, habituation and good laws
Aristotle also argues that each type of animal has pleasures appropriate to it, and in the same way there can be differences between people in what pleasures are most suitable to them. Aristotle proposes that it would be most beautiful to say that the person of serious moral stature is the appropriate standard, with whatever things they enjoy being the things most pleasant.* [115]
10.8.2
Book X. Chapters 6-8: Happiness
Turning to happiness then, the aim of the whole Ethics; according to the original definition of Book I it is the activity or being-at-work chosen for its own sake by a morally serious and virtuous person. This raises the question of why play and bodily pleasures cannot be happiness, because for example tyrants sometimes choose such lifestyles. But Aristotle compares tyrants to children, and argues that play and relaxation are best seen not as ends in themselves, but as activities for the sake of more serious living. Any random person can enjoy bodily pleasures, including a slave, and no one would want to be a slave.* [116] Aristotle says that if perfect happiness is activity in accordance with the highest virtue, then this highest virtue must be the virtue of the highest part, and Aristotle says this must be the intellect (nous) “or whatever else it be that is thought to rule and lead us by nature, and to have cognizance of what is noble and divine”. This highest
Young Spartans Exercising by Edgar Degas (1834-1917). Aristotle approved of how Spartan law focused upon up-bringing.
Finally, Aristotle repeats that the discussion of the Ethics has not reached its aim if it has no effect in practice. Theories are not enough. However, the practice of virtue requires good education and habituation from an early age in the community. Young people otherwise do not ever get to experience the highest forms of pleasure and are distracted by the easiest ones. While parents often attempt to do this, it is critical that there are also good laws in the community. But concerning this need for good laws and education Aristotle says that there has always been a problem, which he is now seeking to address: unlike in the case of medical science, theoreticians of happiness and teachers of virtue such as sophists never have practical experience themselves, whereas good parents and law
10.10. FOOTNOTES makers have never theorized and developed a scientific approach to analyzing what the best laws are. Furthermore, very few law-makers, perhaps only the Spartans, have made education the focus of law making, as they should. Education needs to be more like medicine, with both practice and theory, and this requires a new approach to studying politics. Such study should, he says, even help in communities where the laws are not good and the parents need to try to create the right habits in young people themselves without the right help from lawmakers. Aristotle closes the Nicomachean Ethics therefore by announcing a programme of study in politics, including the collecting of studies of different constitutions, and the results of this programme are generally assumed to be contained in the work that exists today and is known as the Politics.* [118]
10.9 See also • Aristotelian ethics • Corpus Aristotelicum • Economics (Oeconomica)
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10.10 Footnotes [1] Book II, chapter 2, 1103b ἐπεὶ οὖν ἡ παροῦσα πραγματεία οὐ θεωρίας ἕνεκά ἐστιν ὥσπερ αἱ ἄλλαι [2] For Bacon see for example Novum Organum. [3] Book I Chapters 3, 4, 6, 7. See below. [4] Kraut, Richard,“Aristotle's Ethics”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) [5] Book I, chapter 7 1098a [6] Book II, chapter 1, 1103b [7] Similarly, in Latin, the language of medieval European philosophy, the habits are mōrēs, giving us modern English words like “moral”. Aristotle's term for virtue of character (ethikē aretē) is traditionally translated with the Latinate term “moral virtue”. Latin virtus, is derived from the word vir meaning man, and became the traditional translation of Greek aretē. [8] Sachs, Joe, Nicomachean Ethics, p. 68“Greatness of soul is the first of four virtues that Aristotle will find to require the presence of all the virtues of character.” [9] 1123b at Perseus Project [10] 1129b at Perseus Project [11] 1144b at Perseus Project
• Potentiality and actuality
[12] 1157a at Perseus Project
• Ethics
[13] See for example Book 6 Chapter 13 for Aristotle on Socrates; and the Laches for Plato's Socrates on courage.
• Eudaimonia
[14] Book X, chapter 7 1177a, cf. 1170b, 1178b
• Eudemian Ethics (Ethica Eudemia)
[15] Book I Chapter 3 1094b-1095a. Translation by Sachs. [16] Book I Chapter 6 1096a-1097b. Translation by Sachs.
• Hexis • Intellectual virtue • Magna Moralia (Great Ethics) • Moral character
[17] Book I Chapter 1 1094a: "πᾶσα τέχνη καὶ πᾶσα μέθοδος, ὁμοίως δὲ πρᾶξίς τε καὶ προαίρεσις, ἀγαθοῦ τινὸς ἐφίεσθαι δοκεῖ". [18] Book I Chapter 2. Translation above by Sachs. [19] 1094b. Translation by Rackham. [20] Book I Chapter 4 1095a-1095b.
• Nous
[21] Book I Chapter 5 1095b-1096a.
• On Virtues and Vices (De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus)
[22] The definition itself is very important to the whole work. In Greek: τὸ ἀνθρώπινον ἀγαθὸν ψυχῆς ἐνέργεια γίνεται κατ᾽ ἀρετήν, εἰ δὲ πλείους αἱ ἀρεταί, κατὰ τὴν ἀρίστην καὶ τελειοτάτην. ἔτι δ᾽ ἐν βίῳ τελείῳ. μία γὰρ χελιδὼν ἔαρ οὐ ποιεῖ, οὐδὲ μία ἡμέρα. Some other translations:-
• Phronesis • Politics • Protrepticus (Aristotle) • Virtue • Virtue ethics
• Sachs: the human good comes to be disclosed as a being-at-work of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if the virtues are more than one, in accordance with the best and most complete virtue. But also this must be in a complete life, for one swallow does not make a Spring
138
CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS • Ross: human good turns out to be activity of soul exhibiting excellence, and if there are [sic.] more than one excellence, in accordance with the best and most complete. But we must add “in a complete life”. For one swallow does not make a summer
[34] Book II, Chapter 2, 1103b-1104b
• Thomson: the conclusion is that the good for man is an activity of soul in accordance with virtue, or if there are more kinds of virtue than one, in accordance with the best and most perfect kind. There is one further qualification: in a complete lifetime. One swallow does not make a summer
[37] Dunamis and hexis are translated in numerous ways. See Categories 8b for Aristotle's explanation of both words.
• Crisp: the human good turns out to be activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are several virtues, in accordance with the best and most complete. Again, this must be over a complete life. For one swallow does not make a summer
[40] Book II, Chapter 7 1107a-1108b.
[23] Book I Chapter 7 1097a-1098b
[35] Book II, Chapter 3, 1104b-1105a [36] Book II, Chapter 4 1105a-1105b
[38] Book II, Chapter 5 1105b-1106a [39] Book II, Chapter 6 1106b-1107a.
[41] Book II, Chapter 8 1108b-1109b. [42] Book III Chapters 1-3 1109b30-1110b. Using Sachs translations. [43] Book III Chapter 2 1111b-1113a. Using Sachs translations.
[24] σπουδαίου δ᾽ ἀνδρὸς εὖ ταῦτα καὶ καλῶς. This can be contrasted with several translations, sometimes con- [44] Book III Chapter 3 1113a-1113b. Sachs translation. fusingly treating spoudaios as a simple word for “good” [45] Book III Chapter 4 1113a (normally agathos in Greek):• Sachs: “and it belongs to a man of serious stature to do these things well and beautifully"; • Ross:“and the function of good man to be the good and noble performance of these"; • Rackham:“and say that the function of a good man is to perform these activities well and rightly"; • Thomson: “and if the function of a good man is to perform these well and rightly"; • Crisp “and the characteristic activity of the good person to be to carry this out well and nobly”. [25] Book I Chapter 8 1098b-1099b. Translations above by Sachs. [26] Book I Chapter 9 1099b-1100a. Translations above by Sachs. [27] Book I Chapter 9 - 10. Translations above by Sachs. [28] Book I Chapter 10 1100a-1101a. Translation above by Sachs. [29] Book I Chapter 11 1101a-1101b. Translation above by Sachs. [30] Book I Chapter 12 1101b-1102a. Translation above by Sachs. [31] Book I Chapter 13 1102a-1103a. Translation above by Sachs.
[46] Book III Chapter 5 1113b-1115a. [47] Book III, Chapter 6 1115a [48] Book III, Chapter 7 1115b-1116a [49] Book III Chapter 8 1116a-1117a [50] Book III Chapter 9 1117a-1117b [51] Book III, Chapter 10 1117b-1118b [52] Book III, Chapter 11 1118b-1119a [53] Book III, Chapter 12 1119a-1119b [54] Book IV, Chapter 1 1119b-1122a. Using Sachs translation. [55] Book IV Chapter 2. 1122a. Rackham translation used. [56] See for example the footnote in the Rackham edition. In the Sachs translation it is remarked that two possible translations “pride”and “high mindedness”both only get half of the meaning, while magnanimity only “shifts the problem into Latin”. [57] Davis, Michael (1996). The Politics of Philosophy: A Commentary on Aristotle's Politics. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. pages 3-4. [58] 1123b [59] 1125a Sachs translation
[32] Book II, Chapter 1, 1103a-1103b
[60] 1124a Sachs translation
[33] However Aristotle himself seems to choose this formulation as a basic starting point because it is already wellknown. One of the two Delphic motto's strongly associated with Aristotle's own Socratic teachers was “nothing in excess”, a motto much older than Socrates himself, and similar ideas can be found in Pythagoreanism, and the Myth of Icarus.
[61] 1123b-1124a [62] Strauss, Leo, “Progress or Return”, An Introduction to Political Philosophy, pp. 276–277 [63] 1124b-1125a [64] 1125b
10.11. FURTHER READING
139
[65] 1125b-1126b
[97] 1151b
[66] Rackham translation
[98] 1152a
[67] 1126b-1127a
[99] 1153a
[68] 1127a - 1127b
[100] 1153b
[69] 1127b - 1128b
[101] 1145b. Rackham translation.
[70] Book IV, Chapter 9 1128b
[102] 1155a
[71] Strauss, Leo, “Progress or Return”, An Introduction to [103] 1155b Political Philosophy, p. 278 [104] Book, chap. VIII sec. 1156a [72] 1129b. Above is the Rackham translation as on the [105] Book, chap. VIII sec. 1156b Perseus website. [73] 1130b.
[106] 1157a
[74] Such a discussion appears in Book III of his Politics.
[107] 1159b. Rackham translation.
[75] 1131a
[108] 1162b
[76] 1132a. Rackham translation used above.
[109] 1160a
[77] Book 5 chapter 5
[110] 1161a
[78] Book 5 Chapter 7 section 1. The translations are from [111] Rackham, as on the Perseus website. [112] [79] Book 5 Chapter 7 section 2. [113] [80] Book 5 Chapter 7 Section 3. [114] [81] πρὸς γὰρ τὰ τῷ γένει ἕτερα καὶ τῶν τῆς ψυχῆς μορίων ἕτερον τῷ γένει τὸ πρὸς ἑκάτερον πεφυκός, εἴπερ [115] καθ᾽ ὁμοιότητά τινα καὶ οἰκειότητα ἡ γνῶσις ὑπάρχει [116] αὐτοῖς 1139a10 [117] [82] 1139b15-1142a [118] [83] Sachs translation.
Book X.4.1174b. Rackham translation. Book X.4.1175a. Sachs translation. Book X.4.1175a10-20. Book X.5. Book X.5.1176a. Book X, Chapter 6. Book X, Chapters 7–8. Rackham translation. Book X.9.
[84] 1142a [85] 1142b
10.11 Further reading
[86] 1145a. Burger (p.133) notes that Aristotle's various remarks throughout the Ethics about this part of the Iliad seem to indicate that “Aristotle seems to have gone out of his way to furnish a particularly problematic illustration of divine virtue”.
• Bostock, David (2000). Aristotle’s Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
[87] 1146a. Translation used is Rackham's.
• Burger, Ronna (2008). Aristotle's Dialogue with Socrates: On the Nicomachean Ethics. University of Chicago Press.
[88] Sachs translation [89] VII.4.6. [90] VII.5.3. Rackham translation] [91] 1149a Sachs translation [92] VII.5 [93] VII.5 [94] VII.5 [95] 1150b [96] 1151a
• Broadie, Sarah (1991). Ethics with Aristotle. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Cooper, John M. (1975). Reason and Human Good in Aristotle. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. • Hardie, W.F.R. (1968). Aristotle's Ethical Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Hughes, Gerald J. (2001). Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Aristotle on Ethics. London: Routledge. • Kraut, Richard (1989). Aristotle on the Human Good. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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CHAPTER 10. NICOMACHEAN ETHICS
• Kraut, ed., Richard (2006). The Blackwell Guide to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell.
10.12 External links
• May, Hope (2010). Aristotle's Ethics Moral Development and Human Nature. London: Continuum.
• Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle with chapter descriptions and direct chapter links for all 10 books
• Pakaluk, Michael (2005). Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics: An Introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• W. D. Ross translation • from the University of Adelaide (University of Adelaide)
• Rorty, ed., Amelie (1980). Essays on Aristotle’s Ethics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• from The Internet Classics Archive (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
• Reeve, C.D.C. (1992). Practices of Reason: Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
• from nothingistic.org
• Pangle, Lorraine (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. New York: Cambridge University Press. • Sherman, ed., Nancy (1999). Aristotle’s Ethics: Critical Essays. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. • Urmson, J.O. (1988). Aristotle’s Ethics. New York: Blackwell. • Warne, Christopher (2007). Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics: Reader's Guide. London: Continuum.
10.11.1
Translations
• Bartlett, Robert C.; Collins, Susan D. (2011). Nicomachean Ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-02674-9. (Translation, with Interpretive Essay, Notes, Glossary.) • Broadie, Sarah; Rowe, Christopher (2002). Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics: Translation, Introduction, and Commentary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Crisp, Roger (2000). Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63221-8. • Irwin, Terence (1999). Nicomachean Ethics. Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87220-464-2. • Rackham, H. (1926). Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics with an English Translation by H. Rackham. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99081-1. • Ross, David (1925). Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics: Translated with an Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283407-X.. Re-issued 1980, revised by J. L. Ackrill and J. O. Urmson. • Sachs, Joe (2002). Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics: Translation, Glossary and Introductory Essay. Focus Publishing. ISBN 1-58510-035-8. • Thomson, J. A. K. (1955). The Ethics of Aristotle: The Nicomachean Ethics. Penguin Classics.. Reissued 1976, revised by Hugh Tredennick.
• from McMaster (PDF) • H Rackham translation plus Greek version (The Perseus Project) • Lecture on Aristotle's Nicomachaean Ethics A very complete analysis of Nicomachean Ethics. • Nicomachean Ethics Sparknote A study guide for Nicomachean Ethics. • Nicomachean Ethics, trans. by Harris Rackham (HTML at Perseus) with Bekker numbers. • John N. Hatzopoulos, 2009, (BAD LINK, checked 10/15/2015) “The boundaries of right and wrong - Learning and the human brain”, ACSM Bulletin, February 2009, pp. 20–22. • LibriVox audiobook version of Nicomachean Ethics (Public domain. Translated by Thomas Taylor) • Diglossa.org/Aristotle/Ethics: multi-language library Russian: Н. В. Брагинская, English: W. D. Ross • PDFs of several (now) public domain translations and commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics
Chapter 11
Utilitarianism This article discusses utilitarian ethical theory. For a discussion of John Stuart Mill's book Utilitarianism, see Utilitarianism (book). For the architectural theory, see Utilitarianism (architecture) Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the
(act utilitarianism)? Or, should agents conform to ethical rules (rule utilitarianism)? Should utility be calculated as an aggregate (total utilitarianism) or as an average (average utilitarianism)? Though the seeds of the theory can be found in the hedonists Aristippus and Epicurus, who viewed happiness as the only good, the tradition of utilitarianism properly begins with Bentham, and has included John Stuart Mill, Henry Sidgwick, R. M. Hare and Peter Singer. It has been applied to social welfare economics, the crisis of global poverty, the ethics of raising animals for food and the importance of avoiding existential risks to humanity.
11.1 Etymology Benthamism, the utilitarian philosophy founded by Jeremy Bentham, was substantially modified by his successor John Stuart Mill, who popularized the word 'Utilitarianism'.* [1] In 1861, Mill acknowledged in a footnote that, though“believing himself to be the first person who brought the word 'utilitarian' into use, he did not invent it. Rather, he adopted it from a passing expression in”John Galt's 1821 novel Annals of the Parish.* [2] Mill seems to have been unaware that Bentham had used the term 'utilitarian' in his 1781 letter to George Wilson and his 1802 letter to Étienne Dumont.* [1] The symbol sigma is used in mathematics to represent summation, a process similarly done in total utilitarianism.
best action is the one that maximizes utility. “Utility”is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the well-being of sentient entities, such as human beings and other animals. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action. Utilitarianism is a version of consequentialism, which states that the consequences of any action are the only standard of right and wrong. Unlike other forms of consequentialism, such as egoism, utilitarianism considers all interests equally.
11.2 Historical background See also: Hedonism
The importance of happiness as an end for humans has long been recognized. Forms of hedonism were put forward by Aristippus and Epicurus; Aristotle argued that eudaimonia is the highest human good and Augustine wrote that “all men agree in desiring the last end, which is happiness.”Happiness was also explored in depth by Aquinas.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] Different varieties of consequentialism also existed in the ancient and medieval Proponents of utilitarianism have disagreed on a num- world, like the state consequentialism of Mohism or the ber of points. Should individual acts conform to utility political philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli. Mohist con141
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sequentialism advocated communitarian moral goods into enquire into the end of it: but to expect a reacluding political stability, population growth, and wealth, son, i.e. an end, to be assigned for an ultimate but did not support the utilitarian notion of maximizing end, is absurd. To ask why I pursue happiness, individual happiness.* [8] Machiavelli was also an expowill admit of no other answer than an explananent of consequentialism. He believed that the actions of tion of the terms. a state, however cruel or ruthless they may be, must contribute towards the common good of a society.* [9] Util- This pursuit of happiness is given a theological basis:* [14] itarianism as a distinct ethical position only emerged in the eighteenth century. Now it is evident from the nature of God, Although utilitarianism is usually thought to start with viz. his being infinitely happy in himself from Jeremy Bentham, there were earlier writers who preall eternity, and from his goodness manifested sented theories that were strikingly similar. In An Enin his works, that he could have no other dequiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, David Hume sign in creating mankind than their happiness; writes:* [10] and therefore he wills their happiness; therefore the means of their happiness: therefore that my behaviour, as far as it may be a means “In all determinations of morality, this cirof the happiness of mankind, should be such cumstance of public utility is ever principally …thus the will of God is the immediate critein view; and wherever disputes arise, either rion of Virtue, and the happiness of mankind in philosophy or common life, concerning the the criterion of the wilt of God; and therefore bounds of duty, the question cannot, by any the happiness of mankind may be said to be the means, be decided with greater certainty, than criterion of virtue, but once removed…(and)… by ascertaining, on any side, the true interests I am to do whatever lies in my power towards of mankind. If any false opinion, embraced promoting the happiness of mankind. from appearances, has been found to prevail; as soon as farther experience and sounder reasoning have given us juster notions of human affairs, we retract our first sentiment, and adjust anew the boundaries of moral good and evil.” Hume studied under Francis Hutcheson, and it was he who first introduced a key utilitarian phrase. In An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue (1725), Hutcheson says* [11] when choosing the most moral action, virtue is in proportion to the number of people a particular action brings happiness to. In the same way, moral evil, or vice, is proportionate to the number of people made to suffer. The best action is the one that procures the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers —and the worst is the one that causes the most misery. In the first three editions of the book, Hutcheson included various mathematical algorithms "...to compute the Morality of any Actions.”In this, he pre-figured the hedonic calculus of Bentham. Some claim that John Gay developed the first systematic theory of utilitarian ethics.* [12] In Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality (1731), Gay argues that:* [13] happiness, private happiness, is the proper or ultimate end of all our actions…each particular action may be said to have its proper and peculiar end…(but)…. they still tend or ought to tend to something farther; as is evident from hence, viz. that a man may ask and expect a reason why either of them are pursued: now to ask the reason of any action or pursuit, is only
Modern Utilitarianism by Thomas Rawson Birks 1874
11.3. CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM
143
Gay's theological utilitarianism was developed and popu- 11.3.1 Jeremy Bentham larized by William Paley. It has been claimed that Paley was not a very original thinker and that the philosophical Main article: Jeremy Bentham part of his treatise on ethics is “an assemblage of ideas Bentham's book An Introduction to the Principles of developed by others and is presented to be learned by students rather than debated by colleagues. "* [15] Nevertheless, his book The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy (1785) was a required text at Cambridge* [15] and Smith says that Paley's writings were“once as well known in American colleges as were the readers and spellers of William McGuffey and Noah Webster in the elementary schools.”* [16] Although now largely missing from the philosophical canon, Schneewind writes that “utilitarianism first became widely known in England through the work of William Paley.”* [17] The now forgotten significance of Paley can be judged from the title of Thomas Rawson Birks's 1874 work Modern Utilitarianism or the Systems of Paley, Bentham and Mill Examined and Compared. Apart from restating that happiness as an end is grounded in the nature of God, Paley also discusses the place of rules. He writes:* [18]
…actions are to be estimated by their tendency. Whatever is expedient, is right. It is the utility of any moral rule alone, which constitutes the obligation of it. But to all this there seems a plain objection, viz. that many actions are useful, which no man in his senses will allow to be right. There are occasions, in which the hand of the assassin would be very useful…The true answer is this; that these actions, after all, are not useful, and for that reason, and that alone, are not right. To see this point perfectly, it must be observed that the bad consequences of actions are twofold, particular and general. The particular bad consequence of an action, is the mischief which that single action directly and immediately occasions. The general bad consequence is, the violation of some necessary or useful general rule… You cannot permit one action and forbid another, without showing a difference between them. Consequently, the same sort of actions must be generally permitted or generally forbidden. Where, therefore, the general permission of them would be pernicious, it becomes necessary to lay down and support the rule which generally forbids them.
11.3 Classical utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham.
Morals and Legislation was printed in 1780 but not published until 1789. It is possible that Bentham was spurred on to publish after he saw the success of Paley's The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy.* [19] Bentham's book was not an immediate success* [20] but his ideas were spread further when Pierre Étienne Louis Dumont translated edited selections from a variety of Bentham's manuscripts into French. Traité de legislation civile et pénale was published in 1802 and then later retranslated back into English by Hildreth as The Theory of Legislation, although by this time significant portions of Dumont's work had already been retranslated and incorporated into Sir John Bowring's edition of Bentham's works, which was issued in parts between 1838 and 1843. Bentham's work opens with a statement of the principle of utility:* [21] Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do…By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing
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CHAPTER 11. UTILITARIANISM in other words to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every action whatsoever, and therefore not only of every action of a private individual, but of every measure of government.
pends upon the evil of the second order; it is this which gives to such actions the character of crime, and which makes punishment necessary. Let us take, for example, the physical desire of satisfying hunger. Let a beggar, pressed by hunger, steal from a rich man's house a loaf, which perhaps saves him from starving, can it be possible to compare the good which the thief acquires for himself, with the evil which the rich man suffers? …It is not on account of the evil of the first order that it is necessary to erect these actions into offences, but on account of the evil of the second order.* [24]
In Chapter IV, Bentham introduces a method of calculating the value of pleasures and pains, which has come to be known as the hedonic calculus. Bentham says that the value of a pleasure or pain, considered by itself, can be measured according to its intensity, duration, certainty/uncertainty and propinquity/remoteness. In addition, it is necessary to consider “the tendency of any act by which it is produced”and, therefore, to take account of the act's fecundity, or the chance it has of being followed by sensations of the same kind and its purity, or 11.3.2 John Stuart Mill the chance it has of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind. Finally, it is necessary to consider the Main article: John Stuart Mill extent, or the number of people affected by the action. Perhaps aware that Hutcheson eventually removed his al- Mill was brought up as a Benthamite with the explicit inthat he would carry on the cause of utilitariangorithms for calculating the greatest happiness because tention * ism. [25] Mill's book Utilitarianism first appeared as a they “appear'd useless, and were disagreeable to some series of three articles published in Fraser's Magazine in readers”,* [22] Bentham contends that there is nothing 1861 and was reprinted as a single book in 1863. novel or unwarranted about his method, for “in all this there is nothing but what the practice of mankind, wheresoever they have a clear view of their own interest, is per- Higher and lower pleasures fectly conformable to.” Rosen warns that descriptions of utilitarianism can bear Mill rejects a purely quantitative measurement of utility * “little resemblance historically to utilitarians like Ben- and says: [26] tham and J. S. Mill" and can be more “a crude version It is quite compatible with the principle of of act utilitarianism conceived in the twentieth century utility to recognise the fact, that some kinds of as a straw man to be attacked and rejected.”* [23] It is pleasure are more desirable and more valuable a mistake to think that Bentham is not concerned with than others. It would be absurd that while, in rules. His seminal work is concerned with the principles estimating all other things, quality is considof legislation and the hedonic calculus is introduced with ered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleathe words “Pleasures then, and the avoidance of pains, sures should be supposed to depend on quantity are the ends that the legislator has in view.”In Chapter alone. VII, Bentham says: “The business of government is to promote the happiness of the society, by punishing and rewarding…In proportion as an act tends to disturb that Mill notes that, contrary to what its critics might say, there happiness, in proportion as the tendency of it is perni- is“no known Epicurean theory of life which does not ascious, will be the demand it creates for punishment.” sign to the pleasures of the intellect…a much higher value The question then arises as to when, if at all, it might as pleasures than to those of mere sensation.”However, legitimate to break the law. This is considered in The he accepts that this is usually because the intellectual pleaTheory of Legislation, where Bentham distinguishes be- sures are thought to have circumstantial advantages, i.e. tween evils of the first and second orders. Those of the “greater permanency, safety, uncostliness, &c.”Instead, first order are the more immediate consequences; those Mill will argue that some pleasures are intrinsically better of the second are when the consequences spread through than others. the community causing “alarm”and “danger”. It is true there are cases in which, if we confine ourselves to the effects of the first order, the good will have an incontestable preponderance over the evil. Were the offence considered only under this point of view, it would not be easy to assign any good reasons to justify the rigour of the laws. Every thing de-
The accusation that hedonism is“doctrine worthy only of swine”has a long history. In Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1 Chapter 5), Aristotle says that identifying the good with pleasure is to prefer a life suitable for beasts. The theological utilitarians had the option of grounding their pursuit of happiness in the will of God; the hedonistic utilitarians needed a different defence. Mill's approach is to argue that the pleasures of the intellect are intrinsically superior to physical pleasures.
11.3. CLASSICAL UTILITARIANISM Few human creatures would consent to be changed into any of the lower animals, for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast's pleasures; no intelligent human being would consent to be a fool, no instructed person would be an ignoramus, no person of feeling and conscience would be selfish and base, even though they should be persuaded that the fool, the dunce, or the rascal is better satisfied with his lot than they are with theirs…A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy, is capable probably of more acute suffering, an certainly accessible to it at more points, than one of an inferior type; but in spite of these liabilities, he can never really wish to sink into what he feels to be a lower grade of existence …It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question …* [27] Mill argues that if people who are “competently acquainted”with two pleasures show a decided preference for one even if it be accompanied by more discontent and “would not resign it for any quantity of the other”, then it is legitimate to regard that pleasure as being superior in quality. Mill recognizes that these “competent judges” will not always agree, and states that, in cases of disagreement, the judgment of the majority is to be accepted as final. Mill also acknowledges that “many who are capable of the higher pleasures, occasionally, under the influence of temptation, postpone them to the lower. But this is quite compatible with a full appreciation of the intrinsic superiority of the higher.”Mill says that this appeal to those who have experienced the relevant pleasures is no different from what must happen when assessing the quantity of pleasure, for there is no other way of measuring “the acutest of two pains, or the intensest of two pleasurable sensations.”“It is indisputable that the being whose capacities of enjoyment are low, has the greatest chance of having them fully satisfied; and a highlyendowed being will always feel that any happiness which he can look for, as the world is constitute, is imperfect.” * [28]
145 that anything is desirable, is that people do actually desire it…No reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires his own happiness…we have not only all the proof which the case admits of, but all which it is possible to require, that happiness is a good: that each person's happiness is a good to that person, and the general happiness, therefore, a good to the aggregate of all persons. It is usual* [30] to say that Mill is committing a number of fallacies. He is accused of committing the naturalistic fallacy, because he is trying to deduce what people ought to do from what they in fact do; the fallacy of equivocation, because he moves from the fact that (1) something is desirable, i.e. is capable of being desired, to the claim that (2) it is desirable, i.e. that it ought to be desired; and the fallacy of composition, because the fact that people desire their own happiness does not imply that the aggregate of all persons will desire the general happiness. Such allegations began to emerge in Mill’s lifetime, shortly after the publication of Utilitarianism, and persisted for well over a century, though the tide has been turning in recent discussions. A defence of Mill against all three charges, with a chapter devoted to each, can be found in Necip Fikri Alican’s Mill’s Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill’s Notorious Proof (1994). This is the first, and remains the only, book-length treatment of the subject matter. Yet the alleged fallacies in the proof continue to attract scholarly attention in journal articles and book chapters. Hall* [31] and Popkin* [32] defend Mill against this accusation pointing out that he begins Chapter Four by asserting that “questions of ultimate ends do not admit of proof, in the ordinary acceptation of the term”and that this is“common to all first principles.”According to Hall and Popkin, therefore, Mill does not attempt to “establish that what people do desire is desirable but merely attempts to make the principles acceptable.”* [30] The type of“proof”Mill is offering“consists only of some considerations which, Mill thought, might induce an honest and reasonable man to accept utilitarianism.”* [30]
Having claimed that people do, in fact, desire happiness, Mill now has to show that it is the only thing they deMill's “proof”of the principle of utility sire. Mill anticipates the objection that people desire other things such as virtue. He argues that whilst peoIn Chapter Four of Utilitarianism, Mill considers what ple might start desiring virtue as a means to happiness, proof can be given for the principle of utility. He eventually, it becomes part of someone's happiness and * says: [29] is then desired as an end in itself. The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible, is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible, is that people hear it... In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence it is possible to produce
The principle of utility does not mean that any given pleasure, as music, for instance, or any given exemption from pain, as for example health, are to be looked upon as means to
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CHAPTER 11. UTILITARIANISM a collective something termed happiness, and to be desired on that account. They are desired and desirable in and for themselves; besides being means, they are a part of the end. Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so; and in those who love it disinterestedly it has become so, and is desired and cherished, not as a means to happiness, but as a part of their happiness.* [33] We may give what explanation we please of this unwillingness; we may attribute it to pride, a name which is given indiscriminately to some of the most and to some of the least estimable feelings of which is mankind are capable; we may refer it to the love of liberty and personal independence, an appeal to which was with the Stoics one of the most effective means for the inculcation of it; to the love of power, or the love of excitement, both of which do really enter into and contribute to it: but its most appropriate appellation is a sense of dignity, which all humans beings possess in one form or other, and in some, though by no means in exact, proportion to their higher faculties, and which is so essential a part of the happiness of those in whom it is strong, that nothing which conflicts with it could be, otherwise than momentarily, an object of desire to them.* [34]
11.4 Twentieth-century ments 11.4.1
develop-
Ideal utilitarianism
The description ideal utilitarianism was first used by Hastings Rashdall in The Theory of Good and Evil (1907), but it is more often associated with G. E. Moore. In Ethics (1912), Moore rejected a purely hedonistic utilitarianism and argued that there is a range of values that might be maximized. Moore's strategy was to show that it is intuitively implausible that pleasure is the sole measure of what is good. He says that such an assumption:* [35] involves our saying, for instance, that a world in which absolutely nothing except pleasure existed—no knowledge, no love, no enjoyment of beauty, no moral qualities—must yet be intrinsically better—better worth creating— provided only the total quantity of pleasure in it were the least bit greater, than one in which all these things existed as well as pleasure. It involves our saying that, even if the total quantity of pleasure in each was exactly equal,
yet the fact that all the beings in the one possessed in addition knowledge of many different kinds and a full appreciation of all that was beautiful or worthy of love in their world, whereas none of the beings in the other possessed any of these things, would give us no reason whatever for preferring the former to the latter. Moore admits that it is impossible to prove the case either way, but he believed that it was intuitively obvious that even if the amount of pleasure stayed the same a world that contained such things as beauty and love would be a better world. He adds that, if a person was to take the contrary view, then“I think it is self-evident that he would be wrong.”* [35]
11.4.2 Act and rule utilitarianism In the mid-twentieth century a number of philosophers focused on the place of rules in utilitarian thinking.* [36] It was already accepted that it is necessary to use rules to help you choose the right action because the problems of calculating the consequences on each and every occasion would almost certainly result in you frequently choosing something less than the best course of action. Paley had justified the use of rules and Mill says:* [37] It is truly a whimsical supposition that, if mankind were agreed in considering utility to be the test of morality, they would remain without any agreement as to what is useful, and would take no measures for having their notions on the subject taught to the young, and enforced by law and opinion…to consider the rules of morality as improvable, is one thing; to pass over the intermediate generalisations entirely, and endeavour to test each individual action directly by the first principle, is another… The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal…Nobody argues that the art of navigation is not founded on astronomy, because sailors cannot wait to calculate the Nautical Almanack. Being rational creatures, they go to sea with it ready calculated; and all rational creatures go out upon the sea of life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. However, rule utilitarianism proposes a more central role for rules that was thought to rescue the theory from some of its more devastating criticisms, particularly problems to do with justice and promise keeping. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, articles were published both for and against the new form of utilitarianism, and through this debate the theory we now call rule utilitarianism was created. In an introduction to an anthology of these articles,
11.4. TWENTIETH-CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS the editor was able to say: “The development of this theory was a dialectical process of formulation, criticism, reply and reformulation; the record of this process well illustrates the co-operative development of a philosophical theory.”* [38] Smart* [39] and McCloskey* [40] initially used the terms 'extreme' and 'restricted' utilitarianism but eventually everyone settled on the terms 'act' and 'rule' utilitarianism.
147 that this is a result of allowing the rules to be “as specific and un-general as we please.”He argues that one of the main reasons for introducing rule utilitarianism was to do justice to the general rules that people need for moral education and character development and he proposes that “a difference between act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism can be introduced by limiting the specificity of the rules, i.e., by increasing their generality.”* [46]* :14 This distinction between a “specific rule utilitarianism”(which collapses into act utilitarianism) and“general rule utilitarianism”forms the basis of Hare's two-level utilitarianism.
The essential difference is in what determines whether or not an action is the right action. Act utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it maximizes utility; rule utilitarianism maintains that an action is right if it conWhen we are “playing God or the ideal observer”, we forms to a rule that maximizes utility. use the specific form, and we will need to do this when we In 1956, Urmson published an influential article* [41] ar- are deciding what general principles to teach and follow. guing that Mill justified rules on utilitarian principles. When we are “inculcating”or in situations where the From then on, articles have debated this interpretation of biases of our human nature are likely to prevent us doing Mill. In all probability, it was not a distinction that Mill the calculations properly, then we should use the more was particularly trying to make and so the evidence in his general rule utilitarianism. writing is inevitably mixed. A collection of Mill's writing the time, we should published in 1977 includes a letter in which he says:* [42] Hare argues that in practice, most of be following the general principles:* [46]* :17 I agree with you that the right way of testing actions by their consequences, is to test them by the natural consequences of the particular action, and not by those which would follow if everyone did the same. But, for the most part, the consideration of what would happen if everyone did the same, is the only means we have of discovering the tendency of the act in the particular case. This seems to tip the balance in favour of saying that Mill is best classified as an act utilitarian.
One ought to abide by the general principles whose general inculcation is for the best; harm is more likely to come, in actual moral situations, from questioning these rules than from sticking to them, unless the situations are very extra-ordinary; the results of sophisticated felicific calculations are not likely, human nature and human ignorance being what they are, to lead to the greatest utility.
Some school level textbooks and at least one UK examination board* [43] make a further distinction between In Moral Thinking (1981), Hare illustrated the two exstrong and weak rule utilitarianism. However, it is not tremes. The“archangel”is the hypothetical person who clear that this distinction is made in the academic literahas perfect knowledge of the situation and no personal biture. ases or weaknesses and always uses critical moral thinkIt has been argued that rule utilitarianism collapses into ing to decide the right thing to do; the “prole”is the act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case hypothetical person who is completely incapable of critiwhere breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule cal thinking and uses nothing but intuitive moral thinking can be refined by the addition of a sub-rule that handles and, of necessity, has to follow the general moral rules cases like the exception.* [44] This process holds for all they have been taught or learned through imitation.* [47] cases of exceptions, and so the “rules”have as many It is not that some people are archangels and others proles, “sub-rules”as there are exceptional cases, which, in the but rather that“we all share the characteristics of both to end, makes an agent seek out whatever outcome produces limited and varying degrees and at different times.”* [47] the maximum utility.* [45] Hare does not specify when we should think more like an “archangel”and more like a “prole”as this will, in any case, vary from person to person. However, the critical 11.4.3 Two-level utilitarianism moral thinking underpins and informs the more intuitive moral thinking. It is responsible for formulating and, if Main article: Two-level utilitarianism necessary, reformulating the general moral rules. We also switch to critical thinking when trying to deal with unIn Principles (1973),* [46] R. M. Hare accepts that rule usual situations or in cases where the intuitive moral rules utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism but claims give conflicting advice.
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11.4.4
Preference utilitarianism
Preference utilitarianism was first put forward in 1977 by John Harsanyi in Morality and the theory of rational behaviour,* [48] but preference utilitarianism is more commonly associated with R. M. Hare,* [47] Peter Singer* [49] and Richard Brandt.* [50] Harsanyi claimed that his theory is indebted to Adam Smith, who equated the moral point of view with that of an impartial but sympathetic observer; to Kant, who insisted on the criterion of universality, which may also be described as a criterion of reciprocity; to the classical utilitarians who made maximizing social utility the basic criterion of morality; and to “the modern theory of rational behaviour under risk and uncertainty, usually described as Bayesian decision theory".* [48]* :42
ing our concept of social utility.* [48]* :56
11.5 More varieties of utilitarianism 11.5.1 Negative utilitarianism Main article: Negative utilitarianism
In The Open Society and its Enemies (1945), Karl Popper argued that the principle“maximize pleasure”should be replaced by“minimize pain”. He thought“it is not only impossible but very dangerous to attempt to maximize the pleasure or the happiness of the people, since such an must lead to totalitarianism.”* [51] He claimed Harsanyi rejects hedonistic utilitarianism as being depen- attempt * dent on an outdated psychology saying that it is far from that: [52] obvious that everything we do is motivated by a desire to there is, from the ethical point of view, maximize pleasure and minimize pain. He also rejects no symmetry between suffering and happiness, ideal utilitarianism because“it is certainly not true as an or between pain and pleasure…In my opinion empirical observation that people's only purpose in life is human suffering makes a direct moral appeal, * * to have 'mental states of intrinsic worth'.” [48] :54 namely, the appeal for help, while there is no According to Harsanyi, “preference utilitarianism is the similar call to increase the happiness of a man only form of utilitarianism consistent with the important who is doing well anyway. A further criticism philosophical principle of preference autonomy. By this I of the Utilitarian formula “Maximize pleamean the principle that, in deciding what is good and what sure”is that it assumes a continuous pleasureis bad for a given individual, the ultimate criterion can pain scale which allows us to treat degrees of only be his own wants and his own preferences.”* [48]* :55 pain as negative degrees of pleasure. But, from the moral point of view, pain cannot be outHarsanyi adds two caveats. People sometimes have irweighed by pleasure, and especially not one rational preferences. To deal with this, Harsanyi distinman's pain by another man's pleasure. Instead guishes between“manifest”preferences and“true”prefof the greatest happiness for the greatest numerences. The former are those “manifested by his obber, one should demand, more modestly, the served behaviour, including preferences possibly based least amount of avoidable suffering for all... on erroneous factual beliefs, or on careless logical analysis, or on strong emotions that at the moment greatly hinder rational choice”whereas the latter are “the preferences he would have if he had all the relevant factual information, always reasoned with the greatest possible care, and were in a state of mind most conducive to rational choice.”* [48]* :55 It is the latter that preference utilitarianism tries to satisfy.
The actual term negative utilitarianism was introduced by R.N.Smart as the title to his 1958 reply to Popper* [53] in which he argued that the principle would entail seeking the quickest and least painful method of killing the entirety of humanity.
playing ill will toward others does remain a member of this community, but not with his whole personality. That part of his personality that harbours these hostile antisocial feelings must be excluded from membership, and has no claim for a hearing when it comes to defin-
Others see negative utilitarianism as a branch within modern hedonistic utilitarianism, which assigns a higher weight to the avoidance of suffering than to the promotion of happiness.* [58] The moral weight of suffering can be increased by using a“compassionate”utilitarian metric, so that the result is the same as in prioritarianism.* [59]
Negative total utilitarianism, in contrast, tolerates sufthat can be compensated within the same perThe second caveat is that antisocial preferences, such fering * * son. [54] [55] as sadism, envy and resentment, have to be excluded. Harsanyi achieves this by claiming that such preferences Negative preference utilitarianism avoids the problem of partially exclude those people from the moral commu- moral killing with reference to existing preferences that nity: such killing would violate, while it still demands a justification for the creation of new lives.* [56] A possible justification is the reduction of the average level of preferenceUtilitarian ethics makes all of us members frustration.* [57] of the same moral community. A person dis-
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Pessimistic representatives of negative utilitarianism can tive utilitarianism. be found in the environment of Buddhism.* [60]
11.5.2
Motive utilitarianism
Motive utilitarianism was first proposed by Robert Merrihew Adams in 1976.* [61] Whereas act utilitarianism requires us to choose our actions by calculating which action will maximize utility and rule utilitarianism requires us to implement rules which will, on the whole, maximize utility, motive utilitarianism “has the utility calculus being used to select motives and dispositions according to their general felicific effects, and those motives and dispositions then dictate our choices of actions.”* [62] The arguments for moving to some form of motive utilitarianism at the personal level can be seen as mirroring the arguments for moving to some form of rule utilitarianism at the social level.* [63] Adams refers to Sidgwick's observation that “Happiness (general as well as individual) is likely to be better attained if the extent to which we set ourselves consciously to aim at it be carefully restricted.”* [64] Trying to apply the utility calculation on each and every occasion is likely to lead to a sub-optimal outcome. Applying carefully selected rules at the social level and encouraging appropriate motives at the personal level is, so it is argued, likely to lead to a better overall outcome even if on some individual occasions it leads to the wrong action when assessed according to act utilitarian standards. Adams illustrates his theory by telling a fictitious story about Jack, a lover of art, visiting Chartres cathedral. Jack is motivated to see, as nearly as possible, everything in the cathedral. However, there were some things in the cathedral that, on their own, didn't interest him much. On act utilitarian grounds he should have ignored them. Spending more time in the cathedral than he had originally planned resulted in him missing his dinner, doing several hours of night driving, which he hates, and having trouble finding a place to sleep. Adams argues that Jack will only have skipped the less interesting bits of the cathedral if“he had been less interested in seeing everything in the cathedral than in maximizing utility. And it is plausible to suppose that if his motivation had been different in that respect, he would have enjoyed the cathedral much less.”* [65] Adams concludes that “right action, by act-utilitarian standards, and right motivation, by motive-utilitarian standards, are incompatible in some cases.”* [66] The necessity of this conclusion is rejected by Fred Feldman who argues that “the conflict in question results from an inadequate formulation of the utilitarian doctrines; motives play no essential role in it…(and that)…Precisely the same sort of conflict arises even when MU is left out of consideration and AU is applied by itself.”* [67] Instead, Feldman proposes a variant of act utilitarianism that results in there being no conflict between it and mo-
11.6 Criticisms Because utilitarianism is not a single theory but a cluster of related theories that have developed over two hundred years, criticisms can be made for different reasons and have different targets.
11.6.1 Ignores justice As Rosen* [19] has pointed out, claiming that act utilitarians are not concerned about having rules is to set up a “straw man”. Similarly, Hare refers to “the crude caricature of act utilitarianism which is the only version of it that many philosophers seem to be acquainted with.”* [68] Given what Bentham says about second order evils* [69] it would be a serious misrepresentation to say that he and similar act utilitarians would be prepared to punish an innocent person for the greater good. Nevertheless, whether they would agree or not, this is what critics of utilitarianism claim is entailed by the theory. A classic version of this criticism was given by H. J. McCloskey:* [40] Suppose that a sheriff were faced with the choice either of framing a Negro for a rape that had aroused hostility to the Negroes (a particular Negro generally being believed to be guilty but whom the sheriff knows not to be guilty) —and thus preventing serious anti-Negro riots which would probably lead to some loss of life and increased hatred of each other by whites and Negroes—or of hunting for the guilty person and thereby allowing the anti-Negro riots to occur, while doing the best he can to combat them. In such a case the sheriff, if he were an extreme utilitarian, would appear to be committed to framing the Negro. By“extreme”utilitarian, McCloskey is referring to what later came to be called “act”utilitarianism. Whilst this story might be quoted as part of a justification for moving from act to rule utilitarianism McCloskey anticipates this and points out that each rule has to be judged on its utility and it is not at all obvious that a rule with exceptions has less utility. The above story invites the reply that the sheriff would not frame the innocent because of the rule “do not punish an innocent person"; it also invites the reply that these issues need to be resolved, and riots might very well have positive utility in the long run by drawing attention and thus resources to the racial situation. However, McCloskey asks, what about the rule “punish an innocent person when and only when to do so is not to weaken the existing institution of punishment and when the consequences of doing so are valuable"?
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In a later article, McCloskey says:* [70] Surely the utilitarian must admit that whatever the facts of the matter may be, it is logically possible that an 'unjust' system of punishment—e.g. a system involving collective punishments, retroactive laws and punishments, or punishments of parents and relations of the offender—may be more useful than a 'just' system of punishment?
11.6.2
Predicting consequences
11.6.3 Demandingness objection Act utilitarianism not only requires everyone to do what they can to maximize utility, but to do so without any favouritism. Mill said, “As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator.”* [75] Critics say that this combination of requirements leads to utilitarianism making unreasonable demands. The well-being of strangers counts just as much as that of friends, family or self. “What makes this requirement so demanding is the gargantuan number of strangers in great need of help and the indefinitely many opportunities to make sacrifices to help them.”* [76] As Shelly Kagan says, “Given the parameters of the actual world, there is no question that …(maximally)…promoting the good would require a life of hardship, self-denial, and austerity…a life spent promoting the good would be a severe one indeed.”* [77]
Some argue that it is impossible to do the calculation that utilitarianism requires because consequences are inherently unknowable. Daniel Dennett describes this as the Three Mile Island effect.* [71] Dennett points out that not only is it impossible to assign a precise utility value to the incident, it is impossible to know whether, ultimately, the near-meltdown that occurred was a good or bad thing. He Hooker describes two aspects to the problem: act utilsuggests that it would have been a good thing if plant opitarianism requires huge sacrifices from those who are erators learned lessons that prevented future serious incirelatively better off and also requires sacrifice of your dents. own good even when the aggregate good will be only Russell Hardin rejects such arguments. He argues that it slightly increased.* [78] Another way of highlighting the is possible to distinguish the moral impulse of utilitarian- complaint is to say that in utilitarianism, “there is no ism (which is “to define the right as good consequences such thing as morally permissible self-sacrifice that goes and to motivate people to achieve these”) from our abil- above and beyond the call of duty.”* [78] Mill was quite ity to correctly apply rational principles which will among clear about this,“A sacrifice which does not increase, or other things “depend on the perceived facts of the case tend to increase, the sum total of happiness, it considers and on the particular moral actor's mental equipment.” as wasted.”* [75] * [72] The fact that the latter is limited and can change One response to the problem is to accept its demands. doesn't mean that the former has to be rejected. “If we This is the view taken by Peter Singer, who says: “No develop a better system for determining relevant causal doubt we do instinctively prefer to help those who are relations so that we are able to choose actions that better close to us. Few could stand by and watch a child produce our intended ends, it does not follow that we then drown; many can ignore the avoidable deaths of children must change our ethics. The moral impulse of utilitarianin Africa or India. The question, however, is not what ism is constant, but our decisions under it are contingent we usually do, but what we ought to do, and it is diffi* on our knowledge and scientific understanding.” [73] cult to see any sound moral justification for the view that From the beginning, utilitarianism has recognized that distance, or community membership, makes a crucial difcertainty in such matters is unobtainable and both Ben- ference to our obligations.”* [79] tham and Mill said that it was necessary to rely on the Others argue that a moral theory that is so contrary to our tendencies of actions to bring about consequences. G. E. deeply held moral convictions must either be rejected or * Moore writing in 1903 said: [74] modified.* [80] There have been various attempts to modify utilitarianism to escape its seemingly over-demanding We certainly cannot hope directly to comrequirements.* [81] One approach is to drop the demand pare their effects except within a limited futhat utility be maximized. In Satisficing Consequentialture; and all the arguments, which have ever ism, Michael Slote argues for a form of utilitarianism been used in Ethics, and upon which we comwhere“an act might qualify as morally right through havmonly act in common life, directed to shewing good enough consequences, even though better conseing that one course is superior to another, are quences could have been produced.”* [82] One advantage (apart from theological dogmas) confined to of such a system is that it would be able to accommodate pointing out such probable immediate advanthe notion of supererogatory actions. tages… An ethical law has the nature not of a scientific law but of a scientific prediction: and the latter is always merely probable, although the probability may be very great.
Samuel Scheffler takes a different approach and amends the requirement that everyone be treated the same.* [83] In particular, Scheffler suggests that there is an “agentcentered prerogative”such that when the overall utility
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is being calculated it is permitted to count our own interests more heavily than the interests of others. Kagan suggests that such a procedure might be justified on the grounds that“a general requirement to promote the good would lack the motivational underpinning necessary for genuine moral requirements”and, secondly, that personal independence is necessary for the existence of commitments and close personal relations and that“the value of such commitments yields a positive reason for preserving within moral theory at least some moral independence for the personal point of view.”* [84]
A response to this criticism is to point out that whilst seeming to resolve some problems it introduces others. Intuitively, there are many cases where people do want to take the numbers involved into account. As Alastair Norcross has said, “suppose that Homer is faced with the painful choice between saving Barney from a burning building or saving both Moe and Apu from the building …it is clearly better for Homer to save the larger number, precisely because it is a larger number…Can anyone who really considers the matter seriously honestly claim to believe that it is worse that one person die than that of the universe be severely Robert Goodin takes yet another approach and argues the entire sentient population mutilated? Clearly not.”* [91] that the demandingness objection can be “blunted”by treating utilitarianism as a guide to public policy rather It may be possible to uphold the distinction between perthan one of individual morality. He suggests that many of sons whilst still aggregating utility, if it accepted that peothe problems arise under the traditional formulation be- ple can be influenced by empathy.* [92] This position is cause the conscientious utilitarian ends up having to make advocated by Iain King,* [93] who has suggested the evoup for the failings of others and so contributing more than lutionary basis of empathy means humans can take into their fair share.* [85] account the interests of other individuals, but only on a ourselves in Harsanyi argues that the objection overlooks the fact that one-to-one basis,“since we can only imagine * the mind of one other person at a time.” [94] King uses “people attach considerable utility to freedom from unthis insight to adapt utilitarianism, and it may help recduly burdensome moral obligations …most people will oncile Bentham's philosophy with deontology and virtue prefer a society with a more relaxed moral code, and * ethics. [95] will feel that such a society will achieve a higher level of average utility—even if adoption of such a moral code should lead to some losses in economic and cultural accomplishments (so long as these losses remain within tolerable limits). This means that utilitarianism, if correctly interpreted, will yield a moral code with a standard of acceptable conduct very much below the level of highest moral perfection, leaving plenty of scope for supererogatory actions exceeding this minimum standard.”* [86]
11.6.4
Aggregating utility
The objection that“utilitarianism does not take seriously the distinction between persons”* [87] came to prominence in 1971 with the publication of John Rawls' A Theory of Justice. The concept is also important in animal rights advocate Richard Ryder's rejection of utilitarianism, in which he talks of the “boundary of the individual”, through which neither pain nor pleasure may pass.* [88] However, a similar objection was noted in 1970 by Thomas Nagel (who claimed that consequentialism “treats the desires, needs, satisfactions, and dissatisfactions of distinct persons as if they were the desires, etc., of a mass person”* [89]), and even earlier by David Gauthier, who wrote that utilitarianism supposes “that mankind is a super-person, whose greatest satisfaction is the objective of moral action. . . . But this is absurd. Individuals have wants, not mankind; individuals seek satisfaction, not mankind. A person's satisfaction is not part of any greater satisfaction.”* [90] Thus, the aggregation of utility becomes futile as both pain and happiness are intrinsic to and inseparable from the consciousness in which they are felt, rendering impossible the task of adding up the various pleasures of multiple individuals.
The philosopher John Taurek also argued that the idea of adding happiness or pleasures across persons is quite unintelligible and that the numbers of persons involved in a situation are morally irrelevant.* [96] Taurek's basic concern comes down to this: we cannot explain what it means to say that things would be five times worse if five people die than if one person dies. “I cannot give a satisfactory account of the meaning of judgments of this kind,” he wrote (p. 304). He argues that each person can only lose one person's happiness or pleasures. There isn't five times more loss of happiness or pleasure when five die: who would be feeling this happiness or pleasure? “Each person's potential loss has the same significance to me, only as a loss to that person alone. because, by hypothesis, I have an equal concern for each person involved, I am moved to give each of them an equal chance to be spared his loss”(p. 307). Parfit* [97] and others* [98] have criticized Taurek's line, and it continues to be discussed.* [99]
11.6.5 Calculating utility is self-defeating An early criticism, which was addressed by Mill, is that if time is taken to calculate the best course of action it is likely that the opportunity to take the best course of action will already have passed. Mill responded that there had been ample time to calculate the likely effects:* [75] ...namely, the whole past duration of the human species. During all that time, mankind have been learning by experience the tendencies of actions; on which experience all the prudence, as well as all the morality of life, are
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CHAPTER 11. UTILITARIANISM dependent…It is a strange notion that the acknowledgment of a first principle is inconsistent with the admission of secondary ones. To inform a traveller respecting the place of his ultimate destination, is not to forbid the use of landmarks and direction-posts on the way. The proposition that happiness is the end and aim of morality, does not mean that no road ought to be laid down to that goal, or that persons going thither should not be advised to take one direction rather than another. Men really ought to leave off talking a kind of nonsense on this subject, which they would neither talk nor listen to on other matters of practical concernment.
religion the same faults that the penal code condemns in the name of the law.”Artistic criticism is “harmful,”because it disturbs worthy people in their enjoyment of Martin Tupper, etc. With such rubbish has the brave fellow, with his motto, “null a dies sine linea [no day without a line]", piled up mountains of books.
