PaperTeaLeaves wikibook
Contents 1
Tarotology
1
1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.1.1
Court de Gebelin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.1.2
Etteilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.1.3
Marie Anne Lenormand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.1.4
Eliphas Levi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.2.1
Order of the Trumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1.2
2
Divination
5
2.1
Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
2.2
Historical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2.1
Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2.2
Hebrew Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2.3
Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2.4
Christianity and Western society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
2.2.5
Mesoamerica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Ethnographic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.3.1
Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.3.2
Serer religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Edo religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.4.1
Yoruba religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.4.2
Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
2.7.1
Academic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
2.3
2.4
2.8 3
Cleromancy
9 i
ii
4
CONTENTS 3.1
In classical civilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
3.2
In Judeo-Christian tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
3.3
In Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.4
In East-Asian Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
3.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Occult
12
4.1
Occultism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
4.2
Science and the occult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.2.1
Occult qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Religion and the occult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.3.1
Christian views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
4.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
4.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
4.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
4.3
5
Magic (paranormal)
16
5.1
Common features of magical practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
5.1.1
Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
5.1.2
Magical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.1.3
Magical language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
5.1.4
Magicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
5.1.5
Witchcraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.2.1
Anthropological and psychological origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
5.2.2
Theories on the relationship of magic, science, art, and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.3.1
Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.3.2
Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
5.3.3
Classical antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
5.3.4
Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.3.5
Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.3.6
Baroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.3.7
Romanticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5.3.8
Modernity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
In cultural contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5.4.1
Animism and folk religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5.4.2
Magic in Hinduism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.2
5.3
5.4
CONTENTS
6
5.4.3
Western magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
5.4.4
Magical traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
5.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
5.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
Western esotericism
35
6.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
6.2
Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
6.2.1
Esotericism as secret, inner tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
6.2.2
Esotericism as an enchanted world view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
6.2.3
Esotericism as “rejected knowledge” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.3.1
Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.3.2
Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
6.3.3
Renaissance and Early Modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
6.3.4
18th, 19th and early 20th centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
6.3.5
Later 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
6.4
Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
6.5
Academic study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
6.5.1
Emic and etic divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.6.1
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.6.2
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
6.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
6.3
6.6
7
iii
History
Tarot
50
7.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
7.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
7.2.1
Early decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
7.3
Tarot card games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
7.4
Divinatory, esoteric, and occult tarot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
7.5
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
7.5.1
French suited tarot decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.5.2
German suited tarot deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
7.5.3
Italo-Portuguese suited tarot deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.5.4
Non-occult Italian-suited tarot decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.5.5
Occult tarot decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
7.6
The Tarots and painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
iv
8
CONTENTS 7.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
7.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
7.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Mysticism
58
8.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
8.2
DeďŹ nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
8.2.1
Mystical experience and union with the Divine or Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
8.2.2
Religious ecstasies and interpretative context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.2.3
Intuitive insight and enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.2.4
Spiritual life and re-formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
History of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.3.1
Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
8.3.2
Medieval meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.3.3
Early modern meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.3.4
Contemporary meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
Scholarly approaches of mystical experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.4.1
Mystical experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.4.2
Perennialism versus constructionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.4.3
Contextualism and attribution theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
8.4.4
Neurological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.4.5
Mysticism and morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Forms of mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.5.1
Shamanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
8.5.2
Western mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
8.5.3
Jewish mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
8.5.4
Islamic mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
8.5.5
Indian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
8.5.6
Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.5.7
Taoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.5.8
The Secularization of Mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
8.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
8.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
8.9
Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.9.1
Published sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
8.9.2
Web-sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
8.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
8.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
Hermeticism
76
9.1
76
8.3
8.4
8.5
9
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS
v
9.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
9.2.1
Late Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
9.2.2
Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
9.2.3
Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
9.3.1
Prisca theologia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
9.3.2
“As above, so below.� . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
9.3.3
The three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
9.3.4
Posthumous lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
9.3.5
Good and evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
9.3.6
Cosmogony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
As a religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
9.4.1
Religious and philosophical texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.5.1
Rosicrucianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.5.2
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.5.3
Esoteric Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.5.4
Mystical Neopaganism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
9.8
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
9.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
9.3
9.4 9.5
10 Alchemy
85
10.1 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
10.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
10.2.1 Hellenistic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
10.2.2 India
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
10.2.3 Muslim world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
10.2.4 East Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
10.2.5 Medieval Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
10.2.6 Renaissance and early modern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
10.2.7 Late modern period
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
10.2.8 Women in alchemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
10.2.9 Modern historical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
10.3 Core concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
10.3.1 Hermetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
10.3.2 Magnum opus
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
10.4.1 Traditional medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
10.4.2 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
10.4.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
10.4 Modern alchemy
vi
CONTENTS 10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
10.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
10.7 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
10.7.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
10.7.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
10.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
11 Kabbalah
101
11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 11.1.1 Jewish and non-Jewish Kabbalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 11.2 History of Jewish mysticism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11.2.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 11.2.2 Talmudic era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 11.2.3 Pre-Kabbalistic schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 11.2.4 Medieval emergence of the Kabbalah
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
11.2.5 Early modern era: Lurianic Kabbalah
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.3 Concepts
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.3.1 Concealed and Revealed God
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
11.3.2 Sephirot and the Divine Feminine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 11.3.3 Descending spiritual Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.3.4 Origin of evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 11.3.5 Role of Man
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
11.3.6 Levels of the soul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 11.3.7 Reincarnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.3.8 Tzimtzum, Shevirah and Tikkun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 11.3.9 Linguistic mysticism of Hebrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 11.4 Primary texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 11.5 Scholarship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 11.5.1 Claims for authority 11.6 Criticism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.6.1 Dualistic cosmology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
11.6.2 Distinction between Jews and non-Jews
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.6.3 Medieval views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 11.6.4 Orthodox Judaism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.6.5 Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 11.7 Contemporary study
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.7.1 Universalist Jewish organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 11.7.2 Neo-Hasidic
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.7.3 Hasidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 11.7.4 Rav Kook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 11.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 11.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
CONTENTS 11.10References
vii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 12 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
126
12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 12.1.1 Cipher Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 12.1.2 Founding of ďŹ rst temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 12.1.3 Secret Chiefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 12.1.4 Golden Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 12.1.5 Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 12.1.6 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 12.2 Structure and grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 12.3 The Golden Dawn book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 12.4 Known or alleged members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 12.5 Contemporary Golden Dawn orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 12.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 12.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 12.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 13 Freemasonry
133
13.1 Masonic Lodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 13.1.1 Joining a Lodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 13.2 Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 13.2.1 Grand Lodges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 13.2.2 Recognition, amity and regularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 13.3 Other degrees, orders and bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 13.4 Ritual and symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 13.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 13.5.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 13.5.2 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.5.3 Emergence of Continental Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 13.5.4 Freemasonry and women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 13.6 Anti-Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 13.6.1 Religious opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 13.6.2 Political opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 13.8 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 13.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 14 Astrology 14.1 Etymology
148 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
viii
CONTENTS 14.2 History
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
14.2.1 Ancient world
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
14.2.2 Hellenistic Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 14.2.3 Greece and Rome
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
14.2.4 Medieval world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 14.2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 14.2.6 Enlightenment period and onwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 14.3 Principles and practice
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
14.3.1 Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 14.3.2 Hindu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 14.3.3 Chinese and East-Asian
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
14.4 Theological viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 14.4.1 Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 14.4.2 Medieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 14.4.3 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 14.5 Scientific analysis and criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 14.5.1 Demarcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 14.5.2 Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 14.5.3 Lack of mechanisms and consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 14.6 Cultural impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 14.6.1 Western politics and society
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
14.6.2 India and Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 14.6.3 Literature and music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 14.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 14.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 14.9 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
14.10Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 14.11Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 14.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 15 Theurgy 15.1 Definitions
167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
15.2 Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 15.3 Emperor Julian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 15.4 Esoteric Christian theurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 15.5 Jewish theurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 15.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 16 A. E. Waite
170
16.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
CONTENTS
ix
16.2 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 16.2.1 Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 16.2.2 Author and scholar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 16.3 Tarot deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 16.4 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 16.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 16.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 17 Rosicrucianism
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17.1 Rosicrucian Manifestos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 17.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 17.1.2 Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 17.2 Rosicrucian Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 17.3 Legacy in esoteric orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 17.3.1 Rose-Cross Degrees in Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 17.3.2 Modern groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 17.3.3 Chronological list of groups formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and related subjects . . 177 17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 17.5.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 17.5.2 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 17.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 18 Gnosticism
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18.1 Nature and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 18.1.1 Main features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 18.1.2 Dualism and monism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 18.1.3 Moral and ritual practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 18.1.4 Social context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 18.2 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 18.2.1 Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 18.2.2 Neoplatonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 18.2.3 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 18.2.4 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.3.1 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.3.2 Development of the Syrian-Egyptian school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 18.3.3 Development of the Persian school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 18.4 Major movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 18.4.1 Persian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 18.4.2 Syrian-Egyptian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
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CONTENTS 18.4.3 Gnostic-influenced people and groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 18.5 Origin of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.6 Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 18.6.1 19th century to 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6.2 After the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.6.3 “Gnosis”as a potentially flawed category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.7 Modern times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 18.8 Terms and concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 18.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 18.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 18.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 18.11.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 18.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
19 Aleister Crowley
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19.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 19.1.1 Youth: 1875–94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 19.1.2 Cambridge University: 1895–98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 19.1.3 The Golden Dawn: 1898–99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 19.1.4 Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900–03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 19.2 Developing Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 19.2.1 Egypt and The Book of the Law: 1904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 19.2.2 Kangchenjunga and China: 1905–06 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 19.2.3 The A∴A∴ and the Holy Books of Thelema: 1907–09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 19.2.4 Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: 1909–11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 19.2.5 Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working: 1912–14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 19.2.6 United States: 1914–19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 19.2.7 Abbey of Thelema: 1920–23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 19.3 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 19.3.1 Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923–29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 19.3.2 Berlin and London: 1930–38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 19.3.3 Second World War and death: 1939–47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 19.4 Beliefs and thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 19.5 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 19.5.1 Views on race and gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 19.6 Legacy and influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 19.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 19.8.1 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 19.8.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 19.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
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20.1 Historical precedents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 20.1.1 François Rabelais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 20.1.2 Francis Dashwood and the HellďŹ re Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 20.2 Aleister Crowley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 20.2.1 The Book of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 20.2.2 True Will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 20.2.3 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 20.2.4 Magick and ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 20.2.5 Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 20.3 Contemporary Thelema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 20.3.1 Diversity of Thelemic thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 20.3.2 Thelemic holidays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 20.3.3 Contemporary Thelemic literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 20.3.4 Thelemic organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 20.3.5 Thelema and the British justice system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 20.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 20.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 20.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 20.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 21 Hermetic Qabalah
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21.1 Teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 21.1.1 Conception of Divinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 21.1.2 The Sephiroth in Hermetic Qabalah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 21.1.3 Tarot and the Tree of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 21.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 21.2.1 Hermetic views of Qabalah origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.2.2 Renaissance occultism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.2.3 Enlightenment era esoteric societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.2.4 Nineteenth-century magical revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 21.2.5 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 21.2.6 After the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 21.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 21.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 21.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 22 Israel Regardie
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22.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 22.2 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
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CONTENTS 22.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.5 Partial bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 22.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
23 Eliphas Levi
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23.1 Life and work until 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 23.2 Life and work after 1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 23.3 Socialist Background and Alleged Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 23.4 DeďŹ nition of Magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 23.5 Cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 23.6 Selected writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 23.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 23.8 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 23.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 23.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 24 Ceremonial magic 24.1 Renaissance magic 24.2 Revival
252 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
24.2.1 Francis Barrett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 24.2.2 Eliphas Levi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 24.2.3 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.2.4 Aleister Crowley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.3 Magical tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.3.1 Grimoires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.3.2 Enochian magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.3.3 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 24.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 24.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 25 Theosophy
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25.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 25.2 Traditional and Christian theosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 25.2.1 Antiquity and Medieval ending c. 1450 CE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 25.2.2 16th and 17th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 25.2.3 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
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25.2.4 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 25.2.5 Common characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 25.3 Blavatskyan Theosophy and The Theosophical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 25.3.1 The World Teacher Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 25.4 Post-Blavatskyan Theosophy and new religious movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 25.4.1 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 25.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 25.5.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 25.5.2 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 25.5.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 25.5.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 25.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 26 Spiritualism
265
26.1 Beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 26.1.1 Mediumship and spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 26.1.2 Comparisons with other religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 26.2 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 26.2.1 Swedenborg and Mesmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 26.2.2 Reform-movement links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 26.2.3 Believers and skeptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 26.2.4 Unorganized movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 26.2.5 Other mediums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 26.3 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 26.4 After the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 26.4.1 Syncretism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 26.4.2 Spiritualist church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 26.4.3 Psychical research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 26.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 26.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 26.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 26.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 26.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 27 Syncretism
279
27.1 Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology 27.2 Social and political roles 27.3 Religious syncretism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
27.3.1 Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 27.3.2 Ancient Rome
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
27.3.3 Bahá'í . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 27.3.4 Barghawata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
xiv
CONTENTS 27.3.5 Buddhism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
27.3.6 Caribbean religions and cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 27.3.7 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 27.3.8 Druze religion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
27.3.9 Indian religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 27.3.10 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 27.3.11 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 27.3.12 Other modern syncretic religions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 27.4 Cultures and societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 27.4.1 During the Enlightenment
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
27.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 27.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 27.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 27.8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 27.8.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 27.8.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 27.8.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Chapter 1
Tarotology This article is about the use of tarot cards for divinatory and esoteric/occult purposes. For other uses, see Tarot (disambiguation). Tarotology provides the theoretical basis for Tarot reading, a subset of Cartomancy, which is the practice of using cards to gain insight into the past, current and future situations by posing a question to the cards. Variations on the reasons for such belief range from believing on guidance by a spiritual force, to belief that the cards are but instruments used to tap either into a collective unconscious or into their own creative, brainstorming subconscious. Tarot decks have seventy-eight cards divided into four suits of fourteen cards each plus the twenty-two trumps. The trumps and suits are part of a trump style game with many historical and national variations.* [1] In modern times suit cards are Pentacles, Swords, Cups, and Wands. Trumps are cards like the Fool, The Magician, et al. Since the introduction of the cartomantic and occult tarot there have been ongoing attempts to “get it right.”* [1] Subsequently the names of both have been played with Antoine Court de Gébelin over time. (1980: 96) notes, "...it was only in the 1780s, when the practice of fortune-telling with regular playing cards had been well established for at least two decades, that anyone began to use the Tarot pack for cartomancy.”
1.1 History The first Tarot deck to appear in a complete form (trumps, suits, etc.) was the Visconti-Sforza tarot deck in the courtly circles of Northern Italy in the 15th century.* [1] They were used for gambling and card games, and possibly as a symbolic allegory for the Visconti nobility of Milan.* [2]
The belief in the divinatory meaning of the cards is closely associated with a belief in their occult, divine, and mystical properties: a commonly held belief in the 18th century propagated by prominent Protestant clerics and freemasons.* [1]* :96 One of them was Court De Gébelin who wrote that after seeing a group of women playing One of the earliest reference to Tarot triumphs, and prob- cards he had the idea that Tarot was not merely a game ably the first reference to Tarot as the devil's picture of cards but was in fact: book, is given by a Dominican preacher in a fiery sermon against the evils of the devil's instrument.* [3] Refer• of ancient Egyptian origin ences to the Tarot as a social plague continue throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, with no indication that the • of mystical cabbalistic import cards were used for anything but games anywhere other • of deep divine significance than in Bologna.* [1] Tarot remained a simple card game for several centuries and only became widely associated with cartomancy after general cartomancy with normal Gébelin further claimed that the name Tarot came from playing cards became common in France. As Dummett the Egyptian words tar, meaning royal, and ro, meaning 1
2
CHAPTER 1. TAROTOLOGY
road, and that the tarot therefore represented a royal road to wisdom.* [4] This was written before Jean-François Champollion had deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs and later Egyptologists found nothing in the Egyptian language to support de Gébelin's fanciful etymologies. Despite this lack of any evidence, the misapprehension that the tarot cards were linked to the Egyptian Book of Thoth was already established in occult practice and continues in modern urban legend to the present day.* [4] The original Tarot deck being intended for a card game, a game of chance, or elite allegory, did not prevent individuals from making it into something more.* [4] From its humble uptake as an instrument of prophecy in France, it went on to become a thing of hermeneutic, magical, mystical,* [5] semiotic,* [6] and even psychological properties. It was used by Roma when telling fortunes,* [7] as a Jungian psychological apparatus capable of tapping into “absolute knowledge in the unconscious,”* [8] a tool for archetypal analysis,* [9] and even a tool for facilitating the Jungian process of Individuation.* [10]
• makes the first statement that the Tarot is in fact The Book of Thoth • makes the first statement that the Tarot is associated with Gypsies (and that Gypsies were roaming Egyptians) • makes the first association of Tarot with cartomancy
1.1.2 Etteilla The first to assign divinatory meanings to the Tarot cards were cartomancer Jean-Baptiste Alliette (also known as Etteilla) in 1783 and Mlle Marie-Anne Adelaide Lenormand (1776-1843).* [13]* [14] According to Dummett, Etteilla:* [1] • devised a method of tarot divination in 1783, • wrote a cartomanic treatise of tarot as the Book of Thoth,
1.1.1
Court de Gebelin
Many involved in occult and divinatory practices attempt to trace the Tarot to ancient Egypt, divine hermetic wisdom,* [11] and the mysteries of Isis. It all began in 1781, when Antoine Court de Gébelin, a French clergyman, published Le Monde Primitif which besides tarot included religious symbolism and its survivals in the modern world. In it he was the first to say that the symbolism of the Tarot de Marseille represented the mysteries of Isis and Thoth. It is a massive opus, incomplete in nine volumes, published by private subscription several years after he became an active Freemason and member of the Lodge of the Neuf Soeurs.* [1] Most of it is taken up promulgating a wholly speculative (and suspiciously Feudal and Christian) view of history that suggested there had once been a golden age (the age of the garden of Eden perhaps) in which “all men had shared a common language, common customs, a common culture and a common religion”, which was a reflection of “an eternal and immutable order, which unites heaven and earth, the body and the soul, the physical and the moral....”.* [1] The actual source of the occult Tarot can be traced to two articles in volume eight, one written by himself, and one written by M. le C. de M.***. * [12] The second has been noted to have been even more influential than Gebelin's.* [1] The author takes De Gebelin's speculations even further, agreeing with him about the mystical origins of the Tarot in ancient Egypt, but making several additional, and influential, statements that continue to influence mass understanding of the occult tarot even to this day. He:
• created the first society for Tarot cartomancy, the Société littéraire des associés libres des interprètes du liver de Thot. • created the first corrected Tarot (supposedly fixing errors that resulted from misinterpretation and corruption through the mists of antiquity), The Grand Ettielle deck • created the first Egyptian tarot to be used exclusively for Tarot cartomancy • published, under the imprint of his society, the Dictionnaire synonimique du Livere de Thot, a book that “systematically tabulated all the possible meanings which each card could bear, when upright and reversed.”(Dummett, 1980: pp. 110). Etteilla also: • suggested that Tarot was repository of the wisdom of Hermes Trismegistus • was a book of eternal medicine • was an account of the creation of the world • argued that the first copy of the tarot was imprinted on leaves of gold Michael Dummett (1980) suggests that Etteilla was attempting to scoop Court De Gebelin as the author of the occult tarot. Etteilla in fact claims to have been involved with Tarot longer than Court De Gebelin.* [1]
1.2. USE
1.1.3
3
Marie Anne Lenormand
Mlle Marie-Anne Adelaide Lenormand outshone even Ettielle and was the first cartomancer to the stars (being the personal confidant of Empress Josephine, Napoleon and other important people).* [1] Lenormand used both regular playing cards, in particular the Piquet pack, as well as cards derived from Etteilla's Egyptian root. She was so famous that a deck was published in her name, the Grand Jeu de Mlle Lenormand, two years after her death in 1843.
1.1.4
Eliphas Levi
The concept of the cards as a mystical key was extended by Eliphas Lévi (1810-1875). Lévi (whose real name was Alphonse-Louise Constance) was educated in the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, was ordained as a deacon, but never became a priest. Dummett (1980, pp. 114) notes that it is from Levi's book Dogme et rituel that the “whole of the modern occultist movement stems.”Lévi wrote that an astral light is contained within all of reality, and according to Dummett (1980, pp. 118), he claimed to be the first to “have discovered intact and still unknown this key of all doctrines and all philosophies of the old world... without the Tarot”, he tells us, “the Magic of the ancients is a closed book....” Lévi rejected Court de Gébelin's claims about an Egyptian origin of the deck symbols, going back instead to the Tarot de Marseille, calling it The Book of Hermes, claiming it was antique, that it existed before Moses, and that it was in fact a universal key of erudition, philosophy, and magic that could unlock Hermetic and Cabbalistic concepts. According to Lévi, “An imprisoned person with no other book than the Tarot, if he knew how to use it, could in a few years acquire universal knowledge, and would be able to speak on all subjects with unequaled learning and inexhaustible eloquence.”* [15]
Dummett (1980: 120) dismissed Lévi's contribution to magic as the product of “an advanced state of intellectual deliquescent,”but noted that Lévi made a major contribution to the history of occult lore. Occultists, magicians, and magus's all the way down to the 21st century have cited Lévi as a defining influence. This trend began immediately when Jean-Baptiste Pitois (1811), writing under the name Paul Christian, wrote L'Homme rouge (1863) and later Histoire de la magie, du monde surnaturel et de la fatalité à travers les temps et les peuples (1870). Christian repeats and extends the mythology of the tarot and changes the names for the trumps and the suits (see table below for a list of Christian's modifications to the trumps). Batons (wands) become Scepters, Swords become Blades, and Coins become Shekels. * [16] In 1888 Ély Star published Mystères de l'horoscope which mostly repeats Christian's modifications.* [17] Its primary contribution was the introduction of the terms 'Major arcana' and 'Minor arcana,' and the numbering of the Crocodile (the Fool) XXII instead of 0. In 1887 the Marquis Stanislas de Guaita met the amateur artist Oswald Wirth (1860-1943) and subsequently sponsored a production of Lévi's intended deck. Guided entirely by de Guaita Wirth designed the first neo-occultist cartomantic deck (and first cartomantic deck not derived from Ettielle's Egyptina deck). Known as the Arcanes du Tarot kabbalistique it consisted of only the twenty-two major arcana.
1.2 Use Tarot is often used in conjunction with the study of the Hermetic Qabalah.* [18] In these decks all the cards are illustrated in accordance with Qabalistic principles, most being influenced by the Rider-Waite deck. Its images were drawn by artist Pamela Colman Smith, to the instructions of Christian mystic and occultist Arthur Edward Waite and published in 1909. A difference from Marseilles style decks is that Waite-Smith use scenes with esoteric meanings on the suit cards.
According to Dummett Lévis' notable contributions in- Tarot cards have become extremely popular in Japan, where hundreds of new decks have been designed in reclude:* [1] cent years. * [19] • Lévi was the first to suggest that the Magus (Bagatto) was to work with the four suits. 1.2.1
Order of the Trumps
• Inspired by de Gébelin, Lévi associated the Hebrew The following is a comparison of the order of the trumps alphabet with the Tarot trumps. up to and including the A.E. Waite deck. This table is • Lévi linked the ten numbered cards in each suit to based on Dummett (1980) and actual inspection of the relevant decks. the ten sefiroth. • Claimed the court cards represented stages of human life. • Claimed the four Tetragrammaton.
suites
represented
1.3 See also
the • Rider-Waite tarot deck
4
CHAPTER 1. TAROTOLOGY • Major Arcana The 22 trumps.
[15] Eliphas Lévi. Transcendental Magic. p. 103
• Minor Arcana The 56 suit cards.
[16] Interestingly, Dummett (1980) singles out Christian's writing as one of the worst examples of what he calls false ascription to be found in the occult literature.
1.4 References [1] Michael Dummett. The Game of Tarot. London: Duckworth, 1980. ISBN 0715631225 [2] H. Farley, A Cultural History of Tarot, London: I.B. Tauris, 2009 ISBN 1-84885-053-0 [3] R. Steele. A notice of the Ludus Triumphorum and Some Early Italian Card Games: With Some Remarks on the Origin of the Game of Cards,' Archaeologia, vol LVII, 1900. pp. 185–200 [4] Sosteric, Mike. A Sociology of Tarot. Canadian Journal of Socoilogy, 39(3): 357-392. http://ejournals.library. ualberta.ca/index.php/CJS/article/view/20000 [5] P.D. Ouspensky. The Symbolism of the Tarot: philosophy of occultism in pictures and numbers. Dover Publications. 1976 [6] Inna Semetsky. Tarot images and spiritual education: the three I’s model. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality. 16(3): 249–260. 2011 [7] Eliphas Levi. The Key of the Mysteries. Translated by Aleister Crowley. Red Wheel/Weiser. 2002 ISBN 0877280789 [8] John Beeb. A Tarot Reading on the Possibility of Nuclear War. Psychological Perspectives: A Quarterly Journal of Jungian Thought. 16(1): 97-106. pp. 97 [9] Sallie Nichols. The Wisdom of the Fool. Psychological Perspective: A Quarterly Journal of Jungian Thought. 5(2): 97-116. 1974 [10] Salie Nichols. Jung and Tarot: An Archetypal Journey. San Francisco: Weiser Books. Also Inna Semetsky. When Cathy was a Little Girl: The Healing Praxis of Tarot Images. International Journal of Children's Spirituality. 15(1): 59-72. 2010. pp. 59 [11] Ronald Decker and Michael Dummett. A history of the occult tarot, 1870-1970. London: Duckworth, 2002. ISBN 0715610147. [12] The asterix and the abbreviations are the actual way Court De Gébelin refers to the second essay. As Dummett (1980) notes, Mr Robin Briggs identifies the contributor as Louis-Raphael-Lucrece de Fayolle, comte de Mellet. Louis was a brigadier, governor, and“unremarkable court noble.” [13] Ronald Decker and Michael Dummett, History of the Occult Tarot, London: Duckworth, 2002 ISBN 9780715631225 [14] Robert Place, The Tarot: History, Symbolism, and Divination, New York: Tarcher/Penguin, 2005 ISBN 9781585423491
[17] Arcana in the Adytum by Mary K. Greer. [18] Israel Regardie, The Tree of Life, (London, Rider, 1932) [19] Laura Miller. 2011. “Tantalizing tarot and cute cartomancy in Japan.”Japanese Studies Vol. 31, Issue 1, pp. 73–91. [20] “Queen of Tarot”. [21] “Queen of Tarot”. [22] Court de Gébelin is the first to attempt to provide the correct order and nomenclature for the tarot trumps. See Michael Dummett. The Game of Tarot. London: Duckworth, 1980. ISBN 0715631225 [23] Etteilla's tarot is the first cartomantic tarot, thus the broken nomenclature that bears little resemblance to that which comes before! The imagery of Ettiella's Egyptian Tarot is similar to Tarot de Marseille, but he breaks the ordering significantly putting, for example, the imagery of the Sun (traditionally triumph 19) as triumph 1. This interested in viewing the images by do so by visiting this link
1.5 External links • List of Tarot Decks • Images from the Grand Etteille Deck • Images from the Grand Oracle des Dames, an early cartomantic progeny • Images from Lenormand's deck
Chapter 2
Divination Not to be confused with Divinization. For other uses, see Divination (disambiguation). “Divining”redirects here. For pseudoscientific attempts to find water or other things, see Dowsing. Divination (from Latin divinare “to foresee, to be inspired by a god”,* [2] related to divinus, divine) is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual.* [3] Used in various forms throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a querent should proceed by reading signs, events, or omens, or through alleged contact with a supernatural agency. Divination can be seen as a systematic method with which to organize what appear to be disjointed, random facets Russian peasant girls using chickens for divination; 19th century of existence such that they provide insight into a problem lubok. at hand. If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a more formal or ritualistic element and often contains a more social charbirths, the tracking of natural phenomena, and other acter, usually in a religious context, as seen in traditional data. Chinese governmental planning relied on this African medicine. Fortune-telling, on the other hand, is a method of forecasting for long-range strategies. It more everyday practice for personal purposes. Particular is not unreasonable to assume that modern scientific divination methods vary by culture and religion. inquiry began with this kind of divination; Joseph Needham's work considered this very idea. Divination is dismissed by the scientific community and skeptics as being superstition.* [4]* [5] In the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, "Alexander the false prophet", trained by“one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates”,* [6] even though most Romans believed in prophetic dreams and charms.
2. Sortilege (cleromancy). This consists of the casting of lots, or sortes, whether with sticks, stones, bones, beans, coins, or some other item. Modern playing cards and board games developed from this type of divination. 3. Augury. This ranks a set of given possibilities. It can be qualitative (such as shapes, proximities, etc.): for example, dowsing (a form of rhabdomancy) developed from this type of divination. The Romans, in classical times, used Etruscan methods of augury such as hepatoscopy (actually a form of extispicy) (for example, Haruspices examined the livers of sacrificed animals). Augury is normally considered to specifically refer to divination by studying the flight patterns of birds. But also, the use of the rooster through alectryomancy may be further understood within that religious character and likewise defined as a cockfight, or cockfighting* [8] with the intent of communication between the gods and man.
2.1 Categories Further information: List of magical terms and traditions Psychologist Julian Jaynes categorized divination into the following four types:* [7] 1. Omens and omen texts. Chinese history offers scrupulously documented occurrences of strange 5
6
CHAPTER 2. DIVINATION 4. Spontaneous. An unconstrained form of divination, free from any particular medium, and actually a generalization of all types of divination. The answer comes from whatever object the diviner happens to see or hear. Some religions use a form of bibliomancy: they ask a question, riffle the pages of their holy book, and take as their answer the first passage their eyes light upon. Other forms of spontaneous divination include reading auras and New Age methods of feng shui such as “intuitive”and "fuzion".
prophecies were understood to be the will of the gods verbatim. Because of the high demand for oracle consultations and the oracles’limited work schedule, they were not the main source of divination for the ancient Greeks. That role fell to the seers (μάντεις in Greek).
Seers were not in direct contact with the gods; instead, they were interpreters of signs provided by the gods. Seers used many methods to explicate the will of the gods including extispicy, bird signs, etc. They were more numerous than the oracles and did not keep a limited schedule; thus, they were highly valued by all Greeks, not just those with the capacity to travel to Delphi or other such In addition to these four broad categories, there is distant sites. palmistry, also called chiromancy, a practice common to The disadvantage to seers was that only direct yes-or-no many different places on the Eurasian landmass;* [9] it questions could be answered. Oracles could answer more has been practised in the cultures of India, Tibet, China, generalized questions, and seers often had to perform sevPersia, Sumeria, Ancient Israel and Babylonia. In this eral sacrifices in order to get the most consistent answer. practice, the diviner examines the hands of a person for For example, if a general wanted to know if the omens whom they are divining for indications of their future. were proper for him to advance on the enemy, he would
2.2 Historical examples
ask his seer both that question and if it were better for him to remain on the defensive. If the seer gave consistent answers, the advice was considered valid.
At battle, generals would frequently ask seers at both the campground (a process called the hiera) and at the 2.2.1 Ancient Egypt battlefield (called the sphagia). The hiera entailed the seer slaughtering a sheep and examining its liver for anThe Oracle of Amun at the Siwa Oasis was made famous swers regarding a more generic question; the sphagia inwhen Alexander the Great visited it after delivering Egypt volved killing a young female goat by slitting its throat and from Persian rule in 332 BC. noting the animal’s last movements and blood flow. The battlefield sacrifice only occurred when two armies prepared for battle against each other. Neither force would 2.2.2 Hebrew Bible advance until the seer revealed appropriate omens. Deuteronomy 18:10-12 or Leviticus 19:26 can be interpreted as categorically forbidding divination. However, some would claim that divination is indeed practiced in the Bible, such as in Exodus 28, when the Urim and Thummim are mentioned. Some would also say that Gideon also practiced divination, though when he uses a piece of fleece or wool in Judges 6:36-40 , he is not attempting to predict the outcome of an important battle; rather, he is communicating with God. Communicating with God through prayer is not the same as divination, though both are open, typically two-way conversations with God. In addition, the method of“casting lots”used in Joshua 14:1-5 and Joshua 18:1-10 to divide the conquered lands of Canaan between the twelve tribes is not seen by some as divination, but as done at the behest of God (Numbers 26:55).
2.2.3
Ancient Greece
Because the seers had such power over influential individuals in ancient Greece, many were skeptical of the accuracy and honesty of the seers. Of course the degree to which seers were honest depends entirely on the individual seers. Despite the doubt surrounding individual seers, the craft as a whole was well regarded and trusted by the Greeks.* [10]
2.2.4 Christianity and Western society The divination method of casting lots (Cleromancy) was used by the remaining eleven disciples of Jesus in Acts 1:23-26 to select a replacement for Judas Iscariot. Therefore, divination was arguably an accepted practice in the early church. However, divination became viewed as a pagan practice by Christian emperors during ancient Rome.* [11]
In 692 the Quinisext Council, also known as the “Council in Trullo”in the Eastern Orthodox Church, See also: Oracle and Greek divination passed canons to eliminate pagan and divination practices.* [12] Fortune-telling and other forms of divination Both oracles and seers in ancient Greece practiced divina- were widespread through the Middle Ages.* [13] In the tion. Oracles were the conduits for the gods on earth; their constitution of 1572 and public regulations of 1661 of
2.5. SEE ALSO
7
Kur-Saxony, capital punishment was used on those pre- past, present and future. These diviners are initiated and dicting the future.* [14] Laws forbidding divination prac- trained in Iha (divination) of either Ominigbon or Orontice continue to this day.* [15] mila (Benin Orunmila).
2.2.5
Mesoamerica
2.4.1 Yoruba religion
See also: Mesoamerican religion
Main article: Yoruba religion
Divination was a central component of ancient Mesoamerican religious life. Many Aztec gods, including central creator gods, were described as diviners and were closely associated with sorcery. Tezcatlipoca is the patron of sorcerers and practitioners of magic. His name means “smoking mirror”, a reference to a device used for divinatory scrying.* [16] In the Mayan Popol Vuh, the creator gods Xmucane and Xpiacoc perform divinatory hand casting during the creation of people.* [16]
The Yoruba people of West Africa are internationally known for having developed the Ifá system, an intricate process of divination that is performed by an Awo, an initiated priest or priestess of Orunmila, the spirit of the Yoruba oracle.
Every civilization that developed in Ancient Mexico, from the Olmecs to the Aztecs, practiced divination in daily life, both public and private. Scrying through the use of reflective water surfaces, mirrors, or the casting of lots were among the most widespread forms of divinatory practice. Visions derived from hallucinogens were another important form of divination, and are still widely used among contemporary diviners of Mexico. Among the more common hallucinogenic plants used in divination are morning glory, jimson weed, and peyote.* [16]
2.4.2 Sweden Main article: Årsgång Småland is famous for Årsgång, a practice which occurred until the early 19th century in some parts of Småland. Generally occurring on Christmas and New Year's Eve, it is a practice in which one would fast and keep themselves away from light in a room until midnight to then complete a set of complex events to interpret symbols encountered throughout the journey to foresee the coming year.* [21]
2.5 See also
2.3 Ethnographic examples
• African divination
2.3.1
Buddhism
• Methods of divination *
Buddhists in Asia divine by different methods. [17]
2.3.2
Serer religion
• Nostradamus • Prophet • Prophetic dreams
Main article: Saltigue Divination is one of the tenets of Serer religion. However, only those who have been initiated as Saltigues (the Serer high priests and priestesses) can divine the future.* [18]* [19] These are the “hereditary rain priests”* [20] whose role is both religious and medicinal.* [19]* [20]
2.4 Edo religion Specialized diviners called Ob'guega (doctor of Oguega oracle), as well as Ob'Oronmila (doctor of Oronmila oracle) from the Edo people of West Africa for thousands have used divination as a means of foretelling the
• Sandobele
2.6 References [1] “Anthropological Studies of Divination”. anthropology.ac.uk. [2] “LacusCurtius • Greek and Roman Divination (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". uchicago.edu. [3] Peek, P.M. African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing. page 2. Indiana University Press. 1991. [4] Yau, Julianna. (2002). Witchcraft and Magic. In Michael Shermer. The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. ABC-CLIO. pp. 278-282. ISBN 1-57607-654-7
8
[5] Regal, Brian. (2009). Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-313-35507-3 [6] “Lucian of Samosata : Alexander the False Prophet”. tertullian.org.
CHAPTER 2. DIVINATION
2.7 Further reading 2.7.1 Academic
[7] Jaynes, J. The origin of consciousness in the breakdown of the bicameral mind. Houghton Mifflin. 1977.
• D. Engels, Das römische Vorzeichenwesen (753-27 v.Chr.). Quellen, Terminologie, Kommentar, historische Entwicklung, Stuttgart 2007 (Franz SteinerVerlag)
[8] Encyclopaedia Perthensis; or Universal dictionary of the arts, sciences, literature, &c. intended to supersede the use of other books of reference, Volume 1; Printed by John Brown; 1816.
• E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande (1976)
[9] Bhojraj Dwivedi. Wonders of Palmistry pp. 16-20
• Toufic Fahd, La divination arabe; études religieuses, sociologiques et folkloriques sur le milieu natif d’Islam (1966)
[10] Flower, Michael Attyah. The Seer in Ancient Greece. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008.
• Philip K. Hitti. Makers of Arab History. Princeton, New Jersey. St. Martin’s Press. 1968. Pg 61.
[11] Bailey, Michael David. (2007). Magic and Superstition in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 52-53. ISBN 0-7425-3386-7
• Alisa LaGamma (2000). Art and oracle: African art and rituals of divination. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780870999338.
[12] “Council of Trullo - Apostolic Confraternity Seminary” . apostolicconfraternityseminary.com.
• Michael Loewe and Carmen Blacke, eds. Oracles and divination (Shambhala/Random House, 1981) ISBN 0-87773-214-0
[13] Bailey, Michael David. (2007). Magic and Superstition in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. pp. 88-89. ISBN 0-7425-3386-7 [14] Ennemoser, Joseph. (1856). The History of Magic. London: Henry G. Bohn, York Street, Covent Garden. p. 59 [15] “Wiccan Priest Fights Local Ordinance Banning Fortune Telling (Louisiana)". pluralism.org. [16] Miller, Mary (2007). Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico. London: Thames & Hudson. [17] Keown, Damien. (2003). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-19-860560-9
• W. Montgomery Watt. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Edinburgh, Scotland. Oxford Press, 1961. Pgs 1-2. • J. P. Vernant, Divination et rationalité (1974) • David Zeitlyn and others on African Divination systems: Africa Divination: Mambila and others
2.8 External links
[18] Sarr, Alioune, « Histoire du Sine-Saloum » (introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker), in Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 46, série B, nos 3-4, 1986-1987 pp 31-38
• Greek Divination: a study of its methods and principles, William Reginald Halliday, Macmillan, 1913, 309pp - a complete scanned edition of the most recent general treatment of Greek divination (at Google Books)
[19] Kalis, Simone,“Medecine Traditionnele Religion et Divination Chez Les Seereer Siin du Senegal", L'Harmattan (1997), pp 11-297 ISBN 2-7384-5196-9
• Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Divination". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
[20] Galvan, Dennis Charles, “The State Must be our Master of Fire : How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal”, Berkeley, University of California Press, (2004), pp 86-135, ISBN 978-0-520-23591-5. [21] Kuusela, T., 2014. Swedish year walk: from folk tradition to computer game. In: Island Dynamics Conference on Folk Belief & Traditions of the Supernatural: Experience, Place, Ritual, & Narrative. Shetland Isles, UK, 24–30 March 2014. [Online]. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/6624109/Swedish_Year_ Walk._From_Folk_Tradition_to_Computer_Game [accessed 09/07/14].
Chapter 3
Cleromancy For the use of random selection as a way to make a fair form of selection, see Sortition.
5. Also in the First Book of Samuel 14:42, lots are used to determine that it was Jonathan, Saul's son, who broke the oath that Saul made,“Cursed be the man that eateth any food until evening, that I may be avenged on mine enemies.”(1 Samuel 14:24).
Cleromancy is a form of sortition, casting of lots, in which an outcome is determined by means that normally would be considered random, such as the rolling of dice, but are sometimes believed to reveal the will of God, or other supernatural entities.
6. In the Book of Jonah 1:7, the desperate sailors cast lots to see whose god was responsible for creating the storm: “Then the sailors said to each other, “Come, let us cast lots to find out who is responsible for this calamity.”They cast lots and the lot fell on Jonah.”
3.1 In classical civilization
In ancient Rome fortunes were told through the casting Other places in the Hebrew Bible relevant to divination: of lots or sortes. • Book of Proverbs 16:33: The lot is cast into the lap, but its every decision is from Yahweh and 18:18: The lot settles disputes, and keeps strong ones apart..
3.2 In Judeo-Christian tradition
• Book of Leviticus 19:26 KJV "... neither shall you practice enchantment, nor observe times.”* [1] The original Hebrew word for enchantment, as found in Strong's Concordance, is pronounced nawkhash' in English. The translation given by Strong's is “to practice divination, divine, observe signs, learn by experience, diligently observe, practice fortunetelling, take as an omen"; and“1.to practice divination 2.to observe the signs or omens”. Times in the original Hebrew is pronounced aw-nan' in English. Its translation in Strong's is “to make appear, produce, bring (clouds), to practise soothsaying, conjure;" and “1. to observe times, practice soothsaying or spiritism or magic or augury or witchcraft 2. soothsayer, enchanter, sorceress, diviner, fortuneteller, barbarian...”. In the HebrewInterlinear Bible, the verse reads, “not you shall augur and not you shall consult cloud”.
Casting of lots occurs relatively frequently in the Bible, and many biblical scholars think that the Urim and Thummim served this purpose. In the Hebrew Bible, there are several cases where lots were cast as a means of determining God's mind: 1. In the Book of Leviticus 16:8, God commanded Moses, “And Aaron shall cast lots upon the two goats; one lot for the LORD, and the other lot for the scapegoat.” 2. According to Numbers 26:55, Moses allocated territory to the tribes of Israel according to each tribe's male population and by lot. 3. In Joshua 7, a guilty party (Achan) is probably found by lot and executed. 4. In the Book of Joshua 18:6, Joshua says, “Ye shall therefore describe the land into seven parts, and bring the description hither to me, that I may cast lots for you here before the LORD our God.”This action is done in order to know God's will as to the dividing of land between the seven tribes of Israel who had not yet “received their inheritance”. (Joshua 18:2).