11.6.7 John Paul II's personalist criticism
Pope John Paul II, following his personalist philosophy, argued that a danger of utilitarianism is that it tends to make persons, just as much as things, the object of use. “Utilitarianism,”he wrote,“is a civilization of production More recently, Hardin has made the same point. “It and of use, a civilization of things and not of persons, a should embarrass philosophers that they have ever taken civilization in which persons are used in the same way as this objection seriously. Parallel considerations in other things are used.”* [102] realms are dismissed with eminently good sense. Lord Devlin notes, 'if the reasonable man "worked to rule" by perusing to the point of comprehension every form he was handed, the commercial and administrative life of 11.7 Additional considerations the country would creep to a standstill.'"* [73] It is such considerations that lead even act utilitarians to 11.7.1 Average v. total happiness rely on “rules of thumb”, as Smart* [100] has called them. The objection arises when utilitarianism is mis- Main article: Average and total utilitarianism takenly taken to be a decision-making procedure rather than a criterion of what is right. In The Methods of Ethics, Henry Sidgwick asked, “Is it total or average happiness that we seek to make a maximum?"* [103] He noted that aspects of the question had 11.6.6 Karl Marx's criticism been overlooked and answered the question himself by saying that what had to be maximized was the average Karl Marx, in Das Kapital, wrote:* [101] multiplied by the number of people living.* [104] He also argued that, if the “average happiness enjoyed remains Not even excepting our philosopher, undiminished, Utilitarianism directs us to make the numChristian Wolff, in no time and in no country ber enjoying it as great as possible.”* [104] This was also has the most homespun commonplace ever the view taken earlier by Paley. He notes that, although he strutted about in so self-satisfied a way. The speaks of the happiness of communities, “the happiness principle of utility was no discovery of Benof a people is made up of the happiness of single persons; tham. He simply reproduced in his dull way and the quantity of happiness can only be augmented by what Helvétius and other Frenchmen had said increasing the number of the percipients, or the pleasure with esprit in the 18th century. To know what of their perceptions”and that if extreme cases, such a is useful for a dog, one must study dog-nature. people held as slaves, are excluded the amount of happiThis nature itself is not to be deduced from ness will usually be in proportion to the number of peothe principle of utility. Applying this to ple. Consequently,“the decay of population is the greatman, he who would criticize all human acts, est evil that a state can suffer; and the improvement of it movements, relations, etc., by the principle the object which ought, in all countries, to be aimed at in of utility, must first deal with human nature preference to every other political purpose whatsoever.” * in general, and then with human nature as [105] More recently, a similar view has been expressed modified in each historical epoch. Bentham by Smart, who argued that all other things being equal a makes short work of it. With the driest naivete universe with two million happy people is better than a he takes the modern shopkeeper, especially universe with only one million happy people.* [106] the English shopkeeper, as the normal man. Since Sidgwick raised the question it has been studied in Whatever is useful to this queer normal man, detail and philosophers have argued that using either total and to his world, is absolutely useful. This or average happiness can lead to objectionable results. yard-measure, then, he applies to past, present, According to Derek Parfit, using total happiness falls vicand future. The Christian religion, e.g., is tim to the repugnant conclusion, whereby large numbers “useful,”“because it forbids in the name of
11.8. APPLICATION TO SPECIFIC ISSUES of people with very low but non-negative utility values can be seen as a better goal than a population of a less extreme size living in comfort. In other words, according to the theory, it is a moral good to breed more people on the world for as long as total happiness rises.* [107] On the other hand, measuring the utility of a population based on the average utility of that population avoids Parfit's repugnant conclusion but causes other problems. For example, bringing a moderately happy person into a very happy world would be seen as an immoral act; aside from this, the theory implies that it would be a moral good to eliminate all people whose happiness is below average, as this would raise the average happiness.* [108] William Shaw suggests that the problem can be avoided if a distinction is made between potential people, who need not concern us, and actual future people, who should concern us. He says, “utilitarianism values the happiness of people, not the production of units of happiness. Accordingly, one has no positive obligation to have children. However, if you have decided to have a child, then you have an obligation to give birth to the happiest child you can.”* [109]
11.7.2
Motives, intentions, and actions
153 wrongness another.”* [114] Jonathan Dancy rejects this interpretation on the grounds that Mill is explicitly making intention relevant to an assessment of the act not to an assessment of the agent. An interpretation given by Roger Crisp draws on a definition given by Mill in A System of Logic, where he says that an “intention to produce the effect, is one thing; the effect produced in consequence of the intention, is another thing; the two together constitute the action.”* [115] Accordingly, whilst two actions may outwardly appear to be the same they will be different actions if there is a different intention. Dancy notes that this does not explain why intentions count but motives do not. A third interpretation is that an action might be considered a complex action consisting of several stages and it is the intention that determines which of these stages are to be considered part of the action. Although this is the interpretation favoured by Dancy, he recognizes that this might not have been Mill's own view, for Mill “would not even allow that 'p & q' expresses a complex proposition. He wrote in his System of Logic I iv. 3, of 'Caesar is dead and Brutus is alive', that 'we might as well call a street a complex house, as these two propositions a complex proposition'.”* [114]
Finally, whilst motives may not play a role in determining the morality of an action, this does not preclude utilUtilitarianism is typically taken to assess the rightness or itarians from fostering particular motives if doing so will wrongness of an action by considering just the conseincrease overall happiness. quences of that action. Bentham very carefully distinguishes motive from intention and says that motives are not in themselves good or bad but can be referred to as such on account of their tendency to produce pleasure or 11.8 Application to specific issues pain. He adds that, “from every kind of motive, may proceed actions that are good, others that are bad, and 11.8.1 Nonhuman animals others that are indifferent.”* [110] Mill makes a similar point* [111] and explicitly says that “motive has nothing Further information: Speciesism and Animal welfare to do with the morality of the action, though much with In An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislathe worth of the agent. He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble.”* [112] However, with intention the situation is more complex. In a footnote printed in the second edition of Utilitarianism, Mill says: “the morality of the action depends entirely upon the intention—that is, upon what the agent wills to do.”* [112] Elsewhere, he says, “Intention, and motive, are two very different things. But it is the intention, that is, the foresight of consequences, which constitutes the moral rightness or wrongness of the act.”* [113] The correct interpretation of Mill's footnote is a matter of some debate. The difficulty in interpretation centres around trying to explain why, since it is consequences that matter, intentions should play a role in the assessment of the morality of an action but motives should not. One possibility “involves supposing that the 'morality' of the act is one thing, probably to do with the praiseworthiness or blameworthiness of the agent, and its rightness or Peter Singer
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tion Bentham wrote“the question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?"* [116] Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures might suggest that he gave more status to humans but in The Methods of Ethics, philosopher Henry Sidgwick says“We have next to consider who the “all”are, whose happiness is to be taken into account. Are we to extend our concern to all the beings capable of pleasure and pain whose feelings are affected by our conduct? or are we to confine our view to human happiness? The former view is the one adopted by Bentham and Mill, and (I believe) by the Utilitarian school generally: and is obviously most in accordance with the universality that is characteristic of their principle...it seems arbitrary and unreasonable to exclude from the end, as so conceived, any pleasure of any sentient being.”* [117]
is impossible to increase the happiness or reduce the suffering of something that cannot feel happiness or suffer. Singer writes: “The capacity for suffering and enjoying things is aprerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfied before we can speak of interests in any meaningful way. It would be nonsense to say that it was not in the interests of a stone to be kicked along the road by a schoolboy. A stone does not have interests because it cannot suffer. Nothing that we can do to it could possibly make any difference to its welfare. A mouse, on the other hand, does have an interest in not being tormented, because it will suffer if it is. If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. No matter what the nature of the being, the principle of equality requires that its suffering be counted equally with the like sufferMoreover, John Stuart Mill himself, in Whewell on ing—in so far as rough comparisons can be made—of Moral Philosophy, defends Bentham's advocacy for ani- any other being. If a being is not capable of suffering, or mal rights, calling it a“noble anticipation”, and writing: of experiencing enjoyment or happiness, there is nothing “Granted that any practice causes more pain to animals to be taken into account.” than it gives pleasure to man; is that practice moral or Thus, the moral value of one-celled organisms, as well as immoral? And if, exactly in proportion as human beings some multi-cellular organisms, and natural entities like a raise their heads out of the slough of selfishness, they do river, is only in the benefit they provide to sentient beings. not with one voice answer“immoral,”let the morality of Similarly, utilitarianism places no direct intrinsic value on the principle of utility be for ever condemned.”* [118] biodiversity, although the benefits that biodiversity bring The utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer and many other to sentient beings may mean that, on utilitarianism, bioanimal rights activists have continued to argue that the diversity ought to be maintained in general. well-being of all sentient beings ought to be seriously considered. Singer suggests that rights are conferred according to the level of a creature's self-awareness, regardless of their species. He adds that humans tend to be speciesist (discriminatory against non-humans) in ethical matters, and argues that, on utilitarianism, speciesism cannot be justified as there is no rational distinction that can be made between the suffering of humans and the suffering of nonhuman animals; all suffering ought to be reduced. Singer writes: “The racist violates the principle of equality by giving greater weight to the interests of members of his own race, when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of another race. Similarly the speciesist allows the interests of his own species to override the greater interests of members of other species. The pattern is the same in each case... Most human beings are speciesists.”* [119] In his 1990 edition of Animal Liberation, Peter Singer said that he no longer ate oysters and mussels, because although the creatures might not suffer, they might, it's not really known, and it's easy enough to avoid eating them in any case* [120] (and this aspect of seeking better alternatives is a prominent part of utilitarianism). This view still might be contrasted with deep ecology, which holds that an intrinsic value is attached to all forms of life and nature, whether currently assumed to be sentient or not. According to utilitarianism, the forms of life that are unable to experience anything akin to either enjoyment or discomfort are denied moral status, because it
In John Stuart Mill's essay“On Nature”* [121] he argues that the welfare of wild animals is to be considered when making utilitarian judgments. Tyler Cowen argues that, if individual animals are carriers of utility, then we should consider limiting the predatory activity of carnivores relative to their victims: “At the very least, we should limit current subsidies to nature's carnivores.”* [122]
11.8.2 World poverty An article in the American journal for Economics has addressed the issue of Utilitarian ethics within redistribution of wealth. The journal stated that taxation of the wealthy is the best way to make use of the disposable income they receive. This says that the money creates utility for the most people by funding government services.* [123] Many utilitarian philosophers, including Peter Singer and Toby Ord, argue that inhabitants of developed countries in particular have an obligation to help to end extreme poverty across the world, for example by regularly donating some of their income to charity. Peter Singer, for example, argues that donating some of one's income to charity could help to save a life or cure somebody from a poverty-related illness, which is a much better use of the money as it brings someone in extreme poverty far more happiness than it would bring to oneself if one lived in relative comfort. However, Singer not only argues that one ought to donate a significant proportion of one's income to charity, but also that this money should be directed to the most cost-effective charities, in order
11.10. NOTES to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number, consistent with utilitarian thinking.* [124] Singer's ideas have formed the basis of the modern effective altruist movement.
11.9 See also • Altruism (ethical doctrine) • Applied ethics • Anti-Utilitarianism
155
11.10 Notes [1] Habibi, Don (2001). “Chapter 3, Mill's Moral Philosophy”. John Stuart Mill and the Ethic of Human Growth. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 89–90, 112. ISBN 978-90-481-5668-9. [2] John Stuart Mill (1861) Utilitarianism, footnote 1. [3] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: Man's last end (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 1)". newadvent.org. [4] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: Things in which man's happiness consists (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 2)". newadvent.org.
• Appeal to consequences
[5] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: What is happiness (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 3)". newadvent.org.
• Bounded rationality
[6] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: Things that are required for happiness (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 4)". newadvent.org.
• Charity International • Classical liberalism • Cost–benefit analysis • Decision analysis • Decision theory • Effective altruism • Gross national happiness • List of utilitarians • Negative utilitarianism • Pleasure principle (psychology) • Prioritarianism • Probabilistic reasoning • Relative utilitarianism • Rule according to higher law • Social Choice and Individual Values • State consequentialism • Uncertainty • Utility monster • Utilitarian bioethics • Utilitarian cake-cutting
[7] “SUMMA THEOLOGICA: The attainment of happiness (Prima Secundae Partis, Q. 5)". newadvent.org. [8] Fraser, Chris (2011). The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 9780-19-532899-8. [9] Warburton, Nigel (2000). Reading Political Philosophy: Machiavelli to Mill. Psychology Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780-415-21197-0. [10] Hume, David (2002).“An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0521003049. [11] Hutcheson, Francis (2002). “The Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. ISBN 978-0521003049. [12] Ashcraft, Richard (1991) John Locke: Critical Assessments (Critical assessments of leading political philosophers), Routledge, p. 691 [13] Gay, John (2002). “Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. p. 408. ISBN 978-0521003049. [14] Gay, John (2002). “Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–05. ISBN 978-0521003049. [15] Schneewind, J. B. (2002). Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. p. 446. ISBN 978-0521003049. [16] Smith, Wilson (Jul., 1954) William Paley's Theological Utilitarianism in America, The William and Mary Quarterly Third Series, Vol. 11, No. 3, Published by: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, pp. 402–24
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[17] Schneewind, J. B. (1977). Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0198245520. [18] Paley, William (2002). “The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. pp. 455–56. ISBN 978-0521003049. [19] Rosen, Frederick (2003) Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 132
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[20] Schneewind, J.B. (1977) Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 122
[41] Urmson, J.O. (1953). “The Interpretation of the Moral Philosophy of J.S.Mill”. The Philosophical Quarterly. III: 33–39. doi:10.2307/2216697. JSTOR 2216697.
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[22] An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue – Francis Hutcheson, Introduction, 1726
[43] Oliphant, Jill, OCR Religious Ethics for AS and A2, Routledge, (2007)
[23] Rosen, Frederick (2003) Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 32
[44] David Lyons, Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism, 1965
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[54] Fricke Fabian (2002), Verschiedene Versionen des negativen Utilitarismus, Kriterion, vol.15, no.1, p. 14
[73] Hardin, Russell (May 1990). Morality within the Limits of Reason. University Of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 9780226316208.
[55] Arrhenius Gustav (2000), Future Generations, A Challenge for Moral Theory, FD-Diss., Uppsala University, Dept. of Philosophy, Uppsala: University Printers, p. 100
[74] Moore, G.E. (1903). Principia Ethica. Prometheus Books UK. pp. 203–04. ISBN 0879754982.
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[76] Hooker, Brad (9 September 2011). “Chapter 8: The Demandingness Objection”. In Chappell, Timothy. The problem of moral demandingness: new philosophical essays. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 151. ISBN 9780230219403.
[58] Fricke Fabian(2002), Verschiedene Versionen des negativen Utilitarismus, Kriterion, vol.15, no.1, p. 14 [59] Broome John (1991), Weighing Goods, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 222 [60] Bruno Contestabile: Negative Utilitarianism and Buddhist Intuition. In: Contemporary Buddhism Vol.15, Issue 2, S. 298–311, London 2014. [61] Robert Merrihew Adams, Motive Utilitarianism, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 73, No. 14, On Motives and Morals (12 August 1976), pp. 467–81 [62] Goodin, Robert E. “Utilitarianism as a Public Philosophy”(Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Public Policy), Cambridge University Press, p. 60 [63] Goodin, Robert E. “Utilitarianism as a Public Philosophy”(Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Public Policy), Cambridge University Press, p. 17 [64] Robert Merrihew Adams, Motive Utilitarianism, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 73, No. 14, On Motives and Morals (12 August 1976), p. 467 [65] Robert Merrihew Adams, Motive Utilitarianism, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 73, No. 14, On Motives and Morals (12 August 1976), p. 471 [66] Robert Merrihew Adams, Motive Utilitarianism, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 73, No. 14, On Motives and Morals (12 August 1976), p. 475 [67] Feldman, Fred, On the Consistency of Act- and MotiveUtilitarianism: A Reply to Robert Adams, Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition, Vol. 70, No. 2 (May, 1993), pp. 211– 12 [68] Hare, R. M. (1981) Moral Thinking. Oxford Univ. Press, p. 36 [69] Bentham, Jeremy (2009) Theory of Legislation. General Books LLC, p. 58 [70] McCloskey, H.J. (1963) A Note on Utilitarian Punishment, in Mind, 72, 1963, p. 599 [71] Dennett, Daniel (1995), Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Simon & Schuster, p. 498 ISBN 0-684-82471-X.
[77] Kagan, Shelly (April 1991). The Limits of Morality (Oxford Ethics Series). Clarendon Press. p. 360. ISBN 9780198239161. [78] Hooker, Brad (October 2002). Ideal Code, Real World: A Rule-Consequentialist Theory of Morality. Clarendon Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0199256570. [79] Singer, Peter (February 2011). Practical Ethics, Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. pp. 202–03. ISBN 978-0521707688. [80] Hooker, Brad (9 September 2011). “Chapter 8: The Demandingness Objection”. In Chappell, Timothy. The problem of moral demandingness: new philosophical essays. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 148. ISBN 9780230219403. [81] Kagan, Shelly (Summer 1984). “Does Consequentialism Demand too Much? Recent Work on the Limits of Obligation”. Philosophy & Public Affairs. 13 (3): 239–54. JSTOR 2265413. [82] Slote, Michael (1984). “Satisficing Consequentialism” . Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes. 58: 140. JSTOR 4106846. [83] Scheffler, Samuel (August 1994). The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions, Second Edition. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198235118. [84] Kagan, Shelly (Summer 1984). “Does Consequentialism Demand too Much? Recent Work on the Limits of Obligation”. Philosophy & Public Affairs. 13 (3): 254. JSTOR 2265413. [85] Goodin, Robert E. (May 1995). Utilitarianism as a Public Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0521468060. [86] Harsanyi, John C. (June 1975). “Can the Maximin Principle Serve as a Basis for Morality? A Critique of John Rawls's Theory A Theory of Justice by John Rawls” . The American Political Science Review. 69 (2): 601. doi:10.2307/1959090. JSTOR 1959090.
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[87] Rawls, John (March 22, 2005). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press; reissue edition. p. 27. ISBN 9780674017726. [88] Ryder, Richard D. Painism: A Modern Morality. Centaur Press, 2001. pp. 27–29 [89] Nagel, Thomas (2012). The Possibility of Altruism. Princeton University Press, New Ed edition. p. 134. ISBN 978-0691020020.
CHAPTER 11. UTILITARIANISM
[99] See for example: (1) Michael Otsuka,“Skepticism about Saving the Greater Number”, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 32:4 (Autumn 2004), pp. 413–26; (2) Rob Lawlor, “Taurek, Numbers and Probabilities”, Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 9:2 (April 2006), pp. 149–66. [100] Smart, J.J.C.; Williams, Bernard (January 1973). Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0521098229.
[101] Das Kapital Volume I Chapter 24 endnote 50 [90] Gauthier, David (1963). Practical Reasoning: The Struc[102] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on 5 April ture and Foundations of Prudential and Moral Arguments 2011. Retrieved 1 April 2011. and Their Exemplification in Discourse. Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 978-0198241904. [103] Sidgwick, Henry (January 1981). Methods of Ethics. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc; 7th Revised edition. p. [91] Norcross, Alastair (2009). “Two Dogmas of Deontolxxxvi. ISBN 978-0915145287. ogy: Aggregation, Rights and the Separateness of Persons” (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 26: 81–82. [104] Sidgwick, Henry (January 1981). Methods of Ethics. doi:10.1017/S0265052509090049. Retrieved 2012-06Hackett Publishing Co, Inc; 7th Revised edition. p. 415. 29. ISBN 978-0915145287. [92] In Moral Laws of the Jungle (link to Philosophy Now magazine), Iain King argues: “The way I reconcile my interests with those of other people is not for all of us to pour everything we care about into a pot then see which of the combination of satisfied wants would generate the most happiness (benefit). If we did that, I could be completely outnumbered…. No, the way we reconcile interests is through empathy. Empathy is one-to-one, since we only imagine ourselves in the mind of one other person at a time. Even when I empathise with 'the people' here…I am really imagining what it is like to be just one woman. I cannot imagine myself to be more than one person at a time, and neither can you.”Link accessed 2014-01-29. [93] King, Iain (2008). How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time. Continuum. p. 225. ISBN 9781847063472. [94] This quote is from Iain King's article in issue 100 of Philosophy Now magazine, Moral Laws of the Jungle (link), accessed 29 January 2014.
[105] Paley, William (1785). “The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy”. Retrieved 1 July 2012. [106] Smart, J. J. C.; Williams, Bernard (January 1973). Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0521098229. [107] Parfit, Derek (January 1986). Reasons and Persons. Oxford Paperbacks. p. 388. ISBN 978-0198249085. [108] Shaw, William (November 1998). Contemporary Ethics: Taking Account of Utilitarianism. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 31–35. ISBN 978-0631202943. [109] Shaw, William (November 1998). Contemporary Ethics: Taking Account of Utilitarianism. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 34. ISBN 978-0631202943. [110] Bentham, Jeremy (January 2009). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Dover Philosophical Classics). Dover Publications Inc. p. 102. ISBN 9780486454528.
[95] Chapter Eight of the book Ethics Matters by Charlotte [111] Vardy, ISBN 978-0-334-04391-1 (published by SCM Press, April 2012), entitled “Developments in Utilitarianism”, describes Iain King's philosophy as “quasi[112] utilitarian”, and suggests it is an original“development” on the utilitarian theme. Vardy argues King's system is “compatible with consequence-, virtue- and act based [113] ethics.”A Google Books link to the reference can be accessed here (link confirmed 2014-01-29.) [96] John M. Taurek,“Should the Numbers Count?", Philosophy and Public Affairs, 6:4 (Summer 1977), pp. 293–316.
Mill, John Stuart (1981). “Autobiography”. In Robson, John. Collected Works, volume XXXI. University of Toronto Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-7100-0718-3. Mill, John Stuart (1998). Crisp, Roger, ed. Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 0-19-875163-X.
Mill, John Stuart (1981). “comments upon James Mill's Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind” . In Robson, John. Collected Works, volume XXXI. University of Toronto Press. pp. 252–53. ISBN 07100-0718-3. and as quoted by Ridge, Michael (2002). “Mill's Intentions and Motives”. Utilitas. 14: 54–70. doi:10.1017/S0953820800003393.
[97] Derek Parfit,“Innumerate Ethics”, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 7:4 (Summer 1978), pp. 285–301. [114] Dancy, Jonathan (2000). “Mill's Puzzling Footnote”. Utilitas. 12: 219–22. [98] See for example: (1) Frances Myrna Kamm, “Equal doi:10.1017/S095382080000279X. Treatment and Equal Chances”, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 14:2 (Spring 1985), pp. 177–94; (2) Gregory S. [115] Mill, John Stuart (February 2011). A System of Logic, Kavka, “The Numbers Should Count”, Philosophical Ratiocinative and Inductive (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Studies, 36:3 (October 1979), pp. 285–94. Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-1440090820.
11.11. REFERENCES
[116] An Introduction to the Principals of Morals and Legislation, Jeremy Bentham, 1789 (“printed”in 1780, “first published”in 1789,“corrected by the Author”in 1823.) See Chapter I: Of the Principle of Utility. For Bentham on animals, see Ch. XVII Note 122. [117] Sidgwick, Henry (January 1981). Methods of Ethics. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc; 7th Revised edition. p. 414. ISBN 978-0915145287. [118] Mill, JS. “Whewell on Moral Philosophy” (PDF). Collected Works. X: 185–87. [119] Peter Singer, Animal Liberation, Chapter I, pp. 7–8, 2nd edition, 1990. [120] Animal Liberation, Second Edition, Singer, Peter, 1975, 1990, excerpt, pp. 171–74, main passage on oysters, mussels, etc. p. 174 (last paragraph of this excerpt). And in a footnote in the actual book, Singer writes“My change of mind about mollusks stems from conversations with R.I. Sikora.” [121] “Mill's“On Nature"". www.lancaster.ac.uk. 1904. Retrieved 2015-08-09. [122] Cowen, T. (2003). c. Hargrove, Eugene, ed. “Policing Nature”. Environmental Ethics. 25 (2): 169–. doi:10.5840/enviroethics200325231. [123] http://www.jstor.org/stable/25760055?seq=1#page_ scan_tab_contents [124] Peter Singer: The why and how of effective altruism | Talk Video. TED.com.
11.11 References • Adams, Robert Merrihew (August 1976). “Motive Utilitarianism”. The Journal of Philosophy. 73 (14): 467. doi:10.2307/2025783. JSTOR 2025783. • Alican, Necip Fikri (1994). Mill’s Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill’s Notorious Proof. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-518-3748-3. • Anscombe, G. E. M. (January 1958). "Modern Philosophy. 33 (124): Moral Philosophy". 1. doi:10.1017/s0031819100037943. JSTOR 3749051. • Ashcraft, Richard (1991). John Locke: Critical Assessments. Routledge. • Bayles, M. D. (1968). Contemporary Utilitarianism. Anchor Books, Doubleday. • Bentham, Jeremy (January 2009). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Dover Philosophical Classics). Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0486454528.
159 • Bentham, Jeremy (2001). The Works of Jeremy Bentham: Published under the Superintendence of His Executor, John Bowring. Volume 1. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1402163937. • Bentham, Jeremy; Dumont, Etienne; Hildreth, R (November 2005). Theory of Legislation: Translated from the French of Etienne Dumont. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1402170348. • Brandt, Richard B. (1979). A Theory of the Good and the Right. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19824550-5. • Bredeson, Dean (2011). “Utilitarianism vgs. Dentological Ethics”. Applied Business Ethics: A SkillsBased Approach. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0538-45398-1. • Broome, John (1991). Weighing Goods. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. • Dancy, Jonathan (2000). “Mill's zling Footnote”. Utilitas. 12: doi:10.1017/S095382080000279X.
Puz219.
• Dennett, Daniel (1995). Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-82471-X. • Feldman, Fred (May 1993).“On the Consistency of Act- and Motive-Utilitarianism: A Reply to Robert Adams”. Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition. 70 (2): 201–12. doi:10.1007/BF00989590. • Gauthier, David (1963). Practical Reasoning: The Structure and Foundations of Prudential and Moral Arguments and Their Exemplification in Discourse. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198241904. • Gay, John (2002). “Concerning the Fundamental Principle of Virtue or Morality”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521003049. • Goodin, Robert E. (May 1995). Utilitarianism as a Public Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521468060. • Goodstein, Eban (2011). “Chapter 2: Ethics and Economics”. Economics and the Environment. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-56109-6. • Habib, Allen (2008), Promises, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Halevy, Elie (1966). The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. Beacon Press. ISBN 0-19-101020-0. • Hall, Everett W. (1949). “The 'Proof' of Utility in Bentham and Mill”. Ethics. 60: 1–18. doi:10.1086/290691. JSTOR 2378436.
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• Hardin, Russell (May 1990). Morality within the Limits of Reason. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226316208.
• Lyons, David (November 1965). Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press(UK). ISBN 978-0198241973.
• Hare, R. M. (1972–1973). “The Presidential Address: Principles”. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series. 73: 1–18. doi:10.1093/aristotelian/73.1.1. JSTOR 4544830.
• McCloskey, H.J. (1963). “A Note on Utilitarian Punishment”. Mind. 72: 599. doi:10.1093/mind/LXXII.288.599. JSTOR 2251880.
• Hare, R. M. (1981). Moral thinking: its levels, method, and point. Oxford New York: Clarendon Press Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198246602.
• McCloskey, H.J. (October 1957). “An Examination of Restricted Utilitarianism”. The Philosophical Review. 66 (4): 466–85. doi:10.2307/2182745. JSTOR 2182745.
• Harsanyi, John C. (Winter 1977). “Morality and the theory of rational behavior”. Social Research, special issue: Rationality, Choice, and Morality. The New School. 44 (4): 623–56. JSTOR 40971169.
• Mill, John Stuart (1998). Crisp, Roger, ed. Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19875163-X.
Reprinted as: Harsanyi, John C. (1982), “Morality and the theory of rational behaviour”, in Sen, Amartya; Williams, Bernard, Utilitarianism and beyond, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 39–62, ISBN 9780511611964. • Harsanyi, John C. (June 1975). “Can the Maximin Principle Serve as a Basis for Morality? A Critique of John Rawls's Theory of Justice”. The American Political Science Review. 69 (2): 594. doi:10.2307/1959090. JSTOR 1959090. • Hooker, Brad (October 2002). Ideal Code, Real World: A Rule-Consequentialist Theory of Morality. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0199256570. • Hooker, Brad (9 September 2011). “Chapter 8: The Demandingness Objection”. In Chappell, Timothy. The problem of moral demandingness: new philosophical essays. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230219403. • Hume, David (2002). “An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521003049. • Hutcheson, Francis (2002). “The Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521003049. • Kagan, Shelly (April 1991). The Limits of Morality (Oxford Ethics Series). Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198239161. • Kagan, Shelly (Summer 1984). “Does Consequentialism Demand too Much? Recent Work on the Limits of Obligation”. Philosophy & Public Affairs. 13 (3). JSTOR 2265413.
• Mill, John Stuart (February 2011). A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (Classic Reprint). Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1440090820. • Mill, John Stuart (1981). “Autobiography”. In Robson, John. Collected Works, volume XXXI. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-7100-0718-3. • Moore, G.E. (1903). Principia Ethica. Prometheus Books UK. ISBN 0879754982. • Nagel, Thomas (2012). The Possibility of Altruism. Princeton University Press, New Ed edition. ISBN 978-0691020020. • Norcross, Alastair (2009).“Two Dogmas of Deontology: Aggregation, Rights and the Separateness of Persons” (PDF). Social Philosophy and Policy. 26: 76. doi:10.1017/S0265052509090049. Retrieved 2012-06-29. • Oliphant,, Jill (2007). OCR Religious Ethics for AS and A2. Routledge. • Paley, William (2002). “The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy”. In Schneewind, J. B. Moral Philosophy from Montaigne to Kant. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521003049. • Parfit, Derek (January 1986). Reasons and Persons. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0198249085. • Popkin, Richard H. (October 1950). “A Note on the 'Proof' of Utility in J. S. Mill”. Ethics. 61 (1): 66–68. doi:10.1086/290751. JSTOR 2379052. • Popper, Karl (2002). The Open Society and Its Enemies. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-29063-5. • Rawls, John (22 March 2005). A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press; reissue edition. ISBN 978-0674017726. • Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge.
11.12. FURTHER READING • Ryder, Richard D (2002). Morality. Centaur Press.
161 Painism: A Modern
• Scheffler, Samuel (August 1994). The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions, Second Edition. Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198235118. • Schneewind, J. B. (1977). Sidgwick's Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198245520. • Shaw, William (November 1998). Contemporary Ethics: Taking Account of Utilitarianism. WileyBlackwell. ISBN 978-0631202943. • Sidgwick, Henry (January 1981). Methods of Ethics. Hackett Publishing Co, Inc; 7th Revised edition. ISBN 978-0915145287. • Singer, Peter (2001). Animal Liberation. Ecco Press. ISBN 978-0060011574. • Singer, Peter (February 2011). Practical Ethics, Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521707688. • Slote, Michael (1995). “The Main Issue between Unitarianism and Virtue Ethics”. From Morality to Virtue. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19509392-6. • Slote, Michael (1984). “Satisficing Consequentialism”. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes. 58: 139– 76. doi:10.1093/aristoteliansupp/58.1.139. JSTOR 4106846. • Smart, J. J. C.; Williams, Bernard (January 1973). Utilitarianism: For and Against. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521098229. • Smart, J.J.C. (1956).“Extreme and Restricted Utilitarianism”. The Philosophical Quarterly. VI: 344– 54. doi:10.2307/2216786. JSTOR 2216786. • Smart, R.N. (October 1958). “Negative Utilitarianism”. Mind. 67 (268): 542–43. doi:10.1093/mind/LXVII.268.542. JSTOR 2251207. • Smith, Wilson (July 1954). “William Paley's Theological Utilitarianism in America”. William and Mary Quarterly. Third Series. 11 (3): 402. doi:10.2307/1943313. • Soifer, Eldon (2009). Ethical Issues: Perspectives for Canadians. Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111874-1. • Urmson, J.O. (1953). “The Interpretation of the Moral Philosophy of J.S.Mill”. The Philosophical Quarterly. III: 33–39. doi:10.2307/2216697. JSTOR 2216697.
11.12 Further reading • Cornman, James, et al. (1992). Philosophical Problems and Arguments – An Introduction, 4th edition Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Co. • Glover, Jonathan (1977). Causing Death and Saving Lives, Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140220032. OCLC 4468071 • Hansas, John (2008). “Utilitarianism”. In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 518–19. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. • Harwood, Sterling (2009). “Ch. 11. Eleven Objections to Utilitarianism”. In Pojman, Louis P.; Tramel, Peter. Moral Philosophy: a reader (4th ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. ISBN 978-0872209626. OCLC 488531841. • Mackie, J. L. (1991). “esp. Chapter 6, Utilitarianism”. Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140135589. • Martin, Michael (1970). “A Utilitarian Kantian Principle,”Philosophical Studies, (with H. Ruf), 21. pp. 90–91. • Rachels, James; Rachels, Stuart (2012). “esp. Chapters 7&8, The Utilitarian Approach & The Debate of Utilitarianism”. The Elements of Moral Philosophy. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0078038242. • Scheffler, Samuel (1988). Consequentialism and its Critics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198750734. • Silverstein, Harry S. (1972). A Defence of Cornman's Utilitarian Kantian Principle, Philosophical Studies (Dordrecht u.a.) 23, pp. 212–15. • Singer, Peter (1993). “esp. Chapter 19 & 20, Consequentialism & The Utility and the Good”. A Companion to Ethics (Blackwell Companions to Philosophy). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631187851. • Singer, Peter (1981). The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-15112-1 • Stokes, Eric (1959, plus reprints). The English Utilitarians and India, Clarendon Press. OCLC 930495493 • Sumner, L. Wayne. Abortion: A Third Way, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. • Williams, Bernard (1993). “esp. Chapter 10, Utilitarianism”. Morality: An Introduction to Ethics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521457293.
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11.13 External links • Nathanson, Stephen.“Act and Rule Utilitarianism” . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. “Consequentialism”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Driver, Julia. “The History of Utilitarianism”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. • Wiki Felicifia, the collaboratively edited encyclopaedia for utilitarians • utilitarian.org FAQ A FAQ by Nigel Phillips on utilitarianism by a Web Site affiliated to David Pearce • A Utilitiarian FAQ, by Ian Montgomerie • The English Utilitarians, Volume l by Sir Leslie Stephen • The English Utilitarians, Volume ll by Sir Leslie Stephen • Utilitarian Philosophers Large compendium of writings by and about the major utilitarian philosophers, both classic and contemporary. • Utilitarianism A summary of classical utilitarianism, and modern alternatives, with application to ethical issues and criticisms • Utilitarian Resources Collection of definitions, articles and links. • Primer on the Elements and Forms of Utilitarianism A convenient summary of the major points of utilitarianism. • International Website for Utilitarianism and Utilitarian Scholar's Conferences and Research • Utilitarianism as Secondary Ethic A concise review of Utilitarianism, its proponents and critics. • Essays on Reducing Suffering
CHAPTER 11. UTILITARIANISM
Chapter 12
Well-being For other uses, see Welfare (disambiguation).
the ongoing cumulative theory development in the fields of attitude of related research”.* [3] One’s well-being develops through assessments of their environment and emotions and then developing an interpretation of their own personal self. There are two different types of wellbeing: cognitive and affective.. Social well-being is mentioned in Canadian law.* [4]
Well-being, wellbeing,* [1] welfare or wellness is a general term for the condition of an individual or group, for example their social, economic, psychological, spiritual or medical state; a high level of well-being means in some sense the individual or group's condition is positive, while A more current definition of wellness and its distinction low well-being is associated with negative happenings. In philosophy, the term 'well-being' (and 'welfare', 'util- from health is the following: “Wellness refers to diverse ity', etc.) refers to the manner in which an individual's life and interconnected dimensions of physical, mental, and manifests desires, objectives, and needs—among myriad social well-being that extend beyond the traditional defimore diverse variables—and how these affect the indi- nition of health. It includes choices and activities aimed at achieving physical vitality, mental alacrity, social satvidual's perspective. isfaction, a sense of accomplishment, and personal fulPhilosophers, such as Fred Feldman and Brad Hooker, fillment.”* [5] In other words, although health is part of have suggested we should think of well-being in terms wellbeing, some people are able to maintain satisfactory of a parent's expectations for a child (aka 'crib test'). wellbeing despite the presence of psychological sympPhilosophical study of well-being identifies a number of toms.* [6] different kinds of theory, such as: hedonism, desirefulfilment theory, objective-list theory, perfectionism, and some 'mixed' or 'hybrid' views of well-being. Wellbeing features in normative ethical theories, most no- 12.2 Cognitive tably utilitarianism; one need not be a utilitarian, or a consequentialist, more generally, to think that well-being Cognitive well-being is developed through assessing one’ is a moral matter. Any plausible ethical theory will give s interactions with their environment and other people. at least some role to well-being. “Welfare economics ultimately deals with cognitive conIn economics, the term is used for one or more cepts such as well-being, happiness, and satisfaction. and needs, quantitative measures intended to assess the quality of life These relate to notions such as aspirations * contentment and disappointment” . [7] People tend to asof a group, for example, in the capabilities approach and sess their cognitive well-being based on the social classes the economics of happiness. As with the related cognate that are in their community. In communities with a wide terms 'wealth' and 'welfare', economics sources often convariety of social statuses, the lower class will tend to com* trast the state with its opposite. [2] The study of wellpare their lifestyle to those of higher class and assess what being is divided into subjective well-being and objective they do and do not have that could lead to a higher level well-being. of well-being. Whenever someone interprets their needs and wants as to being satisfied or not, they then develop their cognitive well-being.
12.1 Background
Although there has not been a clear definition established for well-being, it can be defined as “...a special case 12.3 Affective of attitude”.* [3] This definition serves two purposes of well-being: developing and testing a [systematic] theory These are the different levels of affect on well-being: for the structure of [interrelationships] among varieties “...high negative affect is represented by anxiety and [hosof well-being, and integration of well-being theory with tility]; low negative affect is represented by calmness and 163
164 relaxation; high positive affect is represented by a state of pleasant arousal enthusiasm and low positive affect is represented by a state of unpleasantness and low arousal (dull, sluggish)”.* [8] Well-being is most usefully thought of as the dynamic process that gives people a sense of how their lives are going, through the interaction between their circumstances, activities and psychological resources or sense of their own ‘mental capital’.”Or, as has been recorded elsewhere, it could be said that well-being "...is a state of complete wellness”.* [9]
12.4 Psychology According to McNulty (2012),* [10]“...positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences”. Well-being is an important factor in this subjective experience, as well as contentment, satisfaction with the past, optimism for the future and happiness in the present. People are more likely to experience positive psychology if they take in the good things in each experience or situation. Even with regard to the past, if a person only focuses on the negative the brain will only be able to recognise the negative. The more the brain has access to the negative, the easier it becomes, because that is what is more memorable. It takes more effort for the brain to remember the positive experiences because typically it is the smaller actions and experiences that are the positive ones. James McNulty's (2012) * [10] research examines this idea further. He argues that, “...well-being is not determined solely by people’s psychological characteristics but instead is determined jointly by the interplay between those characteristics and qualities of people's social environments”. When people experience well-being, they are experiencing a sense of emotional freedom – there is nothing negative that is holding them back from experiencing positive emotions. This is true if a person is in a certain setting, because it has been demonstrated in previous research that particular environments can hold a lot of memories for an individual just because of what was shared there and the meaning of it (source?). Therefore, “...well-being is often equated with the experience of pleasure and the absence of [pain] over time”.* [11] The less psychological pain an individual is experiencing the more he or she is going to experience well-being.
CHAPTER 12. WELL-BEING most comprehensive models of well-being in psychology. This model views mental well-being as having three components of hedonic (or subjective), psychological, and social well-being.* [12] Hedonic well-being concerns emotional aspects of well-being, whereas psychological and social well-being concerns skills, abilities, and optimal functioning.* [13] The tripartite model of mental wellbeing has received extensive empirical support across cultures.* [13]* [14]* [15]* [16]
12.5 Education When talking about the school system, the idea of wellbeing is not as well defined. It is argued that school should only be about learning and education but children also learn about social skills and themselves. When a child feels like they belong they are more likely to perform better in school. As well as accessing an education, ideally they need to learn how to believe in themselves and create purpose for themselves. If well-being is established in kids at a young age then it is more likely to play a part in their life as they get older. John White (2013) looked at public schools in Britain now and in the past. In the past schools only focused on knowledge and education but now Britain has moved to a broader direction. Their Every Child Matters initiative seeks to enhance children's well-being across the range of children's services.* [17]
12.6 Financial
“Wellbeing”has traditionally focused on improving physical, emotional and mental quality of life with little understanding of how dependent they all are on financial health.* [18] However, financial stress often manifests itself in physical and emotional difficulties that lead to increased healthcare costs and reduced productivity.* [19]* [20] A more inclusive paradigm for wellbeing would acknowledge money as a source of empowerment that maximizes physical and emotional health by reducing financial stress.* [19]* [21]* [22] Such a model would provide individuals with the financial knowledge they need, as well enable them to gain valuable insight and understanding regarding their financial habits, as well as their thoughts, feelings, fears and attitudes about money. Through this work, individuals would be better equipped When someone is experiencing well-being they are also to manage their money and achieve the financial wellness experiencing several other things. It involves a sense of that is essential for their overall wellbeing.* [23] self-fulfillment, which is the feeling of being happy and satisfied because one is doing something that fully uses one's abilities and talents (Merriam-Webster). The feeling of having a purpose in life and connection with others 12.7 Subjective are also contributors to the idea of well-being.* [11] When people feel as though they have a [purpose] in the world, Subjective well-being is “...based on the idea that how they feel like they belong. They feel like they matter. each person thinks and feels about his or her life is imThe tripartite model of mental well-being is one of the portant”.* [24] This idea is developed specifically in a
12.11. ENVIRONMENT person’s culture. People base their own well-being in relation to their environment and the lives of others around them. Well-being is also subject to how one feels other people in their environment perceive them, whether that positively or negatively. Well-being is also subject to pleasure and whether or not basic human needs are fulfilled, although it could be said one’s needs and wants are never fully satisfied. The quality of life of an individual and a society is dependent on the amount of happiness and pleasure the experience, as well as their relationship to human health. Whether or not other cultures are subject to internal culture appraisal is based on that culture's type.“Collectivistic cultures are more likely to use norms and the social appraisals of others in evaluating their subjective well-being, whereas those [individualistic] societies are more likely to heavily weight the internal [frame of reference] arising from one’s own happiness”.* [25]
165 sport on well-being is difficult as some societies are unable to access sports, a deficiency in studying this phenomenon.* [28]
12.11 Environment Living in an environment with more green spaces is associated with higher well-being.* [29]
12.12 See also • Wellness
12.13 Notes 12.8 Ethnic identity Ethnic identity may play a role in an individual's cognitive well-being. Studies have shown that “...both social psychological and developmental perspectives suggest that a strong, secure ethnic identity makes a positive contribution to cognitive well-being”.* [26] Those in an acculturated society may feel more equal as a human being within their culture, therefore experiencing increased well-being.
12.9 Individual roles Individual roles play a part in cognitive well-being. Not only does having social ties improve cognitive well-being, it also improves psychological health.* [27] Having multiple identities and roles helps individuals to relate to their society and provide the opportunity for each to contribute more as they increase their roles, therefore creating enhanced levels of cognitive well-being. Each individual role is ranked internally within a hierarchy of salience. Salience is “...the subjective importance that a person attaches to each identity”.* [27] Different roles an individual has have a different impact on their well-being. Within this hierarchy, higher roles offer more of a source to their well-being and define more meaningfulness to their overall role as a human being.
12.10 Sports According to Bloodworth and McNamee sports and physical activities are a key contributor to the development of people's well-being. The influence of sports on wellbeing is conceptualized within a framework which includes impermanence, its hedonistic shallowness and its epistemological inadequacy. Researching the effect of
[1] • http://www.thefreedictionary.com/wellbeing [2] • As in Journal of Economic Literature Health, education, and welfare JEL: I Subcategories at JEL: I3 - Welfare and Poverty. • Adam Smith, 1776. The Wealth of Nations. • Partha Dasgupta, 1993. An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution. Description and review. • David S. Landes, 1998. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. Review. • Paul Streeten, 1999.“Henry J. Bruton, On the Search for Well Being, and Yujiro Hayami, Development Economics: From the Poverty to the Wealth of Nations,”Economic Development and Cultural Change,”48(1), pp. 209−214. [3] Guttman, Levy, Louis, Shlomit (February 1982). “On the definition and varieties of attitude and wellbeing” . Social Indicators Research. 10 (2): 159–174. doi:10.1007/bf00302508. [4] “Oil and Gas Commission Act, section 3 (a)(i)". Queen's Printer, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Retrieved 4 February 2015. [5] Huseyin Naci; John P. A. Ioannidis, (June 11, 2015). “Evaluation of Wellness Determinants and Interventions by Citizen Scientists”. JAMA. 314: 121. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6160. [6] Bos, E.H.; Snippe, E.; de Jonge, P.; Jeronimus, “Preserving Subjective Wellbeing B.F. (2016). in the Face of Psychopathology: Buffering Effects of Personal Strengths and Resources”. Plos One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150867. [7] Giboa, Schmeidler, Itzhak, David (2001). “A cognitive model of individual well-being”. Social Choice and Welfare. 18 (2): 1. doi:10.1007/s003550100103. [8] Daniels, Kevin (2000). “Measures of five aspects of affective well-being at work”. Human Relations. 52 (2): 277. [9] Editor (2013-07-23). "What is Wellness". Wellness.com.
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[10] McNulty, James; Frank D. Fincham (February 2011). “Beyond Positive Psychology”. American Psychologist. 67: 101–110. doi:10.1037/a0024572. [11] Tamir, Maya; Brett Ford (2012). “Should People Pursue Feelings That Feel Good or Feelings That do Good? Emotional Preferences and Well-Being”. American Psychological Association. 12 (5): 1061–1070. doi:10.1037/a0027223. [12] Keyes, Corey L. M. (2002-01-01). “The Mental Health Continuum: From Languishing to Flourishing in Life”. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 43 (2): 207–222. doi:10.2307/3090197. JSTOR 3090197. [13] Joshanloo, Mohsen (2015-10-23). “Revisiting the Empirical Distinction Between Hedonic and Eudaimonic Aspects of Well-Being Using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling”. Journal of Happiness Studies: 1–14. doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9683-z. ISSN 1389-4978. [14] Robitschek, Christine; Keyes, Corey L. M. “Keyes's model of mental health with personal growth initiative as a parsimonious predictor.”. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 56 (2): 321–329. doi:10.1037/a0013954. [15] Joshanloo, Mohsen; Lamers, Sanne M. A. (2016-07-01). “Reinvestigation of the factor structure of the MHC-SF in the Netherlands: Contributions of exploratory structural equation modeling”. Personality and Individual Differences. 97: 8–12. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.089. [16] Gallagher, Matthew W.; Lopez, Shane J.; Preacher, Kristopher J. (2009-08-01). “The Hierarchical Structure of Well-Being”. Journal of Personality. 77 (4): 1025– 1050. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00573.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMC 3865980 . PMID 19558444. [17] White, John. “Education in Well-Being”. The Oxford handbook of happiness: 540–550. [18] de Chavez, A. C., Backett-Milburn, K., Parry, O., & Platt, S. (2005). Understanding and researching wellbeing: Its usage in different disciplines and potential for health research and health promotion. Health Education Journal, 64(1), 70-87. [19] Main, E. (2010, March 2). Why financial stress is the costliest for your health. http://www.rodalenews.com/ stress-health-problems [20] PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC). (2014, April). Employee financial wellness survey: 2014 http://www.pwc.com/en_US/us/ results. private-company-services/publications/assets/ pwc-employee-financial-wellness-survey-2014-results. pdf [21] Gallup. (n.d.). Americans' financial well-being is lowest, social highest. http://www.gallup.com/poll/172109/ americans-financial-lowest-social-highest.aspx [22] Taylor, M., Jenkins, S., & Sacker, A. (2009). Financial capability and wellbeing: Evidence from the BHPS. UK: Financial Services Authority. http://hb.betterregulation. com/external/OP34.pdf
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[23] Vitt, L. (2009). Values centered financial education: Understanding cultural influences on learners’financial behaviors. Denver: National Endowment for Financial Education. http://www.smartaboutmoney.org/Portals/0/ lifevalue/financialeducation.pdf [24] Diener, Suh, Ed, Eunkook (2000). Culture and Subjective Well-being. A Bradford Book. p. 4. [25] Diener, Suh, Ed, Eunkook (2000). Culture and Subjective Well-being. A Bradford Book. p. 10. [26] Horenczyk, Liebkind, Phinney, Vedder, Gabriel, Karmela, Jean, Paul (2001). “Ethnic Identity, Immigration, and Well-Being: An Interactional Perspective”. Journal of Social Studies. 57: 493–510. doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00225. [27] Thoits, Peggy (September 1992). “Identity Structures and Psychological Well-Being: Gender and Martial Status Comparisons”. Social Psychology Quarterly. 55 (3): 237. doi:10.2307/2786794. [28] Bloodworth, Andrew; Mike McNamee (August 2012). “Sport, physical activity and well-being: An objectivist account”. Sport, Education and Society. 17 (4): 18. doi:10.1080/13573322.2011.608948. [29] Bos; et al. (2016). “A Primrose Path? Moderating Effects of Age and Gender in the Association between Green Space and Mental Health”. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 13 (5): 492. doi:10.3390/ijerph13050492.
12.14 Additional reading • Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of WellBeing https://www.routledge.com/products/ 9780415714532 • 'Well-being' well-being/
http://philpapers.org/browse/
• 'Desire-satisfaction accounts of wellbeing' http://philpapers.org/browse/ desire-satisfaction-accounts-of-well-being • 'Objective accounts of well-being' http://philpapers. org/browse/objective-accounts-of-well-being • 'Hedonistic accounts of wellbeing' http://philpapers.org/browse/ hedonist-accounts-of-well-being • 'Perfectionist accounts of wellbeing' http://philpapers.org/browse/ perfectionist-accounts-of-well-being • 'Hybrid accounts of well-being' http://philpapers. org/browse/hybrid-accounts-of-well-being • Hooray for GDP! GDP as a measure of wellbeing (2012-12-22), Nicholas Oulton, Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR)
12.14. ADDITIONAL READING • Happiness and satisfaction are not everything: Toward wellbeing indices based on stated preference (2015-01-02), Daniel J. Benjamin, Associate Professor of Economics, Cornell University; Samantha Cunningham, Project specialist, University of Southern California; Ori Heffetz, Associate Professor of Economics, Cornell University; Miles Kimball, Professor of Economics and Survey Research, University of Michigan; and Nichole Szembro, Assistant Professor of Economics, Trinity College. Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) • Busts hurt more than booms help: New lessons for growth policy from global wellbeing surveys (201410-08), Jan-Emmanuel De Neve, Michael I. Norton, Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) • Science of Wellbeing. Measurements and Techniques Annie Wilson, 2014, Inner light publishers • Ditch the‘wellness’logs, charts, apps and get a life (2015-01-18). “Most personal productivity measures are often a waste of time.”The Financial Times
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Hedonism recorded advocacy of a hedonistic philosophy.* [4]
For other uses, see Hedonism (disambiguation).
Hedonism is a school of thought that argues that pleasure 13.2.2 Ancient Egypt and happiness are the primary or most important intrinsic goods and the proper aim of human life.* [1] A hedonist Scenes of a harper entertaining guests at a feast was comstrives to maximize net pleasure (pleasure minus pain). mon in ancient Egyptian tombs (see Harper's Songs), and Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the sometimes contained hedonistic elements, calling guests right to do everything in their power to achieve the great- to submit to pleasure because they cannot be sure that est amount of pleasure possible to them. It is also the they will be rewarded for good with a blissful afterlife. idea that every person's pleasure should far surpass their The following is a song attributed to the reign of one of amount of pain. Ethical hedonism is said to have been the Pharoahs around the time of the 12th dynasty, and started by Aristippus of Cyrene, a student of Socrates. the text was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasHe held the idea that pleasure is the highest good.* [2] ties.* [5]* [6] Hedonism is a sub philosophy of utilitarianism, which says to act in a way that maximizes utility. Hedonists equate pleasure with utility and believe that pleasure is the master of all humankind, and acts as the ultimate life goal. Hedonists believe that there are only two motivators of human action, pleasure and pain, and that decisions should only be made that further our pleasurable experiences and minimize or completely eliminate our painful ones.* [3]
13.1 Etymology and lexicon
Let thy desire flourish, In order to let thy heart forget the beatifications for thee. Follow thy desire, as long as thou shalt live. Put myrrh upon thy head and clothing of fine linen upon thee, Being anointed with genuine marvels of the gods' property. Set an increase to thy good things; Let not thy heart flag. Follow thy desire and thy good. Fulfill thy needs upon earth, after the command of thy heart, Until there come for thee that day of mourning.
The name derives from the Greek word for “delight” (ἡδονισμός hēdonismos from ἡδονή hēdonē “pleasure” , cognate with English sweet + suffix -ισμός -ismos "ism"). An extremely strong aversion to hedonism is 13.2.3 Classic schools of antiquity hedonophobia. Democritus seems to be the earliest philosopher on record to have categorically embraced a hedonistic philosophy; he called the supreme goal of life“contentment” 13.2 History of development or “cheerfulness”, claiming that “joy and sorrow are the distinguishing mark of things beneficial and harmful” 13.2.1 Sumerian civilization (DK 68 B 188).* [7] In the original Old Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which was written soon after the invention of The Cyrenaic school writing, Siduri gave the following advice“Fill your belly. Day and night make merry. Let days be full of joy. Dance Main article: Cyrenaics and make music day and night [...] These things alone The Cyrenaics were an ultra-hedonist Greek school of are the concern of men”, which may represent the first philosophy founded in the 4th century BC, supposedly 168
13.2. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
169 tirely individual, and can in no way be described as constituting absolute objective knowledge. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct.* [10] Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.
Aristippus of Cyrene
by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absence of pain, but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. They did, however, recognize the value of social obligation, and that pleasure could be gained from altruism. Theodorus the Atheist was a latter exponent of hedonism who was a disciple of younger Aristippus,* [8] while becoming well known for expounding atheism. The school died out within a century, and was replaced by Epicureanism. The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth.* [9] They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate senseexperiences (for instance, that I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet).* [10] They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are like.* [11] All knowledge is immediate sensation. These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle.* [10]* [12] Further they are en-
Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind.* [12] Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable.* [13] Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans. However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life.* [14] Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others.* [13] Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide.* [13] Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic behaviour.
Epicureanism Main articles: Epicureanism and Epicurus Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. 341–c. 270 BC), founded around 307 BC. Epicurus was an atomic materialist, following in the steps of Democritus and Leucippus. His materialism led him to a general stance against superstition or the idea of divine intervention. Following Aristippus—about whom very little is known—Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable“pleasure”in the form of a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) and absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these two states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. Although Epicureanism is a form of hedonism, insofar as it declares pleasure as the sole intrinsic good, its conception of absence of pain as the greatest pleasure and its advocacy of a simple life make it different from “hedonism”as it is commonly understood. In the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained by knowledge, friendship and living a virtuous and temperate life. He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism. He argued that when
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CHAPTER 13. HEDONISM and would be resurrected in the 17th century by the atomist Pierre Gassendi, who adapted it to the Christian doctrine. Some writings by Epicurus have survived. Some scholars consider the epic poem On the Nature of Things by Lucretius to present in one unified work the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Many of the papyrus scrolls unearthed at the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum are Epicurean texts. At least some are thought to have belonged to the Epicurean Philodemus.
13.2.4 Mohism Main article: Mohism Mohism was a philosophical school of thought founded by Mozi in the 5th century BC. It paralleled the utilitarianism later developed by English thinkers. As Confucianism became the preferred philosophy of later Chinese dynasties, starting from the Emperor Wu of Han, Mohism and other non-Confucian philosophical schools of thought were suppressed.
13.2.5 Christian hedonism Main article: Christian hedonism
Epicurus
eating, one should not eat too richly, for it could lead to dissatisfaction later, such as the grim realization that one could not afford such delicacies in the future. Likewise, sex could lead to increased lust and dissatisfaction with the sexual partner. Epicurus did not articulate a broad system of social ethics that has survived but had a unique version of the Golden Rule. It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly (agreeing “neither to harm nor be harmed”),* [15] and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.* [16] Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, though later it became the main opponent of Stoicism. Epicurus and his followers shunned politics. After the death of Epicurus, his school was headed by Hermarchus; later many Epicurean societies flourished in the Late Hellenistic era and during the Roman era (such as those in Antiochia, Alexandria, Rhodes and Ercolano). The poet Lucretius is its most known Roman proponent. By the end of the Roman Empire, having undergone Christian attack and repression, Epicureanism had all but died out,
Christian hedonism is a controversial Christian doctrine current in some evangelical circles, particularly those of the Reformed tradition.* [17] The term was first coined by Reformed Baptist theologian John Piper in his 1986 book Desiring God: “My shortest summary of it is: God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in him. Or: The chief end of man is to glorify God by enjoying him forever. Does Christian Hedonism make a god out of pleasure? No. It says that we all make a god out of what we take most pleasure in.”* [17] Piper states his term may describe the theology of Jonathan Edwards, who referred to “a future enjoyment of him [God] in heaven.”* [18] In the 17th century, the atomist Pierre Gassendi adapted Epicureanism to the Christian doctrine.
13.2.6 Hinduism Concept of hedonism is also found in the Hindu scriptures.* [19]* [20]
13.2.7 Utilitarianism Main article: Utilitarianism Utilitarianism addresses problems with moral motivation neglected by Kantianism by giving a central role to happiness. It is an ethical theory holding that the proper course
13.2. HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
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of action is the one that maximizes the overall good of the society.* [21] It is thus one form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined by its resulting outcome. The most influential contributors to this theory are considered to be the 18th and 19th-century British philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. Conjoining hedonism—as a view as to what is good for people—to utilitarianism has the result that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest total amount of happiness (see Hedonic calculus). Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill's versions of hedonism differ. There are two somewhat basic schools of thought on hedonism:* [1] • One school, grouped around Bentham, defends a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essentially, he believed the value of pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account. • Other proponents, like Mill, argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often refers to pigs) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their lower pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such “simple pleasures” in the same manner.
Michel Onfray, contemporary hedonist philosopher
to use the brain's and the body's capacities to their fullest extent -- while restoring philosophy to a useful role in art, politics, and everyday life and decisions.”* [28]
Onfray's works “have explored the philosophical resonances and components of (and challenges to) science, painting, gastronomy, sex and sensuality, bioethics, wine, and writing. His most ambitious project is his projected six-volume Counter-history of Philosophy,”* [28] of which three have been published. For him“In opposition to the ascetic ideal advocated by the dominant school 13.2.8 Contemporary approaches of thought, hedonism suggests identifying the highest good with your own pleasure and that of others; the one Contemporary proponents of hedonism include Swedish must never be indulged at the expense of sacrificing the * * philosopher Torbjörn Tännsjö, [22] Fred Feldman. [23] other. Obtaining this balance – my pleasure at the same and Spanish ethic philosopher Esperanza Guisán (pubtime as the pleasure of others – presumes that we ap* lished a “Hedonist manifesto”in 1990). [24] proach the subject from different angles – political, ethical, aesthetic, erotic, bioethical, pedagogical, historiographical….” Michel Onfray Main article: Michel Onfray A dedicated contemporary hedonist philosopher and writer on the history of hedonistic thought is the French Michel Onfray. He has written two books directly on the subject (L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques* [25] and La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hédoniste).* [26] He defines hedonism “as an introspective attitude to life based on taking pleasure yourself and pleasuring others, without harming yourself or anyone else.”* [27] “Onfray's philosophical project is to define an ethical hedonism, a joyous utilitarianism, and a generalized aesthetic of sensual materialism that explores how
For this he has “written books on each of these facets of the same world view.”* [29] His philosophy aims for “micro-revolutions”, or “revolutions of the individual and small groups of like-minded people who live by his hedonistic, libertarian values.”* [30] Abolitionism Main article: David Pearce (philosopher) The Abolitionist Society is a transhumanist group calling for the abolition of suffering in all sentient life through the use of advanced biotechnology. Their core philos-
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not as easy as it sounds: suicide-rates typically go down in wartime; and six months after a quadriplegia-inducing accident, studies suggest that we are typically neither more nor less unhappy than we were before the catastrophic event.] Unfortunately, attempts to build an ideal society can't overcome this biological ceiling, whether utopias of the left or right, free-market or socialist, religious or secular, futuristic high-tech or simply cultivating one's garden. Even if everything that traditional futurists have asked for is delivered - eternal youth, unlimited material wealth, morphological freedom, superintelligence, immersive VR, molecular nanotechnology, etc - there is no evidence that our subjective quality of life would on average significantly surpass the quality of life of our huntergatherer ancestors - or a New Guinea tribesman today in the absence of reward pathway enrichment. This claim is difficult to prove in the absence of sophisticated neuroscanning; but objective indices of psychological distress e.g. suicide rates, bear it out. Unenhanced humans will still be prey to the spectrum of Darwinian emotions, ranging from terrible suffering to petty disappointments and frustrations - sadness, anxiety, jealousy, existential angst. Their biology is part of “what it means to be human”. Subjectively unpleasant states of consciousness exist because they were genetically adaptive. Each of our David Pearce, transhumanist philosopher core emotions had a distinct signalling role in our evolutionary past: they tended to promote behaviours that enophy is negative utilitarianism. David Pearce is a the- hanced the inclusive fitness of our genes in the ancestral * orist of this perspective and he believes and promotes environment.” [34] the idea that there exists a strong ethical imperative for humans to work towards the abolition of suffering in all sentient life. His book-length internet manifesto The He- 13.3 Criticisms donistic Imperative* [31] outlines how technologies such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, pharmacology, Critics of hedonism have objected to its exclusive conand neurosurgery could potentially converge to eliminate centration on pleasure as valuable. all forms of unpleasant experience among human and non-human animals, replacing suffering with gradients In particular, G. E. Moore offered a thought experiment of well-being, a project he refers to as "paradise engi- in criticism of pleasure as the sole bearer of value: he neering".* [32] A transhumanist and a vegan,* [33] Pearce imagined two worlds - one of exceeding beauty and the believes that we (or our future posthuman descendants) other a heap of filth. Neither of these worlds will be exhave a responsibility not only to avoid cruelty to animals perienced by anyone. The question, then, is if it is better within human society but also to alleviate the suffering of for the beautiful world to exist than the heap of filth. In this Moore implied that states of affairs have value beanimals in the wild. yond conscious pleasure, which he said spoke against the In a talk David Pearce gave at the Future of Humanity validity of hedonism.* [35] Institute and at the Charity International 'Happiness Conference' he said “Sadly, what won't abolish suffering, or at least not on its own, is socio-economic reform, or exponential economic growth, or technological progress in 13.4 See also the usual sense, or any of the traditional panaceas for solv• Affectionism ing the world's ills. Improving the external environment is admirable and important; but such improvement can't • Eudaimonia recalibrate our hedonic treadmill above a genetically constrained ceiling. Twin studies confirm there is a [partially] • Hedonism Resorts heritable set-point of well-being - or ill-being - around • Libertine which we all tend to fluctuate over the course of a lifetime. This set-point varies between individuals. [It's pos• Paradox of hedonism sible to lower an individual's hedonic set-point by inflict• Pleasure principle (psychology) ing prolonged uncontrolled stress; but even this re-set is
13.6. FURTHER READING • Psychological hedonism
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13.5 References
[23] Fred Feldman(2006). Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature, Varieties, and Plausibility of Hedonism. Oxford University Press and (1997). Utilitarianism, Hedonism, and Desert: Essays in Moral Philosophy. Cambridge University Press
Notes
[24] “Manifiesto hedonista”. google.com.
[1] “Hedonism”. stanford.edu. [2] Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. 6. p. 567. [3] Is Ignorance Really Bliss? Raquino, Jayson 2016 [4] Дробович, Антон (2012). Вчення про насолоди і задоволення: від історії значень до концептуалізації понять. №2. Практична філософія. pp. 184–185. [5] Wilson, John A. (1969). “Egyptian Secular Songs and Poems”. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 467. [6] Дробович, Антон (2012). Вчення про насолоди і задоволення: від історії значень до концептуалізації понять. №2. Практична філософія. p. 185. [7] p. 125, C.C.W. Taylor, “Democritus”, in C. Rowe & M. Schofield (eds.), Greek and Roman Political Thought, Cambridge 2005. [8] Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 86 [9] Reale & Catan 1986, p. 274 [10] Copleston 2003, p. 121
[25] “L'invention du plaisir. : Fragments cyrénaïques Le Livre de Poche Biblio: Amazon.es: Michel Onfray: Libros en idiomas extranjeros”. amazon.es. [26] “Manifeste hédoniste: Livres”. amazon.fr.
Amazon.fr:
Michel Onfray:
[27] “Atheism à la mode”. newhumanist.org.uk. [28] Introductory Note to Onfray by Doug Ireland Archived 27 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine. [29] “Archives from 1948 - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization”. unesco.org. [30] “A-Infos (en) France, Media, Michel Onfray, A self labeled Anarchist Philosoph”. ainfos.ca. horizontal tab character in |title= at position 13 (help) [31] “The Hedonistic Imperative”. [32] “The Genomic Bodhisattva”. H+ Magazine. 2009-0916. Retrieved 2011-11-16. [33] “Criação animal intensiva. Um outro Holocausto?". Revista do Instituto Humanitas Unisinos. 2011. [34] admin@abolitionist.com. “The Abolitionist Project”. abolitionist.com. Retrieved 2016-08-17. [35] “Hedonism”. utm.edu.
[11] Reale & Catan 1986, pp. 274–5 [12] Annas 1995, p. 230 [13] Annas 1995, p. 231
Sources "Hedonism". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
[14] Copleston 2003, p. 122 [15] O'Keefe, Tim (2005). Epicurus on Freedom. Cambridge University Press. p. 134. [16] Epicurus Principal Doctrines tranls. by Robert Drew Hicks (1925) [17] “Christian Hedonism”. Desiring God. [18] Jonathan Edwards, A treatise concerning religious affections (Dublin: J. Ogle, 1812)on Google Book on July 26, 2009) [19] Companion Encyclopaedia of Hindu Philosophy: An Exposition of the Principle [sic] Religio-philosophical Systems and an Examination of Different Schools of Thought. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 252. [20] Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 464. [21] , Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology for Edexcel A2 Biology 2009. [22] Torbjörn Tännsjö; Hedonistic Utilitarianism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press (1998).
13.6 Further reading • Fred Feldman (2006). Pleasure and the Good Life: Concerning the Nature, Varieties, and Plausibility of Hedonism. Oxford University Press. • Fred Feldman (1997). Utilitarianism, Hedonism, and Desert: Essays in Moral Philosophy. Cambridge University Press • Fred Feldman (2010). What Is This Thing Called Happiness?. Oxford University Press • Michel Onfray (2002). L'invention du plaisir : fragments cyréaniques. Le Livre de Poche. • Michel Onfray (2006). La puissance d'exister : Manifeste hédoniste. Grasset & Fasquelle • David Pearce. The Hedonistic Imperative* [1] • Torbjörn Tännsjö (1998). Hedonistic Utilitarianism. Edinburgh University Press
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13.7 External links • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry • Manifesto of the Hedonist International • Dolson, Grace Neal (1920). Encyclopedia Americana.
"Hedonism".
• The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, volume 6, page 567 [1] “The Hedonistic Imperative”. hedweb.com.
Chapter 14
Pleasure For other uses, see Pleasure (disambiguation). evoke pleasure (e.g. money).* [2] “Pleasant”redirects here. For other uses, see Pleasant (disambiguation). Pleasure describes the broad class of mental states that 14.1 Neuropsychology See also: Affective neuroscience
14.1.1 Neurobiological basis Pleasure centers or "hedonic hotspots" are a set of brain structures within the reward system that are directly responsible for mediating the “liking”or pleasure component of an intrinsic reward, as opposed to brain structures that activate in correlation with or as a consequence of the perception of pleasure.* [3] Various compartments within the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and parabrachial nucleus have been identified as pleasure centers which respond to a variety of pleasurable stimuli.* [3]* [4] The orbitofrontal cortex and insular cortex likely contain hedonic hotspots as well.* [4] The anterior cingulate cortex, ventral tegmental area, and amygdala have also been observed to activate in functional neuroimaging studies in response to pleasurable stimuli, but these structures do not necessarily contain hedonic hotspots.* [3]* [5]
Weekend pleasure in France
humans and other animals experience as positive, enjoyable, or worth seeking. It includes more specific mental states such as happiness, entertainment, enjoyment, ecstasy, and euphoria. The early psychological account of pleasure, the pleasure principle, describes it as a positive feedback mechanism, motivating the organism to recreate in the future the situation which it has just found pleasurable and to avoid situations that have caused pain in the The simultaneous activation of every hedonic hotspot within the reward system is believed to be necessary for past.* [1] generating the sensation of an intense euphoria.* [6] The experience of pleasure is subjective and different individuals will experience different kinds and amounts of pleasure in the same situation. Many pleasurable ex14.1.2 Psychology periences are associated with satisfying basic biological drives, such as eating, exercise, hygiene, and sex.* [2] The Pleasure is considered to be one of the core dimensions appreciation of cultural artifacts and activities such as art, of emotion. It can be described as the positive evaluation music, dancing, and literature is often pleasurable.* [2] that forms the basis for several more elaborate evaluaBased upon the incentive salience model of reward – the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces approach behavior and consummatory behavior* [2] – an intrinsic reward has two components: a “wanting”or desire component which is reflected in approach behavior and a “liking”or pleasure component that is reflected in consummatory behavior.* [2] While all pleasurable stimuli are rewards, some rewards do not
tions such as “agreeable”or “nice”. As such, pleasure is an affect and not an emotion, as it forms one component of several different emotions.* [7] Pleasure is sometimes subdivided into fundamental pleasures that are closely related to survival (food, sex, and social belonging) and higher-order pleasures (e.g., viewing art and altruism).* [8] The clinical condition of being unable to experience pleasure from usually enjoyable activities is
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called anhedonia. An active aversion to obtaining pleasure is called hedonophobia. Pleasure is often regarded as a bipolar construct, meaning that the two ends of the spectrum from pleasant to unpleasant are mutually exclusive. This view is e.g. inherent in the circumplex model of affect.* [9] Yet, some lines of research suggest that people do experience pleasant and unpleasant feelings at the same time, giving rise to so-called mixed feelings.* [10]* [11]* [12]
14.3 As a uniquely human experience See also: Reward system § Animals vs humans, and Animal sexual behaviour § Sex for pleasure
In the past, there has been debate as to whether pleasure is experienced by other animals rather than being an exclusive property of humankind; however, it is now known The degree to which something or someone is experi- that animals do experience pleasure, as measured by obenced as pleasurable not only depends on its objective at- jective behavioral and neural hedonic responses to pleatributes (appearance, sound, taste, texture, etc.), but on surable stimuli.* [4] beliefs about its history, about the circumstances of its creation, about its rarity, fame, or price, and on other nonintrinsic attributes, such as the social status or identity it conveys. For example, a sweater that has been worn by a 14.4 See also celebrity will be more desired than an otherwise identical • False pleasure sweater that has not, though considerably less so if it has been washed.* [13] Another example was when Grammy• Flow (psychology) winning, internationally acclaimed violinist Joshua Bell played in the Washington D.C. subway for 43 minutes, at• Gratification tracting little attention from the 1,097 people who passed • Leisure by, and earning about $59 in tips.* [13]* [14]* [15] Paul Bloom describes these phenomena as arising from a form • Orgasm of essentialism. • Pain and pleasure • Sadomasochism
14.2 Philosophical views Epicurus and his followers defined the highest pleasure as the absence of suffering* [16] and pleasure itself as“freedom from pain in the body and freedom from turmoil in the soul”.* [17] According to Cicero (or rather his character Torquatus) Epicurus also believed that pleasure was the chief good and pain the chief evil.* [18] In the 12th century Razi's “Treatise of the Self and the Spirit”(Kitab al Nafs Wa’l Ruh) analyzed different types of pleasure, sensuous and intellectual, and explained their relations with one another. He concludes that human needs and desires are endless, and “their satisfaction is by definition impossible.”* [19] The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer understood pleasure as a negative sensation, one that negates the usual existential condition of suffering.* [20]
14.2.1
Philosophies of pleasure
Utilitarianism and hedonism are philosophies that advocate increasing to the maximum the amount of pleasure and minimizing the amount of suffering.
14.5 References [1] Freud, Siegmund (1950). Beyond the pleasure principle. New York: Liveright. [2] Schultz W (2015). “Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data”(PDF). Physiological Reviews. 95 (3): 853–951. doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2015. Rewards induce approach behavior, also called appetitive or preparatory behavior, and consummatory behavior. ... Thus any stimulus, object, event, activity, or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward. ... Rewards can also be intrinsic to behavior (31, 546, 547). They contrast with extrinsic rewards that provide motivation for behavior and constitute the essence of operant behavior in laboratory tests. Intrinsic rewards are activities that are pleasurable on their own and are undertaken for their own sake, without being the means for getting extrinsic rewards. We may even generate our own rewards through internal decisions. Mice in the wild enter wheels and run on them on repeated occasions without receiving any other reward or benefit, like the proverbial wheel running hamster (358). Movements produce proprioceptive stimulation in muscle spindles and joint receptors, touch stimulation on the body surface, and visual stimulation from seeing the movement, all of which can be perceived as pleasurable and thus have reward functions. Intrinsic rewards are genuine rewards in their own
14.5. REFERENCES
right, as they induce learning, approach, and pleasure, like perfectioning, playing, and enjoying the piano. Although they can serve to condition higher order rewards, they are not conditioned, higher order rewards, as attaining their reward properties does not require pairing with an unconditioned reward. Other examples for intrinsic rewards are exploration, own beauty, gourmet eating, visiting art exhibitions, reading books, taking power and control of people, and investigating the natural order of the world. [3] Berridge KC, Robinson TE, Aldridge JW (2009). “Dissecting components of reward: 'liking', 'wanting', and learning”. Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 9 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2008.12.014. PMC 2756052 . PMID 19162544. A major goal for affective neuroscience is to identify which brain substrates cause pleasure, whether subjective or objective. Neuroimaging and neural recording studies of have found that rewards ranging from sweet taste to intravenous cocaine, winning money or a smiling face activate many brain structures, including orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate and insula, and subcortical structures such as nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, ventral tegmentum, and mesolimbic dopamine projections, amygdala, etc. [4•,5,6,7••,8,9•,10•,11–13]. But which of those brain systems actually cause the pleasure of the reward? ... [4] Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015). “Pleasure systems in the brain”. Neuron. 86 (3): 646–664. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018. PMC 4425246 . PMID 25950633. Pleasure is sometimes assumed to be a purely subjective feeling. But pleasure also has objective features in the form of measurable hedonic reactions, both neural and behavioral, to valenced events. In this review, we denote objective hedonic reactions as‘ ‘liking’’ reactions (with quotes) to distinguish them from the subjective experience of liking (in the ordinary sense, without quotes). Objective hedonic reactions can be measured in both human and animal neuroscience studies, which together allow some comparisons across species and can lead to a more complete causal picture of how brain systems mediate hedonic impact. ... In the prefrontal cortex, recent evidence indicates that the OFC and insula cortex may each contain their own additional hot spots (D.C. Castro et al., Soc. Neurosci., abstract). In specific subregions of each area, either opioid-stimulating or orexinstimulating microinjections appear to enhance the number of‘‘liking’’reactions elicited by sweetness, similar to the NAc and VP hot spots. Successful confirmation of hedonic hot spots in the OFC or insula would be important and possibly relevant to the orbitofrontal mid-anterior site mentioned earlier that especially tracks the subjective pleasure of foods in humans (Georgiadis et al., 2012; Kringelbach, 2005; Kringelbach et al., 2003; Small et al., 2001; Veldhuizen et al., 2010). Finally, in the brainstem, a hindbrain site near the parabrachial nucleus of dorsal pons also appears able to contribute to hedonic gains of function (Söderpalm and Berridge, 2000). A brainstem mechanism for pleasure may seem more surprising than forebrain hot spots to anyone who views the brainstem as merely reflexive, but the pontine parabrachial nucleus contributes to taste, pain, and many visceral sensations from the body and has also been suggested to play an important role in motivation (Wu et al., 2012) and in human emo-
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tion (especially related to the somatic marker hypothesis) (Damasio, 2010). [5] Kringelbach, Morten L.; Berridge, Kent C. (2010).“The Neuroscience of Happiness and Pleasure”. Soc Res. [6] Kringelbach ML, Berridge KC (2013). “The Joyful Mind”. From Abuse to Recovery: Understanding Addiction. Macmillan. pp. 199–207. ISBN 9781466842557. Retrieved 8 April 2016. So it makes sense that the real pleasure centers in the brain —those directly responsible for generating pleasurable sensations—turn out to lie within some of the structures previously identified as part of the reward circuit. One of these so-called hedonic hotspots lies in a subregion of the nucleus accumbens called the medial shell. A second is found within the ventral pallidum, a deep-seated structure near the base of the forebrain that receives most of its signals from the nucleus accumbens. ... On the other hand, intense euphoria is harder to come by than everyday pleasures. The reason may be that strong enhancement of pleasure—like the chemically induced pleasure bump we produced in lab animals—seems to require activation of the entire network at once. Defection of any single component dampens the high. [7] Frijda, Nico F. (2010). “On the Nature and Function of Pleasure”. In Kringelbach, Morten L.; Berridge, Kent C. Pleasures of the Brain. Oxford University Press. p. 99. [8] Kringelbach, Morten L. (2008-10-15). The Pleasure Center : Trust Your Animal Instincts: Trust Your Animal Instincts. Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 9780199717392. [9] Posner, Jonathan; Russell, James A.; Peterson, Bradley S. (2005-09-01). “The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology”. Development and Psychopathology. null (03): 715–734. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050340. ISSN 1469-2198. PMC 2367156 . PMID 16262989. [10] Schimmack, Ulrich (2001-01-01). “Pleasure, displeasure, and mixed feelings: Are semantic opposites mutually exclusive?". Cognition and Emotion. 15 (1): 81–97. doi:10.1080/02699930126097. ISSN 0269-9931. [11] Schimmack, Ulrich (2005-08-01). “Response latencies of pleasure and displeasure ratings: Further evidence for mixed feelings”. Cognition and Emotion. 19 (5): 671– 691. doi:10.1080/02699930541000020. ISSN 02699931. [12] Kron, Assaf; Goldstein, Ariel; Lee, Daniel Hyuk-Joon; Gardhouse, Katherine; Anderson, Adam Keith (2013-0801). “How Are You Feeling? Revisiting the Quantification of Emotional Qualia”. Psychological Science. 24 (8): 1503–1511. doi:10.1177/0956797613475456. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 23824581. [13] Paul Bloom. How Pleasure Works: The New Science of Why We Like What We Like (2010) 280 pages. Draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, and tastes.
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[14] “A Concert Violinist on the Metro?". NPR.org. 11 April 2007. [15] “Pearls Before Breakfast: Can one of the nation's great musicians cut through the fog of a D.C. rush hour? Let's find out.”. Washington Post. [16] The Forty Principal Doctrines, Number III. [17] Letter to Menoeceus, Section 131-2. [18] About the Ends of Goods and Evils, Book I, From Section IX, Torquatus sets out his understanding of Epicurus's philosophy. [19] Haque, Amber (2004). “Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists”. Journal of Religion and Health. 43 (4): 357–377 [371]. doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z. [20] Counsels and Maxims, Chapter 1, General Rules Section 1.
14.6 Further reading • Bloom, Paul (2010). How Pleasure Works: The New Science of Why We Like What We Like. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393340006. Draws on neuroscience, philosophy, child-development research, and behavioral economics in a study of our desires, attractions, and tastes. • M.L. Kringelbach. The pleasure center: Trust Your Animal Instincts (2009). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532285-9. A general overview of the neuroscience of pleasure.
CHAPTER 14. PLEASURE
Chapter 15
Great Work For other uses, see Magnum opus (disambiguation).
15.2 In Thelema
The term Great Work (magnum opus) is a term used in Main article: Thelemic mysticism Hermeticism and in certain occult traditions and religions such as Thelema.* [1] Within Thelema, the Great Work is generally defined as those spiritual practices leading to the mystical union of the Self and the All. Its founder, author and occultist Aleister Crowley, said of it in his book Magick Without 15.1 In Hermeticism Tears: Main article: Hermeticism
The Great Work is the uniting of opposites. It may mean the uniting of the soul with God, of the microcosm with the macrocosm, of the female with the male, of the ego with the nonego.”* [3]
Eliphas Levi (1810–1875), one of the first modern ceremonial magicians and inspiration for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, discussed the Great Work at length, expanding it from the purely alchemical towards the more spiritual: For each individual this Great Work may take different forms. Crowley described his own personal Great Work in the introduction to Magick (Book 4): Furthermore, there exists in nature a force which is immeasurably more powerful than steam, and by means of which a single man, who knows how to adapt and direct it, might upset and alter the face of the world. This force was known to the ancients; it consists in a universal agent having equilibrium for its supreme law, while its direction is concerned immediately with the great arcanum of transcendental magic... This agent...is precisely that which the adepts of the middle ages denominated the first matter of the Great Work. The Gnostics represented it as the fiery body of the Holy Spirit; it was the object of adoration in the secret rites of the Sabbath and the Temple, under the hieroglyphic figure of Baphomet or the Androgyne of Mendes.
In my third year at Cambridge, I devoted myself consciously to the Great Work, understanding thereby the Work of becoming a Spiritual Being, free from the constraints, accidents, and deceptions of material existence.* [4] Within the system of the A∴A∴ magical Order the Great Work of the Probationer Grade is considered to be the pursuit of self-knowledge to, as Crowley said in The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, “obtain the knowledge of the nature and powers of my own being.”* [5] However, Crowley continues, the Great Work should also be something that is integrated into the daily life of all: I insist that in private life men should not admit their passions to be an end, indulging them and so degrading themselves to the level of the other animals, or suppressing them and creating neuroses. I insist that every thought, word and deed should be consciously devoted to the service of the Great Work. 'Whatsoever ye do, whether ye eat or drink, do all to the glory of God'.* [5]
He further defined it as such: The Great Work is, before all things, the creation of man by himself, that is to say, the full and entire conquest of his faculties and his future; it is especially the perfect emancipation of his will.* [2] 179
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Although Crowley often discussed the idea of“succeeding”or“accomplishing”in the Great Work, he also recognized that the process is ongoing. From his Little Essays Toward Truth: The Quest of the Holy Grail, the Search for the Stone of the Philosophers—by whatever name we choose to call the Great Work— is therefore endless. Success only opens up new avenues of brilliant possibility. Yea, verily, and Amen! the task is tireless and its joys without bounds; for the whole Universe, and all that in it is, what is it but the infinite playground of the Crowned and Conquering Child, of the insatiable, the innocent, the ever-rejoicing Heir of Space and Eternity, whose name is MAN?* [6] The term also appears in the Benediction at the end of Crowley's Gnostic Mass, where the Priest blesses the congregation with the words: The LORD bring you to the accomplishment of your true Wills, the Great Work, the Summum Bonum, True Wisdom and Perfect Happiness.* [4]
15.3 Notes [1] Redgrove, Herbert Stanley, Alchemy: Ancient and Modern, Section 43: Bernard Trévisan, Copyright 1999, by the Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia [2] Lévi, Éliphas (1968). Transcendental Magic: its Doctrine and Ritual. Arthur Edward Waite (trans.) ([Rev. ed.] ed.). London: Rider. [3] Crowley, Aleister. Magick Without Tears, “Letter C.” New Falcon Publications, 1991. ISBN 1-56184-018-1 [4] Crowley, Aleister; Mary Desti; Leila. Waddell (2004). Magick:Liber ABA, Book 4, Parts I-IV. Hymenaeus. Beta (ed.). York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 9780877289197. [5] Crowley, Aleister. The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, Penguin, 1989. ISBN 978-0-14-019189-9 [6] Crowley, Aleister. Little Essays Toward Truth. “Man.” New Falcon Publications, 1991. ISBN 1-56184-000-9
Chapter 16
Hermeticism This article is about religious and occult teachings it was the practical aspects of Hermetic writings that atattributed to Hermes Trismegistus. For related terms, tracted the attention of scientists.* [16] see Hermetic (disambiguation). Isaac Newton placed great faith in the concept of an unadulterated, pure, ancient doctrine, which he studHermeticism, also called Hermetism,* [1]* [2] is a re- ied vigorously to aid his understanding of the physiligious, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based pri- cal world.* [17] Many of Newton's manuscripts —most marily upon writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus of which are still unpublished* [17]—detail his thorough (“Thrice Great”).* [3] These writings have greatly in- study of the Corpus Hermeticum, writings said to have fluenced the Western esoteric tradition and were con- been transmitted from ancient times, in which the secrets sidered to be of great importance during both the and techniques of influencing the stars and the forces of Renaissance* [4] and the Reformation.* [5] The tradition nature were revealed. claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine that affirms the existence of a single, true theology that is present in all religions and that was given by God to man 16.1 Etymology in antiquity.* [6]* [7] Many writers, including Lactantius, Cyprian of Carthage,* [8]Augustine,* [9] Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, considered Hermes Trismegistus to be a wise pagan prophet who foresaw the coming of Christianity.* [10]* [11] St. Thomas Aquinas reported that Trismegistus arrived at something akin to the doctrine of the Trinity.* [12] An account of how Hermes Trismegistus received the name “Thrice Great”is derived from the The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, wherein it is stated that he knew the three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe.* [13] The three parts of the wisdom are alchemy, astrology, and theurgy.
The term Hermetic is from the medieval Latin hermeticus, which is derived from the name of the Greek god, Hermes. In English, it has been attested since the 17th century, as in “Hermetic writers”(e.g., Robert Fludd). The word Hermetic was used by Dr. Everard in his English translation of The Pimander of Hermes (1650).* [18] Mary Anne Atwood mentioned the use of the word Hermetic by Dufresnoy in 1386.* [19]* [20]
The synonymous term Hermetical is also attested in the 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici of 1643 wrote: “Now besides these particular and divided Spirits, there may be (for ought I know) a universal and common Spirit to the whole world. It was the opinion of The Poimandres, from which Marsilio Ficino formed his Plato, and is yet of the Hermeticall Philosophers.”(R. M. opinion, states that “They called him Trismegistus be- Part 1:2) cause he was the greatest philosopher and the greatest priest and the greatest king.”* [14] The Suda (10th cen- Hermes Trimegistus supposedly invented the process of tury) states that“He was called Trismegistus on account making a glass tube airtight (a process in alchemy) using of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine na- a secret seal. Hence, the term “completely sealed”is implied in“hermetically sealed”and the term“hermetic” ture in the trinity.”* [15] is also equivalent to “occult”or hidden.* [21] Much of the importance of Hermeticism arises from its connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 AD. The prominence that it gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led 16.2 History many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put NaMain article: Hermetica ture to the test by means of experiments. Consequently,
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CHAPTER 16. HERMETICISM After centuries of falling out of favor, Hermeticism was reintroduced to the West when, in 1460, a man named Leonardo de Candia Pistoia* [25] brought the Corpus Hermeticum to Pistoia. He was one of many agents sent out by Pistoia's ruler, Cosimo de' Medici, to scour European monasteries for lost ancient writings.* [26] In 1614, Isaac Casaubon, a Swiss philologist, analyzed the Greek Hermetic texts for linguistic style. He concluded that the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were not the work of an ancient Egyptian priest but in fact dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.* [27]* [28] Even in light of Casaubon's linguistic discovery (and typical of many adherents of Hermetic philosophy in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries), Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (1643) confidently stated: “The severe schools shall never laugh me out of the philosophy of Hermes, that this visible world is but a portrait of the invisible.”(R. M. Part 1:12)
In 1678, however, flaws in Casaubon's dating were discerned by Ralph Cudworth, who argued that Casaubon's allegation of forgery could only be applied to three of The caduceus, a symbol of Hermeticism. the seventeen treatises contained within the Corpus Hermeticum. Moreover, Cudworth noted Casaubon's failure to acknowledge the codification of these treatises as a 16.2.1 Late Antiquity late formulation of a pre-existing oral tradition. AccordFurther information: Hellenistic religion and Decline of ing to Cudworth, the texts must be viewed as a terminus ad quem and not a quo. Lost Greek texts, and many Hellenistic polytheism of the surviving vulgate books, contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical metaphor.* [29] In Late Antiquity, Hermetism* [22] emerged in parallel with early Christianity, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the In the 19th century, Walter Scott placed the date of the Chaldaean Oracles, and late Orphic and Pythagorean lit- Hermetic texts shortly after 200 AD, but W. Flinders * erature. These doctrines were “characterized by a resis- Petrie placed their origin between 200 and 500 BC. [30] tance to the dominance of either pure rationality or doctrinal faith.”* [23] The books now known as the Corpus Hermeticum were part of a renaissance of syncretistic and intellectualized pagan thought that took place from the 3rd to the 7th century AD. These post-Christian Greek texts dwell upon the oneness and goodness of God, urge purification of the soul, and defend pagan religious practices such as the veneration of images. Their predominant literary form is the dialogue: Hermes Trismegistus instructs a perplexed disciple upon various teachings of the hidden wisdom. Many lost Greek texts and many surviving vulgate books contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical metaphor. One of these, known as The Asclepius (lost in Greek but partially preserved in Latin), contained a bloody prophecy of the end of Roman rule in Egypt and the resurgence of paganism in Egypt.
16.2.3 Modern era
In 1945, Hermetic texts were found near the Egyptian town Nag Hammadi. One of these texts had the form of a conversation between Hermes and Asclepius. A second text (titled On the Ogdoad and Ennead) told of the Hermetic mystery schools. It was written in the Coptic language, the latest and final form in which the Egyptian language was written.* [31] According to Geza Vermes, Hermeticism was a Hellenistic mysticism contemporaneous with the Fourth Gospel, and Hermes Tresmegistos was “the Hellenized reincarnation of the Egyptian deity Thoth, the source of wisdom, who was believed to deify man through knowledge (gnosis).”* [32]
Gilles Quispel says “It is now completely certain that there existed before and after the beginning of the Christian era in Alexandria a secret society, akin to a Ma16.2.2 Renaissance sonic lodge. The members of this group called themPlutarch's mention of Hermes Trismegistus dates back selves 'brethren,' were initiated through a baptism of the to the 1st century AD, and Tertullian, Iamblichus, and Spirit, greeted each other with a sacred kiss, celebrated Porphyry were all familiar with Hermetic writings.* [24] a sacred meal and read the Hermetic writings as edifying
16.3. PHILOSOPHY
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treatises for their spiritual progress.”* [33]
16.3 Philosophy In Hermeticism, the ultimate reality is referred to variously as God, the All, or the One. God in the Hermetica is unitary and transcendent: he is one and exists apart from the material cosmos. Hermetism is therefore profoundly monotheistic although in a deistic and unitarian understanding of the term. “For it is a ridiculous thing to confess the World to be one, one Sun, one Moon, one Divinity, and yet to have, I know not how many gods.” * [34] Its philosophy teaches that there is a transcendent God, or Absolute, in which we and the entire universe participate. It also subscribes to the idea that other beings, such as aeons, angels and elementals, exist within the universe.
16.3.1 Prisca theologia Hermeticists believe in a prisca theologia, the doctrine that a single, true theology exists, that it exists in all religions, and that it was given by God to man in antiquity.* [6]* [7] In order to demonstrate the truth of the prisca theologia doctrine, Christians appropriated the Hermetic teachings for their own purposes. By this ac- The Magician displaying the Hermetic concept of“As above, so count, Hermes Trismegistus was (according to the fa- below.” thers of the Christian church) either a contemporary of Moses* [35] or the third in a line of men named Hermes— Enoch, Noah, and the Egyptian priest-king who is known 16.3.3 The three parts of the wisdom of the to us as Hermes Trismegistus.* [36]* [37]
whole universe
16.3.2 “As above, so below.”
Alchemy (the operation of the Sun): Alchemy is not merely the changing of lead into gold.* [40] It is an investigation into the spiritual constitution, or life, of matter and material existence through an application of the mysteries of birth, death, and resurrection.* [41] The various stages of chemical distillation and fermentation, among other processes, are aspects of these mysteries that, when applied, quicken nature's processes in order to bring a natural body to perfection.* [42] This perfection is the accomplishment of the magnum opus (Latin for “Great Work”).
See also: As above, so below The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis W. Hauck from The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, is: “That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing.”* [38] Thus, whatever happens on any level of reality (physical, emotional, or mental) also happens on Astrology (the operation of the stars): Hermes claims every other level. that Zoroaster discovered this part of the wisdom of the This principle, however, is more often used in the sense whole universe, astrology, and taught it to man.* [43] In of the microcosm and the macrocosm. The microcosm is Hermetic thought, it is likely that the movements of the oneself, and the macrocosm is the universe. The macro- planets have meaning beyond the laws of physics and accosm is as the microcosm and vice versa; within each lies tually hold metaphorical value as symbols in the mind of the other, and through understanding one (usually the mi- The All, or God. Astrology has influences upon the Earth, but does not dictate our actions, and wisdom is gained crocosm) a man may understand the other.* [39]
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when we know what these influences are and how to deal thing leaves a person“sterile”(i.e., unable to accomplish with them. anything).* [52] Theurgy (the operation of the gods): There are two different types of magic, according to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's Apology, completely opposite of each other. The first is Goëtia (Greek: γοητεια), black magic reliant upon an alliance with evil spirits (i.e., demons). The second is Theurgy, divine magic reliant upon an alliance with divine spirits (i.e., angels, archangels, gods).* [44]
16.3.6 Cosmogony
Theurgy translates to “The Science or Art of Divine Works”and is the practical aspect of the Hermetic art of alchemy.* [45] Furthermore, alchemy is seen as the“key” to theurgy,* [46] the ultimate goal of which is to become united with higher counterparts, leading to the attainment of Divine Consciousness.* [45]
A creation story is told by God to Hermes in the first book of the Corpus Hermeticum. It begins when God, by an act of will, creates the primary matter that is to constitute the cosmos. From primary matter God separates the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water). Then God orders the elements into the seven heavens (often held to be the spheres of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon, which travel in circles and govern destiny).
"The Word" then leaps forth from the materializing four elements, which were unintelligent. Nous then makes the seven heavens spin, and from them spring forth creatures 16.3.4 Posthumous lives without speech. Earth is then separated from water, and Reincarnation is mentioned in Hermetic texts. Hermes animals (other than man) are brought forth. Trismegistus asked: The God then created androgynous man, in God's own O son, how many bodies have we to pass through, how many bands of demons, through how many series of repetitions and cycles of the stars, before we hasten to the One alone?* [47]
16.3.5
Good and evil
image, and handed over his creation. Man carefully observed the creation of nous and received from God man's authority over all creation. Man then rose up above the spheres' paths in order to better view creation. He then showed the form of the All to Nature. Nature fell in love with the All, and man, seeing his reflection in water, fell in love with Nature and wished to dwell in it. Immediately, man became one with Nature and became a slave to its limitations, such as gender and sleep. In this way, man became speechless (having lost “the Word”) and he became "double", being mortal in body yet immortal in spirit, and having authority over all creation yet subject to destiny.* [53]
Hermes explains in Book 9 of the Corpus Hermeticum that nous (reason and knowledge) brings forth either good or evil, depending upon whether one receives one's perceptions from God or from demons. God brings forth good, but demons bring forth evil. Among the evils brought forth by demons are:“adultery, murder, violence to one's father, sacrilege, ungodliness, strangling, suicide from a Alternative account cliff and all such other demonic actions.”* [48] This provides evidence that Hermeticism includes a sense of morality. However, the word “good”is used very strictly. It is restricted to references to God.* [49] It is only God (in the sense of the nous, not in the sense of the All) who is completely free of evil. Men are prevented from being good because man, having a body, is consumed by his physical nature, and is ignorant of the Supreme Good.* [50]
An alternative account of the fall of man, preserved in the Discourses of Isis to Horus, is as follows: God, having created the universe, then created the divisions, the worlds, and various gods and goddesses, whom he appointed to certain parts of the universe. He then took a mysterious transparent substance, out of which he created human souls. He appointed the souls to the astral region, which is just above the physical region.
A focus upon the material life is said to be the only thing He then assigned the souls to create life on Earth. He that offends God: handed over some of his creative substance to the souls and commanded them to contribute to his creation. The As processions passing in the road cansouls then used the substance to create the various animals not achieve anything themselves yet still oband forms of physical life. Soon after, however, the souls struct others, so these men merely process began to overstep their boundaries; they succumbed to through the universe, led by the pleasures of * pride and desired to be equal to the highest gods. the body. [51] God was displeased and called upon Hermes to create One must create, one must do something positive in one's physical bodies that would imprison the souls as a punishlife, because God is a generative power. Not creating any- ment for them. Hermes created human bodies on earth,
16.4. AS A RELIGION and God then told the souls of their punishment. God decreed that suffering would await them in the physical world, but he promised them that, if their actions on Earth were worthy of their divine origin, their condition would improve and they would eventually return to the heavenly world. If it did not improve, he would condemn them to repeated reincarnation upon Earth.* [54]
16.4 As a religion
185 the Great at Hebron, supposedly in the tomb of Hermes.* [57] • The Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius, The Perfect Discourse, or The Perfect Teaching) was written in the 2nd or 3rd century AD and is a Hermetic work similar in content to The Corpus Hermeticum. Other important original Hermetic texts include the Discourses of Isis to Horus,* [58] which consists of a long dialogue between Isis and Horus on the fall of man and other matters; the Definitions of Hermes to Asclepius;* [59] and many fragments, which are chiefly preserved in the anthology of Stobaeus.
Tobias Churton, Professor of Western Esotericism at the University of Exeter, states, “The Hermetic tradition was both moderate and flexible, offering a tolerant philosophical religion, a religion of the (omnipresent) mind, a purified perception of God, the cosmos, and the There are additional works that, while not as historically self, and much positive encouragement for the spiritual significant as the works listed above, have an important seeker, all of which the student could take anywhere.” place in neo-Hermeticism: * [55] Lutheran Bishop James Heiser recently evaluated the writings of Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola as an attempted “Hermetic Reformation” • The Kybalion: Hermetic Philosophy is a book anony.* [56] mously published in 1912 by three people who called themselves the“Three Initiates”, and claims to expound upon essential Hermetic principles.
16.4.1
Religious and philosophical texts
Hermeticists generally attribute 42 books to Hermes Trismegistus, although many more have been attributed to him. Most of them, however, are said to have been lost when the Great Library of Alexandria was destroyed. There are three major texts that contain Hermetic doctrines:
• A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy was written by Mary Anne Atwood and originally published anonymously in 1850. This book was withdrawn from circulation by Atwood but was later reprinted, after her death, by her longtime friend Isabelle de Steiger. Isabelle de Steiger was a member of the Golden Dawn.
• The Corpus Hermeticum is the most widely known A Suggestive Inquiry was used for the study of HermetiHermetic text. It has 18 chapters, which contain di- cism and resulted in several works being published by alogues between Hermes Trismegistus and a series members of the Golden Dawn:* [60] of other men. The first chapter contains a dialogue between Poimandres (who is identified as God) and • Arthur Edward Waite, a member and later the head Hermes. This is the first time that Hermes is in conof the Golden Dawn, wrote The Hermetic Museum tact with God. Poimandres teaches the secrets of and The Hermetic Museum Restored and Enlarged. the universe to Hermes. In later chapters, Hermes He edited The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of teaches others, such as his son Tat and Asclepius. Paracelsus, which was published as a two-volume set. He considered himself to be a Hermeticist and • The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus is was instrumental in adding the word“Hermetic”to a short work which contains a phrase that is well the official title of the Golden Dawn.* [61] known in occult circles:“As above, so below.”The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis W. Hauck, is: “That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing”.* [38] The Emerald Tablet also refers to the three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe. Hermes states that his knowledge of these three parts is the reason why he received the name Trismegistus (“Thrice Great”or “Ao-Ao-Ao”[which mean“greatest"]). As the story is told, the Emerald Tablet was found by Alexander
• William Wynn Westcott, a founding member of the Golden Dawn, edited a series of books on Hermeticism titled Collectanea Hermetica. The series was published by the Theosophical Publishing Society.* [62] • Initiation Into Hermetics is the title of the English translation of the first volume of Franz Bardon's three-volume work dealing with self-realization within the Hermetic tradition.
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CHAPTER 16. HERMETICISM
16.5 Societies When Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Christian church, it was driven underground, and several Hermetic societies were formed. The western esoteric tradition is now steeped in Hermeticism. The work of such writers as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who attempted to reconcile Jewish kabbalah and Christian mysticism, brought Hermeticism into a context more easily understood by Europeans during the time of the Renaissance.
a body on the material plane.
16.5.2 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Main article: Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
Unlike the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was open to both sexes and A few primarily Hermetic occult orders were founded in treated them as equals. The Order was a specifically Hermetic society that taught alchemy, kabbalah, and the the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. magic of Hermes, along with the principles of occult sciHermetic magic underwent a 19th-century revival in ence. Western Europe,* [63] where it was practiced by groups such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aurum The Golden Dawn maintained the tightest of secrecy, Solis, and Ragon. It was also practiced by individual per- which was enforced by severe penalties for those who sons, such as Eliphas Lévi, William Butler Yeats, Arthur disclosed its secrets. Overall, the general public was left Machen, Frederick Hockley, and Kenneth M. Macken- oblivious of the actions, and even of the existence, of the Order, so few if any secrets were disclosed.* [67] zie.* [64] Many Hermetic, or Hermetically influenced, groups exist Its secrecy was broken first by Aleister Crowley in 1905 today. Most of them are derived from Rosicrucianism, and later by Israel Regardie in 1937. Regardie gave a detailed account of the Order's teachings to the general Freemasonry, or the Golden Dawn. public.* [68]
16.5.1
Rosicrucianism
Main article: Rosicrucianism Rosicrucianism is a movement which incorporates the Hermetic philosophy. It dates back to the 17th century. The sources dating the existence of the Rosicrucians to the 17th century are three German pamphlets: the Fama, the Confessio Fraternitatis, and The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz.* [65] Some scholars believe these to be hoaxes and say that later Rosicrucian organizations are the first actual appearance of a Rosicrucian society.* [66] This argument is hard to sustain given that original copies are in existence, including a Fama Fraternitatis at the University of Illinois and another in the New York Public Library.
Regardie had once claimed that there were many occult orders which had learned whatever they knew of magic from what had been leaked from the Golden Dawn by those whom Regardie deemed “renegade members”. The Stella Matutina was a successor society of the Golden Dawn.
16.5.3 Esoteric Christianity Hermeticism remains influential within esoteric Christianity, especially in Martinism. Influential 20th century and early 21st century writers in the field include Valentin Tomberg and Sergei O. Prokofieff.
16.5.4 Mystical Neopaganism
The Rosicrucian Order consists of a secret inner body and a public outer body that is under the direction of the inner Hermeticism remains influential within Neopaganism, esbody. It has a graded system in which members move up pecially in Hellenism. in rank and gain access to more knowledge. There is no fee for advancement. Once a member has been deemed able to understand the teaching, he moves on to the next 16.6 See also higher grade. The Fama Fraternitatis states that the Brothers of the Fraternity are to profess no other thing than“to cure the sick, and that gratis”.
16.7 References
The Rosicrucian spiritual path incorporates philosophy, kabbalah, and divine magic.
[1] Audi, Robert (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 378. ISBN 0521637228.
The Order is symbolized by the rose (the soul) and the cross (the body). The unfolding rose represents the human soul acquiring greater consciousness while living in
[2] Reese, William L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion. Sussex: Harvester Press. pp. 108 and 221. ISBN 0855271477.
16.7. REFERENCES
[3] Churton p. 4
187
[4]“Hermeticism”The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions
[24] Stephan A. Hoeller, On the Trail of the Winged God— Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Age, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996).
[5] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press, Texas: 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4
[25] This Leonardo di Pistoia was a monk , not to be confused with the artist Leonardo da Pistoia who was not born until c. 1483 CE.
[6] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 14–18 and pp. 433–434
[26] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé,The Way of Hermes, p. 9
[7] Hanegraaff, W. J., New Age Religion and Western Culture, SUNY, 1998, p 360.
[27] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, pp. 27–28.
[8] Jafar, Imad (2015). “Enoch in the Islamic Tradition”. Sacred Web: A Journal of Tradition and Modernity. 36: 53.
[28] The Way of Hermes, p. 9.
[9] Augustine, City of God, 4.8.23, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/ schaff/npnf102.iv.VIII.23.html [10] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 9–15 and pp 61–66 and p. 413 [11] Heiser, J.,“Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century”, Repristination Press, Texas, 2011 [ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4] [12] Summa Theologica I q. 32 a. 1 (“Whether the trinity of the divine persons can be known by natural reason?") arg. 1: Trismegistus says: “The monad begot a monad, and reflected upon itself its own heat.”By which words the generation of the Son and procession of the Holy Ghost seem to be indicated. [13] Scully p. 322.
[29] Secretum secretorum – An Overview of Magic in the Greco-Roman World [30] Abel and Hare p. 7. [31] The Way of Hermes, pp. 9–10. [32] Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings. Allen Lane the Penguin Press. p. 128. [33] Quispel, Gilles (2004). Preface to The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Translated by Salaman, Clement; van Oyen, Dorine; Wharton, William D.; Mahé, Jean-Pierre. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions. [34] http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/pym/pym11.htm [35] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p 27 and p 293 [36] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p52
[14] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xlviii
[37] Copenhaver, B.P., “Hermetica”, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p xlviii.
[15] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xli
[38] Scully p. 321.
[16] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the scope of Rationality, pp. 25–26
[39] Garstin p. 35. [40] Hall The Hermetic Marriage p. 227.
[17] Tambiah (1990), 28
[41] Eliade The Forge and the Crucible p. 149 and p. 155–157
[18] Collectanea Hermetica Edited by W. Wynn. Westcott Volume 2.
[42] Geber Summa Perfectionis [43] Powell pp. 19–20.
[19] See Dufresnoy, Histoire del' Art Hermetique, vol. iii. Cat. Gr. MSS.
[44] Garstin p. v
[20] A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy by Mary Anne Atwood 1850.
[45] Garstin p. 6
[21] Online Etymology Dictionary
[47] The Way of Hermes p. 33.
[22] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997) distinguish Hermetism in late antiquity from Hermeticism in the Renaissance revival.
[48] The Way of Hermes p. 42.
[23] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997), p. vii.
[50] The Way of Hermes p. 47.
[46] Garstin p. vi
[49] The Way of Hermes p. 28.
188
[51] The Way of Hermes pp. 32–3. [52] The Way of Hermes p. 29. [53] The Poimandres [54] Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457 ff [55] Churton p. 5. [56] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press: Texas, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [57] Abel & Hare p. 12. [58] Walter Scott, Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457 [59] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé, The Way of Hermes [60]“A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy”with an introduction by Isabelle de Steiger [61]“Hermetic Papers of A. E. Waite: the Unknown Writings of a Modern Mystic”Edited by R. A. Gilbert. [62] "'The Pymander of Hermes' Volume 2, Collectanea Hermetica”published by The Theosophical Publishing Society in 1894. [63] Regardie p. 17. [64] Regardie pp. 15–6. [65] Yates, Frances (1972). The Rosicrucian Enlightenment. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-73801.
CHAPTER 16. HERMETICISM • Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius in a new English translation, with notes and introduction (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42543-3. • Garstin, E.J. Langford (2004). Theurgy or The Hermetic Practice. Berwick: Ibis Press. Published Posthumously • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge University Press; Reprint 2014. • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Bloomsbury Academic 2013. • Heiser, James D. (2011). Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century. Texas: Repristination Press. ISBN 978-1-46109382-4. • Hoeller, Stephan A. On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996). Also at“Hermes and Hermeticism” . Gnosis.org. Retrieved 2009-11-09. • Powell, Robert A. (1991). Christian Hermetic Astrology: The Star of the Magi and the Life of Christ. Hudson: Anthroposohic Press. • Regardie, Israel (1940). The Golden Dawn. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications.
[68] Regardie p. ix.
• Salaman, Clement and Van Oyen, Dorine and Wharton, William D. and Mahé, Jean-Pierre (2000). The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Rochester: Inner Traditions.
16.8 Bibliography
• Scully, Nicki (2003). Alchemical Healing: A Guide to Spiritual, Physical, and Transformational Medicine. Rochester: Bear & Company.
[66] Prof. Carl Edwin Lindgren, “The Rose Cross, A Historical and Philosophical View”—http://users.panola.com/ lindgren/rosecross.html [67] Regardie pp. 15–7.
• Abel, Christopher R.; Hare, William O. (1997). Hermes Trismegistus: An Investigation of the Origin of the Hermetic Writings. Sequim: Holmes Publishing Group. • Anonymous (2002). Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. • Budge, E. A. Wallis (1895). The Egyptian Book of the Dead: (The Papyrus of Ani) Egyptian Text Transliteration and Translation. New York: Dover Publications. • Churton, Tobias. The Golden Builders: Alchemists, Rosicrucians, and the First Freemasons. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2002.
• Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Yates, Frances (1964). Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-95007-7. • Morais, Lui (2013). Alchimia seu Archimagisterium Solis in V libris. Rio de Janeiro: Quártica Premium.
16.9 External links • Online Version of the Corpus Hermeticum, version translated by John Everard in 1650 CE from Latin version
16.9. EXTERNAL LINKS • Online Version of The Virgin of the World of Hermes Trismegistus, version translated by Anna Kingsford and Edward Maitland in 1885 A.D. • Online version of The Kybalion (1912) • The Kybalion Resource Page • The Hermetic Library—A collection of texts and sites relating to Hermeticism • Hermetic Library Hermetic Library from Hermetic International
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Chapter 17
Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica For other Gnostic churches, see Gnostic church (disam- E.G.C. roles.* [5] biguation). Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica (E.G.C.), or the Gnostic 17.1 Membership Catholic Church, is the ecclesiastical arm of the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), an international fraternal iniMembership in Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica is similar tiatory organization devoted to promulgating the Law of to the Roman Catholic Church, with some important Thelema. differences. As currently constituted, E.G.C. includes Thelema is a philosophical, mystical and religious system both clergy and laity. Clergy must be initiate members elaborated by Aleister Crowley, and based on The Book of O.T.O., while laity may affiliate to E.G.C. through of the Law. The word Catholic denotes the universality baptism and confirmation without undertaking any of the of doctrine and not a Christian or Roman Catholic belief degree initiations of the Order. set. Novice clergy are initiate members who participate in the The chief function of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica is the administration of E.G.C. sacraments, although they have public and private performance of the Gnostic Mass not yet taken orders (i.e., been through a ceremony of (Liber XV), a eucharistic ritual written by Crowley in ordination). 1913. According to William Bernard Crow, Crowley The first ordination in E.G.C. is that of the diaconate. wrote the Gnostic Mass “under the influence of the Second Degree initiates of O.T.O. who have been con* Liturgy of St. Basil of the Russian Church”. [1] Its strucfirmed in E.G.C. can be ordained as Deacons, whose printure is also influenced by the initiatory rituals of the Ordo cipal duties are to assist the Priesthood. * Templi Orientis. [2] Its most notable separation from similar rites of other churches is a Priestess officiating with The sacerdotal ordination admits members to the priesta Priest, Deacon, and two Children. In addition to the hood. Sacerdotal ordinands must hold at least the K.E.W. Eucharist, baptism, confirmation, marriage, and last rites degree of O.T.O., a degree only available by invitation. are offered by E.G.C. Marriage is not limited to couples The Priesthood is responsible for administering the sacraments through the Gnostic Mass and other ceremonies as of opposite gender.* [3] authorized by their supervising Bishops. About the Gnostic Mass, Crowley wrote in The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, "... the Ritual of the Gnostic The Priesthood is supervised and instructed by the EpisCatholic Church ... I prepared for the use of the O.T.O., copate, or Bishops. Full initiation to the Seventh Degree the central ceremony of its public and private celebra- of O.T.O. includes episcopal consecration in E.G.C. The tion, corresponding to the Mass of the Roman Catholic Tenth Degree Supreme and Holy King serves as the PriChurch.”* [4] It is the single most commonly performed mate or chief Bishop for any country in which O.T.O. has ritual at O.T.O. bodies, with many locations celebrating organized a Grand Lodge. The Frater (or Soror) Superior the Mass monthly or more frequently. Most O.T.O. bod- of O.T.O. is also the Patriarch (Matriarch) of the Church, ies make some or all of these celebrations open to inter- with ultimate authority over the clergy. ested members of the public, so the Mass is often an individual's first experience of the O.T.O. Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica has a hierarchical structure 17.2 Rituals of clergy, assisting officers, and laity which parallels the degree structure of the O.T.O. initiatory system. BeThe principal ritual of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica is the fore 1997, the two systems were more loosely correlated, Gnostic Mass, a Eucharistic ceremony written by Aleister but since then there have been strict rules concerning Crowley in 1913. Theodor Reuss produced and authominimum O.T.O. degrees required to serve in particular rized a German translation in 1918. 190
17.5. THE GNOSTIC CREED
191
The text of the Gnostic Mass makes reference to ceremonies of baptism, confirmation, and marriage. Crowley left some notes towards a baptism ritual, and his "Liber CVI" was written for use in a last rites circumstance. The Bishops of the contemporary Church have developed rituals for all of these purposes, as well as infant benedictions, exorcisms, consecration of holy oil, funerals, and home administration of the Eucharist to the sick.* [6]
tic Catholic Church corporation and folded the church back into O.T.O. Since then the Church has expanded greatly, and in recent years several books and articles dealing with the E.G.C. and the Gnostic Mass have been published by its Clergy, notably by Tau Apiryon & Tau Helena,* [10] James Wasserman & Nancy Wasserman,* [11] Rodney Orpheus & Cathryn Orchard,* [12] and T Polyphilus.* [13]
Although some Gnostic Masses are held privately for initiates only, there is nothing 'secret' about E.G.C. rituals as such, and they are commonly open to the public.