• Deuteronomy 18:10 ..let no one be found among you who [qasam qesem], performs [onan], [nahash], or [kashaph].* [2] qasam qesem literally means distributes distributions, and may possibly refer to cleromancy. kashaph seems to mean mutter, although the Septuagint renders the same phrase as pharmakia (poison), so it may refer to magic potions 9
10
CHAPTER 3. CLEROMANCY
• In the Book of Esther, Haman casts lots to decide the date on which to exterminate the Jews of Shushan; the Jewish festival of Purim is a remembrance of the subsequent chain of events. • In I Chronicles 26:13 guard duties are assigned by lot. • To Christian doctrine perhaps the most significant mention of lots is in the Book of Psalms, 22:18 “They divide my garments among them, and for my clothing they cast lots.”This came to be regarded as a prophecy connecting that psalm and the one that follows to the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, since all four gospels (for example, John 19:24) tell of the Roman soldiers at Jesus's crucifixion casting lots to see who would take possession of his clothing. (That final act of profanation became the central theme of The Robe, a 1953 film starring Richard Burton.)
of the family if it is done privately, after invoking the gods and with eyes raised to heaven, picks up three pieces, one at a time, and interprets them according to the signs previously marked upon them.”* [3] In the ninth century Anskar, a Frankish missionary and later bishop of Hamburg-Bremen, observed the same practice several times in the decision-making process of the Danish peoples. In this version, the runes were believed to determine the support or otherwise of gods, whether Christian or Norse, for a course of action or act. For example, in one case a Swedish man feared he had offended a god and asked a soothsayer to cast lots to find out which god. The soothsayer determined that the Christian god had taken offence; the Swede later found a book that his son had stolen from Bishop Gautbert in his house.* [4]
3.4 In East-Asian Culture
One other notable example in the New Testament occurs in the Acts of the Apostles 1:23-26 where the eleven remaining apostles cast lots to determine whether Matthias In ancient China, and especially in Chinese folk religion, or Barsabbas (surnamed Justus) would be chosen to re- various means of divination through random means are employed, such as qiúqiān (求簽). In Japan, omikuji is place Judas. one form of drawing lots. In the Eastern Orthodox Church this method of selection is still occasionally used. In 1917 Metropolitan Tikhon I Ching divination, which dates from early China, has was elected Patriarch of Moscow by the drawing of lots. played a major role in Chinese culture and philosophy for In the Coptic Orthodox Church, drawing lots is still used more than two thousand years. The I Ching tradition deto choose the Coptic Pope, most recently done in Novem- scended in part from the Oracle bone divination system ber 2012 to choose Pope Tawadros II. German Pietist that was used by rulers in the Shang dynasty, and grew Christians in the 18th Century often followed the New over time into a rich literary wisdom tradition that was Testament precedent of drawing Lots to determine the closely tied to the philosophy of Yin and Yang. I Ching will of God. This was often done by selecting a ran- practice is widespread throughout East Asia, and comdom Bible passage. The most extensive use of draw- monly involves the use of coins or (traditionally) sticks ing of Lots in the Pietist tradition may have been Count of Yarrow. von Zinzendorf and the Moravian Brethren of Herrnhut who drew lots for many purposes, including selection of church sites, approval of missionaries, the election of 3.5 See also bishops and many others. This practice was greatly curtailed after the General Synod of the worldwide Moravian • Magic 8-Ball Unity in 1818 and finally discontinued in the 1880s. • List of spirituality-related topics
3.3 In Scandinavia Tacitus, in Chapter X of his Germania, describes casting lots as a practice used by the Germanic tribes. He states: “To divination and casting of lots, they pay attention beyond any other people. Their method of casting lots is a simple one: they cut a branch from a fruit-bearing tree and divide it into small pieces which they mark with certain distinctive signs and scatter at random onto a white cloth. Then, the priest of the community if the lots are consulted publicly, or the father
• Belomancy
3.6 References [1] Leviticus 19:26 [2] Deuteronomy 18:10 [3] “Introduction to Runes”. Sunnyway.com. Retrieved 2013-06-02. [4]“Rimbert's Life of Anskar”, in Carolingian Civilisation: A Reader (2nd ed.), ed. P.E Dutton, 2009
3.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
3.7 External links • Halliday, Greek Divination (1913), full online edition. Chapter 10 is on Kleromancy.
11
Chapter 4
Occult For other uses, see Occult (disambiguation). The occult (from the Latin word occultus “clandestine, hidden, secret”) is “knowledge of the hidden”.* [1] In common English usage, occult refers to “knowledge of the paranormal", as opposed to “knowledge of the measurable",* [2] usually referred to as science. The term is sometimes taken to mean knowledge that “is meant only for certain people”or that “must be kept hidden” , but for most practicing occultists it is simply the study of a deeper spiritual reality that extends beyond pure reason and the physical sciences.* [3] The terms esoteric and arcane can also be used to describe the occult,* [4]* [5] in addition to their meanings unrelated to the supernatural.
not limited to) magic, alchemy, extra-sensory perception, astrology, spiritualism, religion, and divination. Interpretation of occultism and its concepts can be found in the belief structures of philosophies and religions such as Chaos magic, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Theosophy, Wicca, Thelema and modern paganism.* [6] A broad definition is offered by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke:
It also describes a number of magical organizations or orders, the teachings and practices taught by them, and to a large body of current and historical literature and spiritual philosophy related to this subject.
4.1 Occultism
OCCULTISM has its basis in a religious way of thinking, the roots of which stretch back into antiquity and which may be described as the Western esoteric tradition. Its principal ingredients have been identified as Gnosticism, the Hermetic treatises on alchemy and magic, Neo-Platonism, and the Kabbalah, all originating in the eastern Mediterranean area during the first few centuries AD.* [7]
From the 15th to 17th century, these ideas that are alternatively described as Western esotericism, which had a revival from about 1770 onwards, due to a renewed desire for mystery, an interest in the Middle Ages and a romantic “reaction to the rationalist Enlightenment".* [8] Alchemy was common among important seventeenth-century scientists, such as Isaac Newton,* [9] and Gottfried Leibniz.* [10] Newton was even accused of introducing occult agencies into natural science when he postulated gravity as a force capable of acting over vast distances.* [11]“By the eighteenth century these unorthodox religious and philosophical concerns were well-defined as 'occult', inasmuch as they lay on the outermost fringe of accepted forms of knowledge and discourse”.* [8] They were, however, preserved by antiquarians and mystics.
Based on his research into the modern German occult revival (1890–1910), Goodrick-Clarke puts forward a thesis on the driving force behind occultism. Behind its many varied forms apparently lies a uniform function,“a strong desire to reconcile the findings of modern natural science with a religious view that could restore man to a position of centrality and dignity in the universe” Reconstruction of the “Holy Table”as used by John Dee. .* [12] Since that time many authors have emphasized a syncretic approach by drawing parallels between differOccultism is the study of occult practices, including (but ent disciplines.* [13] 12
4.4. SEE ALSO
4.2 Science and the occult To the occultist, occultism is conceived of as the study of the inner nature of things, as opposed to the outer characteristics that are studied by science. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer designates this“inner nature” with the term Will, and suggests that science and mathematics are unable to penetrate beyond the relationship between one thing and another in order to explain the“inner nature”of the thing itself, independent of any external causal relationships with other“things”.* [14] Schopenhauer also points towards this inherently relativistic nature of mathematics and conventional science in his formulation of the “World as Will”. By defining a thing solely in terms of its external relationships or effects we only find its external or explicit nature. Occultism, on the other hand, is concerned with the nature of the "thing-initself". This is often accomplished through direct perceptual awareness, known as mysticism. From the scientific perspective, occultism is regarded as unscientific as it does not make use of the standard scientific method to obtain facts.
13 times, in the form of various occult philosophies.* [17] Though there is a Christian occult tradition that goes back at least to Renaissance times, when Marsilio Ficino developed a Christian Hermeticism and Pico della Mirandola developed a Christian form of Kabbalism,* [18] mainstream Christianity has always resisted occult influences, which are:* [19] • Monistic in contrast to Christian dualistic beliefs of a separation between body and spirit; • Gnostic i.e. involving the acquisition of secret knowledge rather than based on scripture and open church tradition • Seen as involving practices such as divination and calling on spirits which are forbidden in the Bible • Not monotheistic, frequently asserting a gradation of human souls between mortals and God; and • Sometimes not even theistic in character.
4.4 See also 4.2.1
Occult qualities
Occult qualities are properties that have no known rational explanation; in the Middle Ages, for example, magnetism was considered an occult quality.* [15] Newton's contemporaries severely criticized his theory that gravity was effected through “action at a distance”, as occult.* [16]
4.3 Religion and the occult Some religions and sects enthusiastically embrace occultism as an integral esoteric aspect of mystical religious experience. This attitude is common within Wicca and many other modern pagan religions. Some other religious denominations disapprove of occultism in most or all forms. They may view the occult as being anything supernatural or paranormal which is not achieved by or through God (as defined by those religious denominations), and is therefore the work of an opposing and malevolent entity. The word has negative connotations for many people, and while certain practices considered by some to be“occult”are also found within mainstream religions, in this context the term“occult”is rarely used and is sometimes substituted with “esoteric”.
• Ariosophy • Esotericism • List of occult terms • List of occultists • Magic (paranormal) • Nazism and occultism • Neotantra • Order of the Occult Hand • Onmyōdō • Renaissance magic • The Morning of the Magicians (book)
4.5 Notes [1] Crabb, G. (1927). English synonyms explained, in alphabetical order, copious illustrations and examples drawn from the best writers. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co. [2] Underhill, E. (1911). Mysticism, Meridian, New York.
4.3.1
Christian views
Christian authorities have generally regarded occultism as heretical whenever they met this: from early Christian times, in the form of gnosticism, to late Renaissance
[3] Blavatsky, H. P. (1888). The Secret Doctrine. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. [4] Houghton Mifflin Company. (2004). The American Heritage College Thesaurus. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Page 530.
14
[5] Wright, C. F. (1895). An outline of the principles of modern theosophy. Boston: New England Theosophical Corp.
CHAPTER 4. OCCULT
4.7 Further reading
[6] Nevill Drury, The Watkins Dictionary of Magic, ISBN 184293-152-0. p. 03
• Bardon, Franz (1971). Initiation into Hermetics. Wuppertal: Ruggeberg.
[7] Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (1985). The Occult Roots of Nazism. p. 17. ISBN 0-85030-402-4.
• Fortune, Dion (2000). The Mystical Qabala. Weiser Books. ISBN 1-57863-150-5
[8] Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 18 [9] Newton's Dark Secrets. [10] Liukkonen, Petri. “Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz”. Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on 10 February 2015. [11] Edelglass et al., Matter and Mind, ISBN 0-940262-45-2. p. 54 [12] Goodrick-Clarke (1985): 29 [13] IAO131. "Thelema & Buddhism" in Journal of Thelemic Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1, Autumn 2007, pp. 18-32 [14] Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation [15] Religion, Science, and Worldview: Essays in Honor of Richard S. Westfall, Margaret J. Osler, Paul Lawrence Farber, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-52152493-8 [16] Gerd Buchdahl, “History of Science and Criteria of Choice”p. 232. In Historical and Philosophical Perspectives of Science v. 5 (ed. Roger H. Stuewer) [17] Gibbons, B. J. (2001). Spirituality and the occult: from the Renaissance to the twentieth century. London: Routledge. p. 2. [18] Yates, Frances Amelia (1979). The occult philosophy in the Elizabethan age. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul. pp. 1–5. [19] Surette, Leon (1993). The Birth of Modernism: Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, W. B. Yeats, and the Occult. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 12–15.
4.6 References • Walker, Benjamin (1980). Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric and the Supernatural. New York: Stein & Day. ISBN 0-8128-6051-9. • Harold W. Percival, Joined the Theosophical Society in 1892. After the death of William Quan Judge in 1896, organized the Theosophical Society Independent and then wrote Thinking and Destiny which covers in plan terms the purpose of the universe and occult meanings.
• Gettings, Fred, Vision of the Occult, Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987. ISBN 0-7126-1438-9 • Kontou, Tatiana – Willburn, Sarah (ed.) (2012). The Ashgate Research Companion to NineteenthCentury Spiritualism and the Occult. Ashgate, Farnham. ISBN 978-0-7546-6912-8 • Martin, W., Rische, J., Rische, K., & VanGordon, K. (2008). The Kingdom of the Occult. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishing. • Molnar, Thomas (1987). The Pagan Temptation. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.; 201 p. N.B.: The scope of this study also embraces the occult. ISBN 0-8028-0262-1 • Regardie, I., Cicero, C., & Cicero, S. T. (2001). The Tree of Life: An Illustrated Study in Magic. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. • Newton, Isaac, Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John. Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John by Sir Isaac Newton • Rogers, L. W. (1909). Hints to Young Students of Occultism. Albany, NY: The Theosophical Book Company. • Shepard, Leslie (editor), Encyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology, Detroit, MI: Gale Research Co., 1978 • Spence, Lewis, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 1920. • Davis, R., True to His Ways: Purity & Safety in Christian Spiritual Practice (ACW Press, Ozark, AL, 2006), ISBN 1-932124-61-6. • Partridge, Christopher (ed.), The Occult World, London: Routledge, 2014. ISBN 0415695961 • Forshaw, Peter, 'The Occult Middle Ages', in Christopher Partridge (ed.), The Occult World, London: Routledge, 2014
4.8 External links • Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam
4.8. EXTERNAL LINKS • University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) • ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc. • Joseph H. Peterson, Twilit Grotto: Archives of Western Esoterica (Esoteric Archives: Occult Literature) • Occult Science and Philosophy of the Renaissance. Online exhibition from the Louisiana State University Libraries Special Collections. Accessed 201309-15. • Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Occult Art, Occultism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. • eLibrary of ancient books on occultism, spiritism, spiritualism, séances, development of mediumship in the Western and Oriental Traditions. Many technical advice on ITC and EVP, and practical tips concerning the development of different forms of Mediumship provided by medium Maryse Locke. • the MYSTICA.ORG An on-line encyclopedia of the occult
15
Chapter 5
Magic (paranormal) “Magia”redirects here. For other uses, see Magia by various religious interest groups either to describe their (disambiguation) and Magic (disambiguation). own religious beliefs and practices or—more frequently —to discredit those of others.”* [3] Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, ac- Modern Western magicians generally state magic's pritions, gestures, and language with the aim of exploiting mary purpose to be personal spiritual growth.* [8] supernatural forces.* [1]* [2]* :6–7* [3]* [4]* :24 The belief in and practice of magic has been present since the earliest human cultures and continues to have an important 5.1 Common features of magical spiritual, religious, and medicinal role in many cultures today.* [5] practice Psychological theories consider magic a personal phenomenon intended to meet individual needs as opposed 5.1.1 Rituals to a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose. The belief that one can influence supernatural powers, by See also: Theurgy prayer, sacrifice, or invocation dates back to prehistoric religions and it can be found in early records such as the Magical rituals are the precisely defined actions (includEgyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas.* [6] ing speech) used to work magic. Bronisław Malinowski Magic and religion are categories of beliefs and sys- describes ritual language as possessing a high “coeffitems of knowledge used within societies. Some forms cient of weirdness”in that the language used in rituals of shamanic contact with the spirit world seem to be is archaic and out of the ordinary. This he ascribes to nearly universal in the early development of human com- the need for to create a mindset that fosters belief in the munities. They appear in various tribal peoples from ritual.* [9] However S. J. Tambiah notes that even if the Aboriginal Australia and Māori people of New Zealand power of the ritual is said to reside in the words, "[they] to the Amazon, African savannah, and pagan Europe. only become effective if uttered in the special context of * * Magic is sometimes practiced in isolation and secrecy other actions.” [10] :175–208 and often viewed with skepticism and suspicion by the These other actions typically consist of gestures, possiwider community.* [4]* :24 In non-scientific societies, a bly performed with special objects at a particular place perceived magical attack is sometimes employed to ex- or time. Object, location, and performer may require plain personal or societal misfortune.* [7] purification beforehand, a condition that parallels the The term "magical thinking" in anthropology, felicity conditions J. L. Austin requires of performative * psychology, and cognitive science refers to causal utterances. [11] (By “performative”Austin means that reasoning often involving associative thinking, such the ritual act itself achieves the stated goal. For example, as the perceived ability of the mind to affect the a wedding ceremony can be understood as a ritual, and physical world (see the philosophical problem of men- only by properly performing the ritual does the marriage tal causation) or correlation mistaken for materialist occur.) causation. Émile Durkheim stresses the importance of rituals as a The concept of magic, considered distinct from religion, tool to achieve "collective effervescence" which serves to was first widely recognized in Judaism, which defined support the unification of society. On the other hand, the practices of pagan worship designed to appease some psychologists compare such rituals to obsessiveand receive benefits from gods other than Yahweh as compulsive rituals, noting that intentional focus falls on * magic.* [2]* :6–7 Wouter Hanegraaff argues that magic is the lower level of representation of simple gestures. [12] in fact “a largely polemical concept that has been used which demotes the intended outcome as the emphasis is placed more on the ritual process than on the connection 16
5.1. COMMON FEATURES OF MAGICAL PRACTICE between the ritual and the ultimate goal.
5.1.2
Magical symbols
17 to bring about a corresponding effect on the target (e.g. breaking a limb of a doll will bring about an injury in the corresponding limb of someone depicted by the doll). Principle of contagion Another primary type of magical thinking includes the principle of contagion. This principle suggests that once two objects come into contact with each other, they will continue to affect each other even after the contact between them has been broken.
Helm of Awe (ægishjálmr) - magical symbol worn by Vikings for invincibility. Modern day use by Ásatrú followers for protection.
Anthropologists, such as Sir James Frazer (1854–1938), have characterized the implementation of symbols into two primary categories: the “principle of similarity”, and the“principle of contagion.”He further categorized these principles as falling under "sympathetic magic" and "contagious magic" and asserted that these concepts were “general or generic laws of thought which were misapplied in magic.”* [2]* :52 Principle of similarity The principle of similarity, also known as the “association of ideas”, which falls under the category of sympathetic magic, is the thought that if a certain result follows a certain action, then that action must be responsible for the result. Therefore, if one is to perform this action again, the same result can again be expected, a classic example being the rooster that heralds the rising of the sun: when a rooster crows, it is a response to the sun's rising but this interpretation can be inverted if the observer believes in the law of similarity (which would suggest that it is a least possible the sunrise follows - or is caused by - the crowing of the rooster). In other words,* [2]* :45 Causality is inferred where it might not otherwise have been. In the mind of a magical practitioner, it might seem to cause the rooster to crow early, late or not at all will result in an ability to control the timing of the sunrise or stop it altogether. Another example of the principle of similarity is the construction and manipulation of representations of some target to be affected (e.g. voodoo dolls), believed
An example given by Tambiah relates to adoption: among some American Indians when a child is adopted, his or her adoptive mother will pull the child through some of her clothes, symbolically representing the birth process and thereby associating the child with herself,* [2]* :59 thereby 'becomes' hers emotionally even though their relationship is not biological. As Claude Lévi-Strauss put it the birth “would consist, therefore, in making explicit a situation originally existing on the emotional level and in rendering acceptable to the mind pains which the body refuses to tolerate...the woman believes in the myth and belongs to a society which believes in it.”* [13] Symbols, for many cultures that use magic, are seen as a type of technology: native peoples might use symbols and symbolic actions to bring about change and improvements in the same way as those from advanced cultures use advanced irrigation techniques to promote soil fertility and crop growth. Michael Brown discusses the use of nantag stones among the Aguaruna as being similar to this type of “technology":* [14] brought into contact with stem cuttings of plants like manioc before they are planted these powerful tangible symbols of fertility are believed by the Aguruna to transfer some of their fertility to the plants. Others argue that ritualistic actions are merely therapeutic, Tambiah citing the example of a native hitting the ground with a stick. While some may interpret this action as symbolic (i.e. the man is trying to make the ground yield crops through force), others would simply see a man unleashing his frustration at poor crop returns. Ultimately, whether or not an action is symbolic depends upon the context of the situation as well as the ontology of the culture. Many symbolic actions are derived from mythology and unique associations, whereas other ritualistic actions are just simple expressions of emotion and are not intended to enact any type of change.
5.1.3 Magical language See also: Spell (paranormal) and Magic word The performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether spoken out loud or unspoken, words are frequently used to access or guide magical
18 power.
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
5.1.4 Magicians
In“The Magical Power of Words”(1968) S. J. Tambiah argues that the connection between language and magic is Main article: Magician (paranormal) due to a belief in the inherent ability of words to influence A magician is any practitioner of magic, even if they are the universe. Bronisław Malinowski, in Coral Gardens and their Magic (1935), suggests that this belief is an extension of man's basic use of language to describe his surroundings, in which “the knowledge of the right words, appropriate phrases and the more highly developed forms of speech, gives man a power over and above his own limited field of personal action.”* [9]* :235 Magical speech is, therefore, a ritual act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-verbal acts* [10]* :175–176 but not all speech is considered magical, only certain words and phrases or words spoken in a specific context are considered to have magical power.* [10]* :176 Magical language, according to C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards's (1923) categories of speech, is distinct from scientific language because it is emotive and it converts words into symbols for emotions; whereas in scientific language words are tied to specific meanings and refer to an objective external reality.* [15] Magical language is therefore particularly adept at constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world.* [10]* :189 Malinowski argues that“the language of magic is sacred, set and used for an entirely different purpose to that of ordinary life”* [9]* :213 the two forms (of language) being differentiated through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or forms: spells, songs, blessings, or chants. Sacred modes of language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or “truth”of a religious or a cultural “golden age”. The use of Hebrew in Judaism being cited as an example.* [10]* :182 Another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity: much-sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is incomprehensible to the majority of the population and it can only be used and interpreted by specialized practitioners (magicians, priests, shamans, even mullahs).* [9]* :228* [10]* :178
The "Magician" card from a 15th-century tarot deck.
specialists or common practitioners who do not consider themselves to be magicians.* [16]* :25
The possession of magical knowledge alone may be insufIn this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages ficient to grant magical power; often a person must also violate the primary function of language: communica- possess certain magical objects, traits, or life experiences tion.* [10]* :179 Yet adherents of magic are still able to in order to be a magician. use and to value the magical function of words by believ- Among the Azande, for example, in order to question an ing in the inherent power of the words themselves and oracle a man must have both the physical oracle (poison, in the meaning that they must provide for those who do or a washboard, for example) and knowledge of the words understand them. and the rites needed to make the object function.* [17] This leads Tambiah to conclude that “the remarkable A variety of personal traits may be credited with giving disjunction between sacred and profane language which magical power, and frequently they are associated with an exists as a general fact is not necessarily linked to the unusual birth into the world.* [18]* :87 need to embody sacred words in an exclusive language.” In the 16th century Friuli, babies born with the caul were * [10]* :182 believed to be benandanti or“Good Walkers”who would
5.2. THEORIES
19
battle evil witches in night time battles over the bounty of the next year's crops. They did not particularly think of themselves as witches (though the term was later applied to them by the Catholic Church under the influence of the alian Inquisition).* [19]
witches, or the witches may be perceived as supernatural, non-human entities.* [23] In early modern Europe and Britain such accusations led to the executions of tens of thousands of people, who were seen to be in league with Satan. Those accused of being satanic 'witches' were * Post-birth experiences are also be believed to convey often practitioners of (usually benign) folk magic, [24] magical power, and example being the survival of a near- (The English term 'witch' being used, on occasion, as a death illness may be taken as evidence of their power as purely descriptive term without its pejorative sense to describe such practitioners, and includes both male and fea healer: male practitioners.* [25]) In Bali a medium's survival is proof of her association with a patron deity and therefore her ability to communicate with other gods and spirits.* [20]
5.2 Theories
However the most commonly method of identifying, differentiating and establishing magical practitioners from common people is by initiation. By means of rites the 5.2.1 Anthropological and psychological origins magician's relationship to the supernatural and his entry into a closed professional class is established (often through rituals that simulate death and rebirth into a new Definitions of relevant terminology life).* [16]* :41–44 The foremost perspectives on magic in anthropology are Given the exclusivity of the criteria needed to be- functionalist, symbolist, and intellectualist. These three come a magician, much magic is performed by special- perspectives are used to describe how magic works in a ists,* [16]* :26 laypeople being limited to some simple society. The functionalist perspective, usually associated magical rituals that relate to everyday living but in sit- with Bronisław Malinowski, maintains that all aspects of uations of particular importance, especially when health society are meaningful and interrelated.* [26] In the funcor major life events are concerned, a specialist magician tionalist perspective, magic performs a latent function in will often be consulted.* [18] the society. The symbolist perspective researches the The powers of both specialist and common magicians subtle meaning in rituals and myths that define a sociare determined by culturally accepted standards of the ety* [27] and deals with questions of theodicy—"why do sources and the breadth of magic: a magician cannot sim- bad things happen to good people?" Finally the intellecply invent or claim new magic. In practice the magician is tualist perspective, associated with Edward Burnett Tylor only as powerful as his peers believe him to be.* [16]* :33, and Sir James Frazer, regard magic as logical, but based on a flawed understanding of the world. 40 In different cultures, various types of magicians may be classified on their abilities, their sources of power, on Magical thinking moral considerations and hence categorized as sorcerer, wizard, witch, healer et cetera.* [21] Main article: Magical thinking
5.1.5
Witchcraft
Main article: Witchcraft Witchcraft means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised individually, by designated social groups, or by persons with the necessary esoteric knowledge. In non-scientific societies, perceived magical attack is an idea sometimes employed to explain personal or societal misfortune.* [7]
The term "magical thinking" in anthropology, psychology, and cognitive science refers to causal reasoning often involving associative thinking, such as the perceived ability of the mind to affect the physical world (see the philosophical problem of mental causation) or correlation mistaken for materialist causation. Perceived causal associations between actions or events may derive from symbolic associations such as metaphor, metonym,“As above, so below”from Hermeticism and apparent synchronicity (coincidental magic).
In anthropological and historical contexts this is often termed witchcraft or sorcery, and the perceived attackers Psychological theories of magic “witches”or “sorcerers”. Their maleficium - a term that applies to any magical act intended to cause harm or Main article: Psychological theories of magic death to people or property - is often seen as a biological trait or an acquired skill.* [22] Psychological theories treat magic as a personal pheKnown members of the community may be accused as nomenon intended to meet individual needs, as opposed
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CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
to a social phenomenon serving a collective purpose. The explanatory power of magic should not be underestimated, however. Both in the past and in the modern world magical belief systems can provide explanations for otherwise difficult or impossible to understand phenomena while providing a spiritual and metaphysical grounding for the individual. Furthermore, as both Brian Feltham and Scott E. Hendrix argue, magical beliefs need not represent a form of irrationality, nor should they be viewed as incompatible with modern views of the world.* [28]* [29]
of knowledge used within societies. While generally considered distinct categories in western cultures, the interactions, similarities, and differences have been central to the study of magic for many theorists in sociology and anthropology, including Frazer, Mauss, S. J. Tambiah, Malinowski, Michael Nevin and Isabelle Sarginson. From the intellectualist and functionalist perspectives, magic is often considered most analogous to science and technology.
Intellectualist perspectives
Marcel Mauss
Further information: Myth and ritual and Shamanism
In A General Theory of Magic,* [16] Marcel Mauss classifies magic as a social phenomenon, akin to religion and science, but yet a distinct category. In practice, magic bears a strong resemblance to religion. Both use similar types of rites, materials, social roles and relationships to accomplish aims and engender belief. They both operate on similar principles, in particular those of consecration and sanctity of objects and places, interaction with supernatural powers mediated by an expert, employment of symbolism, sacrifice, purification and representation in rites, and the importance of tradition and continuation of knowledge. Magic and religion also share a collective character and totality of belief. The rules and powers of each are determined by the community's ideals and beliefs and so may slowly evolve. Additionally neither supports partial belief. Belief in one aspect of the phenomena necessitates belief in the whole, and each incorporates structural loopholes to accommodate contradictions.
The belief that one can influence supernatural powers, by prayer, sacrifice, or invocation goes back to prehistoric religion and is present in early records such as the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas.* [6] James George Frazer asserted that magical observations are the result of an internal dysfunction: “Men mistook the order of their ideas for the order of nature, and hence imagined that the control which they have, or seem to have, over their thoughts, permitted them to exercise a corresponding control over things.”* [30]* :83 Others, such as N. W. Thomas* [31] and Sigmund Freud have rejected this explanation. Freud explains that “the associated theory of magic merely explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the laws of nature by psychological ones” .* [30]* :83 Freud emphasizes that what led primitive men to come up with magic is the power of wishes: “His wishes are accompanied by a motor impulse, the will, which is later destined to alter the whole face of the earth in order to satisfy his wishes. This motor impulse is at first employed to give a representation of the satisfying situation in such a way that it becomes possible to experience the satisfaction by means of what might be described as motor hallucinations. This kind of representation of a satisfied wish is quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely sensory technique of satisfaction. [...] As time goes on, the psychological accent shifts from the motives for the magical act on to the measures by which it is carried out—that is, on to the act itself. [...] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines the occurrence of that result.”* [30]* :84
The distinction Mauss draws between religion and magic is both of sentiment and practice. He portrays magic as an element of pre-modern societies and in many respects an antithesis of religion. Magic is secretive and isolated, and rarely performed publicly in order to protect and to preserve occult knowledge. Religion is predictable and prescribed and is usually performed openly in order to impart knowledge to the community. While these two phenomena do share many ritual forms, Mauss concludes that “a magical rite is any rite that does not play a part in organized cults. It is private, secret, mysterious and approaches the limit of prohibited rite.”* [4]* :24 In practice, magic differs from religion in desired outcome. Religion seeks to satisfy moral and metaphysical ends, while magic is a functional art which often seeks to accomplish tangible results. In this respect magic resembles technology and science. Belief in each is diffuse, universal, and removed from the origin of the practice. 5.2.2 Theories on the relationship of Yet, the similarity between these social phenomena is limited, as science is based in experimentation and develmagic, science, art, and religion opment, whereas magic is an“a priori belief.”* [16]* :92 Mauss concludes that though magical beliefs and rites are Main articles: Magic and religion and Myth and ritual most analogous to religion, magic remains a social phenomenon distinct from religion and science with its own Magic and religion are categories of beliefs and systems characteristic rules, acts and aims.
5.2. THEORIES S. J. Tambiah According to Stanley Tambiah, magic, science, and religion all have their own“quality of rationality”, and have been influenced by politics and ideology.* [2]* :2 Tambiah also believes that the perceptions of these three ideas have evolved over time as a result of Western thought. The lines of demarcation between these ideas depend upon the perspective of a variety of anthropologists, but Tambiah has his own opinions regarding magic, science, and religion.
21 there was no room for magic and its practices. Besides the Reformation, the Renaissance was an influential epoch in the history of thought concerning magic and science. During the Renaissance, magic was less stigmatized even though it was done in secret and therefore considered“the occult”. Renaissance magic was based on cosmology, and its powers were said to be derived from the stars and the alignment of the planets. Newton himself began his work in mathematics because he wanted to see“whether judicial astrology had any claim to validity.”* [2]* :28 The lines of demarcation between science, magic, and religion all have origins dating to times when established thought processes were challenged. The rise of Western thought essentially initiated the differentiation between the three disciplines. Whereas science could be revised and developed through rational thought, magic was seen as less scientific and systematic than science and religion, making it the least respected of the three.
According to Tambiah, religion is based on an organized community, and it is supposed to encompass all aspects of life. In religion, man is obligated to an outside power and he is supposed to feel piety towards that power. Religion is effective and attractive because it is generally exclusive and strongly personal. Also, because religion affects all aspects of life, it is convenient in the sense that morality and notions of acceptable behavior are imposed by God and the supernatural. Science, on the other hand, suggests Bronisław Malinowski a clear divide between nature and the supernatural, making its role far less all-encompassing than that of religion. Main article: Bronisław Malinowski As opposed to religion, Tambiah suggests that mankind has a much more personal control over events. Sci- In his essay“Magic, Science, and Religion”, Bronisław ence, according to Tambiah, is“a system of behavior by Malinowski contends that every person, no matter how which man acquires mastery of the environment.”* [2]* :8 primitive, uses both magic and science. To make this disWhereas in religion nature and the supernatural are con- tinction he breaks up this category into the“sacred”and nected and essentially interchangeable, in science, nature the“profane”* [33]* :17 or“magic/religion”and science. and the supernatural are clearly separate spheres. Also, He theorizes that feelings of reverence and awe rely on science is a developed discipline; a logical argument is observation of nature and a dependence on its regularity. created and can be challenged. The base of scientific This observation and reasoning about nature are a type knowledge can be extended, while religion is more con- of science. Magic and science both have definite aims to crete and absolute. Magic, the less accepted of the three help “human instincts, needs, and pursuits.”* [33]* :86 disciplines in Western society, is an altogether unique Both magic and science develop procedures that must be idea. followed to accomplish specific goals. Magic and science Tambiah states that magic is a strictly ritualistic action that implements forces and objects outside the realm of the gods and the supernatural. These objects and events are said to be intrinsically efficacious so that the supernatural is unnecessary. To some, including the Greeks, magic was considered a“proto-science.”Magic has other historical importance as well.
are both based on knowledge; magic is knowledge of the self and of emotion while science is knowledge of nature.
According to Malinowski, magic and religion are also similar in that they often serve the same function in a society. The difference is that magic is more about the personal power of the individual and religion is about faith in the power of God. Magic is also something that is passed Much of the debate between religion and magic origi- down over generations to a specific group while religion nated during the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic is more broadly available to the community. Church was attacked for its doctrine of transubstanti- To end his essay, Malinowski poses the question, “why ation because it was considered a type of sacramental magic?" He writes, “Magic supplies primitive man with magic. Furthermore, the possibility of anything happen- a number of ready-made rituals, acts, and beliefs, with ing outside of God's purpose was denied. Spells* [32] a definite mental and practical technique which serves to were viewed as ineffective and blasphemous, because re- bridge over the dangerous gaps in every important pursuit ligion required belief in“a conscious agent who could be or critical situation.”* [33]* :90 deflected from this purpose by prayer and supplication.” * [2]* :19 Prayer was the only way to effectively enact positive change. The Protestant Reformation was a signifi- Robin Horton cant moment in the history of magical thought because Protestantism provided the impetus for a systematic un- In “African Traditional Thought and Western Science,” derstanding of the world. In this systematic framework, * [34] Robin Horton compares the magical and religious
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CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
thinking of non-modernized cultures with western scientific thought. He argues that both traditional beliefs and western science are applications of “theoretical thinking.”The common form, function, and purpose of these theoretical idioms are therefore structured and explained by eight main characteristics of this type of thought:
and form are due to their states in open and closed cultures.* [34]* :153 He classifies scientifically oriented cultures as“open”because they are aware of other modes of thought while traditional cultures are “closed”because they are unaware of alternatives to the established theories. The varying sources of information in these systems results in differences in form which, Horton asserts, often 1. In all cultures the majority of human experience can blinds observers from seeing the similarities between the be explained by common sense. The purpose then systems as two applications of theoretical thought. of theory is to explain forces that operate behind and within the commonsense world. Theory should imArthur C. Clarke pose order and reason on everyday life by attributing cause to a few select forces.* [34]* :132 British author Arthur C. Clarke formulated three 'laws' 2. Theories also help place events in a causal context the third of which states 'any sufficiently advanced techthat is greater than common sense alone can pro- nology is indistinguishable from magic'. While formuvide, because commonsense causation is inherently lated in the context of fictional 'universes' of science ficlimited by what we see and experience. Theoretical tion this neatly illustrates the dilemma faced by anyone formulations are therefore used as intermediaries to from a scientifically advance culture or otherwise - confronted by what is currently, and in the local and contemlink natural effects to natural causes.* [34]* :135 porary context, inexplicable. 3.“Common sense and theory have complementary roles in everyday life.”* [34]* :140 Common sense is more handy and useful for a wide range of ev- Alan Moore eryday circumstances, but occasionally there are circumstances that can only be explained using a wider Alan Moore says that magic is indistinguishable from art whether it be writing, music, sculpture, or any other form. causal vision, so a jump to theory is made. He supports his proposition by stating that magic is re4.“Levels of theory vary with context.”* [34]* :143 ferred to in early texts simply as “the art”. Also, books There are widely and narrowly encompassing the- of spells were referred to as“grimoires”in the past which ories, and the individual can usually chose which to is another way of saying “grammar”and to cast a spell use in order to understand and explain a situation as means simply to spell. He states that magic is simply the is deemed appropriate. manipulation of symbols, words, or images, to achieve changes in consciousness.* [35]* [36] 5. All theory breaks up aspects of commonsense events, abstracts them and then reintegrates them into the common usage and understand5.3 History ing.* [34]* :144 6. Theory is usually created by analogy between unex- Further information: History of astrology and History of plained and familiar phenomena.* [34]* :146 religions 7. When theory is based on analogy between explained and unexplained observations,“generally only a limited aspect of the familiar phenomena is incorporated into (the) explanatory model”.* [34]* :147 It is this process of abstraction that contributes to the ability of theories to transcend commonsense explanation. For example, gods have the quality of spirituality by omission of many common aspects of human life. 8. Once a theoretical model has been established, it is often modified to explain contradictory data so that it may no longer represent the analogy on which it was based.* [34]* :148
5.3.1 Ancient Egypt Egyptians believed that with Heka, the activation of the Ka, an aspect of the soul of both gods and humans, (and divine personification of magic), they could influence the gods and gain protection, healing, and transformation. Health and wholeness of being were sacred to Heka. There is no word for religion in the ancient Egyptian language as mundane and religious world views were not distinct; thus, Heka was not a secular practice but rather a religious observance. Every aspect of life, every word, plant, animal, and ritual was connected to the power and authority of the gods.* [37]
While both traditional beliefs and western science are based on theoretical thought, Horton argues that the dif- In ancient Egypt, magic consisted of four components; ferences between these knowledge systems in practice the primeval potency that empowered the creator-god was
5.3. HISTORY identified with Heka, who was accompanied by magical rituals known as Seshaw held within sacred texts called Rw. In addition Pekhret, medicinal prescriptions, were given to patients to bring relief. This magic was used in temple rituals as well as informal situations by priests. These rituals, along with medical practices, formed an integrated therapy for both physical and spiritual health. Magic was also used for protection against the angry deities, jealous ghosts, foreign demons and sorcerers who were thought to cause illness, accidents, poverty and infertility.* [38]
5.3.2
Mesopotamia
See also: Magical texts § Mesopotamian In parts of Mesopotamian religion, magic was believed in and actively practiced. At the city of Uruk, archeologists have excavated houses dating from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE in which cuneiform clay tablets have been unearthed containing magical incantations.* [39]
5.3.3
Classical antiquity
23 Ancient Greek scholarship of the 20th century, almost certainly influenced by Christianising preconceptions of the meanings of magic and religion, and the wish to establish Greek culture as the foundation of Western rationality, developed a theory of ancient Greek magic as primitive and insignificant, and thereby essentially separate from Homeric, communal ("polis") religion. Since the last decade of the century, however, recognising the ubiquity and respectability of acts such as katadesmoi ("binding spells"), described as “magic” by modern and ancient observers alike, scholars have been compelled to abandon this viewpoint.* [41]* :90– 95 The Greek word mageuo (“practise magic”) itself derives from the word Magos, originally simply the Greek name for a Persian tribe known for practising religion.* [42] Non-civic "mystery cults" have been similarly re-evaluated:* [41]* :97–98 the choices which lay outside the range of cults did not just add additional options to the civic menu, but ... sometimes incorporated critiques of the civic cults and Panhellenic myths or were genuine alternatives to them. —Simon Price, Religions of the Ancient Greeks (1999)* [43]
Main article: Magic in the Greco-Roman world In ancient Greece magic was involved in practice of re- Katadesmoi (Latin defixiones), curses inscribed on wax or lead tablets and buried underground, were frequently executed by all strata of Greek society, sometimes to protect the entire polis.* [41]* :95–96 Communal curses carried out in public declined after the Greek classical period, but private curses remained common throughout antiquity.* [44] They were distinguished as magical by their individualistic, instrumental and sinister qualities.* [41]* :96 The former qualities, and more generally, their perceived deviation from inherently mutable cultural constructs of normality, most clearly delineate ancient magic from the religious rituals of which they form a part.* [41]* :102– 103 The Greek mystery religions had strongly magical components. A large number of magical papyri, in Greek, Coptic, and Demotic, have been recovered and translated.* [45] They contain early instances of: • the use of "magic words" said to have the power to command spirits; • the use of wands and other ritual tools; • the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits that he is invoking or evoking; and • the use of mysterious symbols or sigils which are thought to be useful when invoking or evoking spirits.* [46] Hecate, the ancient Greek goddess of magic.
ligion, medicine, and divination.* [40]
The practice of magic was banned in the late Roman world, and the Codex Theodosianus (438 AD) states:* [47]
24
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL) If any wizard therefore or person imbued with magical contamination who is called by custom of the people a magician...should be apprehended in my retinue, or in that of the Caesar, he shall not escape punishment and torture by the protection of his rank.
5.3.4
Middle Ages
Ars Magica or magic is a major component and supporting contribution to the belief and practice of spiritual, and in many cases, physical healing throughout the Middle Ages. Emanating from many modern interpretations lies a trail of misconceptions about magic, one of the largest revolving around wickedness or the existence of nefarious beings who practice it. These misinterpretations stem from numerous acts or rituals that have been performed throughout antiquity, and due to their exoticism from the commoner's perspective, the rituals invoked uneasiness and an even stronger sense of dismissal.* [48]* [49] One societal force in the Middle Ages more powerful than the singular commoner, the Christian Church, rejected magic as a whole because it was viewed as a means of tampering with the natural world in a supernatural manner associated with the biblical verses of Deuteronomy 18:9-12. Despite the many negative connotations which surround the term magic, there exist many elements that are seen in a divine or holy light.* [50] The various yet sparse healers of the Middle Ages were among the few, if not the only, proponents of a positive impression of magic. One of the most famous healers of this time was Saint Hildegard of Bingen. Her healing abilities were so sought after that many individuals, healthy and ill alike, would travel great distances to be blessed by her.* [51] Modern historians of medicine along with the people of the Middle Ages both possess no straightforward answer as to where her abilities derived from; however, many of these historians argue or speculate that they are related to mental visions of which recorded documents, such as her three volumes of visionary theology, depict. The volumes include: Scivias, (“Know the Ways”), Liber Vitae Meritorum, (“Book of Life's Merits”), and Liber Divinorum Operum (“Book of Divine Works”).* [51] A particular phenomenon deriving from healing magic is known as the "royal touch" or the “King's Touch”. It is believed that various kings and/or queens of the Middle Ages possessed the ability to heal ailing individuals by making physical contact near or directly on the afflicted area of the person. In a similar light, there also exist many folk scattered throughout the western medieval territories who claim to practice and carry this same gift. This has been commonly observed in many religious texts, The Bible being only one of the many pieces of religious literature which contain a plethora of such concepts. Another topic discussed among historians is the various tools or
instruments used among these healers and other individuals who claim to practice the art of healing in a magical sense. Diversified instruments or rituals used in medieval magic include, but are not limited to: various amulets, talismans, potions, as well as specific chants, dances, prayers. Along with these rituals are the adversely imbued notions of demonic participation which influence of them. The idea that magic was devised, taught, and worked by demons would have seemed reasonable to anyone who read the Greek magical papyri or the Sefer-ha-Razim and found that healing magic appeared alongside rituals for killing people, gaining wealth, or personal advantage, and coercing women into sexual submission.* [52] Interpreted by few scholars or historians is the belief that rituals practiced by churchmen of the Middle Ages were believed to hold a psychological efficacy; however, as also believed by the aforementioned historians, is that the said rituals provide essentially and fundamentally similar efficacies. The notions about magic hold a very diverse presence across the medieval land and provide a sense of frequent discussion across, and between, the numerous varying sects of antiquity. Sects who have provided many thoughts and opinions about magic range from a variety of teachings or followings. Notable sects include but are not limited to Christians, Muslims, Theodosians, Pagans, Aristotelians, and Mystics.
5.3.5 Renaissance Further information: Renaissance magic Renaissance humanism saw resurgence in hermeticism and Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance, on the other hand, saw the rise of science, in such forms as the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe, the distinction of astronomy from astrology, and of chemistry from alchemy.* [53] The seven artes magicae or artes prohibitae or arts prohibited by canon law by Johannes Hartlieb in 1456 were: nigromancy (which included "black magic" and "demonology"), geomancy, hydromancy, aeromancy, pyromancy, chiromancy, and scapulimancy and their sevenfold partition emulated the artes liberales and artes mechanicae. Both bourgeoisie and nobility in the 15th and 16th century showed great fascination with these arts, which exerted an exotic charm by their ascription to Arabic, Jewish, Gypsy, and Egyptian sources, and the popularity of white magic increased. However, there was great uncertainty in distinguishing practices of superstition, occultism, and perfectly sound scholarly knowledge or pious ritual. The intellectual and spiritual tensions erupted in the Early Modern witch craze, further reinforced by the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.* [53]
5.3. HISTORY
5.3.6
25
Baroque
every corner of the globe, is also pregnant with similar qualities... Thus we find that one particular bone ... in a hare's foot instantly mitigates the most excruciating tortures of the cramp; yet no other bone nor part of that animal can do the like... From what has been premised, we may readily conclude that there are two distinct species of magic; one whereof, being inherent in the occult properties of nature, is called natural magic; and the other, being obnoxious and contrary to nature, is termed infernal magic, because it is accomplished by infernal agency or compact with the devil...* [54]
Further information: 17th-century philosophy, natural magic, and Isaac Newton's occult studies Study of the occult arts remained intellectually re-
*
A talisman from the Black Pullet, a late grimoire containing instructions on how a magician might cast rings and craft amulets for various magical applications, culminating in the Hen that Lays Golden Eggs.
spectable well into the 17th century, and only gradually divided into the modern categories of natural science, occultism, and superstition. The 17th century saw the gradual rise of the "age of reason", while belief in witchcraft and sorcery, and consequently the irrational surge of Early Modern witch trials, receded, a process only completed at the end of the Baroque period circa 1730. Christian Thomasius still met opposition as he argued in his 1701 Dissertatio de crimine magiae that it was meaningless to make dealing with the devil a criminal offence, since it was impossible to really commit the crime in the first place. In Britain, the Witchcraft Act of 1735 established that people could not be punished for consorting with spirits, while would-be magicians pretending to be able to invoke spirits could still be fined as con artists. [The] wonderful power of sympathy, which exists throughout the whole system of nature, where everything is excited to beget or love its like, and is drawn after it, as the loadstone draws iron... There is ... such natural accord and discord, that some will prosper more luxuriantly in another's company; while some, again, will droop and die away, being planted near each other. The lily and the rose rejoice by each other's side; whilst ... fruits will neither ripen nor grow in aspects that are inimical to them. In stones likewise, in minerals, ... the same sympathies and antipathies are preserved. Animated nature, in every clime, in
:1116–1117
Under the veil of natural magic, it hath pleased the Almighty to conceal many valuable and excellent gifts, which common people either think miraculous, or next to impossible. And yet in truth, natural magic is nothing more than the workmanship of nature, made manifest by art; for, in tillage, as nature produceth corn and herbs, so art, being nature's handmaid, prepareth and helpeth it forward... And, though these things, while they lie hid in nature, do many of them seem impossible and miraculous, yet, when they are known, and the simplicity revealed, our difficulty of apprehension ceases, and the wonder is at an end; for that only is wonderful to the beholder whereof he can conceive no cause nor reason... Many philosophers of the first eminence, as Plato, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus, &c. travelled through every region of the known world for the accomplishment of this kind of knowledge; and, at their return, they publicly preached and taught it. But above all, we learn from sacred and profane history, that Solomon was the greatest proficient in this art of any either before or since his time; as he himself hath declared in Ecclesiastes and the Book of Wisdom, where he saith, “God hath given me the true science of things, so as to know how the world was made, and the power of the elements, the beginning, and the end, and the midst of times, the change of seasons, the courses of the year, and the situation of the stars, the nature of human beings, and the quality of beasts, the power of winds, and the imaginations of the mind; the diversities of plants, the virtues of roots, and all things whatsoever, whether secret or known, manifest or invisible.”* [54]* :1118 And hence, it was that the magi, or followers of natural magic, were accounted wise, and the study honourable; because it consists in nothing more than the most profound and perfect part of natural philosophy, which defines the nature, causes, and effects, of things.* [54]* :1118 How far such inventions as are called charms, amulets, periapts, and the like, have any foundation in natural
26 magic, may be worth our enquiry; because, if cures are to be effected through their medium, and that without any thing derogatory to the attributes of the Deity, or the principles of religion, I see no reason why they should be rejected with that inexorable contempt which levels the works of God with the folly and weakness of men. Not that I would encourage superstition, or become an advocate for a ferrago of absurdities; but, when the simplicity of natural things, and their effects, are rejected merely to encourage professional artifice and emolument, it is prudent for us to distinguish between the extremes of bigoted superstition and total unbelief.* [54]* :1119 It was the opinion of many eminent physicians, of the first ability and learning, that such kind of charms or periapts as consisted of certain odoriferous herbs, balsamic roots, mineral concretions, and metallic substances, might have, and most probably possessed, by means of their strong medicinal properties, the virtue of curing... though without the least surprise or admiration; because the one appears in a great measure to be the consequence of manual operation, which is perceptible and visible to the senses, whilst the other acts by an innate or occult power, which the eye cannot see, nor the mind so readily comprehend; yet, in both cases, perhaps, the effect is produced by a similar cause; and consequently all such remedies... are worthy of our regard, and ought to excite in us not only a veneration for the simple practice of the ancients in their medical experiments, but a due sense of gratitude to the wise Author of our being, who enables us, by such easy means, to remove the infirmities incident to mankind. Many reputable authors ... contend that not only such physical alligations, appensions, periapts, amulets, charms, &c. which, from their materials appear to imbibe and to diffuse the medical properties above described, ought in certain obstinate and equivocal disorders to be applied, but those likewise which from their external form and composition have no such inherent virtues to recommend them; for harm they can do none, and good they might do, either by accident or through the force of imagination. And it is asserted, with very great truth, that through the medium of hope and fear, sufficiently impressed upon the mind or imagination... Of the truth of this we have the strongest and most infallible evidence in the hiccough, which is instantaneously cured by any sudden effect of fear or surprise; ... Seeing, therefore, that such virtues lie hid in the occult properties of nature, united with the sense or imagination of man... without any compact with spirits, or dealings with the devil; we surely ought to receive them into our practice, and to adopt them as often as occasion seriously requires, although professional emolument and pecuniary advantage might in some instances be narrowed by it.* [54]* :1120* [55]
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
5.3.7 Romanticism From 1776 to 1781 AD, Jacob Philadelphia performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout Europe and Russia. Baron Carl Reichenbach's experiments with his Odic force appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the 19th century, where Symbolism and other offshoots of Romanticism cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European colonialism put Westerners in contact with India and Egypt and re-introduced exotic beliefs. Hindu and Egyptian mythology frequently feature in 19th-century magical texts. The late 19th century spawned a large number of magical organizations, including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society, and specifically magical variants on Freemasonry. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like William Butler Yeats, Algernon Blackwood, and Arthur Machen.* [56]
5.3.8 Modernity Sorcery is a legal concept in Papua New Guinea law, which differentiates between legal good magic, such as healing and fertility, and illegal black magic, held responsible for unexplained deaths.* [57]
5.4 In cultural contexts 5.4.1 Animism and folk religion
An 1873 Victorian illustration of a “Ju-ju house”on the Gold Coast showing fetishized skulls and bones.
Appearing in various tribal peoples from Aboriginal Australia and Māori New Zealand to the Amazon, African
5.4. IN CULTURAL CONTEXTS
27
savannah, and pagan Europe, some form of shamanic pear) or shrink men's penises to extort cash for cure, amid contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly univer- a wave of panic.* [60] Arrests were made in an effort to sal in the early development of human communities. avoid bloodshed seen in Ghana a decade ago, when 12 al* Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this leged penis snatchers were beaten to death by mobs. [61] day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, Native American medicine the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and trans- Main article: Shamanism § Americas formed into kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts changed into priests and a priestly caste. The Shamanism practiced by the indigenous peoples of the Americas was called “medicine”and was practiced by medicine men. In addition to healing, medicine served many other purposes, for example among the Cheyenne, one of Plains Indians that lived in the Great Plains of North America, medicine such as war paint, war shields, war shirts, and war bonnets, such as the famous war bonnet of Roman Nose, served to protect a warrior from wounding during battle.* [62]* [63]
5.4.2 Magic in Hinduism
Juju charm protecting dugout canoe on riverbank, Suriname.1954.
in
This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone. While the shaman's task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the priest's role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, Persians, Aztecs, and Mayans.
Traditional welcome performance, Mitral, Kheda district, Gujarat
The Atharva Veda is a veda that deals with mantras that can be used for both good and bad. The word mantrik in India literally means “magician”since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against all forms of magic. Tantra is likewise employed for ritual magic by the tantrik. Many ascetics after long periods of penance and meditation are alleged to attain a state where they may utilize supernatural powers. However, many say that they choose not to use them and instead focus on transcending beyond physical power into In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti the realm of spirituality. Many siddhars are said to have pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that performed miracles that would ordinarily be impossible during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down to perform. and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as “subhuman”and some say their flesh can confer magical powers.* [58]* [59] 5.4.3 Western magic On April, 2008, Kinshasa, the police arrested 14 suspected victims (of penis snatching) and sorcerers accused Further information: Western esotericism of using black magic or witchcraft to steal (make disap-
28
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
In general, the 20th century saw a sharp rise in public interest in various forms of magical practice, and the foundation of a number of traditions and organizations, ranging from the distinctly religious to the philosophical.
natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, Gaia, or a primary Goddess have derived at least in part from these magical groups, as found in Neopagan religions and various forms of conIn England, a further revival of interest in magic was her- temporary paganism. alded by the repeal of the last Witchcraft Act in 1951. In Allegedly for gematric reasons Aleister Crowley pre1954 Gerald Gardner published a book, Witchcraft To- ferred the spelling magick, defining it as “the science day, in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the witch-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Al- will.”By this, he included “mundane”acts of change though many of Gardner's claims have since come under as well as ritual magic. In Magick in Theory and Practice, intensive criticism from sources both within and without Chapter XIV, Crowley says: the Neopagan community, his works remain the most important founding stone of Wicca. What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass Gardner's religion, and many others, took off in the atmoby Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or sphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the counterculture banking from our definition. Let us take a very of the hippies also spawned another period of renewed simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man interest in magic, divination, and other occult pracblowing his nose. * tices. [64] The various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions that have emerged since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion, although this combination is not exclusive to them. Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some feminists launched an independent revival of goddess worship. This brought them into contact with the Gardnerian tradition of magical religion (or religious magic), and deeply influenced that tradition in return.* [56]
Western magical traditions draw heavily from Hermeticism which influenced the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, as well as Wicca and some other Neopagan religions and contemporary forms of paganism. Wicca is one of the more publicly known traditions within Neopaganism, a magical religion inspired by medieval witchcraft, with influences including the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and Crowley. Ruickbie (2004:193209) shows that Wiccans and witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the result upon the practitioner is generally perceived as a positive one. Israel Regardie argued that some magical practices rely upon widely accepted psychological principles and are intended to promote internal personal changes within the practitioner themselves.* [65] Visualization techniques, for instance, widely used by magicians, are also used in somewhat different contexts in fields such as clinical psychology and sports training.* [66] Hypotheses of adherents
The pentagram, an ancient geometrical symbol known from many cultures is often associated with magic. In Europe, the Pythagoreans first used the pentagram as a symbol of their movement.
The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aleister Crowley's Thelema and their subsequent offshoots, influenced by Éliphas Lévi, are most commonly associated with the resurgence of magical tradition in the English-speaking world of the 20th century. Other, similar resurgences took place at roughly the same time, centered in France and Germany. The western traditions acknowledging the
Further information: Occult science and Esoteric cosmology Adherents to magic believe that it works by one or more of the following basic principles: • A mystical force or energy that is natural, but cannot be detected by science at present, and which may not be detectable at all. Common terms referring to such magical energy include mana, numen, chi or kundalini. These are sometimes regarded as fluctuations of an underlying primary substance (akasha, aether) that is present in all things and interconnects
5.4. IN CULTURAL CONTEXTS
29
and binds all. Magical energy is thus also present in • The Oneness of All. Based on the fundamental all things, though it can be especially concentrated in concepts of monism and nonduality, this philosophy magical objects. Magical energies are typically seen holds that Magic is little more than the application of one's own inherent unity with the universe. Hingas being especially responsive to the use of symbols, so that a person, event or object can be affected by ing upon the personal realization, or“illumination” manipulating an object that symbolically represents , that the self is limitless, one may live in unison with them or it (as in sigil magic, for instance). This cornature, seeking and preserving balance in all things. responds to James Frazer's theory of sympathetic magic. Many more hypotheses exist. Practitioners will often mix • Intervention of spirits, similar to hypothetical nat- these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themural forces, but with their own consciousness and selves. In the contemporary current of chaos magic in intelligence. Believers in spirits will often describe particular, it is not unusual to believe that any concept of a whole cosmos of beings of many different kinds, magic works. sometimes organized into a hierarchy. Key principles of utilizing magic are often said to be con• Manipulation of the elements, by using the will of centration and visualization. Many of those who purportthe magician and symbols or objects which are rep- edly cast spells attain a mental state called the "trance resentative of the element(s). Western practitioners state”to enable the spell. The trance state is often detypically use the Classical elements of Earth, Air, scribed as an emptying of the mind, akin to that of meditation. Water, and Fire. • Concentration or meditation. A certain amount of focusing or restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to Aleister Crowley, produces mystical attainment or “an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object”(Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism). Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a god, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees “correspond”to said god. Aleister Crowley wrote that “the exaltation of the mind by means of magical practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward Yoga.”Crowley's magick thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration. Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as “black magick”.
In Judaism Further information: Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah In Judaism the Torah prohibits Jews from being superstitious or engaging in astrology (Lev. 19, 26); from muttering incantations (Deut. 18, 11); from consulting an ov (mediums), yidoni (seers), or attempting to contact the dead (Deut. 18, 11); from going into a trance to foresee events, and from performing acts of magic (Deut. 18, 10). See 613 Mitzvot. The general theme of these commandments is a prohibition against polytheism since the practice of sorcery connotes the alleged invocation of spirits or other unseen forces that are not God. While pagan magic tries to circumvent the power of godheads through manipulation of the meta-divine, the God in Judaism is all-powerful and transcendent, he cannot be manipulated in the pagan sense by magic. A different type of magic can be achieved using knowledge of the kabbalah. Because the kabbalah provides knowledge of the spiritual and conceptual underpinnings of physical existence, one who possesses kabbalistic knowledge is able to produce physical effects by directly addressing the spiritual basis of the affected physical object. This is called 'practical kabbalah' and is a type of White Magic.
The practice of practical kabbalah was banned by the Vilna Gaon due to the decreasing spiritual sensitivity of • The magical power of the subconscious mind. later generations. To believers who think that they need to convince their subconscious mind to make the changes that they desire, all spirits and energies are projections In Christianity and symbols that make sense to the subconscious. A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is Further information: Renaissance magic, Grimoire, capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work Christian views on magic, and Theurgy magic.
30 Magia was viewed with suspicion by Christianity from the time of the Church fathers. However, it was never completely settled whether there may be permissible practices, e.g. involving relics or holy water as opposed to “blasphemous”necromancy (necromantia) involving the invocation of demons (goetia). The distinction became particularly pointed and controversial during the Early Modern witch-hunts, with some authors such as Johannes Hartlieb denouncing all magical practice as blasphemous, while others portrayed natural magic as not sinful.
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL) Some argue that the recent popularity of the prosperity gospel constitutes a return to magical thinking within Christianity. Note also that Gnostic Christianity has a strong mystical current, but shies away from practical magic and focuses more on theurgy. In Islam
The second chapter of the Qur’an introduces an explanation for the introduction of magic into“Abrahamic reThe position taken by Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, one of ligions”in the Jewish era, hinting to the fork in the road, the foremost Renaissance magicians, is ambiguous. The then the consequences that followed: character of Faustus, likely based on a historical 16thcentury magician or charlatan, became the prototypical And when they got a messenger that is popular tale of a learned magician who succumbs to a supporting to what they have, some of them pact with the devil. abandoned the book they had as if they did not know; And they followed what the The current Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses evilly-devolved/ablazed recite on the status of divination and magic under the heading of the First Com* Solomon; but Solomon was granted this stamandment. [67] tus for his worship, not like the evilly-devolved It is careful to allow for the possibility of divinely inspired practices of ungratefulness as they teach peoprophecy, but it rejects “all forms of divination": ple devilry and what was sourced to the two angels in the summit of Babel, Harut, and Marut; (2116) All forms of divination are to be reand as they were teaching, they wouldn't exjected: recourse to Satan or demons, conjurcept after explaining that they are a tryout, so ing up the dead or other practices falsely supdon't be ungrateful; thus, they are taught by posed to “unveil”the future. Consulting horothem the process of how to separate the indiscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation vidual from his associative-half; further, they of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoycan never hurt anyone with it but according to ance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a deAllaah's determent; and they learn what hurts sire for power over time, history, and, in the last but does not benefit them, and they know that analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish anyone who buys this has no remaining poto conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the tency; and woe! to how they sold themselves; honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to but if they knew. (Meanings see:Q 2:102) God alone. Although it presents a generally forewarning attitude toThe section on “practices of magic or sorcery”is less wards magic and its evolution, Muhammad was accused because of his efabsolute, specifying“attempts to tame occult powers”in by his detractors of being a magician, * fect on those who heard him. [68] The Qur'an distinorder to “have supernatural power over others”. Such guishes between apparent sorcery and devilry. Literally are denounced as “gravely contrary to the virtue of resorcery is the knowledge of angels: it is what is known as ligion", notably avoiding a statement on whether such at'mother nature', and the knowledge sourced to Harut and tempts can have any actual effect (that is, attempts to employ occult practices are identified as violating the First Marut. The second form, usually known as 'witchcraft', Commandment because they in themselves betray a lack is the magic that wide spreads amongst devils and devious of faith, and not because they may or may not result in characters. “Al-shayt-taan”, coined, can be explained through two explanatory methods; the first exampled by the desired effect). Satan and how he became “Satan”upon his encounter The Catechism expresses skepticism towards widespread with Adam, and all of those who follow his devolving practices of folk Catholicism without outlawing them ex- path. The second approach, is the literal approach, episplicitly: temically referring to the two words that make up the basic word “shay-taan”which are: 'shayt' the energy pro(2117) [...] Wearing charms is also reprehensivoking burn, and “taan”which is like the suffix of the ble. Spiritism often implies divination or magiword “sul-taan”, implying compelling power. Many of cal practices; the Church for her part warns the the practices that have been reported as “shay-taan-nic” faithful against it. Recourse to so-called tradi, are mere protocols the evilly-devolved enforce amongst tional cures does not justify either the invocation their circles whilst claiming their Solomon's protocols. of evil powers or the exploitation of another's Further, they would do this by removing keywords from credulity. scripture to redefine meanings.
5.5. SEE ALSO The Arabic word translated in this passage as “magic” is word “sihr”. The meaning of “sihr” suggests that “it is the turning . . . of a thing from its true nature . . . or form . . . to something else which is unreal or a mere appearance "* [69] Etymologically magic or '"sihr"' roots and connotes anything that is meta-physically supported. Magic, as a common terminology, however, is used to describe appeal, and also to describe delusion; one can mean an ethereal form of attraction or beauty, or what is experienced through lies or provoked meta-causalities or contagions. As Muslim evolved devolving into many different sects, their acknowledgment and definition of magic varied; however I would like to believe that Satanic alliances will never present themselves as interpretations finding a platform in Muslim belief and societies. Some went on to explain that it was like the actor maintaining obedience depending upon the benevolence or malevolence of his practice. Malevolent magicians operated by enslaving the spirits through offerings and deeds displeasing to Allah. Apropos benevolent magicians, in contrast, obeyed and appeased Allah so that Allah exercised His will upon the spirits.* [70] Al-Buni claims the process by which this practice occurs: First: the practitioner must be of utterly clean soul and garb. Second, when the proper angel is contacted, this angel will first get permission from God to go to the aid of the person who summoned him. Third: the practitioner “must not apply . . .[his power] except to that purpose [i.e. to achieve goals] which would please God.”* [71] However, not all Islamic groups accept this explanation of benevolent magic, considering it shamanic. On the other hand, some would go to extent of defining any blessing as “sorcery”, and any abnormal“contagion”as witchcraft. Some Salafis view invoking many of these practices as shirk, denying that this is fully worshipping Allah, namely by turning to other meta-physical powers with reverence. Consequently, the Salafis renounce appellations to intermediaries such as saints, angels, and djinn, and renounce magic, fortune-telling, and divination.* [72] This particular brand of magic has also been condemned as forbidden by a fatwa issued by Al-Azhar University.* [73] Further, Egyptian folklorist Hasan El-Shamy, warns that scholars have often been uncritical in their application of the term sihr to both malevolent and benevolent forms of magic. He argues that in Egypt, sihr only applies to sorcery. However, a person who practices benevolent magic “is not called saahir or sahhaar (sorcerer, witch), but is normally referred to as shaikh (or shaikha for a female), a title which is normally used to refer to community notable or elder, or religious priest, maybe equal to the English title: 'Reverend'"* [74] It is fair to say that scientifically observing a person would tell you if he is benevolently blessed or unusually aided/deluded/unhitched with other forms of magic. Islam in practice seizes to categorize except what is apparently observed; maintaining a disposition that religiosity is a matter of heart, as rituals and
31 practices are properly observed, civility is upon government.
5.4.4 Magical traditions Examples of magical traditions include:
5.5 See also 5.6 References [1] Hutton, Ronald (1991). Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles. pp. 289–291, 335. ISBN 0-631-18946-7. [2] Tambiah, S. J. Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. [3] W.J. Hanegraaff, “Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism”, p718. [4] Mauss, Marcel (1972) A General Theory of Magic (R. Brain, Trans.). New York: Norton Library. (Original work published 1903). [5] Bengt Ankarloo & Stuart Clark, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies”, University of Philadelphia Press, 2001, p xiii [6] magic in ancient India (page 51). [7] Pócs, Éva (1999). Between the Living and the Dead: A perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age. Budapest: Central European University Press. pp. 9–12. ISBN 963-9116-19-X. [8] Cicero, Chic & Sandra Tabatha () The Essential Golden Dawn: An Introduction to High Magic. pp. 87–9. Regardie, Israel (2001) The Tree of Life: An Illustrated Study of Magic, St. Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn, p. 17. Crowley, Aleister Magic Without Tears Ch. 83. [9] Malinowski, B. K. (1935) Coral Gardens and their Magic, Dover, New York [10] Tambiah, S. J. (June 1968). The Magical Power of Words. New Series, Vol. 3, No. 2. University of Cambridge. Retrieved 21 November 2010. [11] Austin, J. L. How to Do Things With Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1962). [12] Boyer, Pascal; Liénard, Pierre (2008). “Ritual behavior in obsessive and normal individuals”. Association for Psychological Science. [13] Lévi-Strauss, C. The Effectiveness of Symbols. Garden City, New York, 192 [14] Brown, Michael. Tsewa's Gift. Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 118
32
[15] Ogden, C. K. & Richards, I. A. (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. Discussed in Tambiah, S. J. (1968).“The Magical Power of Words”. Man. Cambridge, UK. 3. 188 [16] Mauss, Marcel; Brain, Robert (1975). A General Theory of Magic. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-00779-0. [17] Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1976) Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic among the Azande. Abridged Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Original Work Published 1937) [18] Glucklich, A. (1997). The End of Magic. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [19] Ginzburg, C. (1992) The Night Battles (J. & A. Tedeschi, Trans.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press [20] Connor, L., Asch, T., & Asch, P. (1983) “A Balinese trance seance; Jero on Jero, a Balinese trance seance observed [videorecording].”Watertown, Massachusetts : Documentary Educational Resources [21] Filotas, Bernadette (2005). Pagan Survivals, Superstitions, Popular Cultures. Toronto: Pontifical Inst. of Medieval Studies. p. 222. ISBN 9780888441515. Retrieved 15 May 2016.
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
[31] Thomas (1910–11), [32] SCCA. “Spell Casters and Reviews on Spells”. Spellcasters.ca. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [33] Malinowski, Bronisław. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. USA: Anchor Books, 1954. [34]“African Traditional Thought and Western Science.”Rationality. Ed. Bryan R. Wilson. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984 [35] “YouTube”. YouTube. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [36] “Alan Moore Quote”. Retrieved 28 May 2014. [37] Asante, M.K.; Mazama, Ama (2009). “Heka”. Encyclopedia of African Religion II. pp. 342–343. ISBN 978-1-4129-3636-1. LCCN 2008027578. [38] Pinch, Dr Geraldine (15 October 2010).“Ancient Egyptian Magic”. BBC. Retrieved 21 November 2010. [39] Davies (2009:8)
[22] Crawford, J. R. (1967) Witchcraft and Sorcery in Rhodesia pp. 5, 8, 73; Appendix II.
[40] Bengt Ankarloo; Stuart Clark (1999). Witchcraft and magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 231–. ISBN 978-0-8122-17056. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
[23] Pócs (1999) pp. 10–11.
[41] Kindt
[24] Many English and Scottish 'witches' were cunning folk whose fairy familiars were interpreted as demons (Wilby, Emma 2005 Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits p. 123; Macfarlane, A. 1970 Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England p. 127; Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. 2001 Witchcraft in Europe and the New World, 1400–1800 p. 27); many French devins-guerisseurs were accused of witchcraft (E. William Monter 1976 Witchcraft in France and Switzerland ch. 7); over half the accused witches in Hungary seem to have been healers (Pócs 1999 p. 12); persisting pagan religion and magic was one of the prime targets of witchcraft accusations in Scandinavia from the 1600's (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 pp. 78–80); in Russia most trials were aimed at eradicating popular magical practices among a barely Christianised population (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 83–4); and until the 18th century in Transylvania practitioners of traditional healing and fertility magic were the majority of accused witches (Maxwell-Stuart 2001 p. 85).
[42] Copenhaver 6
[25] Macfarlane 1970 p. 130; also Appendix 2. [26] Winthrop, Robert H. Dictionary of concepts in cultural anthropology. New York: Greenwood P, 1991. [27] Dictionary of anthropology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997. [28] Feltham, Brian (2011). “Magic and Practical Agency” , in Rational Magic. Oxford: Fisher Imprints. ISBN 184888-061-8. [29] Hendrix, Scott E. (2011). Preface to Rational Magic: Cultural and Historical Studies in Magic. Oxford: Fisher Imprints. ISBN 1-84888-061-8. [30] Freud (1950)
[43] Price 115 [44] Cole 313 [45] Bets, Hans, ed. (1986). The Greek magical papyri in translation, including the Demotic spells. Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 0226044440. [46] Hutton (2003), [47] Jan Willem Drijvers; Edward David Hunt (1999). The late Roman world and its historian: interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus. Psychology Press. pp. 208–. ISBN 978-0415-20271-8. Retrieved 22 August 2010. [48] Flint, Valerie I.J. (1990). The rise of magic in early medieval Europe (1st ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 4,12,406. ISBN 0-691-03165-7. [49] Kieckhefer, Richard (June 1, 1994). “The Specific Rationality of Medieval Magic”. The American Historical Review 99 (3): 813. doi:10.2307/2167771. [50] Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of western science : the European scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context, prehistory to A.D. 1450 (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 20. ISBN 0226482057. [51] Sweet, Victoria (1999). “Hildegard of Bingen and the Greening of Medieval Medicine”. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 73 (3): 381–403. doi:10.1353/bhm.1999.0140. PMID 10500336.
5.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[52] Kieckhefer, Richard (June 1, 1994). “The Specific Rationality of Medieval Magic”. The American Historical Review 99 (3): 813–818. doi:10.2307/2167771. [53] Kiekhefer (1998), [54] Sibly M.D., Ebenezer (1822). A New and Complete Illustration of the Celestial Science of Astrology; or, The Art of Foretelling Future Events and Contingencies. vol. 2 part 4 (12 ed.). [55] Peterson, Joseph H. (April 2001).“A New and Complete Illustration of the Occult Sciences —Book 4”. Esoteric Archives. Retrieved 12 April 2011. [56] Hutton (2001), [57] “Cannibal cult members arrested in PNG”. New Zealand Herald. 2012-07-05. ISSN 1170-0777. Retrieved 201511-28. [58] “Africa | DR Congo pygmies 'exterminated'". BBC News. 2004-07-06. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [59] http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/ article402970.ece(subscriptionrequired) [60] Bavier, Joe (2008-04-23). “Penis theft panic hits city..” . Reuters. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [61] “CNN - 7 killed in Ghana over 'penis-snatching' episodes - Jan. 18, 1997”. Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2015-0616. [62] Hyde, George E. (1968). Lottinville, Savoie, ed. Life of George Bent: Written From His Letters. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 207, 213, 214, 221, 239, 240, 303. [63] Monnett, John H. (1992). The Battle of Beecher Island and the Indian War of 1867–1869. University Press of Colorado. pp. 46–48. [64] Adler (1987), [65] Isreal Regardie, The Middle Pillar [66]“The psychology of chess”. JAMA 292: 1900. 2004. doi:10.1001/jama.292.15.1900. [67] “Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText”. Vatican.va. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [68] “Magic - Oxford Islamic Studies Online”. Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2015-06-16. [69] Gibb, p 545. [70] al-Nadim, Muhammad ibn Ishaq. The Fihrist of alNadim. Edited and translated by Bayard Dodge. New York: Columbia, 1970. pp. 725-726. [71] El-Shamy. Folk Beliefs and Practices in Egypt. p. 34. [72] Doumato, Eleanor Abdella. 2000 Getting God's Ear: Women, Islam, and Healing in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf. New York: Columbia. p. 34. [73] El-Shamy. Personal communication [74] edited from El-Shamy. Folk Beliefs and Practices in Egypt. p. 33.
33
5.7 Bibliography • Eliza Marian Butler Ritual Magic, University Park, The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1949; Reprint 1998 • Adler, Margot (1987). Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today. ISBN 0-14-019536-X • Clifton, Dan Salahuddin (1998). Myth Of The Western Magical Tradition. C&GCHE. ISBN 0-39300143-1. • Frazer, J. G. (1911). The Magic Art (2 vols.) (The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., Part II). London. • Freud, Sigmund (1950). Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics. trans. Strachey. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-00143-1. • de Givry, Grillot (1954). Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy, trans. J. Courtney Locke. Frederick Pub. • Hutton, Ronald (2001). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-285449-6. • Hutton, Ronald (2006). Witches, Druids, and King Arthur. Hambledon. ISBN 1-85285-555-X • Kampf, Erich (1894). The Plains of Magic. Konte Publishing. • Kiekhefer, Richard (1998). Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 0-271-017511. • Ruickbie, Leo (2004). Witchcraft Out of the Shadows. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7. • Stark, Ryan. Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009. • Thomas, N. W. (1910–11). “Magic”. Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. 26, p. 337. • Thorndike, Lynn (1923–1958). A History of Magic and Experimental Science (8 volumes). New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-231-08794-2. • Waite, Arthur E. (1913) The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts, London. J.B. Haze • Roth, Remo F.: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus]. Pari Publishing, 2011, ISBN 978-88-95604-12-1.
34 • S. R. F. Price (28 June 1999). Religions of the Ancient Greeks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38867-2. • Julia Kindt. (2012). Rethinking Greek Religion. [Online]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available from: Cambridge Books Online doi:10.1017/CBO9780511978500 [Accessed 19 April 2016]. • Brian P. Copenhaver. (2015). Magic in Western Culture. [Online]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available from: Cambridge Books Online doi:10.1017/CBO9781107707450 [Accessed 19 April 2016]. • Susan Guettel Cole. (2007). Greek religion. In: John R. Hinnells (ed.) A Handbook of Ancient Religions. pp. 266–317. [Online]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Available from: Cambridge Books Online doi:10.1017/CBO9780511488429.007 [Accessed 20 April 2016].
5.8 External links Quotations related to Magic at Wikiquote • Catholic Encyclopedia “Occult Art, Occultism” • Catholic Encyclopedia “Witchcraft”
CHAPTER 5. MAGIC (PARANORMAL)
Chapter 6
Western esotericism “Arcane”and “Esoteric”redirect here. For other uses, see Arcane (disambiguation) and Esoteric (disambiguation). Western esotericism, also called esotericism and es-
schools of thought themselves, treating“esotericism”as a perennialist hidden, inner tradition. A second perspective argues that it is a category that encompasses world views which seek to embrace an 'enchanted' world view in the face of increasing de-enchantment. A third view, propounded by Wouter Hanegraaff, views Western esotericism as a category encompassing all of Western culture's “rejected knowledge”that is accepted by neither the scientific establishment nor orthodox religious authorities.
The earliest traditions to later be labelled as forms of Western esotericism emerged in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, where Hermetism, Gnosticism, and Neoplatonism developed as schools of thought distinct from mainstream Christianity. In Renaissance Europe, interest in many of these older ideas increased, with various intellectuals seeking to combine "pagan" philosophies with the Kabbalah and Christian philosophy, resulting in the emergence of esoteric movements like Christian theosophy. The 17th century saw the development of initiatory societies professing esoteric knowledge such as Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry, while the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century led to the development of new forms of esoteric thought. The 19th century saw the emergence of new trends of esoteric thought that have come to be known as occultism. Prominent groups in this century included the Theosophical Society and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which influenced the development of Thelema. Modern Paganism also developed The tree of life as represented in the Kabbalah, containing the within occultism, and includes religious movements such Sephiroth. as Wicca. Esoteric ideas permeated the counterculture of the 1960s and later cultural tendencies, from which oterism, is a scholarly term for a wide range of loosely emerged the New Age movement in the 1970s. related unconventional ideas and movements which have developed within Western society. They are largely dis- Although the idea that these varying movements could be tinct from both orthodox Judeo-Christian religion and categorised together under the rubric of “Western esoEnlightenment rationalism. A trans-disciplinary field, es- tericism”developed in the late 18th century, these esootericism has pervaded various forms of Western philos- teric currents were largely ignored as a subject of acaophy, religion, pseudoscience, art, literature, and music, demic enquiry. The academic study of Western esocontinuing to affect intellectual ideas and popular culture. tericism only emerged in the latter 20th century, pioneered by scholars like Frances Yates and Faivre. There The precise definition of Western esotericism has been are now several peer-reviewed journals, university chairs, debated by various academics, with a number of dif- and academic societies devoted to this field. Esoteric ferent options proposed. One scholarly model adopts ideas have meanwhile also exerted an influence in popular its definition of “esotericism”from certain esotericist 35
36 culture, appearing in art, literature, film, and music.
6.1 Etymology The adjective“esoteric”first appeared in the second century CE as the Ancient Greek term esôterikós, with the earliest known example of the word appearing in a satire authored by Lucian of Samosata.* [1] The noun “esotericism”, in its French form of “l'ésotérisme”, was first used in 1828,* [2] by Jacques Matter in his book, Histoire du gnosticisme.* [3] At this time it was being used in the wake of the Age of Enlightenment and its critique of institutionalised religion, during which alternative religious groups began to disassociate themselves from the dominant Christianity in Western Europe.* [4] During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the term “esotericism”came to commonly be seen as something that was distinct from Christianity, and which had formed a subculture that was at odds with the Christian mainstream from at least the Renaissance.* [4] The term was popularized by the French occultist and ceremonial magician Eliphas Lévi in the 1850s, and introduced into the English language by the Theosophist A. P. Sinnet in 1883.* [3] Lévi also introduced the term l'occultisme, a notion that he developed against the background of contemporary socialist and Catholic discourses.* [5] “Esotericism”and “occultism”were often employed as synonyms until being distinguished by later scholars.* [6]
6.2 Definition
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM is no comparable category of “Eastern”or “Oriental” esotericism.* [12] Hanegraaff has characterised these as “recognisable world views and approaches to knowledge that have played an important although always controversial role in the history of Western culture.”* [13] Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan asserted that Western esotericism constituted “a third pillar of Western culture”alongside “doctrinal faith and rationality”, being deemed heretical by the former and irrational by the latter.* [14] Scholars nevertheless recognise that various non-Western traditions have exerted “a profound influence”over Western esotericism, citing the prominent example of the Theosophical Society's incorporation of Hindu and Buddhist concepts into its doctrines.* [15] Given these influences and the imprecise nature of the term “Western”, the scholar of esotericism Kennet Granholm has argued that academics should cease referring to "Western esotericism”altogether, instead simply favouring “esotericism”as a descriptor of this phenomenon.* [16] There is broad agreement among scholars as to which currents of thought can be placed within a category of “esotericism”, ranging from ancient Gnosticism and Hermetism through to Rosicrucianism and the Kabbalah and on to more recent phenomenon such as the New Age movement.* [17] Nevertheless, “esotericism”itself remains a controversial term, with scholars specialising in the subject disagreeing as to how it can best be defined.* [17]
6.2.1 Esotericism as secret, inner tradition A definition adopted by some scholars has used “Western esotericism”in reference to“inner traditions”which are concerned with a “universal spiritual dimension of reality, as opposed to the merely external ('exoteric') religious institutions and dogmatic systems of established religions.”* [18] This usage of the term “esotericism” is closest to the original meaning of the word as it was used in late antiquity, where it was applied to secret spiritual teachings which were reserved for a specific elite and hidden from the masses.* [19] Accordingly, this use of the term views“Western esotericism”as just one variant of a worldwide“esotericism”which can be found at the heart of all world religions and cultures, reflecting a hidden esoteric reality.* [20] Within the academic field of religious studies, those who study different religions in search of an inner, universal dimension to them all are termed“religionists”.* [20]
The concept of Western esotericism is a modern scholarly construct rather than a pre-existing, self-defined tradition of thought.* [7] Scholars established this category in the late 18th century after identifying“structural similarities”between “the ideas and world views of a wide variety of thinkers and movements”which prior to this had not been placed in the same analytical grouping.* [8] According to the scholar of esotericism Wouter J. Hanegraaff, the term provided a“useful generic label”for“a large and complicated group of historical phenomena that had long been perceived as sharing an air de famille.* [6] The historian of esotericism Antoine Faivre noted that “never a precise term, [esotericism] has begun to overflow its boundaries on all sides”,* [9] with both Faivre and Karen-Claire Voss stating that Western esotericism This academic definition of esotericism was heavily inconsists of“a vast spectrum of authors, trends, works of fluenced by the ideas of several esoteric movements philosophy, religion, art, literature, and music”.* [10] themselves, most notably Traditionalism and Martinist Various academics have emphasised the idea that eso- Freemasonry.* [21] It was popular among French acatericism is a phenomenon unique to the Western world; demics during the 1980s, exerting a strong influence over as Faivre stated, an “empirical perspective”would hold the academics Mircea Eliade, Henry Corbin, and the that “esotericism is a Western notion”.* [11] As schol- early work of Faivre.* [21] Such religionist ideas also exars such as Faivre and Hanegraaff have pointed out, there erted an influence on more recent scholars like Nicholas
6.2. DEFINITION
37
6.2.2 Esotericism as an enchanted world view
A colored version of the 1888 Flammarion engraving
Goodrick-Clarke and Arthur Versluis.* [20] Versluis for instance defined “Western esotericism”as “inner or hidden spiritual knowledge transmitted through Western European historical currents that in turn feed into North American and other non-European settings”.* [22] He added that these Western esoteric currents all shared a core characteristic, “a claim to gnosis, or direct spiritual insight into cosmology or spiritual insight”,* [22] and accordingly he suggested that these currents could be referred to as“Western gnostic”just as much as“Western esoteric”.* [23] There are various problems with this model for understanding Western esotericism.* [20] The most significant is that is rests upon the conviction that there really is a “universal, hidden, esoteric dimension of reality”that objectively exists.* [20] The existence of this universal inner tradition has not been discovered through scientific or scholarly enquiry; this had led some to claim that it The Magician, a tarot card displaying the Hermetic concept of does not exist, although Hanegraaff thought it better to “as above, so below.”Faivre connected this concept to 'correadopt a view based in methodological agnosticism by stat- spondences', his first defining characteristic of esotericism ing that “we simply do not know - and cannot know” if it exists or not. He noted that, even if such a true Another understanding of Western esotericism has been and absolute nature of reality really existed, it would to view it as a world view that embraces 'enchantment' only be accessible through 'esoteric' spiritual practices, in contrast to world views influenced by post-Cartesian, and could not be discovered or measured by the 'exo- post-Newtonian, and positivist science which have sought teric' tools of scientific and scholarly enquiry.* [24] Hane- to 'dis-enchant' the world.* [27] Esotericism is therefore graaff also highlighted that an attitude which seeks to un- understood as comprising those world views which escover an inner hidden core of all esoteric currents masks chew a belief in instrumental causality and instead adopt the fact that such groups often contain significant differ- a belief that all parts of the universe are interrelated withences from one another, being rooted in their own histor- out a need for causal chains.* [27] It therefore stands as a ical and social contexts, and expressing ideas and agen- radical alternative to the disenchanted world views which das which are mutually exclusive.* [25] A third issue was have dominated Western culture since the scientific revthat many of those currents widely recognised as esoteric olution,* [27] and must therefore always be at odds with never concealed their teachings, and in the twentieth cen- secular culture.* [28] An early exponent of this definition tury came to permeate popular culture, thus problema- was the historian of Renaissance thought Frances Yates tizing the claim that esotericism could be defined by its in her discussions of a“Hermetic Tradition”, which she hidden and secretive nature.* [26] Moreover, Hanegraaff saw as an 'enchanted' alternative to established religion noted that when scholars adopt this definition, it shows and rationalistic science.* [29] However, the primary exthat they subscribe to the religious doctrines which are ponent of this view was Faivre, who published a series espoused by the very groups that they are studying.* [6] of criteria for how to define “Western esotericism”in
38 1992.* [30] Faivre claimed that esotericism was “identifiable by the presence of six fundamental characteristics or components”, four of which were “intrinsic”and thus vital to defining something as being esoteric, while the other two were“secondary”and thus not necessarily present in every form of esotericism.* [31] He listed these characteristics as follows: 1.“Correspondences": This is the idea that there are both real and symbolic correspondences existing between all things within the universe.* [32] As examples for this, Faivre pointed to the esoteric concept of the macrocosm and microcosm, often presented as the dictum of“as above, so below”, as well as the astrological idea that the actions of the planets have a direct corresponding influence on the behaviour of human beings.* [33]
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM outside the study of Western esotericism”.* [41] Scholar of esotericism Kocku Von Stuckrad commented that the advantage of Faivre's system is that it allows varying esoteric traditions to be compared “with one another in a systematic fashion”.* [42] However, criticisms have also been expressed of Faivre's theory, pointing out its various weaknesses.* [43] Hanegraaff claimed that Faivre's approach entailed “reasoning by prototype”that relied upon already having a “best example”of what Western esotericism should look like, and then comparing other phenomenon to that one.* [44] Von Stuckrad noted that Faivre's taxonomy was based on his own areas of specialism – Renaissance Hermeticism, Christian Kabbalah, and Protestant Theosophy – and thus it is not based on a wider understanding of esotericism as it has existed throughout history, from the ancient world to the contemporary.* [45] Accordingly, Von Stuckrad suggested that it was a good typology for understanding“Christian esotericism in the early modern period”but lacked utility beyond that.* [46]
2.“Living Nature": Faivre argued that all esotericists envision the natural universe as being imbued with its own life force, and that as such they understand Somewhat crudely, esotericism can be described as a it as being “complex, plural, hierarchical”.* [34] Western form of spirituality that stresses the importance of the individual effort to gain spiritual knowledge, or 3.“Imagination and Mediations": Faivre believed that gnosis, whereby man is confronted with the divine aspect all esotericists place great emphasis on both the hu- of existence. man imagination, and mediations –“such as rituals, —Historian of religion Henrik Bogdan, 2007.* [47] symbolic images, mandalas, intermediary spirits”– as tools that provide access to worlds and levels of As an alternative to Faivre's framework, Von Stuckrad reality existing between the material world and the developed his own variant, although argued that this did not represent a “definition”but rather a “a framework divine.* [35] of analysis”for scholarly usage.* [48] He stated that“on 4.“Experience of Transmutation": Faivre's fourth in- the most general level of analysis”, esotericism repretrinsic characteristic of esotericism was the empha- sented“the claim of higher knowledge”, a claim to possis that esotericists place on fundamentally trans- sessing “wisdom that is superior to other interpretations forming themselves through their practice, for in- of cosmos and history”and which serves as a “masstance through the spiritual transformation that it al- ter key for answering all questions of humankind”.* [49] leged to accompany the attainment of gnosis.* [36] Accordingly, he believed that esoteric groups placed a great emphasis on secrecy, not because they were in5.“Practice of Concordance": The first of Faivre's secherently rooted in elite groups but because the idea of ondary characteristics of esotericism was the belief concealed secrets that can be revealed was central to – held by many esotericists, such as those in the their discourse.* [50] Examining the means of accessing Traditionalist School – that there is a fundamental higher knowledge, he highlighted two themes that he beunifying principle or root from which all world relieved could be found within esotericism, that of medialigions and spiritual practices emerge. The comtion through contact with non-human entities, and indimon esoteric principle is that by attaining this unividual experience.* [51] Accordingly, for Von Stuckrad, fying principle, the world's different beliefs can be esotericism could be best understood as “a structural elbrought together in unity.* [37] ement of Western culture”rather than as a selection of * 6.“Transmission": Faivre's second secondary charac- different schools of thought. [4] teristic was the emphasis on the transmission of esoteric teachings and secrets from a master to their discipline, through a process of initiation.* [38] 6.2.3 Esotericism as “rejected knowledge” Faivre's form of categorisation has been championed by scholars like Goodrick-Clarke,* [39] and by 2007 Bogdan could note that Faivre's had become “the standard definition”of Western esotericism in use among scholars.* [40] In 2013, the scholar Kennet Granholm stated that Faivre's definition was “the dominating paradigm for a long while and still exerts influence among scholars
An additional definition was proposed by Hanegraaff, and holds that“Western esotericism”is a category representing “the academy's dustbin of rejected knowledge.” * [13] In this respect, it contains all of the theories and world views that have been rejected by the mainstream intellectual community because they do not accord with “normative conceptions of religion, rationality and sci-
6.3. HISTORY
39
ence”.* [13] His approach is rooted within the field of In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, a number of texts apthe history of ideas, and stresses the role of change and peared which were attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, intransformation over time.* [52] cluding the Corpus Hermeticum, Asclepius, and the The * Goodrick-Clarke was critical of this approach, believing Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth. [58] Although it is that it relegated Western esotericism to the position of still debated as to whether Hermetism was a purely lit“a casualty of positivist and materialist perspectives in erary phenomenon, or whether there were communities the nineteenth-century”and thus reinforces the idea that of practitioners who acted on these ideas, it has been esWestern esoteric traditions were of little historical impor- tablished that these texts discuss the true nature of God, emphasising that humans must transcend rational thought tance.* [53] Bogdan similarly expressed concern regarding Hanegraaff's definition, believing that it made the cat- and worldly desires in order to find salvation and be reborn into a spiritual body of immaterial light, thereby egory of Western esotericism “all inclusive”and thus achieving spiritual unity with divinity.* [58] * analytically useless. [54]
6.3 History 6.3.1
Late Antiquity
Another tradition of esoteric thought in Late Antiquity was Gnosticism, which had a complex relationship with Christianity. Various Gnostic sects existed, and they broadly believed that the divine light had been imprisoned within the material world by a malevolent entity known as the Demiurge, who was served by demonic helpers, the Archons. It was the Gnostic belief that humans, who were imbued with the divine light, should seek to attain gnosis and thus escape from the world of matter and rejoin the divine source.* [59] A third form of esotericism in Late Antiquity was Neoplatonism, a school of thought influenced by the ideas of the philosopher Plato. Advocated by such figures as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus, Neoplatonism held that the human soul had fallen from its divine origins into the material world, but that it could progress, through a number of hierarchical spheres of being, to return to its divine origins once more.* [60] The later Neoplatonists performed theurgy, a ritual practice attested in such sources as the Chaldean Oracles. Scholars are still unsure of precisely what theurgy involved, although it is known that it involved a practice designed to make gods appear, who could then raise the theurgist's mind to the reality of the divine.* [61]
A later illustration of Hermes Trismegistus
The origins of Western esotericism are in the Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean, then part of the Roman Empire, during Late Antiquity, a period encompassing the first centuries of the Common Era.* [55] This was a milieu in which there was a mix of religious and intellectual traditions from Greece, Egypt, the Levant, Babylon, and Persia, and in which globalisation, urbanisation, and multiculturalism were bringing about socio-cultural change.* [56]
6.3.2 Middle Ages
After the fall of Rome, alchemy and philosophy and other aspects of the tradition were largely preserved in the Arab and Near Eastern world and introduced into Western Europe by Jews and by the cultural contact between Christians and Muslims in Sicily and south Italy. The 12th century saw the development of the Kabbalah in south Italy and medieval Spain. The medieval period also saw the publication of grimoires which offered often elaborate formulas for theurgy and thaumaturgy. Many of One component of this was Hermetism, an Egyptian Hel- the grimoires seem to have kabbalistic influence. Figures lenistic school of thought that takes its name from the leg- in alchemy from this period seem to also have authored endary Egyptian wise man, Hermes Trismegistus.* [57] or used grimoires.