17.5 The Gnostic Creed
17.3 Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica
A creed is a statement of belief—usually religious belief —or faith. The word derives from the Latin credo for“I believe”. The creed of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica—also known as the Gnostic Creed—is recited in the Gnostic Mass, during the Ceremony of the Introit.
The Gnostic Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica are a The text of the Creed is as follows: series of historical and mythological figures revered in the religion of Thelema. They are found in the fifth Collect I believe in one secret and ineffaof Liber XV, titled “The Saints”. ble LORD; and in one Star in the Two Gnostic Saints have been officially added to the origCompany of Stars of whose fire we inal list. William Blake was so recognized based on a disare created, and to which we shall covered writing by Aleister Crowley which described him return; and in one Father of Life, as such.* [7] Giordano Bruno was more recently added to Mystery of Mystery, in His name the list.* [8] CHAOS, the sole vicegerent of the Sun upon the Earth; and in one Air the nourisher of all that breathes.
17.4 History
The Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica descended from a line of French Gnostic revival churches that developed in the 19th century. At that time, these Gnostic churches were essentially Christian in nature. In 1907, Gerard Encausse, Jean Bricaud and Louis-Sophrone Fugairon founded their own, simply called the Gnostic Catholic Church. In 1908, they gave O.T.O. Grand Master Theodor Reuss episcopal consecration and primatial authority in their GCC. Later that year, Reuss incorporated the Gnostic Catholic Church into O.T.O. after the original founders renamed their own church to the Universal Gnostic Church. The name "Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica" was not applied to the church until Crowley wrote the Gnostic Mass in 1913, which Reuss proclaimed to be the church's official rite. This marked the first time an established church was to accept the Law of Thelema as its central doctrine. Reuss then announced a new title for himself: the “Sovereign Patriarch and Primate of the Gnostic Catholic Church”. In 1979, Hymenaeus Alpha X° (Grady McMurtry) separated Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica from Ordo Templi Orientis, and made it into an independent organization, with himself at the head of both. During this period of separation Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica published its own quarterly magazine.* [9] However, in 1986, his successor, Hymenaeus Beta, dissolved the separate Gnos-
And I believe in one Earth, the Mother of us all, and in one Womb wherein all men are begotten, and wherein they shall rest, Mystery of Mystery, in Her name BABALON. And I believe in the Serpent and the Lion, Mystery of Mystery, in His name BAPHOMET. And I believe in one Gnostic and Catholic Church of Light, Life, Love and Liberty, the Word of whose Law is THELEMA. And I believe in the communion of Saints. And, forasmuch as meat and drink are transmuted in us daily into spiritual substance, I believe in the Miracle of the Mass. And I confess one Baptism of Wisdom whereby we accomplish the Miracle of Incarnation.
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CHAPTER 17. ECCLESIA GNOSTICA CATHOLICA And I confess my life one, individual, and eternal that was, and is, and is to come. AUMGN. AUMGN. AUMGN.
17.5.1
Explication of the Creed
[9] “Ecclesia Gnostica: a bibliographical note”. Retrieved 2009-11-25. [10] T Apiryon; Helena (2001). Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical Gnosticism. Red Flame (2nd ed.). Red Flame. ISBN 0-9712376-1-1. [11] Wasserman, James; Nancy Wasserman; Aleister Crowley (2010-03-31). To Perfect This Feast: The Gnostic Mass: Revised Second Edition (2nd Revised ed.). Sekmet Books. ISBN 0-9718870-3-9.
The first six articles profess several beliefs by the congregants. The remaining two are confessions. The Creed [12] Huggens, Kim; Sorita d'Este; Emily Carding; Rodney Orends with the Thelemic form of the Pranava, equivalent pheus; Cathryn Orchard (2009-12-02). From a Drop of to the sacred Vedic syllable "Aum" or to the "Amen" of Water - A Collection of Magickal Reflections on The Nathe Judaeo-Christian tradition. On the basic form of the ture, Creatures, Uses and Symbolism of Water. Avalonia. ISBN 978-1-905297-34-4. Creed, Tau Apiryon and Helena (1998) write: The first 4 clauses are attributed to the four letters of Tetragrammaton YHVH: the Father (Chaos); the Mother (Babalon); the Union of Father and Mother in the Son (Baphomet); and the Daughter, the Bride of the Son (the Church). The two following clauses describe the essential products of the Mass from the perspective of the congregation. The final two clauses are in the form of confession rather than belief and describe parallels between the occurrences in the Mass and the life of the individual.
17.6 See also • Gnosticism • Gnosticism in modern times
17.7 Notes [1] W. B. Crow quoted in T. Apiryon, Introduction to the Gnostic Mass. [2] King, Francis (1973). Secret Rituals of the O.T.O. New York: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-144-0 [3] “sabazius_x: Same-Sex Marriage”. Retrieved 2009-1101. [4] Crowley, Aleister (1929). The Spirit of Solitude: an autohagiography: subsequently re-Antichristened The Confessions of Aleister Crowley. London: Mandrake Press. [5] U.S. Grand Lodge: Membership in E.G.C. [6] Sabazuis. “Rituals”. The Invisible Basilica. Retrieved 2011-07-19. [7] Helena and Tau Apiryon The Gnostic Mass: Annotations and Commentary (footnote). Ordo Templi Orientis, 2004. [8] Sabazius. “From the Grand Master”in Agape, V. 9, No. 1, p. 3. Ordo Templi Orientis, May 1, 2007.
[13] T Polyphilus. “Vigorous Food & Divine Madness”. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
17.8 References • Crowley, Aleister. Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass. • Ordo Templi Orientis, U.S. Grand Lodge (2004). Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica. Retrieved January 3, 2005. • Helena and Tau Apiryon. (1998). The Creed of the Gnostic Catholic Church: an Examination. Retrieved Sept. 20, 2004. • Fr. HydraLVX. The Gnostic Catholic Creed: Seeds of Self Knowledge, appearing in Lion & Serpent: The Official Journal of Sekhet-Maat Lodge Volume 6, Number 2. • Thelemapedia (2005). Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica. Retrieved June 9, 2005.
17.9 External links • Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica homepage • A Collection of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Gnostic Mass Materials
Chapter 18
The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn This article is about the Order founded in 2002 by Sam and Thelemic godforms in preference to the JudeoWebster and associates. For other uses, see Golden Christian Archangels typical of the original Hermetic OrDawn (disambiguation). der of the Golden Dawn. According to the Manifesto, OSOGD teaches “a progressively tiered system of spiritual development designed to invoke the Higher or Divine The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn Genius latent in every human being.”* [4] (OSOGD) is an esoteric community of magical practitioners, many of whom come from pagan backgrounds. It is an initiatory teaching Order that draws upon the knowledge, experience, practices and spirit of the system of magical training and attainment developed by the original Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
18.2 Membership
18.1 History The OSOGD was founded by Sam Webster in 2002 and based on the principles of the open-source software movement.* [1] The organization grew out of a series of workshops on ceremonial magic held by Webster in 2001.* [2] According to Sam Webster, The Open Source Order is founded on the principle that true spirituality is omnipresent and access to it cannot be owned or controlled by any group or individual. Sufficiently skilled practitioners can and do modify the practices to serve specific purposes or to take advantage of the century-plus development in the craft to improve their effect.* [3]
The Seal of the OSOGD
To actually join the Order, a person must have regular access to its Lodge, which is located in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Order does not conduct distance initiations, and requires that all initiates attend initiation rituals in person.* [4]
According to The Manifesto of the Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn,* [4] the Order has undertaken to revise the teachings of the original Victorian era Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn system to work more effectively in the 21st century. This redaction of the original rituals has taken on the aspect of a number of principles, listed in the Manifesto as Open Source Magick, New Aeon, Freedom 18.3 Influences of Information, Thelema, Duty, Universalism, and Form and Function.* [4] The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn draws heavIn temple work, the OSOGD uses Egyptian, Enochian ily from Eastern sources, Thelema, Paganism, and the 193
194
CHAPTER 18. THE OPEN SOURCE ORDER OF THE GOLDEN DAWN
works of Aleister Crowley.* [4]
18.4 See also • Open source religion
18.5 Notes [1] Wicker (2005), p. 206. [2] Kean (2009) [3] Gasperson (2006). [4] OSOGD (2002).
18.6 References • Crow, John. “Interview with Sam Webster of the Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn”on Thelema Coast to Coast #28: June 24, 2006. • Gasperson, Tina (2006). New-time religion in NewsForge: The Online Newspaper for Linux and Open Source (May 17, 2006). Retrieved June 1, 2006. • Keane, Sam. “Open to Revisions” Search Magazine, Volume 6, Issue 19, May–June, 2009. Retrieved July 27, 2009 • Krengel, Eric. Open Source Religion Explored Again -- Beyond the Western Traditions, January 16, 2007 • OSOGD (2002). The Manifesto of the Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn. Retrieved June 1, 2006. • Wicker, Christine (2005). Not In Kansas Anymore A Curious Tale of How Magic is Transforming America. Harper San Francisco. ISBN 0-06-072678-4
18.7 External links • Website of The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn
Chapter 19
Kenneth Anger Kenneth Anger (born Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer; born February 3, 1927) is an American underground experimental filmmaker, actor and author. Working exclusively in short films, he has produced almost forty works since 1937, nine of which have been grouped together as the “Magick Lantern Cycle”.* [1] His films variously merge surrealism with homoeroticism and the occult, and have been described as containing“elements of erotica, documentary, psychodrama, and spectacle” .* [2] Anger himself has been described as“one of America's first openly gay filmmakers, and certainly the first whose work addressed homosexuality in an undisguised, self-implicating manner”, and his “role in rendering gay culture visible within American cinema, commercial or otherwise, is impossible to overestimate”,* [3] with several being released prior to the legalization of homosexuality in the United States. He has also focused upon occult themes in many of his films, being fascinated by the English poet and mystic Aleister Crowley, and is an adherent of Thelema, the religion Crowley founded. Born to a middle-class family in Santa Monica, California, Anger would later claim to have been a child actor who appeared in the film A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935); the accuracy of this claim has come under dispute. He began making short films when he was ten years old, although his first film to gain any recognition, the homoerotic Fireworks (1947), would only be produced a decade later. The controversial nature of the work led to him being put on trial on obscenity charges, but he was acquitted. A friendship and working relationship began subsequently with pioneering sexologist Alfred Kinsey. Moving to Europe, Anger produced a number of other shorts inspired by the artistic avant-garde scene on the continent, such as Rabbit's Moon (released 1970) and Eaux d'Artifice (1953).
ing Tennessee Williams, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Jimmy Page, Marianne Faithfull and Anton LaVey, Anger involved them in his subsequent Thelemite-themed works, Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969) and Lucifer Rising (1972). Following his failure to produce a sequel to Lucifer Rising, Anger retired from filmmaking in the early 1980s, instead publishing the book Hollywood Babylon II (1982). At the dawn of the 21st century he once more returned to filmmaking, producing shorts for various film festivals and events. Anger has described filmmakers such as Auguste and Louis Lumière, Georges Méliès, and Maya Deren as influences,* [4] and has been cited as an important influence on later film directors like Martin Scorsese,* [5] David Lynch* [6] and John Waters.* [7] He has also been described as having “a profound impact on the work of many other filmmakers and artists, as well as on music video as an emergent art form using dream sequence, dance, fantasy, and narrative”.* [2]
19.1 Biography 19.1.1 1927–35: Early life Anger was born in Santa Monica, California, as Kenneth Wilbur Anglemyer on February 3, 1927. His father, Wilbur Anglemyer, was of German ancestry, and had been born in Troy, Ohio, while his disabled mother, Lillian Coler, who was the older of the two, claimed English ancestry. The pair had met at Ohio State College and after marrying had their first child, Jean Anglemyer, in 1918, followed by a second, Robert “Bob”Anglemyer, in 1921. That year they moved to Santa Monica to be near Lillian's mother, Bertha Coler, who herself had recently moved there. It was here that Wilbur got a job working as an electrical engineer at Douglas Aircraft, bringing in enough money so that they could live comfortably as a middle-class family.* [8]
Returning to the United States in 1953, he set about working on several new projects, including the films Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954), Scorpio Rising (1964), Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), and the gossip book Hollywood Babylon (1965). The latter would become infamous for its many dubious and sensationalKenneth, their third and final child, was born in 1927, ist claims, many of which were later disproven, though but growing up he would fail to get along with either his some do remain as urban legends. Getting to know sevparents or his siblings. His brother Bob later claimed eral notable countercultural figures of the time, includthat being the youngest child, Kenneth had been spoilt 195
196 by his mother and grandmother, and as such had become somewhat “bratty”. His grandmother, Bertha, was a big influence on the young Kenneth, and indeed helped to maintain the family financially during the Great Depression of the 1930s. It was she who first took Kenneth to the cinema, to see a double bill of The Singing Fool and Thunder Over Mexico and also encouraged his artistic interests. She herself later moved into a house in Hollywood with another woman, Miss Diggy, who equally encouraged Kenneth.* [9] He developed an early interest in film, and enjoyed reading the movie tie-in Big Little books. He would later relate that “I was a child prodigy who never got smarter.”* [10] He retrospected his attendance at the Santa Monica Cotillon where child stars were encouraged to mix with non-famous children and through this met Shirley Temple, with whom he danced on one occasion.* [11]
CHAPTER 19. KENNETH ANGER create a form of home-made special effect.* [14] It is believed that many of these early films are lost, with Anger burning much of his previous work in 1967.* [15] “I've always considered movies evil; the day that cinema was invented was a black day for mankind.” Kenneth Anger* [16] In 1944, the Anglemyers moved to Hollywood to live with their grandmother, and Kenneth began attending Beverly Hills High School. It was here that he met Maxine Peterson, who had once been the stand-in for Shirley Temple, and he asked her, alongside another classmate and an old woman, to appear in his next film project, which he initially called Demigods but which was later retitled Escape Episode. Revolving partially around the occult, it was filmed in a“spooky old castle”in Hollywood and was subsequently screened at the Coronet Theatre on North La Cienega Blvd. in Los Angeles. Around this time, Anger also began attending the screenings of silent films held at Clara Grossman's art gallery, through which he met a fellow filmmaker, Curtis Harrington, and together they formed Creative Film Associates (CFA). Harrington is said to have introduced Anger to the work of Aleister Crowley.* [17] Crowley's philosophy of Thelema would exert a profound influence on the remainder of Anger's career. CFA was founded to distribute experimental films or “underground films”such as those of Maya Deren, John and James Whitney, as well as Anger's and Harrington's.* [18]
It was in 1935, he would later claim, that he had the chance to appear in a Hollywood film, taking the role of the Changeling Prince in the 1935 Warner Brothers film A Midsummer Night's Dream. Set photographs and studio production reports (on file in the Warner Brothers collection at University of Southern California, and the Warner Bros. collection of studio key books at George Eastman House in Rochester, New York) in fact contradict Anger's claims, conclusively proving that the character was played by a girl named Sheila Brown. Anger's unofficial biographer, Bill Landis, remarked in 1995 that the Changeling Prince was definitely “Anger as a child; visually, he's immediately recognizable”.* [12] It was while at high school that he began to get interested in the occult, which he had first indirectly encountered through reading L. Frank Baum's Oz books 19.1.2 1937–46: First films as a child, with their accompanying Rosicrucian philosophies. Kenneth was very interested in the works of the Anger's first film was created in 1937, when he was only French ceremonial magician Eliphas Levi, as well as Sir ten years old. The short, titled Ferdinand the Bull, had James Frazer's The Golden Bough,* [19] although his fabeen shot on the ends of 16mm film that had been left un- vorite writings were those of the English occultist Aleister used after the Anglemyer's family vacation to Yosemite Crowley. Crowley had founded a religion known as National Park, where they had been making home movies Thelema based upon a Spiritual experience that he had with it. In Ferdinand the Bull, which has never been in Egypt in 1904, in which he claimed a being known as made publicly available, Kenneth dressed as a matador, Aiwass had contacted him and recited to him The Book wearing a cape, while two of his friends from the Boy of the Law. Kenneth subsequently became a great fan of Scouts played the bull.* [13] His second work, Who Has Crowley's work and converted to Thelema.* [20] Been Rocking My Dreamboat, which Anger himself often considers to be his first proper film, was made up of footage of children playing during the summer, accom- 19.1.3 1947–49: Fireworks and early capanied with popular songs by bands like the Ink Spots. reer Anger had created Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat in 1941, when he was fourteen, shortly before the As Anger discovered his homosexuality, at a time when Attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent entry of the homosexual acts were still illegal in the United States, United States into the Second World War, adding to the he began associating with the underground gay scene. poignancy of this early work.* [14] The following year he At some point in the mid-1940s, he was arrested by produced another amateur film, Prisoner of Mars, which the police in a “homosexual entrapment”, after which was heavily influenced by Flash Gordon, a series that he he decided to move out of his parents' home, gaining was a fan of. In this science fiction-inspired feature, he his own sparse apartment largely financed by his grandadded elements taken from the Greek mythological myth mother,* [21] and abandoning the name Anglemyer in faof the Minotaur and himself played the protagonist, as vor of Anger.* [22] He started attending the University of well as constructing a small volcano in his back yard to Southern California, where he studied cinema, and also
19.1. BIOGRAPHY began experimenting with the use of mind-altering drugs like cannabis and peyote.* [23] It was then that he decided to produce a film that would deal with his sexuality, just as other gay avant-garde film makers like Willard Maas were doing in that decade. The result was the short film Fireworks, which was created in 1947 but only exhibited publicly in 1948.
197 tions).* [32] He would later remark that he travelled to the country after receiving a letter from the French director Jean Cocteau in which he told Anger of his admiration for Fireworks (shown in 1949 at Festival du Film Maudit in Biarritz, France). Upon arrival, Anger and Cocteau became friends, with the Frenchman giving the young protege his permission to make a movie of his ballet The Young Man and Death, although at the time there were no financial backers for the project.* [33] While in Paris he continued producing short films; in 1950 he started filming on Rabbit's Moon, which was also known as La Lune des Lapins and revolved around a clown who was staring up at the moon, in which a rabbit lived, something found within Japanese mythology. Anger produced 20 minutes of footage at the Films du Pantheon Studio in the city before he was rushed out of the studio, leaving the film uncompleted. He stored the footage in the disorganized archives of the Cinémathèque Française, and only collected it again in 1970, when he finally finished and released Rabbit's Moon.* [34]* [35] It was at the Cinémathèque Française that he was given by the head, Henri Langlois, prints of Sergei Eisenstein's Que Viva Mexico!, which he attempted to put into Eisenstein's original order.* [36]
Upon release of the work, Anger was arrested on obscenity charges.* [24] He was acquitted, after the case went to the Supreme Court of California, which deemed it to be art rather than pornography.* [25] Anger made the claim to have been seventeen years old when he made it, despite the fact that he was actually twenty, presumably to present himself as more of an enfant terrible.* [26] A homoerotic work lasting only 14 minutes, Fireworks revolves around a young man (played by Anger himself) associating with various navy sailors, who eventually turn on him, stripping him naked and beating him to death, ripping open his chest to find a compass inside. Several fireworks then explode, accompanied by a burning Christmas tree and the final shot shows the young man lying in bed next to another topless man. Of this film, Anger would later state in 1966 that “This flick is all I have to say about being 17, the United States Navy, American Christmas and the fourth of July.”* [27] He "[D'Este was] a sexual pervert. There are very few things would continuously alter and adapt the film up until 1980, I call sexual perversion, but he liked to fuck goats, and with it finally being distributed on VHS in 1986.* [28] that is technically a perversion.” One of the first people to buy a copy of Fireworks was the sexologist Dr. Alfred Kinsey of the Institute for Sex Research. He and Anger struck up a friendship that would last until the doctor's death, during which time Anger aided Kinsey in his research. According to Anger's unofficial biographer Bill Landis, Kinsey became a “father figure”whom Anger “could both interact with and emulate.”* [29] Meanwhile, in 1949 Anger began work on a film called Puce Women, which unlike Fireworks was filmed in color. It starred Yvonne Marquis as a glamorous woman going about her daily life; Anger would later state that "Puce Women was my love affair with Hollywood... with all the great goddesses of the silent screen. They were to be filmed in their homes; I was, in effect, filming ghosts.”* [30] A lack of funding meant that only one scene was ever produced, which was eventually released under the title Puce Moment. That same year, Anger directed The Love That Whirls, a film based upon Aztec human sacrifice but, because of the nudity that it contained, it was destroyed by technicians at the film lab, who deemed it to be obscene.* [31]
19.1.4
Kenneth Anger* [37] In 1953, he travelled to Rome, Italy where he planned to make a film about the sixteenth century occultist Cardinal d'Este. To do so, he began filming at the garden of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli, in which a lady in eighteenth century dress walked through the gardens, which featured many waterfalls (an allusion to the fact that d'Este allegedly sexually enjoyed urination),* [37] accompanied by the music of Vivaldi.* [38] This was supposedly going to be only the first of four scenes, but the others were not made; the resulting one-scene film was titled Eaux d'Artifice. As Anger's biographer Bill Landis remarked, “It's one of Anger's most tranquil works; his editing makes it soft, lush, and inviting. Eaux d'Artifice remains a secretive romp through a private garden, all for the masked figure's and the viewer-voyeur's pleasure.” * [39]
19.1.5 1953–60: Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and Hollywood Babylon In 1953, soon after the production of Eaux d'Artifice,
1950–53: France, Rabbit's Moon Anger's mother died and he temporarily returned to the and Eaux d'Artifice United States in order to assist with the distribution of
In 1950, Anger moved to Paris, France, where he initially stayed with friends of his (who themselves had been forced to leave Hollywood after being blacklisted for formerly having belonged to trade union organisa-
her estate. It was during this return that he began to once more immerse himself in the artistic scene of California, befriending the film maker Stan Brakhage, who had been inspired by Fireworks, and the two collaborated on producing a film, but it was confiscated at the film lab for
198 obscenity and presumably destroyed.* [40] Around this time, two of Anger's friends, the couple Renate Druks and Paul Mathiesin held a party based upon the theme of 'Come As Your Madness'; Anger himself attended dressed in drag as the ancient Greek goddess Hekate. The party and its many costumes inspired Anger, who produced a painting of it, and asked several of those who attended to appear in a new film that he was creating – Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome.* [41] Inauguration, which was created in 1954, was a 38-minute surrealist work featuring many Crowleyan and Thelemite themes, with many of the various characters personifying various pagan gods such as Isis, Osiris and Pan. One of the actresses in the film was Marjorie Cameron, the widow of Jack Parsons, the influential American Thelemite who had died a few years previously, while Anger himself played Hecate.* [42] He would subsequently exhibit the film at various European film festivals, winning the Prix du Ciné-Club Belge and the Prix de l'Age d'Or as well as screening it in the form of a projected triptych at Expo 58, the World Fair held in Brussels in 1958.* [43] In 1955, Anger and his friend Alfred Kinsey traveled to the derelict Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù, Sicily in order to film a short documentary titled Thelema Abbey. The abbey itself had been used by Aleister Crowley for his commune during the 1920s, and Anger restored many of the erotic wall-paintings that were found there as well as performing certain Crowleyan rituals at the site. The documentary was made for the British television series Omnibus, who later lost it.* [20]* [44] The following year Kinsey died, and Anger decided to return to Paris, and was described at this time as being “extremely remote and lonely”.* [45]
CHAPTER 19. KENNETH ANGER
19.1.6 1961–65: Scorpio Rising and Kustom Kar Kommandos In 1961, Anger once more returned to America, where he lived for a time with Marjorie Cameron.* [48] Meanwhile, he began work on a new feature, a film about the emerging biker subculture, which he titled Scorpio Rising. For this, he employed a biker named Richard McAuley, and filmed him and some of his friends messing around, adding to it scenes of McAuley, or “Scorpio”as he became known, desecrating a derelict church. Anger incorporated more controversial visuals into the piece, including Nazi iconography, nudity, and clips of the life of Jesus Christ taken from Family Films' The Living Bible: Last Journey to Jerusalem. In Scorpio Rising, Anger intercuts images of Christ from the cheap religious film with those of Scorpio. The whole film has a soundtrack made up of popular 1960s songs, including "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton, “Torture”by Kris Jensen and "I Will Follow Him" by Little Peggy March.* [49] Anger himself described the film as “a death mirror held up to American culture... Thanatos in chrome, black leather, and bursting jeans.”* [50] It immediately became popular on the underground cinema scene although was soon brought to court with complaints claiming that it was obscene. The all-female jury ruled in favor of the prosecutors, and Scorpio Rising was banned, although this ban was subsequently overturned on appeal to the California State Supreme Court.* [51] With Scorpio Rising finished and Anger now living in San Francisco, he went to the Ford Foundation, which had just started a program of giving out grants to filmmakers. He showed them his ideas for a new artistic short, titled Kustom Kar Kommandos, which they approved of, and gave him a grant of $10,000.* [52] However, Anger spent much of the money on living expenses and making alterations to some of his earlier films, meaning that by the time he actually created Kustom Kar Kommandos, it was only one scene long. This homoerotic film involved various shots of a young man polishing a drag strip racing car, accompanied with a pink background and the song "Dream Lover" by The Paris Sisters. Soon after, Anger struck a deal that allowed Hollywood Babylon to be officially published in the United States for the first time, where it proved a success, selling two million copies during the 1960s, and around the same time Anger also translated Lo Duca's History of Eroticism into English for American publication.* [53]
In desperate need of money, Anger wrote a book titled Hollywood Babylon in which he collected together gossip regarding celebrities, some of which he claims he had been told. This included claiming (with no corroboration or citing of sources) that Rudolph Valentino liked to play a sexually submissive role to dominant women, that Walt Disney was a drug user, addicted to opiates (reflected in the character of Goofy, who's perpetually stoned on cannabis), as well as describing the nature of the deaths of Peg Entwistle and Lupe Vélez. The work was initially not published in the United States, instead the publisher was the French Jean Jacques Pauvert.* [46] A pirated (and incomplete) version was first published in the U.S. in 1965, with the official American version not being published until 1974. Now with some financial backing from the publication of Hollywood Babylon, his next film project was The Story of O; essentially a piece of erotica featuring 19.1.7 1966–69: The hippie movement and a heterosexual couple engaged in sadomasochistic sexual Invocation of My Demon Brother activities, although it refrained from showing any explicit * sexual images. [47] The mid-1960s saw the emergence of the hippie scene and the increasing use of the mind-altering drugs that Anger himself had been using for many years. In particular, the hallucinogen LSD, which at the time was still legal in the United States, was very popular, and in 1966 Anger
19.1. BIOGRAPHY
199
released a version of his earlier film, Inauguration of the Anger claimed that the footage which he had been filmPleasure Dome titled the “Sacred Mushroom Edition” ing for Lucifer Rising had been stolen, placing the blame which was screened to people while taking LSD, thereby on Beausoleil, who would deny the claims. Anger's unofheightening their sensory experience.* [54] By this time, ficial biographer Bill Landis quotes Beausoleil who states, Anger had become well known throughout the under- “what had happened was that Kenneth had spent all the ground scene in the United States, and several cinemas money that was invested in Lucifer Rising" and that he across the country screened his better known films all therefore invented the story to satisfy the film's crediin one event.* [55] With this growing fame, Anger be- tors.* [63] Beausoleil and Anger fell out, with the former gan to react to publicity in much the same way as his getting involved with Charles Manson and his cult, the idol Aleister Crowley had done, for instance describing Family, eventually carrying out Manson's bidding by torhimself as “the most monstrous moviemaker in the un- turing and murdering Gary Hinman. derground”, a pun on the fact that Crowley had been In the October 26, 1967 issue of Village Voice, Anger labelled“the wickedest man in the world”by the British publicly reinvented himself by placing a full-page advert tabloids in the 1920s.* [56] Anger's fame on the under- declaring “In Memoriam. Kenneth Anger. Filmmaker ground circuit allowed him to increasingly associate with 1947–1967”. He soon publicly reappeared, this time to other celebrities, including Anton LaVey, the founder of claim that he had burned all of his early work.* [64] The the Church of Satan who named Anger as godfather to following year he travelled to London where he first met Zeena Schreck (LaVey's daughter).* [57] Despite Anger John Paul Getty, Jr., who became Anger's patron, and and LaVey's differing philosophies, the two became good where he also met and befriended Mick Jagger and Keith friends and would remain so for many years. However, Richards, members of The Rolling Stones,* [65] as well as Anger also held a resentment towards certain celebri- actress/model Anita Pallenberg.* [66] Anger then decided ties, namely Andy Warhol, who at the time was achieving to use much of the footage created for Lucifer Rising in a success not only in the art world but also in the under- new film of his, Invocation of My Demon Brother, which ground film scene.* [58] In 1980 Anger threw paint over starred Beausoleil, LaVey, Jagger and Richards, as well as the front door of a house that Warhol had recently moved Anger himself, and the music for which had been comout of.* [59] posed by Jagger. It was released in 1969, and explored many of the Thelemic themes that Anger had originally intended for Lucifer Rising.* [67] The story of the film, its making, and the people involved are the inspiration for the novel Sway, by Zachary Lazar.* [68]
19.1.8 1970–81: Lucifer Rising
The ornate “Russian Embassy”house in San Francisco, where Anger lived in 1966 and 1967.
In 1966, Anger moved into the ground floor of a large nineteenth-century Victorian house in San Francisco known as the Russian Embassy.* [60] Around this time he began planning a new film titled Lucifer Rising echoing his Thelemite beliefs about the emerging Aeon of Horus. He tattooed the name of Lucifer upon his chest and began searching for a young man who could symbolically become Lucifer, “the Crowned and Conquering Child”of the new Aeon, for Lucifer Rising. While living at the Russian Embassy, he met and lived with various young men who could fit the position. Finally, he settled upon Bobby Beausoleil for the role of Lucifer.* [61] Beausoleil founded a band, the Magic Powerhouse of Oz, in order to record the music for the film.* [62] In 1967,
Now, having used up much of the footage originally intended for Lucifer Rising for Invocation of My Demon Brother, Anger again set about to create “Lucifer Rising”, a symbolic analogy of the coming Aeon of Horus as prophesied in the Thelemic sacred text, The Book of the Law. Anger persuaded the singer and actress Marianne Faithfull to appear in it. He also tried to convince his friend Mick Jagger to play the part of Lucifer in the film but Jagger refused. Instead he offered his brother Chris for the part. Anger accepted, but was not happy about it.* [69] Anger subsequently filmed eight minutes of film and showed it to the British National Film Finance Corporation who agreed to provide £15,000 in order for Anger to complete it – something that caused a level of outrage in the British press. With this money, he could afford to fly the cast and crew to both Germany and Egypt for filming.* [70] Anger befriended Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page around this time, the two sharing a great interest in Crowley. At Page's invitation, Anger travelled to Page's new home, Crowley's former residence Boleskine House located on the shores of Loch Ness in Scotland, to help the musician exorcise the building of what Page believed to be a headless man's ghost.* [71] Page subsequently agreed to produce the soundtrack for
200
CHAPTER 19. KENNETH ANGER
Lucifer Rising,* [72] and used the editing suite which was in the basement of his London home to shape the music which he produced.* [73] Anger later fell out with Page's wife Charlotte, who kicked him out of the house. In retaliation, Anger called a press conference in which he ridiculed Page and threatened to“throw a Kenneth Anger curse”on him.* [74] Page's music was dumped from the film and replaced in 1979 by music written and recorded by the imprisoned Bobby Beausoleil, with whom Anger had reconciled.* [75] "[Lucifer is] a teenage rebel. Lucifer must be played by a teenage boy. It's type-casting. I'm a pagan and the film is a real invocation of Lucifer. I'm much realer than von Stroheim. The film contained real black magicians, a real ceremony, real altars, real human blood, and a real magic circle consecrated with blood and cum.” Kenneth Anger* [76] Meanwhile, Anger, who moved to an apartment in New York City, took the footage that he had filmed for Rabbit's Moon in the 1950s, finally releasing the film in 1972, and again in a shorter version in 1979. Around the same time he also added a new soundtrack to Puce Moment and re-released it.* [77] It was also around this time that the publisher Marvin Miller produced a low budget documentary film based on Hollywood Babylon without Anger's permission, greatly angering him and leading him to sue.* [78] He also created a short film titled Senators in Bondage which was only available to private collectors and which has never been made publicly available, and had plans to make a film about Aleister Crowley titled The Wickedest Man in the World, but this project never got off the ground.* [79] In 1980, he holidayed with his friend, the playwright Tennessee Williams. It was in 1981, a decade after starting the project, that he finally finished and released the 30-minute-long Lucifer Rising. Based upon the Thelemite concept that mankind had entered a new period known as the Aeon of Horus, Lucifer Rising was full of occult symbolism, starring Miriam Gibril as the Ancient Egyptian goddess Isis and Donald Cammell as her consort Osiris, as well as Marianne Faithfull as the Biblical figure of Lilith and Leslie Huggins as Lucifer himself. Anger once again appeared in the film, starring as the Magus, the same role that he played in Invocation to My Demon Brother.* [80] He had surrealistically combined the roles that these characters played with footage of volcanoes, various ancient Egyptian temples and a Crowleyan adept reading from the man's texts.
19.1.9
1982–99: Retirement
Soon after the release of Lucifer Rising, a PBS documentary of Anger and his films was made, titled Kenneth Anger's Magick, which was directed by Kit Fitzgerald, who later recalled interviewing him in his New York flat on a very hot July evening, during which Anger re-
vealed that he was so broke that he had been forced to sell his air conditioner.* [81] Anger himself considered producing other films that would continue on from Lucifer Rising in a series, and he began referring to his finished film as“Part I: Sign Language”, to be followed by two further parts.* [76] Nonetheless, these projects would never be finished, and Anger himself would not produce any further films for nearly two decades. In need of money, Anger subsequently released Hollywood Babylon II in 1984, as well as continuing to screen his films at various festivals and at universities; around this time he began wearing an eyepatch to these public events, something likely due to him having been beaten up and getting a bruised eye, a story that he would bring up in various interviews, although partly changing who it was who had beaten him up in various versions of the story.* [82] In 1984, a notorious incident occurred when Anger was invited to appear on The Coca Crystal Show, however upon arriving at the studio he demanded that somebody pay for his taxi ride there, and when they refused, he attacked the talent coordinator Maureen Ivice and tried to drag her into his taxi, before she was rescued by other members of staff – Anger reportedly escaped the scene by flinging a $100 bill at the cab driver and screaming“GET ME OUT OF HERE!"* [83] In 1986, he sold the video rights to his films, which finally appeared on VHS, allowing them to have greater publicity. The following year he attended the Avignon Film Festival in France where his work was being celebrated in commemoration of the fortieth anniversary of Fireworks. Soon after this, he appeared in Kenneth Anger's Hollywood Babylon, a BBC documentary for the Arena series directed by Nigel Finch. In 1991, Anger moved to West Arenas Boulevard in Palm Springs, where the British Film Institute sent Rebecca Wood to assist him in writing an autobiography, which was never actually produced.* [84] Instead, in 1995, Bill Landis, who had been an associate of Anger's in the early 1980s, wrote an unofficial biography of him, which Anger himself condemned, describing Landis as“an avowed enemy”.* [85]
19.1.10 2000–present: Return to filmmaking For twenty years from the early 1980s, Anger released no new material. In 2000, at the dawn of the new millennium, Anger began screening a new short film, the antismoking Don't Smoke That Cigarette, followed a year later by The Man We Want to Hang, which comprised images of Aleister Crowley's paintings that had been exhibited at a temporary exhibition in Bloomsbury, London. In 2004, he began showing Anger Sees Red, a short surrealistic film starring himself, and the same year also began showing another work, Patriotic Penis. He soon followed this with a flurry of other shorts, including Mouse Heaven, which consisted of images of Mickey Mouse memorabilia, Ich Will! and Uniform Attraction, all of which he showed at
19.2. THEMES
201
The logo for an exhibition of Anger's work held in London, 2010.
ising semen), pouring over the protagonist's body. Similar homoerotic imagery is found in Scorpio Rising (1963), which stars a muscled, topless, leather-clad biker, and Kustom Kar Kommandos (1965), where a young man sensually polishes a car, with close up shots of his tightSignature and handprints of Kenneth Anger in front of the Vista fitting jeans and crotch. Images of naked men also apTheatre, Los Angeles pear in Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969), where they are eventually filmed wrestling, and in Anger Sees Red (2004), in which a muscled, topless man performs various public appearances. Anger's most recent project press-ups. has been the Technicolor Skull with musician Brian Butler, described as a“magick ritual of light and sound in the Another recurring theme in Anger's films is that of the context of a live performance”, in which Anger plays the occult, particularly the symbolism of his own esoteric retheremin, and Butler plays the guitar and other electronic ligion, Thelema. This is visible in Inauguration of the instruments, behind a psychedelic backdrop of colors and Pleasure Dome, Invocation of My Demon Brother and Lucifer Rising, all of which are based around the Thelemite skulls.* [86] concept of the Aeon of Horus and feature actors portrayAnger makes an appearance in the 2008 feature docing various pagan gods. Anger himself linked the creumentary by Nik Sheehan about Brion Gysin and the ation of film to the occult, particularly the practice of * Dreamachine titled FLicKeR. [87] In 2009 his work was ceremonial magic, something that Aleister Crowley had featured in a retrospective exhibition at the MoMA PS1 been a noted practitioner of, and Anger once stated that * in New York City, [88] and the following year a similar “making a movie is casting a spell.”* [90] * exhibition took place in London. [89] One of the central recurring images found in Anger's Anger has finished writing Hollywood Babylon III, but has work is the concept of flames and light; in Fireworks not yet published it, fearing severe legal repercussions if there are various examples of this, including a burning he did so. Of this he has stated that “The main reason I Christmas tree, and it subsequently appears in many of didn't bring it out was that I had a whole section on Tom his other works as well. This relates to the concept of Cruise and the Scientologists. I'm not a friend of the SciLucifer, a deity whom Anger devoted one of his films to, * entologists.” [89] The Church of Scientology has been and whose name is Latin for “light bearer”.* [91] known on several occasions to heavily sue those making In many of his films, heavy use is made of music, both accusations against them. classical and pop, to accompany the visual imagery. For instance, in Scorpio Rising he makes use of the 1950s pop songs “Torture”by Kris Jensen, "I Will Follow Him" 19.2 Themes by Little Peggy March and "Blue Velvet" by Bobby Vinton. He first used music to accompany visuals in the 1941 Several recurring themes can be seen within Anger's work Who Has Been Rocking My Dreamboat?, where he cinematic work. One of the most notable of these is used tracks by the Mills Brothers.* [32] His use of popular homoeroticism; this was first seen in Fireworks (1947), music to accompany his films has been cited as a key inwhich was based around Anger's own homosexual awak- fluence on the development of music videos and of MTV, ening, and featured various navy officers flexing their although he has stated his dislike for the whole music muscles, and a white liquid (often thought of as symbol- video industry. On one occasion the band Combustible
202 Edison asked him if he would direct a video to accompany their song “Bluebeard”but he declined the offer, believing that while music could be used to accompany film, it was pointless to do it the other way around.* [32]
CHAPTER 19. KENNETH ANGER
19.4 Filmography 19.5 Books 19.6 References Notes
19.3 Personal life
[1] In 2008, Anger was actually 81, but claimed to be younger, as he has repeatedly done throughout his life.
Footnotes “If you are a member of the media, you belong to the public. You've made that Faustian bargain with your public. Take me – all of me – I'm yours.” Kenneth Anger* [92] Anger has always been an “extremely private individual,”* [85] although he has given various interviews over the years, with one interviewer, David Wingrove, describing him in 2008 as “a joy. Gentle, soft-spoken, immaculately tanned, he looks a good two decades younger than his 78 years”.* [93]* [Note 1] In such interviews, he refuses to disclose information on his name change from Anglemeyer to Anger, telling an interviewer who brought the topic up in 2004 that “You're being impertinent. It says Anger on my passport, that's all you need to know. I would stay away from that subject if I were you.”* [26] In a 2010 interview, however, he stated that “I just condensed my name. I knew it would be like a label, a logo. It's easy to remember.”* [89] Anger is openly gay, with one of his friends describing how he “was attracted to people who were either well endowed or the Arnold Schwarzenegger type.”* [94] He once joked that he was“somewhat to the right of the KKK" in his views about black people,* [95] opening him up to criticism for racism. He is a passionate supporter of the Tibetan independence movement.* [96] After many years as an acknowledged Thelemite, Anger joined the main Thelemic organisation, the Ordo Templi Orientis. He viewed many of the men he associated with as living embodiments of Lucifer, a symbol of the Aeon of Horus in Thelemic philosophy, and had his own name inked onto his chest with the Lucifer tattoo.* [96] Anger has shown an interest in various other religious movements, particularly those that relate in some way to occultism. For instance, Kenneth was a lifelong friend of Anton LaVey from before the founding of the Church of Satan in the 1960s and even lived with him and his family during the 1980s. LaVey also made an appearance in one of Anger's films, Invocation of My Demon Brother (1969) as a devilish priest. Anger describes himself as a "pagan" and refuses to consider himself to be a Satanist.* [89] He also characterized Wicca as being a “lunar”, feminine religion in contrast with the “solar” masculinity of Thelema.* [96]
[1] Hunter, 2002, p. 108. [2] The Kinsey Institute, Spotlight on the Collections: Filmmaker Kenneth Anger 2004. Retrieved June 1, 2010. [3] Svede, Mark Allen (2002). Anger, Kenneth at glbtq. [4] Landis, 1995, p. 24. [5] LoBrutto, Vincent (2002). The Encyclopedia of American Independent Filmmaking. Connecticut: Greenwood. p. 16. ISBN 0313301999. [6] Lachman, Gary. 'Kenneth Anger: The Crowned and Conquered Child' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 19. [7] Landis, 1995, p. 195. [8] Landis, 1995, p. 5. [9] Landis, 1995, pp. 6–8. [10] Hunter, 2002, p. 105. [11] Landis, 1995, pp. 9–11. [12] Landis, 1995, p. 12. [13] Landis, 1995, pp. 13–14. [14] Landis, 1995, p. 14. [15] Lachman, Gary. 'Kenneth Anger: The Crowned and Conquered Child' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 11. [16] Hunter, 2002, p. 11. [17] Usher [18] Landis, 1995, pp. 17–20. [19] Landis, 1995, pp. 25–26. [20] Hunter, 2002, p. 48. [21] Landis, 1995, pp. 37–38. [22] Landis, 1995, p. 39. [23] Landis, 1995, p. 38.
19.6. REFERENCES
203
[24] Hattenstone, Simon (March 10, 2010). “Kenneth Anger: 'No, I am not a Satanist'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
[54] Landis, 1995, p. 131.
[25] Hoberman, J.; Jonathan Rosenbaum (1983). Midnight Movies. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-0909900.
[56] Landis, 1995, p. 136.
[26] Lachman, Gary. 'Kenneth Anger: The Crowned and Conquered Child' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 10. [27] 'Film Credits – Magick Lantern Cycle' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 25. [28] Landis, 1995, p. 40. [29] Landis, 1995, pp. 83–87.
[55] Landis, 1995, p. 134.
[57] “Reference to Kenneth Anger as Zeena Schreck's godfather”. [58] Landis, 1995, pp. 148–149. [59] Landis, 1995, p. 220. [60] Landis, 1995, p. 141. [61] Landis, 1995, pp. 141–142. [62] Landis, 1995, p. 145. [63] Landis, 1995, p. 158.
[30] 'Film Credits – Magick Lantern Cycle' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 26.
[64] Landis, 1995, pp. 158–159.
[31] Landis, 1995, pp. 52–55.
[65] Landis, 1995, p. 162–167.
[32] Russo, Carl (2000). Spotting UFOs with a Manson Killer: An Interview with Kenneth Anger.
[66] Landis, 1995, p. 166.
[33] Landis, 1995, p. 59. [34] 'Film Credits – Magick Lantern Cycle' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, pp. 26–27. [35] Landis, 1995, pp. 59–60. [36] Landis, 1995, p. 61. [37] Landis, 1995, p. 63. [38] 'Film Credits – Magick Lantern Cycle' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 27.
[67] Landis, 1995, pp. 170–174. [68] Taylor, Charles (January 13, 2008). “Their Satanic Majesties”.“The New York TImes”, January 13, 2008. Retrieved July 14, 2011. [69] Landis, 1995, pp. 180–181. [70] Landis, 1995, p. 182. [71] Landis, 1995, p. 183–184. [72] Chris Salewicz, Anger Rising: Jimmy Page and Kenneth's Lucifer; NME, 1977. (registration required)
[39] Landis 1995, p. 64.
[73] The Story Behind The Lost Lucifer Rising Soundtrack, Guitar World magazine, October 2006.
[40] Landis, 1995, pp. 66–67.
[74] Landis, 1995, pp. 208–209.
[41] Landis, 1995, pp. 72–74.
[75] BeauSoleil, Bobby. “Fallen Angel Blues – the story of Lucifer Rising". Retrieved August 9, 2009.
[42] Landis, 1995, pp. 72–81. [76] Landis, 1995, p. 237. [43] Landis, 1995, p. 93. [77] Landis, 1995, p. 188. [44] Landis, 1995, pp. 88–90. [45] Landis, 1995, p. 92. [46] Landis, 1995, p. 94. [47] Landis, 1995, pp. 95–96. [48] Landis, 1995, p. 100. [49] Landis, 1995, pp. 104–113. [50] Landis, 1995, p. 112. [51] Landis, 1995, pp. 119–120. [52] Landis, 1995, p. 117. [53] Landis, 1995, pp. 122–123.
[78] Landis, 1995, p. 188–191. [79] Landis, 1995, pp. 211–212. [80] Hunter, 2002, p. 113. [81] Landis, 1995, pp. 226–227. [82] Landis, 1995, p. 243. [83] Landis, 1995, pp. 251–252. [84] Landis, 1995, pp. 252–259. [85] Landis, 1995, p. xiii. [86] TechnicolorSkull.com Retrieved nethanger.org, May 31, 2010.
through
ken-
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[87] “FLicKeR :: A Film by Nik Sheehan”. Retrieved April 21, 2008. [88] ps1.org. Kenneth Anger. February 22, 2009 – September 21, 2009. Retrieved June 1, 2010. [89] Hattenstone, Simon (March 10, 2010). “Kenneth Anger: 'No, I am not a Satanist'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved May 7, 2010. [90] Hunter, 2002, p. 47. [91] Lachman, Gary. 'Kenneth Anger: The Crowned and Conquered Child' in Anger: Magick Lantern Cycle DVD booklet. British Film Institute, p. 13. [92] Landis 1995, p. 197. [93] dcarins.wordpress.com. Wingrove, David. Anger...and Other Deadly Sins August 26, 2008. [94] Landis, 1995, p. 49. [95] Landis, 1995, p. 50. [96] Anger, Kenneth. UCLA. YouTube. Uploaded April 10, 2009. Do What Thou Wilt: Kenneth Anger and Aleister Crowley and the Occult on YouTube. [97] Hunter, 2002, p.105. [98] Hunter, 2002, pp.105–106. [99] Hunter, 2002, p.106. [100] Hunter, 2002, pp.106–107. [101] Hunter, 2002, p.107. [102] Hunter, 2002, p.114. [103] Hunter, 2002, p.117. [104] Hunter, 2002, pp.116–117. [105] Hunter, 2002, pp.117–118. [106] Allison, Deborah. “Kenneth Anger”. The Film Journal. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
Bibliography • Hutchinson, Alice L. (ed). 2004. Kenneth Anger. Black Dog Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-90477203-3. • Hunter, Jack (ed). 2002. Moonchild. The Films of Kenneth Anger: Persistence of Vision Volume 1. London: Creation Books. ISBN 978-1-84068-0294. • Landis, Bill. 1995. Anger: The Unauthorized Biography of Kenneth Anger. ISBN 978-0-06-016700-4. • Lazar, Zachary, Sway, Little, Brown (2008), ISBN 0-316-11309-3. • Pilling, Jayne and O'Pray, Michael. 1989. Into the Pleasure Dome: The Films of Kenneth Anger. London: BFI.
CHAPTER 19. KENNETH ANGER
19.7 Further reading • Bhattacharya Sanjiv, “Look Back at Anger”. August 22, 2004. The Observer. • Claiborne K.H. Smith,“Kustom Film Kommando” . November 17, 1997. The Austin Chronicle. • Simon Braund. “Kenneth Anger: The King of Babylon”. Empire (Sept 2008), 86-92.
19.8 External links • Official website • Kenneth Anger at the Internet Movie Database • bentclouds.com. Essay on Kustom Kar Kommandos Non-Normative Sex in Kustom Kar Kommandos. • The Film Journal. Review of Alice Hutchison's book on Anger • NNDb profile • Artforum 1000 Words
Chapter 20
Augustus Sol Invictus Warning: the religion parameter will be removed soon. the same party. The chairman also accused Invictus of (this message is shown only in preview). supporting eugenics and for “sadistically dismembering a goat in a ritualistic sacrifice”.* [8]* [9] Augustus Sol Invictus (Latin: majestic unconquered sun; born July 31, 1983) is an attorney and former United States Senate candidate in the 2016 Florida election, running as a Libertarian in the primary. He was denounced by the Libertarian Party of Florida, for a paper advocating eugenics and stated aims to start a civil war.* [1] His candidacy prompted the resignation under protest of party chairman Adrian Wyllie.* [2] Invictus later disavowed eugenics and claimed the paper was purely academic.* [3] He lost in the primary by a margin of around 50 points to Paul Stanton.* [4]
20.1 Career
Invictus responded by admitting he once wrote a paper advocating eugenics but has since changed his mind.* [10]* [11]* [12] He admits he sacrificed the animal as part of a pagan ritual to give thanks for surviving a pilgrimage he undertook in October 2013 but denies it was “sadistic”.* [13] He has also said that he is not white supremacist, citing the fact that his four children are part Hispanic; although, he acknowledged that some white supremacists support his campaign.* [14] In 2014 he acted as attorney for Marcus Faella of the American Front in his legal appeal.* [15]
20.3 Controversy
While in law school, Invictus earned a fellowship at the 20.3.1 Call to War International Human Rights Law Institute. His work centered on international criminal law and the laws of armed Since the beginning of Invictus' campaign, it has been conflict.* [5] surrounded by controversy. A letter* [16] written by InInvictus graduated from the University of South Florida victus in 2013 came to light in which he denounced his with Philosophy honors with a BA. From there he went to citizenship and claimed to have plans of venturing out in DePaul University College of Law and graduated in 2011. the woods only to return bringing war: He says he has been admitted to the Bar at Florida, New “I have prophesied for years that I was born for a Great York, Illinois, Massachusetts, and the Middle District of War; that if I did not witness the coming of the Second * Florida in the US District Court. [6] American Civil War I would begin it myself. Mark well: He is the managing director of Imperium, P.A., the law That day is fast coming upon you. On the New Moon of firm he founded in 2013.* [5] May, I shall disappear into the Wilderness. I will return bearing Revolution, or I will not return at all.”
20.2 Campaign
20.3.2 Antifa and denial of entry to Canada
On May 19, 2015, Invictus announced his campaign for the U.S Senate as a candidate for the Libertarian Party in On March 1, 2016, Augustus Invictus stopped in the 2016 Florida election.* [7] Portland, Oregon on his way to Canada for a speaking In response to Invictus's campaign, Adrian Wyllie re- engagement. He was met by the Rose City Antifa, an signed from his position as chairman of the Libertarian anti-fascist organization, who organized protests against Party of Florida, calling Invictus a “violent Fascist Invictus.* [17] The group lobbied businesses where Invicand Neo-Nazi" whose ideology was incompatible with tus planned to meet and were able to divert him from one libertarianism and saying he did not want to be part of location. Invictus called the police when confronted by 205
206 Antifa protesters at another location later in the night. Canada Border Service agents held Augustus Invictus for three hours upon his arrival in Canada to question him on his ties to neo-fascist and neo-nazi organizations.* [18] Citing a planned protest and the likelihood of violence, the border agents denied entry to Invictus.* [18]
20.4 Policy positions Invictus believes that the United States should embrace a non-interventionist approach to foreign policy, citing the cost an interventionist approach has caused to loss of American lives and trillions of dollars in debt. He opposes using the U.S military to interfere in the affairs of sovereign nations.* [19] Invictus advocates for balancing the budget, shrinking the size of government, ceasing reckless government spending and deregulating American business. He is also in favor of repealing the individual income tax, abolishing the IRS and recreating the tax code.* [20] He is for an expanded federal role in protecting the environment.* [6] According to Invictus, he does not support mass immigration and is against open borders for the United States.* [21] However, he supports policies that would streamline the process of immigration and naturalization so that immigrants who wish to integrate and work in America can do so with ease.* [22] Invictus believes that abortion should be illegal in most circumstances.* [6] Invictus is opposed to the War on Drugs and has labeled it a failure. He supports repealing the Controlled Substances Act and abolishing the DEA.* [23] Invictus believes that America should find alternative forms of energy so as to reduce U.S dependence on foreign energy. He does not believe there should be a trade-off between economic freedom and the destruction of the environment.* [24]* [25]
20.5 Personal life
CHAPTER 20. AUGUSTUS SOL INVICTUS
20.7 References
[1] https://lpf.org/2015/10/ the-libertarian-party-of-florida-condemns-augustus-sol-invictus-for-specific [2] “Libertarian Official Resigns To Protest Candidate Who Does Animal Sacrifices”. Retrieved 4 September 2016. [3] http://wildhunt.org/2015/10/ augustus-sol-invictus-and-the-libertarian-party-of-florida. html [4] “74% to 26%: Florida Libertarians reject Invictus, nominate Stanton for Senate in Aug. 30 primary”. Retrieved 1 September 2016. [5] “Meet Augustus Sol Invictus”. http://www. invictusforsenate.com/meet-augustus/bio.html. May 2015. External link in |website= (help) [6] “A Sacrificial Goat in Every Pot”. The Washington Free Beacon. November 11, 2015. [7] “Augustus Invictus Announces Candidacy for U.S. Senate”. YouTube. May 19, 2015. [8] “Libertarian Party drama: Goat sacrifice, eugenics and a chair's resignation”. Politico. October 3, 2015. [9] Smith, Adam C.; Larabee, Brandon (October 1, 2015). “Ritual sacrifice, eugenics, and the resignation of a party chairman”. Tampa Bay Times (blog). [10] Resnick, Gideon (October 3, 2015).“This Satanist Wants to Be Your Senator”. The Daily Beast. [11] Cordeiro, Monivette (October 2, 2015). “Libertarian Party of Florida chairman resigns, accuses candidate of goat sacrifice and eugenics”. Orlando Weekly. [12] Gray, Jeremy (October 2, 2015). “Florida senate candidate admits to animal sacrifice, denies goat dismemberment”. AL.com. [13] “Senate candidate in Florida admits drinking goat blood” . BBC. October 5, 2015. [14] Farrington, Brendan (October 5, 2015). “Florida candidate for U.S. Senate admits to sacrificing goat, drinking its blood”. Orlando Sentinel. Associated Press.