40
6.3.3
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM
Renaissance and Early Modern period
During the Renaissance, a number of European thinkers began to synthesize “pagan”philosophies which were then being made available through Arabic translations with Christian thought and the Jewish kabbalah.* [62] The earliest of these individuals was the Byzantine philosopher Plethon (1355/60–1452?), who argued that the Chaldean Oracles represented an example of a superior religion of ancient humanity which had been passed down by the Platonists.* [63] Plethon's ideas interested the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de Medici, who employed Florentine thinker Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) to translate Plato's works into Latin. Ficino went on to translate and publish the works of various Platonic figures, arguing that their philosophies were compatible with Christianity, and allowing for the emergence of a wider movement in Renaissance Platonism, or Platonic Orientalism.* [64] Ficino also translated part of the Corpus Hermeticum, although the rest would be translated by his contemporary, Lodovico Lazzarelli (1447–1500).* [65] Another core figure in this intellectual milieu was Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494), who achieved notability in 1486 by inviting scholars from across Europe to come and debate the 900 theses that he had written with him. Mirandola argued that all of these philosophies reflected a grand universal wisdom, however Pope Innocent VIII condemned these actions, criticising him for attempting to mix pagan and Jewish ideas with Christianity.* [66] Pico's increased interest in Jewish kabbalah led to his development of a distinct form of Christian Kabbalah. His work was built on by the German Johannes Reuchlin (1455–1522) who authored a prominent text on the subject, De Arte Cabbalistica.* [67] Christian Kabbalah was expanded in the work of the German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535/36), who used it as a framework through which to explore the philosophical and scientific traditions of Antiquity in his work De occulta philosophia libri tres.* [68] The work of Agrippa and other esoteric philosophers had been based in a pre-Copernican worldview, but following the arguments of Copernicus, a more accurate understanding of the cosmos was established. Copernicus' theories were adopted into esoteric strains of thought by Giordano Bruno (1548–1600), whose ideas would be deemed heresy by the Roman Catholic Church, eventually resulting in his public execution.* [69] A distinct strain of esoteric thought developed in Germany, where it came to be known as Naturphilosophie; although influenced by traditions from Late Antiquity and Medieval Kabbalah, it only acknowledged two main sources of authority: Biblical scripture and the natural world.* [70] The primary exponent of this approach was Paracelsus (1493/94–1541), who took inspiration from alchemy and folk magic to argue against the mainstream medical establishment, which based its approach on the ideas of Galen. Instead, Paracelsus urged doctors to learn
The Masonic Square and Compasses.
medicine through an observation of the natural world, although in later work he also began to focus on overtly religious questions. His work would gain significant support in both areas over the following centuries.* [71] One of those influenced by Paracelsus was German cobbler Jacob Böhme (1575–1624), who sparked the Christian theosophy movement through his attempts to solve the problem of evil. Böhme argued that God had been created out of an unfathomable mystery, the Ungrud, and that God himself composed of a wrathful core, surrounded by the forces of light and love.* [72] Although condemned by Germany's Lutheran authorities, Böhme's ideas spread and formed the basis for a number of small religious communities, such as Johann Georg Gichtel's Angelic Brethren in Amsterdam, and John Pordage and Jane Leade's Philadelphian Society in England.* [73] From 1614 to 1616, the three Rosicrucian Manifestos were published in Germany; these texts purporting to represent a secret initiatory brotherhood which had been founded centuries before by a German adept named Christian Rosenkreutz. There is no evidence that Rosenkreutz was a genuine historical figure, or that a Rosicrucian Order had ever existed, and instead the manifestos are likely literary creations of Lutheran theologian Johann Valentin Andreae (1586–1654). However, they inspired much public interest, with various individuals coming to describe themselves as“Rosicrucian”and claiming that they had access to secret esoteric knowledge as a result.* [74] A real iniatory brotherhood was established in late 16th-century Scotland through the transformation of Medieval stonemason guilds to include noncraftsman: Freemasonry. Soon spreading into other parts of Europe, in England it largely rejected its esoteric character and embraced humanism and rationalism, while in France it embraced new esoteric concepts, particularly those from Christian theosophy.* [75]
6.3. HISTORY
6.3.4
41
18th, 19th and early 20th centuries
being largely practical affairs, full theological worldviews based on the movement would be articulated by Andrew Jackson Davis (1826–1910) and Allan Kardec (1804–1869).* [79] Scientific interest in the claims of Spiritualism resulted in the development of the field of psychical research.* [79] Somnambulism also exerted a strong influence on the early disciplines of psychology and psychiatry; esoteric ideas purvey the work of many early figures in this field, most notably Carl Gustav Jung, although with the rise of psychoanalysis and behaviourism in the 20th century, these disciplines distanced themselves from esotericism.* [81] Also influenced by artificial somnambulism was the religion of New Thought, founded by the American Mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866) and which revolved around the concept of "mind over matter", believing that illness and other negative conditions could be cured through the power of be* Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist Richard Bergh, lief. [82] 1887
The Age of Enlightenment witnessed a process of increasing secularisation of European governments and an embrace of modern science and rationality within intellectual circles. In turn, a “modernist occult”emerged that reflected varied ways in which esoteric thinkers came to terms with these developments.* [76] One of the most prominent esotericists of this period was the Swedish naturalist Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who attempted to reconcile science and religion after experiencing a vision of Jesus Christ. His writings focused on his visionary travels to heaven and hell and his communications with angels, claiming that the visible, materialist world parallels an invisible spiritual world, with correspondences between the two that do not reflect causal relations. Following his death, followers would found the Swedenborgian New Church, although his writings would influence a far wider array of esoteric philosophies.* [77] Another major figure within the esoteric movement of this period was the German physician Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1814), who developed the theory of Animal Magnetism, which later came to be known more commonly as “Mesmerism”. Mesmer claimed that a universal life force permeated everything, including the human body, and that illnesses were caused by a disturbance or block in this force's flow; he developed techniques which he claimed cleansed such blockages and restored the patient to full health.* [78] One of Mesmer's followers, the Marquis de Puységur, discovered that mesmeric treatment could induce a state of somnumbulic trance in which they claimed to enter visionary states and communicate with spirit beings.* [79]
Pentagram of Eliphas Levi
In Europe, a movement usually termed "occultism" emerged as various figures attempted to find a “third way”between Christianity and positivist science while building on the ancient, medieval, and Renaissance traditions of esoteric thought.* [82] In France, following the social upheaval of the 1789 Revolution, various figures emerged in this occultist milieu who were heavily influenced by traditional Catholicism, the most notable of whom were Eliphas Lévi (1810–1875) and Papus (1865– 1916).* [83] Also significant was René Guénon (1886– 1951), whose concern with tradition led him to develop an occult viewpoint termed Traditionalism; it espoused the idea of an original, universal tradition, and thus a rejection of modernity.* [84] His Traditionalist ideas would have a strong influence on later esotericists like Julius Evola (1898–1974) and Frithjof Schuon (1907– 1998).* [84]
These somnumbulic trance-states would heavily influence the esoteric religion of Spiritualism, which emerged from the United States in the 1840s and spread throughout North American and Europe. Spiritualism was based on the concept that individuals could communicate with spirits of the deceased during séances.* [80] Although In the Anglophone world, the burgeoning occult movemost forms of Spiritualism had little theoretical depth, ment owed more to Enlightenment libertines, and thus
42 was more often of an anti-Christian bent that saw wisdom as emanating from the pre-Christian pagan religions of Europe.* [84] Various Spiritualist mediums came to be disillusioned with the esoteric thought available, and sought inspiration in pre-Swedenborgian currents; the most prominent of these were Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–1899) and Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891), the latter of whom called for the revival of the “occult science”of the ancients, which could be found in both the East and West. Authoring the influential Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret Doctrine (1888), she cofounded the Theosophical Society in 1875.* [85] Subsequent leaders of the Society, namely Annie Besant (1847–1933) and Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854– 1934) interpreted modern theosophy as a form of ecumenical esoteric Christianity, resulting in their proclamation of Indian Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) as world messiah.* [86] In rejection of this was the breakaway Anthroposophical Society founded by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925).* [86]
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM abandoned traditional forms of Christianity. The spreading of secret teachings and magic practices found enthusiastic adherents in the chaos of Germany during the interwar years. Notable writers such as Guido von List spread neo-pagan, nationalist ideas, based on Wotanism and the Kabbalah. Many influential and wealthy Germans were drawn to secret societies such as the Thule Society. Thule Society activist Karl Harrer was one of the founders of the German Workers' Party,* [98] which later became the Nazi Party; some Nazi Party members like Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolf Hess were listed as “guests”of the Thule Society, as was Adolf Hitler's mentor Dietrich Eckart.* [99] After their rise to power, the Nazis persecuted occultists.* [100] While many Nazi Party leaders like Hitler and Joseph Goebbels were hostile to occultism, Heinrich Himmler used Karl Maria Wiligut as a clairvoyant “and was regularly consulting for help in setting up the symbolic and ceremonial aspects of the SS”but not for important political decisions. By 1939, Wiligut was “forcibly retired from the SS”due to being institutionalised for insanity.* [101] On the other hand, the German hermetic magic order Fraternitas Saturni was founded on Easter 1928 and it is one of the oldest continuously running magical groups in Germany.* [102]
These movements were also influenced by, and did influence, Neo-Vedanta, an esoteric interpretation of Hinduism developed by influential Brahmo Samaj leaders, especially Ram Mohan Roy, Keshubchandra Sen and Swami Vivekananda.* [87]* [88] Their neo-Vedanta became popular in western esoteric cir- 6.3.5 cles by the end of the 19th century, being regarded as an authentic, millennia-old secret tradition.* [87] It was influenced by Unitarianism,* [89]* [90] Transcendentalism,* [91] and Romanticism,* [92] emphasizing personal religious experience over mere reasoning and theology.* [93] Vivekananda (1863-1902)* [94] played a major role in the spread of Neo-Vedanta to the west* [88] via the Ramakrishna Mission. Vivekananda's acquaintance with western esotericism made him very successful in western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions.* [88]
Later 20th century
New esoteric understandings of magic also developed in the latter part of the 19th century. One of the pioneers of this was American Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825– 1875), who argued that sexual energy and psychoactive drugs could be used for magical purposes.* [86] In England, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an initiatory order devoted to magic which based itself on an understanding of kabbalah, was founded in the latter years of the century.* [95] One of the most prominent members of that order was Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), who went on to proclaim the religion of Thelema and become a prominent member of the Ordo Templi Orientis.* [96] Some of their contemporaries developed esoteric schools of thought that did not entail magic, namely the GrecoArmenian teacher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949) and his Sculpture of the Horned God of Wicca found in the Museum of Russian pupul P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947).* [97] Witchcraft in Boscastle, Cornwall
Emergent occult and esoteric systems found increasing popularity in the early 20th century, especially in West- In the 1960s and 1970s, esotericism came to be increasern Europe. Occult lodges and secret societies flowered ingly associated with the growing counter-culture in the among European intellectuals of this era who had largely West, whose adherents understood themselves in partici-
6.5. ACADEMIC STUDY
43
pating in a spiritual revolution that would mark the Age of 6.5 Academic study Aquarius.* [103] By the 1980s, these currents of millenarian currents had come to be widely known as the New Main article: Academic study of Western esotericism Age movement, and it became increasingly commer- The academic study of Western esotericism was piocialised as business entrepreneurs exploited a growth in the spiritual market.* [103] Conversely, other forms of esoteric thought retained the anti-commercial and countercultural sentiment of the 1960s and 1970s, namely the techno-shamanic movement promoted by figures such as Terence McKenna and Daniel Pinchbeck which built on the work of anthropologist Carlos Castaneda.* [103] This trend was accompanied by the increased growth of modern Paganism, a movement initially dominated by Wicca, the religion propagated by Gerald Gardner.* [104] Wicca was adopted by members of the second-wave feminist movement, most notably Starhawk, and developing into the Goddess movement.* [104] Wicca also greatly influenced the development of Pagan neo-druidry and other forms of Celtic revivalism.* [104] In response to Wicca there has also appeared literature and groups who label themselves followers of Traditional witchcraft in opposition to the growing visibility of Wicca and these claim older roots than the system proposed by Gerald Gardner.* [105] Other trends which emerged in western occultism in the later 20th century were satanism as exposed by groups such as The Church of Satan and Temple of Set,* [106] as well as chaos magick through the Illuminates of Thanateros group.* [107]
London's Warburg Institute was one of the first centres to encourage the academic study of Western esotericism
Writers interested in occult themes have adopted three different strategies for dealing with the subject: those who are knowledgeable on the subject including attractive images of the occult and occultists in their work, those who disguise occultism within “a web of intertextuality”, and those who oppose it and seek to deconstruct it.* [111]
been cited as being responsible for developing the study of Western esotericism into a formalised field,* [116] with his 1992 work L'ésotérisme having been cited as marking “the beginning of the study of Western esotericism as an academic field of research”.* [117] He remained in the chair until 2002, when he was succeeded by Jean-Pierre Brach.* [113]
neered in the early 20th century by historians of the ancient world and the European Renaissance, who came to recognise that – although it had been ignored by previous scholarship – the effect which pre-Christian and nonrational schools of thought had exerted on European society and culture was worthy of academic attention.* [53] One of the key centres for this was the Warburg Institute in London, where scholars like Frances Yates, Edgar Wind, Ernst Cassier, and D. P. Walker began arguing that esoteric thought had had a greater effect on Renaissance culture than had been previously accepted.* [112] The work of Yates in particular, most notably her 1964 6.4 Popular culture book Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, has been cited as “an important starting-point for modern scholarship on esotericism”, succeeding “at one fell In 2013, Asprem and Granholm highlighted that “conswoop in bringing scholarship onto a new track”by bringtemporary esotericism is intimately, and increasingly, ing wider awareness of the effect that esoteric ideas had connected with popular culture and new media.”* [108] on modern science.* [113] Granholm noted that esoteric ideas and images could be At the instigation of the scholar Henry Corbin, in 1965 found in many aspects of Western popular media, cit- the world's first academic post in the study of esotericism ing such examples as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Avatar, was established at the École pratique des hautes études Hellblazer, and His Dark Materials.* [109] Granholm has in the Sorbonne, Paris; named the chair in the History argued that there are problems with the field in that it of Christian Esotericism, its first holder was François Sedraws a distinction between esotericism and non-esoteric cret, a specialist in the Christian Kabbalah, although he elements of culture which draw upon esotericism; citing had little interest in developing the wider study of esothe example of extreme metal, he noted that it was incred- tericism as a field of research.* [114] In 1979 Faivre asibly difficult to differentiate between those artists who sumed Secret's chair at the Sorbonne, which was renamed were“properly occult”and those who simply utilised oc- the “History of Esoteric and Mystical Currents in Modcult themes and aesthetics in“a superficial way”.* [110] ern and Contemporary Europe”.* [115] Faivre has since
44 Faivre noted that there were two significant obstacles to establishing the field. One was that there was an engrained prejudice towards esotericism within academia, resulting in the widespread perception that the history of esotericism was not worthy of academic research.* [118] The second was that esotericism is a trans-disciplinary field, the study of which did not fit clearly within any particular discipline.* [119] As Hanegraaff noted, Western esotericism had to be studied as a separate field to religion, philosophy, science, and the arts, because while it “participates in all these fields”it does not squarely fit into any of them.* [120] Elsewhere, he noted that there was “probably no other domain in the humanities that has been so seriously neglected”as Western esotericism.* [121]
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM tennial meetings of the International Association for the History of Religions,* [126] while a peer-reviewed journal, Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism began publication in 2001.* [126] 2001 also saw the foundation of the North American Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE), with the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE) being established shortly after.* [127] Within a few years, Michael Bergunder expressed the view that it had become an established field within religious studies,* [128] with Asprem and Granholm observing that scholars within other sub-disciplines of religious studies had begun to take an interest in the work of scholars of esotericism.* [129] Asprem and Granholm noted that the study of esotericism had been dominated by historians and thus lacked the perspective of social scientists examining contemporary forms of esotericism, a situation that they were attempting to correct through building links with scholars operating in Pagan studies and the study of new religious movements.* [130] On the basis of the fact that“English culture and literature have been traditional strongholds of Western esotericism”, in 2011 Pia Brînzeu and György Szönyi urged that English studies also have a role in this interdisciplinary field.* [131]
6.5.1 Emic and etic divisions
Prominent scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff
In 1980, the U.S.-based Hermetic Academy was founded by Robert A. McDermott as an outlet for American scholars interested in Western esotericism.* [122] From 1986 to 1990 members of the Hermetic Academy participated in panels at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Religion under the rubric of the “Esotericism and Perennialism Group”.* [122] By 1994, Faivre could comment that the academic study of Western esotericism had taken off in France, Italy, England, and the United States, but he lamented the fact that it had not done so in Germany.* [118]
Hanegraaff follows a distinction between an“emic”and an “etic”approach to religious studies. The emic approach is that of the alchemist or theosopher as an alchemist or theosopher. The etic approach is that of the scholar as an historian, a researcher, with a critical look. An empirical study of esotericism needs “emic material and etic interpretation”: Emic denotes the believer’s point of view. On the part of the researcher, the reconstruction of this emic perspective requires an attitude of empathy which excludes personal biases as far as possible. Scholarly discourse about religion, on the other hand, is not emic but etic. Scholars may introduce their own terminology and make theoretical distinctions which are different from those of the believers themselves.* [132]
In 1999, the University of Amsterdam established a chair Arthur Versluis proposes approaching esotericism in the“History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Cur- through a “sympathetic empiricism”: rents”, which was occupied by Hanegraaff,* [123] while Esotericism, given all its varied forms and in 2005 the University of Exeter created a chair in“Western Esotericism”, which was taken by Goodrick-Clarke, its inherently multidimensional nature, cannot who headed the Exeter Center for the Study of Esoteribe conveyed without going beyond purely hiscism.* [124] Thus, by 2008 there were three dedicated torical information: at minimum, the study of university chairs in the subject, with Amsterdam and Exesotericism, and in particular mysticism, reeter also offering master's degree programs in it.* [125] quires some degree of imaginative participaSeveral conferences on the subject were held at the quintion in what one is studying.* [133]
6.6. REFERENCES
45
6.6 References
[33] Faivre 1994, pp. 10–11.
6.6.1
[34] Faivre 1994, p. 11; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
Footnotes
[35] Faivre 1994, p. 12; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 398–399; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
[1] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3. [2] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 2.
[36] Faivre 1994, p. 13; Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 399–340; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
[3] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 384.
[37] Faivre 1994, p. 14; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.
[4] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 80. [5] Strube 2016a; Strube 2016b.
[38] Faivre 1994, pp. 14–15; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 400; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 8.
[6] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385. [7] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
88; Bogdan 2007, p.
6;
[39] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 7–10. [40] Bogdan 2007, p. 10.
[8] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
[41] Granholm 2013b, p. 8.
[9] Faivre 1994, p. 3.
[42] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4.
[10] Faivre & Voss 1995, pp. 48–49.
[43] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3.
[11] Faivre 1994, p. 17.
[44] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 4–14.
[12] Faivre 1994, p. 6; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 14–15.
[45] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 5.
[13] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 13.
[46] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 83.
[14] Bogdan 2007, p. 7.
[47] Bogdan 2007, p. 5.
[15] Bogdan 2013, p. 177.
[48] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 93.
[16] Granholm 2013a, pp. 31–32.
[49] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 88.
[17] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 79.
[50] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 89.
[18] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 10–12.
[51] Von Stuckrad 2005b, pp. 91–92.
[19] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 10.
[52] Bergunder 2010, p. 18.
[20] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 11.
[53] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 4.
[21] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 178.
[54] Bogdan 2007, p. 15.
[22] Versluis 2007, p. 1.
[55] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 3, 15; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 18.
[23] Versluis 2007, p. 2.
[56] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 13; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 18.
[24] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 11–12.
[57] Versluis 2007, p. 24; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 19.
[25] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 12. [26] Hanegraaff 1996, p. 385; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81. [27] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 5.
[59] Faivre 1994, p. 53; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 27–29; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 19–20.
[28] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 7. [29] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 6–7. [30] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Bogdan 2007, p. Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 3–4.
[58] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 16–20; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 19.
[60] Faivre 1994, p. 52; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 20–27. 10;
[31] Faivre 1994, p. 10; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Bergunder 2010, p. 14; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 3. [32] Faivre 1994, p. 10; Hanegraaff 1996, p. 398; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 4; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
[61] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 25; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 20– 21. [62] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 25. [63] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 26. [64] Faivre 1994, p. 58; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 26–27.
46
[65] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 27. [66] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 27–28. [67] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 28–29. [68] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 29. [69] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 30.
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM
[101] Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2004, p. 215f. [102] |Wouter Hanegraaff:“The most important magical secret lodge of the 20th century in the German-speaking world.” “Fraternitas Saturni”at Wouter Hanegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. pg. 379
[70] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 31. [103] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 43. [71] Faivre 1994, pp. 61–63; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 30–31. [104] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 44. [72] Faivre 1994, pp. 63–64; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 32. [73] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 32–33. [74] Faivre 1994, pp. 64–66; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 33–34. [75] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 35–36. [76] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 36.
[105] Robert Cochrane and the Gardnerian Craft: Feuds, Secrets, and Mysteries in Contemporary British Witchcraft Ethan Doyle White. The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies. 2011. pp. 205–206. [106]“Satanism”at Wouter Hannegraaff (ed). Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Brill. 2006. pg. 1035
[78] Faivre 1994, pp. 76–77; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 37–38.
[107] Nevill Drury. Stealing Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Modern Western Magic.Oxford University Press. 2011. pg. 251
[79] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 38.
[108] Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 6.
[80] Faivre 1994, p. 87; Hanegraaff 2013, p. 38.
[109] Granholm 2013a, p. 31.
[81] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 38–39.
[110] Granholm 2013b, pp. 8–9.
[82] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 39.
[111] Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 185.
[83] Strube 2016a; Hanegraaff 2013a.
[112] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 4–5.
[84] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 40.
[113] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3.
[85] Faivre 1994, pp. 93–94; Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 40–41.
[114] Faivre 1994, p. ix; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 11.
[77] Faivre 1994, p. 72; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 37.
[86] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41. [87] Michelis 2005.
[115] Faivre 1994, p. x; Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12.
[88] Hanegraaf 1998, p. 461.
[116] Versluis 2007, p. 6; Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 5.
[89] Harris 2009, p. 268.
[117] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 179.
[90] Kipf 1979, p. 3.
[118] Faivre 1994, p. ix.
[91] Versluis 1993.
[119] Faivre 1994, p. ix; Versluis 2007, p. 6.
[92] Michelis 2005, p. 46-47.
[120] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 1–2.
[93] Michelis 2005, p. 81.
[121] Hanegraaff 2013b, p. 198.
[94] Flood 1996, p. 257.
[122] Faivre 1994, p. x; Faivre & Voss 1995, p. 59.
[95] Faivre 1994, p. 91; Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 41. [96] Hanegraaff 2013a, pp. 41–42.
[123] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81; Bergunder 2010, p. 12–13.
[97] Hanegraaff 2013a, p. 42.
[124] Von Stuckrad 2005a, p. 3; Versluis 2007, p. 7.
[98] Hermann Gilbhard: Thule-Gesellschaft.
[125] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, p. 3.
[126] Von Stuckrad 2005b, p. 81. [99] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke: The Occult Roots of Nazism. London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2005, p. 149. [127] Versluis 2007, p. 6. [100] Corinna Treitel: A Science for the Soul: Occultism and the [128] Bergunder 2010, p. 9. Genesis of the German Modern. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press 2004, p. 220. [129] Asprem & Granholm 2013, p. 1.
6.6. REFERENCES
[130] Asprem & Granholm 2013, pp. 3–4. [131] Brînzeu & Szönyi 2011, p. 184. [132] Wouter J. Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998, 6. [133] Arthur Versluis, “Methods in the Study of Esotericism, Part II: Mysticism and the Study of Esotericism”, in Esoterica, Michigan State University, V, 2003, 27-40.
6.6.2
Sources Asprem, Egil (2014).“Beyond the West: Towards a New Comparativism in the Study of Esotericism” (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism 2 (1): 3–33. Asprem, Egil; Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Introduction”. Contemporary Esotericism. Egil Asprem and Kennet Granholm (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 1– 24. ISBN 978-1-317-54357-2. Bergunder, Michael (2010). Kenneth Fleming (translator). “What is Esotericism? Cultural Studies Approaches and the Problems of Definition in Religious Studies”. Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 22: 9–36. doi:10.1163/094330510X12604383550882. Bogdan, Henrik (2007). Western Esotericism and Rituals of Initiation. New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0791470701. Bogdan, Henrik (2013). “Reception of Occultism in India: The Case of the Holy Order of Krishna” . Occultism in a Global Perspective. Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 177–201. ISBN 9781844657162. Brînzeu, Pia; Szönyi, György (2011). “The Esoteric in Postmodernism”. European Journal of English Studies (Routledge) 15 (3): 183–188. doi:10.1080/13825577.2011.626934. Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791421789. Faivre, Antoine (2010). Western Esotericism: A Concise History.
47 Christine Rhone (translator). New York: SUNY Press. ISBN 9781438433776. Faivre, Antoine; Voss, KarenClaire (1995). “Western Esotericism and the Science of Religions”. Numen 42 (1): 48–77. doi:10.1163/1568527952598756. JSTOR 3270279. Giegerich, Eric (2001). “Antoine Faivre: Studies in Esotericism” . The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal 20 (2): 7–25. doi:10.1525/jung.1.2001.20.2.7. Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008). The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195320992. Granholm, Kennet (2013a). “Locating the West: Problematizing the Western in Western Esotericism and Occultism”. Occultism in a Global Perspective. Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurdjevic (editors). Durham: Acumen. pp. 17– 36. ISBN 978-1844657162. Granholm, Kennet (2013b). “Ritual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice” (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism 1 (1): 5–33. Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Esoteric Currents as Discursive Complexes”. Religion 43 (1): 46–69. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2013.742741. Hanegraaff, Wouter (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004106956. Hanegraaff, Wouter J., ed. (2005), Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism I, Leiden / Boston: Brill Hanegraaff, Wouter (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge ISBN 978University Press. 0521196215. Hanegraaff, Wouter (2013a). Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1441136466. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2013b). “Textbooks and Introduc-
48
CHAPTER 6. WESTERN ESOTERICISM tions to Western Esotericism” . Religion 43 (2): 178–200. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2012.733245. Strube, Julian (2016a). Sozialismus, Katholizismus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts: Die Genealogie der Schriften von Eliphas Lévi. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-047810-5. Strube, Julian (2016b). “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France”. Religion. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2016.1146926. Tweed, Thomas A. (2005),“American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J. Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History” (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 32 (2): 249–281 Versluis, Arthur (1993), American Transcendentalism and Asian Religions, Oxford University Press Versluis, Arthur (2007). Magic and Mysticism: An Introduction to Western Esotericism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742558366. Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005a). Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge. Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (translator). Durham: Acumen. ISBN 978-1845530334. Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2005b). “Western Esotericism: Towards an Integrative Model of Interpretation”. Religion 35 (2): 78–97. doi:10.1016/j.religion.2005.07.002.
• Wouter J. Hanegraaff, “The Study of Western Esotericism: New Approaches to Christian and Secular Culture”, in Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz and Randi R. Warne, New Approaches to the Study of Religion, vol. I: Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches, Berlin / New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2004, 497 p. • Wouter J. Hanegraaff (ed.), in collaboration with Antoine Faivre, Roelof van den Broek, Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism, Leiden / Bristol: Brill, 2005, 2 vols., 1228 p. ISBN 90-04-14187-1. Other • Benjamin Walker, Encyclopedia of Esoteric Man: The Hidden Side of the Human Entity, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977, 353 p. ISBN 0-7100-8479-X. New title: Body Magic, London: Granada Publishing, “Paladin Books”, 1979, 478 p. ISBN 0-586-08323-5. Arranged alphabetically. • Benjamin Walker, Man and the Beasts Within: The Encyclopedia of the Occult, the Esoteric, and the Supernatural, New York: Stein and Day, 1978, 343 p. ISBN 0-8128-1900-4 • Kerber, Hannes. “Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching”. In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Ed. Yaffe/Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–214.
6.8 External links • An Esoteric Archive • Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands • The Western Esoteric Tradition Research Site • Association for the Study of Esotericism (ASE)
6.7 Further reading
• European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE)
Scholarly
• Center for History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents, University of Amsterdam
• Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2001.
• University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO)
• Aries Book Series: Texts and Studies in Western Esotericism, Leiden: Brill, since 2006.
• Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism
• Esoterica, East Lansing, Michigan State University (MSU). An online resource since 1999. I (1999); VIII (2006); IX (2007)
• Esoterica. A peer-reviewed academic journal devoted to the transdisciplinary study of Western esotericism • http://esotericbasics.co.uk/
6.8. EXTERNAL LINKS • University of Amsterdam Center for Study of Western Esotericism Research & BA/MA programs in Western esotericism. • University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO) • ESSWE European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism, with many links to associated organizations, libraries, scholars etc. • Association for the Study of Esotericism • What is understood by “Western Esotericism”? (Prof. Wouter Hanegraaff) • What is Esoteric? (Prof. Arthur Versluis)
49
Chapter 7
Tarot This article is about the playing cards created for tricktaking games and later used for divinatory and esoteric/occult purposes. For other uses, see Tarot (disambiguation). Not to be confused with taro. The tarot (/ˈtæroʊ/; first known as trionfi and later as
century in various parts of Europe to play a group of card games such as Italian tarocchini and French tarot. From the late 18th century until the present time the tarot has also found use by mystics and occultists for divination. Like the common deck of playing cards, the tarot has four suits (which vary by region, being the French suits in Northern Europe, the Latin suits in Southern Europe, and the German suits in Central Europe). Each of these suits has pip cards numbering from one (or Ace) to ten and four face cards (King, Queen, Knight, and Jack/Knave) for a total of 14 cards. In addition, the tarot has a separate 21-card trump suit and a single card known as the Fool. Depending on the game, the Fool may act as the top trump or may be played to avoid following suit.* [1] François Rabelais gives tarau as the name of one of the games played by Gargantua in his Gargantua and Pantagruel;* [2] this is likely the earliest attestation of the French form of the name. Tarot cards are used throughout much of Europe to play card games. In Englishspeaking countries, where these games are largely unplayed, tarot cards are now used primarily for divinatory purposes.* [1] Occultists call the trump cards and the Fool “the major arcana" while the ten pip and four court cards in each suit are called minor arcana. The cards are traced by some occult writers to ancient Egypt or the Kabbalah but there is no documented evidence of such origins or of the usage of tarot for divination before the 18th century.* [1]
7.1 Etymology The English and French word tarot derives from the Italian tarocchi, which has no known origin or etymology.* [3] The singular term is tarocco, commonly known today as a term for a type of blood orange in Italian. When it spread, the word was changed to tarot in French and Tarock in German. There are many theories to the origin of the word, many with no connection to the occult.* [4] One theory relates the name “tarot”to Visconti-Sforza tarot deck the Taro River in northern Italy, near Parma; the game seems to have originated in northern Italy, in Milan or tarocchi, tarock, and others) is a pack of playing cards Bologna.* [5] Other writers believe it comes from the (most commonly numbering 78), used from the mid-15th Arabic word طرقturuq, which means 'ways'.* [6] Alter50
7.2. HISTORY
51
natively, it may be from the Arabic تركtaraka, 'to leave, abandon, omit, leave behind'.* [3]
7.2 History Playing cards first entered Europe in the late 14th century, most likely from Mamluk Egypt, with suits of Batons or Polo sticks (commonly known as Wands by those practicing occult or divinatory tarot), Coins (commonly known as disks, or pentacles by practitioners of the occult or divinatory tarot), Swords, and Cups. These suits were very similar to modern tarot divination decks and are still used in traditional Italian, Spanish and Portuguese playing card decks.* [7] The first known documented tarot cards were created between 1430 and 1450 in Milan, Ferrara and Bologna in northern Italy when additional trump cards with allegorical illustrations were added to the common four-suit pack. These new decks were originally called carte da trionfi, triumph cards, and the additional cards known simply as trionfi, which became “trumps”in English. The first literary evidence of the existence of carte da trionfi is a written statement in the court records in Florence, in 1440. The oldest surviving tarot cards are from fifteen fragmented decks painted in the mid 15th century for the Visconti-Sforza family, the rulers of Milan.* [8] During the 16th-century, a new game played with a standard deck but sharing the same name (triomphe) was quickly becoming popular. This coincided with the older game being renamed tarocchi.* [1]
7.2.1
Early decks
Picture-card packs are first mentioned by Martiano da Tortona probably between 1418 and 1425, since the painter he mentions, Michelino da Besozzo, returned to Milan in 1418, while Martiano himself died in 1425. He describes a deck with 16 picture cards with images of the Greek gods and suits depicting four kinds of birds, not the common suits. However the 16 cards were obviously regarded as “trumps”as, about 25 years later, Jacopo Antonio Marcello called them a ludus triumphorum, or “game of trumps”.* [9] Special motifs on cards added to regular packs show philosophical, social, poetical, astronomical, and heraldic ideas, Roman/Greek/Babylonian heroes, as in the case of the Sola-Busca-Tarocchi (1491)* [1] and the Boiardo Tarocchi poem, written at an unknown date between 1461 and 1494.* [10] Two playing card decks from Milan (the Brera-Brambilla and Cary-Yale-Tarocchi) —extant, but fragmentary — were made circa 1440. Three documents dating from 1 January 1441 to July 1442, use the term trionfi. The document from January 1441 is regarded as an unreliable reference; however, the same painter, Sagramoro,
Le Bateleur: The Juggler from the Jean Dodal Tarot of Marseilles. This card is often named The Magician in modern English language tarots
was commissioned by the same patron, Leonello d'Este, as in the February 1442 document. The game seemed to gain in importance in the year 1450, a Jubilee year in Italy, which saw many festivities and the movement of many pilgrims. Three mid-15th century sets were made for members of the Visconti family.* [11] The first deck, and probably the prototype, is called the Cary-Yale Tarot (or Visconti-Modrone Tarot) and was created between 1442 and 1447 by an anonymous painter for Filippo Maria Visconti.* [11] The cards (only 67) are today held in the Cary collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut.* [12] The most famous was painted in the mid-15th century, to celebrate Francesco Sforza and his wife Bianca Maria Visconti, daughter of the duke Filippo Maria. Probably, these cards were painted by Bonifacio Bembo or Francesco Zavattari between 1451 and 1453.* [11] Of the original cards, 35 are in The Morgan Library & Museum, 26 are at the Accademia Car-
52 rara, thirteen are at the Casa Colleoni,* [11] and four: The Devil, The Tower, The Knight of Coins, and the 3 of Swords, are lost or were never made. This“ViscontiSforza”deck, which has been widely reproduced, reflects conventional iconography of the time to a significant degree.* [13]
CHAPTER 7. TAROT strongest tarot gaming community. Regional tarot games —often known as tarock, tarok, or tarokk —are widely played in central Europe within the borders of the former Austro-Hungarian empire.
Hand-painted tarot cards remained a privilege of the up- 7.4 Divinatory, esoteric, and occult per classes and, although a single sermon by a Dominitarot can preacher inveighing against the evil inherent in cards (chiefly owing to their use in gambling) can be traced to the 14th century,* [14] no routine condemnations of tarot Main article: Divinatory, esoteric and occult tarot were found during its early history.* [1] Because the earliest tarot cards were hand-painted, the number of the decks produced is thought to have been rather small, and it was only after the invention of the printing press that mass production of cards became possible. Decks survive from this era from various cities in France, and the most popular pattern of these early printed decks is called the Tarot de Marseille* [15] such as the Jean Dodal Tarot (Lyon) and the Jean Noblet Tarot (Paris) for example.
7.3 Tarot card games
Each card possesses a pictogram and title that represents a specific concept or archetype. The belief in divination associated with Tarot focuses on the prospect that whatever cards are dealt to the participant will be revelatory. Divination using playing cards is in evidence as early as 1540 in a book entitled The Oracles of Francesco Marcolino da Forlì which allows a simple method of divination, though the cards are used only to select a random oracle and have no meaning in themselves. But a manuscript from 1750 (Pratesi Cartomancer) document rudimentary divinatory meanings for the cards of the tarot. Giacomo Casanova wrote in his diary that in 1765 his Russian mistress frequently used a deck of playing cards for divination.* [17]
Main article: Tarot card games The original purpose of tarot cards was for playing Antoine Court de Gébelin, a French-born Protestant pastor and Freemason, published a dissertation on the origins of the symbolism in the Tarot in volume VIII of his unfinished fifteen volumes of the Le Monde Primitif. De Gébelin, who never knew the Tarot as the Tarot de Marseille (a name which came much later), thought the Tarot represented ancient Egyptian Theology, including Isis, Osiris and Typhon (the Greek name for Seth), but never mentions Thoth. For example, he thought the card he knew as the Papesse and known today as the High Priestess represented Isis.* [18] He also related four Tarot cards to the four Christian Cardinal virtues: Temperance, Justice, Strength and Prudence.* [19] He relates The Tower to a Greek fable about avarice.* [20] Although Egyptian had not yet been deciphered by Champollion, Gébelin asserted the name“Tarot”came from the Egyptian words A French tarot game in session Tar, “path”or “road”, and the word Ro, Ros or Rog, meaning“King”or“royal”, and that the Tarot literally games, the first basic rules appearing in the manuscript translated to the Royal Road of Life.* [21] of Martiano da Tortona before 1425, and the next from the year 1637. The game of tarot has many cultural variations. In Italy the game has become less popular. Tarocchini has survived in Bologna and there are still 7.5 Varieties others played in Piedmont and Sicily; but the number of games outside of Italy is much higher. A variety of styles of tarot decks and designs exist and a The 18th century saw tarot's greatest revival, during which the games became the most popular in Europe. It was played everywhere in Europe with the exception of the British Isles, the Iberian peninsula, and the Ottoman Balkans.* [16] French tarot experienced a revival beginning in the 1970s in its native country and France has the
number of typical regional patterns have emerged. Historically, one of the most important designs is the one usually known as the Tarot de Marseille. This standard pattern was the one studied by Court de Gébelin, and cards based on this style illustrate his Le Monde primitif. The Tarot de Marseille was also popularized in the
7.5. VARIETIES
53 credited for this design innovation. Current French suited tarot decks come in these patterns: • The Industrie und Glück (Industry and Luck) tarock deck of Central Europe uses Roman numerals for the trumps. It is sold with 54 cards; the 5 to 10 of the red suits and the 1 to 6 of the black suits are removed. • The Cego deck is used in Germany's Black Forest bordering France and has 54 cards organized in the same fashion as the Industrie und Glück. Its trumps use Arabic numerals but within centered indices. • The Tarot Nouveau has 78 cards and is commonly played in France. Its trumps use Arabic numerals in corner indices. The illustrations of French suited tarot trumps depart considerably from the older Italian suited design. The Renaissance allegorical motifs were abandoned for new themes or simply just whimsical pictures of daily life. With very few exceptional recent cases such as the “Tarocchi di Alan”, “Tarot of Reincarnation”and the “Tarot de la Nature”, French suited tarot cards are nearly exclusively used for card games and rarely for divination. • Example of 18th century "Tiertarock" or animal tarot. • Industrie und Glück Tarock trumps • Cego trumps • Tarot Nouveau trumps circa 1910
Le Chariot, from Nicolas Conver's 1760 deck.
7.5.2 German suited tarot deck 20th century by Paul Marteau. Some current editions of cards based on the Marseille design go back to a deck of a particular Marseille design that was printed by Nicolas Conver in 1760. Other regional styles include the "Swiss" Tarot. This one substitutes Juno and Jupiter for the Papess, or High Priestess and the Pope, or Hierophant. In Florence an expanded deck called Minchiate was used. This deck of 97 cards includes astrological symbols including the four elements, as well as traditional tarot motifs. Some decks exist primarily as artwork; and such art decks sometimes contain only the 22 trump cards. A Schafkopf/Tarock deck
7.5.1
French suited tarot decks
French suited tarot cards began to appear in Germany during the 18th century. The first generation of French suited tarots depicted scenes of animals on the trumps and were thus called "Tiertarock" decks ('Tier' being German for 'animal'). Card maker Göbl of Munich is often
German suited decks for Württemberg, Brixental, and Bavarian tarock are different. They have 36 cards, ranging from 6 to 10, Under Knave (Unter), Over Knave (Ober), King, and Ace. These use Ace-Ten ranking, like Klaverjas, where Ace is the highest followed by 10, King, Ober, Unter, then 9 to 6. The heart suit is the default trump suit.* [1] The deck is also used to play Schafkopf.
54
7.5.3
CHAPTER 7. TAROT
Italo-Portuguese suited tarot deck
The Tarocco Siciliano is the only deck to use the socalled Portuguese suit system which uses Spanish pips but intersects them like Italian pips.* [22] It changes some of the trumps, and has a card labeled Miseria (destitution). It omits the Two and Three of coins, and numerals one to four in clubs, swords and cups: it thus has 64 cards but the One of coins is not used, being the bearer of the former stamp tax. The cards are quite small and not reversible.* [9]
7.5.4
Non-occult Italian-suited tarot decks
in most games and the Fool is numbered 0 despite not being a trump. • The Swiss 1JJ Tarot is similar, but replaces the Pope with Jupiter, the Popess with Juno, and the Angel with the Judgement. The trumps rank in numerical order and the Tower is known as the House of God. The cards are not reversible like the Tarocco Piemontese. • The Tarocco Bolognese omits numeral cards two to five in plain suits, leaving it with 62 cards, and has somewhat different trumps, not all of which are numbered and four of which are equal in rank. It has a different graphical design than the two above as it was not derived from the Tarot de Marseille.
7.5.5 Occult tarot decks Etteilla was the first to issue a revised tarot deck specifically designed for occult purposes rather than game playing. In keeping with the belief that tarot cards are derived from the Book of Thoth, Etteilla's tarot contained themes related to ancient Egypt. The 78-card tarot deck used by esotericists has two distinct parts: • The Major Arcana (greater secrets), or trump cards, consists of 22 cards without suits: The Magician, The High Priestess, The Empress, The Emperor, The Hierophant, The Lovers, The Chariot, Strength, The Hermit, Wheel of Fortune, Justice, The Hanged Man, Death, Temperance, The Devil, The Tower, The Star, The Moon, The Sun, Judgement, The World and The Fool. Cards from The Magician to The World are numbered in Roman numerals from I to XXI, while The Fool is the only unnumbered card, sometimes placed at the beginning of the deck as 0, or at the end as XXII.
Tarocco Piemontese: the Fool.
These were the oldest form of tarot deck to be made, being first devised in the 15th century in northern Italy. The occult tarot decks are based on decks of this type. Three decks of this category are still used to play certain games:
• The Minor Arcana (lesser secrets) consists of 56 cards, divided into four suits of 14 cards each; ten numbered cards and four court cards. The court cards are the King, Queen, Knight and Page/Jack, in each of the four tarot suits. The traditional Italian tarot suits are swords, batons/wands, coins and cups; in modern tarot decks, however, the batons suit is often called wands, rods or staves, while the coins suit is often called pentacles or disks. The terms“major arcana”and“minor arcana”were first used by Jean-Baptiste Pitois (also known as Paul Christian) and are never used in relation to Tarot card games.
Tarot is often used with the study of the Hermetic Qabalah.* [23] In these decks there are Kabbalistic illustra• The Tarocco Piemontese consists of the four suits tions, most being under the influence of the Rider-Waiteof swords, batons, cups and coins, each headed by a Smith deck. The images on the “Rider-Waite”deck king, queen, cavalier and jack, followed by the pip were drawn by artist Pamela Colman Smith following the cards for a total of 78 cards. Trump 20 outranks 21 instructions of mystic and occultist Arthur Edward Waite
7.5. VARIETIES and were originally published by the Rider Company in 1910. The subjects of the Major Arcana are based on those of the earliest decks, but have been modified to reflect Waite and Smith's view of tarot. A difference from Marseilles style decks is that Smith drew scenes with esoteric meanings on the suit cards. The Rider-Waite wasn't the first deck to include completely illustrated suit cards. The first to do so was the 15th century Sola-Busca deck.* [24] Older esoteric decks such as the Visconti-Sforza and Marseilles are less detailed than modern ones. A Marseilles type deck is distinguished by having repetitive motifs on the pip cards, similar to Italian or Spanish playing cards, as opposed to the full scenes found on "Rider-Waite" style decks. These more simply illustrated "Marseilles" style decks are also used esoterically, for divination, and for game play, though the French card game of tarot is now generally played using a relatively modern 19th century design of German origin. Such playing tarot decks generally have twenty one trump cards with genre scenes from 19th century life, a Fool, and have court and pip cards that closely resemble today's French playing cards.
55 to varying degrees. For example, the Motherpeace Tarot is notable for its circular cards and feminist angle where the male characters have been replaced by females. The Tarot of Baseball has suits of bats, mitts, balls, and bases; “coaches”and“MVPs”instead of Queens and Kings; and major arcana cards such as“The Catcher”, “The Rule Book”, and “Batting a Thousand”. In the Silicon Valley Tarot, major arcana cards include The Hacker, Flame War, The Layoff and The Garage; the suits are Networks, Cubicles, Disks and Hosts; the court cards CEO, Salesman, Marketeer and New Hire. Another tarot in recent years has been the Robin Wood Tarot. This deck retains the Rider-Waite theme while adding Pagan symbolism. As with other decks, the cards are available with a companion book written by Wood which details all of the symbolism and colors utilized in the Major and Minor Arcana.
Unconventionality is embraced by Morgan's Tarot, produced in 1970 by Morgan Robbins and illustrated by Darshan Chorpash Zenith. Morgan's Tarot has no suits, no ranking and no ordering of the cards. It has 88 rather than 78 cards and its simple line drawings show an influence from the psychedelic art. Nevertheless, in the introducThe Marseilles' numbered minor arcana cards do not have tory booklet that accompanies the deck Robbins claims scenes depicted on them; rather, they sport a geometric inspiration for the cards from Tibetan Buddhism. arrangement of the number of suit symbols (e.g., swords, rods/wands, cups, coins/pentacles) corresponding to the Rider-Waite-Smith deck number of the card (accompanied by botanical and other non-scenic flourishes), while the court cards are often il- The tarot created by A. E. Waite and Pamela Colman lustrated with flat, two-dimensional drawings. Smith departs from the earlier tarot design with its use An example of a modernist tarot deck is Aleister Crow- of scenic pip cards and the alteration of how the Strength ley's Thoth Tarot (Thoth pronounced /ˈtoʊt/ or /ˈθɒθ/). and Justice cards are ranked. Crowley, at the height of a lifetime's work dedicated to occultism, engaged the artist Lady Frieda Harris to paint the cards for the deck according to his specifications. His system of tarot correspondences, published in The Book of Thoth and Liber 777, are an evolution and expansion upon that which he learned in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.* [25]
Crowley-Harris Thoth deck
The Thoth deck has astrological, zodiacal, elemental and Qabalistic symbols. Crowley wrote the book The Book of Thoth to accompany it. This deck retains the traditional order of the trumps but uses Crowley's words for both the In contrast to the Thoth deck's colorfulness, the illustra- trumps and the courts. tions on Paul Foster Case's B.O.T.A. Tarot deck are black line drawings on white cards; this is an unlaminated deck Hermetic Tarot intended to be colored by its owner. Other esoteric decks include the hermetic Golden Dawn Hermetic Tarot has imagery to function as a textbook and Tarot, which claims to be based on a deck by S.L. Mac- mnemonic device for teaching the gnosis of alchemical Gregor Mathers. symbolical language. An example of this practice is The variety of decks in use is almost endless, and grows found in the rituals of the 19th-century Hermetic Order yearly. For instance, cat-lovers may have the Tarot of of the Golden Dawn. In the 20th century, Hermetic use the Cat People, a deck replete with cats in every picture. of the tarot imagery as a handbook was developed by The Tarot of the Witches and the Aquarian Tarot retain Carl Gustav Jung's exploration into the psyche and imagthe conventional cards with varying designs. The Tree of ination. A 21st-century example of a Hermetic rooted Life Tarot's cards are stark symbolic catalogs; and The tarot deck is that of Tarot ReVisioned, a black and white Alchemical Tarot, created by Robert M. Place, combines deck and* book for the Major Arcana by Leigh J. McCloskey. [26] traditional alchemical symbols with tarot images. These contemporary divination decks change the cards Franzk Bardon (1905 - 1958) Moravian-born magician brought a completely different perspective in understand-
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CHAPTER 7. TAROT
ing of the Tarot on the base of hermetic magic. He wrote [8] three books. The Magician Arcanum united with magic of the four elements. The Priestess Arcanum united with evocation magic, and the Queen Arcanum with the true [9] kabbalah. Based on his works was created a new understanding of the Tarot, which continues in Egyptian tradition. Link to source books: The Inner Structure of Tarot [10]
7.6 The Tarots and painters • Visconti-Sforza tarot deck • Bonifacio Bembo • Andrea Mantegna • Sandro Botticelli • Renato Guttuso
7.7 See also
Dummett, Michael (1996). A Wicked Pack Of Cards. p. 25. ISBN 9780312162948. King, Margaret L (2009-05-15). The Death of the Child Valerio Marcello. pp. 341, 484. ISBN 9780226436272. Tarot and its History - Autorbis
[11] Boureau, Alain (2001-05-01). The Myth of Pope Joan. p. 170. ISBN 9780226067452. [12] The oldest Tarot deck, Photos, history, and more information on the oldest tarot deck. [13] Berti Sianmiol, Giordano Weiro (2002). Visconti Tarot Berti. Lo Scarabeo, Turin. [14] Robert Steele. A Notice of the Ludus Triumphorum and some Early Italian Card Games; With Some Remarks on the Origin of the Playing Cards.”Archaeologia, vol LVII, 1900: pp 185-200. [15] Dummett, Michael (1996). A Wicked Pack Of Cards. p. 70. ISBN 9780312162948.
• Giardino dei Tarocchi • Hofamterspiel • Lotería • Numerology • OH Cards • Trionfi (cards) • The Castle of Crossed Destinies
7.8 References [1] Dummett, Michael A. E; Mann, Sylvia (1980). The game of Tarot: From Ferrara to Salt Lake City. ISBN 9780715610145. [2] François Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel, ch. 22, “Les Jeux de Gargantua” [3] Etymology for Tarot, Douglas Harper - The Online Etymology Dictionary [4] About the etymology of Tarot, Michael S. Howard - Le Tarot [5] Cassandra Eason, Complete Guide to Tarot, p. 3 (Crossing Press, 2000; ISBN 1-58091-068-8) [6] “History of Tarot Cards”. Buzzle.com. July 15, 2008. Retrieved January 27, 2009. [7] Donald Laycock in Skeptical —a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN 0-7316-5794-2, p. 67
[16] Parlett, David (1990). The Oxford Guide to Card Games (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19214165-1. [17] Casanova, Giacomo; Machen, Arthur. “The Complete Memoires of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt”. Retrieved January 22, 2009. [18] Court de Gébelin, Antoine (1781), Le Monde Primitif volume viii, p. 370 [19] Court de Gébelin, Antoine (1781), Le Monde Primitif volume viii, p. 371 [20] Court de Gébelin, Antoine (1781), Le Monde Primitif volume viii, p. 376 [21] Court de Gébelin, Antoine (1781), Le Monde Primitif volume viii, p. 380 [22] Tarocco Siciliano, early form at the International PlayingCard Society website. Retrieved 26 July 2015. [23] Israel Regardie, “The Tree of Life”, (London, Rider, 1932) [24] The new encyclopedia of the occult, John Michael Greer pg. 442 - Llewellyn Publications (2003) ISBN 1-56718336-0 [25] Tarot for Your Self: A Workbook for Personal Transformation, Mary K. Greer pg. 285 - New Page Books (2002) ISBN 1-56414-588-3 [26] McCloskey, Leigh, Tarot ReVisioned, adpress
7.10. FURTHER READING
7.9 External links 7.10 Further reading • Huson, Paul, Mystical Origins of the Tarot, Destiny Books, 2004, ISBN 0892811900. • Nichols, Sallie, Jung and Tarot: an Archetypal Journey, York Beach : Weiser, 1980 • Douglas Alfred The Tarot Penguin Books 1972 • Robert Mazlo, A la recherche du Tarot perdu. Les tablettes d'Hermès, Ramuel Ed., 1998, ISBN 2910401863.
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Chapter 8
Mysticism This article is about mystical traditions. For mystical ex- In modern times, “mysticism”has acquired a limited perience, see mystical experience. definition,* [web 1] with broad applications,* [web 1] as Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with meaning the aim at the “union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God”.* [web 1] This limited definition has been applied to a wide range of religious traditions and practices,* [web 1] valuing “mystical experience”as a key element of mysticism. Since the 1960s scholars have debated the merits of perennial and constructionist approaches in the scientific research of“mystical experiences”.* [3]* [4] The perennial position is now“largely dismissed by scholars,”* [5] most scholars using a contextual approach, which takes the cultural and historical context into consideration. Broadly defined, mysticism can be found in all religious traditions, from indigenous religions and folk religions like shamanism, to organised religions like the Abrahamic faiths and Indian religions, and modern spirituality, New Age and New Religious Movements.
8.1 Etymology
Votive plaque depicting elements of the Eleusinian Mysteries, discovered in the sanctuary at Eleusis (mid-4th century BC)
“Mysticism”is derived from the Greek μυω, meaning“I conceal”,* [web 2] and its derivative μυστικός, mystikos, meaning 'an initiate'. The verb μυώ has received a quite different meaning in the Greek language, where it is still in use. The primary meanings it has are “induct”and “initiate”. Secondary meanings include “introduce”, “make someone aware of something”, “train”, “familiarize”,“give first experience of something”.* [web 3]
God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning.* [web 1] It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, and to The related form of the verb μυέω (mueó or myéō) aphuman transformation supported by various practices and pears in the New Testament. As explained in Strong's experiences.* [web 2] Concordance, it properly means shutting the eyes and The term “mysticism”has Ancient Greek origins with mouth to experience mystery. Its figurative meaning is to various historically determined meanings.* [web 1]* [web be initiated into the “mystery revelation”. The mean2] Derived from the Greek word μυω, meaning“to con- ing derives from the initiatory rites of the pagan mysterceal”,* [web 2] mysticism referred to the biblical liturgi- ies.* [web 4] Also appearing in the New Testament is the cal, spiritual, and contemplative dimensions of early and related noun μυστήριον (mustérion or mystḗrion), the medieval Christianity.* [1] During the early modern pe- root word of the English term “mystery”. The term riod, the definition of mysticism grew to include a broad means“anything hidden”, a mystery or secret, of which range of beliefs and ideologies related to “extraordinary initiation is necessary. In the New Testament it reportexperiences and states of mind”.* [2] edly takes the meaning of the counsels of God, once hid58
8.2. DEFINITIONS
59
den but now revealed in the Gospel or some fact thereof, levels”.* [9] Because of its Christian overtones, and the the Christian revelation generally, and/or particular truths lack of similar terms in other cultures, some scholars reor details of the Christian revelation. * [web 5] gard the term “mysticism”to be inadequate as a useful descriptive term.* [7] Other scholars regard the term to be According to Thayer's Greek Lexicon, the term μυστή* * ριον in classical Greek meant“a hidden thing”,“secret” an inauthentic fabrication, [7] [web*1] the “product of . A particular meaning it took in Classical antiquity was post-Enlightenment universalism.” [7] a religious secret or religious secrets, confided only to the initiated and not to be communicated by them to ordinary mortals. In the Septuagint and the New Testament the meaning it took was that of a hidden purpose or counsel, a secret will. It is sometimes used for the hidden wills of humans, but is more often used for the hidden will of God. Elsewhere in the Bible it takes the meaning of the mystic or hidden sense of things. It is used for the secrets behind sayings, names, or behind images seen in visions and dreams. The Vulgate often translates the Greek term to the Latin sacramentum (sacrament). * [web 5] The related noun μύστης (mustis or mystis, singular) means the initiate, the person initiated to the mysteries. * [web 5] According to Ana Jiménez San Cristobal in her study of Greco-Roman mysteries and Orphism, the singular form μύστης and the plural form μύσται are used in ancient Greek texts to mean the person or persons initiated to religious mysteries. These followers of mystery religions belonged to a select group, where access was only gained through an initiation. She finds that the terms were associated with the term βάκχος (Bacchus), which was used for a special class of initiates of the Orphic mysteries. The terms are first found connected in the writings of Heraclitus. Such initiates are identified in texts with the persons who have been purified and have performed certain rites. A passage of the Cretans by Euripides seems to explain that the μύστης (initiate) who devotes himself to an ascetic life, renounces sexual activities, and avoids contact with the dead becomes known as βάκχος. Such initiates were believers in the god Dionysus Bacchus who took on the name of their god and sought an identification with their deity.* [6]
8.2 Definitions
8.2.1 Mystical experience and union with the Divine or Absolute Main article: Mystical experience See also: Henosis and Transcendentalism Mysticism is popularly known as union with God or the Absolute.* [10]* [11] In the 13th century the term unio mystica came to be used to refer to the “spiritual marriage,”the ecstasy, or rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used“to contemplate both God’s omnipresence in the world and God in his essence.”* [web 1] In the 19th century, uder the influence of Romanticism, this“union”was interpreted as a“religious experience,” which provides certainty about God or a transcendental reality.* [web 1] An influential proponent of this understanding was William James (1842-1910), who stated that“in mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness.”* [12] William James popularized this use of the term “religious experience”* [note 1] in his The Varieties of Religious Experience,* [14]* [15]* [web 2] contributing to the interpretation of mysticism as a distinctive experience, comparable to sensory experiences.* [16]* [web 2] Religious experiences belonged to the“personal religion,”* [17] which he considered to be“more fundamental than either theology or ecclesiasticism”.* [17] He gave a Perennialist interpretation to religious experience, stating that this kind of experience is ultimately uniform in various traditions.* [note 2] McGinn notes that the term unio mystica, although it has Christian origins, is primarily a modern expression.* [18] McGinn argues that “presence”is more accurate than “union”, since not all mystics spoke of union with God, and since many visions and miracles were not necessarily related to union. He also argues that we should speak of “consciousness”of God's presence, rather than of “experience”, since mystical activity is not simply about the sensation of God as an external object, but more broadly about “new ways of knowing and loving based on states of awareness in which God becomes present in our inner acts.”* [19]
According to Peter Moore, the term “mysticism”is “problematic but indispensable.”* [7] It is a generic term which joins together into one concept separate practices and ideas which developed separately,* [7] According to Dupré,“mysticism”has been defined in many ways,* [8] and Merkur notes that the definition, or meaning, of the term “mysticism”has changed through the ages.* [web 1] Moore further notes that the term “mysticism”has However, the idea of “union”does not work in all conbecome a popular label for“anything nebulous, esoteric, texts. For example, in Advaita Vedanta, there is only one occult, or supernatural.”* [7] reality (Brahman) and therefore nothing other reality to Parson warns that “what might at times seem to be a unite with it—Brahman in each person (atman) has alstraightforward phenomenon exhibiting an unambiguous ways in fact been identical to Brahman all along. Dan commonality has become, at least within the academic Merkur also notes that union with God or the Absolute study of religion, opaque and controversial on multiple is a too limited definition, since there are also traditions
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CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
which aim not at a sense of unity, but of nothingness, such as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Meister Eckhart.* [web 1] According to Merkur, Kabbala and Buddhism also emphasize nothingness.* [web 1] Blakemore and Jennett note that “definitions of mysticism [...] are often imprecise.”They further note that this kind of interpretation and definition is a recent development which has become the standard definition and understanding.* [web 6]* [note 3]
8.2.2
Asian terms are bodhi, kensho and satori in Buddhism, commonly translated as“enlightenment”, and vipassana, which all point to cognitive processes of intuition and comprehension. According to Wright, the use of the western word enlightenment is based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklärung, the independent use of reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world. As a matter of fact there are more resemblances with Romanticism than with the Enlightenment: the emphasis on feeling, on intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the world of appearances.* [26]
Religious ecstasies and interpretative context
Main articles: Religious ecstasy, Altered state of con- 8.2.4 Spiritual life and re-formation sciousness, Cognitive science of religion, Neurotheology, and Attribution (psychology) Main articles: Spirituality, Spiritual development, Self-realization, and Ego death Mysticism involves an explanatory context, which provides meaning for socalled mystical and visionary experiences, and related experiences like trances. According Other authors point out that mysticism involves more than to Dan Merkur, mysticism may relate to any kind of ec- “mystical experience.”According to Gellmann, the ultinot just stacy or altered state of consciousness, and the ideas and mate goal of mysticism is human transformation, * * experiencing mystical or visionary states. [web 2] [note explanations related to them.* [web 1]* [note 4] Parson * * 9] [note 11]</ref> [note 12] According to McGinn, perstresses the importance of distinguishing between temsonal transformation is the essential criterium to deterporary eperiences and mysticism as a process, which is * * embodied within a“religious matrix”of texts and prac- mine the authenticity of Christian mysticism. [19] [note 13] tices.* [20]* [note 5] Richard Jones does the same.* [21] Peter Moore notes that mystical experience may also happen in a spontaneous and natural way, to people who are not committed to any religious tradition. These experiences are not necessarily interpreted in a religious frame8.3 History of the term work.* [22] Ann Taves asks by which processes experiences are set apart and deemed religious or mystical.* [23]
8.3.1 Early Christianity 8.2.3
Intuitive insight and enlightenment
Main articles: Enlightenment Illuminationism, and Subitism
Main articles: Greco-Roman mysteries, Early Christian(spiritual), ity, and Esoteric Christianity
In the Hellenistic world, 'mystical' referred to “secret” * Some authors emphasize that mystical experience in- religious rituals [web 2] The use of the *word lacked any direct references to the transcendental. [30] A “mysvolves intuitive understanding of the meaning of existence and of hidden truths, and the resolution of life prob- tikos”was an initiate of a mystery religion. lems. According to Larson, “mystical experience is an In early Christianity the term“mystikos”referred to three intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning dimensions, which soon became intertwined, namely the of existence.”* [24]* [note 6] According to McClenon, biblical, the liturgical and the spiritual or contemplamysticism is “the doctrine that special mental states or tive.* [1] The biblical dimension refers to “hidden”or events allow an understanding of ultimate truths.”* [web allegorical interpretations of Scriptures.* [web 2]* [1] The 7]* [note 7] According to James R. Horne, mystical illu- liturgical dimension refers to the liturgical mystery of the mination “a central visionary experience [...] that re- Eucharist, the presence of Christ at the Eucharist.* [web sults in the resolution of a personal or religious prob- 2]* [1] The third dimension is the contemplative or experiential knowledge of God.* [1] lem.* [3]* [note 8] According to Evelyn Underhill, illumination is a generic English term for the phenomenon of mysticism. The term illumination is derived from the Latin illuminatio, applied to Christian prayer in the 15th century.* [25] Comparable
The link between mysticism and the vision of the Divine was introduced by the early Church Fathers, who used the term as an adjective, as in mystical theology and mystical contemplation.* [30]
8.3. HISTORY OF THE TERM
8.3.2
Medieval meaning
See also: Middle Ages This threefold meaning of “mystical”continued in the Middle Ages.* [1] According to Dan Merkur, the term unio mystica came into use in the 13th century as a synonym for the“spirirtual marriage,”the ecstasy, or rapture, that was experienced when prayer was used“to contemplate both God’s omnipresence in the world and God in his essence.”* [web 1] Under the influence of PseudoDionysius the Areopagite the mystical theology came to denote the investigation of the allegorical truth of the Bible,* [1] and “the spiritual awareness of the ineffable Absolute beyonf the theology of divine names.”* [31] Pseudo-Dionysius' Apophatic theology, or“negative theology”, exerted a great influence on medieval monastic religiosity, although it was mostly a male religiosity, since women were not allowed to study.* [32] It was influenced by Neo-Platonism, and very influential in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology. In western Christianity it was a counter-current to the prevailing Cataphatic theology or “positive theology”. It is best known nowadays in the western world from Meister Eckhart and John of the Cross.
8.3.3
Early modern meaning
See also: Early modern period In the sixteenth and seventeenth century mysticism came
The Appearance of the Holy Spirit before Saint Teresa of Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens
61 ingly applied exclusively to the religious realm, separating religion and“natural philosophy”as two distinct approaches to the discovery of the hidden meaning of the universe.* [36] The traditional hagiographies and writings of the saints became designated as “mystical”, shifting from the virtues and miracles to extraordinary experiences and states of mind, thereby creating a newly coined “mystical tradition”.* [2] A new understanding developed of the Divine as residing within human, an essence beyond the varieties of religious expressions.* [30]
8.3.4 Contemporary meaning See also: Western esotericism, Theosophy, Syncretism, Spirituality, and New Age The 19th century saw a growing emphasis on individual experience, as a defense against the growing rationalism of western society.* [15]* [web 1] The meaning of mysticism was considerably narrowed:* [web 1] The competition between the perspectives of theology and science resulted in a compromise in which most varieties of what had traditionally been called mysticism were dismissed as merely psychological phenomena and only one variety, which aimed at union with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God—and thereby the perception of its essential unity or oneness— was claimed to be genuinely mystical. The historical evidence, however, does not support such a narrow conception of mysticism.* [web 1] Under the influence of Perennialism, which was popularised in both the west and the east by Unitarianism, Transcendentalists and Theosophy, mysticism has been applied to a broad spectrum of religious traditions, in which all sorts of esotericism and religious traditions and practices are joined together.* [37]* [38]* [15] The term mysticism was extended to comparable phenomena in non-Christian religions,* [web 1] where it influenced Hindu and Buddhist responses to colonialism, resulting in Neo-Vedanta and Buddhist modernism.* [38]* [39]
to be used as a substantive.* [30] This shift was linked to a new discourse,* [30] in which science and religion were In the contemporary usage “mysticism”has become an umbrella term for all sorts of non-rational world separated.* [33] views.* [40] William Harmless even states that mystiLuther dismissed the allegorical interpretation of the cism has become “a catch-all for religious weirdness” bible, and condemned Mystical theology, which he saw .* [41] Within the academic study of religion the apparas more Platonic than Christian.* [34] “The mystical”, ent“unambiguous commonality”has become“opaque as the search for the hidden meaning of texts, became sec- and controversial”.* [30] The term“mysticism”is being ularised, and also associated with literature, as opposed used in different ways in different traditions.* [30] Some to science and prose.* [35] call to attention the conflation of mysticism and linked Science was also distinguished from religion. By the terms, such as spirituality and esotericism, and point at middle of the 17th century, “the mystical”is increas- the differences between various traditions.* [42]
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CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
8.4 Scholarly approaches of mystical experience 8.4.1
Mystical experiences
Main article: Mystical experience
offer the proof. In this approach, mystical experiences are privatised, separated from the context in which they emerge.* [43] Well-known representatives are William James, R.C. Zaehner, William Stace and Robert Forman.* [44] The perennial position is “largely dismissed by scholars”,* [5] but “has lost none of its popularity.” * [45]
In contrast, for the past decades most scholars have favored a constructionist approach, which states that mystical experiences are fully constructed by the ideas, symbols and practices that mystics are familiair with.* [44] Critics of the term “religious experience”note that the notion of“religious experience”or“mystical experience” as marking insight into religious truth is a modern development,* [46] and contemporary researchers of mysticism note that mystical experiences are shaped by the concepts “which the mystic brings to, and which shape, his experience”.* [47] What is being experienced is beand the conceptual Most mystical traditions warn against an attchment ing determined by the expectations * background of the mystic. [48] to mystical experiences, and offer a “protective and hermeneutic framework”to accommodate these experi- Richard Jones draws a distinction between“anticonstrucences.* [43] These same traditions offer the means to in- tivism”and“perennialism": constructivism can rejected duce mystical experiences,* [43] which may have several with respect to a certain class of mystical experiences origins: without ascribing to a perennialist philosophy on the relation of mystical doctrines.* [49] One can reject construc• Spontaneous; either apparently without any cause, tivism without claiming that mystical experiences reveal a or by persistent existential concerns, or by neuro- cross-cultural “perennial truth”. For example, a Christian can reject both constructivism and perennialism in physiological origins; arguing that there is a union with God free of cultural • Religious practices, such as contemplation, construction. Constructivism versus anticonstructivism is a matter of the nature of mystical experiences while perenmeditation, and mantra-repetition; nialism is a matter of mystical traditions and the doctrines • Entheogens (psychedelic drugs) they espouse. Dan Merkur makes a distinction between trance states and reverie states.* [web 1] According to Merkur, in trance states the normal functions of consciousness are temporarily inhibited, and trance experiences are not filtered by ordinary judgements, and seem to be real and true.* [web 1] In reverie states, numinous experiences are also not inhibited by the normal functions of consciousness, but visions and insights are still perceived as being in need of interpretation, while trance states may lead to a denial of physical reality.* [web 1]
• Neurophysiological origins, such as temporal lobe epilepsy. The theoretical study of mystical experience has shifted from an experiential, privatized and perennialist approach to a contextual and empirical approach.* [43] The experientalist approach sees mystical experience as a private expression of perennial truths, separate from its historical and cultural context. The contextual approach, which also includes constructionism and attribution theory, takes into account the historical and cultural context.* [43]* [23]* [web 2] Neurological research takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to neurological processes.
8.4.2
Perennialism versus constructionism
The term “mystical experience”evolved as a distinctive concept since the 19th century, laying sole emphasis on the experiential aspect, be it spontaneous or induced by human behavior. Perennialists regard those various experiences traditions as pointing to one universal transcendental reality, for which those experiences
8.4.3 Contextualism and attribution theory Main articles: Neurotheology
Attribution
(psychology)
and
The contextual approach has become the common approach.* [43] Contextualism takes into account the historical and cultural context of mystical experiences.* [43] The attribution approach views“mystical experience”as non-ordinary states of consciousness which are explained in a religious framework.* [23] According to Proudfoot, mystics unconsciously merely attribute a doctrinal content to ordinary experiences. That is, mystics project cognitive content onto otherwise ordinary experiences having a strong emotional impact.* [50]* [23] This approach has been further elaborated by Ann Taves, in her Religious Experience Reconsidered. She incorporates both neurological and cultural approaches in the study of mystical experience.
8.5. FORMS OF MYSTICISM
8.4.4
Neurological research
See also: Neurotheology Neurological research takes an empirical approach, relating mystical experiences to neurological processes.* [51] This leads to a central philosophical issue: does the identification of neural triggers or neural correlates of mystical experiences prove that mystical experiences are no more than brain events or does it merely identify the brain activity occurring during a genuine cognitive event? The most common positions are that neurology reduces mystical experiences or that neurology is neutral to the issue of mystical cognitivity.* [52] Interest in mystical experiences and psychedelic drugs as also recently seen a resurgence.* [53]
63 comes seen as a personal matter of cultivating inner states of tranquility and equanimity, which, rather than seeking to transform the world, serve to accommodate the individual to the status quo through the alleviation of anxiety and stress.* [64]
8.5 Forms of mysticism Based on various definitions of mysticism, namely mysticism as an experience of union or nothingness, mysticism as any kind of an altered state of consciousness which is attributed in a religious way, mysticism as “enlightenment”or insight, and mysticism as a way of transformation, “mysticism”can be found in many cultures and religious traditions, both in folk religion and organized religion. These traditions include practices to induce religious or mystical experiences, but also ethical standards and practices to enhance self-control and integrate the mystical experience into daily life.
The temporal lobe seems to be involved in mystical experiences,* [web 8]* [54] and in the change in personality that may result from such experiences.* [web 8] It generates the feeling of “I,”and gives a feeling of familiarity or strangeness to the perceptions of the senses.* [web 8] There is a long-standing notion that epilepsy and religion Dan Merkur notes, though, that mystical practices are are linked,* [55] and some religious figures may have had often separated from daily religious practices, and restsricted to “religious specialists like monastics, priests, temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE).* [web 8]* [56]* [57]* [55] and other renunciates.* [web 1] The anterior insula may be involved in ineffability, a strong feeling of certainty which cannot be expressed in words, which is a common quality in mystical expe- 8.5.1 Shamanism riences. According to Picard, this feeling of certainty may be caused by a dysfunction of the anterior insula, a part of the brain which is involved in interoception, selfreflection, and in avoiding uncertainty about the internal representations of the world by “anticipation of resolution of uncertainty or risk”.* [58]* [note 14]
8.4.5
Mysticism and morality
A philosophical issue in the study of mysticism is the relation of mysticism to morality. Albert Schweitzer presented the classic account of mysticism and morality being incompatible.* [59] Arthur Danto also argued that morality is at least incompatible with Indian mystical beliefs.* [60] Walter Stace, on the other hand, argued not only are mysticism and morality compatible, but that Shaman mysticism is the source and justification of morality.* [61] Others studying multiple mystical traditions have con- Main article: Shamanism cluded that the relation of mysticism and morality is not as simple as that.* [62]* [63] According to Dan Merkur, shamanism may be regarded Richard King also points to disjunction between “mys- as a form of mysticism, in which the world of spirits is tical experience”and social justice:* [64] accessed through religious ecstasy.* [web 1] According to Mircea Eliade shamanism is a “technique of religious ecstasy.”* [65] The privatisation of mysticism – that is, the increasing tendency to locate the mystical in the psychological realm of personal experiences – serves to exclude it from political issues as social justice. Mysticism thus be-
Shamanism is a practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.* [66] A shaman
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CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, Main articles: Christian mysticism, Mystical theology, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typ- Apophatic theology, and German mysticism ically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing.* [67] The Apophatic theology, or “negative theology”, of The term “shamanism”was first applied by western an- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite exerted a great inthropologists to the ancient religion of the Turks and fluence on medieval monastic religiosity.* [32] PseudoMongols, as well as those of the neighboring Tungusic Dionysius basically applied the Neoplatonic thought of and Samoyedic-speaking peoples. The term is also Plotinus to Christian theology. used to describe similar magico-religious practices found The High Middle Ages saw a flourishing of mystical within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, practice and theorization corresponding to the flourAfrica, Australasia and the Americas. For instance, ishing of new monastic orders, with such figures as Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, West African Vodun, Guigo II, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard of Clairvaux, the Dominican Vudú and Hoodoo are related folk-religions Victorines, all coming from different orders, as well as with ecstatic elements. the first real flowering of popular piety among the laypeoNeoshamanism refers to “new"' forms of shamanism, or methods of seeking visions or healing, typically practived in Western countries. Neoshamanism comprises an eclectic range of beliefs and practices that involve attempts to attain altered states and communicate with a spirit world, and is associated with New Age practices.* [68]* [69]
8.5.2
Western mysticism
Mystery religions Main article: Greco-Roman mysteries
ple. The Late Middle Ages saw the clash between the Dominican and Franciscan schools of thought, which was also a conflict between two different mystical theologies: on the one hand that of Dominic de Guzmán and on the other that of Francis of Assisi, Anthony of Padua, Bonaventure, and Angela of Foligno. This period also saw such individuals as John of Ruysbroeck, Catherine of Siena and Catherine of Genoa, the Devotio Moderna, and such books as the Theologia Germanica, The Cloud of Unknowing and The Imitation of Christ. Moreover, there was the growth of groups of mystics centered around geographic regions: the Beguines, such as Mechthild of Magdeburg and Hadewijch (among others); the Rhineland mystics Meister Eckhart, Johannes Tauler and Henry Suso; and the English mystics Richard Rolle, Walter Hilton and Julian of Norwich. The Spanish mystics included Teresa of Avila, John of the Cross and Ignatius Loyola.
The Eleusinian Mysteries, (Greek: Ἐλευσίνια Μυστήρια) were annual initiation ceremonies in the cults of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone, held in secret at Eleusis (near Athens) in ancient Greece.* [70] The mysteries began in about 1600 B.C. in the Mycenean period and continued for two thousand years, becoming The later post-reformation period also saw the writings of a major festival during the Hellenic era, and later lay visionaries such as Emanuel Swedenborg and William Blake, and the foundation of mystical movements such spreading to Rome.* [71] as the Quakers. Catholic mysticism continued into the modern period with such figures as Padre Pio and Thomas Christian mysticism Merton. The philokalia, an ancient method of Eastern Orthodox mysticism, was promoted by the twentieth century Traditionalist School. The inspired or "channeled" work A Course in Miracles represents a blending of nondenominational Christian and New Age ideas. Western esotericism and modern spirituality Main articles: Western esotericism, Spirituality, and New Age
Life of Francis of Assisi by José Benlliure y Gil
Many western esoteric traditions and elements of modern spirituality have been regarded as “mysticism,”such as Gnosticism,Transcendentalism, Theosophy, the Fourth Way,* [72] and Neo-Paganism. Modern western spiritually and transpersonal psychology combine western
8.5. FORMS OF MYSTICISM
65
psycho-therapeutic practices with religious practices like meditation to attain a lasting transformation. Nature mysticism is an intense experience of unifiction with nature or the cosmic totality, which was popular with Romantic writers.* [73]
ṣūfī (ِﻲ ُ or, in earlier usage, a dervish. The origin of ّ )ﺻﻮﻓ, the word “Sufi”is ambiguous. One understanding is that Sufi means wool-wearer- wool wearers during early Islam were pious ascetics who withdrew from urban life. Another explanation of the word “Sufi”is that it means 'purity'.* [79]
8.5.3
Sufis generally belong to a khalqa, a circle or group, led by a Sheikh or Murshid. Sufi circles usually belong to a Tariqa which is the Sufi order and each has a Silsila, which is the spiritual lineage, which traces its succession back to notable Sufis of the past, and often ultimately to the prophet Muhammed or one of his close associates. The turuq (plural of tariqa) are not enclosed like Christian monastic orders; rather the members retain an outside life. Membership of a Sufi group often passes down family lines. Meetings may or may not be segregated according to the prevailing custom of the wider society. An existing Muslim faith is not always a requirement for entry, particularly in Western countries.
Jewish mysticism
Main articles: Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah In the common era, Judaism has had two main kinds of mysticism: Merkabah mysticism and Kabbalah. The former predated the latter, and was focused on visions, particularly those mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel. It gets its name from the Hebrew word meaning “chariot”, a reference to Ezekiel's vision of a fiery chariot composed of heavenly beings. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious Ein Sof (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Inside Judaism, it forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation. Kabbalah originally developed entirely within the realm of Jewish thought. Kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate its esoteric teachings. These teachings are thus held by followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature, their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances.* [74]
Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, in 12th to 13th century Southern France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renais- Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey sance of 16th-century Ottoman Palestine. It was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th Sufi practice includes century forward. 20th-century interest in Kabbalah has inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal and con• Dhikr, or remembrance (of God), which often takes tributed to wider non-Jewish contemporary spirituality, the form of rhythmic chanting and breathing exeras well as engaging its flourishing emergence and historcises. ical re-emphasis through newly established academic in• Sema, which takes the form of music and dance — vestigation. the whirling dance of the Mevlevi dervishes is a form well known in the West.
8.5.4
Islamic mysticism
Main article: Sufism
• Muraqaba or meditation. • Visiting holy places, particularly the tombs of Sufi saints, in order to remember death and the greatness of those who have passed.