He is an independent Thelemite with no affiliation [15] Curtis, Henry Pierson (December 4, 2014). “Former leader of neo-Nazi group gets new lawyer to fight convicto Thelema's largest organization, Ordo Templi Oriention”. Orlando Sentinel. tis.* [26] In 2013, he undertook a pilgrimage and walked from Orlando, Florida to the Mojave Desert; in a ritual of [16] “The Kind Of Unhinged Departure Memo That Would thanks for his survival, he sacrificed a goat and drank its Have Been WAY Funnier Before The Marathon Attack” * blood. [14] Because Invictus identifies as both a pagan . Above the Law. Retrieved 2016-04-26. and a Thelemite, it has led to the conception in the press that Thelema is a pagan religion, though Thelemites are [17] “Rose City Antifa report on Augustus Invictus visit to Portland, OR”. Independent Political Report. 2016-03often divided on this distinction. * [27] * [28] 30. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
20.6 Electoral history 2016 United States Senate primary election* [29]
[18] “Augustus Invictus blocked from entering Canada over neo-Nazi client - Florida Politics”. Florida Politics. 201603-06. Retrieved July 14, 2016. Canadian officials said his mere presence would cause violence, and that was enough to prevent his entry, according to the release.
20.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
[19] “Foreign Policy”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [20] “Sound Monetary Policy”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [21] “A Letter to the People of Europe”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [22] “Immigration”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [23] “Drug War”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [24] “Energy”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [25] “Environment”. Augustus Sol Invictus for Senate. May 2015. [26] “Senate candidate in Florida admits drinking goat blood” . BBC News. October 5, 2015. [27] http://www.gq.com/story/ augustus-sol-invictus-goat-sacrifice [28] http://www.patheos.com/blogs/starandsnake/2014/05/ is-thelema-pagan/ [29] “Key Florida Elections by Date”. Politico. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
20.8 External links • Imperium, P.A. • Invictus for Senate
207
Chapter 21
Aeon (Thelema) In the religion of Thelema, it is believed that the history of humanity can be divided into a series of aeons (also written æons), each of which was accompanied by its own forms of“magical and religious expression”.* [1] The first of these was the Aeon of Isis, which Thelemites believed occurred during prehistory and which saw mankind worshipping a Great Goddess, symbolised by the ancient Egyptian deity Isis. In Thelemite beliefs, this was followed by the Aeon of Osiris, a period that took place in the classical and mediaeval centuries, when humanity worshipped a singular male god, symbolised by the Egyptian god Osiris, and was therefore dominated by patriarchal values. And finally the third aeon, the Aeon of Horus, which was controlled by the child god, symbolised by Horus. In this new aeon, Thelemites believe that humanity will enter a time of self-realization and selfactualization. Within the Thelemite religion, each of these aeons is believed to be “characterized by their [own specific] magical formula”, the use of which “is very important and fundamental to the understanding of ... Thelemic Magick".* [2]
under myriad names and forms. It would also be a mistake for us to conclude that the magical formula of this period manifested exclusively through the worship of any particular anthropomorphic female deity. For, like every aeon, the magical formula of the Aeon of Isis was founded upon mankind's interpretation of the 'perceived facts' of nature, and our Isian-age progenitors perceived nature as a continuous process of spontaneous growth.”* [3]
21.1.2 Aeon of Osiris The classical and medieval Aeon of Osiris is considered to be dominated by the paternal principle and the formula of the Dying God. This Aeon was characterized by that of self-sacrifice and submission to the Father God while man spoke of his father and mother. Crowley says of this Aeon in his Heart of the Master: Formula of Osiris, whose word is IAO; so that men worshiped Man, thinking him subject to Death, and his victory dependent upon Resurrection. Even so conceived they of the Sun as slain and reborn with every day, and every year.
21.1 Aeons 21.1.1
Aeon of Isis
Crowley also says of the Aeon of Osiris in Equinox of the Gods:
The second [Aeon] is of suffering and The first Aeon of Isis was maternal, where the female death: the spiritual strives to ignore the mateaspect of the Godhead was revered due to a mostly rial. Christianity and all cognate religions wormatriarchal society and the idea that "Mother Earth" ship death, glorify suffering, deify corpses. nourished, clothed and housed man closed in the womb of Matrix. It was characterized by pagan worship of the Mother and Nature. In his Equinox of the Gods Crowley 21.1.3 Aeon of Horus describes this period as “simple, quiet, easy, and pleasant; the material ignores the spiritual”(Equinox of the The modern Aeon of Horus is portrayed as a time of Gods). self-realization as well as a growing interest in all things Lon Milo DuQuette remarked that this aeon was “the spiritual, and is considered to be dominated by the prinAge of the Great Goddess”, and that it had originated ciple of the child. The Word of its Law is Thelema in prehistory, reaching its zenith at“approximately 2400 (will), which is complemented by Agape (love), and its B.C.”Continuing with this idea, he remarked that this formula is Abrahadabra. Individuality and finding the period was when “the cult of the Great Goddess”was individual's True Will are the dominant aspects; its fortruly universal. She was worshipped by countless cultures mula is that of growth, in consciousness and love, toward 208
21.3. SEE ALSO
209
self-realization. Concerning the Aeon of Horus, Crowley other formulas, whose reigns appear to overlap with the wrote: Aeon of Osiris and/or Isis. From his The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: ... the crowned and conquering child, who dieth not, nor is reborn, but goeth radiant ever There are many magical teachers but in upon His Way. Even so goeth the Sun: for as it recorded history we have scarcely had a dozen is now known that night is but the shadow of the Magi in the technical sense of the word. They Earth, so Death is but the shadow of the Body, may be recognized by the fact that their mesthat veileth his Light from its bearer. (Heart of sage may be formulated as a single word, which the Master) word must be such that it overturns all existing beliefs and codes. We may take as instances the And also, in his Little Essays Toward Truth: Word of Buddha-Anatta (absence of an atman or soul), which laid its axe to the root of Hindu cosmology, theology and psychology, and inThe Aeon of Horus is here: and its first cidentally knocked away the foundation of the flower may well be this: that, freed of the obcaste system; and indeed of all accepted moralsession of the doom of the Ego in Death, and of ity. the limitation of the Mind by Reason, the best men again set out with eager eyes upon the Path of the Wise, the mountain track of the goat, and then the untrodden Ridge, that leads to the 21.3 See also ice-gleaming pinnacles of Mastery! • Brethren of the Free Spirit Lon Milo DuQuette commented on the connection that the Aeon of Horus had to the Age of Aquarius when he stated that “Yes, [the Aeon of Horus] is coincidental to 21.4 References what astrologers and songwriters call the Age of Aquarius and what millions of others refer to simply as the New Age. But it would be a mistake to view this new aeon Footnotes simply as another tick on a great cosmic clock. The Age of Aquarius, profoundly significant as it is, is only one [1] DuQuette 2003. p. 15. aspect of a far greater new spiritual age.”* [4] [2] DuQuette 2003. p. 14.
21.1.4
Other Aeons
[3] DuQuette 2003. pp. 16–17. [4] DuQuette 2003. p. 14.
Some Thelemites believe that the Aeon of Ma'at will eventually replace the present one. According to one of Bibliography Crowley's early students, Charles Stansfeld Jones (a.k.a. Frater Achad), the Aeon of Ma'at has already arrived or • DuQuette, Lon Milo (2003). The Magick of Aleisoverlaps the present Aeon of Horus. ter Crowley: A Handbook of Rituals of Thelema. San Francisco and Newburyport: Weiser. ISBN The Pandaemonaeon is associated with Chaos magic, 1578632994. Peter J. Carroll, Ray Sherwin, and the Illuminates of Thanateros. It is seen as the Aeon when all past Aeons would exist together, outlined in Carroll's Liber Kaos. The Aeon of Set[i] (began in 1975) is associated with Michael Aquino's and founding of the Temple of Set. This aeon is associated with the golden mean and golden ratio as symbolized by the pentagram . The magical formula is Xeper. Kenneth Grant's Typhonian Order has discovered a Setian current, which implies an Aeon of Set[i]; an esoteric Aeon for which Death himself dies.
21.2 Differing views Not all Thelemites believe in a clear succession of Aeons. Sometimes Crowley compared the Word of Horus with
21.5 Sources
• Crowley, Aleister. (1973). The Heart of the Master. Montréal : 93 Publishing. • ____. (1996). Little Essays Toward Truth. Tempe, AZ : New Falcon Publishing • ____. (1974). Equinox of the Gods. New York, NY : Gordon Press. • Thelemapedia. (2004). Aeon. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
Chapter 22
True Will True Will is a term found within the mystical system of Thelema, a religion founded in 1904 with Aleister Crowley's writing of The Book of the Law.* [1]* [2] It is defined at times as a person's grand destiny in life, and at other times as a moment to moment path of action that operates in perfect harmony with Nature. This Will does not spring from conscious intent, but from the interplay between the deepest Self and the entire Universe. Thelemites in touch with their True Will are said to have eliminated or bypassed their false desires, conflicts, and habits, and accessed their connection with the divine. Theoretically, at this point, the Thelemite acts in alignment with Nature, just as a stream flows downhill, with neither resistance nor“lust of result”. Crowley's ideas on the subject partly originated with the teachings of Eliphas Levi, whose magical books emphasize the magician finding their magical identity - his or her 'true self', which Levi referred to as the “True Will”.
22.1 Thelema Thelema roughly means “will”in Greek. The phrase True Will does not appear in The Book of the Law, the central sacred text of Thelema. Nevertheless, Aleister Crowley's various commentaries on the Book routinely postulate that each individual has a unique and incommensurable True Will that determines his or her proper course in life. This invention of Crowley's appears to be an attempt to explain how some actions may be wrong (or “false”) when “There is no law beyond Do what thou wilt”.* [3] Actions that conform to True Will are thus considered to be correct, while willed actions that deviate from True Will may nevertheless be wrong. In The Book of the Law Crowley wrote “Do What Thou Wilt” . “DO WHAT THOU WILT”can often be misunderstood to mean“do what you want”. When one says“do what thou wilt”, this means that the origin of will directs the path. To understand and act upon one's True Will is a sort of“enlightenment”to Thelemites. The ultimate goal of a Thelemite would be to understand and perform their True Will. True Will directs the individual towards destiny and forces them into the joy of accomplishing what they were
meant to accomplish without “lust of result”(outside motivations).* [4]
22.2 Writings In Crowley's essay The Secret Conference (written under the pseudonym“Gerald Aumont”, and prefaced to The Heart of the Master), he suggests that a technique must be devised by which a child's True Will may be discovered at birth, or as early as possible in life, in order to permit the correct ordering of society. In Crowley's ethical treatise Duty, he identifies True Will with the Nature of the individual. This capitalized “Nature”may be compared with the“Perfect Nature”of earlier Gnostic systems, which was another term for the personal daimon or augoeides, usually referenced by Crowley as the Holy Guardian Angel. The Message of the Master Therion (Liber II) is a document that attempts to delineate the doctrine of True Will. By reference to Liber Thisharb, Liber II suggests a theory of metempsychosis, whereby the individual True Will is the resultant of a person's prior incarnations. But here as elsewhere, Crowley stops short of asserting objective validity for memories of past lives. He recommends developing “the magical memory”as a means to an end, and connecting the aspirant's abilities and remembered past with some purpose. By definition, the aspirant's True Will must fit the aspirant's nature. In De Lege Libellum (Liber CL), Crowley defines True Will as the will which “does not rest content with things partial and transitory, but...proceed[s] firmly to the End” , and in the same passage he identifies that “end”as the destruction of oneself in love.
22.3 See also
210
• Thelema • The Great Work • Thelemic mysticism
22.4. REFERENCES • Holy Guardian Angel • Free will • Agency (philosophy) • The Alchemist (novel) • Coherent Extrapolated Volition • Ziran
22.4 References [1] Skinner, Stephen (ed). The Magical Diaries of Aleister Crowley: Tunisia 1923, p. 79, n. 8. Weiser, 1996. ISBN 0-87728-856-9 [2] IAO131. Thelema & Buddhism in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 24 [3] Liber AL III:60 [4] Crowley, Aleister (1904). Liber AL vel Legis.
211
Chapter 23
Holy Guardian Angel For other uses, see Guardian angel.
the Abyss and the attainment of the grade of Master of the Temple.* [2]
The term Holy Guardian Angel was possibly coined either by Abraham of Worms, a German Cabalist who wrote a book on ceremonial magick during the 15th century or Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, the founder of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, who later translated this manuscript and elaborated on this earlier work, giving it extensive magical notes, but the original concept goes back to the Zoroastrian Arda Fravaš ('Holy Guardian Angels'). In Mathers' publication of The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage, he writes: “If thou shalt perfectly observe these rules, all the following Symbols and an infinitude of others will be granted unto thee by thy Holy Guardian Angel; thou thus living for the Honour and Glory of the True and only God, for thine own good, and that of thy neighbour. Let the Fear of God be ever before the eyes and the heart of him who shall possess this Divine Wisdom and Sacred Magic.”* [1]
In some branches of occultism, the term is so widely known that HGA has become a common abbreviation even in non-English-speaking countries. Crowley seems to consider it equivalent to the Genius of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Augoeides of Iamblichus, the Atman of Hinduism, and the Daemon of the ancient Greeks. He borrowed the term from the Grimoire "The Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage". Even though the Holy Guardian Angel is, in a sense, the “higher self”, it is often experienced as a separate being, independent from the adept.
23.1.1 Methods of achieving knowledge and conversation Crowley said that the Abramelin procedure was not the only way to achieve success in this endeavour: It is impossible to lay down precise rules by which a man may attain to the knowledge and conversation of His Holy Guardian Angel; for that is the particular secret of each one of us; a secret not to be told or even divined by any other, whatever his grade. It is the Holy of Holies, whereof each man is his own High Priest, and none knoweth the Name of his brother's God, or the Rite that invokes Him.* [3]
Later, author and occultist Aleister Crowley popularized the term within his religious and philosophical system of Thelema.
23.1 Aleister Crowley's teachings
Within the system of the magical Order A∴A∴ founded by Aleister Crowley, one of the two most important goals is to consciously connect with one’s Holy Guardian Angel, representative of one's truest divine nature: a process Since the operation described in“Abramelin”is so complex and requires time and resources not available to most termed “Knowledge and Conversation.” people, Crowley wanted to provide a more accessible method. While at the Abbey of Thelema in Italy, he It should never be forgotten for a single mowrote Liber Samekh* [4] based on the Bornless Ritual, a ment that the central and essential work of the ritual designed as an example of how one may attain the Magician is the attainment of the Knowledge Knowledge and Conversation with one’s Holy Guardian and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. Angel. In his notes to this ritual, Crowley sums up the Once he has achieved this he must of course key to success: “INVOKE OFTEN.” be left entirely in the hands of that Angel, who can be invariably and inevitably relied upon to lead him to the further great step—crossing of
Crowley also explains, in more detail, the general mystical process of the ritual: 212
23.2. PETER CARROLL'S TEACHINGS The Adept will be free to concentrate his deepest self, that part of him which unconsciously orders his true Will, upon the realization of his Holy Guardian Angel. The absence of his bodily, mental and astral consciousness is indeed cardinal to success, for it is their usurpation of his attention which has made him deaf to his Soul, and his preoccupation with their affairs that has prevented him from perceiving that Soul. The effect of the Ritual has been 1. to keep them so busy with their own work that they cease to distract him; 2. to separate them so completely that his soul is stripped of its sheaths; 3. to arouse in him an enthusiasm so intense as to intoxicate and anaesthetize him, that he may not feel and resent the agony of this spiritual vivisection, just as bashful lovers get drunk on the wedding night, in order to brazen out the intensity of shame which so mysteriously coexists with their desire; 4. to concentrate the necessary spiritual forces from every element, and fling them simultaneously into the aspiration towards the Holy Guardian Angel; and 5. to attract the Angel by the vibration of the magical voice which invokes Him. The method of the Ritual is thus manifold.
213 and women are. They are individuals who have picked up the elements of their composition as possibility and convenience dictates, exactly as we do ourselves... I believe that the Holy Guardian Angel is a Being of this order. He is something more than a man, possibly a being who has already passed through the stage of humanity, and his peculiarly intimate relationship with his client is that of friendship, of community, of brotherhood, or Fatherhood. He is not, let me say with emphasis, a mere abstraction from yourself; and that is why I have insisted rather heavily that the term 'Higher Self' implies a damnable heresy and a dangerous delusion.”* [6] The idea that the HGA is an independent, spiritual being, rather than a manifestation of the Self, has led to uneasiness in some circles that the doctrine is a disguised form of diabolism.
23.2 Peter Carroll's teachings An occult writer, Peter Carroll split the concept in two and speaks of two“Holy Guardian Angels”. According to his work Liber Null and Psychonaut, one is the Augoeides,* [7] a projected image of whatever the magician strives for, and the other is quantum uncertainty, which ultimately determines the acts of the magician and is a spark of the only true creative force, the chaos of Chaos magic.
23.3 Enochian teachings
Another detailed description of the general operation is given in The Vision and the Voice in the eighth Aethyr The Enochian system of 16th Century occultist Dr. John Dee offers a concept similar to Crowley's later teachings and is also described in Liber 8.* [5] with regard to the Holy Guardian Angel. It is more in concord with traditional teachings of the HGA as a messenger of God and one of His angels (critics of Crowley's 23.1.2 Variations in Crowley's teachings system said it was open to the interpretation of the HGA Crowley only states that the Holy Guardian Angel is the being either a fallen angel (demon) or a lost, or damned, 'silent self' in his early life. In his late sixties, when com- human soul). posing Magick Without Tears, he states something very In this dialog between Dee and the angel Jubanladace on different. According to Crowley's later definition, the p. 18, Cotton Appendix XLVI 1, the angel says the folHoly Guardian Angel is not one's 'self', but an indepen- lowing: dent and discrete being, who may have been a human like oneself at one stage: Dee: If I should not offend you, I would Now, on the other hand, there is an entirely different type of angel; and here we must be especially careful to remember that we include gods and devils, for there are such beings who are not by any means dependent on one particular element for their existence. They are microcosms in exactly the same sense as men
gladly know of what order you are or how your state is in respect of Michael, Gabriel, Raphael or Uriel. Jubanladace: Unto men, according unto their deserts, and the first excellency of their soul, God hath appointed a good Governor or Angel, from among the orders of those that are blessed. For every soul that is good, is not of
214
CHAPTER 23. HOLY GUARDIAN ANGEL one and the self same dignification. Therefore according to his excellency we are appointed as Ministers from that order, whereunto his excellency accordeth: to the intent that he may be brought, at last, to supply those places which were glorified by a former: and also to the intent, that the Prince of darkness might be counterposed in God's justice.* [8]
23.4 See also • Consciousness • Chaos magic • Guardian angel • Thelemic mysticism • Genius (mythology)
23.5 Notes [1] MacGregor Mathers, S. L.. The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage. Book Tree. ISBN 1-58509-252-5 [2] Crowley,Magic Without Tears, Ch.83 [3] Book 4, “One Star in Sight” [4] Crowley, Aleister. Liber Samekh. [5] Crowley, Aleister. Liber 8. [6] Crowley, Magick Without Tears [7] Caroll, Peter J. Liber Null and Psychonaut. pp. 49-51 [8] Now in various collections of the British Library. See especially Sloane MSS 3188, 3189 and 3191, and Cotton Appendix XLVI. All the above are available in digital scans at : http://www.themagickalreview.org/enochian/ mss/
23.6 References • Caroll, Peter J (1987). Liber Null & Psychonaut.San Francisco, CA: Weiser Books. • Crowley, Aleister (1997). Magick: Book 4 (2nd edition). York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser. • Crowley, Aleister (1982). Magick Without Tears. Phoenix, AZ: Falcon Press. ISBN 1-56184-018-1 • Crowley, Aleister (1998). The Vision & the Voice. York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser. • Thelemapedia (2005). Holy Guardian Angel. Retrieved March 15, 2005.
23.7 External links • Free Encyclopedia of Thelema: Holy Guardian Angel
Chapter 24
Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu to the newly opened Egyptian Museum of Cairo (inventory number A 9422; Temporary Register Number 25/12/24/11), where it remains today. The stele is made of wood and covered with a plaster gesso, which has been painted. It measures 51.5 centimeters high and 31 centimeters wide. On the front Ankh-efen-Khonsu is as a priest of Montu can be seen; he is presenting offerings to the falcon-headed god Re-Harakhty (“Re-Horus of the Two Horizons”), a syncretic form of the gods Ra and Horus, who is seated on a throne. The symbol of the west, the place of the Dead, is seen behind Re-Harakhty. Above the figures is a depiction of Nuit, the sky goddess who stretches from horizon to horizon. Directly beneath her is the Winged Solar Disk, Horus of Behdet. The stele is also known as the "Stele of Revealing" and is a central element of the religious philosophy Thelema founded by Aleister Crowley.
24.1 Origins The stele is a fairly typical example of a late Third Intermediate Period Theban offering stele* [3] dating to the late Dynasty 25/early Dynasty 26.* [4] It was discovered in 1854 as part of a large burial of priests of Montu at Dayr al-Bahri, and included the coffin of the dedicant, Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu.* [5] Stele Cairo A 9422 (Bulaq 666), depicting Nut, Behdety as the winged solar disk, Re-Harakhty seated on his throne, and the stele's owner, Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu i
The Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu i (also known as the Stele of Revealing) is a painted, wooden offering stele, discovered in 1858 at the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Dayr al-Bahri by François Auguste Ferdinand Mariette.* [1] It was originally made for the Montu-priest Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu i,* [2] and was discovered near his coffin ensemble of two sarcophagi and two anthropomorphic inner coffins. It dates to circa 680/70 BCE, the period of the late Dynasty 25/early Dynasty 26. Originally located in the former Bulaq Museum under inventory number 666, the stele was moved around 1902
24.2 Text The stele is painted on both faces with Egyptian texts, some of which are Chapter 91 of the Egyptian Book of the Dead, while the back of the stele records eleven lines of text from Chapters 30 and 2. The text reads as follows.
24.2.1 Obverse
215
216
CHAPTER 24. STELE OF ANKH-EF-EN-KHONSU [A1] Beneath the Winged Solar Disk: (He of) Behdet, the Great God, Lord of Heaven
24.2.2 Reverse
[A2–A3] Above Re-Harakhty: Re-Harakhty ( “Re-Horus of the Two Horizons”), Chief of the Gods [A4–A8] Above Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu: The Osiris, God's Servant of Montu, Lord of Waset, Opener of the Door-leaves of Heaven in the Most Select of Places (i.e., Karnak), Ankhef-en-Khonsu, <True of> Voice
[A9] Beneath the offering table: (1000s of) Bread and beer, cattle and fowl
Replica of the reverse face of Cairo A 9422
[B1–B5] Main text: [B1] Words spoken by the Osiris (i.e., the deceased), God's Servant of Montu, Lord of Waset, Opener of the Doorleaves of Heaven in the Most Select of Places (i.e., Karnak), Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu, [B2] True of Voice:“O Exalted-one! may he be praised, Great of Manifestations, the great Ba whom [B3] the gods fear, and who appears on his great throne, make the path of the Ba, the Akh, and the Shadow, for I am equipped so that (I) might shine therein [B4] (as) an equipped-one. Make for me the path to the place in which Re, Atum, Khepri,* [6] and Hathor are therein.” The Osiris, God's Servant of Montu, Lord of Waset, [B5] Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu, <True of> Voice, son of the like titled Ba-sa-en-Mut, borne of the Chantress of Amun-Re, Lady of the House, Ta-nesh<et>.* [7]
[C1] Words spoken by the Osiris (i.e., the
24.5. EXTERNAL LINKS deceased), God's Servant of Montu, Lord of Waset, Ankh-ef-en- [C2] Khonsu, True of Voice: "(O) my heart of my mother [2 times], (O) my heart while I existed [C3] upon earth, do not stand against me as a witness, do not oppose me in [C4] in the tribunal, do not be hostile against me in the presence of the Great God, Lord of the West. [C5] Although I have united (myself) to the land to the great western side of Heaven, may I flourish upon earth!" [C6] Words spoken by the Osiris, the Stolist* [8] of Waset, Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu, True of Voice: O (you who are) Unique [C7] of Arm, who shines like the moon, the Osiris, Ankh-ef- [C8] en-Khonsu, goes forth from your multitudes, [C9] (O) deliverer of those who are within the sun-light, open for him [C10] the Netherworld, indeed, the Osiris, Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu who goes forth in [C11] day in order to do everything all that pleased him upon earth among the living-ones.”
24.3 Interpretation by Aleister Crowley and Thelema The designation of this object as the Stele of Revealing was given in April 1904 by the occultist Aleister Crowley, in connection with his Book of the Law.* [9]
217
Theban necropolis.”In The Theban necropolis: Past, present and future, edited by Nigel C. Strudwick and John H. Taylor. London: British Museum Press. 131–137. [2] Hisham el-Leithy,“Painted Wooden Stelae From Thebes from the 21st to the 26 Dynasties,”in Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists, edited by Jean-Claude Goyon and Christine Cardin. Orientalia lovaniensia analecta 150. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters, 2007. 585–594 ; see also Abd el-Hamid Zayed,“Painted Wooden Stelae in the Cairo Museum,”Revue d'égytologie 20 (1968), 149–152, and plate 7. [3] Peter Munro. 1973. Die spätägyptischen Totenstelen. 2 vols. Ägyptologische Forschungen 25. Glückstadt: Verlag J. J. Augustin. The stele is #187 in Munro's catalogue. [4] Abd el Hamid Zayed, “Painted Wooden Stelae in the Cairo Museum,”Revue d'égytologie 20 (1968), 149–152, and plate 7. [5] Henri Gauthier. 1913. Cercueils anthropoïdes des prêtres de Montou. 2 vols. Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du Musée du Caire 62 and 65. Cairo: Imprimerie de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale du Caire. [6] Re is the sun at midday, Atum as it sets, and Khepri as it dawns [7] Lit. “The Hairdresser.”For the reading of the name, see Hermann Ranke. 1935. Die ägyptischen Personennamen. Vol. 1 of 3 vols. Glückstadt: Verlag J. J. Augustin. 1:364. cf. the Prosopographia aegypti [8] Egyptian sm ; a priest responsible for clothing the image of a god. See William A. Ward. 1982. Index of Egyptian administrative and religious titles of the Middle Kingdom, with a glossary of words and phrases used. Beirut: American University of Beirut. No. 1288.
According to Aleister Crowley, his wife Rose had already reported a revelation from the god Horus, through his messenger Aiwass.* [10] The couple went to the newly opened Egyptian Museum (where the stela had been moved), to see if she could recognize Horus on Monday, [9] March 21, 1904. Rose recognized an image of the god on this painted stele, which at the time bore the catalogue number 666, a number holding religious significance in [10] Thelema.
Skinner, Stephen (ed). The Magical Diaries of Aleister Crowley: Tunisia 1923, p. 79, n. 8. Weiser, 1996. ISBN 0-87728-856-9 Equinox 7:4-the events leading up to writing of the book
According to Crowley, the stela depicts the three chief [11] The Equinox of the Gods section 7:4-The people deities of Thelema: Nuit (Egyptian Nut), Hadit (Egyptian Behdety), and Ra-Hoor-Khuit (Egyptian Re-Harakhty ["Re-Horus of the Two Horizons"]). 24.5 External links Crowley states that he dined with the Egyptologist Émile Charles Albert Brugsch bey, Curator of the Bulaq Museum to discuss the stele in his charge and to arrange for a facsimile to be made. According to Crowley, Brugsch's French assistant curator translated the hieroglyphic text on the stele.* [11] In 1912 a second translation was later made for Crowley by Alan Gardiner and Battiscombe Gunn.
24.4 References [1] In general, see Cynthia May Sheikholeslami. 2003.“The burials of the priests of Montu at Deir el-Bahari in the
• Boulaq Museum
Chapter 25
93 (Thelema) The number 93 is of great significance in Thelema, a religion founded by English author and occultist Aleister Crowley in 1904 with the writing of The Book of the Law (also known as Liber AL vel Legis).* [1]
In informal written correspondence, one often finds the number singularly at the head of a letter, representing “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law”and in the form“93 93/93”at the end, which stands for“Love is the law, love under will.”Crowley often used this form The central philosophy of Thelema is in two phrases from himself within his own letters. Liber AL: “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law”and “Love is the law, love under will.”The two Aleister Crowley wrote thus on the matter: primary terms in these statements are“Will”and“Love” , respectively. In the Greek language, they are Thelema I am often asked why I begin my letters this (Will) and Agape (Love). Using the Greek technique of way. No matter whether I am writing to my isopsephy, which applies a numerical value to each letter, lady or to my butcher, always I begin with these the letters of each of these words sum to 93: eleven words. Why, how else should I begin? What other greeting could be so glad? Look, brother, we are free! Rejoice with me, sister, Thelema there is no law beyond Do what thou wilt!* [2] Agapé
25.3 See also 25.1 Other correspondences
• Works of Aleister Crowley • Libri of Aleister Crowley
There are other words found in Thelemic literature that add up to 93 using either isopsephy or gematria. These include:
• 666 (Thelema) • 418 (Thelema)
• OVIZ —Dictated Liber AL vel Legis to Aleister Crowley in 1904 • FIAOF
25.4 References [1] Skinner, Stephen (ed). The Magical Diaries of Aleister Crowley: Tunisia 1923, p. 79, n. Samuel Weiser, 1996. ISBN 0-87728-856-9
• AUMGN - Crowley's adaptation of Aum • LAShTAL
[2] Liber DCCCXXXVII —The Law of Liberty .
25.2 As salutation
• Thelemapedia (2005). 93. Retrieved 5 April 2005.
It is common for Thelemites to greet each other with “93”in person as well as in the opening and closing of written correspondence. This custom derives from Aleister Crowley's guideline that Thelemites should greet each other with the Law of Thelema by saying“Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law.”Since saying the entire Law can be cumbersome, using 93 has become a kind of shorthand. 218
• Crowley, Aleister. (1997). Magick (Book 4) Edited, annotated, and introduced by Hymenaeus Beta. York Beach, Maine: Samuel Weiser. • P-Orridge, Genesis. Thee Psychick Bible: The Apocryphal Scriptures ov Genesis P-Orridge & thee Third MIND ov Psychic TV. Edited by J.A. Rapoza. San Francisco, California: Alecto Enterprises, 1994.
25.5. EXTERNAL LINKS
25.5 External links â&#x20AC;¢ 93 Y'all, a short explanation of 93 and a comparison with the Wiccan Rede.
219
Chapter 26
Abyss (Thelema) In Thelemic mysticism, the Abyss is the great gulf or void In the Qabalistic system of Crowley, the Abyss contains between the phenomenal world of manifestation and its the 11th (hidden) sephira, Da'ath, which separates the noumenal source. lower sephiroth from the supernals. This account derives from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn's view of Genesis,* [7] in which Da'ath represents the fall of man from a unified consciousness into a duality be26.1 Theory and practice tween ego and divine nature.* [8] The Abyss is guarded by the demon Choronzon, who manifests during the third, The founder of Thelema, author Aleister Crowley, says ceremonial method of crossing this gulf. He represents those parts of one's consciousness and unconsciousness of the Abyss in his Little Essays Toward Truth: -- “a momentary unity capable of sensation and of expression,”in Crowley's terms* [9] -- that are unwilling or “This doctrine is extremely difficult to exunable to enter the Divine. According to Grant Morrison plain; but it corresponds more or less to the gap in the Richard Metzger Book of Lies, at least, Choronzon in thought between the Real, which is ideal, and the Unreal, which is actual. In the Abyss all is Existential Self at the last gasp...Beyond things exist, indeed, at least in posse, but are Choronzon we are no longer our Self. The without any possible meaning; for they lack the “personality”on the brink of the Abyss will do substratum of spiritual Reality. They are apanything, say anything and find any excuse to pearances without Law. They are thus Insane avoid taking this disintegrating step into“nonDelusions. being.”* [10] Now the Abyss being thus the great storehouse of Phenomena, it is the source of all impressions.”* [1]
“Crossing the Abyss”is regarded as a perilous operation, and the most important work of the magician's career. Success confers graduation into the degree of Magister On a practical level, Crowley's published instructions on Templi, or “Master of the Temple.” the Abyss tell the reader to consider some philosophical problem without using magic or intuition, until the mind focuses on this problem of its own accord: “Then will all phenomena which present themselves to him ap- 26.2 The Book of Lies pear meaningless and disconnected, and his own Ego will break up into a series of impressions having no relation Crowley specifically wrote his 1913 volume, The Book of one with the other, or with any other thing.”This pre- Lies, for what he called the“Babes of the Abyss”(writing pares the student for the mystical experience that Crow- at the start of the book, “It is an official publication for ley elsewhere calls Shivadarshana.* [2] Crowley modeled Babes of the Abyss”). these instructions on his own experiences in the year 1905.* [3]* [4] The Vision and the Voice describes two additional methods of entering the Abyss. The first of 26.3 References these“concerns things of which it (was) unlawful to speak openly under penalty of the most dreadful punishment,” * [5] namely receptive homosexual intercourse under the [1] Crowley, Aleister. Little Essays Toward Truth. desert sun that went against Crowley's social habits of [2] Liber OS Abysmi vel Daath pamphlet, available online at conduct or his conscious self-image.* [6] The second inHermetic.com. Retrieved Dec. 19, 2009. volves ceremonial magic and focuses more on the theory [3] Confessions, Chapter 58. behind the Abyss. 220
26.4. SOURCES
[4] Sutin, p. 160. [5] Confessions Chapter 66 [6] Sutin, p. 202. [7]“See 4=7 ritual”for Da'ath as “the Eighth Head of the Stooping Dragon”. Crowley, 777 and other qabalistic writings of Aleister Crowley p. 35. Also references The Vision and the Voice. [8] Separates us from the divine “Supernals”. Regardie, Israel. The Golden Dawn p. 193-194. [9] The Vision and the Voice, Tenth Aethyr, fn 13. [10] Metzger 2003, p. 24. Google Books preview.
26.4 Sources • Crowley, Aleister. 777 and other qabalistic writings of Aleister Crowley, edited with an introduction by Israel Regardie. Samuel Weiser, Inc. York Beach, Maine. 2000. First printing 1973. Copyright 1912, 1955 “Ordo Templi Orientis”. • ___ Confessions of Aleister Crowley, online version from Hermetic.com retrieved December 19, 2009. • Regardie, Israel. (1989). The original account of the teachings, rites and ceremonies of The Golden Dawn. Sixth Edition, Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications. • Sutin, Lawrence. Do what thou wilt: A life of Aleister Crowley. St. Martin's Griffin, New York 2002. Copyright 2000.
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Chapter 27
Gematria Gematria /ɡəˈmeɪ.tri.ə/ originated as an AssyroBabylonian-Greek system of alphanumeric code/cipher later adopted into Jewish culture that assigns numerical value to a word/name/phrase in the belief that words or phrases with identical numerical values bear some relation to each other or bear some relation to the number itself as it may apply to Nature, a person's age, the calendar year, or the like.
Though gematria is most often used to calculate the values of individual words, psukim (Biblical verses), Talmudical aphorisms, sentences from the standard Jewish prayers, personal, angelic and Godly names, and other religiously significant material, Kabbalists use them often for arbitrary phrases and, occasionally, for various languages. A few instances of gematria in Arabic, Spanish and Greek, spelled with the Hebrew letters, are * Similar systems, some of which were derived from or in- mentioned in the works of Rabbi Abraham Abulafia; [6] some Hasidic Rabbis also used it, though rarely, for spired by Hebrew gematria, have been used in other lan* guages and cultures, i.e. Greek isopsephy and Arabic Yiddish. [7] However, the primary language for gematria calculations has always been and remains Hebrew and, to abjad numerals. a lesser degree, Aramaic. The best-known example of Hebrew gematria is the word Chai (“Alive”), which is composed of two letters that A classic Biblical commentary incorporating gematria is (using the assignments in the Mispar gadol table shown Baal ha-Turim by Rabbi Jacob ben Asher. below) add up to 18. This has made 18 a "lucky num- Gematria is often used by the Maharal of Prague and ber" among Jews, and gifts of money / donations given in hasidic Torah commentators (such as the "Sefath Emmultiples of 18 are very popular.* [1] meth" from Gur).
27.3 Textual sources
27.1 Etymology
A Mishnaic textual source makes clear that the use of gematria is dated to at least the Tannaic period.
Although the term is Hebrew, it is derived from the Greek γεωμετρία geōmetriā, "geometry", which was used as a translation of gēmaṭriyā, though some scholars believe it to derive from Greek γραμματεια grammateia “knowledge of writing". It's possible that both Greek words had an influence on the formation of the Hebrew word.* [2]* [3] (Some also hold it to derive from the order of the Greek alphabet, gamma being the third letter of the Greek alphabet (gamma + tria).* [4]) The word has been extant in English since the 17th century from translations of works by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. Although ostensibly derived from Greek, it is largely used in Jewish texts, notably in those associated with the Kabbalah.
27.2 History
Pirkei Avot 3:23: . קנין ופתחי נדה הן הן גופי הלכות,רבי אלעזר בן חסמא אומר .תקופות וגמטריאות פרפראות לחכמה Rabbi Eleazar Chisma* [8] said: the laws of mixed bird offerings and the key to the calculations of menstruation days—these, these are the body of the halakhah. The calculation of the equinoxes and gematria are the desserts of wisdom. An alternative translation to the Hebrew word פרפראותis “minor side dishes”.
Some identify two forms of gematria: the “revealed” form, which is prevalent in many hermeneutic methods found throughout Rabbinic literature, and the“mystical” form, a largely Kabbalistic practice.* [5] 222
Minor dishes may be served before, during, or after a meal, to add interest and variety; they are the appetizers, side dishes, desserts, tid-bits —never to be served as main dishes. In other words, these sciences, while important, are yet
27.6. METHODS only auxiliary and secondary. What is primary is the Torah. What is central is the life-giving law.* [9]
27.4 Values table The Mispar gadol (see below) values are:
27.5 Vowels The value of the Hebrew vowels is not usually counted, but some lesser-known methods include the vowels as well. The most common vowel values are as follows (a less common alternative value, based on digit sum, is given in parentheses): Sometimes the names of the vowels are spelled out and their gematria is calculated using standard methods.* [10]
27.6 Methods There are several methods used to calculate the numerical value for the individual Hebrew/Aramaic words, phrases or whole sentences. More advanced methods are usually used for the most significant Biblical verses, prayers, names of God and angels etc. • Mispar Hechrachi (absolute value) that uses full numerical value of the 22 letters. Sometimes it is also called Mispar ha-Panim (face number), as opposed to the more complicated Mispar ha-Akhor (back number). • Mispar Gadol counts the final forms (sofit) of the Hebrew letters as a continuation of the numerical sequence for the alphabet, with the final letters assigned values from 500 to 900. • The same name, Mispar ha-Gadol, is also used for another method, which spells the name of each letter and adds the standard values of the resulting string. • Mispar Katan calculates the value of each letter, but truncates all of the zeros. It is also sometimes called Mispar Me'ugal. • Mispar Siduri (ordinal value) with each of the twenty-two letters given a value from one to twentytwo. • Mispar Bone'eh (building value, also Revu'a, square* [11]) is calculated by walking over each letter from the beginning to the end, adding the value of all previous letters and the value of the current letter to the running total. Therefore, the value of the word achad (one) is 1 + (1 + 8) + (1 + 8 + 4) = 23.
223 • Mispar Kidmi (triangular value) uses each letter as the sum of all the standard gematria letter values preceding it. Therefore, the value of Aleph is 1, the value of Bet is 1 + 2 = 3, the value of Gimmel is 1+2+3=6, etc. It's also known as Mispar Meshulash (triangular or tripled number). • Mispar P'rati calculates the value of each letter as the square of its standard gematria value. Therefore, the value of Aleph is 1 × 1 = 1, the value of Bet is 2 × 2 = 4, the value of gimmel is 3 × 3 = 9, etc. It's also known as Mispar ha-Merubah ha-Prati'. • Mispar ha-Merubah ha-Klali is the square of the standard absolute value of each word. • Mispar Meshulash calculates the value of each letter as the cube of their standard value. The same term is more often used for Mispar Kidmi. • Mispar ha-Akhor – The value of each letter is its standard value multiplied by the position of the letter in a word or a phrase in either ascending or descending order. This method is particularly interesting, because the result is sensitive to the order of letters. It is also sometimes called Mispar Meshulash (triangular number). • Mispar Mispari spells out the standard values of each letter by their Hebrew names (“Achad”(one) is 1+8+4=13 etc.), and then adds up the standard values of the resulting string. • Mispar Shemi (also Millui letter “filling”), uses the value of each letter as equal to the value of its name.* [12] For example, the value of the letter Aleph is (1 + 30 + 80) = 111, Bet is (2 + 10 + 400) = 412, etc. Sometimes the same operation is applied two or more times recursively. • Mispar Ne'elam (hidden number) spells out the name of each letter without the letter itself (e.g. “Leph” for“Aleph”) and adds up the value of the resulting string. • Mispar Katan Mispari (integral reduced value) is used where the total numerical value of a word is reduced to a single digit. If the sum of the value exceeds 9, the integer values of the total are repeatedly added to produce a single-digit number. The same value will be arrived at regardless of whether it is the absolute values, the ordinal values, or the reduced values that are being counted by methods above. • Mispar Misafi adds the number of the letters in the word or phrase to their gematria. • Kolel is the number of words, which is often added to the gematria. In case of one word, the standard value is incremented by one.
224
CHAPTER 27. GEMATRIA
Within the wider topic of Gematria are included the var- word "Talmud") is found; the gematria of the resulting ious alphabet transformations where one letter is substi- string is then calculated. The same author also used sums tuted by another based on a logical scheme: of all possible unique letter combinations, which add up to the value of a given letter. For example, the letter Hei, • Atbash exchanges each letter in a word or a phrase which has the standard value of 5, can be produced by by opposite letters. Opposite letters are determined combining 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 2 + 1 + 1 + 1, 3 + 1 + 1, 4 by substituting the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet + 1, 2 + 2 + 1 or 2 + 3, which adds up to 30. Sometimes (Aleph) with the last letter (Tav), the second letter combinations of repeating letters are not allowed (e.g. 2 (Bet) with the next to last (Shin), etc. The result + 3 is valid, but 3 + 1 + 1 is not). The original letter itself * can be interpreted as a secret message or calculated can also be viewed as a valid combination. [15] by the standard gematria methods. A few instances of Atbash are found already in the Hebrew Bible. For example, see Jeremiah 25:26, and 51:41, with Targum and Rashi.* [13] • Albam – the alphabet is divided in half, eleven letters in each section. The first letter of the first series is exchanged for the first letter of the second series, the second letter of the first series for the second letter of the second series and so forth.
Variant spellings of some letters can be used to produce sets of different numbers, which can be added up or analyzed separately. Many various complex formal systems and recursive algorithms, based on graph-like structural analysis of the letter names and their relations to each other, modular arithmetic, pattern search and other highly advanced techniques, are found in the “Sefer ha-Malchuth”by Rabbi David ha-Levi of Draa Valley, a Spanish-Moroccan Kabbalist of the 15–16th century.* [10] Rabbi David ha-Levi's methods take into consideration the numerical values and other properties of the vowels as well.
• Achbi divides the alphabet into two equal groups of eleven letters. Within each group, the first letter is replaced by the last, the second by the tenth, etc. Kabbalistic astrology uses some specific methods to determine the astrological influences on a particular per• Ayak Bakar replaces each letter by another one that son. According to one method, the gematria of the perhas a 10-times-greater value. The final letters ususon's name is added to the gematria of his or her mother's ally signify the numbers from 500 to 900. Thouname; the result is then divided by 7 and 12. The remainsands is reduced to ones (1000 becomes 1, 2000 beders signify a particular planet and Zodiac sign.* [17] comes 2 etc.) • Ofanim replaces each letter by the last letter of its name (e.g. “Fe”for “Aleph”). • Akhas Beta divides the alphabet into three groups of 27.7 Mathematical 7, 7 and 8 letters. Each letter is replaced cyclically by the corresponding letter of the next group. The A formula for finding a letter's corresponding number letter Tav remains the same. ( ) in Mispar Gadol is: f (x) = 10f loor((x−1)÷9) × • Avgad replaces each letter by the next one. Tav be- (((x − 1) rem 9) + 1) where x is the position of the letcomes Aleph. The opposite operation is also used. ter in the language letters index (Regular order of letters). Most of the above-mentioned methods and ciphers are listed by Rabbi Moshe Cordevero.* [14] Some authors provide lists of as many as 231 various replacement ciphers, related to the 231 mystical Gates of the Sefer Yetzirah.* [15] Dozens of other far more advanced methods are used in Kabbalistic literature, without any particular names. In Ms. Oxford 1,822, one article lists 75 different forms of gematria.* [16] Some known methods are recursive in nature and are reminiscent of the graph theory or use heavily combinatorics. Rabbi Elazar Rokeach often used multiplication, instead of addition, for the above-mentioned methods. For example, spelling out the letters of a word and then multiplying the squares of each letter value in the resulting string produces very large numbers, in orders of trillions. The spelling process can be applied recursively, until a certain pattern (e.g. all the letters of the
27.8 Absolute value The most common form of Hebrew gematria is used in the Talmud and Midrash, and elaborately by many post-Talmudic commentators. It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the Hebrew alphabet. When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words or phrases – cf. the Hebrew proverb ( נכנס יין יצא סודnichnas yayin yatza sod, lit. “wine entered, secret went out”, i.e. "in vino veritas"). The gematric value of “( ייןwine”) is 70 (=י10; =י10; =ן50) and this is also the gematric value of “( סודsecret” , =ס60; =ו6; =ד4).* [18]
27.11. NOTES
27.9 Use in other languages The first attested use of gematria occurs in an inscription of Assyrian ruler Sargon II (727–705 BC) stating that the king built the wall of Khorsabad 16,283 cubits long to correspond with the numerical value of his name.* [19] Gematria or isopsephy was borrowed into the Greek probably soon after their adoption of the Semitic writing system. The extant examples of use in Greek come primarily from the Christian literature and, unlike rabbinic sources, is always explicitly stated as being used.* [20] It has been asserted that Plato (c. 427347 BC) offers a discussion of gematria “in its simplest forms”in the Cratylus, where he is said to have claimed that“the 'essential force' of a thing's name is to be found in its numerical value, and that words and phrases of the same numerical value may be substituted in context without loss in meaning.”A direct review of the Cratylus, however, shows that Plato made no such claim and that gematria is not discussed in it either explicitly or implicitly. What can be more accurately stated is that Plato's discussion in the Cratylus involves a view of words and names as referring (more or less accurately) to the “essential nature”of a person or object, and that this view may have influenced – and is central to – Greek gematria.* [21]* [22] The Latin-script languages exhibit borrowing of gematria methods dating from the early Middle Ages after the use lapsed following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. Many researchers connect the "Number of the Beast", referred to in the Book of Revelation of the New Testament, with either Greek or Hebrew gematria as used by the early Christians. According to such interpretations, the number in question, 666, was originally derived via gematria from the name of the Roman emperor of the time, Nero Caesar ( נרונקסרNero Qasr).* [23] In Arabic, gematria is known as Abjad numerals.
27.10 See also
225 • Katapayadi system • Kollel • Mathers table • Metaphysics • Notarikon • Numbers in Chinese culture • Numbers in different languages • Numbers in Egyptian mythology • Numbers in Norse mythology • Significance of numbers in Judaism • Temurah • Theomatics • Untranslatability
27.11 Notes [1] “Chabad.org Chani Benjaminson”. [2] “Gematria”at Dictionary.com [3] “gematria”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Oxford English Dictionary [4] Benjamin Blech, “The Complete Idiot's Guide to Jewish Culture”, p. 395 (2004) [5] e.g. Aish HaTorah, http://www.aish.com/spirituality/ prayer/Prayer_6_-_Hear_O_Israel_Part_1.asp, which says “It is part of a Kabbalistic tradition ... Gematria is a Kabbalistic way of showing how two ideas are related on a conceptual level; it is using numerology as basis to confirm (not create) the connection.”
• Abjad numerals
[6] Otzar Eden ha-Ganuz,
• About the Mystery of the Letters
[7] E.g. the rebbes of the Zhidichov dynasty noticed that the Yiddish word vaser (water) has the same value as Geshem (rain in Hebrew), and used this fact for theurgic meditations
• Bible code • Chronogram • English Qabalah
[8] astronomer and mathematician and knew geometry, Horayoth 10 a-b
• Hebrew numerals
[9] Bunim, I (1964). “Ethics From Sinai”, Feldheim
• Greek numerals
[10] Sefer ha-Malchut, “Sifrei Chaim”, Jerusalem, 2008
• Iconicity
[11] Toras Menachem - Tiferes Levi Yitzchok, Vol. Bereshis, p. 2, fn. 7
• Isopsephy • Kabbalah
I -
[12] the spelling of the name of the number comes from the Talmud
226
[13] The Jewish Encyclopedia, Volume 5. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Co. 1904. p.589. [14] Moshe Cordevero, Sefer Pardes ha-Rimonim, שער האותיות [15] Elazar Rokeach, Sefer ha-Shem [16] Encyclopedia Judaica, 2007, vol. 7, 426 [17] Commentary to Sefer Yetzirah, attributed to Saadia Gaon, 6:4; Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, Sefer Yetzirah,“WeiserBooks” , Boston, 1997, pp. 220-221 [18] Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 38a, see of Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A SocioPhilo(sopho)logical Perspective”, Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237-258. [19] p.197, Ratzan [20] p.164, Davies & Allison [21] Marc Hirshman, Theology and exegesis in midrashic literature, in Jon Whitman, Interpretation and allegory: antiquity to the modern period. Brill, 2003. pp. 113-114. [22] John Michell, The Dimensions of Paradise: Sacred Geometry, Ancient Science, and the Heavenly Order on Earth, 2008. pp.59-65 ff. [23] Sanders, H. A.“The Number of the Beast in Revelation.” Journal of Biblical Literature 37.1 (1918): 97.
27.12 References • Klein, Ernest, Dr., A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language: Dealing with the origin of words and their sense development thus illustrating the history and civilization of culture, Elsevier, Oxford, 7th ed., 2000 • Davies, William David & Allison, Dale C., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 • Acres, Kevin, Data integrity patterns of the Torah: A tale of prime, perfect and transcendental numbers, Research Systems, Melbourne, 2004 • Clawson, Calvin C., Mathematical Mysteries: The Beauty and Magic of Numbers, Perseus Books, 1999 • Davis, John J. Biblical Numerology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1968. • Hughes, J. P., Suggestive Gematria, Holmes, 2008
CHAPTER 27. GEMATRIA • Genesis Rabbah 95:3. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. • Deuteronomy Rabbah 1:25. Land of Israel, 5th Century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. Volume VII, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. • Lawrence, Shirley Blackwell, The Secret Science of Numerology – The Hidden Meaning of Numbers and Letters, New Page Books, 2001 • Menninger, Karl. Number Words and Number Symbols: A Cultural History of Numbers. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969. • Ratzan, Lee, Understanding Information Systems: What They Do and why We Need Them, ALA Editions, 2004 • Rawn, Jonathan D. Discovering Gematria: Foundational Exegesis and Primary Dictionary. 1,968 pp. Gematria Publishing, 2008. • Sefer hamilim. Qonqordantzia hakhadash (lekol haTanakh). Lebovits-Kest Memorial, B'nei-Torah Compact Library, Printed in Israel • Zeitler, William. Musical Gematria. Musica Arcana, 2013, ISBN 978-1-940630-02-1
Chapter 28
Subtle body “true and genuine body”(jism asli haqiqi) in Sufism,“the diamond body”in Taoism and Vajrayana,“the light body” or“rainbow body”in Tibetan Buddhism,“the body of bliss”in Kriya Yoga, and “the immortal body”(soma athanaton) in Hermeticism.* [2] The various attributes of the subtle body are frequently described in terms of often obscure symbolism: Tantra features references to the sun and moon as well as various Indian rivers and deities, while Taoist alchemy speaks of cauldrons and cinnabar fields.
28.1 History of the term The expression “subtile body”appears suddenly in English literature in about 1650, appears erratically until it ceased to be used by about 1840. At that time, the more common term “subtle body”comes into use. The latter expression gradually gains in currency through the nineteenth century, and begins a sharp increase in usage from about 1940 until the present time.* [3] Further research is needed to clarify the actual authors who used the phrase, and what they meant by it. But the word may have a connection with the Sanskrit Sūkṣma (subtle, unmanifest, dormant) Śarīra (body) which is described in the Vedas.* [4]
28.2 Eastern esotericism The subtle body in Indian mysticism, from a Yoga manuscript in Braj Bhasa language, 1899, now in the British Library.
A subtle body is one of a series of psycho-spiritual constituents of living beings, according to various esoteric, occult, and mystical teachings. According to such beliefs each subtle body corresponds to a subtle plane of existence, in a hierarchy or great chain of being that culminates in the physical form.