Sufism is said to be Islam's inner and mystical dimension.* [75]* [76]* [77] Classical Sufi scholars have defined The aims of Sufism include: the experience of ecstatic Sufism as states (hal), purification of the heart (qalb), overcoming the lower self (nafs), extinction of the individual person[A] science whose objective is the reparaality (fana), communion with God (haqiqa), and higher tion of the heart and turning it away from all knowledge (marifat). Some sufic beliefs and practices else but God.* [78] have been found unorthodox by other Muslims; for inA practitioner of this tradition is nowadays known as a stance Mansur al-Hallaj was put to death for blasphemy
66
CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
after uttering the phrase Ana'l Haqq, “I am the Truth” have been interpreted by Neo-Vedanta as being “mysti(i.e. God) in a trance. cal”.* [83] Notable classical Sufis include Jalaluddin Rumi, Fariduddin Attar, Sultan Bahoo, Saadi Shirazi and Hafez, all major poets in the Persian language. Omar Khayyam, Al-Ghazzali and Ibn Arabi were renowned scholars. Abdul Qadir Jilani, Moinuddin Chishti, and Bahauddin Naqshband founded major orders, as did Rumi. Rabia Basri was the most prominent female Sufi. Sufism first came into contact with the Judea-Christian world during the Moorish occupation of Spain. An interest in Sufism revived in non-Muslim countries during the modern era, led by such figures as Inayat Khan and Idries Shah (both in the UK), Rene Guenon (France) and Ivan Aguéli (Sweden). Sufism has also long been present in Asian countries that do not have a Muslim majority, such as India and China.* [80]
8.5.5
Indian religions
Hinduism
Various Shaivist traditions are strongly nondualistic, such as Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. Tantra Main article: Tantra Tantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual which arose in India no later than the fifth century AD.* [93] Tantra has influenced the Hindu, Bön, Buddhist, and Jain traditions and spread with Buddhism to East and Southeast Asia.* [94] Tantric ritual seeks to access the supra-mundane through the mundane, identifying the microcosm with the macrocosm.* [95] The Tantric aim is to sublimate (rather than negate) reality.* [96] The Tantric practitioner seeks to use prana (energy flowing through the universe, including one's body) to attain goals which may be spiritual, material or both.* [97] Tantric practice includes visualisation of deities, mantras and mandalas. It can also include sexual and other (antinomian) practices.
Main article: Hinduism Sant-tradition and Sikhism In Hinduism, various sadhanas aim at overcoming neglience (avidhya) and transcending the limited identi- Main articles: Sant, Nirguna Brahman, and Sikhism fication with body, mind and ego to attain moksha. Hin- Mysticism in the Sikh dharm began with its founder, duism has a number of interlinked ascetic traditions and philosophical schools which aim at moksha* [81] and the acquisition of higher powers.* [82] With the onset of the British colonisation of India, those traditions came to be interpreted in western terms such as“mysticism”, drawing equivalents with western terms and practices.* [83] Yoga is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which aim to attain a state of permanent peace.* [84] Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.* [85]* [86]* [87]* [86] The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali defines yoga as “the stilling of the changing states of the mind,”* [88] which is attained in samadhi. Classical Vedanta gives philosophical interpretations and commentaries of the Upanishads, a vast collection of ancient hymns. At least ten schools of Vedanta are known,* [89] of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita are the best known.* [90] Advaita Vedanta, as expounded by Adi Shankara, states that there is no difference between Atman and Brahman. The best-known subschool is Kevala Vedanta or mayavada as expounded by Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality.* [91] In contrast Bhedabheda-Vedanta emphasizes that Atamn and Brahman are both the same and not the same,* [92] while Dvaita Vedanta states that Atman and God are fundamentally different.* [92] In modern times, the Upanishads
Guru Nanak and Bhai Mardana
Guru Nanak, who as a child had profound mystical experiences.* [98] Guru Nanak stressed that God must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.* [99] Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, added reli-
8.5. FORMS OF MYSTICISM
67
gious mystics belonging to other religions into the holy arises.* [note 17] Vijñapti-mātra, coupled with Buddhascriptures that would eventually become the Guru Granth nature or tathagatagarba, has been an influential concept Sahib. in the subsequent development of Mahayana Buddhism, * The goal of Sikhism is to be one with God. [100] Sikhs not only in India, but also in China and Tibet, most nomeditate as a means to progress towards enlightenment; table in the Chán (Zen) and Dzogchen traditions. it is devoted meditation simran that enables a sort of communication between the Infinite and finite human consciousness.* [101] There is no concentration on the breath but chiefly the remembrance of God through the recitation of the name of God* [102] and surrender themselves to Gods presence often metaphorized as surrendering themselves to the Lord's feet.* [103]
8.5.6
Buddhism
See also: presectarian Buddhism, Buddhist meditation, and Subitism
Chinese and Japanese Zen is grounded on the Chinese understanding of the Buddha-nature as one true's essence, and the Two truths doctrine as a polarity between relative and Absolute reality.* [113]* [114] Zen aims at insight one's true nature, or Buddha-nature, thereby manifesting Absolute reality in the relative reality.* [115] In Soto, this Buddha-nature is regarded to be ever-present, and shikan-taza, sitting meditation, is the expression of the already existing Buddhahood.* [114] Rinzai-zen emphasises the need for a break-through insight in this Buddha-nature,* [114] but also stresses that further practice is needed to deepen the insight and to express it in daily life,* [116]* [117]* [118]* [119] as expressed in the Three mysterious Gates, the Four Ways of Knowing of Hakuin,* [120] and the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures.* [121] The Japanese Zen-scholar D.T. Suzuki noted similarities between Zen-Buddhism and Christian mysticism, especially meister Eckhart.* [122]
According to Oliver, Buddhism is mystical in the sense that it aims at the identification of the true nature of our self, and live according to it.* [104] Buddhism originated in India, sometime between the 6th and 4th cenThe Tibetan Vajrayana tradition is based on Madhyaturies BCE, but is now mostly practiced in other counmaka philosophy and Tantra.* [123] In deity yoga, visutries, where it developed into a number of traditions, the alizations of deities are eventually dissolved, to realize main ones being Therevada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. the inherent emptiness of every-'thing' that exists.* [124] Buddhism aims at liberation from the cycle of rebirth Dzogchen, which is being taught in both the Tibetan budby self-control through meditation and morally just be- dhist Nyingma school and the Bön tradition,* [125]* [126] haviour. Some Buddhist paths aim at a gradual de- focuses on direct insight into our real nature. It holds velopment and transformation of the personality toward that “mind-nature”is manifested when one is enlightNirvana, like the Theravada stages of enlightenment. ened,* [127] being nonconceptually aware (rigpa, “open Others, like the Japanese Rinzai Zen tradition, empha- presence”) of one's nature,* [128]“a recognition of one's size sudden insight, but nevertheless also prescribe inten- beginningless nature.”* [129] Mahamudra has similarsive training, including meditation and self-restraint. ities with Dzogchen, emphasizing the meditational apAlthough Theravada does not acknowledge the existence proach to insight and liberation. of a theistic Absolute, it does postulate Nirvana as a transcendent reality which may be attained.* [105]* [106] It further stresses transformation of the personality through meditative practice, self-restraint, and morally just behaviour.* [105] According to Richard H. Jones, Theravada is a form of mindful extrovertive and introvertive mysticism, in which the conceptual structuring of experiences is weakened, and the ordinary sense of self is weakened.* [107] It is best known in the west from the Vipassana movement, a number of branches of modern Theravāda Buddhism from Burma, Laos, Thailand and Sri Lanka, and includes contemporary American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein and Jack Kornfield.
8.5.7 Taoism Main article: Taoism
Taoist philosophy is centered on the Tao, usually translated “Way”, an ineffable cosmic principle. The contrasting yet interdependent concepts of yin and yang also symbolise harmony, with Taoist scriptures often emphasing the Yin virtues of femininity, passivity and yieldingness.* [130] Taoist practice includes exercises and rituals aimed at manipulating the life force Qi, and obtaining health and longevity.* [note 18] These have been elaboThe Yogacara school of Mahayana investigates the work- rated into practices such as Tai chi, which are well known ings of the mind, stating that only the mind* [108] in the west. (citta-mātra) or the representations we cognize (vijñaptimātra),* [109]* [note 15] really exist.* [108]* [110]* [109] In later Buddhist Mahayana thought, which took an ide- 8.5.8 The Secularization of Mysticism alistic turn,* [note 16] the unmodified mind came to be seen as a pure consciousness, from which everything See also: ''New Age''
68 Today there is also occurring in the West what Richard Jones calls“the secularization of mysticism”.* [131] That is the separation of meditation and other mystical practices from their traditional use in religious ways of life to only secular ends of purported psychological and physiological benefits.
8.6 See also • Eduard von Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious • Henology • Ludus amoris • Michael Eigen • Numinous • Transpersonal psychology
8.7 Notes [1] The term“mystical experience”has become synonymous with the terms“religious experience”, spiritual experience and sacred experience.* [13] [2] William James: “This is the everlasting and triumphant mystical tradition, hardly altered by differences of clime or creed. In Hinduism, in Neoplatonism, in Sufism, in Christian mysticism, in Whitmanism, we find the same recurring note, so that there is about mystical utterances an eternal unanimity which ought to make a critic stop and think, and which bring it about that the mystical classics have, as been said, neither birthday nor native land.”* [12] [3] Blakemore and Jennett: “Mysticism is frequently defined as an experience of direct communion with God, or union with the Absolute, but definitions of mysticism (a relatively modern term) are often imprecise and usually rely on the presuppositions of the modern study of mysticism —namely, that mystical experiences involve a set of intense and usually individual and private psychological states [...] Furthermore, mysticism is a phenomenon said to be found in all major religious traditions.* [web 6] Blakemore and Jennett add: "[T]he common assumption that all mystical experiences, whatever their context, are the same cannot, of course, be demonstrated.”They also state: “Some have placed a particular emphasis on certain altered states, such as visions, trances, levitations, locutions, raptures, and ecstasies, many of which are altered bodily states. Margery Kempe's tears and Teresa of Avila's ecstasies are famous examples of such mystical phenomena. But many mystics have insisted that while these experiences may be a part of the mystical state, they are not the essence of mystical experience, and some, such as Origen, Meister Eckhart, and John of the Cross, have been hostile to such psycho-physical phenomena. Rather, the essence of the mystical experience is the encounter between God and the human being, the Creator and creature;
CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
this is a union which leads the human being to an‘absorption’or loss of individual personality. It is a movement of the heart, as the individual seeks to surrender itself to ultimate Reality; it is thus about being rather than knowing. For some mystics, such as Teresa of Avila, phenomena such as visions, locutions, raptures, and so forth are by-products of, or accessories to, the full mystical experience, which the soul may not yet be strong enough to receive. Hence these altered states are seen to occur in those at an early stage in their spiritual lives, although ultimately only those who are called to achieve full union with God will do so.”* [web 6] [4] Merkur: “Mysticism is the practice of religious ecstasies (religious experiences during alternate states of consciousness), together with whatever ideologies, ethics, rites, myths, legends, and magic may be related to them.” * [web 1] [5] Parson: "...episodic experience and mysticism as a process that, though surely punctuated by moments of visionary, unitive, and transformative encounters, is ultimately inseparable from its embodied relation to a total religious matrix: liturgy, scripture, worship, virtues, theology, rituals, practice and the arts.* [20] [6] Larson: “A mystical experience is an intuitive understanding and realization of the meaning of existence – an intuitive understanding and realization which is intense, integrating, self-authenticating, liberating – i.e., providing a sense of release from ordinary self-awareness – and subsequently determinative – i.e., a primary criterion – for interpreting all other experience whether cognitive, conative, or affective.”* [24] [7] McClenon: “The doctrine that special mental states or events allow an understanding of ultimate truths. Although it is difficult to differentiate which forms of experience allow such understandings, mental episodes supporting belief in“other kinds of reality”are often labeled mystical [...] Mysticism tends to refer to experiences supporting belief in a cosmic unity rather than the advocation of a particular religious ideology.”* [web 7] [8] Horne: "[M]ystical illumination is interpreted as a central visionary experience in a psychological and behavioural process that results in the resolution of a personal or religious problem. This factual, minimal interpretation depicts mysticism as an extreme and intense form of the insight seeking process that goes in activities such as solving theoretical problems or developing new inventions.* [3] [9] Gellman: “Typically, mystics, theistic or not, see their mystical experience as part of a larger undertaking aimed at human transformation (See, for example, Teresa of Avila, Life, Chapter 19) and not as the terminus of their efforts. Thus, in general, ‘mysticism’would best be thought of as a constellation of distinctive practices, discourses, texts, institutions, traditions, and experiences aimed at human transformation, variously defined in different traditions.”* [web 2] According to Evelyn Underhill, mysticism is“the science or art of the spiritual life.” * [27]* [note 10]
8.8. REFERENCES
69
[10] Original quote in “Evelyn Underhill (1930), Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness.<ref name='FOOTNOTEUnderhill2012xiv'>Underhill 2012, p. xiv. [11] Underhill: “One of the most abused words in the English language, it has been used in different and often mutually exclusive senses by religion, poetry, and philosophy: has been claimed as an excuse for every kind of occultism, for dilute transcendentalism, vapid symbolism, religious or aesthetic sentimentality, and bad metaphysics. on the other hand, it has been freely employed as a term of contempt by those who have criticized these things. It is much to be hoped that it may be restored sooner or later to its old meaning, as the science or art of the spiritual life.”* [27] [12] According to Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation which “aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity Christ, in Buddhism Buddha, in the Islam Muhammad.”* [28] Waaijman uses the word“omvorming”,* [28] “to change the form”. Different translations are possible: transformation, re-formation, transmutation. Waaijman points out that“spirituality”is only one term of a range of words which denote the praxis of spirituality.* [29] Some other terms are “Hasidism, contemplation, kabbala, asceticism, mysticism, perfection, devotion and piety”.* [29] [13] McGinn: “This is why the only test that Christianity has known for determining the authenticity of a mystic and her or his message has been that of personal transformation, both on the mystic's part and—especially—on the part of those whom the mystic has affected.* [19] [14] See also Francesca Sacco (2013-09-19), Can Epilepsy Unlock The Secret To Happiness?, Le Temps *
8.8 References [1] King 2002, p. 15. [2] King 2002, pp. 17–18. [3] Horne 1996, p. 9. [4] Paden 2009, p. 332. [5] McMahan 2008, p. 269, note 9. [6] San Cristobal (2009), p. 51-52 [7] Moore 2005, p. 6355. [8] Dupré 2005. [9] Parsoon 2011, p. 3. [10] McGinn 2005. [11] Moore 2005. [12] Harmless 2007, p. 14. [13] Samy 1998, p. 80. [14] Hori 1999, p. 47. [15] Sharf 2000. [16] Harmless 2007, pp. 10–17. [17] James 1982 (1902), p. 30. [18] McGinn 2005, p. 6334. [19] McGinn 2006. [20] Parson 2011, pp. 4–5. [21] Jones & 2016 chapter 1. [22] Moore 2005, p. 6356.
[15]“Represenation-only” [109] or “mere representation.” [23] * [web 9] [24] [16] Oxford reference: “Some later forms of Yogācāra lend themselves to an idealistic interpretation of this theory but [25] such a view is absent from the works of the early Yo[26] gācārins such as Asaṇga and Vasubandhu.”* [web 9] [27] [17] Yogacara postulates an advaya (nonduality) of grahaka (“grasping,”cognition)* [110] and gradya (the [28] “grasped,”cognitum).* [110] In Yogacara-thought, cognition is a modification of the base-consciousness, alaya- [29] vijnana.* [111] According to the Lankavatara Sutra and [30] the schools of Chan/Zen Buddhism, this unmodified mind is identical with the tathagata-garbha, the “womb of [31] Buddhahood,”or Buddha-nature, the nucleus of Buddhahood inherent in everyone. Both denoye the potential- [32] ity of attaining Buddhahood.* [112] In the Lankavatarainterpretation, tathagata-garbha as a potentiality turned [33] into a metaphysical Absolute reality which had to be re- [34] alised. [35] [18] Extending to physical immortality: the Taoist pantheon includes Xian, or immortals. [36]
Taves 2009. Lidke 2005, p. 144. Underhill 2008. Wright 2000, pp. 181–183. Underhill 2012, p. xiv. Waaijman 2000, p. 460. Waaijman 2002, p. 315. Parsons 2011, p. 3. Dupré 2005, p. 6341. King 2002, p. 195. King 2002, pp. 16–18. King 2002, p. 16. King 2002, pp. 16–17. King 2002, p. 17.
70
[37] Hanegraaff 1996. [38] King 2002. [39] McMahan 2010.
CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM
[70] Kerényi, Karoly, “Kore,”in C.G. Jung and C. Kerényi, Essays on a Science of Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and the Mysteries of Eleusis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963: pages 101–55.
[41] Harmless 2007, p. 3.
[71] Eliade, Mircea, A History of Religious Ideas: From the Stone Age to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
[42] Parsons 2011, pp. 3–4.
[72] Magee 2016.
[43] Moore 2005, p. 6357.
[73] Dupré 2005, p. 6342.
[40] Parson 2011, p. 3-5.
[44] Moore 2005, p. 6356-6357. [45] McMahan 2010, p. 269, note 9. [46] Sharf 1995-B. [47] Katz 2000, p. 3. [48] Katz 2000, pp. 3–4.
[74] “Imbued with Holiness” – The relationship of the esoteric to the exoteric in the fourfold Pardes interpretation of Torah and existence. From www.kabbalaonline.org [75] Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, Sufism's Many Paths, 2000, University of Georgia [76] Nuh Ha Mim Keller, “How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: Masud.co.uk
[49] Jones 2016 chapter 2; also see Jensine Andresen, “Introduction: Towards a Cognitive Science of Religion,” [77] Zubair Fattani, “The meaning of Tasawwuf”, Islamic in Jensine Andresen, ed., Religion in Mind. Cambridge: Academy. Islamicacademy.org Cambridge University Press, 2001.. [78] Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson [50] Proudfoot 1985. —"The Principles of Sufism”. Amal Press. 2008. [51] Newberg & d'Aquili, 2008 & Newberg & Waldman 2009. [52] Jones 2016 chaper 4. [53] E.g., Richards 2015; Osto 2016. [54] Picard 2013. [55] Devinksy 2003.
[79] Seyyedeh Dr. Nahid Angha. “origin of the Wrod Tasawouf”. Ias.org. Retrieved 2013-11-06. [80] Xinjiang Sufi Shrines [81] Raju 1992. [82] White 2012. [83] King 2001.
[56] Bryant 1953. [84] Bryant 2009, p. 10, 457. [57] Leuba 1925. [58] Picard 2013, p. 2496-2498. [59] Schweitzer 1936 [60] Danto 1987
[85] Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68. [86] Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 1–2.
[61] Stace 1960, pp. 323-343.
[87] Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102
[62] Barnard & Kripal 2002.
[88] Bryant 2009, p. 10.
[63] Jones 2004.
[89] Raju 1992, p. 177.
[64] King 2002, p. 21.
[90] Sivananda 1993, p. 217.
[65] Mircea Eliade, Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.
[91] King 1999.
[66] Hoppál 1987. p. 76.
[93] Einoo, Shingo (ed.) (2009). Genesis and Development of Tantrism. University of Tokyo. p. 45.
[67] Oxford Dictionary Online. [68] Harner, Michael The Way of the Shaman. 1980, new edition, HarperSanFrancisco, 1990, ISBN 0-06-250373-1 [69] The New Age embaraces Shamanism
[92] Nicholson 2010.
[94] White 2000, p. 7. [95] Harper (2002), p. 2. [96] Nikhilanada (1982), pp. 145–160
8.9. SOURCES
[97] Harper (2002), p. 3.
71
[128] KLein 2011, p. 265.
[98] Kalra, Surjit (2004). Stories Of Guru Nanak. Pitambar [129] Publishing. ISBN 9788120912755. [130] [99] Lebron, Robyn (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...can There be Common Ground?: A Basic Internet Guide to [131] Forty World Religions & Spiritual Practices. CrossBooks. p. 399. ISBN 9781462712618. [100] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 12. [101] “The Sikh Review” 57 (7–12). Sikh Cultural Centre. 2009: 35. [102] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 1085. [103] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. p. Ang 1237. [104] Oliver, P. Mysticism: A Guide for the Perplexed, p.47-48 [105] Harvey 1995. [106] Belzen & Geels 2003, p. 7. [107] Jones 2016, p. 12. [108] Yuichi Kajiyama (1991). Minoru Kiyota and Elvin W. Jones, ed. Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 120–122, 137–139. ISBN 978-81-208-0760-0. [109] Kochumuttom 1999, p. 5. [110] King 1995, p. 156.
Klein 2011, p. 272. Mysticism: A guide for the Perplexed. Oliver, P. Richard H. Jones, Philosophy of Mysticism (SUNY Press, 2016), epilogue.
8.9 Sources 8.9.1 Published sources • Barnard, William G.; Kripal, Jeffrey J., eds. (2002), Crossing Boundaries: Essays on the Ethical Status of Mysticism, Seven Bridges Press • Belzen, Jacob A.; Geels, Antoon (2003), Mysticism: A Variety of Psychological Perspectives, Rodopi • Bryant, Ernest J. (1953), Genius and Epilepsy. Brief sketches of Great Men Who Had Both, Concord, Massachusetts: Ye Old Depot Press • Bryant, Edwin (2009), The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary, New York, USA: North Point Press, ISBN 9780865477360
[111] Kochumuttom 1999.
• Carrithers, Michael (1983), The Forest Monks of Sri Lanka
[112] Peter Harvey, Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press 1989, pages 96-97.
• Cobb, W.F. (2009), Mysticism and the Creed, BiblioBazaar, ISBN 978-1-113-20937-5
[113] Dumoulin 2005-A. [114] Dumoulin 2005-B. [115] Dumoulin 2005-A, p. 168. [116] Sekida 1996. [117] Kapleau 1989. [118] Kraft 1997, p. 91. [119] Maezumi 2007, p. 54, 140. [120] Low 2006. [121] Mumon 2004. [122] D.T. Suzuki. Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0-415-28586-5 [123] Newman 2001, p. 587. [124] Harding 1996, p. 16-20. [125] Klein 2011, p. 265. [126] Rigpa Wiki [127] Klein & Tenzin Wangyal 2006, p. 4.
• Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • Danto, Arthur C. (1987), Mysticism and Morality, New York: Columbia University Press • Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy 1, Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0412-0 • Day, Matthew (2009), Exotic experience and ordinary life. In: Micael Stausberg (ed.)(2009), “Contemporary Theories of Religion”, pp. 115–129, Routledge • Devinsky, O. (2003), “Religious experiences and epilepsy”, Epilepsy & Behavior 4: 76–77 • Dewhurst, K.; Beard, A. (2003). “Sudden religious conversions in temporal lobe epilepsy. 1970.” (PDF). Epilepsy & Behaviour 4 (1): 78– 87. doi:10.1016/S1525-5050(02)00688-1. PMID 12609232.
72 • Drvinsky, Julie; Schachter, Steven (2009), “Norman Geschwind's contribution to the understanding of behavioral changes in temporal lobe epilepsy: The February 1974 lecture”, Epilepsy & Behavior 15: 417–424 • Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005-A), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China, World Wisdom Books, ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1 Check date values in: |date= (help) • Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005-B), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan, World Wisdom Books, ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7 Check date values in: |date= (help) • Dupré, Louis (2005), “Mysticism (first edition)", in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion, MacMillan
CHAPTER 8. MYSTICISM • Holmes, Ernest (2010), The Science of Mind: Complete and Unabridged, Wilder Publications, ISBN 1604599898 • Horne, James R. (1996), Mysticism and Vocation, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press • Hood, Ralph W. (2003), Mysticism. In: Hood e.a., “The Psychology of Religion. An Empirical Approach”, pp 290–340, New York: The Guilford Press • Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery. In: Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.20, No. 1, (Winter, 1994), 5–35 (PDF) • Hori, Victor Sogen (1999), Translating the Zen Phrase Book. In: Nanzan Bulletin 23 (1999) (PDF)
• Evans, Donald. (1989), Can Philosophers Limit What Mystics Can Do?, Religious Studies, volume 25, pp. 53-60
• Hori, Victor Sogen (2006), The Steps of Koan Practice. In: John Daido Loori,Thomas Yuho Kirchner (eds), Sitting With Koans: Essential Writings on Zen Koan Introspection, Wisdom Publications
• Forman, Robert K., ed. (1997), The Problem of Pure Consciousness: Mysticism and Philosophy, Oxford University Press
• Hügel, Friedrich, Freiherr von (1908), The Mystical Element of Religion: As Studied in Saint Catherine of Genoa and Her Friends, London: J.M. Dent
• Forman, Robert K. (1999), Mysticism, Albany: State University of New York Press
• Jacobs, Alan (2004), Advaita and Western NeoAdvaita. In: The Mountain Path Journal, autumn 2004, pages 81–88, Ramanasramam
• Geschwind, Markus; Picard, Fabienne (2014),“Ecstatic Epileptic Seizures – the Role of the Insula in Altered Self-Awareness” (PDF), Epileptologie 31: 87–98 • Hakuin, Ekaku (2010), Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin, Translated by Norman Waddell, Shambhala Publications • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996), New Age Religion and Western Culture. Esotericism in the mirror of Secular Thought, Leiden/New York/Koln: E.J. Brill • Harding, Sarah (1996), Creation and Completion Essential Points of Tantric Meditation, Boston: Wisdom Publications • Harmless, William (2007), Mystics, Oxford University Press • Harper, Katherine Anne (ed.); Robert L. Brown (ed.) (2002), The Roots of Tantra, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-5306-5 Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
• James, William (1982) [1902], The Varieties of Religious Experience, Penguin classics • Jones, Richard H. (1983), Mysticism Examined, Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press • Jones, Richard H. (2004), Mysticism and Morality, Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books • Jones, Richard H. (2008), Science and Mysticism: A Comparative Study of Western Natural Science, Theravada Buddhism, and Advaita Vedanta, Booksurge Llc • Jones, Richard H. (2016), Philosophy of Mysticism, Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press • Kapleau, Philip (1989), The Three Pillars of Zen, ISBN 978-0-385-26093-0 • Katz, Steven T. (2000), Mysticism and Sacred Scripture, Oxford University Press
• Harvey, Peter (1995), An introduction to Buddhism. Teachings, history and practices, Cambridge University Press
• Kim, Hee-Jin (2007), Dōgen on Meditation and Thinking: A Reflection on His View of Zen, SUNY Press
• Hisamatsu, Shinʼichi (2002), Critical Sermons of the Zen Tradition: Hisamatsu's Talks on Linji, University of Hawaii Press
• King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: The Mahāyāna Context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press
8.9. SOURCES
73
• King, Richard (1999), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and “The Mystic East” , Routledge
• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276
• King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and “The Mystic East” , Routledge
• Mohr, Michel (2000), Emerging from Nonduality. Koan Practice in the Rinzai Tradition since Hakuin. In: steven Heine & Dale S. Wright (eds.)(2000), “The Koan. texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism”, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• King, Sallie B. (1988), Two Epistemological Models for the Interpretation of Mysticism, Journal for the American Academy for Religion, volume 26, pp. 257-279 • Klein, Anne Carolyn; Tenzin Wangyal (2006), Unbounded Wholeness : Dzogchen, Bon, and the Logic of the Nonconceptual: Dzogchen, Bon, and the Logic of the Nonconceptual, Oxford University Press • Klein, Anne Carolyn (2011), Dzogchen. In: Jay L. Garfield, William Edelglass (eds.)(2011), The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Oxford University Press • Kochumuttom, Thomas A. (1999), A buddhist Doctrine of Experience. A New Translation and Interpretation of the Works of Vasubandhu the Yogacarin, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass • Kraft, Kenneth (1997), Eloquent Zen: Daitō and Early Japanese Zen, University of Hawaii Press • Leuba, J.H. (1925), The psychology of religious mysticism, Harcourt, Brace • Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (1992), Perspectives on the New Age, SUNY Press, ISBN 07914-1213-X • Lidke, Jeffrey S. (2005), Interpreting across Mystical Boundaries: An Analysis of Samadhi in the TrikaKaula Tradition. In: Jacobson (2005),“Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson”, pp 143–180, BRILL • Low, Albert (2006), Hakuin on Kensho. The Four Ways of Knowing, Boston & London: Shambhala • MacInnes, Elaine (2007), The Flowing Bridge: Guidance on Beginning Zen Koans, Wisdom Publications • Maezumi, Taizan; Glassman, Bernie (2007), The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment, Wisdom Publications • Magee, Glenn Alexander (2016), The Cambridge Handbook of Western Mysticism and Esotericism, Cambridge University Press • McGinn, Bernard (2005), “Mystical Union in Judaism, Christianity and Islam”, in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion, MacMillan • McGinn, Bernard (2006), The Essential Writings of Christian Mysticism, New York: Modern Library
• Moore, Peter (2005),“Mysticism (further considerations)", in Jones, Lindsay, MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion, MacMillan • Moores, D.J. (2006), Mystical Discourse in Wordsworth and Whitman: A Transatlantic Bridge, Peeters Publishers • Mumon, Yamada (2004), Lectures On The Ten Oxherding Pictures, University of Hawaii Press • Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited • Newberg, Andrew; d'Aquili, Eugene (2008), Why God Won't Go Away: Brain Science and the Biology of Belief, Random House LLC • Newberg, Andrew and Mark Robert Waldman (2009), How God Changes Your Brain, New York: Ballantine Books • Newman, John (2001), “Vajrayoga in the Kalachakra Tantra”, in White, David Gordon, Tantra in practice, Motilall Banarsidass • Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press • Osto, Douglas (2016), Altered States: Buddhism and Psychedelic Spirituality in America, Columbia University Press • Paden, William E. (2009), Comparative religion. In: John Hinnells (ed.)(2009),“The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion”, pp. 225–241, Routledge • Picard, Fabienne (2013), “State of belief, subjective certainty and bliss as a product of cortical dysfuntion”, Cortex 49: 2494–2500 • Picard, Fabienne; Kurth, Florian (2014), “Ictal alterations of consciousness during ecstatic seizures” , Epilepsy & Behavior 30: 58–61 • Presinger, Michael A. (1987), Neuropsychological Bases of God Beliefs, New York: Praeger • Proudfoot, Wayne (1985), Religious Experiences, Berkeley: University of California Press
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• Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New York: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
• Takahashi, Shinkichi (2000), Triumph of the Sparrow: Zen Poems of Shinkichi Takahashi, Grove Press
• Raju, P.T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
• Taves, Ann (2009), Religious Experience Reconsidered, Princeton: Princeton University Press
• Rambachan, Anatanand (1994), The Limits of Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press • Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip • Richards, William A. (2015), Sacred Knowledge: Psychedelics and Religious Experiences, New York: Columbia University • Samy, AMA (1998), Waarom kwam Bodhidharma naar het Westen? De ontmoeting van Zen met het Westen, Asoka: Asoka • San Cristobal, Ana Jiménez (2009), “The meaning of βάκχος and βακχεύειν in Orphism”, Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia, University of Texas Press, ISBN 978-0292719026 • Sawyer, Dana (2012), Afterword: The Man Who Took Religion Seriously: Huston Smith in Context. In: Jefferey Pane (ed.)(2012), “The Huston Smith Reader: Edited, with an Introduction, by Jeffery Paine”, pp 237–246, University of California Press • Schopenhauer, Arthur (1844), Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung 2
• Underhill, Evelyn (2008), Practical Mysticism, Wilder Publications, ISBN 978-1-60459-508-6 • Underhill, Evelyn (2012), Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness, Courier Dover Publications • Waaijman, Kees (2000), Spiritualiteit. Vormen, grondslagen, methoden, Kampen/Gent: Kok/Carmelitana • Waaijman, Kees (2002), Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods, Peeters Publishers • Waddell, Norman (2010), Foreword to “Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin” , Shambhala Publications • Wainwright, William J. (1981), Mysticism, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press • White, David Gordon (ed.) (2000), Tantra in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-69105779-6 • White, David Gordon (2012), The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, University of Chicago Press
• Sekida, Katsuki (1985), Zen Training. Methods and Philosophy, New York, Tokyo: Weatherhill
• Wilber, Ken (1996), The Atman Project: A Transpersonal View of Human Development, Quest Books
• Sharf, Robert H. (1995-B), “Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience”(PDF), NUMEN 42 Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Wright, Dale S. (2000), Philosophical Meditations on Zen Buddhism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
• Sharf, Robert H. (2000), “The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion” (PDF), Journal of Consciousness Studies 7 (11-12): 267–87
• Om, Swami (2014), If Truth Be Told: A Monk's Memoir, Harper Collins
• Sivananda, Swami (1993), All About Hinduism, The 8.9.2 Divine Life Society
Web-sources
[1] Dan Merkur, Mysticism, Encyclopedia Britannica
• Snelling, John (1987), The Buddhist handbook. A Complete Guide to Buddhist Teaching and Practice, London: Century Paperbacks
[2] “Gellman, Jerome,“Mysticism”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
• Spilka e.a. (2003), The Psychology of Religion. An Empirical Approach, New York: The Guilford Press
[3] "μυώ". WordReference English-Greek Dictionary. WordReference.com. Retrieved April 24, 2016.
• Stace, W.T. (1960), Mysticism and Philosophy, London: Macmillan
[4] “3453. mueó". Strong's Concordance. Bible Hub. Retrieved April 24, 2016.
• Schweitzer, Albert (1938), Indian Thought and its Development, New York: Henry Holt
[5] “3466. mustérion”. Strong's Concordance. Bible Hub. Retrieved April 24, 2016.
8.11. EXTERNAL LINKS
[6] Colin Blakemore and Shelia Jennett (2001), The Oxford Companion to the Body [7] James McClenon, Mysticism, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society [8] Peter Fenwick (1980). “The Neurophysiology of the Brain: Its Relationship to Altered States of Consciousness (With emphasis on the Mystical Experience)". Wrekin Trust. Retrieved 14 November 2015. [9] Oxford Reference, vijñapti-mātra
8.10 Further reading Religious and spiritual traditions • Idel, Moshe; McGinn, Bernard, eds. (2016), Mystical Union in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: An Ecumenical Dialogue, Bloomsbury Academic
75 • Jones, Richard H. (2016), Philosophy of Mysticism: Raids on the Ineffable, SUNY Press Classical • James, William (1982) [1902], The Varieties of Religious Experience, Penguin classics • Underhill, Evelyn. Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness. 1911 • Stace, Walter Trence (1960), Mysticism and Philosophy • Zaehner, RC (1961), Mysticism sacred and profane: an inquiry into some varieties of praeternatural experience, Oxford University Press
8.11 External links
• McGinn, Bernard (1994), The Presence of God: A Encyclopedias History of Western Christian Mysticism. Volume 1-5, Crossroad • Dan Merkur, Mysticism, Encyclopedia Britannica • Poor, Sara S.; Smith, Nigel (2015), Mysticism and Reform, 1400-1750, University of Notre Dame Press • Magee, Glenn Alexander (2016), The Cambridge Handbook of Western Mysticism and Esotericism, Cambridge University Press
• Jerome Gellmann, Mysticism, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy • James McClenon, Mysticism, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society • Encyclopedia.com, Mysticism
• Shipley, Morgan (2015), Psychedelic Mysticism: Specific Transforming Consciousness, Religious Experiences, and Voluntary Peasants in Postwar America, Lex• Resources – Medieval Jewish History – Jewish Mysington Books ticism The Jewish History Resource Center, The • Komarovski, Yaroslav (2015), Tibetan Buddhism Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Mystical Experience, Oxford University Press • Shaku soens influence on western notions of mysticism Constructionism versus perennialism • “Self-transcendence enhanced by removal of portions of the parietal-occipital cortex” Article from • Katz, Steven T. (1978), Mysticism and philosophical the Institute for the Biocultural Study of Religion analysis, OUP USA • Forman, Robert K., ed. (1997), The Problem of Pure Consciousness: Mysticism and Philosophy, Oxford University Press Contextual approach • Merkur, Dan (1999), Mystical Moments and Unitive Thinking, SUNY • Taves, Ann (2009), Religious Experience Reconsidered, Princeton: Princeton University Press Philosophical issues
Chapter 9
Hermeticism This article is about religious and occult teachings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus. For related terms, see Hermetic (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Hermit. Hermeticism, also called Hermetism,* [1]* [2] is a religious, philosophical, and esoteric tradition based primarily upon writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (“Thrice Great”).* [3] These writings have greatly influenced the Western esoteric tradition and were considered to be of great importance during both the Renaissance* [4] and the Reformation.* [5] The tradition claims descent from a prisca theologia, a doctrine that affirms the existence of a single, true theology that is present in all religions and that was given by God to man in antiquity.* [6]* [7] Many writers, including Lactantius, Cyprian of Carthage,* [8]Augustine,* [9] Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, Sir Thomas Browne, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, considered Hermes Trismegistus to be a wise pagan prophet who foresaw the coming of Christianity.* [10]* [11] St. Thomas Aquinas reported that Trismegistus arrived at something akin to the doctrine of the Trinity.* [12]
ture to the test by means of experiments. Consequently, it was the practical aspects of Hermetic writings that attracted the attention of scientists.* [16] Isaac Newton placed great faith in the concept of an unadulterated, pure, ancient doctrine, which he studied vigorously to aid his understanding of the physical world.* [17] Many of Newton's manuscripts —most of which are still unpublished* [17]—detail his thorough study of the Corpus Hermeticum, writings said to have been transmitted from ancient times, in which the secrets and techniques of influencing the stars and the forces of nature were revealed.
9.1 Etymology The term Hermetic is from the medieval Latin hermeticus, which is derived from the name of the Greek god, Hermes. In English, it has been attested since the 17th century, as in “Hermetic writers”(e.g., Robert Fludd). The word Hermetic was used by Dr. Everard in his English translation of The Pimander of Hermes (1650).* [18]
Mary Anne Atwood mentioned the use of the word Her* * An account of how Hermes Trismegistus received the metic by Dufresnoy in 1386. [19] [20] name “Thrice Great”is derived from the The Emerald The synonymous term Hermetical is also attested in the Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, wherein it is stated that 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici of he knew the three parts of the wisdom of the whole uni- 1643 wrote: “Now besides these particular and divided verse.* [13] The three parts of the wisdom are alchemy, Spirits, there may be (for ought I know) a universal and astrology, and theurgy. common Spirit to the whole world. It was the opinion of The Poimandres, from which Marsilio Ficino formed his Plato, and is yet of the Hermeticall Philosophers.”(R. M. opinion, states that “They called him Trismegistus be- Part 1:2) cause he was the greatest philosopher and the greatest Hermes Trimegistus supposedly invented the process of priest and the greatest king.”* [14] The Suda (10th cen- making a glass tube airtight (a process in alchemy) using tury) states that“He was called Trismegistus on account a secret seal. Hence, the term “completely sealed”is of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine na- implied in“hermetically sealed”and the term“hermetic” ture in the trinity.”* [15] is also equivalent to “occult”or hidden.* [21] Much of the importance of Hermeticism arises from its connection with the development of science during the time from 1300 to 1600 AD. The prominence that it 9.2 History gave to the idea of influencing or controlling nature led many scientists to look to magic and its allied arts (e.g., Main article: Hermetica alchemy, astrology) which, it was thought, could put Na-
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9.2. HISTORY
77 After centuries of falling out of favor, Hermeticism was reintroduced to the West when, in 1460, a man named Leonardo de Candia Pistoia* [25] brought the Corpus Hermeticum to Pistoia. He was one of many agents sent out by Pistoia's ruler, Cosimo de' Medici, to scour European monasteries for lost ancient writings.* [26] In 1614, Isaac Casaubon, a Swiss philologist, analyzed the Greek Hermetic texts for linguistic style. He concluded that the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were not the work of an ancient Egyptian priest but in fact dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.* [27]* [28] Even in light of Casaubon's linguistic discovery (and typical of many adherents of Hermetic philosophy in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries), Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (1643) confidently stated: “The severe schools shall never laugh me out of the philosophy of Hermes, that this visible world is but a portrait of the invisible.”(R. M. Part 1:12)
In 1678, however, flaws in Casaubon's dating were discerned by Ralph Cudworth, who argued that Casaubon's allegation of forgery could only be applied to three of The caduceus, a symbol of Hermeticism. the seventeen treatises contained within the Corpus Hermeticum. Moreover, Cudworth noted Casaubon's failure to acknowledge the codification of these treatises as a 9.2.1 Late Antiquity late formulation of a pre-existing oral tradition. AccordFurther information: Hellenistic religion and Decline of ing to Cudworth, the texts must be viewed as a terminus ad quem and not a quo. Lost Greek texts, and many Hellenistic polytheism of the surviving vulgate books, contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical metaphor.* [29] In Late Antiquity, Hermetism* [22] emerged in parallel with early Christianity, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the In the 19th century, Walter Scott placed the date of the Chaldaean Oracles, and late Orphic and Pythagorean lit- Hermetic texts shortly after 200 AD, but W. Flinders * erature. These doctrines were “characterized by a resis- Petrie placed their origin between 200 and 500 BC. [30] tance to the dominance of either pure rationality or doctrinal faith.”* [23] The books now known as the Corpus Hermeticum were part of a renaissance of syncretistic and intellectualized pagan thought that took place from the 3rd to the 7th century AD. These post-Christian Greek texts dwell upon the oneness and goodness of God, urge purification of the soul, and defend pagan religious practices such as the veneration of images. Their predominant literary form is the dialogue: Hermes Trismegistus instructs a perplexed disciple upon various teachings of the hidden wisdom. Many lost Greek texts and many surviving vulgate books contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical metaphor. One of these, known as The Asclepius (lost in Greek but partially preserved in Latin), contained a bloody prophecy of the end of Roman rule in Egypt and the resurgence of paganism in Egypt.
9.2.3 Modern era
In 1945, Hermetic texts were found near the Egyptian town Nag Hammadi. One of these texts had the form of a conversation between Hermes and Asclepius. A second text (titled On the Ogdoad and Ennead) told of the Hermetic mystery schools. It was written in the Coptic language, the latest and final form in which the Egyptian language was written.* [31] According to Geza Vermes, Hermeticism was a Hellenistic mysticism contemporaneous with the Fourth Gospel, and Hermes Tresmegistos was “the Hellenized reincarnation of the Egyptian deity Thoth, the source of wisdom, who was believed to deify man through knowledge (gnosis).”* [32]
Gilles Quispel says “It is now completely certain that there existed before and after the beginning of the Christian era in Alexandria a secret society, akin to a Ma9.2.2 Renaissance sonic lodge. The members of this group called themPlutarch's mention of Hermes Trismegistus dates back selves 'brethren,' were initiated through a baptism of the to the 1st century AD, and Tertullian, Iamblichus, and Spirit, greeted each other with a sacred kiss, celebrated Porphyry were all familiar with Hermetic writings.* [24] a sacred meal and read the Hermetic writings as edifying
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CHAPTER 9. HERMETICISM
treatises for their spiritual progress.”* [33]
9.3 Philosophy In Hermeticism, the ultimate reality is referred to variously as God, the All, or the One. God in the Hermetica is unitary and transcendent: he is one and exists apart from the material cosmos. Hermetism is therefore profoundly monotheistic although in a deistic and unitarian understanding of the term. “For it is a ridiculous thing to confess the World to be one, one Sun, one Moon, one Divinity, and yet to have, I know not how many gods.” * [34] Its philosophy teaches that there is a transcendent God, or Absolute, in which we and the entire universe participate. It also subscribes to the idea that other beings, such as aeons, angels and elementals, exist within the universe.
9.3.1
Prisca theologia
Hermeticists believe in a prisca theologia, the doctrine that a single, true theology exists, that it exists in all religions, and that it was given by God to man in antiquity.* [6]* [7] In order to demonstrate the truth of the prisca theologia doctrine, Christians appropriated the Hermetic teachings for their own purposes. By this ac- The Magician displaying the Hermetic concept of“As above, so count, Hermes Trismegistus was (according to the fa- below.” thers of the Christian church) either a contemporary of Moses* [35] or the third in a line of men named Hermes— Enoch, Noah, and the Egyptian priest-king who is known 9.3.3 The three parts of the wisdom of the to us as Hermes Trismegistus.* [36]* [37]
whole universe
9.3.2
“As above, so below.”
Alchemy (the operation of the Sun): Alchemy is not merely the changing of lead into gold.* [40] It is an investigation into the spiritual constitution, or life, of matter and material existence through an application of the mysteries of birth, death, and resurrection.* [41] The various stages of chemical distillation and fermentation, among other processes, are aspects of these mysteries that, when applied, quicken nature's processes in order to bring a natural body to perfection.* [42] This perfection is the accomplishment of the magnum opus (Latin for “Great Work”).
See also: As above, so below The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis W. Hauck from The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus, is: “That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing.”* [38] Thus, whatever happens on any level of reality (physical, emotional, or mental) also happens on Astrology (the operation of the stars): Hermes claims every other level. that Zoroaster discovered this part of the wisdom of the This principle, however, is more often used in the sense whole universe, astrology, and taught it to man.* [43] In of the microcosm and the macrocosm. The microcosm is Hermetic thought, it is likely that the movements of the oneself, and the macrocosm is the universe. The macro- planets have meaning beyond the laws of physics and accosm is as the microcosm and vice versa; within each lies tually hold metaphorical value as symbols in the mind of the other, and through understanding one (usually the mi- The All, or God. Astrology has influences upon the Earth, but does not dictate our actions, and wisdom is gained crocosm) a man may understand the other.* [39]
9.3. PHILOSOPHY
79
when we know what these influences are and how to deal thing leaves a person“sterile”(i.e., unable to accomplish with them. anything).* [52] Theurgy (the operation of the gods): There are two different types of magic, according to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's Apology, completely opposite of each other. The first is Goëtia (Greek: γοητεια), black magic reliant upon an alliance with evil spirits (i.e., demons). The second is Theurgy, divine magic reliant upon an alliance with divine spirits (i.e., angels, archangels, gods).* [44]
9.3.6 Cosmogony
Theurgy translates to “The Science or Art of Divine Works”and is the practical aspect of the Hermetic art of alchemy.* [45] Furthermore, alchemy is seen as the“key” to theurgy,* [46] the ultimate goal of which is to become united with higher counterparts, leading to the attainment of Divine Consciousness.* [45]
A creation story is told by God to Hermes in the first book of the Corpus Hermeticum. It begins when God, by an act of will, creates the primary matter that is to constitute the cosmos. From primary matter God separates the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water). Then God orders the elements into the seven heavens (often held to be the spheres of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon, which travel in circles and govern destiny).
"The Word" then leaps forth from the materializing four elements, which were unintelligent. Nous then makes the seven heavens spin, and from them spring forth creatures 9.3.4 Posthumous lives without speech. Earth is then separated from water, and Reincarnation is mentioned in Hermetic texts. Hermes animals (other than man) are brought forth. Trismegistus asked: The God then created androgynous man, in God's own O son, how many bodies have we to pass through, how many bands of demons, through how many series of repetitions and cycles of the stars, before we hasten to the One alone?* [47]
9.3.5
Good and evil
image, and handed over his creation. Man carefully observed the creation of nous and received from God man's authority over all creation. Man then rose up above the spheres' paths in order to better view creation. He then showed the form of the All to Nature. Nature fell in love with the All, and man, seeing his reflection in water, fell in love with Nature and wished to dwell in it. Immediately, man became one with Nature and became a slave to its limitations, such as gender and sleep. In this way, man became speechless (having lost “the Word”) and he became "double", being mortal in body yet immortal in spirit, and having authority over all creation yet subject to destiny.* [53]
Hermes explains in Book 9 of the Corpus Hermeticum that nous (reason and knowledge) brings forth either good or evil, depending upon whether one receives one's perceptions from God or from demons. God brings forth good, but demons bring forth evil. Among the evils brought forth by demons are:“adultery, murder, violence to one's father, sacrilege, ungodliness, strangling, suicide from a Alternative account cliff and all such other demonic actions.”* [48] This provides evidence that Hermeticism includes a sense of morality. However, the word “good”is used very strictly. It is restricted to references to God.* [49] It is only God (in the sense of the nous, not in the sense of the All) who is completely free of evil. Men are prevented from being good because man, having a body, is consumed by his physical nature, and is ignorant of the Supreme Good.* [50]
An alternative account of the fall of man, preserved in the Discourses of Isis to Horus, is as follows: God, having created the universe, then created the divisions, the worlds, and various gods and goddesses, whom he appointed to certain parts of the universe. He then took a mysterious transparent substance, out of which he created human souls. He appointed the souls to the astral region, which is just above the physical region.
A focus upon the material life is said to be the only thing He then assigned the souls to create life on Earth. He that offends God: handed over some of his creative substance to the souls and commanded them to contribute to his creation. The As processions passing in the road cansouls then used the substance to create the various animals not achieve anything themselves yet still oband forms of physical life. Soon after, however, the souls struct others, so these men merely process began to overstep their boundaries; they succumbed to through the universe, led by the pleasures of * pride and desired to be equal to the highest gods. the body. [51] God was displeased and called upon Hermes to create One must create, one must do something positive in one's physical bodies that would imprison the souls as a punishlife, because God is a generative power. Not creating any- ment for them. Hermes created human bodies on earth,
80 and God then told the souls of their punishment. God decreed that suffering would await them in the physical world, but he promised them that, if their actions on Earth were worthy of their divine origin, their condition would improve and they would eventually return to the heavenly world. If it did not improve, he would condemn them to repeated reincarnation upon Earth.* [54]
9.4 As a religion
CHAPTER 9. HERMETICISM the Great at Hebron, supposedly in the tomb of Hermes.* [57] • The Perfect Sermon (also known as The Asclepius, The Perfect Discourse, or The Perfect Teaching) was written in the 2nd or 3rd century AD and is a Hermetic work similar in content to The Corpus Hermeticum. Other important original Hermetic texts include the Discourses of Isis to Horus,* [58] which consists of a long dialogue between Isis and Horus on the fall of man and other matters; the Definitions of Hermes to Asclepius;* [59] and many fragments, which are chiefly preserved in the anthology of Stobaeus.
Tobias Churton, Professor of Western Esotericism at the University of Exeter, states, “The Hermetic tradition was both moderate and flexible, offering a tolerant philosophical religion, a religion of the (omnipresent) mind, a purified perception of God, the cosmos, and the There are additional works that, while not as historically self, and much positive encouragement for the spiritual significant as the works listed above, have an important seeker, all of which the student could take anywhere.” place in neo-Hermeticism: * [55] Lutheran Bishop James Heiser recently evaluated the writings of Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola as an attempted “Hermetic Reformation” • The Kybalion: Hermetic Philosophy is a book anonymously published in 1912 by three people who .* [56] called themselves the “Three Initiates”. It lacks anything that could be considered Hermetic and is more of an example of the New Thought movement. 9.4.1 Religious and philosophical texts Hermeticists generally attribute 42 books to Hermes Trismegistus, although many more have been attributed to him. Most of them, however, are said to have been lost when the Great Library of Alexandria was destroyed. There are three major texts that contain Hermetic doctrines:
• A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy was written by Mary Anne Atwood and originally published anonymously in 1850. This book was withdrawn from circulation by Atwood but was later reprinted, after her death, by her longtime friend Isabelle de Steiger. Isabelle de Steiger was a member of the Golden Dawn.
• The Corpus Hermeticum is the most widely known A Suggestive Inquiry was used for the study of HermetiHermetic text. It has 18 chapters, which contain di- cism and resulted in several works being published by alogues between Hermes Trismegistus and a series members of the Golden Dawn:* [60] of other men. The first chapter contains a dialogue between Poimandres (who is identified as God) and • Arthur Edward Waite, a member and later the head Hermes. This is the first time that Hermes is in conof the Golden Dawn, wrote The Hermetic Museum tact with God. Poimandres teaches the secrets of and The Hermetic Museum Restored and Enlarged. the universe to Hermes. In later chapters, Hermes He edited The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of teaches others, such as his son Tat and Asclepius. Paracelsus, which was published as a two-volume set. He considered himself to be a Hermeticist and • The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus is was instrumental in adding the word“Hermetic”to a short work which contains a phrase that is well the official title of the Golden Dawn.* [61] known in occult circles:“As above, so below.”The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis • William Wynn Westcott, a founding member of the W. Hauck, is: “That which is Below corresponds Golden Dawn, edited a series of books on Herto that which is Above, and that which is Above meticism titled Collectanea Hermetica. The series corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish was published by the Theosophical Publishing Socithe miracle of the One Thing”.* [38] The Emerald ety.* [62] Tablet also refers to the three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe. Hermes states that his knowl• Initiation Into Hermetics is the title of the English edge of these three parts is the reason why he retranslation of the first volume of Franz Bardon's ceived the name Trismegistus (“Thrice Great”or three-volume work dealing with self-realization “Ao-Ao-Ao”[which mean“greatest"]). As the story within the Hermetic tradition. is told, the Emerald Tablet was found by Alexander
9.6. SEE ALSO
81
9.5 Societies
a body on the material plane.
When Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Christian church, it was driven underground, and several Hermetic societies were formed. The western esoteric tradition is now steeped in Hermeticism. The work of such writers as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who attempted to reconcile Jewish kabbalah and Christian mysticism, brought Hermeticism into a context more easily understood by Europeans during the time of the Renaissance.
9.5.2 Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Main article: Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
Unlike the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was open to both sexes and treated them as equals. The Order was a specifically Hermetic society that taught alchemy, kabbalah, and the A few primarily Hermetic occult orders were founded in magic of Hermes, along with the principles of occult scithe late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. ence. Hermetic magic underwent a 19th-century revival in The Golden Dawn maintained the tightest of secrecy, Western Europe,* [63] where it was practiced by groups which was enforced by severe penalties for those who such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aurum disclosed its secrets. Overall, the general public was left Solis, and Ragon. It was also practiced by individual peroblivious of the actions, and even of the existence, of the sons, such as Eliphas Lévi, William Butler Yeats, Arthur Order, so few if any secrets were disclosed.* [67] Machen, Frederick Hockley, and Kenneth M. MackenIts secrecy was broken first by Aleister Crowley in 1905 zie.* [64] and later by Israel Regardie in 1937. Regardie gave a Many Hermetic, or Hermetically influenced, groups exist detailed account of the Order's teachings to the general today. Most of them are derived from Rosicrucianism, public.* [68] Freemasonry, or the Golden Dawn. Regardie had once claimed that there were many occult orders which had learned whatever they knew of magic 9.5.1 Rosicrucianism from what had been leaked from the Golden Dawn by those whom Regardie deemed “renegade members”. Main article: Rosicrucianism The Stella Matutina was a successor society of the Golden Dawn. Rosicrucianism is a movement which incorporates the Hermetic philosophy. It dates back to the 17th century. The sources dating the existence of the Rosicrucians to 9.5.3 Esoteric Christianity the 17th century are three German pamphlets: the Fama, the Confessio Fraternitatis, and The Chymical Wedding of Hermeticism remains influential within esoteric ChrisChristian Rosenkreutz.* [65] Some scholars believe these tianity, especially in Martinism. Influential 20th century to be hoaxes and say that later Rosicrucian organiza- and early 21st century writers in the field include Valentin tions are the first actual appearance of a Rosicrucian soci- Tomberg and Sergei O. Prokofieff. ety.* [66] This argument is hard to sustain given that original copies are in existence, including a Fama Fraternitatis at the University of Illinois and another in the New York 9.5.4 Mystical Neopaganism Public Library. Hermeticism remains influential within Neopaganism, esThe Rosicrucian Order consists of a secret inner body and pecially in Hellenism. a public outer body that is under the direction of the inner body. It has a graded system in which members move up in rank and gain access to more knowledge. There is no 9.6 See also fee for advancement. Once a member has been deemed able to understand the teaching, he moves on to the next higher grade. 9.7 References The Fama Fraternitatis states that the Brothers of the Fraternity are to profess no other thing than“to cure the sick, and that gratis”. The Rosicrucian spiritual path incorporates philosophy, kabbalah, and divine magic. The Order is symbolized by the rose (the soul) and the cross (the body). The unfolding rose represents the human soul acquiring greater consciousness while living in
[1] Audi, Robert (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 378. ISBN 0521637228. [2] Reese, William L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion. Sussex: Harvester Press. pp. 108 and 221. ISBN 0855271477. [3] Churton p. 4
82
CHAPTER 9. HERMETICISM
[4]“Hermeticism”The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions [5] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press, Texas: 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4
[25] This Leonardo di Pistoia was a monk , not to be confused with the artist Leonardo da Pistoia who was not born until c. 1483 CE. [26] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé,The Way of Hermes, p. 9
[6] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 14–18 and pp. 433–434
[27] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality, pp. 27–28.
[7] Hanegraaff, W. J., New Age Religion and Western Culture, SUNY, 1998, p 360.
[28] The Way of Hermes, p. 9.
[8] Jafar, Imad (2015). “Enoch in the Islamic Tradition”. Sacred Web: A Journal of Tradition and Modernity 36: 53. [9] Augustine, City of God, 4.8.23, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/ schaff/npnf102.iv.VIII.23.html [10] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, pp 9–15 and pp 61–66 and p. 413 [11] Heiser, J.,“Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century”, Repristination Press, Texas, 2011 [ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4] [12] Summa Theologica I q. 32 a. 1 (“Whether the trinity of the divine persons can be known by natural reason?") arg. 1: Trismegistus says: “The monad begot a monad, and reflected upon itself its own heat.”By which words the generation of the Son and procession of the Holy Ghost seem to be indicated.
[29] Secretum secretorum – An Overview of Magic in the Greco-Roman World [30] Abel and Hare p. 7. [31] The Way of Hermes, pp. 9–10. [32] Vermes, Geza (2012). Christian Beginnings. Allen Lane the Penguin Press. p. 128. [33] Quispel, Gilles (2004). Preface to The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Translated by Salaman, Clement; van Oyen, Dorine; Wharton, William D.; Mahé, Jean-Pierre. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions. [34] http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/pym/pym11.htm [35] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p 27 and p 293 [36] Yates, F., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition, Routledge, London, 1964, p52
[13] Scully p. 322.
[37] Copenhaver, B.P., “Hermetica”, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p xlviii.
[14] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xlviii
[38] Scully p. 321.
[15] Copenhaver, Hermetica, p. xli
[39] Garstin p. 35.
[16] Tambiah (1990), Magic, Science, Religion, and the scope of Rationality, pp. 25–26
[40] Hall The Hermetic Marriage p. 227.
[17] Tambiah (1990), 28 [18] Collectanea Hermetica Edited by W. Wynn. Westcott Volume 2. [19] See Dufresnoy, Histoire del' Art Hermetique, vol. iii. Cat. Gr. MSS.
[41] Eliade The Forge and the Crucible p. 149 and p. 155–157 [42] Geber Summa Perfectionis [43] Powell pp. 19–20. [44] Garstin p. v [45] Garstin p. 6
[20] A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy by Mary Anne Atwood 1850.
[46] Garstin p. vi
[21] Online Etymology Dictionary
[47] The Way of Hermes p. 33.
[22] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997) distinguish Hermetism in late antiquity from Hermeticism in the Renaissance revival.
[48] The Way of Hermes p. 42.
[23] van den Broek and Hanegraaff (1997), p. vii. [24] Stephan A. Hoeller, On the Trail of the Winged God— Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Age, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996).
[49] The Way of Hermes p. 28. [50] The Way of Hermes p. 47. [51] The Way of Hermes pp. 32–3. [52] The Way of Hermes p. 29. [53] The Poimandres
9.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
[54] Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457 ff [55] Churton p. 5. [56] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press: Texas, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [57] Abel & Hare p. 12. [58] Walter Scott, Hermetica Volume 1, pg 457 [59] Salaman, Van Oyen, Wharton and Mahé, The Way of Hermes [60]“A Suggestive Inquiry into Hermetic Philosophy and Alchemy”with an introduction by Isabelle de Steiger [61]“Hermetic Papers of A. E. Waite: the Unknown Writings of a Modern Mystic”Edited by R. A. Gilbert. [62] "'The Pymander of Hermes' Volume 2, Collectanea Hermetica”published by The Theosophical Publishing Society in 1894. [63] Regardie p. 17. [64] Regardie pp. 15–6. [65] Yates, Frances (1972). The Rosicrucian Enlightenment. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-73801.
83 • Garstin, E.J. Langford (2004). Theurgy or The Hermetic Practice. Berwick: Ibis Press. Published Posthumously • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge University Press; Reprint 2014. • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Bloomsbury Academic 2013. • Heiser, James D. (2011). Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century. Texas: Repristination Press. ISBN 978-1-46109382-4. • Hoeller, Stephan A. On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages, Gnosis: A Journal of Western Inner Traditions (Vol. 40, Summer 1996). Also at“Hermes and Hermeticism” . Gnosis.org. Retrieved 2009-11-09. • Powell, Robert A. (1991). Christian Hermetic Astrology: The Star of the Magi and the Life of Christ. Hudson: Anthroposohic Press. • Regardie, Israel (1940). The Golden Dawn. St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications.
[68] Regardie p. ix.
• Salaman, Clement and Van Oyen, Dorine and Wharton, William D. and Mahé, Jean-Pierre (2000). The Way of Hermes: New Translations of The Corpus Hermeticum and The Definitions of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius. Rochester: Inner Traditions.
9.8 Bibliography
• Scully, Nicki (2003). Alchemical Healing: A Guide to Spiritual, Physical, and Transformational Medicine. Rochester: Bear & Company.
[66] Prof. Carl Edwin Lindgren, “The Rose Cross, A Historical and Philosophical View”—http://users.panola.com/ lindgren/rosecross.html [67] Regardie pp. 15–7.
• Abel, Christopher R.; Hare, William O. (1997). Hermes Trismegistus: An Investigation of the Origin of the Hermetic Writings. Sequim: Holmes Publishing Group. • Anonymous (2002). Meditations on the Tarot: A Journey into Christian Hermeticism. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. • Budge, E. A. Wallis (1895). The Egyptian Book of the Dead: (The Papyrus of Ani) Egyptian Text Transliteration and Translation. New York: Dover Publications.
• Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja (1990). Magic, Science, Religion, and the Scope of Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. • Yates, Frances (1964). Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-95007-7. • Morais, Lui (2013). Alchimia seu Archimagisterium Solis in V libris. Rio de Janeiro: Quártica Premium.
9.9 External links
• Churton, Tobias. The Golden Builders: Alchemists, Rosicrucians, and the First Freemasons. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2002.
• Online Version of the Corpus Hermeticum, version translated by John Everard in 1650 CE from Latin version
• Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius in a new English translation, with notes and introduction (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42543-3.
• Online Version of The Virgin of the World of Hermes Trismegistus, version translated by Anna Kingsford and Edward Maitland in 1885 A.D. • Online version of The Kybalion (1912)
84 • The Kybalion Resource Page • The Hermetic Library—A collection of texts and sites relating to Hermeticism • Hermetic Library Hermetic Library from Hermetic International
CHAPTER 9. HERMETICISM
Chapter 10
Alchemy “Alchemist”redirects here. For other uses, see Alchemist ously connected with all of these projects. (disambiguation) and Alchemy (disambiguation). In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of Alchemy is a philosophical and protoscientific tradition European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Muslim world. In Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of Arabic works on science and the Recovery of Aristotle, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science* [4] (particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.* [5]
Kimiya-yi sa'ādat (The Alchemy of Happiness) – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by Al-Ghazālī (1058– 1111).
practiced throughout Europe, Egypt and Asia. It aimed to purify, mature, and perfect certain objects.* [1]* [2]* [n 1] Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble" ones (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; the creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development of an alkahest, a universal solvent.* [3] The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and western tradition, the achievement of gnosis.* [2] In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was vari-
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like Homyard* [6] and von Franz* [7] that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences who examine the subject in terms of protochemistry, medicine, and charlatanism. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of Greek philosophy that was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology,* [7] numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as Bolus of Mendes's 3rd-century BC On Physical and Mystical Matters (Greek: Physika kai Mystika).* [8]
10.1 Name See also: Chemistry (etymology) The word alchemy was borrowed from Old French alquemie, alkimie, taken from Medieval Latin alchymia, and which is in turn borrowed from Arabic al-kīmiyā’
85
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CHAPTER 10. ALCHEMY
(‘ )الـكيمياءphilosopher's stone’. The Arabic word is borrowed from Late Greek chēmeía (χημεία), chēmía (χημία)* [9]‘black magic’with the agglutination of the Arabic definite article al- ()الـ.* [10] This ancient Greek word was derived from* [11] the early Greek name for Egypt, Chēmia (Χημία), based on the Egyptian name for Egypt, kēme (hieroglyphic khmi, lit. ‘black earth’, as opposed to red desert sand).* [10]
The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and Hellenistic Egypt, where the city of Alexandria was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods.* [13] Here, elements of technology, religion, mythology, and Hellenistic philosophy, each with their own much longer histories, combined to form the earliest known records of alchemy in the West. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote the oldest known books on alchemy, The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek while Mary the Jewess is credited as being the first nonchymeia (χυμεία) meaning ‘mixture’and referring to fictitious Western alchemist. They wrote in Greek and * pharmaceutical chemistry. [12] lived in Egypt under Roman rule.
10.2 History Alchemy covers several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and “genetic”relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by, various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
10.2.1
Hellenistic Egypt
Mythology – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion.* [14] Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation.* [15] These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the “forty-two books of Hermes”, covering all fields of knowledge.* [16] The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC.* [17] Many writings were lost when the emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books* [18] after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 300– 500, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver.* [19] These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements.* [20] Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art.* [21]
Philosophy – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's charAmbix, cucurbit and retort of Zosimos, from Marcelin Berthelot, acter.* [20] An important example of alchemy's roots in Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887– Greek philosophy, originated by Empedocles and devel1888).
10.2. HISTORY
87
oped by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were means the art of obtaining/manipulating Rasa: formed from only four elements: earth, air, water, and nectar, mercury, and juice. This art was refire. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere stricted to certain operations, metals, drugs, to which it belonged and to which it would return if compounds, and medicines, many of which left undisturbed.* [22] The four elements of the Greek have mercury as their core element. Its prinwere mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitaciples restored the health of those who were ill tive, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemage. ical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of differentiated form.”* [23] Later alchemists extensively a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality developed the mystical aspects of this concept. while still embodied (Sanskrit jīvan-mukti). Sanskrit alAlchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. chemical texts include much material on the manipulaLactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied tion of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th & the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idol- goddess Devī. atry.* [24] Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish al- Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins chemists can be found during this period. in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosi- the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings mos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyāṇakārakam written in South India in the early 9th cenIsis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others au- of Ugrāditya, * tury. [29] thors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors.* [25] By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline.* [26] It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.* [27]
10.2.2
India
Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote Rasaratnākara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to “mercury” , and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold.* [30] Reliable scholarship on Indian alchemy has been advanced in a major way by the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White.* [31] Trustworthy scholarship on Indian alchemy must now take the findings of this work into account.
Main article: Rasayana See also: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent An important modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has also been provided by David Gordon White at * The Vedas describe a connection between eternal life Oxford Bibliographies Online. [32] and gold.* [28] The use of Mercury for alchemy is first documented in the 3rd– or 4th–century Arthashastra. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. Greek alchemy may have been introduced to Ancient India through the invasions of Alexander the Great in 325 BC, and kingdoms that were culturally influenced by the Greeks like Gandhāra, although hard evidence for this is lacking.* [28]
The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature.* [33]* [n 2] The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra (or Various works on alchemy and gems) gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorRayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court ship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which in Sanskrit is called Rasayāna and in Persian Rasavātam. It
A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.
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10.2.3
Muslim world
Main article: Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchem-
Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), considered the“father of chemistry", introduced a scientific and experimental approach to alchemy.
by Byzantine scientists from the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages. The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only few points of detail .... The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory: even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible nonsense which refuses any interpretation. It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical apparati, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is presented, for example, in the Book of Seventy.* [35]
ical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about Islamic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations.* [34] The word alchemy itself was derived from the Arabic word al-kīmiyā’ ()الكيمياء. The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. Jabir himself clearly recognized and proclaimed the imPlatonic and Aristotelian thought, which had already been portance of experimentation: somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th The first essential in chemistry is that thou centuries through Syriac translations and scholarship. shouldest perform practical work and conduct In the late 8th century, Jābir ibn Hayyān (Latinized as experiments, “Geber”or “Geberus”) introduced a new approach to for he who performs not practical work nor alchemy, based on scientific methodology and controlled makes experiments will never attain to the least experimentation in the laboratory, in contrast to the andegree of mastery.* [37] cient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were often allegorical and unintelligible, with very little conEarly Islamic chemists such as Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Alcern for laboratory work.* [35] Jabir is thus “considered Kindi (“Alkindus”) and Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi * by many to be the father of chemistry", [36] albeit others (“Rasis”or “Rhazes”) contributed a number of key reserve that title for Robert Boyle or Antoine Lavoisier. chemical discoveries, such as the muriatic (hydrochloric The science historian, Paul Kraus, wrote: acid), sulfuric and nitric acids, and more. The discovery that aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric To form an idea of the historical place of acids, could dissolve the noblest metal, gold, was to fuel Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium. sources, it is advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language. One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected
Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was
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Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.* [38] According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result.* [38] By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur,“the stone which burns”, which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity.* [39] The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir.* [40] From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus,* [41] Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī,* [42] Avicenna* [43] and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals.
10.2.4
East Asia
Main article: Chinese alchemy Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder
Taoist Alchemists often use this alternate version of the Taijitu.
spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and to martial arts such as Tai Chi Chuan and Kung Fu (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the philosophical or hygienic branches of Taoism, not Alchemical). In fact, in the early Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.).
10.2.5 Medieval Europe The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.* [44] Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.* [45]
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CHAPTER 10. ALCHEMY after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist.* [48] Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work (Latin: Opus Majus) for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy.* [49] Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The pracThe Alchemist in Search of the Philosopher's Stone, by Joseph tical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiWright, 1771 ment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine.* [50] In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the transla- Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head tors made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and capable of answering its owner's questions. experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Chris- Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of altian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard chemical practice and theory through the medieval and followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury the unusual clarity with which they were deof Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th theory, and * scribed. [51] By the end of the 13th century, alchemy century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. analysis and added the use of observation, experimentaAdepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories tion, and conclusions when conducting scientific invesof Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes tigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile * that affect minerals and other substances could have an Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. [46] effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, to purify the human soul). They believed in the four and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts elements and the four qualities as described above, and of the translators were succeeded by that of the ency- they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas clopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchem- art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made ical knowledge in Aristotelian terms.* [47] Albertus Mag- observations and theories about how the universe opernus, a Dominican monk, is known to have written works ated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and com- that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall mented on the operations and theories of alchemical au- of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man thorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed al- could be reunited with God.* [52] chemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they con- In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible cerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking
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91
churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves.* [53] Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudoalchemists.* [54] In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV* [55]). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova.* [56] Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Though the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612.* [57]* [58] Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone.* [59] Through the 14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.
Page from alchemic treatise of Ramon Llull, 16th century.
Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala.* [60]* [61] A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermetism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy.* [62]* [63]
Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus, (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new 10.2.6 Renaissance and early modern Eu- form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving rope away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, “Many Further information: Renaissance magic and natural have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold magic and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foun- only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.”* [64] dations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn His hermetical views were that sickness and health in of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm branches of alchemy followed. and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach difIn the late 15th century, Marsilo Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel.
ferent from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them.* [65] Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named spagyric (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning to separate and to join
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together, based on the Latin alchemic maxim: solve et co- synonyms in the early modern period, and the differagula).* [66] Iatrochemistry also refers to the pharmaceu- ences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale astical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. saying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present John Dee (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed day. There were important overlaps between practitionAgrippa's occult tradition. Though better known for an- ers, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists gel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his alchemical* [67] Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. was his most popular and influential work. His writing Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój, 1566–1636), a portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pio* with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. [68] During the 17th century, a short-lived “supernatural”inter- neer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. pretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac NewAshmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be ton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he used to summon and communicate with angels.* [69] did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermetism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.
10.2.7 Late modern period
“Alchemist Sendivogius" (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867.
Entrepreneurial opportunities were not uncommon for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones.* [70] Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland,* [71] Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of BrunswickLüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of HesseKassel all contracted alchemists.* [72] John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus. Though most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists.* [73] False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms “chemia”and “alchemia”were used as
Robert Boyle
The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for“ancient wisdom”. Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century. As late as 1781
10.2. HISTORY James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: “Scholastic and antiAristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof.”* [74] Robert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.* [75] This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of Lavoisier and John Dalton.
93 a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.* [85]
10.2.8 Women in alchemy Several women figure in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone.* [86] Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also play a role in the early alchemical texts.
Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction was drawn between “alchemy”and “chemistry”for the first time.* [76]* [77] By the 1740s, “alchemy”was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud.* [74]* [77] In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure of which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to separate and divorce the“new”chemistry from the“old”practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, and even to the present day.* [78]
The first alchemist is recognized as being Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.).* [87] Mary is known for a number of improvements on alchemy equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry.* [87] Her most well-known advancements are heating and distillation processes. The water-bath, also known as Bain-Marie is said to have been invented by or at least improved by her.* [88] This double-boiler was often used in chemistry for processes that might require gentle heating. The tribikos (a basic still) and the kerotakis (a more intricate distilling apparatus) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her.* [89] While these were great achievements, Mary the Jewess' most critical contribution is considered to be the identification of hydrochloric During the occult revival of the early 19th cen- acid, a frequently used chemical today.* [90] Though we tury, alchemy received new attention as an occult sci- have no writing from Maria herself, she is known from the ence.* [79]* [80] The esoteric or occultist school, which fourth century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.* [91] arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to Due to the proliferation of pseudepigrapha and anonyhold) the view that the substances and operations menmous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists tioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as women's names appear less frequently the alchemical lit* * * a practical tradition or protoscience. [76] [81] [82] This erature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictian art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment tious account of Perenelle Flamel. Mary Anne Atwood's or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure marks their return during the nineteenth century occult language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise revival. * for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. [82] In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were Mary Anne Atwood and Ethan Allen Hitchcock, who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: “No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy.”* [83]* [84] Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make
10.2.9 Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study.* [92] As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements.* [93] Institutions involved in this re-
94 search include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid 19th century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located.* [94]
CHAPTER 10. ALCHEMY prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone.
10.3.1 Hermetism
In the eyes of a variety of esoteric and Hermetic practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. Transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection.* [8] The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus are a primary source of alchemical theory. He is named “alchemy's founder and chief patron, authority, inspiraJournals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy tion and guide”.* [95] include 'Ambix', published by the Society for the History of alchemy and Chemistry, and 'Isis', published by The Early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis (c. AD 300), highlight the spiritual nature of the alchemical History of Science Society. quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul.* [96] This approach continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and 10.3 Core concepts material processes were used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy. Practitioners and patrons such as Melchior Cibinensis and Pope Innocent VIII existed within the ranks of the church, while Martin Luther applauded alchemy for its consistency with Christian teachings.* [97] Both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was a symbol:
Mandala illustrating common alchemical concepts, symbols, and processes. From Spiegel der Kunst und Natur.
Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the Classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven Classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of
Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.* [1] 1. ^ Théodore Henri de Tschudi. Hermetic Catechism in his L'Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects. 1766. (A.E. Waite
10.4. MODERN ALCHEMY translation as found in The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus.)
10.3.2
Magnum opus
95 combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Ayurveda, the samskaras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day.* [104]
Spagyrists of the 20th century, Albert Richard Riedel and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series The schools they founded, Les Philosophes de la Nature of four stages represented by colors. and The Paracelsus Research Society, popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.* [105] The courses, books, organizations, • nigredo, a blackening or melanosis and conferences generated by their students continue to • albedo, a whitening or leucosis influence popular applications of alchemy as a new age medicinal practice. • citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis Main article: Magnum opus (alchemy)
• rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis* [98]
10.4.2 Psychology
10.4 Modern alchemy Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.* [99] Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.* [100] At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian* [101] and Anna Marie Roos,* [102] who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements.* [103] Groups like the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, “occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances.”,* [74] which has contributed to a merger of magic and alchemy in popular thought.
10.4.1
Traditional medicine
Main articles: medicine
Alchemical symbolism has been important in depth and analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images, after being given a copy of the translation of The Secret of the Golden Flower, a Chinese alchemical text, by his friend Richard Wilhelm, Jung discovered a direct correlation between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the internal or psychic processes of transformation occurring in his patients. He called the creation of the gold or lapis within the process of "individuation.”* [106]* [107] Together with his alchemical mystica soror, Jungian Swiss analyst, Marie-Louise von Franz, Jung began collecting all the old alchemical texts available and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote brought new light into understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos or divine marriage. His writings are influential in psychology and for persons who have an interest in understanding of the importance of dreams, symbols and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes)* [107]* [108]* [109] that influence all of life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed greatly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Jung wrote volumes on alchemy and his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Conuinctionis.
10.4.3 Literature
Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Main article: Alchemy in art and entertainment
Traditional medicine sometimes involves the transmuta- Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, tion of natural substances, using pharmacological or a seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream enter-
96 tainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of Terry Pratchett. Visual artists had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some of them used alchemy as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games.
10.5 See also • Alchemy in art and entertainment
CHAPTER 10. ALCHEMY
10.6 Notes [1] For a detailed look into the problems of defining alchemy, see Linden 1996, pp. 6–36 [2] To wit, the Ānandakanda, Āyurvedaprakāśa, Gorakṣasaṃhitā, Kākacaṇḍeśvarīmatatantra, Kākacaṇḍīśvarakalpatantra, Kūpīpakvarasanirmāṇavijñāna, Pāradasaṃhitā, Rasabhaiṣajyakalpanāvijñāna, Rasādhyāya, Rasahṛdayatantra, Rasajalanidhi, Rasakāmadhenu, Rasakaumudī, Rasamañjarī, Rasamitra, Rasāmṛta, Rasapaddhati, Rasapradīpa, Rasaprakāśasudhākara, Rasarājalakṣmī, Rasaratnadīpikā, Rasaratnākara, Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasārṇava, Rasārṇavakalpa, Rasasaṃketakalikā, Rasasāra, Rasataraṅgiṇī, Rasāyanasāra, Rasayogasāgara, Rasayogaśataka, Rasendracintāmaṇi, Rasendracūḍāmaṇi, Rasendramaṅgala, Rasendrapurāṇa, Rasendrasambhava, Rasendrasārasaṅgraha, Rasoddhāratantra or Rasasaṃhitā, and Rasopaniṣad.
10.7 References
• Biological transmutation • Chemistry • Chinese alchemy • Cupellation • Hermes Trismegistus • Historicism • History of chemistry • List of alchemists • List of topics characterized as pseudoscience • Magnum opus (alchemy) • Mary the Jewess • Nuclear transmutation • Outline of alchemy • Philosopher's Stone • Physics • Porta Alchemica • Scientific method • Superseded scientific theories • Synthesis of precious metals
10.7.1 Citations [1] Malouin, Paul-Jacques (1751), “Alchimie [Alchemy]", Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire Raisonné des Sciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, Vol. I, Paris: translated by Lauren Yoder in 2003 for Michigan Publishing's The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. [2] Linden (1996), pp. 7 & 11. [3] “Alchemy”, Dictionary.com. [4] Chemical Knowledge in the Early Modern World, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014. [5] Wouter J. Hanegraaff (Cambridge University Press: 2012), Alchemy between Science and Religion, Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture [6] Holmyard 1957, p. 16 [7] von Franz (1997). [8] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.96 [9] alchemy, Oxford Dictionaries [10] “alchemy”. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) Or see Harper, Douglas. “alchemy”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved April 7, 2010.. [11] See, for example, the etymology for χημεία in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott (1901). A Greek-English Lexicon (Eighth edition, revised throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8.
10.7. REFERENCES
[12] See, for example, both the etymology given in the Oxford English Dictionary and also that for χυμεία in Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott; Henry Stuart Jones (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon (A new edition, revised and augmented throughout ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8. [13] New Scientist, 24–31 December 1987 [14] Garfinkel, Harold (1986). Ethnomethodological Studies of Work. Routledge &Kegan Paul. p. 127. ISBN 0-41511965-0. [15] Yves Bonnefoy. 'Roman and European Mythologies'. University of Chicago Press, 1992. pp. 211–213 [16] Clement, Stromata, vi. 4. [17] Linden 1996, p. 12 [18] Partington, James Riddick (1989). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications. p. 20. ISBN 0-486-65977-1. [19] Linden 2003, p. 46 [20] A History of Chemistry, Bensaude-Vincent, Isabelle Stengers, Harvard University Press, 1996, p13 [21] Linden 1996, p. 14 [22] Lindsay, Jack (1970). The Origins of Alchemy in GraecoRoman Egypt. London: Muller. p. 16. ISBN 0-38901006-5. [23] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 66. ISBN 0-906540-96-8. [24] Fanning, Philip Ashley. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternative View of the Scientific Revolution. 2009. p.6 [25] F. Sherwood Taylor. Alchemists, Founders of Modern Chemistry. p.26. [26] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry: papers from Ambix. p. 36 [27] Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Late antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world. p. 284–285 [28] Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). [29] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. IIA, 151– 155. [30] See Dominik Wujastyk, “An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasaratnākara of Nāgarjuna”in Ambix 31.2 (1984): 70-83. Online at http://univie.academia.edu/ DominikWujastyk/Papers/152766/ [31] See bibliographical details and links at https://openlibrary. org/works/OL3266066W/The_Alchemical_Body [32] DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0046
97
[33] Meulenbeld, G. Jan (1999–2002). History of Indian Medical Literature. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. pp. IIA, 581– 738. [34] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 46. ISBN 0-906540-96-8. [35] Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942– 1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. “A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three” . Retrieved 16 September 2014.) [36] Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007). “On wine, chirality and crystallography”. Acta Crystallographica Section A 64: 246–258 [247]. Bibcode:2008AcCrA..64..246D. doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293. PMID 18156689. [37] Holmyard 1931, p. 60 [38] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 29. ISBN 0-906540-96-8. [39] Strathern, Paul. (2000), Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements, New York: Berkley Books [40] Moran, Bruce T. (2005). Distilling knowledge: alchemy, chemistry, and the scientific revolution. Harvard University Press. p. 146. ISBN 0-674-01495-2. a corpuscularian tradition in alchemy stemming from the speculations of the medieval author Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) [41] Felix Klein-Frank (2001),“Al-Kindi”, in Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr, History of Islamic Philosophy, p. 174. London: Routledge. [42] Marmura ME (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines: Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Speculum 40 (4): 744– 6. doi:10.2307/2851429. [43] Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196–197. [44] Holmyard 1957, pp. 105–108 [45] Holmyard 1957, p. 110 [46] Hollister, C. Warren (1990). Medieval Europe: A Short History (6th ed.). Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw–Hill College. pp. 294f. ISBN 0-07-557141-2. [47] John Read. From Alchemy to Chemistry. 1995 p.90 [48] James A. Weisheipl. Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays. PIMS. 1980. p.187-202 [49] Edmund Brehm. “Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy.”Ambix. Vol. 23, Part I, March 1976. [50] Holmyard 1957, pp. 120–121 [51] Holmyard 1957, pp. 134–141.
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[52] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. p. 149. ISBN 0-906540-96-8. [53] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and Authority in the Holy Roman Empire. University of Chicago Press, 2007. p. 49 [54] John Hines, II, R. F. Yeager. John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition. Boydell & Brewer. 2010. p.170 [55] D. Geoghegan, “A licence of Henry VI to practise Alchemy”Ambix, volume 6, 1957, pages 10-17 [56] Leah DeVun. From Prophecy, Alchemy, and the End of Time: John of Rupescissa in the late Middle Ages. Columbia University Press, 2009. p. 104 [57] Linden 2003, p. 123 [58]“Nicolas Flamel. Des Livres et de l'or”by Nigel Wilkins [59] Burckhardt, Titus (1967). Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. Trans. William Stoddart. Baltimore: Penguin. pp. 170–181. ISBN 0-906540-96-8.
• Principe & Newman 2001, pp. 399 • The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest, by Lawrence M. Principe, 'Princeton University Press', 1998, pp. 188 90 [70] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.4 [71] Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, vol. iii, (1901), 99, 202, 206, 209, 330, 340, 341, 353, 355, 365, 379, 382, 389, 409. [72] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.85-98 [73] Tara E. Nummedal. Alchemy and authority in the Holy Roman Empire. p.171 [74] Principe, Lawrence M. “Alchemy Restored.”Isis 102.2 (2011): 305-12. Web. [75] Pilkington, Roger (1959). Robert Boyle: Father of Chemistry. London: John Murray. p. 11. [76] Newman & Principe 2002, p. 37
[60] Peter J. Forshaw. '"Chemistry, That Starry Science”Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy' (2013)
[77] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 386
[61] Peter J. Forshaw, 'Cabala Chymica or Chemia Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala' (2013)
[79] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 387
[62] Glenn Alexander Magee. Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition. Cornell University Press. 2008. p.30
[81] Eliade 1994, p. 49
[63] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford University Press. 2008 p.60 [64] Edwardes, Michael (1977). The Dark Side of History. New York: Stein and Day. p. 47. ISBN 0-552-114634. [65] Debus, Allen G.; Multhauf, Robert P. (1966). Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. pp. 6–12. [66] Joseph Needham. Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 5, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Physiological Alchemy. Cambridge University Press. P.9 [67]“Monas hieroglyphica is not a traditional alchemical work, but has important theoretical insights about a cosmic vision, in which alchemy played an important part.”Szőnyi, György E. (2015). "‘Layers of Meaning in Alchemy in John Dee’s Monas hieroglyphica and its Relevance in a Central European Context‘" (PDF). Centre for Renaissance Texts, 2015, 118.
[78] Principe & Newman 2001, pp. 386–7
[80] Kripal & Shuck 2005, p. 27
[82] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 388 [83] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 391 [84] Rutkin 2001, p. 143 [85] Daniel Merkur. Gnosis: An Esoteric Tradition of Mystical Visions and Unions. SUNY Press. 1993 p.55 [86] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. p. 78. [87] Rayner-Canham, M; Rayner-Canham, G (2005). Women in Chemistry: Their Changing Roles from Alchemical Times to the Mid-Twentieth Century. Chemical Heritage Foundation. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9780941901277. [88] Patai, R (1995). The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. pp. 60–80. ISBN 9780691006420. [89] Lindsay, J (1970). The origins of alchemy in GraecoRoman Egypt. New York: Barnes & Noble. pp. 240–250. ISBN 9780389010067. [90] Gaster, Moses (2011).“Alchemy”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. Retrieved April 6, 2016.