For the body of light in the Tibetan Dzogchen tradition, see Rainbow body. See also: Taoism
The Yogic, Tantric and other systems of Hinduism, the Buddhist psychology of Tibet, as well as Chinese (Taoist alchemy) and Japanese (Shingon) esoterism are examples of doctrines that describe a subtle physiology having According to Bhagavad Gita, one of the most sacred a number of focal points (chakras, acupuncture points) texts of Hinduism, the subtle body is composed of mind, connected by a series of channels (nadis, Acupuncture intelligence and ego, which controls the gross physical meridians) that convey breath (prana, vayu, ch'i, ki, lung). body.* [1] It is also known in other different spiritual tra- These invisible channels and points are understood to deditions: “the most sacred body”(wujud al-aqdas) and termine the characteristics of the visible physical form. 227
228
CHAPTER 28. SUBTLE BODY Manomaya and Vignanamaya kosas are related to Subtle body, Annamaya is related to Gross body, Anandamaya is related to Causal body). The subtle body is the vehicle of consciousness with which one passes from life to life. The Liṅga Śarīra is the vehicle of consciousness in later Samkhya, Vedanta, and Yoga, and is propelled by pastlife tendencies, or bhavas.* [5] Linga can be translated as “characteristic mark”or“impermanence”and the term Sarira (Vedanta) as “form”or “mold”.* [6] Karana or “instrument”is a synonymous term. In the Classical Samkhya system of Isvarakrsna (ca. 4th century CE), the Lińga is the characteristic mark of the transmigrating entity. It consists of twenty-five tattvas from eternal consciousness down to the five organs of sense, five of activity (buddindriya or jñānendriya, and karmendriya respectively) and the five subtle elements that are the objects of sense (tanmatras) The Samkhyakarika says: “The subtle body (linga), previously arisen, unconfined, constant, inclusive of the great one (mahat) etc , through the subtle elements, not having enjoyment, transmigrates, (because of) being endowed with bhavas (“conditions”or “dispositions”) As a picture (does) not (exist) without a support, or as a shadow (does) not (exist) without a post and so forth; so too the instrument (linga or karana) does not exist without that which is specific (i.e. a subtle body).”* [7]
The idea was adopted by Vedanta and Yoga philosophy, and from there, in the 19th century, the terminology was adopted by the Theosophy of Madame Blavatsky. By understanding and mastering the subtlest levels of re- Subtility-The State Of Being Subtile To Will ality one gains mastery over the physical realm. Through practice of various breathing and visualisation exercises one is able to manipulate and direct the flow of vital force, 28.2.2 Meher Baba's teachings to achieve superhuman (e.g. in martial arts) or miraculous powers ("siddhis") and attain higher states of conThe spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that the subtle sciousness, immortality, or liberation. body “is the vehicle of desires and vital forces,”* [8] He held that the subtle body is one of three bodies with which the soul must cease to identify in order to realize 28.2.1 Hinduism God: “At the end of the Path, however, the soul frees itself from all sanskaras and desires connected with the See also: gross, subtle and mental worlds; and it becomes possible for it to free itself from the illusion of being finite, • Vedanta (the five Koshas) which came into existence owing to its identification with the gross, subtle and mental bodies. At this stage the • Samkhya soul completely transcends the phenomenal world and be• Tantra comes Self-conscious and Self-realised.”* [9] Chart showing the circulation of Qi energy, Ming Dynasty
• Kundalini The subtle body (sūkṣma śarīra) in Vedantic philosophy is composed of three Koshas or “sheaths”(Pranamaya,
28.3 Western esotericism
28.3. WESTERN ESOTERICISM
28.3.1
229
Theosophy
H. P. Blavatsky's Theosophical teaching represented the convergence of 19th century Western occultism, Eastern philosophy, religion, science, and mysticism. The Secret Doctrine, and The Key to Theosophy combined the Vedantic concept of five koshas with Western esoteric traditions (particularly Neoplatonism). She refers to three subtle bodies: • Linga Sharira - the Double or Astral body • Mayavi-rupa - the “Illusion-body.” • Causal Body - the vehicle of the higher Mind. The Linga Sharira is the invisible double of the human body, elsewhere referred to as the etheric body, doppelgänger or bioplasmic body and serves as a model or matrix of the physical body, which conforms to the shape, appearance and condition of his “double”. The linga sarira can be separated or projected a limited distance from the body. When separated from the body it can be wounded by sharp objects. When it returns to the physical frame, the wound will be reflected in the phys- The Vehicles of the Soul according to the Theosophist ical counterpart, a phenomenon called “repercussion.” Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa. At death, it is discarded together with the physical body and eventually disintegrates or decomposes. Each “body”has its own aura and set of chakras, and The mayavi-rupa is dual in its functions, being: "...the corresponds to a particular plane of existence. vehicle both of thought and of the animal passions and desires, drawing at one and the same time from the lowest terrestrial manas (mind) and Kama, the element of 28.3.2 Post Theosophists desire.”* [10] The higher part of this body, containing the spiritual elements gathered during life, merges after death entirely into the causal body; while the lower part, containing the animal elements, forms the Kama-rupa, the source of “spooks”or apparitions of the dead. Theosophy was further systematized in the writings of C.W. Leadbeater and Annie Besant. For example, they divided Blavatsky's dual mayavi-rupa into two different bodies: the emotional and the mental bodies. They also redefined some terms. The Linga Sarira (sometimes called astral body by Blavatsky) was denominated by Annie Besant* [11] as Etheric double. C.W. Leadbeater, regarding the emotional body as the seat of the kamic principle of Blavatsky's constitution, denominated it astral body. Therefore, the subtle bodies in a human being are: • • • •
The later Theosophical arrangement was taken up by Alice Bailey, and from there found its way (with variations) into the New Age worldview. It is also associated with the human aura observed through Kirlian photography and Kilner screens. The Anthroposophical view of the human being found in Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophical teachings usually referred to only the Etheric and Astral Bodies. However, Steiner also used a threefold classification of body, soul, and spirit as well as a sevenfold and a ninefold description.
Max Heindel divided the subtle body into: Vital Body made of Ether, our instrument for specializing the vital energy of the sun, seen by clairvoyant vision to extend about an inch and a half outside the body; the Desire body, which is our emotional nature and pervades both the vital and dense bodies, seen by clairvoyant vision to extend about 16 inches outside our visible body, related to Etheric body (vehicle of prana) the Desire World; and the Mental body, which functions like a mirror, reflects the outer world and enables the Ego Emotional or astral body (vehicle of desires and to transmit its commands as thought, word and action. emotions) The human being is seen as a threefold Spirit, possessMental body (vehicle of the concrete or lower mind) ing a Mind by which he governs the threefold Body that he transmutes into a threefold Soul. The Human Spirit Causal body (vehicle of the abstract or higher mind) aspect has emanated from itself the desire body to be
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transmuted into the Emotional Soul; the Life Spirit as- 28.4 Aleister Crowley and the Body pect has emanated from itself the vital body to be transof Light muted into the Intellectual Soul; the Divine Spirit aspect has emanated from itself the dense body to be transmuted The work of the Body of Light was part of English author into the Conscious Soul. and occultist Aleister Crowley's system of magick, saying Samael Aun Weor wrote extensively on the subtle vehi- in his Magick (Book 4) that it must be developed by rigid cles, organizing them in accordance with the kabbalistic discipline, including rituals and the“assumption of godTree of Life. The common person only contains the lunar forms”, as well as by practice and experience.* [14] vehicles of emotion (astral body), thought (mental body), and will (causal body), concentrations of the collective From Crowley's Magick Without Tears (Ch. 81): animalistic intelligence, the evolution of the Essence through the mineral, plant and animal kingdoms. BecomOne passes through the veil of the exterior ing human means to have a soul, a Solar Astral Body, Soworld (which, as in Yoga, but in another sense, lar Mental Body and Solar Causal Body. These bodies becomes“unreal”by comparison as one passes are constructed through a form of Tantra called White beyond) one creates a subtle body (instrument tantrism.* [12] is a better term) called the body of Light; this one develops and controls; it gains new powers Barbara Brennan's account of the subtle bodies in her as one progresses, usually by means of what is books Hands of Light and Light Emerging refers to the called “initiation:" finally, one carries on alsubtle bodies as“layers”in the“Human Energy Field”or most one's whole life in this Body of Light, and aura. Causality proceeds downwards: each of the layers achieves in its own way the mastery of the Unihas its own characteristics and can have its own expresverse. sion of disease, requiring individual healing. As with the Adyar arrangement, each body or aura also has its own complement of chakras, which interrelate to those in the other layers.
28.5 See also
Michal Levin describes the relationship between the energy bodies and the chakras in her book Meditation, Path Traditions to the Deepest Self. • Anthroposophy • Etheric body • Astral body • Hermeticism • Neoplatonism
28.3.3
Fourth Way
An interesting variant on the concept of subtle bodies is found in both Alchemical Taoism and the "Fourth Way" teachings of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, where it is said that one can create a subtle body, and hence achieve postmortem immortality, through spiritual or yogic exercises. The “soul”then is not something one is born with, but something that one has to develop through esoteric practice.
• Rosicrucianism • Rosicrucian Fellowship (“Seven-fold constitution of Man”section) • Rosicrucian Fellowship (“Ten-fold constitution of Man”section) • Western Wisdom Teachings (philosophy) • Spiritism
• Spiritual science According to (Rosenthal, 1997)“In Gurdjieffes cosmol• Sufism ogy our nature is tripartite and is composed of the physical (planetry), emotional (astral) and mental (spiritual) • Thelemic mysticism bodies; in each person one of these three bodies ulti• Theosophy mately achieves dominance.”The Fourth way as taught by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky is a philosophy of developing • Septenary (inspired by the five koshas of the divine body which is gained when one has complete Vedanta) understanding and self perfection. The ultimate task of the fourth way teachings is to harmoniously develop the Other topics four bodies into a single way.* [13]
28.7. FURTHER READING • Aura • Aureola • Biofield • Clairvoyance • Esoteric cosmology • Kirlian photography • Life review • Mindstream • Perispirit • Reincarnation
231
28.7 Further reading • Alfass, Mirra (The Mother) Mother's Agenda • Besant, Annie, Man and His Bodies • Brennan, Barbara Ann, Hands of Light : A Guide to Healing Through the Human Energy Field, Bantam Books, 1987 • —, Light Emerging: The Journey of Personal Healing, Bantam Books, 1993 • Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immortality and Freedom; transl. by W.R. Trask, Princeton University Press, 1969
• Septenary (Theosophy)
• C. W. Leadbeater, Man, Visible and Invisible
• Sex magic
• Sheila Ostrander and Lynn Schroeder Psychic Discoveries Behind the Iron Curtain, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1970.
• Silver cord • Spiritual evolution • Spirituality • Tattwas
28.6 References
• Poortman, J. J. Vehicles of Consciousness; The Concept of Hylic Pluralism (Ochema), vol I-IV, The Theosophical Society in Netherlands, 1978 • Powell, Arthur E. The Astral Body and other Astral Phenomena • —, The Causal Body and the Ego
[1] http://www.vedabase.com/en/bg/13/6-7
• —, The Etheric Double
[2] White.
• —, The Mental Body
[3] Google N-Gram.“N-Gram Analysis,“subtile body, subtle body"". Retrieved 17 March 2014.
• Samael Aun Weor, The Perfect Matrimony or The Door to Enter into Initiation. Thelema Press. (1950) 2003.
[4] Three Bodies Doctrine (Vedanta)#Suksma sarira - subtle body [5] Larson, Gerald. Classical Samkhya p.242 [6] Purucker, Gottfried. The Occult Glossary [7] Samkhyakarika, transl. Gerald Larson, vv 60-81, Classical Samkhya p.268. [8] Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 2. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. p. 145. ISBN 978-1880619094. [9] Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 2. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. p. 144. ISBN 978-1880619094. [10] H. P. Blavatsky, Astral Bodies, or Doppelgangers Collected Writings X, pp. 217-220 [11] Annie Besant, The Ancient Wisdom, 1898. [12] Samael Aun Weor. “Types of Spiritual Schools”. Note: The "ego" referred to by Samael Aun Weor is not used in the same context as it is used other esoteric schools. [13] Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal The occult in Russian and Soviet culture 1997, p. 361 [14] Aleister Crowley Magick (Book 4), Samuel Weiser
• Samael Aun Weor, The Esoteric Course of Alchemical Kabbalah. Thelema Press. (1969) 2007. • Steiner, Rudolf, Theosophy: An introduction to the supersensible knowledge of the world and the destination of man. London: Rudolf Steiner Press. (1904) 1970 • —, Occult science – An Outline. Trans. George and Mary Adams. London: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1909, 1969 • Heindel, Max, The Rosicrucian Mysteries (Chapter IV: The Constitution of Man: Vital Body - Desire Body - Mind), 1911, ISBN 0-911274-86-3 • Crowley, Aleister (1997). Magick (Book 4) 2nd ed. York Beach, Maine. : Samuel Weiser. • Crowley, Aleister (1982). Magick Without Tears. Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press • Thelemapedia. (2004). Body of Light. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
232 • White, John. Enlightenment and the Body of Light in What is Enlightenment? magazine. • James L. Oschman. Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis. • Levin, Michal. Meditation, Path to the Deepest Self, Dorling Kindersley, 2002. ISBN 978-0789483331 • Levin, Michal. Spiritual Intelligence: Awakening the Power of Your Spirituality and Intuition. Hodder & Stoughton, 2000. ISBN 978-0340733943
28.8 External links • The Institute of Noetic Sciences supporting research into supposed subtle body phenomena • Astral Body in Theosophy and Neo-Theosophy (A comparison) • http://sped2work.tripod.com/sarira.html • What are humans made of? http: //www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/ articles/?id=spiritualresearch/spiritualscience/ what-are-humans-comprised-of
CHAPTER 28. SUBTLE BODY
28.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
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Chapter 29
Night of Pan Within the system of Thelema, the Night of Pan, or N.O.X., is a mystical state that represents the stage of ego-death in the process of spiritual attainment.
derstanding; as will readily have been appreciated by those who have made a careful Qabalistic study of the nature of Binah. For she is omniform as Love and as Death, the Great Sea whence all Life springs, and whose black womb reabsorbs all. She thus resumes in herself the duplex process of the Formula of Love under Will; for is not Pan the All-Begetter in the heart of the Groves at high noon, and is not Her “hair the trees of Eternity”the filaments of AllDevouring Godhead“under the Night of Pan?"
The playful and lecherous Pan is the Greek god of nature, lust, and the masculine generative power. The Greek word Pan also translates as All, and so he is “a symbol of the Universal, a personification of Nature; both Pangenetor, “all-begetter,”and Panphage, “all-devourer” (Sabazius, 1995). Therefore, Pan is both the giver and the taker of life, and his Night is that time of symbolic death where the adept experiences unification with the All through the ecstatic destruction of the ego-self. In a more general sense, it is the state where one transcends It is also described in the mystical text Liber VII: all limitations and experiences oneness with the universe. Ascend in the flame of the pyre, O my soul! Thy God is like the cold emptiness of the utmost heaven, into which thou radiatest thy little light. 29.1 The City of the Pyramids
When Thou shall know me, O empty God, my flame shall utterly expire in Thy great N. O. X. In the A.'.A.'. system of attainment, after the adept has achieved the Knowledge and Conversation with his Holy —Liber Liberi vel Lapdis Lazuli, I:39-40 Guardian Angel, he then must cross the great Abyss, where he meets Choronzon, who will tempt him to hold Finally, Crowley writes of the Night of Pan in his The on to his subjective self and become trapped in his realm Book of Lies, in the chapter “Sabbath of the Goat": of illusion. To escape the Abyss, the adept gives up his deepest sense of earthly identity, in the symbolic gesture O! the heart of N.O.X. the Night of of pouring out his blood into the Cup of Babalon. The Pan. adept then becomes as a Babe in the Womb of Babalon PAN: Duality: Energy: Death. —impregnated by Pan—and his lifeless Self becomes as a pile of dust, taking rest in the City of the Pyramids, which Death: Begetting: the supporters of lies under the Night of Pan. This is why it is called Night O! —it represents the lightless Womb, and also the time beTo beget is to die; to die is to beget. fore the dawning of the new Sun (or rather, the new Self). Cast the Seed into the Field of He then waits in this sublime state until he is ready to Night. move on to the next stage, and become “born”again Life and Death are two names of A. from the Great Mother of Babalon, begotten by Pan. Kill thyself. Neither of these alone is enough.
29.2 In writings by Crowley In his commentary on this writing, Crowley explains: Aleister Crowley identifies this process as one of Love. He explains in Little Essays Towards Truth: The truly magical operations of Love are therefore the Trances, more especially those of Un234
It is explained that this triad lives in Night, the Night of Pan, which is mystically called N.O.X., and this O is identified with the O in this word. N is the Tarot symbol, Death; and the X or Cross is
29.4. REFERENCES the sign of the Phallus. NOX adds to 210, which symbolizes the reduction of duality to unity, and thence to negativity, and is thus a hieroglyph of the Great Work. The word Pan is then explained, {Pi}, the letter of Mars, is a hieroglyph of two pillars, and therefore suggest duality; A, by its shape, is the pentagram, energy, and N, by its Tarot attribution, is death. NOX is then further explained, and it is shown that the ultimate Trinity, O!, is supported, or fed, by the process of death and begetting, which are the laws of the universe...It is then asserted that the ultimate letter A has two names, or phases, Life and Death.
29.3 See also • Ego death • Thelemic mysticism • Works of Aleister Crowley
29.4 References • Thelemapedia. (2004). Night of Pan. Retrieved April 16, 2006. • Sabazius. (1995). Pan. Retrieved September 27, 2004. • Crowley, Aleister. (1979). The Confessions of Aleister Crowley. London; Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. • ___. (1998). The Vision & the Voice : the Equinox, IV(2). York Beach, Me.: S. Weiser. • ___. (1995). The Book of Lies. York Beach: S. Weiser.
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Chapter 30
Occult science • H.P. Blavatsky, "Occultism versus the Occult Arts", Lucifer, May 1888
Occult science is the systematic research into or formulation of occult concepts in a manner that follows - in its method or presentation - the way natural science researches or describes phenomena of the physical world. The idea of Occult Science appears in late-19th and early 20th century occultism, especially Theosophy, including:
• Rudolf Steiner, Occult Science
30.4 External links
• Helena Blavatsky (who describes it as “The science of the secrets of nature —physical and psychic, mental and spiritual”* [1]); • Rudolf Steiner, whose Occult Science, a sequel to his earlier work Theosophy, deals with the evolution of the human being and the cosmos, as well as referring to the attainment of supersensible knowledge; • Alice Bailey, who brought the idea of occult science into association with esoteric astrology. Kabbalah and Tarot have also been described as Occult sciences; Papus (Gerard Encausse)'s book originally published in French in 1889 as Le Tarot des Bohémiens: Le plus ancien Livre du monde, was translated into English in 1910 as The Tarot of the Bohemians: The Absolute Key to Occult Science.
30.1 See also • Esotericism • Magic (paranormal) • Occultist
30.2 References [1] Blavatsky, H. P. “The Theosophical Glossary”.
30.3 Further reading • H.P. Blavatsky, "Occult or Exact Science?" The Theosophist, April–May 1886 236
• Occult Science at Rudolf Steiner archive. • Occult Science and Philosophy of the Renaissance. Online exhibition from the Louisiana State University Libraries Special Collections.
Chapter 31
Hermetic Qabalah This article is about traditional Herm Qabalah. For other These emanations arise out of three preliminary states Kabbalistic traditions see Kabbalah, Christian Cabala, that are considered to precede manifestation. The first and Hurufism, Practical Kabbalah is a state of complete nullity, known as Ain (“ איןnothing”); the second state, considered a“concentration”of Hermetic Qabalah (from the Hebrew “ ַקָּבָלהrecep- Ain, is Ain Suph (“ אין סוףwithout limit, infinite”); the tion”or “accounting”) is a Western esoteric tradition third state, caused by a“movement”of Ain Suph, is Ain involving mysticism and the occult. It is the underly- Suph Aur (“ אין סוף אורlimitless light”), and it is from ing philosophy and framework for magical societies such this initial *brilliance that the first emanation of creation as the Golden Dawn, Thelemic orders, mystical-religious originates. [4] societies such as the Builders of the Adytum and the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, and is a precursor to the Neopagan, Wiccan and New Age movements.* [1] The 31.1.2 The Sephiroth in Hermetic Qabalah Hermetic Qabalah is the basis for Qliphothic Qabala as studied by left hand path orders, such as the Typhonian Main article: Tree of life (Kabbalah) The emanations of creation arising from Ain Suph Aur Order. are ten in number, and are called Sephiroth (ְסִפירֹות, sinOccult Hermetic Qabalah arose alongside and united gular Sephirah ְסִפיָרה, “enumeration”). These are conwith the Christian Cabalistic involvement in the Euro- ceptualised somewhat differently in Hermetic Qabalah to pean Renaissance, becoming variously Esoteric Chris- the way they are in Jewish Kabbalah.* [5] tian, non-Christian, or anti-Christian across its different schools in the modern era. It draws on a great many in- From Ain Suph Aur crystallises Kether, the first sephifluences, most notably: Jewish Kabbalah, Western as- rah of the Hermetic Qabalistic tree of life. From Kether trology, Alchemy, pagan religions, especially Egyptian emanate the rest of the sephirot in turn, viz. Kether and Greco-Roman (the latter being from which the term (1), Chokhmah (2), Binah (3), Daath, Chesed (4), Gebu“Hermetic”is derived), neoplatonism, gnosticism, the rah (5), Tiphareth (6), Netzach (7), Hod (8), Yesod (9), as it is Enochian system of angelic magic of John Dee and Malkuth (10). Daath is not assigned a number * considered part of Binah or a hidden sephirah. [6] Edward Kelley, hermeticism, tantra and the symbolism of the tarot. Hermetic Qabalah differs from the Jewish Each sephirah is considered to be an emanation of the diform in being a more admittedly syncretic system, how- vine energy (often described as 'the divine light') which ever it shares many concepts with Jewish Kabbalah. ever flows from the unmanifest, through Kether into manifestation.* [7] This flow of light is indicated by the lightning flash shown on diagrams of the sephirotic tree which passes through each sephirah in turn according to their 31.1 Teachings enumerations.
31.1.1
Conception of Divinity
A primary concern of Hermetic Qabalah is the nature of divinity, its conception of which is quite markedly different from that presented in monotheistic religions; in particular there is not the strict separation between divinity and humankind which is seen in monotheisms.* [2] Hermetic Qabalah holds to the neoplatonic conception that the manifest universe, of which material creation is a part, arose as a series of emanations from the godhead.* [3]
Each sephirah is a nexus of divine energy and each has a number of attributions. These attributions enable the Qabalist to form a comprehension of each particular sephirah's characteristics. This manner of applying many attributions to each sephirah is an exemplar of the diverse nature of Hermetic Qabalah. For example, the sephirah Hod has the attributions of; Glory, perfect intelligence, the eights of the tarot deck, the planet Mercury, the Egyptian god Thoth, the archangel Michael, the Roman god Mercury and the alchemical element Mercury.* [8]* [9] The general principle involved is that the Qabalist will
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CHAPTER 31. HERMETIC QABALAH
Kether
1 Binah
3
Chokhmah
Chesed
Geburah
5
2
Daath
4
Tiphareth
6
Netzach
Hod
8
Yesod
7
9
Malkuth
10
The Qabalistic Tree of Life in the Servants of the Light organisation's Hermetic theory
The Sephirothic tree showing the lightning flash and the paths
meditate on all these attributions and by this means acquire an understanding of the character of the sephirah including all its correspondences.
31.1.3
Tarot and the Tree of Life
Main article: Divinatory, esoteric and occult tarot Hermetic Qabalists see the cards of the tarot as keys to the Tree of Life. The 22 cards including the twenty-one Trumps plus the Fool or Zero card are often called the "Major Arcana" or “Greater Mysteries”and are seen as corresponding to the twenty-two Hebrew letters and Syncretism of Cabala, Alchemy, Astrology and other esoteric the twenty-two paths of the Tree; the ace to ten in each Hermetic disciplines in a 1616 German depiction suit correspond to the ten Sephiroth in the four Qabalistic worlds; and the sixteen court cards relate to the classical elements in the four worlds.* [10]* [11]* [12] While the sephiroth describe the nature of divinity, the paths be- 31.2 History tween them describe ways of knowing the Divine.* [13]
31.2. HISTORY
31.2.1
239
Hermetic views of Qabalah origins
See also: Gnosticism Traditionalist Judaic views of Kabbalah's origins view it as an inherent development from within the Jewish religion, perhaps expressed through syncretic terminology from Medieval Jewish Neoplatonism. Contemporary academics of Jewish mysticism have reassessed Gershom Scholem's theory that the new doctrine of Medieval Kabbalah assimilated an earlier Jewish version of Gnosticism;* [14] Moshe Idel instead has posited a historical continuity of development from early Jewish mysticism.* [15] In contrast, Hermeticists have taken different views of Qabalah's origins. Some authors see the origins of Qabalah not in Semitic/Jewish mysticism, or ancient Egyptian Gnosticism, but in a western tradition originating in classical Greece with Indo-European cultural roots, later adopted by Jewish mystics.* [16] According to this view, “Hermetic Qabalah”would be the original Qabalah, even though the word itself is Judaic Hebrew, over the Christian Cabalah or the Jewish Kabbalah: Alongside the historical process of Christian conversion from paganism, Jewish mystical circles would have been able to incorporate gematria and the Tree of life to their own concepts and fully monotheistic framework, without being suspect. Christians, in contrast, would have been persecuted for the same process, as it would have been similar to their pre-Christian polytheistic panentheism. With the Renaissance, this wisdom would have been relearned by Christianity from Judaism.
The“Kircher Tree": Athanasius Kircher's 1652 depiction of the Tree of Life, based on a 1625 version by Philippe d'Aquin. This is still the most common arrangement of the Sephiroth and paths on the tree in Hermetic Qabalah
enment Age of Reason and its skepticism of mainstream religion, the tradition of exoteric-theological Christian 31.2.2 Renaissance occultism Cabala declined, while esoteric-occult Hermetic Qabalah flourished in the Western mystery tradition. Non-Jewish Jewish Kabbalah was absorbed into the Hermetic tradiCabala, unlike in Judaic Kabbalah's mainstream censure tion at least as early as the 15th century when Giovanni of its magical side, became a central component of WestPico della Mirandola promoted a syncretic world view ern occult, magic and divination. combining Platonism, Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism and Kabbalah.* [17] Heinrich Cornelius Rosicrucianism and esoteric branches of Freemasonry Agrippa (1486–1535), a German magician, occult writer, taught religious philosophies, Qabalah, and divine magic theologian, astrologer, and alchemist, wrote the influen- in progressive steps of initiation. Their esoteric teachings, tial Three Books of Occult Philosophy, incorporating Kab- and secret society structure of an outer body governed by balah in its theory and practice of Western magic. It a restricted inner level of adepts, laid the format for modcontributed strongly to the Renaissance view of ritual ern esoteric organisations. magic's relationship with Christianity. Pico's Hermetic syncretism was further developed by Athanasius Kircher, a Jesuit priest, hermeticist and polymath, who wrote ex- 31.2.4 Nineteenth-century magical revival tensively on the subject in 1652, bringing further elements such as Orphism and Egyptian mythology to the Post-Enlightenment Romanticism encouraged societal interest in occultism, of which Hermetic Qabalistic writmix.* [18] ing was a feature. Francis Barrett's The Magus (1801) handbook of ceremonial magic gained little notice until 31.2.3 Enlightenment era esoteric societies it influenced the French magical enthusiast Eliphas Levi (1810-1875). His fanciful literary embellishments of Once Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Chris- magical invocations presented Qabalism as synonymous tian Church it was driven underground and a number of with both so-called White and so-called Black magic. Hermetic brotherhoods were formed. With the Enlight- Levi's innovations included attributing the Hebrew letters
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CHAPTER 31. HERMETIC QABALAH
to the Tarot cards, thus formulating a link between Western magic and Jewish esotericism which has remained fundamental ever since in Western magic. Levi had a deep impact on the magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Through the occultists inspired by him (including Aleister Crowley, who considered himself Levi's reincarnation) Levi is remembered as one of the key founders of the 20th century revival of magic.
31.2.5
Pat Zalewski is a student of Jack Taylor, who was in turn a student of Robert Felkin's Golden Dawn school, as taught in New Zealand after Felkin emigrated there. Zalewski has published numerous on Hermetic Qabalah and the Golden Dawn tradition.
Samael Aun Weor has written many significant works that discuss Kabbalah within many religions, such as the Egyptian, Pagan, and Central American religions, which Hermetic Order of the Golden is summarized in his work The Initiatic Path in the Arcana of Tarot and Kabbalah. Dawn
Hermetic Qabalah was developed extensively by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn,* [19] Within the Golden Dawn, the fusing of Qabalistic principles such as the ten Sephiroth with Greek and Egyptian deities was made more cohesive and was extended to encompass other systems such as the Enochian system of angelic magic of John Dee and certain Eastern (particularly Hindu and Buddhist) concepts, all within the structure of a Masonic or Rosicrucian style esoteric order. Aleister Crowley, who passed through the Golden Dawn before going on to form his own magical orders, is the most widely known exponent of Hermetic Magic* [20] or Magick as he preferred to spell it. Crowley's book Liber 777 is a good illustration of the wider Hermetic approach. It is a set of tables of correspondences relating various parts of ceremonial magic and Eastern and Western religion to the thirty-two numbers representing the ten spheres (Sephiroth) plus the twenty-two paths of the Qabalistic Tree of Life. The panentheistic nature of Hermetic Qabalists is plainly evident here, as one may simply check the table to see that Chesed (“ חסדMercy”) corresponds to Jupiter, Isis, the colour blue (on the Queen Scale), Poseidon, Brahma, and amethyst.
31.2.6
meditation.
After the Golden Dawn
Many of the Golden Dawn's rituals were published by Crowley, altered in various ways to align them with his own New Aeon magickal approach. Israel Regardie eventually compiled the more traditional forms of these rituals and published them in book form.* [21] Dion Fortune, an initiate of Alpha et Omega (an offshoot of the Golden Dawn), who went on to found the Fraternity of the Inner Light wrote the seminal book The Mystical Qabalah, widely considered one of the best general introductions to modern Hermetic Qabalah.* [22]* [23] Paul Foster Case (1884–1954) was an American occultist and author of influential books on occult tarot and Qabalah. He founded the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A) mystery school, rooted in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Masonic blue lodge system, later extended by Ann Davies. B.O.T.A. teaches esoteric psychology, occult tarot, Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, and
31.3 See also • English Qabalah • Goetia • Hermetism and other religions • Invocation • Magical organizations • Renaissance magic • Thaumaturgy • Theosophy • Theurgy • Sephirot • Western esotericism
31.4 References [1] Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1998). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. SUNY Press. p. 396. ISBN 9780791438541. [2] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 44. [3] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 37-42. [4] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 29-36. [5] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3. [6] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 51. [7] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 1. [8] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 20-21
31.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
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[9] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 238-251
• Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven and London, Yale University Press 1988.
[10] Waite, A.E.; “The Holy Kabbalah”, University Books, 1971, p 554-557
• Israel Regardie A Garden of Pomegranates: Skrying on the Tree of Life, Llewellyn Publications 1995.
[11] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 540-593
• Kocku von Stuckrad (ed,), Kabbalah and Modernity: Interpretations, Transformations, Adaptations, Leiden, Brill 2010.
[12] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 107. [13] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 102 [14] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford. Chapter on early Jewish mysticism discusses contemporary views that Gnosticism did not form a distinct religion. [15] Kabbalah: New Perspectives, Moshe Idel, Yale 1990 [16] The Greek Qabalah: Alphabetic Mysticism and Numerology in the Ancient World, Kieren Barry, Samuel Weiser 1999 [17] Farmer, S.A;“Syncretism in the West: Pico's 900 Theses (1486)", Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86698-209-2 [18] Schmidt, Edward W. “The Last Renaissance Man: Athanasius Kircher”, SJ. Company: The World of Jesuits and Their Friends. 19(2), Winter 2001–2002. [19] York, The Magicians of the Golden Dawn, (1972) p. ix. [20] Symonds, J & Grant, K; The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, Hill & Wang, 1969, ISBN 978-0-8090-3591-5. [21] Cicero, Chic & Cicero, Sandra; `Self Initiation into the Golden Dawn Tradition, Llewellyn, 1998, ISBN 978-156718-136-4, p xix. [22] Fielding, Charles and Collins, Carr; The Story of Dion Fortune, Thoth Books, 1998, ISBN 978-1-870450-33-1, p. 151 [23] Richardson, Alan, The Magical Life of Dion Fortune, Aquarian Press, 1991, p. 137, ISBN 978-1-85538-0516
31.5 Further reading • Paul A. Clark, The Hermetic Qabalah, Fraternity of the Hidden Light, 1999. • Dion Fortune, The Mystical Qabalah Aziloth Books, 2012. • Lon Milo DuQuette,The Chicken Qabalah of Rabbi Lamed Ben Clifford: Dilettante's Guide to What You Do and Do Not Need to Know to Become a Qabalist, Weiser Books 2001. • John Michael Greer, Paths of Wisdom: A Guide to the Magical Cabala, Thoth Publications 2007.
31.6 External links • Survey of Occultism in the Renaissance • Hermetic Kabbalah website • Hermetic Qabala website
Chapter 32
Goetia For the various editions of the book, The Goetia, see 32.1 Etymology Lesser Key of Solomon. Not to be confused with Grimoire. The Ancient Greek word γοητεία (goēteía) means Goetia or Goëtia (Medieval Latin; anglicised as goety “charm, jugglery, sorcery",* [1] from γόης (góēs) "sorcerer, wizard”(plural: γόητες góētes).* [2] The meaning of “sorcerer”is attested in a scholion, or commentary, referring to the Dactyli, a mythical race, stating that according to Pherecydes of Syros and Hellanicus of Lesbos, those to the left are goētes, while those to the right are deliverers from sorcery.* [3] The word may be ultimately derived from the verb γοάω “groan, bewail”(goáō). Derivative terms are γοήτευμα “a charm”(goḗteuma, plural γοητεύματα goēteúmata) and γοητεύω “to bewitch, beguile”(goēteúō). Γοητεία was a term for the magic in the Greco-Roman world. Its Latinized form is goëtia; in the 16th century, English adopted it as goecie or goety (and the adjectival form goetic), via French goétie.
32.2 Renaissance magic During the Renaissance, goëtia was sometimes contrasted with magia as black magic (Darkness/Selfish) vs. white magic (Light/Selfless), or with theurgy as “low”vs. “high”magic.
Aleister Crowley's variant of the circle and triangle, used in the evocation of the seventy-two spirits of the Ars Goetia.
/ˈɡoʊ.ᵻti/) is a practice that includes the invocation of angels or of demons. The use of the term in English largely derives from the 17th-century grimoire The Lesser Key of Solomon, which features an Ars Goetia as its first section. It contains descriptions of the evocation of seventy-two demons, famously edited by Aleister Crowley in 1904 as The Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King.
James Sandford, in his 1569 translation of Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's Of the vanitie and uncertaintie of artes and sciences, writes, “The partes of ceremoniall Magicke be Geocie, and Theurgie.”Georg Pictorius in 1562 uses goetie synonymously with "ceremonial magic".
32.3 The Ars Goetia Main article: Lesser Key of Solomon
The Ars Goetia is the first section of the Lesser Key of Solomon, containing descriptions of the seventy-two demons that Solomon is said to have evoked and conGoetic Theurgy, another practice described in the Lesser fined in a bronze vessel sealed by magic symbols, and Key of Solomon, is similar to the book's description of that he obliged to work for him. The Ars Goetia assigns Goetia, but is used to invoke aerial spirits. a rank and a title of nobility to each member of the in242
32.5. IN POPULAR CULTURE
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fernal hierarchy, and gives the demons “signs they have 32.5 In popular culture to pay allegiance to”, or seals. The lists of entities in the Ars Goetia correspond (to high but varying degree, Main article: Goetic demons in popular culture often according to edition) with those in Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum an appendix appearing in later editions of his De praestigiis daemonum, of 1563. A revised English edition of the Ars Goetia was published in 1904 by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Aleister Crowley as The Goetia which is based on manuscripts from the British Museum, with additions by Crowley, including a Preliminary Invocation drawn from Goodwin's Fragment of a Graeco-Egyptian Work upon Magic, and the essay The Initiated Interpretation of Ceremonial Magic. It is not a faithful edition of the source manuscripts but contains several innovations,* [4] including some evocations in Enochian written by Crowley. In his introduction, Crowley argues that the work of demonic evocation is merely a form of psychological selfexploration. It has since become a relatively well-known book of magic and has even been featured in places like the graphic novel Promethea by Alan Moore, James Blish's novel Black Easter, and Kevin Kauffmann's Forsaken Comedy trilogy.
32.6 See also • Grimoire • List of magical terms and traditions • The Lesser Key of Solomon • Works of Aleister Crowley
32.7 Notes [1] “LSJ”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-18. [2] “LSJ”. Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-18. [3] Muller, Carl Otfried; Müller, Theodor; Carl, Müller (2010). Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108016605. Ἀριστεροὶ μὲν, ὥς φησι Φερεκύδης, οἱ γόητες αὐτῶν·οἱ δὲ ἀναλύοντες, δεξιοὶ, ὡς Ἑλλάνικος.
32.4 The Sacred Magic Abramelin the Mage
of
Main article: The Book of Abramelin The Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage* [5] is considered both a theurgic and goetic book of magic, mostly used in a religious context. Contrary to the other Goetia Grimoires, this book does not denote the evocation of demons to do one's bidding or involuntary handiwork, but describes how one might summon these infernal forces, solely for the purpose of excommunicating them from the life of the Magus.* [6] This book was considered a system that led the aspirant closer to the goal of henosis, or spiritual reunion with God. Describing how to summon the dukes of Hell, even Lucifer, for the purpose of resisting the temptation of their vices, and binding their influence in the aspirant's life. This book describes a system of holy magic through an eighteen-month purification, then after the conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel, one would summon the four Great Kings of Hell (Lucifer, Leviathan, Satan, Belial), and make them sign an oath. This Oath (after gaining the power of the supernal realm), would grant the Adept power over the Infernal Realm and aid the Adept in discovering the“True and Sacred Wisdom”in the form of magic squares.
[4] Stephen Skinner & David Rankine, The Goetia of Dr. Rudd Golden Hoard Press, 2007, pp. 47–50 [5] The Secrets of the Magical Grimoires, By: Aaron Leitch Chapter 1 [6] “Sacred Magic of Abramelin: The Second Book: The Seventeenth Chapter. What We Should Answer Unto the Interrogations of the Spirits, and How We Should Resist Their Demands”. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2013-1018.
32.8 References • E. J. Langford Garstin, Theurgy or The Hermetic Practice: A Treatise on Spiritual Alchemy. Berwick: Ibis Press, 2004. (Published posthumously) • Aleister Crowley (ed.), Samuel Liddell Mathers (trans.), The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King. York Beach, ME : Samuel Weiser (1995) ISBN 0-87728-847-X. • Stephen Skinner, & David Rankine, The Goetia of Dr Rudd: The Angels and Demons of Liber Malorum Spirituum Seu Goetia (Sourceworks of Ceremonial Magic). Golden Hoard Press, 2007. ISBN 9780-9547639-2-3
244
32.9 External links â&#x20AC;¢ Demon list with descriptions
CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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32.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 32.10.1
Text
• Summum bonum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summum_bonum?oldid=729544647 Contributors: Menchi, William M. Connolley, Chealer, Hadal, Histrion, Gary D, Dbachmann, Keron Cyst, TheParanoidOne, Deathphoenix, Mandarax, Doc glasgow, Darkhorse82, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Daniel Bonniot de Ruisselet, E Wing, JuJube, SmackBot, Yamaguchi 先生, Thorsen, Maestlin, Penbat, Cydebot, Goldfritha, Bellerophon5685, JohnInDC, Thijs!bot, Mikael Häggström, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, Fadesga, Satinandsilk, Aleksd, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, Simon Villeneuve, AgnosticPreachersKid, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Bob Burkhardt, Omnipaedista, T of Locri, JIK1975, Themattyd, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Jacobisq, ClueBot NG, Dream of Nyx, Jdperkins, Hmainsbot1, Srtª PiriLimPomPom, Kharkiv07, Trackteur, Lol123456abc, Bostinnova and Anonymous: 39 • Intrinsic value (ethics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)?oldid=741539682 Contributors: Chealer, Nagelfar, Stevietheman, Bender235, Gary, CanadianCaesar, Alynna Kasmira, NickBush24, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Mikefzhu, Whoistheroach, Byelf2007, Bo99, Iridescent, MaxEnt, Gregbard, Cydebot, Mirrormundo, Dr.enh, Robertsteadman, Fayenatic london, Matthew Fennell, AtticusX, Robert Daoust, Anarchia, R'n'B, Mikael Häggström, Twfowler, Davecrosby uk, Isall, Popperipopp, Malcolmxl5, ClueBot, Davidnqd, Niceguyedc, ZuluPapa5, Ploft, Mifter, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, With goodness in mind, The world deserves the truth, Tassedethe, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Wild strawberries, AnomieBOT, Spence441, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Tommy Bwoy, Zeezam, IonicTunic, J04n, Omnipaedista, MastiBot, George Richard Leeming, EmausBot, PBS-AWB, LongestAugust, Erianna, ChuispastonBot, Dudemartin97, BG19bot, Zen Light, Monkbot, Crki and Anonymous: 47 • Meaning of life Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_life?oldid=751431274 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, MarXidad, Ed Poor, Amillar, Xaonon, Fubar Obfusco, Shii, Ellmist, Montrealais, KF, Twilsonb, HaigEK, Nealmcb, Patrick, DrewT2, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, JakeVortex, Cprompt, Lexor, Isomorphic, Norm, Kku, Ixfd64, GTBacchus, Minesweeper, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, HarmonicSphere, Haakon, Misfit, Snoyes, Angela, Jebba, Ijon, Glenn, UserGoogol, Poor Yorick, Cratbro, Evercat, TonyClarke, Agtx, Emperorbma, Peter Damian (original account), Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Wik, Markhurd, Dunning, SEWilco, Mir Harven, Juggleandhope, Topbanana, Wetman, Banno, King brosby, Shantavira, The lorax, Chealer, ChrisG, Fredrik, Kizor, Peak, Stewartadcock, Meelar, Blainster, Paul G, Hadal, JesseW, Wereon, Nickjbor, Mushroom, HaeB, GreatWhiteNortherner, Filemon, Adam78, Dave6, Snobot, DocWatson42, Lunkwill, DavidCary, Sj, Tom harrison, Bfinn, 0x6D667061, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, There is no spoon, Curps, NeoJustin, Jfdwolff, Maroux, Guanaco, Mboverload, Solipsist, Bobblewik, Kmsiever, Neilc, Auximines, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Mendel, Mike R, LucasVB, Antandrus, Beland, Loremaster, Doops, Kaldari, Karol Langner, Oneiros, Ellsworth, Tothebarricades.tk, Bodnotbod, EuroTom, Sam Hocevar, Haisch, Gscshoyru, Buickid, Wadsworth, Kevyn, BeakerK44, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Aponar Kestrel, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Venu62, Monkeyman, MichaelMcGuffin, KeyStroke, Discospinster, Solitude, Agnistus, Rhobite, Guanabot, Jaedza, FT2, Wrp103, Dave souza, Xezbeth, Roodog2k, 1pezguy, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Tgies, Kaisershatner, JoeSmack, Neko-chan, Mr. Billion, Livajo, JustPhil, El C, J-Star, Lankiveil, Mwanner, Shanes, Spearhead, RoyBoy, MPS, Semper discens, Bobo192, Yonghokim, Longhair, Valve, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, R. S. Shaw, Skywalker, Redquark, Irrawaddy, LuoShengli, Physicistjedi, Andrewbadr, Jacius, MPerel, Krellis, Nsaa, Mdd, Merope, Jez, Crimea~enwiki, Jrobinson5, Alansohn, Gary, LtNOWIS, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Andrewpmk, Plumbago, Gunslinger47, Thoric, Derumi, Axl, Fritzpoll, Plange, Hu, Yummifruitbat, Idont Havaname, Bart133, Snowolf, Benna, Wtmitchell, Velella, Wtshymanski, Danhash, Evil Monkey, Bsadowski1, Alai, Richwales, Tariqabjotu, AlexTiefling, Loxley~enwiki, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Mel Etitis, Bushytails, OwenX, Woohookitty, TLG, RHaworth, TigerShark, LOL, Awostrack, Barrylb, WPPWAH, Miketwo, Madchester, MattGiuca, Benbest, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Clemmy, Esben~enwiki, Bkwillwm, Ady~enwiki, Mary Calm, Zzyzx11, Arunr, Kralizec!, Wayward, Gimboid13, Audiodude, Dysepsion, SilhouetteSaloon, Graham87, Alienus, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, MC MasterChef, V95micfa, MatthewDBA, ThomasOwens, Mendaliv, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Quale, Fred Hsu, Jake Wartenberg, Kinu, Commander, JubalHarshaw, Vary, Harry491, Patrick Gill, PinchasC, Quiddity, Tangotango, MZMcBride, Tawker, NeonMerlin, Sohmc, Peter Tribe, DoubleBlue, MarnetteD, Reinis, Hungrymouse, Jobarts, Yamamoto Ichiro, Hanshans23, Scorpionman, Titoxd, Mikecron, SlaunchaMan, FlaBot, Fëaluinix, Jmc, Dullfig, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Gark, SouthernNights, Gurch, Arctic.gnome, KFP, Alphachimp, Diza, BradBeattie, Hermajesty, Spencerk, Chobot, Kazuba, Turidoth, HKT, DVdm, Stoive, Antiuser, Agamemnon2, Cactus.man, Rogertudor, HoCkEy PUCK, Mysekurity, Gwernol, CaseKid, S.M., Satanael, Wavelength, Sceptre, Ryz05, Hillman, Samroski, Adam1213, RussBot, Jeffhoy, WAvegetarian, CanadianCaesar, Akamad, Stephenb, Kelmaon, CambridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Lsdan, Wimt, Bullzeye, Ritchy, MarcK, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Uberisaac, Toredid, Nirvana2013, Adam Martinez, Grafen, RazorICE, Dureo, Ryright, Apokryltaros, JDoorjam, The Land of Smeg, Pudist, Nick C, RonCram, DeadEyeArrow, Moreau36, Cardsplayer4life, Tachyon01, Scope creep, Saulkaiserman, Thegreyanomaly, Tomisti, Ignitus, Alpha 4615, Mikespoff, SamuelRiv, TransUtopian, Igiffin, Chrismaster, FF2010, Ramblinknight, Kermit2, Phgao, Zzuuzz, RDF, Theda, Closedmouth, Spacebirdy, E Wing, Pb30, KGasso, Nedunahugh, GraemeL, Jecowa, Vicarious, Fram, HereToHelp, Migdejong, ArielGold, Relz, Curpsbot-unicodify, SorryGuy, Hanely, Eaefremov, Allens, Katieh5584, Ricardo630, Mebden, Xiornik~enwiki, Carlosguitar, LambaJan, FyzixFighter, Knowledgeum, That Guy, From That Show!, タチコマ robot, Luk, C mon, Robertd, Jenn xD, Alextrevelian 006, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Amcbride, GBarnett, Volcanictelephone, MARussellPESE, Asteriatic, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Random account 39949472, McGeddon, Shoy, C.Fred, Vald, Strategy man, Scifiintel, Delldot, Monty Cantsin, Frymaster, Rachel Pearce, Shai-kun, Villaged, Mjas, Yamaguchi 先生, Vassyana, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Carl.bunderson, ERcheck, Mindeye, Schmiteye, AstareGod, Improbcat, Bluebot, Spilla, JMSwtlk, Persian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Green meklar, Technotaoist, Miquonranger03, Nemodomi, SchfiftyThree, Droll, Afasmit, CSWarren, DoctorW, Jfsamper, Christopher Denman, Nbarth, Funper, Go for it!, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Firetrap9254, Huwmanbeing, JohnBurkitt, Mattyway, Zsinj, Dethme0w, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, RT Wolf, Skidude9950, Rrburke, Konczewski, Xyzzyplugh, Andy120290, Addshore, Pax85, Phaedriel, The tooth, AndySimpson, Auntiegrav, Jmlk17, Emact, Iapetus, Cybercobra, Decltype, Nakon, Underbar dk, TedE, Zvis~enwiki, Blake-, “alyosha”, Deathsythe, Drinklotsofbeer, Richard001, Geoffr, DoubleAW, Mini-Geek, NickPenguin, Astroview120mm, Andrew c, Trewbuk, Metamagician3000, UVnet, Salamurai, Sadi Carnot, Kukini, Malcuthrad, Gilman824, Byelf2007, CIS, The undertow, Krashlandon, Akalden, Rklawton, Mouse Nightshirt, JzG, SS2005, Kuru, Jidanni, Cyberchicken, Drahcir, Scientizzle, Dan Havega, Lazylaces, JoshuaZ, Tim Q. Wells, Pirkid, Minna Sora no Shita, Wickeddramakid, Applejaxs, Callum101, Ocatecir, Scetoaux, Mr. Lefty, IronGargoyle, The Man in Question, Mr. Vernon, Toadfan5, Slakr, Muadd, Noah Salzman, George The Dragon, Childzy, Storm Horizon, Larrymcp, Pigi0n, Tparlin~enwiki, Ryojikun, Martian.knight, Tuspm, Ryulong, A Clown in the Dark, Sasata, Dl2000, ShakingSpirit, Keahapana, Tawkerbot, Lucid, JYi, BranStark, HisSpaceResearch, Iridescent, Bauani, BrainMagMo, JoeBot, Moonkey, NativeForeigner, Cyborg999, J Di, GDallimore, Tony Fox, LadyofShalott, Courcelles, Onealej, Tawkerbot2, Pazcal, Whotookthatguy, Shirahadasha, MightyWarrior, Pawntificator, Gulstab, Xcentaur, JForget, Dhammapal, TuringBirds, CmdrObot, Filippos2, Mattbr, Dycedarg, Hyphen5, MOCKBA, ŠJů, SupaStarGirl, RedRollerskate, Dgw, Hardrada, Xequ, Ken Gallager, Liu Bei, Lokal Profil, Rob2000, Max-
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CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
Ent, Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom, Hopkapi, Phatom87, Dandaman123, Cydebot, Clappingsimon, Byziden, Peripitus, Jasperdoomen, Reywas92, MC10, Besieged, DavidDurieux, Spazborg, Mato, The Fascist, Peterdjones, Mortus Est, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Awarenessmag, Corpx, Islander, A Softer Answer, Eu.stefan, Dr.enh, Tawkerbot4, Histwr~enwiki, Christian75, DumbBOT, Asenine, Ljharmitt, Narayanese, EqualRights, Inkington, Kozuch, Emmett5, Omicronpersei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Nearfar, Heidijane, Satori Son, Mtijn, Krylonblue83, FrancoGG, Epbr123, Bot-maru, Matmilne, Dogaroon, Faigl.ladislav, HappyInGeneral, S Marshall, Bendroz, Bealbrown, Karish~enwiki, Anger2headshot, Marek69, John254, Rodrigo Cornejo, James086, MainlyTwelve, Rhrad, Reswobslc, Corgana, Philippe, CharlotteWebb, OrenBochman, Tutor93, Jreitsch, Randnotell, Escarbot, I already forgot, Mentifisto, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Harpomarx42, Majorly, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Kanwar rajan, Seaphoto, Voyaging, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Reiddp, Lanche~enwiki, Ronnymike, Ste4k, Jj137, Smartse, 2bornot2b, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Farosdaughter, Chill doubt, ARTEST4ECHO, Indian Chronicles, Pixelface, Lklundin, Ioeth, Alan thomas, Leuko, Kaobear, Barek, MER-C, Blaine Steinert, Spiritualone, The Transhumanist, Medulla oblongata, The.chosen.one, Ehiris, Beyatch91, Mister peanut, Jmd2121, Andonic, Cheese13, PhilKnight, Tayl1257, Oetzi101, Cynwolfe, Acroterion, ChristopherBorcsok, VzjrZ, Derek Chong, Noha2, PrimroseGuy, Da baum, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Bothar, AuburnPilot, Professor marginalia, Wikidudeman, JNW, Arno Matthias, Billwrtr, CattleGirl, Jéské Couriano, Think outside the box, Rivertorch, BjörnF~enwiki, Gullinkambi, Tedickey, Andy mci, Pixel ;-), Nyttend, J.B., Elkduds, Chesdovi, L Trezise, Bubba hotep, Theroadislong, Nposs, BatteryIncluded, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Docnixon, Autumn Forrester, Chram, Chivista~enwiki, Cpl Syx, Gerry D, Cheekyvincent, Anbro, Glen, DerHexer, Edward321, Alanharris3, Michaelbedar, Esanchez7587, Anya sm, TheRanger, DinoBot, Seba5618, NMaia, UnconcealedMeaning, Oren0, Yadler16, Whedonette, ClubOranje, TunaEduardo, MartinBot, LiamUK, Swhitaker, Sseiter, Arjun01, Anarchia, Twitty666, V-Man737, Tuganax~enwiki, Byronic Hero, Mschel, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Vox Rationis, Brilliburger, Nono64, DimitriRU, Pekaje, PrestonH, Bgold4, Smokizzy, JaviC, Pomte, Tgeairn, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, TimBuck2, Cowboybebop23, Sally Anne, Graydj, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, VAcharon, Homsar727, Theonceler, Mike.lifeguard, Extransit, Selfgrowth80, WarthogDemon, Ian.thomson, MackTime, Tdadamemd, Captain Infinity, Fireballtr, Wandering Ghost, Czarnick4, Leftclaw, Marcsin, Katalaveno, McSly, Grayoshi, Onexdata, Mikael Häggström, Ilikerps, Dragn0, HiLo48, Allchinoman, Kaitonkid, Plasticup, Chiswick Chap, Lbeaumont, Fredcmayjr, Bigmanrob, WHeimbigner, Jediknight86, Belovedfreak, Nathan Gillis, Richard D. LeCour, Bushcarrot, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, Willy0800, Aquajimmy, Obi Wan 71, SchectersRock, Zerokitsune, SJP, Thesis4Eva, Naughty Naughty, Touch Of Light, Yogobaby, TomCaleyJag, Caidensmum, K2so4, Blah0401, Jackaranga, Midnighterbh, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Bplayer4him, Doodlemuck, Dangyou, Tygrrr, King Toadsworth, Natl1, Andrew Kernohan, Cutaxilliselem, Bonadea, Nat682, Andy Marchbanks, Dorftrottel, S (usurped also), Useight, Bkc2006, Ronbo76, 88 fourganger, 97faugre01, Avatar332211, Evan Kiefl, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Xnuala, Sws2910, Sooner Dave, DMcMPO11AAUK, Thedjatclubrock, ABF, DSRH, Kar95k, Jeff G., Indubitably, Alexandria, HeckXX, CART fan, Satyr9, QuackGuru, Sześćsetsześćdziesiątsześć, Popperipopp, Philip Trueman, Reiketsu, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Oppgyz123, Itsnotken, Swerve26, Moogwrench, Stalin IV, JesseOjala, Pwnage8, Anonymous Dissident, Jason.garnier, Afluent Rider, Max57, 909078L, Qxz, Someguy1221, Cruzie1, Socrates lives, Yksin, Olly150, Voorlandt, Anna Lincoln, Sofgbos, Sintaku, Beyond silence, Dendodge, Dillz42, Corvus cornix, 0nlyth3truth, Cerebellum, Fry010, Rueican, Jpoplive, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Luksuh, Rockerbaby90, Buddhipriya, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Nightstream, Figureskatingfan, Jakriil, Raymondwinn, Dillydot27, Shadowlapis, Skvasundharan, Redsox04, Maxim, Yuri.holowatsky, Saturn star, ArtOfLife~enwiki, Ilkali, Mike729, Jrubio555, CO, Greswik, Lerdthenerd, Kilmersan, Tanner simon, Meters, Wolfrock, Strangerer, Falcon8765, Nxtftrdirector, Enviroboy, Masonknight, MMiladin, Das Links, Doc James, Zaf159, Nagy, Nutbob, Pengwiin, Sfmammamia, Dodo von den Bergen, Cheescake man, Tommynator101, FlyingLeopard2014, Magicac4567, Wikikokoroko, Fishhead1, Worldthoughts, Newbyguesses, EJF, Silananda, Infiniplex2, SieBot, StAnselm, Nubiatech, Indeph, Malcolmxl5, Nic007, Jeffmcawesome, Winchelsea, Wiimonkey9, Todespest, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Karaboom, Rosco470, Xymmax, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Lucasbfrbot, Conn106, Smsarmad, Yintan, Monkeykingjoe, Ouizardus, Bocho90, Sakave, Soler97, Steve4222, Bentogoa, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Qst, Yahgoo, Bookermorgan, Dangerousnerd, Slipknot worshiper, Slovik5678, Jussen, Oxymoron83, Raffethefirst, Faradayplank, Smilesfozwood, Vmrgrsergr, Avnjay, Nuttycoconut, Harry-, Franky210, KoshVorlon, Oculi, AnonGuy, Lightmouse, Angel David, Poindexter Propellerhead, Iain99, SimonTrew, Miguel.mateo, Matthew Swan, The Evil Spammer of Doom, PIXELPUNK10010, IdreamofJeanie, Sunrise, Platoon-loves-foxes, Maelgwnbot, Roleymoley, Smilo Don, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Mygerardromance, Everythingman, Володимир Ф, Firefly322, Tradereddy, Bowei Huang 2, Ken123BOT, Dickmcmahon, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Feelingitall, RichardKingCEng, Explicit, TheCatalyst31, RHSTIGERS69, XDanielx, EPadmirateur, Mx. Granger, Kinkyturnip, ClueBot, LAX, GorillaWarfare, Justin W Smith, The Thing That Should Not Be, Voxpuppet, IceUnshattered, Plastikspork, Tottman1, RashersTierney, Wysprgr2005, Cptmurdok, Nsteinme, Drmies, Razimantv, Rup235, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rambo191c, Trilobite12, Uncle Milty, SuperHamster, Donte131, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Zebobez, Blanchardb, Tomkunolson, Joyundeniable, Dozols, Singinglemon~enwiki, Salcharlie, Lucyfa, Neverquick, ACHKC, Cirt, Safek, Kitsunegami, Ktr101, Billy bob321, Excirial, Magneto923, Nymf, NoobMaster956, Fullm3t4L0n!, Jusdafax, Crywalt, Ktm rockz, Muggle38, Ludwigs2, Abrech, Leonard^Bloom, Ybenharim, Lartoven, Simonegli, Simon D M, 567k5, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, Onlypan, CA Sherad, ZuluPapa5, Hawksfan~enwiki, NuclearWarfare, Utopial, EhJJ, OneVindication, JamieS93, DeltaQuad, Sir Tobek, Daking9, Bemabound, Kaiba, Gerocus, Dekisugi, The Red, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, Inspector 34, Amsaim, Username1029384756, Amhere2000, Truth0r, Thingg, Friedpotatoeparty, Aitias, Ronweasley456, Versus22, One66667, James Dubreze, SoxBot III, Vanished User 1004, Ahri9, XLinkBot, April8, Spitfire, Teqed, Pfhorrest, Burningview, Darth Anne Jaclyn Sincoff, Mitsube, EastTN, Rror, Little Mountain 5, Untaken, Avoided, Mitch Ames, Coocoo200234, Skarebo, Sergay, SilvonenBot, Wikiwords, Garycompugeek, Jbeans, Visigoth1, Dubmill, Paulginz, KnightofZion, Tool-apc, Good Olfactory, Torchflame, RyanCross, Tayste, Bernie22, Jatin.vij, Imp2210, Addbot, Proofreader77, Raghavkvp, Ghost kingdom, Grayfell, ConCompS, Willking1979, Freakmighty, DOI bot, MCLeander, PFlores3, Landon1980, Ventanator, Ppdiddy, Surfo, Meet Maria, Pppdiddy, Blethering Scot, Wicked tacky, Ronhjones, PandaSaver, Astralearth, PolarPpl, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, Grahamatwp, MrOllie, Download, Sailor moon rocks, Morning277, Chamal N, Supakills, Tojohndillonesq, Scottyferguson, Glane23, Glass Sword, Debresser, QuackOfaThousandSuns, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Drxuyan, Tassedethe, Melloncollie07, Numbo3-bot, Peridon, Hlev123, Tide rolls, Kylepuckett74, OlEnglish, Khawar.nehal, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, JEN9841, Quantumobserver, LuK3, Lakey98, Legobot, Hgat, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Pink!Teen, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Cflm001, Westbridgfordnottingham01, TingtingSu, Back to the future 1, Ryancamp1, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Usedcarry, Feltcap, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, BuckwikiPDa535, Something, Something... Ah, Nevermind, SwisterTwister, Aznhobo4, COOLMAN32456, IW.HG, Azcolvin429, Kgeza7, Eric-Wester, Wild strawberries, N1RK4UDSK714, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Black Collar, Philiparthurmoore, הללג, Jim1138, BlazerKnight, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Mdodi, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Flewis, Materialscientist, Are you ready for IPv6?, Mncfjzg, Citation bot, JohnnyB256, SieteLiberated, GB fan, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Basketballzane, Itouchuk, Spidern, Sionus, Kdon1e, Stannan, Capricorn42, Allanlw, Nasnema, Jsharpminor, Teenagecrumpet, Joel300993, The Evil IP address, KDCx, Fancy.kira, Chrismitch, AV3000, Makeswell, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), J04n, GrouchoBot, AVBOT, Mcoupal, Conor2362, Archangel312, Shirik, Jonnyraven, SassoBot, Meaning of life expert, Ilovebunnyb, Sinistral Gades, In English c2009, Léna, Salamalaikum, Jonathan46, Ksbalaji, Shadowjams, Aaron Kauppi, Consee596, Prezbo, Žiedas, Karazychiken, 4342, Dougofborg, Constructive editor, Pr1nce0fDarkn3ss, Rockstarkevin, Wipedout36, Tavok91, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Merlacey, JMS Old Al,
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
247
Purewater.o, Lazar Kovacevic, VI, Steve Quinn, Stropko7, Machine Elf 1735, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Redrose64, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Arctic Night, Alonso de Mendoza, PrincessofLlyr, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, Hamtechperson, Trelawnie, Mutinus, Walthersell, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Σ, Meaghan, Curtis23, Riagu, Reconsider the static, Electricmaster, Michael Micklei, 3dg=life, Pollinosisss, Jjbabla, O0skimilk0o, Anthonydeg1234567890, Lotje, Sussexonian, TheOriginalUndertaker, Vrenator, LilyKitty, Toxichanz, SeoMac, Dusty777, Jeffrd10, Diannaa, Ivanvector, Therryan~enwiki, Brian the Editor, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Stroppolo, Reach Out to the Truth, RobertMfromLI, Exleywu, Woogee, Nate5713, Amerias, Devilfish98, Peaceworld111, Hajatvrc, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, Tesseract2, Smd75jr, KingOfAndaf, Loversdispair1, Trouhu, EmausBot, Energy Dome, John of Reading, Oliverlyc, Phoenixus, Natashaincredible, WikiFutureEditorHahahaha, Corin of Chaos, Faolin42, PoeticVerse, Bobthemongoose, NLover, RenamedUser01302013, 8digits, Tisane, Sp33dyphil, Ochristi, Lokithetroublemaker, Winner 42, Vik101, Sivainventor, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Ikillyou42, K6ka, Ktis hrdcore, Canadien95, Justindanial1991, Thecheesykid, Cornelia hale 26, Thebirdlover, 15turnsm, XXBluestar117Xx, Yourmamalikesme, ZéroBot, Dominicguadiz, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, Josve05a, Bollyjeff, Shuipzv3, Lauraaaa2, Alpha Quadrant (alt), A930913, H3llBot, Anthiety, Bauccgia0, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, JoeSperrazza, Rostz, Mayur, Donner60, Puffin, Damirgraffiti, Sion2619, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Socialservice, Kee211, Helpsome, Veritaffles, ClueBot NG, TrollPhysics, Globjulia, Gaioa, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Ben21end, MelbourneStar, Macarenses, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Name Omitted, Alastairmciver, Feedintm, Snotbot, Thaimoon, O.Koslowski, Widr, WikiPuppies, Brucehansen100, Drakestevens93, ThunderGyra, Synboha, Sailor and seagull, Sispar, Crazymonkey1123, Pluma, Joshaha, Anchang, Montrealcanada, Questforeternity, Mesimoney, Helpful Pixie Bot, 2015magroan, Fleurdaly, Electriccatfish2, Trololololololololololololol, மதனாஹரன், Nondoron, Philo000, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Krenair, Doucheiemcgee, Ymblanter, Wasbeer, Qwerty1219, Armchairgeneral, Salihnur, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Frze, Jackaroo5555, John A Emster, Mark Arsten, EpicStudio, Compfreak7, Zaragozahector123, Rustgiggs, The Determinator, Gorthian, Celtemor, Félix Wolf, Thomasvanwageningen, Alijamal14, Weird nasser, Nasser97, Mandellgrooves, Snow Blizzard, Rahulmothiya, Jasonhoover123, Jfhutson, JimmyTheFishCowGuyThing, Imbrianus, Glacialfox, Thexyster, Klilidiplomus, Hitchhiker42~enwiki, RastaLulz, Chip123456, Amphibio, Rsranger65, Agent 78787, Nemoliberestquicorporiservit, SouthParkJosh, DiabloDias, Afasfdhadf, Intro to law Group 4, Breadcrumb89, AssuredHalfLife, RichardMills65, SupernovaExplosion, Teammm, Kiewbra, Hghyux, W.D., Fluffylovesyou, TheCascadian, Mrt3366, Snoje2000, Cyberbot II, G3hcl101, Probintime97, JameSemaJ98, SirSparkles, Srahulbose, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Tbeasley0504, Jethro B, Benny benny boo, Awu1996, Whomadegods, Mahrag, Gelatelli~enwiki, Traveller37, Pirhayati, Dexbot, Shibu.leon, Branden the origanal, FoCuSandLeArN, Crankypacmanown, Jooplolk, Webclient101, Psarellas, Lillylovescock, TwoTwoHello, KatieGal134, Thelegend716, Asdfghjklh3456, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Gililould1564, Letsmakebacon, Dquirk911, 33j58nd88n, SFK2, Drewbigs, Jamesx12345, Kernsters, Tyler Hruby, Brian librarian, Christum, Maximo14000, Cablewoman, Tesconon-biogel, Henry1792, Gandhian ideology relevance, Tim737, Lets b1, Epicgenius, Nyrmac, Jesse Sproul, Mallemaroke, Peni.slandpeni.sland, Michipedian, Biogeographist, Tentinator, Abrahamic Faiths, Serpinium, AnthonyJ Lock, Demand12, Blasphemous Jew, Jr8825, Jared2626, ArmbrustBot, Jwratner1, NottNott, Ginsuloft, Psychologyresearcher99, Ibrahim Husain Meraj, Aubreybardo, Noyster, R-Nonnatus, DirkTrowbridge, Ihearthearts, CalebPH55, TrystynAlxander, Eertg837fn, Nineveh Road, Lindsaylovesit, Joshmet1, JaconaFrere, Mitchellman29, Chaya5260, Melcous, Monkbot, Fyddlestix, Welcome1To1The1Jungle, Ike1x, Amortias, Itsmehv, DSCrowned, Beckster1999, Ajkirk, KH-1, ChamithN, AsteriskStarSplat, Crystallizedcarbon, Julietdeltalima, Lstayer, ThePhilosopher420, Pjr 2005, ScrapIronIV, TrollerxXxXxXxXxX12345679, 123buhse, Anon32469, Someperson994, Polarpope, Masterofallknowledge64082, Tetra quark, SageGreenRider, Arranbolger, Iamtellingthetruth, Lynctekrua, GerbilKing, Charlieb6789, Happyrolf, Mustajab turi, GeneralizationsAreBad, Jerodlycett, CyanoTex, Shiken123, KasparBot, Gavintyrbs, EvanMD197, 3 of Diamonds, Mayifixthis?, MusikBot, Kyliemcmahon, Adam9007, Tiger7890, Nerdology1677, AEDanRuthThE3rd, Sro23, Nicho-1738, Mtbtrails41, BU Rob13, SerenityIVIV, CAPTAIN RAJU, Cjjxjfxjfjjgkkkbgyjnfhrcxgcgxxg, JohnAGough, Amy Cyrus, Joshualouie711, Baking Soda, InternetArchiveBot, JaneSwifty, Entranced98, Marianna251, GreenC bot, Evelyn Mak, Braindestroyer, Marvellous Spider-Man, Icantevennnnn, Xarium M, Ahmed abid ali, AlexMaster2855, Meepmeep107, Mattyo'heron, Pieator, Matthayden087, Thetruthteller69, DaEnderAssassin, Imminent77, Serranoc42, Cps192, Lightworkerofgod, Xuzsagon, DAT haramboi, Stan P and Anonymous: 3003 • Omnibenevolence Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnibenevolence?oldid=737117725 Contributors: Dcljr, JasCollins, Evercat, Dimadick, Goethean, Barbara Shack, Idril, Andycjp, Crazyeddie, Zondor, Silence, Dbachmann, Sunborn, Killtacular, Stephen G. Brown, Mailer diablo, Tweedy7736, Ron Ritzman, Mel Etitis, Rjwilmsi, DVdm, Cunado19, Neural, AdelaMae, Sicamous, SmackBot, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Saint Midge, Simonapro, Will Beback, Byelf2007, Dbtfz, Zenbobby, Courcelles, George100, Deon, Tim Long, AgentPeppermint, Nick Number, R'n'B, Merzul, Eternal Imortal, Runwiththewind, Konchog Namdag, Sc140a6, Tjoord, Davidshenba, StAnselm, Harry-, Taggard, Isolato, Mx. Granger, Twinsday, Terminator484, Editor2020, AncientToaster, Addbot, Proxima Centauri, Favonian, Tide rolls, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Informationtheory, Citation bot, St.nerol, Maplesucker34, Hananekosan, Vejlefjord, EmausBot, ZéroBot, WingsGoesWiki, ChuispastonBot, Pandeist, ClueBot NG, Visée, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Smithy 96, Marcocapelle, ColinCS, 220 of Borg, ChrisGualtieri, CoffeeWithMarkets, Cobramilk, Monkbot, The Newspaper, Stacie Croquet, Presup, Heuh0, EditorGuy2, Linkin, Jefffree, Permstrump, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 67 • Virtue Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue?oldid=751214572 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Eloquence, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ed Poor, Matusz, Roadrunner, Ray Van De Walker, Heron, Hephaestos, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, DopefishJustin, Zeno Gantner, Delirium, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Pcb21, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Kingturtle, Kaihsu, Evercat, Conti, Emperorbma, Disdero, Andrewman327, Tb, Taxman, Populus, Dbabbitt, Drernie, Shantavira, Nufy8, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Kizor, Donreed, Petermanchester, Rholton, Radomil, Hadal, Jerrod Day, Paul Murray, Odin.de, Guy Peters, Ancheta Wis, Centrx, HangingCurve, Zigger, Muke, WHEELER, Guanaco, Solipsist, Just Another Dan, JRR Trollkien, MetaMind, Quadell, Antandrus, ShakataGaNai, Mrrhum, Neutrality, GlenDavis, Chris Howard, Discospinster, Vsmith, Peccavimus, Notinasnaid, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, FrankCostanza, JoeSmack, Petersam, El C, Stesmo, A.t.bruland, Springdew, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Pinar, Ricky81682, Calton, Malo, Snowolf, Velella, Itschris, Maqs, RainbowOfLight, Versageek, SteinbDJ, Netkinetic, Njk, Stemonitis, Velho, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, GVOLTT, Timo Laine, Uncle G, Jeff3000, Zaorish, Zzyzx11, Liface, Rmarghi, Mandarax, Tslocum, Lawrence King, BD2412, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Davidp, Crazynas, Kalogeropoulos, Yamamoto Ichiro, Latka, Nihiltres, Vayne, NavarroJ, Burneywiki, Common Man, Accurate Nuanced Clear, DVdm, Wingchi, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Sceptre, RussBot, Splash, Pigman, Aphisherofmen, Stephenb, Alvinrune, KSchutte, Preserver, Thane, Nirvana2013, Allansiew, Larsobrien, AdelaMae, DeadEyeArrow, Saulkaiserman, Sandstein, Dast, J. Van Meter, RDF, Sean Whitton, Tevildo, Brz7, Penelope D, Cjwright79, Andyluciano~enwiki, Allens, Infinity0, DVD R W, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Ivolucien, SmackBot, DCDuring, Canthusus, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang, Tyciol, Krismastree, Enkyklios, DoctorW, Go for it!, Mladifilozof, Ig0774, Kingshiadric, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Seattlenow, Sapwood2, Dxdurf, Show0591, Cybercobra, Detruncate, Clean Copy, Pilotguy, Kukini, Workman, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Eliyak, Kingfish, Kuru, Sidmow, Bo99, Breno, 3210, Neddyseagoon, Dominio~enwiki, Rhebus, Risingpower, RichardF, Keahapana, KJS77, Checkerpaw, Levineps, Gholam, Philip ea, Tawkerbot2, JForget, Peter1c, RCS, Tanthalas39, Jscullimore, Neelix, Penbat, MrFish, Gregbard, Kjr99044, Cydebot, Goldfritha, Gogo Dodo, Alanbly, Daniel J. Leivick, Eu.stefan, Dr.enh, Doug Weller, Chrislk02, Alaibot, MindSpirit, JodyB, Heidijane, Thijs!bot, Bot-maru, Mbell, N5iln, Luigifan, Marek69, RobDe68, Ujm, CharlotteWebb, Nick Number, The Big L, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, JoeFriday, Myanw, Boopop, JAnDbot, The Transhumanist, Magioladitis,
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CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
VoABot II, MdMcAli, Vitaminman, Transcendence, AtticusX, JNW, KConWiki, Catgut, Glen, JaGa, Gwern, B9 hummingbird hovering, Bradgib, Miraculousrandomness, R'n'B, Dataweaver, Vox Rationis, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Hu Totya, Stan J Klimas, Mikael Häggström, Quarma, Nedhenry, Lbeaumont, Spaceflower, Belovedfreak, Robertgreer, BrettAllen, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, FuegoFish, Remember the dot, Redrocket, Grizzlegritz, Squids and Chips, Vranak, ChaosNil, Thedjatclubrock, Jeff G., AlnoktaBOT, Bovineboy2008, Kameyama, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Eve Hall, Jonthesmith123, MysteriousS, Melsaran, Showreel, Broadbot, Gregogil, Sanfranman59, LeaveSleaves, Lupo Azzurro, Marcwiki9, One half 3544, BuildingaBetterWiki, Billinghurst, SQL, Synthebot, Lova Falk, Cnilep, TobyHung1234, Arseniab, - tSR - Nth Man, Rjakew, Dwc144, SieBot, Jesdisciple, BotMultichill, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Instanceofsteve, Pseudowikieditor, Phalanxpursos, Javierfv1212, The Riddle of Epicurus, Kutera Genesis, Earthfairys, JL-Bot, Tomdobb, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Moon Oracle, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, EoGuy, Bbussal, Herakles01, Meekywiki, Djamo, Niceguyedc, OccamzRazor, Thomas C Mueller, Ha ha ha 123 mo ha, Alexbot, Istas, Estirabot, Arjayay, Fattyjwoods, Aleksd, Thingg, Rainbowsunshine86, PotentialDanger, Goodvac, DumZiBoT, Zenwhat, Shinjodenn, Skunkboy74, BodhisattvaBot, Dthomsen8, Clear.minded, Libcub, WikHead, NellieBly, Kadellar, Felix Folio Secundus, Addbot, Jojhutton, Wingspeed, Fieldday-sunday, Leszek Jańczuk, MrOllie, Download, Rositoes potter, Hsteach, Squandermania, Numbo3-bot, LarryJeff, Tide rolls, Jrjordan, Legobot, Yobot, Legobot II, Yngvadottir, Eric-Wester, Magog the Ogre, Sera'naphsus, Susanne M. Alexander, AnomieBOT, Frowanda, Floquenbeam, Virtuousband, Jim1138, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, DAY DC1, Tomwsulcer, Srich32977, Vonharris, Omnipaedista, Kesaloma, Mattis, Verbum Veritas, Drmacavinta, FrescoBot, T of Locri, Shooterwalker, BenzolBot, Aditya soni, JiveTalkinChoirBoy, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Leegee23, Definingwisdom, LittleWink, A8UDI, Jujutacular, Bgpaulus, Estheticain1961, Abc518, Gamewizard71, Pollinosisss, Hunarian, Lotje, Oracleofottawa, Vrenator, LilyKitty, ZhBot, Specs112, Medizinball, Suuurewhatever, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Andrea105, Mean as custard, The Utahraptor, Almost14, Eucris, Aircorn, Tesseract2, EmausBot, Dolescum, WikitanvirBot, Twoe gappes, Razor2988, GoingBatty, SupCho1, Auró, ZéroBot, Extony, Wes.turner, Lateg, Iwanttoeditthissh, Empty Buffer, Demonkoryu, Wayne Slam, Jacobisq, L Kensington, Aishh, Donner60, Moreh405, Ryanlively, Status, U3964057, Neil P. Quinn, Rocketrod1960, Spence 357, Sportoct, Petrb, ClueBot NG, JustinAbata, Movses-bot, Morgan Riley, Dremagon, Guest2625, Bmusician, M0rphzone, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Socal212, Dirtbikeboy42, DPL bot, SurakijVuthikornpant, Beyenklu Sif, Lisa.davis, Mrt3366, ChrisGualtieri, Patnovak, Khazar2, Dustin Dewynne, Experienx, Huma89, SFK2, R.wordsworth.holt, Maya`Tae Heno, Rupert loup, EWangerin, New worl, ArmbrustBot, Aminkates, David1hein, Robevans123, Korpocalypse, Lalitrajnisahil, Sharif Uddin, Myjane, Infinite0694, Jerodlycett, Quinto Simmaco, KasparBot, CabbagePotato, Vamsee03, Nettiest, Gulumeemee, Zcarstvnz and Anonymous: 560 • Good and evil Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_and_evil?oldid=751486948 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Anome, Ray Van De Walker, SimonP, Shii, Stevertigo, Edward, Ahoerstemeier, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Sethmahoney, TonyClarke, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Wik, VeryVerily, Jusjih, Mrdice, Robbot, R3m0t, Mountain, Goethean, Sam Spade, Rursus, Blainster, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Dina, Snobot, Ancheta Wis, Djinn112, Andries, Gene Ward Smith, Nat Krause, Timpo, Everyking, Maroux, Brian Schlosser42, Christofurio, JRR Trollkien, DontMessWithThis, Gadfium, Andycjp, Noe, Elembis, Karl-Henner, Sam Hocevar, Mike Rosoft, Lucidish, Random contributor, Vsmith, Smyth, Jordancpeterson, LindsayH, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Martinman11, Root4(one), Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, WoKrKmFK3lwz8BKvaB94, PWilkinson, Wrs1864, Pearle, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, WhiteC, Wtmitchell, Velella, Simplebrain, Omphaloscope, Netkinetic, Blaxthos, Ceyockey, Feezo, Velho, Maprovonsha172, Ruud Koot, Jeff3000, Damicatz, Bluemoose, Prashanthns, Alienus, BD2412, Quantum bird, Grammarbot, Sjö, Koavf, Theodork, RobertG, Dullfig, Nihiltres, RexNL, MoodySue, Common Man, Gareth E. Kegg, Chobot, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Stephen Compall, UkPaolo, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Red Slash, Hack, Bhny, CanadianCaesar, NawlinWiki, Anomie, Yserarau, Wiki alf, Janke, Thiseye, GHcool, Misza13, Elkman, Tomisti, Nlu, Igiffin, Zzuuzz, Arthur Rubin, Infinity0, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, Ivolucien, SmackBot, Thomas Ash, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Paxse, Brossow, Josephprymak, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Jmr30, Wuffyz, SonOfNothing, Joshmoore67, Mladifilozof, WikiPedant, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Go For It, Pnkrockr, Japeo, COMPFUNK2, Fuhghettaboutit, Fullstop, RolandR, Andrew c, Rklawton, Lapaz, Joelmills, Minna Sora no Shita, Ckatz, 16@r, Slakr, Rmessenger, RichardF, Jcbutler, Politepunk, Richard Uhtenwoldt, Iridescent, Shoeofdeath, Tawkerbot2, Gveret Tered, MightyWarrior, Ormi, Wolfdog, CmdrObot, Hucz, Neelix, Iokseng, Penbat, Gregbard, Cydebot, Cahk, R-41, Lugnuts, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Kozuch, UberScienceNerd, Richhoncho, Epbr123, Bot-maru, Joeshaw123, Al Lemos, Hugo.arg, Luigifan, Neil916, MainlyTwelve, Tellyaddict, Gmeric13@aol.com, Noaa, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Prolog, Modernist, Kent Witham, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, The Transhumanist, Acroterion, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Toomai Glittershine, Swpb, Feeeshboy, L Trezise, KConWiki, Ensign beedrill, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, JaGa, Charitwo, MaBe, Bartzx3, Phantomsnake, Ariel., Anarchia, Big B On ACM, Alro, R'n'B, Pomte, J.delanoy, Bapho~enwiki, Maurice Carbonaro, Skumarlabot, Cpiral, Belovedfreak, Jorfer, Madhava 1947, Prhartcom, Entropy, Bonadea, Signalhead, N.B. Miller, Jmrowland, TheMindsEye, Saidada, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Tavix, AlysTarr, E.P.Y. Foundation, MearsMan, Enviroboy, Quinnling, Struway, Nouse4aname, Newbyguesses, SieBot, Tresiden, Euryalus, Phanink, Bibulin2000, Odetron, Android Mouse, Xe7al, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Anchor Link Bot, Mygerardromance, Dust Filter, Kanonkas, Mario Plumber, Mx. Granger, SlackerMom, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, RashersTierney, Panapp, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, Lbertolotti, Excirial, Jusdafax, Aaronfledge17, Robbie098, Jcpenners, Vanisheduser12345, Lartoven, Humain-comme, Caffeineplease, Razorflame, Ottawa4ever, Aleksd, Editor2020, XLinkBot, Patiencekindnessgoodness, Addbot, Zahd, Startstop123, Jesszee, Glane23, Christy14, Drxuyan, Tassedethe, Bwrs, OlEnglish, Jarble, LuK3, , Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Reargun, Manofedit2, Willy225, Empireheart, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Glenfarclas, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, JimVC3, Wapondaponda, Nasnema, Jmundo, Connshearer, Alewilh, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Tufor, Tg2lls, Loltowne, Robertelder, Josef Papi, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, TheHurter, Markjin123, Dcwaterboy, Jauhienij, Trappist the monk, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Vistascan, Vrenator, LilyKitty, Zainyx, Tbhotch, Dja.ait175, Onel5969, Somerandomguythathacks, Jamminbreadman, Tesseract2, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Klbrain, Moswento, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, A930913, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Widr, Nashhinton, Thuglife3534354, Roberticus, Eladynnus, MusikAnimal, Frze, Summersoul77, FiveColourMap, Sridhar1000, CitationCleanerBot, Krishnasill, Gbs98, Zelotic, MahdiBot, Harsh 2580, Dexbot, Ebeese, Fernandeslover, Wataboss7, Sean61961, BoltonSM3, Kilternom, ArmbrustBot, Josebarbosa, Steal the Kosher Bacon, Zppix, Lookinhigher, Mi Li google, Pjr 2005, Joseph2302, Institution of Mass Destruction and Pure Evil, Bigboynath, MusikBot, Rstolppi, JamesMichaelBrennan, Emotionalllama, Fdasdfkajsdkfaghsdfas, Vanderlar123, Festeeliot, God's Godzilla, Kenzie200000012, EnkiNinhursag, BlackPill, JackSepticEye, Justeditingtoday and Anonymous: 336 • Eudaimonia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudaimonia?oldid=746905934 Contributors: Hephaestos, Michael Hardy, Angela, Poor Yorick, Vroman, Eszett, Topbanana, Stormie, Banno, Robbot, Chealer, Chris 73, Sam Spade, Andycjp, Jossi, Camipco, D6, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Mr. Billion, Kwamikagami, Viriditas, Giraffedata, Petrarchus, WhiteC, Mel Etitis, Uncle G, Wikiklrsc, BD2412, Quantum bird, Rjwilmsi, Nowhither, Margosbot~enwiki, RussBot, Ori Livneh, Dysmorodrepanis~enwiki, Gadget850, Neiladri, Dast, Andrew Lancaster, Arthur Rubin, C mon, Veinor, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Telescope, LuisVilla, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Elagatis, Deli nk, Mladifilozof, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, RT Wolf, Huon, Cybercobra, Pfhyde, LoveMonkey, Victor Eremita, Byelf2007, Dane Sorensen, Lapaz, Tim bates, F15 sanitizing eagle, Dicklyon, Keahapana, Wolfdog, Abibliophobic, Gregbard, Shanoman, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Sobreira, WillMak050389, WinBot, Perseverantia, Deflective, HypnoSynthesis, Sko-
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
249
morokh, Matthew Fennell, Cynwolfe, Gronkmeister, Bradgib, Anarchia, Cheezmeister, Nedhenry, Hateloveschool, Dorftrottel, WOSlinker, Jimipop1, Kerrydouglas, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Quinet, Synthebot, Pjoef, Dawn Bard, Bgratias, Wikijens, Niceguyedc, Singinglemon~enwiki, Nuiloa, Silversemi, Avoided, WikHead, Marklar2007, Wilderny, Addbot, Queenmomcat, Yobmod, DrJos, Nathan.besteman, ماني, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, Tanonero, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, CasperBraske, Wandering Courier, LilHelpa, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Tomwsulcer, Omnipaedista, Alexscara, Ac40214, T of Locri, Adam9389, Ahmos1991, D'ohBot, WhiteMonkey, Machine Elf 1735, Tom.Reding, ChinaUpdater, Helios13, Pollinosisss, GregKaye, Vrenator, Antipastor, Christos Paliompeis, TjBot, Luterbach, Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Ida Shaw, Friscious, Edunoramus, Rethliopuks, Deutschgirl, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Smellybells, PhnomPencil, Davidiad, Marcocapelle, Rush doc man, Excalibursword, Rytyho usa, Archie lochus, Jethro B, Vanished user sdij4rtltkjasdk3, TheComputerScientist, 93, BreakfastJr, Pen42, Csvoss, DoctorPresident, ScepticEye, Domk26, Heathersweatman19, Aleeeeniee, Cookie bunny, Mikkel101, Davidrahat, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 130 • Happiness Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness?oldid=751312083 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Danny, Novalis, William Avery, SimonP, Montrealais, KF, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Kku, MartinHarper, Tompagenet, Ixfd64, Mdebets, Brinticus, Ronz, Theresa knott, Snoyes, Notheruser, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Александър, Ugen64, Jll, Sir Paul, Nikai, Evercat, Samw, Astudent, Rob Hooft, Ghewgill, Denny, Arteitle, Timwi, Jgm, Jimbreed, SEWilco, ReciprocityProject, Carax, Joy, Wiwaxia, Fvw, Optim, Secretlondon, Jph, Banno, Finlay McWalter, Robbot, Altenmann, Babbage, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, DHN, Hadal, JesseW, Delpino, Arnyek~enwiki, Dina, Ancheta Wis, Barbara Shack, Sj, Pretzelpaws, Kenny sh, Lupin, MSGJ, Bfinn, Average Earthman, Everyking, No Guru, Leonard G., Jfdwolff, Guanaco, Dz0~enwiki, Robbrown, Youngoat, Ferdinangus, Christofurio, Alex Libman, Gadfium, Andycjp, Quadell, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Beland, Quickwik, Kiteinthewind, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Icairns, Commodore Sloat, Neutrality, Joyous!, Camipco, Ukexpat, Surfingslovak, Absinf, Zondor, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, N-k, Mike Rosoft, Pmadrid, Rctay, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Robinsloan, Mal~enwiki, Forbsey, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Andrejj, Kbh3rd, Violetriga, CanisRufus, Lycurgus, Mwanner, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Grick, Bobo192, Smalljim, Reinyday, Viriditas, Mrbicrevise, SpeedyGonsales, Eritain, John Fader, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Polylerus, Espoo, Ranveig, Danski14, Alansohn, Trysha, Theaterfreak64, Rd232, Andrewpmk, Kevin M Marshall, Logologist, Riana, AzaToth, Netalker565, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, BodyTag, Iris lorain, WhiteC, Mailer diablo, Wanderingstan, BG~enwiki, Hu, Lee S. Svoboda, Hohum, Ywong137, Snowolf, Fivetrees, Rtkwe, Frankman, Suruena, Garzo, RainbowOfLight, W7KyzmJt, Redvers, Ceyockey, Ultramarine, Zntrip, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Kelly Martin, Bawad1, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Scriberius, Camw, Uncle G, MattGiuca, Robert K S, Gruu, MONGO, Al E., Wikiklrsc, Bhound89, I64s, KevinOKeeffe, Isnow, Pictureuploader, Wayward, Prashanthns, Essjay, Dysepsion, Paxsimius, Niffweed17, Magister Mathematicae, RxS, Quantum bird, Mendaliv, Dwarf Kirlston, Josh Parris, Search4Lancer, Ketiltrout, Pittising, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Seidenstud, Jake Wartenberg, Quiddity, Josiah Rowe, Rschen7754, TheRingess, SMC, Netan'el, Allen Moore, FayssalF, Rizachar, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Dan Guan, Margosbot~enwiki, Winhunter, Brusselsshrek, Nihiltres, JdforresterBot, Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Ayla, TheDJ, Maustrauser, Scroteau96, D.brodale, Alphachimp, Hibana, King of Hearts, Chris is me, Chobot, Hatch68, TheSimkin, Volunteer Marek, Korg, Gwernol, Satanael, YurikBot, Wavelength, Chanlyn, TexasAndroid, Sceptre, Taurrandir, MattWright, Logixoul, RussBot, Jeffhoy, Icarus3, Hede2000, Chris Capoccia, DanMS, SpuriousQ, Chaser, Joshfist, IanManka, Rodasmith, Akamad, Vissequ, Eleassar, Vincej, Kyorosuke, Wimt, Bullzeye, NawlinWiki, Irk, Wiki alf, Borbrav, Grafen, Arichnad, Jaxl, ZacBowling, Rjensen, Tastemyhouse, Haranoh, Daanschr, Dureo, Djm1279, Irishguy, Retired username, Nucleusboy, GHcool, Semperf, Emersoni, PM Poon, Bucketsofg, Dbfirs, Palpalpalpal, Todfox, SFC9394, Wangi, DeadEyeArrow, Happydrifter, Mycalrp, Psican, Elkman, Haemo, Davidpatrick, Bantosh, Flipjargendy, Wknight94, Jkelly, FF2010, Shiroi Hane, Andrew Lancaster, Theda, Closedmouth, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Brianlucas, Back ache, Fred2028, ArielGold, AGToth, Buybooks Marius, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Sethie, Guppy313, NeilN, Maxamegalon2000, Paul Erik, Asterion, Junyi, Kimdino, Luk, C mon, Veinor, SmackBot, Smadge1, Unschool, Sticky Parkin, Bswee, Schyler, Spongenut, Herostratus, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, DCDuring, Unyoyega, Vald, Jtneill, KVDP, Delldot, Fatheaded1, CapitalSasha, Cdanes4217, Ebang, BiT, Edgar181, Alsandro, Johntornado2, Diegotorquemada, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Prajya, Katsam, Cs-wolves, Popfighter2, Kelvie, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kurykh, Bidgee, Keegan, Persian Poet Gal, Sirex98, Master of Puppets, MartinPoulter, Oli Filth, Elagatis, Domthedude001, SchfiftyThree, RayAYang, Uthbrian, Sadads, Deathanatos, Wikipediatrix, DoctorW, Ctbolt, Kungming2, Pasado, Colonies Chris, A. B., Gracenotes, John Reaves, Mladifilozof, Sert~enwiki, Lynchical, Rainarrow, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MyNameIsVlad, RT Wolf, Lkatz, Tamfang, Glloq, Nixeagle, OOODDD, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, TKD, Addshore, RedHillian, Dharmabum420, Soosed, Metta Bubble, Wales, Nakon, MilitaryTarget, Kntrabssi, Zvis~enwiki, Obina, Dreadstar, Ripsbusk, Richard001, BullRangifer, Dantadd, Ixnayonthetimmay, Kim99, Either way, Diocles, Xen 1986, DMacks, RichAromas, Kotjze, Ck lostsword, NIRVANA2764, Kukini, Emmisa, Workman, Byelf2007, Akraj, Eliyak, Robomaeyhem, Harryboyles, Wiiildone, JzG, Dbtfz, Luigi-ish, Kuru, Sjock, TheKeithD, Heimstern, Loodog, Disavian, Lue3378, Bo99, Shadowlynk, 2nd Piston Honda, Goodnightmush, Majorclanger, Aleenf1, Sailko, A. Parrot, Defyn, JHunterJ, Willy turner, Slakr, Razorgod, Noah Salzman, Bendzh, Waggers, Michael Greiner, KurtRaschke, Condem, RichardF, Citicat, Caiaffa, Nicolharper, Ryanjunk, Kvng, The13thzen, Jcbutler, KJS77, Mike Doughney, Rormeister, Pauric, BranStark, OnBeyondZebrax, Huntscorpio, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Colonel Warden, Lakers, Saafir, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, IvanLanin, Lovykar, CapitalR, Blehfu, Courcelles, Dunc1971, Virtualquark, Saamah, Tawkerbot2, Firestrik, Ylloh, JForget, Ezadarque, Dhammapal, InvisibleK, CmdrObot, Mleivo, Ale jrb, Twinsfan44, Dycedarg, Scohoust, Runningonbrains, CWY2190, NisseSthlm, DanielRigal, ShelfSkewed, Chc opengrove, Lazulilasher, Science & Spirit, Logical2u, Some P. Erson, ONUnicorn, Neelix, Penbat, Tex, RobertLovesPi, Safalra, Gregbard, Peripitus, Marqueed, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Road Wizard, Beta Trom, Mato, SyntaxError55, Mike Bags, Gogo Dodo, Hebrides, Flowerpotman, YechezkelZilber, Corpx, Llort, Eu.stefan, Tkynerd, Wildnox, Roketjack, Dr.enh, B, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Anomymage, Jmbrougham, Ym2mandym2g, FastLizard4, Garik, NMChico24, Daniel Olsen, Blackjack48, Bulmabriefs144, Nearfar, PamD, Satori Son, Gnewf, PKT, Mattisse, Epbr123, Daa89563, Vbaron, Kilva, Daniel, Kablammo, Pjvpjv, Marek69, John254, Tapir Terrific, Bobblehead, SomeStranger, James086, Jangchub, RickinBaltimore, InNotOf395, Dfrg.msc, Grayshi, U1789, Big Bird, Mph99, Kristilush, Natalie Erin, CTZMSC3, Escarbot, The Person Who Is Strange, ILHI, Mentifisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Matthew Balyeat, Luna Santin, Blue Tie, AnemoneProjectors, Voyaging, Jj137, Larry Rosenfeld, Smartse, Dylan Lake, Sanskritkanji, Fmmarianicolon, Tainted Drifter, Spencer, Natelewis, Indian Chronicles, David Shankbone, Fearless Son, Eleos, Figma, Ingolfson, Res2216firestar, Emmyzen, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, Barek, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Nthep, AvatarZero, Instinct, Fetchcomms, Andonic, Xeno, Roleplayer, Leolaursen, Desertsky85451, Joecool94, Frjlove, Acroterion, Geniac, Janac, Meeples, Io Katai, Magioladitis, Ramirez72, Pedro, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Amabaie, AuburnPilot, JNW, Knowledge for All, Fastfactchecker, Akgupta, Starch~enwiki, PastalJones321, MichaelJE2, Kyuunensoshou, Aka042, Recurring dreams, Bubba hotep, OneTrickPony, Presearch, Catgut, Indon, Animum, Adrian J. Hunter, Allstarecho, Schumi555, Cpl Syx, Glen, Chris G, DerHexer, JaGa, Esanchez7587, Psychicguild, WLU, Georgeo57, Arnesh, J0equ1nn, FisherQueen, MartinBot, Infrangible, Robert Daoust, Arjun01, Anarchia, Rettetast, Grendel's mother, TheEgyptian, Mschel, R'n'B, MoreHappiness, OrchDorkdotcom, Fconaway, AlphaEta, Huzzlet the bot, Paranomia, Snackycakes, J.delanoy, Sugarcoatedjg, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Rgoodermote, Hans Dunkelberg, NightFalcon90909, Silverxxx, Uncle Dick, Xris0, Ginsengbomb, Naljip, WarthogDemon, Nlalic, PC78, Kdas~enwiki, Garygabor, Ter308, Katalaveno, Eaglewizard, PhilYoung61, DarkFalls,
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CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
McSly, Shay Guy, Starnestommy, Mikael Häggström, L'Aquatique, TESCHD, Pyrospirit, Lbeaumont, Ganesham, Mayormike, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, Firekid19, SmilesALot, SJP, Malerin, Doomsday28, Nrobin9, Cmichael, Juliancolton, Kidlittle, Cometstyles, Evb-wiki, RB972, Tygrrr, Vanished user 39948282, Andy45290, Schun, Mike V, Elenseel, David H. Flint, Spoofnug, Screwe, Irukandji12, MikeLeeds, Steel1943, Reuben164, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Spellcast, Montchav, Wikieditor06, Lights, Caribbean H.Q., Vranak, Wildman7856, CWii, ABF, That1, Enderminh, Jeff G., Queenfan66, Soliloquial, Bsroiaadn, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Ndsully99, Tavix, Katoa, Eve Hall, The monkey one, KevinTR, Galeanamichoacan, A4bot, Rodrigo19913, Qxz, Someguy1221, TCarmen, Anna Lincoln, Clarince63, Dendodge, JhsBot, Leafyplant, Buddhipriya, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Guldenat, Amog, Horusamalek, Jlhw, Cremepuff222, Aldorr, Rosenquartz, Aphilo, Kurowoofwoof111, Redkefka, Super-duper-happy, Andernard, Complex (de), Omgaghost1, Wolfrock, Gogogirlyboy, RIObsessed, Lova Falk, Apple1012, Burntsauce, Timbach2, Spinningspark, TrickOfTheLight, Keepssouth, WatermelonPotion, Lincat124, Omeislol, Hbomb194, Coldharted, Symane, 981y24957987248, LuigiManiac, Stomme, Sfmammamia, Pfdstark, Chinababy7654, FlyingLeopard2014, PokeYourHeadOff, Steven Weston, Yoyo489, Sharecropper, Ldanks, Meerinti, SodaPOP27, The Rock And Roll Pirate, Dan Polansky, Bubbleblower323, Jwray, Stinking joo, Computerwiz11, Blissblog, Amysanders, Moonriddengirl, Scarian, Xenus, SheepNotGoats, Axey127, Kevin2221, Krawi, Winchelsea, Feeltheurge, Plinkit, Washdivad, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Matthew Yeager, Nathan, BloodDoll, RJaguar3, Happy1995, Whiteghost.ink, Stratman07, Hirohisat, BORED LOL, Arda Xi, Chinesearabs, MonkeyFibre, Keilana, Eoheomili, Toddst1, Flyer22 Reborn, Higgins1175, 1BIGDICK, Jrhappy, Oda Mari, Hnatovskyfamily, Djvsnoop, PsycheM, Luciengav, Dangerousnerd, Vbhatt, Maltreuter, SPORTYGRL012, Npiane, Oxymoron83, Zappy44, Faradayplank, Ase8913, Nuttycoconut, Sm123, AnonGuy, Steven Crossin, Poindexter Propellerhead, Techman224, Killerbyday, Cacycle test, The-G-Unit-Boss, Ralf123, Emesee, Diego Grez-Cañete, Frank116, C'est moi, StaticGull, Leftoverbacon22, Georgette2, Wikimanwikiman, Mygerardromance, Pgovenom, Razzmahtazz, Pinkadelica, Uhuglue, Drgarden, Escape Orbit, Randy Kryn, Invertzoo, WikipedianMarlith, Atif.t2, Sankalpo, WikiBotas, Sfan00 IMG, De728631, ClueBot, LAX, SalineBrain, Avenged Eightfold, Troville, P Dog1, The Thing That Should Not Be, Freekc, J. Skyler S. McKinley, Ndenison, Peregrine35, Stargold, Arakunem, MorganaFiolett, Gregcaletta, Saddhiyama, Algaeferulz, Fat camle, Lilgamefr3ak, Mild Bill Hiccup, Orit.schwarz~enwiki, Showtime2009, Shinpah1, Paddyc1978, Skäpperöd, Hafspajen, Xavexgoem, Blueboy814200, Gruzwithmeow, Trivialist, Shriniwaskashalikar, Puchiko, Katburglar, Nickman999, Sjy226, DragonBot, Excirial, Mr.Zman.sock, Naerii, Anonymous101, Jusdafax, Chat6, Floydrox, Coralmizu, Bernieberniebernie, Eeekster, Human.v2.0, Freemonkeyinside, Abrech, Vivio Testarossa, Lartoven, Happymoeo, Simon D M, ParisianBlade, Tyler, NuclearWarfare, I()I i7`Z JVLE, Arjayay, Daniel Musto, JamieS93, Kateo watever, Bauerpower5, Razorflame, Ast onok, Zombiepopp, Wordwizz2000, Dekisugi, Bkipfer, Fionar5, Spithawk, Augdawgg27, Mikaey, Mincusman123, Poopoo1234567890, Prank2007, La Pianista, Sophiepowell, Llihelocin, Tired time, Thingg, Vegetator, Aitias, Horselover Frost, Jjmontgo, Squeezecheese512, Daman29, Squeesecheez612, Versus22, Banana Guy 2, Themanwashere, Blarba15, PCHS-NJROTC, Kennyfghill, HundredManSlayer, SoxBot III, Vester9, Apparition11, Editor2020, Roundapanda, Goodvac, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Vanished User 1004, Death300X, Infidelis, Dobson 54, Superdbzfan123456, Ean5533, XLinkBot, Killzic, AlexGWU, Pichpich, Bigpoop345, Nathan Johnson, Bloggers4acause, HollyHABROMANIA, Dharma4x4, Robmcphillips, Dark Mage, Mitsube, EastTN, Rror, Strangewayys, Nepenthes, Little Mountain 5, Steven407653, Kevblau, WikHead, Firewaller, Pa68, Sergay, Jamesie-o-connell, Sclk8, Blahpoo, Pats987, TravisAF, ZooFari, Guitarfreekx13, Marklar2007, Pats444, Mrjoshman44, Hammer34, HexaChord, Tsonganator, Foleg, Addbot, Xp54321, Proofreader77, JBsupreme, Waynemacdonald, Willking1979, Sirkar183, Jojhutton, Betterusername, Its4dolphinjames, Captain-tucker, Otisjimmy1, Montgomery '39, Binary TSO, Jmdee, Ronhjones, Urrrrrg, Astralearth, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser, OliverTwisted, Cst17, MrOllie, Proxima Centauri, Belmond, Crj18, Redheylin, Big bad runningback, Mjr162006, Jmez022, Hotcutie175, Nimboullah, AndersBot, Annerire, Uva327, Tribalnecktie, Bobbydarl, Davenochin, Doniago, AtheWeatherman, Wiremaxman, Bkimbar11, Arthuradia, ReyMystBooyaka619, Tassedethe, Peaceinthehood, Ticktick*BOOM*8, Isforbliss, Rocordman, Tide rolls, XKatz90, Jadykens, Maria.violin, Keiran.kitchener, Quantumobserver, Flipgirl05260, Blah575, Koheichun, Ball-in-mouth, Swarm, G2.0 USA, Everyme, Yobot, Theserialcomma, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Senator Palpatine, Kingkong77, Newportm, Amirobot, Yngvadottir, Nicholas007, Dncars1, Suntag, Daniel 1992, Eric-Wester, Tempodivalse, Synchronism, Anythingapplied, Susanne M. Alexander, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Buttmonkeyfuzz, Master of Pies, Rubinbot, ThaddeusB, Rjanag, Killiondude, IRP, Commander Shepard, Redarmy101, Ipatrol, AdjustShift, 12ticeb, Ulric1313, Flippy125, Seegers, Flewis, Bednar365, Blah98, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, GB fan, ArthurBot, Clark89, Nicleo987, Tonywuzhere, Xqbot, Dscumpa, Joeys allstars, Cureden, Aryoadeh, R0pe-196, Capricorn42, Bihco, Wperdue, 4twenty42o, Nootech, Jeffrey Mall, Greivin maikhol, Hanberke, KuRiZu, Matt7771, Flangello, Mo.asdf, Cotter San, Tad Lincoln, Hellogod, HummadJ, Zacissoawesomeicouldcry, Maddie!, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Hermione'Anne, Jolly Janner, Anonymous from the 21st century, Goferhoney, Glop28, Polgo, Escobar.8397, WAV09, JanDeFietser, McDonalds25, 大西洋鲑, Webeditor87, Ajlang0319, TheOnlyEmoCutter, Wikiki1234, Jccoolkid, Shirik, Superdogz87, Amaury, AntiAbuseBot, Doulos Christos, When.pancakes.fly, Haakenlid, Pwnage111, Faaaaalo, Sisters4evaxo, KYODONG, Someoneyoucantrust, SchnitzelMannGreek, Sniffany6, Erik9, Pussy monster1010, PSNMand, Upload Way, PlzCreateAnotherName, Hardy172, Me,isnt,carrot, Hax0rIII, Slamman500, Hipopcornhi, Jesus hands, Coocoo4cocopuffs2, T coeus, DawnB865, ILoveBubbleGum22, Heartache95, Lundgren8, Jesuswithaz, Twinkydude, Classicmasks93, Sisyphustkd, Jknobz1, Zyigo, Ohjaypea, Leftnote, Tobby72, Buziatov, Buenofool, Soniiaa, Wikipe-tan, Ilikecheesekillmenow, Thine own self, Pattyp123, The Black Void, StaticVision, Ruralface, JOEgat, Flaminglemons, Sanv14, Fan1ellenpage, Secretpsyco, Consricuti, DylanBigbear, Josesandoval, Gene-va, Citation bot 1, Fernbom2, Najo0ota, Flemeshme, Cow patties, Pinethicket, Bialikhebrew, Tanweer Morshed, 10metreh, Pierce edward durov, Yoiyitsu, Eagles247, Calmer Waters, Trelawnie, Deanjac, GreenZeb, Coronerreport, SpaceFlight89, Leazz99, Pntpnt, Meaghan, IPPQ, Some loser987654321, Beao, Brandonian9150, Dac04, Idan Shamis, Merlion444, December21st2012Freak, Resilience2009, Jauhienij, Chebsum, Lachlan Foley, Jikybebna, Wikididact, MauruNeko, Orenburg1, Bluerose93, HappyGoLucky1212, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Cbonifer, Veron, Loginguy, Lotusfred22, Lotje, James12183, Chaseplanb, SilverDrake11, IceChic23, Hadger, Dominic Hardstaff, Jarmihi, Gr33nb33n, Ptw108, Happypeople16, Watisfictie, Jontahan.sicard, Huhlilpeep, Grow60, Tbhotch, Boldneonbabe, Andrea105, Keziaizdab0mb, Erntab72, Bark6898, RjwilmsiBot, Stevenanju, Freak Ache, PSE teh 1nf0, Regancy42, FetchcommsAWB, Salvio giuliano, Tesseract2, Petermcelwee, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, Immunize, Gfoley4, Dewritech, Faolin42, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, PJM13, Supersteve212, Addy2210, Sheeana, Eslima5, Fexydood, Swimmingmunky, Ahsozboutthat, Zoeroxursox1996, Dasarianandkumar009, Danielpoint0, Ally897792, Mizzoubone, Blahflah, ZéroBot, Willperry14, Hamdrinker, Younghackerx, Yoyoitsthethirdone, Jimmydemesa, Friscious, Austin18410, Borja001f, Moot101, Ebrambot, Blackjack676, Pointless.FF59F5C9, KarasuGamma, Brandmeister, Alborzagros, ChuispastonBot, Academie21st, ClueBot NG, Nobody60, Baseball Watcher, Lord Roem, Mesoderm, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, Nashhinton, BG19bot, Everyone Else, AvocatoBot, Erikjmartin, Tracy49, Cadiomals, Enervation, Jayzzee, Multimanuel, Drian66, NotWith, GRPH3B18, Roleren, Kasob, Th4n3r, Cyberbot II, JCJC777, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Havasumac, Plato's Dog, Dexbot, Iluvparties, Jc86035, Alan1245, Nietzsche123, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Jamesmcmahon0, Ziploc Baggie ZZZ, Hendrick 99, ArmbrustBot, Sibekoe, Finnusertop, I.am.a.qwerty, FireflySixtySeven, Meganesia, Ilfigo17, Asesnic, Monkbot, YJAX, Ebisabeti, DangerousJXD, Lord Subro, Michaeljdjackson, Samantha Ireland, Yury2015, Whalestate, KasparBot, AeAnBr, Kingshowman, Antrangelos, Tardispower, Arbief, 1416domination, Baking Soda, Chrisvacc, GreenC bot, Podoguru, Motivação, Apollo The Logician, The Happy Librarian and Anonymous: 1607 • Positive psychology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology?oldid=748382091 Contributors: Taw, SimonP, Ewen,
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
251
Kchishol1970, Vaughan, JakeVortex, Shoehorn~enwiki, Shellreef, Sannse, Jeremymiles, Ronz, Tpbradbury, Fredrik, Brenton, LutzPrechelt, Bfinn, Gamaliel, Andycjp, CryptoDerk, Beland, Rdsmith4, Hugh Mason, Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Discospinster, Vsmith, Xezbeth, Mal~enwiki, Bender235, Bcjordan, Neko-chan, CanisRufus, Mwanner, Rajah, NickSchweitzer, Tgr, SHIMONSHA, Mac Davis, Bsadowski1, Joelthelion, Kay Dekker, Killing Vector, Saxifrage, Tabletop, Wikiklrsc, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, MZMcBride, FlaBot, Richdiesal, Metropolitan90, AllyD, Bgwhite, Skoosh, Shell Kinney, Vincej, Afelton, Irrevenant, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Brian Crawford, Elkman, Jmartisk~enwiki, 2over0, Arthur Rubin, Allens, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, SmackBot, McGeddon, Jtneill, Man with two legs, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Polaron, Chris the speller, RDBrown, Oli Filth, Uthbrian, DoctorW, Nbarth, Pasado, RT Wolf, Baxter42, Rrburke, Huon, Шизомби, EPM, Kim99, Deepblackwater, Arodb, Cibu, Bo99, Tim bates, Robofish, Ckatz, Bmistler, Mr. Vernon, Beetstra, Lifeartist, Doczilla, AdultSwim, RichardF, Hu12, Iridescent, Iepeulas, RekishiEJ, Dhammapal, CmdrObot, Zagano, Rtv233, Penbat, Memills, Joshnpowell, Vectro, Vanished user 2340rujowierfj08234irjwfw4, Wayne Vucenic, Gogo Dodo, Anthonyhcole, YechezkelZilber, Dr.enh, Christian75, Scarpy, Iss246, Brobbins, Johann Nepomuk, David2346, Al Lemos, Headbomb, Peace01234, Nick Number, Mph99, Rees11, KarlEd, Colin MacLaurin, Ingolfson, Emmyzen, Narssarssuaq, HypnoSynthesis, MER-C, Epeefleche, The Transhumanist, Michig, JerryKrueger, YK Times, Shumdw, Magioladitis, Swikid, John C. Lewis, Malcolmxthegreat, Deus911, Presearch, Wylfryn, JaGa, S3000, Robert Daoust, Psicol~enwiki, Dataweaver, Snackycakes, Silin2005, Salmon1, Reedy Bot, Titusmars, Jxfawley, 1000Faces, Lbeaumont, Belovedfreak, Szzuk, DadaNeem, Generalist, Psykhosis, Trw193, LeoRomero, VFHwebdev, Idioma-bot, Goodtherapyorg, TXiKiBoT, Davsch65, Tbutlerbowdon, Edit650, BotKung, Bearian, Positivegal, Lova Falk, Sue Rangell, Danbousho, Dreamcatalyst, Blissblog, Flyer22 Reborn, MaynardClark, Nuttycoconut, Sanya3, Dravecky, Wahrmund, XDanielx, J. Ash Bowie, Standardname, ClueBot, Morningstar1814, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, Johnmoff82, Auntof6, Shutterbug433, Alexbot, Mjecclestone, SunnyDisp, Arjayay, Infoculture~enwiki, Sarahmahdaly, SlamMeMore, XLinkBot, Addbot, Alancott, DOI bot, Yoenit, Annielogue, Jncraton, SpillingBot, WikiUserPedia, MrOllie, Download, Tide rolls, Lightbot, HerculeBot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Rsquire3, DanniDK, Dncars1, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Tucoxn, JackieBot, Ornamentalone, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Aquila89, Plasmon1248, Tomwsulcer, Bilbe, Makeswell, Omnipaedista, Bobauthor, Smw9135, Benjamin Davison, DocPsych, Zhaoyukun, Touchatou, Wpoeop, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Waffler2009, Sisyphustkd, AlexanderKaras, D'ohBot, T@Di, Citation bot 1, Drfloody, Tom.Reding, Wally2121, MondalorBot, Wfsf, Sundaysw, Trappist the monk, Annajonag, Lam Kin Keung, Sternenmeer, Pamdfitz, Celenie, Dinamik-bot, Ahougen, Naturalpsychology, DeanBrettle, RjwilmsiBot, Born2bgratis, Toobin, Titantalent, Tesseract2, P2prules, John of Reading, Oliverlyc, MindtheWiki, Fgtfound, Jheggers, GoingBatty, Subvisser5, Dcirovic, Hrld11, Swhitbo, ZéroBot, PS., Jimmydemesa, Mewmew125, Indomitableal, Wvufanaz, Bika f, Laney2060, Anita Hodder, Bex256, Marinadb, AManWithNoPlan, Amyblankson, AlexJohnTorres12, Calgarypsychology, Okidok, Miradre, Aliciarogowski123, William Loudermilk, ClueBot NG, EcoSleek, Sjbalsama, Intheflow, Abrambk, Joefromrandb, Scooby199, Aaronwayneodonahue, Snotbot, RachelAB, Healthexpert, Sharanbngr, Skiingxmoose, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, MI755604, Fkaratum, Positive270, Flow11, Dylhill, Jeraphine Gryphon, Bookish899, BG19bot, Danny0miller, Smcg8374, Frze, Mark Arsten, Monberl, CitationCleanerBot, Joshua Jonathan, Mooshka215, Funkylasse, KateWoodhouse, Winston Trechane, FeralOink, Sydactive, FordPrefect1979, EricEnfermero, BattyBot, Parrottreats, Charlene-attard, Luigi Del Piero, Bluenile1, Rhombus11, Louey37, Arcandam, Khazar2, Mand1958, Iamozy, Omaro23, Computerbg, Dexbot, Jayant2164, BuddhaSoup, RPgzLp, Liaper1, Quick trick, Catheryn.yqz, SFK2, Alsala, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Carolyn16, Hillbillyholiday, VickiMae, Ellyssap, Vargovic1, PositivePsychProfessor, MrLukeDevlin, I am One of Many, Doctor Vulcano, Pdecalculus, Biogeographist, Brittany Jackson, Jenniwey, Israelsands, Sallybibb, New worl, MaieshaR, Ugog Nizdast, Slimgamslim, Esalwin, FireflySixtySeven, Josehamiltonbr, Twhanks66, PhilosophyBrayton, Z!zek, Positivepsychologyphd, Monkbot, Pospsych, Psy270culture, Adamreinman, Inexxa, NQ-Alt, Gavmarklund, Archaeologist03, Ebisabeti, RunIowa, Lingveno, Kapil.yadav231, CyanoTex, I enjoy sandwiches, Matthebl, Dagannt, Gracea235, Hokinsc, Meganmcculloch, Communist-party-van, Big fat asthmatic cat, Vvase, Ronwiki5, Moonriver54, Vcustudentinquiringminds, Bluebird1, Viybel, Tardispower, Evelyn Mak, Freshawake, Bender the Bot, Pleasepsychme, EpicMan, The Happy Librarian and Anonymous: 284 • Nicomachean Ethics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics?oldid=747433542 Contributors: AxelBoldt, SimonP, DennisDaniels, Spiff~enwiki, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, Poor Yorick, Adam Conover, Rednblu, Munford, Imc, Furrykef, Thue, Topbanana, Gidonb, Alba, DocWatson42, Lussmu~enwiki, Carlo.Ierna, Angry candy, Gadfium, Andycjp, J. 'mach' wust, Antandrus, Beland, Lesgles, Ccord, Karol Langner, Karl-Henner, Ukexpat, Guppyfinsoup, D6, DanielCD, FranksValli, Paul August, Bender235, Jaberwocky6669, Kaisershatner, Zenohockey, Kwamikagami, Skeppy, Causa sui, Viriditas, A.t.bruland, Arcadian, La goutte de pluie, Jumbuck, Msh210, Wikidea, WhiteC, W7KyzmJt, Velho, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Jjurquia, Uncle G, Cuniculosus, Tom M, Ictlogist, Koavf, Yuval Madar~enwiki, MitchellTF, Moorlock, Sango123, Nihiltres, Ubi, Common Man, BradBeattie, Chobot, Bgwhite, Uriah923, YurikBot, Jlittlet, RJC, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Irrevenant, Aeusoes1, Evrik, Tomisti, Andrew Lancaster, Ephilei, Finell, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, SmackBot, MattieTK, Stephensuleeman, Eskimbot, Lombroso, Chris the speller, Iowacrusader, Jprg1966, Hibernian, Suicidalhamster, Ig0774, AntiVan, Krizaz, Rrburke, Jlarson, LoveMonkey, Peteforsyth, DMacks, RossF18, Will Beback, Grommel~enwiki, RomanSpa, Neddyseagoon, Isokrates, Iridescent, Ioan Dyfrig, Postmodern Beatnik, Sjwanta, N2e, ShelfSkewed, Neelix, Andkore, Talented Mr Miller, Myasuda, Cydebot, Goldfritha, DBaba, Mattisse, Faigl.ladislav, WinBot, Courtjester555, Antique Rose, Deflective, Skomorokh, RR, Geniac, MartinBot, Gronkmeister, Anarchia, Jay Litman, Fconaway, Adavidb, Eliz81, Sigismondo, Heyitspeter, AlanBarnet, Shoessss, Jrcla2, Osirusr, CardinalDan, Black Kite, Lazyafternoons, TXiKiBoT, Jason131813, NatT941, Lynxmb, A4bot, Dan Polansky, SieBot, Ruanov, Flyer22 Reborn, OKBot, Gaylesbian, Tradereddy, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Vivio Testarossa, Catalographer, Deathwish644, Iate2much333, Mccaskey, WikHead, Kputney, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Addbot, Wran, Atethnekos, Download, LaaknorBot, Abiyoyo, Lukeorama, Famerlinck, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, JadeJenni, Ihatz22, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, Dirtbike spaceman, Omnipaedista, Eliphaletnott, RedBot, Elemeno22, LilyKitty, Hriber, Oddrobb, John of Reading, E.G.Dieterich, Vsop.de, Syncategoremata, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, WeijiBaikeBianji, Crumpetnut, Aavindraa, GeoffreyEdwards, Thedividedself, AndrewOne, Michael bykov, Wayne Slam, Sailsbystars, Puffin, Palestrina777, Sdkb, DemonicPartyHat, ClueBot NG, Jamiemills, ISTJonathan, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, Boxbanger 821, BG19bot, DrJimothyCatface, The Banner Turbo, Davidiad, Socal212, Khazar2, Forgind, Chicbyaccident, Epicgenius, DangerouslyPersuasiveWriter, Prokaryotes, Sphynx-SN, Tigercompanion25, Jwinder47, Wikiriker, KasparBot, Miagarcia5, Mjc1983 and Anonymous: 301 • Utilitarianism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism?oldid=751503449 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan Derksen, RK, Enchanter, Detritus, William Avery, Heron, Steverapaport, Michael Hardy, Earth, Dante Alighieri, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Tregoweth, Sir Paul, Ciphergoth, Rossami, Susurrus, Jeandré du Toit, Evercat, Conti, Charles Matthews, Radgeek, Dtgm, Aqualung, Jni, Robbot, Chealer, ChrisG, Altenmann, Nurg, Hadal, Wereon, Aknxy, Nikodemos, Aphaia, Wilfried Derksen, Lussmu~enwiki, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Gzornenplatz, Jackol, SWAdair, Antandrus, Elembis, PhDP, Oneiros, JimWae, Elz dad, M.e, FrozenUmbrella, Pmanderson, Vanguard, EuroTom, Karl-Henner, Ezekiel Cheever, Joyous!, MakeRocketGoNow, Frikle, Absinf, JasticE, Grunt, Gazpacho, Lucidish, Discospinster, Twinxor, Vsmith, Dave souza, Raistlinjones, User2004, Bender235, Kbh3rd, Sgeo, RJHall, Borofkin, Mjk2357, Sietse Snel, Causa sui, Bobo192, Icut4you, WCityMike, Ruszewski, SpeedyGonsales, Li3crmp, Amerindianarts, ADM, Storm Rider, Abolitionist, Alansohn, Gary, Pinar, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, Pion, Wtmitchell, Velella, Leoadec, Omphaloscope, RJII, Versageek, NPswimdude500, Redvers, Ultramarine, Sars~enwiki, Velho, Kelly Martin, Simetrical, Mel Etitis, Timo Laine, Justinlebar, Swamp Ig, Cmillspaige366,
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CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
JCY2K, Ruud Koot, Tabletop, Bkwillwm, Ch'marr, Bluemoose, X127, Prashanthns, BryanKaplan, Nema Fakei, TrentonLipscomb, Eluchil, MrSomeone, Sin-man, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Lev Lafayette, Electionworld, Rjwilmsi, Lars T., KYPark, Bob A, XP1, SMC, Nneonneo, ElKevbo, CalPaterson, Durin, Yamamoto Ichiro, Exeunt, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, Alex is awake, Pathoschild, Gurch, Hansamurai, Jeremygbyrne, Davidbrake, Common Man, King of Hearts, Frappyjohn, Turidoth, Bgwhite, HoCkEy PUCK, Adoniscik, Gwernol, Vmenkov, YurikBot, Wavelength, Dannycas, Mclayto, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, KSchutte, Skotte, NawlinWiki, Chick Bowen, Darker Dreams, Crasshopper, Zwobot, Epa101, Zythe, DryaUnda, M3taphysical, Showem, Haon, Roy Lee's Junior, Gregzeng, JWHPryor, Tsunaminoai, Canley, Nae'blis, Tolle, Anclation~enwiki, Ben golub, Cassandraleo, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Axfangli, Voiceimitator, The Way, Infinity0, That Guy, From That Show!, C mon, Sardanaphalus, Amalthea, Ivolucien, SmackBot, Reedy, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Lawrencekhoo, Ryanlintelman, Yamaguchi 先生, Gilliam, Hraefen, Vincent Vecera, Chris the speller, J.L.Main, Bartimaeus, NCurse, Master of Puppets, Asasa64, Liamdaly620, Miquonranger03, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, WeniWidiWiki, Skyrocket, RomaC, Whispering, Solidusspriggan, Darth Panda, Dragice, Mladifilozof, Ig0774, Kotra, DéRahier, Chesaguy, Mhaeberli, Rrburke, Addshore, Stevenmitchell, Benz240, Khoikhoi, Fuhghettaboutit, Breadandroses, Alexander VII, Whoistheroach, Richard001, Jinksy, Twiffy, Badgerpatrol, Clean Copy, Sammy1339, Kukini, BrianH123, Byelf2007, The undertow, JackpotDen, Giovanni33, CPMcE, Shadowlynk, JorisvS, Alex Stacey, Minna Sora no Shita, RomanSpa, Kirbytime, Santa Sangre, Zelfirelli, Catquas, Dl2000, Gredma, Iridescent, WGee, JHP, Sam Clark, Mugwumpman, Dartelaar, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Firewall62, George100, Kurtan~enwiki, Lahiru k, Orangutan, Megatronium, Devourer09, JForget, Mdsandul, Postmodern Beatnik, High Elf, ScriptBlue, Eewild, Awb49, Bdubois, Thomasmeeks, Yellowtailshark, Sdorrance, Nnp, Gregbard, Ttiotsw, ST47, AbyssWyrm, NaLalina, Pdemecz, Sweikart, Elmarand, Ncjones, Epbr123, Livedevilslivedevil, Litbr, Headbomb, Marek69, Woody, Keelm, Tlp, Matthew Proctor, Mph99, Escarbot, Dantheman531, AntiVandalBot, Voyaging, ChurchOfReason, Mackan79, Siege b, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Shlomi Hillel, Mutt Lunker, Myanw, Knotwork, Ingolfson, Obeattie, JAnDbot, Narssarssuaq, NBeale, Gatemansgc, Barek, Skomorokh, LinkinPark, OhanaUnited, .anacondabot, Michytoo, Magioladitis, Unused0029, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Burninate 58, WikieWikieWikie, KConWiki, Catgut, ペ コ ペ コ, Atlemk, Phileosophian, DerHexer, Edward321, Coffeepusher, Charitwo, MartinBot, Robert Daoust, Poeloq, Shafeeq882005, Sarah Bishop Merrill, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Smokizzy, Pomte, Valaggar, Tgeairn, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Bogey97, FriendlyRiverOtter, Gzkn, It Is Me Here, Katalaveno, McSly, Notreallydavid, Mikael Häggström, Invidus, Davidmorrow, Robertson-Glasgow, Another Philosopher, Al B. Free, Juliancolton, Nkb15uk, WinterSpw, Djr13, Idioma-bot, James Kidd, VolkovBot, DDSaeger, MonsterfUnC, Jeff G., Ecaepekam, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Tomsega, IllaZilla, DennyColt, BabaDraconis, Centipedian, Kenshin, Bearian, Latulla, January2007, Larklight, Billinghurst, Enigmaman, Bporopat, Michael Frind, Logan, Stringman5, Deconstructhis, Thomas94~enwiki, Strombollii, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, Phoenix2007, DeathByNukes, Yintan, Mothmolevna, Stratman07, Toddst1, Curuxz, RawEgg1, JSpung, Thirdeyeopen33, Miguel.mateo, Sunrise, Philosophy470, Bowei Huang 2, Ascidian, Pinkadelica, Sitush, Escape Orbit, Operation Spooner, JustinBlank, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Bthomson100, Plastikspork, EoGuy, Mx3, Ndenison, Mild Bill Hiccup, Neverquick, Callum Martin, Mbcudmore, Diagramma Della Verita, Excirial, Alexbot, PixelBot, Jopo11, Kaiba, Rusty505, Dekisugi, Pharwood, Llaezyn, Tired time, Acabashi, Celebreth, Aitias, Fledgeaaron, Smarkflea, Berean Hunter, DumZiBoT, Finalnight, XLinkBot, Eliran Levi, Rreagan007, SilvonenBot, Philosophyclass HSOG, Addbot, Tcncv, KorinoChikara, Proxima Centauri, Jurj, FCSundae, Tomhandley111, LinkFA-Bot, AgadaUrbanit, Tide rolls, ForesticPig, OlEnglish, Jarble, JEN9841, Ettrig, Wikifan12345, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Timeroot, Hairy poker monster, Sumail, Vidur10, Eduen, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Erel Segal, Ddoomdoom, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Jtshelton, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Sirspamalotiii, JimVC3, Felisophia, Capricorn42, Mandez01, RamziNahawi, Lewishal25, Shizuka Kamishima, GetLinkPrimitiveParams, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Designalife, Johnson175, PineScented, Sunils2cool, Kcauley, Yelnod, FrescoBot, Nicolas Perrault III, ChikeJ, Zero Thrust, Macaneave, Airborne84, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Sargeantneo, VenomousConcept, December21st2012Freak, EphemeralKnowledge, Caspian Rehbinder, Lotje, Dasha14, Grifftob, Lucobrat, ABarnes94, Dyrankor, Mandolinface, Tesseract2, Shabidoo, The soul is unknown, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Star7827, Unimpeder, Anthonypearce54, GoingBatty, CoincidentalBystander, Solarra, Gransta, Slawekb, Grantpant, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Fæ, PRABHAT PINGREJA, GZ-Bot, GrindtXX, Sailsbystars, Pochsad, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, Peter Karlsen, Wakebrdkid, Freddy eduardo, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, MelbourneStar, Intoronto1125, Fioravante Patrone, Snotbot, Gbsnlspl, Frietjes, Chriscook54321, Marcus Pivato, Widr, Squareanimal, Helpful Pixie Bot, Poo-goo, BG19bot, ISTB351, KevinEnders, Langchri, Graham11, Hallows AG, Nathan59, Stelpa, Carlstak, Soerfm, CitationCleanerBot, NotWith, Theconsequentialist, AdamJazzVt, Chomsky, Felixthehamster, Davidcpearce, BattyBot, NGC 2736, Teammm, Alfasst, ChrisGualtieri, Citizen Gardens, SD5bot, Deathlasersonline, Vanished user sdij4rtltkjasdk3, Futurist110, Dexbot, Polsky215, Mr. Guye, Kbog, Nasmith1234, The Vintage Feminist, Lugia2453, Cupco, WolfgangAzureus, Zviroth, BurritoBazooka, Dschslava, Epicgenius, CsDix, I am One of Many, BreakfastJr, Jodosma, VoiceOfTheCommons, PhantomTech, Rolf h nelson, Sophiahounslow, Ugog Nizdast, The Herald, Aubreybardo, Philofiler, Anrnusna, Monkbot, Mike2085, Kinetic37, Cassandra3001, Annamarmus, Janepharper, House of Mogh, Sigehelmus, Secretkeeper12, 00090R, Econtruthseeker, YITYNR, Wikispring, Cusku'i, Puraki, Bconte, SquidHomme, KenTancwell, Pandresen, KasparBot, Johngot, Toughdan, Thinkofanumber, MaxWillyo, Kellydhru, Thefinncarter, InternetArchiveBot, See-3 Pee-Oh, Acopyeditor, Gihs1999 and Anonymous: 943 • Well-being Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-being?oldid=749425642 Contributors: Bearcat, Loremaster, Travers, Rjwilmsi, Nihiltres, Rathfelder, Gilliam, Physjcw, Thomasmeeks, Moss watson, Martin Cooney, Lbeaumont, Oshwah, Biscuittin, Flyer22 Reborn, Sanya3, Doseiai2, Addbot, Jarble, Yobot, Bbb23, Nimpal, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, LilHelpa, The Banner, Mark Schierbecker, WissensDürster, RandomDSdevel, Jonesey95, Tom.Reding, Trappist the monk, AnselmiJuan, GoingBatty, Neil P. Quinn, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Msanjelpie, Satellizer, CitationCleanerBot, DPL bot, BattyBot, Millennium bug, ChrisGualtieri, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Jucchan, Wuerzele, Jpgs33, Drchriswilliams, Inaaaa, SJ Defender, Angeles124, 7Sidz, Wellbeingwiki, Tangxin09, Monkbot, JenifferHomes, Platifire, Narky Blert, Matiia, Samwise723, DanielWhiteMartin, Alysonhaffner, Dorlee Michaeli, Davidrahat, WellBEEeng, NeleMan and Anonymous: 33 • Hedonism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism?oldid=750334555 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, SimonP, KF, Stevertigo, Mrwojo, Patrick, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, JakeVortex, Vera Cruz, Sannse, Karada, Pde, Brinticus, Kingturtle, Marco Krohn, Andres, Ec5618, Charles Matthews, Glimz~enwiki, Hyacinth, JorgeGG, Chealer, Texture, Hadal, Profoss, Fuelbottle, MilkMiruku, Nikodemos, Jcobb, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Guanaco, Mboverload, Falcon Kirtaran, Jrdioko, JRR Trollkien, Andycjp, Antandrus, Thefarleft, DanMatan, Lucidish, Ma'ame Michu, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, ThomasK, Ivan Bajlo, JPX7, Edgarde, Bender235, ESkog, Purplefeltangel, Joel Russ, Mwanner, Prospero, Themarcuscreature, Chiacomo, Soufron, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Ben James Ben, Ynhockey, Snowolf, RJII, Dismas, Velho, Woohookitty, Kzollman, Pol098, Ruud Koot, Bluemoose, Ajshm, Mandarax, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Cuchullain, Sjö, Lugnad, Heah, Eptalon, Matt Deres, FlaBot, RexNL, Common Man, FrankTobia, YurikBot, Alma Pater, RussBot, Red Slash, Nesbit, Barefootguru, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, NawlinWiki, A314268, Apokryltaros, Jpbowen, Haoie, Moe Epsilon, Jules.LT, Canley, Shawnc, ArielGold, Stuhacking, Infinity0, MateoP, Samuel Blanning, C mon, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Unschool, Zazaban, InverseHypercube, 127, Jrockley, Boris Barowski, Kipmaster, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Zytsef, KaragouniS, Persian Poet Gal, Northern, Thumperward, DroEsperanto, Effer, Go for it!, Yanksox, Tamuz, Kevinbrowning, Stevenmitchell, Richard001, Kuronue, Deepblackwater, Evlekis,
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Bernie74, Nejee16, Majorclanger, Ph89~enwiki, IronGargoyle, PseudoSudo, A. Parrot, Denominator, Seqsea, Cat's Tuxedo, Iridescent, JMK, Dansiman, Exander, Josh a brewer, Flinch, Kjr0024, Tawkerbot2, George100, Luvinjesus03, Kurtan~enwiki, Wolfdog, Artiste-extraordinaire, Jokes Free4Me, Edwin, Shandris, Anil1956, Neelix, Gregbard, Goldfritha, Kether~enwiki, Puffy1632, Tkynerd, Skittleys, RottweilerCS, Womtelo, Ssilvers, Hubba, Mamalujo, Thijs!bot, Mojo Hand, Nonagonal Spider, John254, Mentifisto, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, QuiteUnusual, Quintote, Philr359, Danjammil, Modernist, Serpent's Choice, 24630, Skomorokh, Dionisian Individual, The.Modificator, LittleOldMe, Magioladitis, Mondebleu, AdvertisingLord, JamesBWatson, Crazytonyi, Rob hodkinson, Edward321, The Sporadic Update, GlissandoFaery, Robert Daoust, STBot, Dauphine~enwiki, Anarchia, Kane Freak8, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Earthdenizen, Wiki Raja, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Silverxxx, Drsuzyb, Wikifish7, Mikael Häggström, LittleHow, Thesis4Eva, Evb-wiki, Ptebault, Bananasplitsrule04, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Ariobarzan, VolkovBot, Webgrunt, TXiKiBoT, A4bot, Monkey Bounce, Domitius, Youzi, Yk Yk Yk, Wasted Sapience, Lova Falk, Thanatos666, Symane, Ohiostandard, Dodo von den Bergen, SieBot, JohnFNebel~enwiki, Bahanaga, Mungo Kitsch, Dawn Bard, Peaceoutside, Colloquial Hero, Javierfv1212, CharlesGillingham, Mygerardromance, Killerkhalsa, Emptymountains, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Enthusiast01, Ak112358, Auntof6, Phileasson, Alexbot, Jd scheid, Esimal, Timaster735, Tired time, Thingg, The Baroness of Morden, Rockyar88, Avoided, Philisophical history, Leonini, Addbot, Kongr43gpen, Jncraton, Bnaur, Download, Coasting, Karl gregory jones, SamatBot, LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Sleepyfreak0, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, ماني, Yadin137, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Fisherpe, Eduen, AnomieBOT, Metalhead94, 1exec1, Galoubet, Dhidalgo, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, Ianjs, Capricorn42, TheGunn, Omnipaedista, Noproblem60, Pinethicket, Almileken, Uponunkonwn, Jonkerz, Lotje, Fox Wilson, Grow60, Danieljaycho, Minimac, Kamiel79, AXRL, Onel5969, Ripchip Bot, Beyond My Ken, EmausBot, Natalyakautz, Gfoley4, RA0808, Slightsmile, Thecheesykid, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Josve05a, Truthteller52, Unreal7, GeeGollyJeepers, L0ngpar1sh, Coasterlover1994, Brycehughes, Freddy eduardo, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Henry Stanley, Dfisch123, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aphellion, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Davidiad, Evanharmon, M77L245, Miszatomic, Scottiekaz, Cyberbot II, Jeanine Broderick, YFdyh-bot, Ajibulu2, Vanished user sdij4rtltkjasdk3, Lmccrobie90, Dexbot, BreakfastJr, François Robere, Wayhne El Porch, Jianhui67, Thomas.paul.chrysostom, D4iNa4, Cassandra3001, Immanuel Thoughtmaker, EDGRC, Gabygabi, Suruman, MrMikeM On Wiki, KasparBot, Francis Le français, FollowTheSigns, ISUbstucker, TheAgonarch, Awesomewiki64, Jkorb, Margraveawsomin, GreenC bot, Wenstop, Universalbri and Anonymous: 418 • Pleasure Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasure?oldid=749933969 Contributors: MarXidad, The Anome, SimonP, Patrick, MartinHarper, Karada, Kwekubo, Pingveno, David Edgar, Kenny sh, Geeoharee, Bradeos Graphon, Andycjp, Magraggae, Beland, GreenReaper, Omassey, A-giau, Rich Farmbrough, Rsanchezsaez, Bender235, Adambro, Storm Rider, SpaceMoose, Chico, Angr, Woohookitty, LrdChaos, Camw, Graham87, BD2412, Dwarf Kirlston, Rjwilmsi, Quiddity, Yamamoto Ichiro, Mrschimpf, Chobot, Roeeyaron, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, SpuriousQ, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Dialectric, Rjensen, Nutiketaiel, Jpbowen, InvaderJim42, SFC9394, Syd Midnight, Arthur Rubin, Esprit15d, C mon, SmackBot, AndreniW, McGeddon, Vald, Jagged 85, Cessator, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Angelbo, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Al Pereira, Darth Panda, Mladifilozof, Yidisheryid, Red Rooster~enwiki, Rrburke, Addshore, COMPFUNK2, Richard001, Byelf2007, Vir, RichardF, Danilot, TwistOfCain, Lakers, Jackbergin, Blehfu, MyUsername, George100, The Haunted Angel, JForget, Dycedarg, Neelix, Penbat, Gregbard, H.M.S Me, Sloth monkey, Quibik, Paddles, Mattisse, Epbr123, Second Quantization, Majorly, Spencer, Kauczuk, Wayiran, Bjenks, The Transhumanist, Ericoides, Andonic, YK Times, Geniac, Unused0029, Bongwarrior, Timanderso, JamesBWatson, Twodeel, Jason Hommel, Giggy, Cgingold, MartinBot, Robert Daoust, 424242, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Ginsengbomb, Acalamari, SmithBlue, Mikael Häggström, Belovedfreak, GingerDemarque, Deor, VolkovBot, Polarbear97, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Anna Lincoln, Figureskatingfan, Shanata, Lova Falk, HopsonRoad, Monty845, Lickylick, Dont mess wit me(Tay), SieBot, Ivan Štambuk, This, that and the other, Duy Huu Nguyen, JetLover, Aruton, Oxymoron83, Fag child, Banandar123, Samosauras, Escape Orbit, Extremecircuitz, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Nerd child man, Nkouevda, Victory Guy, Excirial, Lollollolloljok, Coralmizu, Vegetator, The-verver, SoxBot III, NERIC-Security, DumZiBoT, NeoVampirism, Yojimbo501, Nominality, Just2sweet12, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, DaughterofSun, Zarcadia, With goodness in mind, Smartypants234, Looie496, Tassedethe, Ugly nerd man, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Apteva, Jarble, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Lilphiliej10, Yngvadottir, Eduen, AnomieBOT, Neko85, Melune, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Samoboow, Jubileeclipman, Meditator90, Gap9551, S0aasdf2sf, J04n, DaAwalk, Dogpup4, ASOTMKX, Dougofborg, Thehelpfulbot, AlexMin, IO Device, Paine Ellsworth, Drunkenmaster2000, Citation bot 1, Iyan gina, Fernbom2, Pinethicket, Σ, Jesusfleabop, Jhbuk, TobeBot, Lotje, Johnald1337, LilyKitty, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Viddlerrrs, ILoveStrideGum, EmausBot, IREallyNEEDaPIss, Guardianx9, TreacherousWays, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, The Nut, Lexusuns, Jacobisq, Mahass1979, PUZL3D, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Tyzoid, Helpful Pixie Bot, Coolguy877393, Marcocapelle, Fylbecatulous, Several Pending, Jessie b507, BuzyBody, Mr. Guye, E12e1, Webclient101, Randomkid123, Aymankamelwiki, Cartkiller55, Ruby Murray, Awesome2013, Seppi333, Meteor sandwich yum, Haydncorke, MingKuang, Monkbot, Anarchyte, Lollipop, AeAnBr, Thehamseph, Contrib raati, Arjun Wox, Pleasurek, Motivação, Soumyajit basu chowdhury, Lombardoe9 and Anonymous: 155 • Great Work Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Work?oldid=709142410 Contributors: Meelar, Nagelfar, Dbachmann, Bobrayner, Vynce, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Lawrencekhoo, Gilliam, Midnightblueowl, CmdrObot, Keraunos, Magioladitis, Tunnels of Set, Verbal, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Trappist the monk, Jo Esoteric, Ladnadruk, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Rosy13, Helpful Pixie Bot, Car Henkel and Anonymous: 9 • Hermeticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticism?oldid=743688925 Contributors: Slrubenstein, Deb, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, Ihcoyc, RL Barrett, Norwikian, Charles Matthews, Lichtkind, Kenatipo, Twang, Altenmann, Babbage, Ojigiri~enwiki, DocWatson42, Marcika, Jorge Stolfi, Infinitysnake, Loremaster, Quarl, DNewhall, Tothebarricades.tk, PFHLai, Clarknova, Ashami, DanielCD, Dbachmann, Bender235, Art LaPella, Perfecto, Bastique, Stesmo, Ray Dassen, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Dtremenak, Nk, Rje, Solar, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Eleuthero, Rd232, DreamGuy, Jheald, TShilo12, Dejvid, RHaworth, Gil-Galad, Oferrriko, Rgbea, Graham87, Cuchullain, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, Kinu, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Nandesuka, Ptdecker, RexNL, Gurch, Robert Prummel, AllyD, Roboto de Ajvol, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Leutha, Ptcamn, Justin Eiler, Rajachow, MSJapan, Morgan Leigh, Shralk, Tomisti, Ultron, AdamFunk, Deville, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Oakwood, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Stepa, Ogdred, Bluebot, TimBentley, Hibernian, Monkeycheetah, Oatmeal batman, Beowulf314159, Clinkophonist, Blueboar, King Vegita, PiPhD, Cybercobra, Savidan, Ligulembot, Yonderboy~enwiki, Sophia, Dr. John Gold, Greyscale, LancasterII, Kirbytime, Astrolog~enwiki, Armadel, Dan Gluck, TwoHorned, IvanLanin, Lenoxus, Psilosphere, Chris55, Mellery, Geremia, Smiloid, Basawala, Heylel, Moreschi, Antioco79, AndrewHowse, Jpb1301, Sloth monkey, Synergy, Doug Weller, Arb, Sweetmoose6, Raistlin Majere, KamiLian, Thijs!bot, Qwyrxian, Dogaroon, HappyInGeneral, Nalvage, Deschreiber, JustAGal, Frater FiatLux, ThePeg, Frater Xyzzy, MoogleDan, Byrgenwulf, JAnDbot, Sophie means wisdom, Magus007, SiobhanHansa, Professor marginalia, Revery~enwiki, Zostrianos, KellyArt, Rico77, Jim.henderson, Kostisl, R'n'B, Sam Weller, All Is One, Ian.thomson, Arion 3x3, McSly, Alphapeta, Jstar37, Jorjun, OrganicAtom, Davecrosby uk, Ottershrew, Shinju, W. B. Wilson, Ina custers~enwiki, Salome777, Jonathan.McGregor.Bethel, TXiKiBoT, Akeenan, Nihiliststar, IPSOS, John Carter, Hermetizam~enwiki, DieBuche, Enviroboy, Riversong, Gabe777, Tomcusack, ThriceGreat, Trinsic1, Jojalozzo, DanBLOO, Anchor Link Bot, Mr. Stradivarius, Journalist492, Wahrmund, JL-Bot, Martarius, Samuel Grant, IPAddressConflict,
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CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
Ferma12e3pe, TheOldJacobite, Wikijens, CFPeterson, Curious Blue, Phso2, Audaciter, FeelyViewy, Lx 121, Editor2020, Tdslk, UnionJack123, Quenstedt, Addbot, Smetanahue, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Mseanbrown, Moreschi2, CarsracBot, Debresser, Tyler8779, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Algorithme, Materialscientist, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, RevelationDirect, Hermotimus, Xqbot, Sionus, Gehadad, TechBot, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Basileias, Flygongengar, Rhadryn, Aleister Wilson, Citation bot 1, XxTimberlakexx, Bookerj, Skyerise, Shelhabiron, Pollinosisss, ItsZippy, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Syncategoremata, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Donner60, Gschiffino, ClueBot NG, Manosty, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, BlueMoonset, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Adom2000, Dkoiia1154, Car Henkel, Joshua Jonathan, JEMead, Khuenaten, ChrisGualtieri, Mogism, Sowlos, Corinne, GeoffHoeber, Lauralilly, MolodoiG, Metadox, Ilovetopaint, Frogger48, Sepamu92, Sociosphere, JudeccaXIII, Crito10, TVShowFan122, Autismrevolution342342234, Mdmerovee, Billix0008, LobsterJameson, Granitic, Megalodon34, Atlantisfoundation and Anonymous: 246 • Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesia_Gnostica_Catholica?oldid=734672219 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Fibonacci, Rursus, Mboverload, Ashami, Dbachmann, PhilHibbs, Circeus, Hanuman Das, Gpvos, Anlala, Mel Etitis, Isomeme, Marudubshinki, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Pigman, SmackBot, Rune X2, Betacommand, Msalvoni, CapitalR, Idolater718, Synergy, Frater5, Thiebes, Crakkpot, Tunnels of Set, IPSOS, John Carter, Mort pp~enwiki, Stealthepiscopalian, Will in China, Addbot, PaterMcFly, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, Baronflopsy, Omnipaedista, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Full-date unlinking bot, Theseus1776, H3llBot, Music Sorter, Ben Ammi, Odysseus1479, Helpful Pixie Bot, Drift chambers, BattyBot, David.moreno72, Jayaguru-Shishya, Monkbot and Anonymous: 17 • The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Source_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn? oldid=722479903 Contributors: Mdupont, Mattflaschen, Hanuman Das, Docboat, Camw, ElKevbo, Nihiltres, Isotope23, 999~enwiki, Chaser, Mikewelch7, SmackBot, JMax555, JoshuaZ, Ehheh, Meco, Kephera975, Switchercat, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Synergy, Frater FiatLux, Zanoni666, ***Ria777***, Maheshkumaryadav, ***Ria777, Tinahdee, Oshwah, IPSOS, John Carter, GlassFET, Dogbeast, DerBorg, Editor2020, XLinkBot, Xeanalyth, Roux, Tassedethe, KDrift, FrescoBot, Aleister Wilson, Lava23 and Anonymous: 6 • Kenneth Anger Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Anger?oldid=748594735 Contributors: Hephaestos, Jahsonic, Fcp, Sethmahoney, SatyrTN, Twang, Bearcat, Donreed, Tribe, Altenmann, JackofOz, Walloon, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Jyril, Everyking, BalthCat, Beatnick~enwiki, Oneiros, D6, Guanabot, Rsanchezsaez, YUL89YYZ, LindsayH, Bender235, Giraffedata, Guy Harris, Philip Cross, Ricky81682, YDZ, Zosodada, Woohookitty, Mandarax, Xcuref1endx, RichardWeiss, BD2412, SouthernComfort, TheRingess, Benzamin, Philostratus, Krash, MarnetteD, Matt Deres, Lecheruser, FlaBot, Kea~enwiki, CalJW, Teppei Aita, Avalyn, NotJackhorkheimer, AllyD, YurikBot, 999~enwiki, Bhoeble, Gaius Cornelius, Dialectric, ExRat, Tony1, Mysid, GeoffCapp, JLaTondre, Attilios, SmackBot, Od Mishehu, DUG1138, Verne Equinox, Eskimbot, Jab843, NathanHess, David Fuchs, Chris the speller, Bluebot, G.dallorto, CSWarren, Colonies Chris, George Ho, AndroidCat, Wizardman, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, John, Guat6, Skeptismo118, Bluecongo, Runningfridgesrule, SMasters, Meco, Interlingua, Midnightblueowl, Sethian, Hu12, Fasach Nua, Jeremy Dark, Courcelles, Fnarf999, CmdrObot, Ali strachan, Chrisahn, Cydebot, Treybien, Otto4711, Lugnuts, Biruitorul, Keraunos, Ubuthustra, AntiVandalBot, Jj137, Tjmayerinsf, Modernist, Saxophobia, MishMich, Niaz, Tortoiseshells, Jarkeld, Chevellefan11, .anacondabot, Geniac, Magioladitis, Paulisdead, WikkanWitch, SlamDiego, Stanforda, InnocuousPseudonym, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, Uncle Dick, Libroman, MartinSFSA, Sintauro, Aboutmovies, Donteatyellowsnow, Infiniteglitch, Gemini1980, WOSlinker, IPSOS, Rsl39, Lola Voss, Qaswa, Laval, Twooars, Closenplay, DeXXus, Mbloom.bloom, Pinkadelica, Precious Roy, Randy Kryn, ImageRemovalBot, Cflann01, Kalibhakta, All Hallow's Wraith, Icarusgeek, DrXavier, Marvin Cee, TheOldJacobite, TBustah, Iainhammer, Nmate, Hrdinský, Thingg, Jameszerukjr, PhilSchabus, Good Olfactory, Floeticsoulchild, Addbot, PierrotLeBleu, JGKlein, Dyuku, Marksdaman, Yobot, JJARichardson, Captainsiberia, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, Watery Tart, Srich32977, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, OfficerBlue, FrescoBot, Marvin Ceee, Alcrowley1978, Rodneyorpheus, Sookie moose, Aleister Wilson, Skyerise, Fuzzysun, Full-date unlinking bot, Righteho11, RjwilmsiBot, Intoabout, GoingBatty, Tricericon, Wikignome0530, Gidtanner, Dsmithsmithy, MelissaYvonne, Unga Khan, Manytexts, Serasuna, Rhecrane, Widr, RafikiSykes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Neptune's Trident, Wasbeer, PhnomPencil, Twincats2000, Marc.faucher, BattyBot, Myxomatosis57, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Dobie80, Dexbot, Got2Bthere, Mogism, VIAFbot, MaybeMaybeMaybe, Monochrome Monitor, Christianazb, Monkbot, Kreeman, Grilledcheese8, KasparBot, Witchanimal, No1Nicofan, Subrosa X, Imminent77 and Anonymous: 153 • Augustus Sol Invictus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Sol_Invictus?oldid=751543742 Contributors: FeanorStar7, Squibix, Pol098, Alaney2k, Thane Eichenauer, Sandstein, Nellis, Namiba, TheTruthiness, Emeraldcityserendipity, ImageRemovalBot, Stealthepiscopalian, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, Arjayay, Callinus, Grayfell, William S. Saturn, Yobot, Yngvadottir, AnomieBOT, 11 Arlington, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, The Almightey Drill, BlueSalix, BattyBot, FiredanceThroughTheNight, Rossbawse, DavidLeighEllis, JaconaFrere, Moonboy54, Tadeusz Nowak, Gladamas, Waters.Justin, Denniscabrams, JJMC89, Heepman1997, Staplesworth, PublicUniversityAmericanImmigrant, Pontiouspat, Greengroze, Donenne, Invictusforsenate, Pagefault404, Invwar, DD666, Dressingforasalad, Tfrain34689, KingAntenor and Anonymous: 38 • Aeon (Thelema) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeon_(Thelema)?oldid=711896958 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Fibonacci, Robert Weemeyer, Ashami, Mailer diablo, BD2412, Physchim62, 999~enwiki, Grafen, SmackBot, Happydog, Shadowoftime, Midnightblueowl, Amakuru, CapitalR, Woodshed, Jayen466, Synergy, Noneofyourbusiness, PhilKnight, JaGa, IPSOS, Dk0618, Fedaykinx, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Jonesey95, Trappist the monk, John of Reading, Theseus1776, Klugkerl, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, Mogism, Eric Corbett, Daß Wölf and Anonymous: 31 • True Will Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Will?oldid=683207998 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Fibonacci, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Nagelfar, Ashami, Andy Smith, Rich Farmbrough, OwenX, Ligulem, Somecallmetim, 999~enwiki, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, Chinawhitecotton, Meco, Gogo Dodo, Synergy, Frater5, O. bey, Tunnels of Set, IPSOS, 0nlyth3truth, JhsBot, Kjtobo, Alexbot, Will in China, Addbot, Lightbot, OlEnglish, AnomieBOT, A.amitkumar, FrescoBot, Jdawg3207, Haeinous, Aleister Wilson, Hjaddock, Futuri, Smcg8374, Lenkiewicz1, Antithesisx and Anonymous: 20 • Holy Guardian Angel Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Guardian_Angel?oldid=745936793 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Paul A, Everyking, Ashami, Cafzal, Sam Korn, Hanuman Das, MamaGeek, Cavalorn, Somecallmetim, 999~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Gjs238, Robofish, Sethian, Paradox11, Nehrams2020, CapitalR, Synergy, Frater5, Raistlin Majere, Julia Rossi, Zeb edee, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Shalotok, R'n'B, VolkovBot, Tunnels of Set, Samtlam, IPSOS, Markp93, Stealthepiscopalian, Yuubi, Will in China, Addbot, Download, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Mvaldemar, FrescoBot, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Twostarsoflove, Manytexts, Smcg8374, HGA666, Raisenoble, HymenaeusBeta, MagicatthemovieS, Tombreaper, Wilmarckav and Anonymous: 22 • Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stele_of_Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu?oldid=746257463 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Fibonacci, BalthCat, Ashami, Rich Farmbrough, Furius, Twthmoses, 999~enwiki, Asarelah, Mmcannis, Auroranorth, SmackBot, Bluebot, J.smith, Midnightblueowl, CapitalR, Amalas, Synergy, Frater5, AgentPeppermint, Ermeyers, Chaos5023, IPSOS, PericlesofAthens, Buddyboy76, ClueBot, Lashtal93, PixelBot, XLinkBot, Will in China, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem,
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
255
AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Khruner, Ankhefenkhons, Whynowagain, Aleister Wilson, Dinamik-bot, RjwilmsiBot, RaptureBot, Frietjes, Mortimer Lanin, Jayaguru-Shishya, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 15 • 93 (Thelema) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/93_(Thelema)?oldid=742474365 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Docu, Fibonacci, AnonMoos, Ary29, Ashami, Rich Farmbrough, Twthmoses, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Brighterorange, Somecallmetim, 999~enwiki, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, Bluebot, JzG, CapitalR, 8754865, Jac16888, Synergy, Frater5, Jbshryne, VolkovBot, Chaos5023, Tunnels of Set, IPSOS, Deconstructhis, Editor2020, XLinkBot, Will in China, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, FrescoBot, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Uvoval, EmausBot, Theseus1776, BCLH, ChuispastonBot, Frater Liberabit, 336, Mortimer Lanin, DevoraBee, CaptainStegge and Anonymous: 27 • Abyss (Thelema) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyss_(Thelema)?oldid=746400527 Contributors: Dan~enwiki, Fibonacci, Psychaotic, Ashami, Jpgordon, Smalljim, Mailer diablo, SpectrumDT, Sbrools, 999~enwiki, Pigman, RadioFan2 (usurped), SmackBot, Rosicrucian, Radagast83, Shadowoftime, CapitalR, Synergy, Missvain, PhilKnight, Tunnels of Set, IPSOS, ClueBot, Editor2020, Aleister Wilson, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 10 • Gematria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gematria?oldid=750473072 Contributors: RK, XJaM, Michael Hardy, DopefishJustin, IZAK, William M. Connolley, Pseudo daoist, Ijon, Error, WolfgangRieger, Charles Matthews, Zero0000, Optim, SchmuckyTheCat, Wayland, Smjg, Jdavidb, Jfdwolff, Sihan, Kpalion, Rokerknight~enwiki, Eranb, Sam Hocevar, Mike Rosoft, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, Andrejj, El C, Kwamikagami, PhilHibbs, Perfecto, Viriditas, Kjkolb, Aleph1, WikiLeon, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Mpulier, Alansohn, Guy Harris, CheeseDreams, Cjthellama, Jnothman, Tony Sidaway, TShilo12, OwenX, Woohookitty, Uncle G, Dodiad, Jeff3000, Cbdorsett, Matthew Platts, Toussaint, Shpoffo, Graham87, BD2412, Amire80, TheRingess, Makaristos, UsagiM, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, Rigel.j, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Dmlandfair, Bachrach44, Yoninah, Hyperqube, Ospalh, Rwalker, Scope creep, Igiffin, Adam Holland, Thnidu, BorgQueen, Rgough, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, PiCo, Jon513, Chaoscrowley, Colonies Chris, Margavriel, Solarix, Charlotte Hobbs, JonHarder, Yidisheryid, Mhym, PuckSmith, Eliyak, Rklawton, Breno, Musashiaharon, The Man in Question, NumberMan, 3210, Alain Verboomen, Quaeler, Fan-1967, Sarastro777, Gilabrand, Vanisaac, Amsteinberg91, CmdrObot, Lighthead, Kit Marlowe, Dgw, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, Nickleus, Rei Murasame, Thijs!bot, Eliyyahu, Vaniac, Steelpillow, Deflective, Ermeyers, Adamapple1, Arenarax, Dithie, Gladys j cortez, Reinsarn, Adavidb, Laplandian, IdLoveOne, Tarotcards, Mrg3105, Robertgreer, Stealthisusername, Geekdiva, Squids and Chips, Rebmoshe11, Pleasantville, Tunnels of Set, Fences and windows, Epson291, Java7837, IPSOS, Steven J. Anderson, Wmcg, Achillu, Christadelphianeditor, Y, Falcon8765, Logan, Cosprings, WereSpielChequers, Gerakibot, Marshall Golightly, Agur bar Jacé, Tesi1700, Xyz7890, Martarius, Mild Bill Hiccup, Idleloop~enwiki, Omnivibe, -Midorihana-, Pentadog, Muhandes, Iohannes Animosus, Eytanmeisner, Hellokitttty, Unclemikejb, Mizrahim, Danielgem, Editor2020, Shoteh, Koro Neil, Kwork2, Aewadi, MystBot, Dubmill, ThomasJoelMayer, Addbot, Innv, Tassedethe, Meieimatai, OlEnglish, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Raphael26, AnomieBOT, Dad7, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Ross6789, QaBobAllah, Erockmurray, Gematria1, Andrewmc123, Xqbot, Capricorn42, AuthorityTam, Normus tered, RibotBOT, ElectricMandarine, Jennifer Iconofiler, FrescoBot, Polyxeros, Binyamin Goldstein, علی ویکی, Kyngars, Neshemah, Kromholz, Onel5969, Helwr, EmausBot, Giladzuc, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Donner60, Glitchus, ClueBot NG, Mandosalama, Dream of Nyx, Gematria Publishing, Helpful Pixie Bot, Notarikondotcom, Tosafos, Torxx666, Informationskampagne, Brad7777, Maryester, ChrisGualtieri, Marcello Pas, Taddeush, JustAMuggle, Costatitanica, QPT, Lawrence2507, ColRad85, Rmtwiki111, P-123, Sagikingksp, Breslover1956, מלא כל הארץ כבודי,גור אריה יהודה, Urgx, KATMAKROFAN and Anonymous: 216 • Subtle body Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtle_body?oldid=739948365 Contributors: Optim, Pakaran, Bearcat, Fredrik, Goethean, Nilmerg, Nateji77, Eequor, Anirvan, Rfl, Rich Farmbrough, Cacycle, Pedant, Giraffedata, The misha, Godshatter, Drat, Sfacets, T. Baphomet, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Big Brother 1984, ENeville, Equilibrial, Jerome Kelly, Wujastyk, Cbogart, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, SmackBot, Timotheus Canens, Hmains, Chris the speller, Mallarme, JonHarder, BullRangifer, Bilby, BillFlis, Midnightblueowl, Jggouvea, Hu12, Iridescent, Ksri99, Jason7825, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Frater5, SummerPhD, LuckyLouie, Aurumsolis, MER-C, Geniac, Knowledge for All, JamesBWatson, ***Ria777, Gabriel Kielland, Hoverfish, R'n'B, Grazia11, Adavidb, All Is One, Minderbinder~enwiki, Debnathsandeep, VolkovBot, Rmcnew, John Carter, Plasmametaphysics, Anton H, Randy Kryn, EPadmirateur, Dakinijones, Sun Creator, Editor2020, Semitransgenic, Addbot, Lykos, Redheylin, Kiril Simeonovski, Ben Ben, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, K2709, Nathatanu0, Xqbot, FrescoBot, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Alexcheetham, Aditya soni, Sanjoydey33, Theo10011, Simon Kidd, Kristinatina, ClueBot NG, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Dave1958, Caseywilliams7, MrBill3, GreenUniverse, ChrisGualtieri, Leništudent, Louey37, Srihari madhavan, Joolzzt, Talari001, Ghosts Ghouls, Andrewyamadamay, Theosophical Wiki, Tigercompanion25, Trinity9538 and Anonymous: 44 • Night of Pan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_of_Pan?oldid=735642254 Contributors: Fibonacci, Ashami, Mailer diablo, 999~enwiki, Midnightblueowl, CapitalR, Synergy, P64, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Bissinger, IPSOS, 48states, Dthomsen8, FrescoBot, Aleister Wilson, SkateTier, KaosMuppet and Anonymous: 4 • Occult science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occult_science?oldid=709813087 Contributors: Jitse Niesen, Loremaster, Pol098, M Alan Kazlev, Marudubshinki, Alexjohnc3, MalafayaBot, Mallarme, Hibernian, Clean Copy, Keraunos, Sodabottle, Systemlover, EPadmirateur, El bot de la dieta, Addbot, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Mtaylor1795, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, TobeBot, Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg, Helpsome, Jeraphine Gryphon, MrBill3, David.moreno72, XercesBlue1991, Harsha0498 and Anonymous: 10 • Hermetic Qabalah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Qabalah?oldid=748044328 Contributors: DocWatson42, Varlaam, Sihan, Viriditas, Pigman, Wiki alf, Morgan Leigh, Sethie, SmackBot, Chris the speller, King Vegita, Fuzzypeg, Quaeler, CmdrObot, Smiloid, AndrewHowse, Doug Weller, Msnicki, Alaibot, Surturz, Klasovsky, Kariteh, Americash, CommonsDelinker, Adavidb, Ian.thomson, Crakkpot, IPSOS, Ontoraul, Achillu, Chillywillycd, Revent, Artfullheart, Ndenison, Lmateo002, TheOldJacobite, Memerym, Alexbot, SchreiberBike, Editor2020, XLinkBot, April8, Ghyslaine ROC, Addbot, Bootboy41, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Eduen, AnomieBOT, QaBobAllah, J04n, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Aleister Wilson, Skyerise, Lindalina, Charles charlie, Tbhotch, Alan1411, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Midas02, Jeraphine Gryphon, Whitjr, H. 217.83, Binarycodefixerguy, DStanB, Jayaguru-Shishya, WordSeventeen and Anonymous: 45 • Goetia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goetia?oldid=747619881 Contributors: Vignaux, Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, The Warlock, Greenrd, Nagelfar, Djinn112, Gtrmp, Jespa, Demonslave, DNewhall, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Paul August, Lachatdelarue, Bender235, Hapsiainen, El C, Mr. Paradox, Kwamikagami, Art LaPella, Wareh, Solar, Ogress, Denial, Ghirlandajo, Embryomystic, Woohookitty, Sburke, Taestell, Rjwilmsi, Ligulem, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Ben Tibbetts, YurikBot, Kafziel, 999~enwiki, Pigman, Justin Eiler, Jkelly, Kungfuadam, Meegs, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, Melchoir, McGeddon, Gjs238, Canonblack, Bluebot, Chaoscrowley, King Vegita, Fuzzypeg, JHunterJ, Easyboy82~enwiki, DabMachine, Iokseng, Fordmadoxfraud, Treybien, Synergy, Frater5, Thijs!bot, Aristox, MoogleDan, Majorly, Rhinoracer, Deflective, Dybryd, Robina Fox, Nancehixon, Noahdabomb3, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Keith D, Bluehairedkid2, Kheph777, Andareed, Yipely, AntiSpamBot, Pdcook, VolkovBot, BlackJar72, Requiemdeorum, DISEman, NDenizen, AlleborgoBot, Baaleos, Anyep, Hello Control, Kaecyy, SoxBot, Doc9871, Will in China, Addbot, Fyrael, PhearOfTheDark,
256
CHAPTER 32. GOETIA
Tyler8779, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Painocus, Musicguyguy, J04n, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Siipiniekka, HRoestBot, Yan Vinokur, Malyadik, ZéroBot, Manytexts, Dream of Nyx, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Starlight666, Smcg8374, Forestfrolic, H. 217.83, Jayaguru-Shishya, WikiPancake, God's Godzilla and Anonymous: 77
32.10.2
Images
• File:55-aspetti_di_vita_quotidiana,_gioia,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Cas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ e/ec/55-aspetti_di_vita_quotidiana%2C_gioia%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Cas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: book scan Original artist: unknown master • File:5_steps_to_a_happier_life.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/5_steps_to_a_happier_life.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: LeoRomero • File:Acupuncture_chart_300px.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Acupuncture_chart_300px.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Imagery From the History of Medicine (original in Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris). Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Allisvanity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Allisvanity.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Arete_-_Areté-_Éfeso.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Arete_-_Aret%C3%A9-_%C3% 89feso.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Carlos Delgado • File:Aristippus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Aristippus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.5 Contributors: Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005. Original artist: After Lysippos • File:Aristotelis_De_Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Aristotelis_De_ Moribus_ad_Nicomachum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? 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• File:Plutchik-wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Plutchik-wheel.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Machine Elf 1735 • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Psi2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Psi2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machinereadable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Gdh~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: a 1909 card scanned by Holly Voley (http://home.comcast.net/~{}vilex/) for the public domain, and retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts. com/tarot (see note on that page regarding source of images). Original artist: Copyright holder was Arthur Edward Waite. Pamela Coleman Smith was just doing an artist's 'work for hire.' She was paid for her work and was not the copyright holder. • File:Raffael_070.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Raffael_070.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Raphael • File:Rebecca_L._Felton.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Rebecca_L._Felton.png License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3a46808. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: ? • File:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia. Original artist: Tinette. • File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_038-crop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Rembrandt_ Harmensz._van_Rijn_038-crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVDROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Rembrandt • File:Ringstone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Ringstone.svg License: Public domain Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata: Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Rollercoaster_Tornado_Avonturenpark_Hellendoorn_Netherlands.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/49/Rollercoaster_Tornado_Avonturenpark_Hellendoorn_Netherlands.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:SPQRomani.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Piotr Michał Jaworski (<a href='https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysta:Piom' class='extiw' title='pl:Wikipedysta:Piom'>PioM</a> EN DE PL ) • File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/ 20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/ 30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/ Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_ icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Raphael • File:Sapta_Chakra,_1899.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Sapta_Chakra%2C_1899.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The British Library Original artist: Anonymous • File:Seal_of_Virginia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Seal_of_Virginia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:Flag of Virginia.svg Original artist: Charles Keck • File:Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Recoloured version of Image:Torii.svg Original artist: MesserWoland • File:Slavyansky-Family_portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Slavyansky-Family_portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Fedor Slavyansky • File:Socrates.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Magnus Manske at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia. • File:Socrates_Louvre.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Socrates_Louvre.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Eric Gaba (User:Sting), July 2005. Original artist: Copy of Lysippos (?)
32.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:Star_of_David.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Stelae_back.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Stelae_back.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Stelae_of_Ankh-af-na-khonsu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Stelae_of_ Ankh-af-na-khonsu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_(Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Stiftskirche_Niederhaslach_Glasfenster_%28Kampf_der_Tugenden_mit_dem_Laster%29.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: self-,ade Original artist: – Wladyslaw <a href='https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer_Diskussion: Taxiarchos228' class='extiw' title='de:Benutzer Diskussion:Taxiarchos228'>[Disk.]</a>. Taxiarchos228 • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil • File:Symbol_template_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5c/Symbol_template_class.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_Scream.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/The_Scream.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Page: http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/munch/ Original artist: Edvard Munch • File:Tree_of_Life_2009_large.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Tree_of_Life_2009_large.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan James Garner • File:Tree_of_life_wk_02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Tree_of_life_wk_02.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: This is a derivative work of Morgan Leigh's "File:Tree of life wk 02.jpg" Original artist: Cronholm144 • File:US_Navy_110527-N-OA833-014_Newly_commissioned_Navy_and_Marine_Corps_officers_toss_their_hats_during_ the_U.S._Naval_Academy_Class_of_2011_graduation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/US_ Navy_110527-N-OA833-014_Newly_commissioned_Navy_and_Marine_Corps_officers_toss_their_hats_during_the_U.S._Naval_ Academy_Class_of_2011_graduation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 110527-N-OA833-014 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia. org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=110527-NOA833-014#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
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