[68] William Royall Newman, Anthony Grafton. Secrets of Nature: Astrology and Alchemy in Early Modern Europe. MIT Press, 2001. P.173.
[91] Patai, R. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. pp. 81–93. ISBN 9780691006420.
• Journal of the History of Ideas, 41, 1980, p. 293318
[92] Antoine Faivre, Wouter J. Hanegraaff. Western esotericism and the science of religion. 1995. p.viii–xvi
[69]
10.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
[93] See Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism website [94] “Old Jewish Book Outlines how to Turn Copper into Gold”. Retrieved 2016-04-21. [95] Linden 2003, pp. 9 [96] Allen G. Debus. Alchemy and early modern chemistry. The Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry. p.34. [97] Raphael Patai. The Jewish Alchemists: A History and Source Book. Princeton University Press. p.4 [98] Joseph Needham. Science & Civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology. Spagyrical discovery and invention: magisteries of gold and immortality. Cambridge. 1974. p.23 [99] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 385 [100] Richard Conniff. “Alchemy May Not Have Been the Pseudoscience We All Thought It Was.”Smithsonian Magazine. February 2014. [101] Calian, George (2010). Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. [102] Anna Marie Roos (2013), Review of The Secrets of Alchemy, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 44 [103] Principe & Newman 2001, p. 396 [104] Junius, Manfred M; The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs; Healing Arts Press 1985 [105] Joscelyn Godwin. The Golden Thread: The Ageless Wisdom of the Western Mystery Traditions. Quest Books, 2007. p.120 [106] Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge. [107] Polly Young-Eisendrath, Terence Dawson. The Cambridge companion to Jung. Cambridge University Press. 1997. p.33 [108] C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching. [109] C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower.
10.7.2
99 • Forshaw, Peter J. “Chemistry, That Starry Science – Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy”. (2013) Sky and Symbol Check |url= value (help). • Forshaw, Peter J.“Cabala Chymica or Chemica Cabalistica – Early Modern Alchemists and Cabala”. (2013) Ambix, Vol. 60:4 Check |url= value (help). • Holmyard, Eric John (1931). Makers of Chemistry. Oxford: Clarendon Press. • Holmyard, Eric John (1957). Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. • Linden, Stanton J. (1996). Darke Hierogliphicks: Alchemy in English literature from Chaucer to the Restoration. University Press of Kentucky. • Linden, Stanton J. (2003). The Alchemy Reader: from Hermes Trismegistus to Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. • Newman, William R.; Principe, Lawrence M. (2002). Alchemy Tried in the Fire. University of Chicago Press. • von Franz, Marie Louise (1997). Alchemical Active Imagination. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 0-87773-589-1. • Kripal, Jeffrey John; Shuck, Glenn W. (July 2005). On the Edge of the Future. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34556-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011. • Principe, Lawrence M. (2013). The secrets of alchemy. Chicago &London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68295-2. • Principe, Lawrence M.; Newman, William R. (2001). “Some Problems with the Historiography of Alchemy”. In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony. Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 385–432. ISBN 978-0-262-14075-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011. • Rutkin, H. Darrel (2001).“Celestial Offerings: Astrological Motifs in the Dedicatory Letters of Kepler's Astronomia Nova and Galileo's Sidereus Nuncius". In Newman, William R.; Grafton, Anthony. Secrets of Nature, Astrology and Alchemy in Modern Europe. MIT Press. pp. 133–172. ISBN 978-0262-14075-1. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
Bibliography
• Calian, George (2010). Alkimia Operativa and Alkimia Speculativa. Some Modern Controversies on the Historiography of Alchemy. Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. • Eliade, Mircea (1994). The Forge and the Crucible. State University of New York Press.
10.8 External links • SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry • ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism
100 • Association for the Study of Esotericism • The Alchemy Website. – Adam McLean's online collections and academic discussion. • Inner Garden Alchemy Research Group: a nonprofit foundation that aims to transmit the alchemical tradition. • • Alchemy on In Our Time at the BBC. ((Peter Forshaw, Lauren Kassell and Stephen Pumfrey) listen now) • Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Alchemy • Book of Secrets: Alchemy and the European Imagination, 1500–2000 – A digital exhibition from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
CHAPTER 10. ALCHEMY
Chapter 11
Kabbalah For specific Kabbalistic traditions see Christian Cabala, as well as engaging its flourishing emergence and historHermetic Qabalah, and Practical Kabbalah. For other ical re-emphasis through newly established academic intraditions with some similarities see Cabala. vestigation. Kabbalah (Hebrew: ַק ָ ּבלָה, literally“receiving/tradition” * [1]) is an esoteric method, discipline, and school of 11.1 Overview thought that originated in Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist in Judaism is called a Mekubbal (Hebrew: )מְקו ּ ּבָל. According to the Zohar, a foundational text for kabbalKabbalah's definition varies according to the tradition istic thought, Torah study can proceed along four levels * * and aims of those following it,* [2] from its religious ori- of interpretation (exegesis). [6] [7] These four levels are gin as an integral part of Judaism, to its later Christian, called pardes from their initial letters (PRDS Hebrew: New Age, and Occultist syncretic adaptations. Kabbalah פרדס, orchard). is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal, and mysterious Ein Sof (infinity)* [3] and the mortal and finite universe (God's creation). While it is heavily used by some denominations, it is not a religious denomination in itself. It forms the foundations of mystical religious interpretation. Kabbalah seeks to define the nature of the universe and the human being, the nature and purpose of existence, and various other ontological questions. It also presents methods to aid understanding of the concepts and thereby attain spiritual realisation. Kabbalah originally developed within the realm of Jewish tradition, and kabbalists often use classical Jewish sources to explain and demonstrate its esoteric teachings. These teachings are held by followers in Judaism to define the inner meaning of both the Hebrew Bible and traditional Rabbinic literature and their formerly concealed transmitted dimension, as well as to explain the significance of Jewish religious observances.* [4] Traditional practitioners believe its earliest origins predate world religions, forming the primordial blueprint for Creation's philosophies, religions, sciences, arts, and political systems.* [5] Historically, Kabbalah emerged, after earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, in 12th- to 13th-century Southern France and Spain, becoming reinterpreted in the Jewish mystical renaissance of 16thcentury Ottoman Palestine. It was popularised in the form of Hasidic Judaism from the 18th century onwards. Twentieth-century interest in Kabbalah has inspired cross-denominational Jewish renewal and contributed to wider non-Jewish contemporary spirituality,
• Peshat (Hebrew: פשטlit. “simple”): the direct interpretations of meaning. • Remez (Hebrew: רמזlit. “hint[s]"): the allegoric meanings (through allusion). • Derash (Hebrew: דרשfrom Heb. darash:“inquire” or“seek”): midrashic (Rabbinic) meanings, often with imaginative comparisons with similar words or verses. • Sod (Hebrew: סודlit. “secret”or“mystery”): the inner, esoteric (metaphysical) meanings, expressed in kabbalah. Kabbalah is considered by its followers as a necessary part of the study of Torah – the study of Torah (the Tanakh and Rabbinic literature) being an inherent duty of observant Jews.* [8] Modern academic-historical study of Jewish mysticism reserves the term “kabbalah”to designate the particular, distinctive doctrines that textually emerged fully expressed in the Middle Ages, as distinct from the earlier Merkabah mystical concepts and methods.* [9] According to this descriptive categorisation, both versions of Kabbalistic theory, the medieval-Zoharic and the earlymodern Lurianic together comprise the theosophical tradition in Kabbalah, while the meditative-ecstatic Kabbalah incorporates a parallel inter-related Medieval tradition. A third tradition, related but more shunned, involves the magical aims of Practical Kabbalah. Moshe Idel, for example, writes that these 3 basic models can be
101
102
CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH
discerned operating and competing throughout the whole abstract concepts that at best can only be understood inhistory of Jewish mysticism, beyond the particular Kab- tuitively.* [16] balistic background of the Middle Ages.* [10] They can be readily distinguished by their basic intent with respect to God: • The Theosophical tradition of Theoretical Kabbalah 11.1.1 (the main focus of the Zohar and Luria) seeks to understand and describe the divine realm. As an alternative to rationalist Jewish philosophy, particularly Maimonides' Aristotelianism, this speculation became the central component of Kabbalah
Jewish and non-Jewish Kabbalah
• The Ecstatic tradition of Meditative Kabbalah (exemplified by Abulafia and Isaac of Acre) strives to achieve a mystical union with God. Abraham Abulafia's “Prophetic Kabbalah”was the supreme example of this, though marginal in Kabbalistic development, and his alternative to the program of theosophical Kabbalah • The Magico-theurgical tradition of Practical Kabbalah (in often unpublished manuscripts) endeavours to alter both the Divine realms and the World. While some interpretations of prayer see its role as manipulating heavenly forces, Practical Kabbalah properly involved white-magical acts, and was censored by kabbalists for only those completely pure of intent. Consequently, it formed a separate minor tradition shunned from Kabbalah According to traditional belief, early kabbalistic knowledge was transmitted orally by the Patriarchs, prophets, and sages (hakhamim in Hebrew), eventually to be “interwoven”into Jewish religious writings and culture. According to this view, early kabbalah was, in around the 10th century BC, an open knowledge practiced by over a million people in ancient Israel.* [11] Foreign conquests drove the Jewish spiritual leadership of the time (the Sanhedrin) to hide the knowledge and make it secret, fearing that it might be misused if it fell into the wrong hands.* [12] It is hard to clarify with any degree of certainty the exact concepts within kabbalah. There are several different schools of thought with very different outlooks; however, all are accepted as correct.* [13] Modern halakhic authorities have tried to narrow the scope and diversity within kabbalah, by restricting study to certain texts, notably Zohar and the teachings of Isaac Luria as passed down through Hayyim ben Joseph Vital.* [14] However, even this qualification does little to limit the scope of understanding and expression, as included in those works are commentaries on Abulafian writings, Sefer Yetzirah, Albotonian writings, and the Berit Menuhah,* [15] which is known to the kabbalistic elect and which, as described more recently by Gershom Scholem, combined ecstatic with theosophical mysticism. It is therefore important to bear in mind when discussing things such as the sephirot and their interactions that one is dealing with highly
Latin translation of Gikatilla's Shaarei Ora
From the Renaissance onwards Jewish Kabbalah texts entered non-Jewish culture, where they were studied and translated by Christian Hebraists and Hermetic occultists.* [17] Syncretic traditions of Christian Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabalah developed independently of Jewish Kabbalah, reading the Jewish texts as universal ancient wisdom. Both adapted the Jewish concepts freely from their Judaic understanding, to merge with other theologies, religious traditions and magical associations. With the decline of Christian Cabala in the Age of Reason, Hermetic Qabalah continued as a central underground tradition in Western esotericism. Through these non-Jewish associations with magic, alchemy and divination, Kabbalah acquired some popular occult connotations forbidden within Judaism, where Jewish theurgic Practical Kabbalah was a minor, permitted tradition restricted for a few elite. Today, many publications on Kabbalah belong to the non-Jewish New Age and occult traditions of Cabala, rather than giving an accurate picture of Judaic Kabbalah.* [18] Instead, academic and traditional publications now translate and study Judaic Kabbalah for wide readership.
11.2. HISTORY OF JEWISH MYSTICISM
103
11.2 History of Jewish mysticism 11.2.1
Origins
According to the traditional understanding, Kabbalah dates from Eden.* [19] It came down from a remote past as a revelation to elect Tzadikim (righteous people), and, for the most part, was preserved only by a privileged few. Talmudic Judaism records its view of the proper protocol for teaching this wisdom, as well as many of its concepts, in the Talmud, Tractate Hagigah, 11b-13a. Contemporary scholarship suggests that various schools of Jewish esotericism arose at different periods of Jewish history, each reflecting not only prior forms of mysticism, but also the intellectual and cultural milieu of that historical period. Answers to questions of transmission, lineage, influence, and innovation vary greatly and cannot be easily summarised.
Ezekiel and Isaiah had prophetic visions of the angelic Chariot and Divine Throne.
teraction of these supernatural entities with the Serpent which leads to disaster when they eat the forbidden fruit, as recorded in Genesis 3.* [23]
The Bible provides ample additional material for mythic and mystical speculation. The prophet Ezekiel's visions Terms in particular attracted much mystical speculation, as did Isaiah's Temple vision—Isaiah, Ch.6. Jacob's vision of Originally, Kabbalistic knowledge was believed to be an the ladder to heaven provided another example of esoteric integral part of the Oral Torah, given by God to Moses experience. Moses' encounters with the Burning bush and on Mount Sinai around the 13th century BCE, although God on Mount Sinai are evidence of mystical events in the there is a view that Kabbalah began with Adam. Torah that form the origin of Jewish mystical beliefs. When the Israelites arrived at their destination and settled in Canaan, for a few centuries the esoteric knowledge was referred to by its aspect practice—meditation Hitbonenut (Hebrew: )התבוננות,* [20] Rebbe Nachman of Breslov's Hitbodedut (Hebrew: )התבודדות, translated as “being alone”or “isolating oneself”, or by a different term describing the actual, desired goal of the practice— prophecy ("NeVu'a" Hebrew: )נבואה.
The 72 letter name of God which is used in Jewish mysticism for meditation purposes is derived from the Hebrew verbal utterance Moses spoke in the presence of an angel, while the Sea of Reeds parted, allowing the Hebrews to escape their approaching attackers. The miracle of the Exodus, which led to Moses receiving the Ten Commandments and the Jewish Orthodox view of the acceptance of the Torah at Mount Sinai, preceded the creation of the During the 5th century BCE, when the works of the first Jewish nation approximately three hundred years beTanakh were edited and canonised and the secret knowl- fore King Saul. edge encrypted within the various writings and scrolls ( “Megilot”), the knowledge was referred to as Ma'aseh Merkavah (Hebrew: [ *)מעשה מרכבה21] and Ma'aseh 11.2.2 Talmudic era B'reshit (Hebrew: )מעשה בראשית,* [22] respectively “the act of the Chariot”and“the act of Creation”. Merkabah mysticism alluded to the encrypted knowledge within the book of the prophet Ezekiel describing his vision of the “Divine Chariot”. B'reshit mysticism referred to the first chapter of Genesis (Hebrew: ) בראשיתin the Torah that is believed to contain secrets of the creation of the universe and forces of nature. These terms are also mentioned in the second chapter of the Talmudic tractate Hagigah. Mystic elements of the Torah When read by later generations of Kabbalists, the Torah's description of the creation in the Book of Genesis reveals mysteries about God himself, the true nature of Adam Grave of Rabbi Akiva in Tiberias. He features in Hekhalot mysand Eve, the Garden of Eden, the Tree of Knowledge of tical literature, and as one of the four who entered the Pardes Good and Evil and the Tree of Life, as well as the in-
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11.2.3 Pre-Kabbalistic schools The mystical methods and doctrines of Hekhalot (Heavenly“Chambers”) and Merkabah (Divine“Chariot”) texts, named by modern scholars from these repeated motifs, lasted from the 1st century BCE through to the 10th century, before giving way to the documented manuscript emergence of Kabbalah. Initiates were said to “descend the chariot”, possibly a reference to internal introspection on the Heavenly journey through the spiritual realms. The ultimate aim was to arrive before the transcendent awe, rather than nearness, of the Divine. From the 8th to 11th centuries, the Hekhalot texts, and the proto-Kabbalistic The grave of Shimon bar Yochai in Meron before 1899. A Tal- early Sefer Yetzirah (“Book of Creation”) made their mudic Tanna, he is the mystical teacher in the central Kabbalistic way into European Jewish circles. work, the Zohar
Another, separate influential mystical movement, shortly before the arrival there of Kabbalistic theory, was the "Chassidei Ashkenaz" ( )חסידי אשכנזor Medieval German Pietists from 1150 to 1250. This ethical-ascetic movement arose mostly among a single scholarly family, the Kalonymus family of the French and German Rhineland.
In early rabbinic Judaism (the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE), the terms Ma'aseh Bereshit (“Works of Creation”) and Ma'aseh Merkabah (“Works of the Divine Throne/Chariot”) clearly indicate the Midrashic nature of these speculations; they are really based upon Genesis 1 and Book of Ezekiel 1:4–28, while the names Sitrei Torah (Hidden aspects of the Torah) (Talmud Hag. 11.2.4 13a) and Razei Torah (Torah secrets) (Ab. vi. 1) indicate their character as secret lore. An additional term also expanded Jewish esoteric knowledge, namely Chochmah Nistara (Hidden wisdom).
Medieval emergence of the Kabbalah
Talmudic doctrine forbade the public teaching of esoteric doctrines and warned of their dangers. In the Mishnah (Hagigah 2:1), rabbis were warned to teach the mystical creation doctrines only to one student at a time.* [24] To highlight the danger, in one Jewish aggadic (“legendary” ) anecdote, four prominent rabbis of the Mishnaic period (1st century CE) are said to have visited the Orchard (that is, Paradise, pardes, Hebrew: פרדסlit., orchard):
Four men entered pardes—Ben Azzai, Ben Zoma, Acher (Elisha ben Abuyah, and Akiba. Ben Azzai looked and died; Ben Zoma looked and went mad; Acher destroyed the plants; Akiba entered in peace and departed in peace.
In notable readings of this legend, only Rabbi Akiba was fit to handle the study of mystical doctrines. The Tosafot, medieval commentaries on the Talmud, say that the four sages “did not go up literally, but it appeared to them as if they went up”.* [25] On the other hand, Rabbi Louis Ginzberg, writes in the Jewish Encyclopedia (1901–1906) that the journey to paradise “is to be taken literally and not allegorically”.* [26]
The 13th-century eminence of Nachmanides, a classic Rabbinic figure, gave Kabbalah mainstream acceptance through his Torah commentary
Modern scholars have identified several mystical brotherhoods that functioned in Europe starting in the 12th century. Some, such as the“Iyyun Circle”and the“Unique Maimonides interprets pardes as physics and not mysti- Cherub Circle”, were truly esoteric, remaining largely cism.* [27] anonymous.
11.2. HISTORY OF JEWISH MYSTICISM There were certain Rishonim “ ( Elder Sages”) of exoteric Judaism who are known to have been experts in Kabbalah. One of the best known is Nahmanides (the Ramban) (1194–1270) whose commentary on the Torah is considered to be based on Kabbalistic knowledge. Bahya ben Asher (the Rabbeinu Behaye) (died 1340) also combined Torah commentary and Kabbalah. Another was Isaac the Blind (1160–1235), the teacher of Nahmanides, who is widely argued to have written the first work of classic Kabbalah, the Bahir (Book of “Brightness”). Many Orthodox Jews reject the idea that Kabbalah underwent significant historical development or change such as has been proposed above. After the composition known as the Zohar was presented to the public in the 13th century, the term “Kabbalah”began to refer more specifically to teachings derived from, or related to, the Zohar. At an even later time, the term began to generally be applied to Zoharic teachings as elaborated upon by Isaac Luria Arizal. Historians generally date the start of Kabbalah as a major influence in Jewish thought and practice with the publication of the Zohar and climaxing with the spread of the Arizal's teachings. The majority of Haredi Jews accept the Zohar as the representative of the Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'reshit that are referred to in Talmudic texts.* [28]
11.2.5
105 Following the upheavals and dislocations in the Jewish world as a result of anti-Judaism during the Middle Ages, and the national trauma of the expulsion from Spain in 1492, closing the Spanish Jewish flowering, Jews began to search for signs of when the long-awaited Jewish Messiah would come to comfort them in their painful exiles. In the 16th century, the community of Safed in the Galilee became the centre of Jewish mystical, exegetical, legal and liturgical developments. The Safed mystics responded to the Spanish expulsion by turning Kabbalistic doctrine and practice towards a messianic focus. Moses Cordovero and his school popularized the teachings of the Zohar which had until then been only a restricted work. Cordovero's comprehensive works achieved the systemisation of preceding Kabbalah. The author of the Shulkhan Arukh (the normative Jewish “Code of Law”), Rabbi Yosef Karo (1488–1575), was also a scholar of Kabbalah who kept a personal mystical diary. Moshe Alshich wrote a mystical commentary on the Torah, and Shlomo Alkabetz wrote Kabbalistic commentaries and poems.
The messianism of the Safed mystics culminated in Kabbalah receiving its biggest transformation in the Jewish world with the explication of its new interpretation from Rabbi Isaac Luria (1534–1572), by his disciples Hayim Vital and Israel Sarug. Both transcribed Luria's teachings (in variant forms) gaining them widespread popularity, Sarug taking Lurianic Kabbalah to Europe, Vital Early modern era: Lurianic Kab- authoring the latterly canonical version. Luria's teachings came to rival the influence of the Zohar and Luria stands, balah alongside Moses de Leon, as the most influential mystic in Jewish history. Ban on studying Kabbalah “I have seen it written that the prohibition from Above to refrain from open study in the wisdom of truth was only for a limited period, until the end of 1490, but from then on the prohibition has been lifted and permission was granted to study the Zohar. Since 1540 it has been a great Mitzva (commandment) for the masses to study in public, old and young... and that is because the Messiah will come because of that and not because of any other reason. Therefore, we must not be negligent.” Rabbi Abraham Ben Mordechai Azulai, Introduction to the book, Ohr HaChama [Light of the Sun] * [29] The ban on studying Kabbalah was lifted by the efforts of the 16th-century kabbalist Rabbi Avraham Azulai (1570–1643).
The leading scholars in 16th-century Safed invigorated mainstream Judaism through new legal, liturgical, exegetical and Lurianic-mythological developments
“I have found it written that all that has been decreed Above forbidding open involvement in the Wisdom of Truth [Kabbalah] was [only meant for] the limited time period until the year 5,250 (1490 C.E.). From then on after is called the“Last Generation”, and what was forbidden is [now] allowed. And permis-
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CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH sion is granted to occupy ourselves in the [study of] Zohar. And from the year 5,300 (1540 C.E.) it is most desirable that the masses both those great and small [in Torah], should occupy themselves [in the study of Kabbalah], as it says in the Raya M'hemna [a section of the Zohar]. And because in this merit King Mashiach will come in the future—and not in any other merit —it is not proper to be discouraged [from the study of Kabbalah].”* [30]
The question, however, is whether the ban ever existed in the first place. Concerning the above quote by Avraham Azulai, it has found many versions in English, another is this “From the year 1540 and onward, the basic levels of Kabbalah must be taught publicly to everyone, young and old. Only through Kabbalah will we forever eliminate war, destruction, and man's inhumanity to his fellow man.” * [31] The lines concerning the year 1490 are also missing from the Hebrew edition of Hesed L'Avraham, the source work that both of these quote from. Furthermore, by Azulai's view the ban was lifted thirty years before his birth, a time that would have corresponded with Haim Vital's publication of the teaching of Isaac Luria. Moshe Isserles understood there to be only a minor restriction, in his words, “One's belly must be full of meat and wine, discerning between the prohibited and the permitted.”* [32] He is supported by the Bier Hetiv, the Pithei Teshuva as well as the Vilna Gaon. The Vilna Gaon says, “There was never any ban or enactment restricting the study of the wisdom of Kabbalah. Any who says there is has never studied Kabbalah, has never seen PaRDeS, and speaks as an ignoramus.”* [33] Sefardi and Mizrahi The Kabbalah of the Sefardi (Iberian Peninsula) and Mizrahi (Middle East, North Africa, and the Caucasus) Torah scholars has a long history. Kabbalah in various forms was widely studied, commented upon, and expanded by North African, Turkish, Yemenite, and Asian scholars from the 16th century onward. It flourished among Sefardic Jews in Tzfat (Safed), Israel even before the arrival of Isaac Luria. Yosef Karo, author of the Shulchan Arukh was part of the Tzfat school of Kabbalah. Shlomo Alkabetz, author of the hymn Lekhah Dodi, taught there.
Synagogue Beit El Jerusalem. Oriental Judaism has its own chain of Kabbalah
Rabbi Moshe's disciple Eliyahu De Vidas authored the classic work, Reishit Chochma, combining kabbalistic and mussar (moral) teachings. Chaim Vital also studied under Cordovero, but with the arrival of Luria became his main disciple. Vital claimed to be the only one authorised to transmit the Ari's teachings, though other disciples also His disciple Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (or Cordoeiro) published books presenting Luria's teachings. authored Pardes Rimonim, an organised, exhaustive com- The Oriental Kabbalist tradition continues until today pilation of kabbalistic teachings on a variety of subjects among Sephardi and Mizrachi Hakham sages and study up to that point. Cordovero headed the academy of Tz- circles. Among leading figures were the Yemenite fat until his death, when Isaac Luria rose to prominence. Shalom Sharabi (1720–1777) of the Beit El Synagogue,
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the Jerusalemite Hida (1724–1806), the Baghdad leader many following the devastation and mass killings of the Ben Ish Chai (1832–1909), and the Abuhatzeira dynasty. pogroms that followed in the wake of the Chmielnicki Uprising (1648–1654), the largest single massacre of Jews until the Holocaust, and it was at this time that a conMaharal troversial scholar by the name of Sabbatai Zevi (1626– 1676) captured the hearts and minds of the Jewish masses of that time with the promise of a newly minted messianic Millennialism in the form of his own personage. His charisma, mystical teachings that included repeated pronunciations of the holy Tetragrammaton in public, tied to an unstable personality, and with the help of his greatest enthusiast, Nathan of Gaza, convinced the Jewish masses that the Jewish Messiah had finally come. It seemed that the esoteric teachings of Kabbalah had found their “champion”and had triumphed, but this era of Jewish history unravelled when Zevi became an apostate to Judaism by converting to Islam after he was arrested by the Ottoman Sultan and threatened with execution for attempting a plan to conquer the world and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Unwilling to give up their messianic expectations, a minority of Zvi's Jewish followers converted to Islam along with him. Many of his followers, known as Sabbatians, continued to worship him in secret, explaining his conversion not as an effort to save his life but to recover the sparks of the holy in each religion, and most leading rabbis were always on guard to root them out. The Dönmeh movement in modern Turkey is a surviving remnant of the Sabbatian schism.
The 16th-century Maharal of Prague articulated a mystical exegesis in philosophical language
Due to the chaos caused in the Jewish world, the Rabbinic prohibition against studying Kabbalah established itself firmly within the Jewish religion. One of the conditions allowing a man to study and engage himself in the Kabbalah was to be at least forty years old. This age requirement came about during this period and is not Talmudic in origin but Rabbinic. Many Jews are familiar with this ruling, but are not aware of its origins.* [35] Moreover, the prohibition is not halakhic in nature. According to Moses Cordovero, halakhically, one must be of age twenty to engage in the Kabbalah. Many famous kabbalists, including the ARI, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, Yehuda Ashlag, were younger than twenty when they began.
One of the most innovative theologians in early-modern Judaism was Judah Loew ben Bezalel (1525–1609) known as the “Maharal of Prague”. Many of his written works survive and are studied for their unusual combination of the mystical and philosophical approaches in Judaism. While conversant in Kabbalistic learning, he expresses Jewish mystical thought in his own individual approach without reference to Kabbalistic terms.* [34] The Maharal is most well known in popular culture for the legend of the golem of Prague, associated with him in folklore. However, his thought influenced Hasidism, for example being studied in the introspective Przysucha school. During the 20th century, Isaac Hutner (1906– 1980) continued to spread the Maharal's works indirectly through his own teachings and publications within the Frankism non-Hasidic yeshiva world.
The Sabbatian movement was followed by that of the Frankists who were disciples of Jacob Frank (1726– 1791) who eventually became an apostate to Judaism by The spiritual and mystical yearnings of many Jews re- apparently converting to Catholicism. This era of disapmained frustrated after the death of Isaac Luria and pointment did not stem the Jewish masses' yearnings for his disciples and colleagues. No hope was in sight for “mystical”leadership. Sabbatian mysticism
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CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH hand over and destroy many of his most precious unpublished kabbalistic writings, and go into exile in the Netherlands. He eventually moved to the Land of Israel. Some of his most important works, such as Derekh Hashem, survive and are used as a gateway to the world of Jewish mysticism. Rabbi Elijah of Vilna (Vilna Gaon) (1720–1797), based in Lithuania, had his teachings encoded and publicised by his disciples, such as Rabbi Chaim Volozhin, who (poshumously) published the mystical-ethical work Nefesh HaChaim.* [36] He staunchly opposed the new Hasidic movement and warned against their public displays of religious fervour inspired by the mystical teachings of their rabbis. Although the Vilna Gaon did not look with favor on the Hasidic movement, he did not prohibit the study and engagement in the Kabbalah. This is evident from his writings in the Even Shlema. “He that is able to understand secrets of the Torah and does not try to understand them will be judged harshly, may God have mercy”. (The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 8:24).“The Redemption will only come about through learning Torah, and the essence of the Redemption depends upon learning Kabbalah”(The Vilna Gaon, Even Shlema, 11:3).
Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, a leading Italian kabbalist, also wrote secular works, which the Haskalah see as the start of modern Hebrew literature
In the Oriental tradition of Kabbalah, Shalom Sharabi (1720–1777) from Yemen was a major esoteric clarifier of the works of the Ari. The Beit El Synagogue, “yeshivah of the kabbalists”, which he came to head, was one of the few communities to bring Lurianic meditation into communal prayer.* [37]* [38] In the 20th century, Yehuda Ashlag (1885 —1954) in Mandate Palestine became a leading esoteric kabbalist in the traditional mode, who translated the Zohar into Hebrew with a new approach in Lurianic Kabbalah. Hasidic Judaism
The Vilna Gaon, 18th-century leader of Rabbinic opposition to Hasidism - a Kabbalist who opposed Hasidic doctrinal and practical innovations
Modern-era traditional Kabbalah Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (1707–1746), based in Italy, was a precocious Talmudic scholar who deduced a need for the public teaching and study of Kabbalah. He established a yeshiva for Kabbalah study and actively recruited students. He wrote copious manuscripts in an appealing clear Hebrew style, all of which gained the attention of both admirers and rabbinical critics, who feared another “Shabbetai Zevi (false messiah) in the making” . His rabbinical opponents forced him to close his school,
Synagogue of the Baal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidism, in Medzhybizh Ukraine. It gave a new phase to Jewish mysticism, seeking its popularisation through internal correspondence
Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer Baal Shem Tov (1698–1760), founder of Hasidism in the area of the Ukraine, spread
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teachings based on Lurianic Kabbalah, but adapted to a have informed Holocaust theologians.* [40] different aim of immediate psychological perception of Divine Omnipresence amidst the mundane. The emotional, ecstatic fervour of early Hasidism developed from 11.3 Concepts previous Nistarim circles of mystical activity, but instead sought communal revival of the common folk by reframing Judaism around the central principle of devekut 11.3.1 Concealed and Revealed God (mystical cleaving to God) for all. This new approach turned formerly esoteric elite kabbalistic theory into a popular social mysticism movement for the first time, with its own doctrines, classic texts, teachings and customs. From the Baal Shem Tov sprang the wide ongoing schools of Hasidic Judaism, each with different approaches and thought. Hasidism instituted a new concept of Tzadik leadership in Jewish mysticism, where the elite scholars of mystical texts now took on a social role as embodiments and intercessors of Divinity for the masses. With the 19th-century consolidation of the movement, leadership became dynastic. Among later Hasidic schools: Rebbe Nachman of Breslov (1772–1810), the greatgrandson of the Baal Shem Tov, revitalised and further expanded the latter's teachings, amassing a following of thousands in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. In a unique amalgam of Hasidic and Mitnagid approaches, Rebbe Nachman emphasised study of both Kabbalah and serious Torah scholarship to his disciples. His teachings also differed from the way other Hasidic groups were developing, as he rejected the idea of hereditary Hasidic dynasties and taught that each Hasid must “search for the tzaddik ('saintly/righteous person')" for himself and within himself. The Habad-Lubavitch intellectual school of Hasidism broke away from General-Hasidism's emotional faith orientation, by making the mind central as the route to the internal heart. Its texts combine what they view as rational investigation with explanation of Kabbalah through articulating unity in a common Divine essence. In recent times, the messianic element latent in Hasidism has come to the fore in Habad. 20th-century influence Jewish mysticism has influenced the thought of some major Jewish theologians in the 20th century, outside of Kabbalistic or Hasidic traditions. The first Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook was a mystical thinker who drew heavily on Kabbalistic notions through his own poetic terminology. His writings are concerned with fusing the false divisions between sacred and secular, rational and mystical, legal and imaginative. Students of Joseph B. Soloveitchik, figurehead of American Modern Orthodox Judaism have read the influence of Kabbalistic symbols in his philosophical works.* [39] Neo-Hasidism, rather than Kabbalah, shaped Martin Buber's philosophy of dialogue and Abraham Joshua Heschel's Conservative Judaism. Lurianic symbols of Tzimtzum and Shevirah
Metaphorical scheme of emanated spiritual worlds within the Ein Sof
The nature of the Divine prompted kabbalists to envision two aspects to God: (a) God in essence, absolutely transcendent, unknowable, limitless Divine simplicity, and (b) God in manifestation, the revealed persona of God through which He creates and sustains and relates to mankind. Kabbalists speak of the first as Ein/Ayn Sof (“אין סוףthe infinite/endless”, literally“that which has no limits”). Of the impersonal Ein Sof nothing can be grasped. The second aspect of Divine emanations, however, are accessible to human perception, dynamically interacting throughout spiritual and physical existence, reveal the Divine immanently, and are bound up in the life of man. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another, emanations revealing the concealed mystery from within the Godhead. The Zohar reads the first words of Genesis BeReishit Bara Elohim – In the beginning God created as“With the level of "Reishit-Beginning" the Ein Sof created Elohim-God's manifestation in Creation: “At the very beginning the King made engravings in the supernal purity. A spark of blackness emerged in the sealed within the sealed, from the mystery of the Ayn Sof, a mist within matter, implanted in a ring, no white, no black, no red, no yellow, no colour at all. When He measured with the standard of measure,
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CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH He made colours to provide light. Within the spark, in the innermost part, emerged a source, from which the colours are painted below; it is sealed among the sealed things of the mystery of Ayn Sof. It penetrated, yet did not penetrate its air. It was not known at all until, from the pressure of its penetration, a single point shone, sealed, supernal. Beyond this point nothing is known, so it is called reishit (beginning): the first word of all...”* [41] "
The structure of emanations has been described in various ways: Sephirot (Divine attributes) and Partzufim (Divine “faces”), Ohr (spiritual light and flow), Names of God and the supernal Torah, Olamot (Spiritual Worlds), a Divine Tree and Archetypal Man, Angelic Chariot and Palaces, male and female, enclothed layers of reality, inwardly holy vitality and external Kelipot shells, 613 channels (“limbs”of the King) and the Divine souls in man. These symbols are used to describe various parts and aspects of the model.
11.3.2
Sephirot and the Divine Feminine
Main article: Shekhinah The Sephirot (also spelled “sephiroth”) (singular sefirah) are the ten emanations and attributes of God with which he continually sustains the universe in existence. The Zohar and other formative texts elaborate on their emergence from concealment and potential in the infinite unity of the Ein Sof. Cordovero systemises them as one light poured into ten created vessels. Comparison of his counting with Luria's, describes dual rational and unconscious aspects of Kabbalah. Two metaphors are used to describe the sephirot, their theocentric manifestation as the Trees of Life and Knowledge, and their anthropocentric correspondence in man, exemplified as Adam Kadmon. This dual-directional perspective embodies the cyclical, inclusive nature of the divine flow, where alternative divine and human perspectives have validity. The central metaphor of man allows human understanding of the sephirot, as they correspond to the psychological faculties of the soul, and incorporate masculine and feminine aspects after Genesis 1:27 (“God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him, male and female He created them”). Corresponding to the last sefirah in Creation is the indwelling shekhinah (Feminine Divine Presence). Downward flow of divine Light in Creation forms the supernal Four Worlds; Atziluth, Beri'ah, Yetzirah and Assiah manifesting the dominance of successive sephirot towards action in this world. The acts of man unite or divide the Heavenly masculine and feminine aspects of the sephirot, their anthropomorphic harmony completing Creation. As the spiritual foundation of Creation, the sephirot correspond to the names of God in Judaism and the particular nature of any entity.
Scheme of descending Sephirot in 3 columns, as a tree with roots above and branches below
Ten Sephirot as process of Creation
According to Lurianic cosmology, the sephirot correspond to various levels of creation (ten sephirot in each of the Four Worlds, and four worlds within each of the larger four worlds, each containing ten sephirot, which themselves contain ten sephirot, to an infinite number of possibilities),* [42] and are emanated from the Creator for the purpose of creating the universe. The sephirot are considered revelations of the Creator's will (ratzon),* [43] and they should not be understood as ten different“gods”but as ten different ways the one God reveals his will through the Emanations. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.
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11.3.3 Descending spiritual Worlds Medieval Kabbalists believed that all things are linked to God through these emanations, making all levels in creation part of one great, gradually descending chain of being. Through this any lower creation reflects its particular characteristics in Supernal Divinity.
In the 16-17th centuries Kabbalah was popularised through a new genre of ethical literature, related to Kabbalistic meditation
Hasidic thought extends the Divine immanence of Kabbalah by holding that God is all that really exists, all else being completely undifferentiated from God's perspective. This view can be defined as monistic panentheism. According to this philosophy, God's existence is higher than anything that this world can express, yet he includes all things of this world within his Divine reality in perfect unity, so that the Creation effected no change in him at all. This paradox is dealt with at length in Chabad texts.* [45]
11.3.4 Origin of evil Ten Sephirot as process of ethics
Divine creation by means of the Ten Sephirot is an ethical process. They represent the different aspects of Morality. Loving-Kindness is a possible moral justification found in Chessed, and Gevurah is the Moral Justification of Justice and both are mediated by Mercy which is Rachamim. However, these pillars of morality become immoral once they become extremes. When Loving-Kindness becomes extreme it can lead to sexual depravity and lack of Justice to the wicked. When Justice becomes extreme, it can lead to torture and the Murder of innocents and unfair punishment. “Righteous”humans (tzadikim) ascend these ethical qualities of the ten sephirot by doing righteous actions. If there were no righteous humans, the blessings of God would become completely hidden, and creation would cease to exist. While real human actions are the “Foundation”(Yesod) of this universe (Malchut), these actions must accompany the conscious intention of compassion. Compassionate actions are often impossible without faith (Emunah), meaning to trust that God always supports compassionate actions even when God seems hidden. Ultimately, it is necessary to show compassion toward oneself too in order to share compassion toward others. This “selfish”enjoyment of God's blessings but only in order to empower oneself to assist others is an important aspect of“Restriction”, and is considered a kind of golden mean in kabbalah, corresponding to the sefirah of Adornment (Tiferet) being part of the “Middle Column”.
Amulet from the 15th century. Theosophical kabbalists, especially Luria, censored contemporary Practical Kabbalah, but allowed amulets by Sages* [46]
Among problems considered in the Hebrew Kabbalah is the theological issue of the nature and origin of evil. In the views of some Kabbalists this conceives 'evil' as a 'quality of God', asserting that negativity enters into the essence of the Absolute. In this view it is conceived that the Absolute needs evil to 'be what it is', i.e., to exist.* [47] Foundational texts of Medieval Kabbalism conceived evil as a demonic parallel to the holy, called the Sitra Achra (the“Other Side”), and the Kelipot/Qliphoth (the “Shells/Husks”) that cover and conceal the holy, are nurtured from it, and yet also protect it by limiting its revelation. Scholem termed this element of the Spanish Kabbalah a “Jewish gnostic”motif, in the sense of dual powers in the divine realm of manifestation. In a Moses ben Jacob Cordovero, wrote Tomer Devorah radical notion, the root of evil is found within the 10 holy (Palm Tree of Deborah), in which he presents an ethical Sephirot, through an imbalance of Gevurah, the power of teaching of Judaism in the kabbalistic context of the ten “Strength/Judgement/Severity”. sephirot. Tomer Devorah has become also a foundational Gevurah is necessary for Creation to exist as it counterMusar text.* [44] poses Chesed (“loving-kindness”), restricting the un-
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limited divine bounty within suitable vessels, so forming the Worlds. However, if man sins (actualising impure judgement within his soul), the supernal Judgement is reciprocally empowered over the Kindness, introducing disharmony among the Sephirot in the divine realm and exile from God throughout Creation. The demonic realm, though illusory in its holy origin, becomes the real apparent realm of impurity in lower Creation.
11.3.5
Role of Man
as Nachmanides and Joseph Karo. Medieval kabbalah elaborates particular reasons for each Biblical mitzvah, and their role in harmonising the supernal divine flow, uniting masculine and feminine forces on High. With this, the feminine Divine presence in this world is drawn from exile to the Holy One Above. The 613 mitzvot are embodied in the organs and soul of man. Lurianic kabbalah incorporates this in the more inclusive scheme of Jewish messianic rectification of exiled divinity. Jewish mysticism, in contrast to Divine transcendence rationalist human-centred reasons for Jewish observance, gave Divine-immanent providential cosmic significance to the daily events in the worldly life of man in general, and the spiritual role of Jewish observance in particular.
11.3.6 Levels of the soul
Joseph Karo's role as both legalist and mystic underscores Kabbalah's spiritualisation of normative Jewish observance
Kabbalistic doctrine gives man the central role in Creation, as his soul and body correspond to the supernal divine manifestations. In the Christian Kabbalah this scheme was universalised to describe harmonia mundi, the harmony of Creation within man.* [48] In Judaism, it gave a profound spiritualisation of Jewish practice. While the kabbalistic scheme gave a radically innovative, though conceptually continuous, development of mainstream Midrashic and Talmudic Rabbinic notions, kabbalistic thought underscored and invigorated conservative Jewish observance. The esoteric teachings of kabbalah gave the traditional mitzvot observances the central role in spiritual creation, whether the practitioner was learned in this knowledge or not. Accompanying normative Jewish observance and worship with elite mystical kavanot intentions gave them theurgic power, but sincere observance by common folk, especially in the Hasidic popularisation of kabbalah, could replace esoteric abilities. Many kabbalists were also leading legal figures in Judaism, such
Building on Kabbalah's conception of the soul, Abraham Abulafia's meditations included the “inner illumination of”the human form* [49]
The Kabbalah posits that the human soul has three elements, the nefesh, ru'ach, and neshamah. The nefesh is found in all humans, and enters the physical body at birth. It is the source of one's physical and psychological nature. The next two parts of the soul are not implanted at birth, but can be developed over time; their development depends on the actions and beliefs of the individual. They are said to only fully exist in people awakened spiritually. A common way of explaining the three parts of the soul
11.3. CONCEPTS is as follows:
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11.3.7 Reincarnation
• Nefesh ()נפש: the lower part, or “animal part”, of Main article: Gilgul the soul. It is linked to instincts and bodily cravings. This part of the soul is provided at birth. Reincarnation, the transmigration of the soul after death, was introduced into Judaism as a central esoteric tenet • Ruach ()רוח: the middle soul, the“spirit”. It con- of Kabbalah from the Medieval period onwards, called tains the moral virtues and the ability to distinguish Gilgul neshamot (“Cycles of the soul”). The concept between good and evil. does not appear overtly in the Hebrew Bible or classic Rabbinic literature, and was rejected by various Medieval • Neshamah ()נשמה: the higher soul, or “super-soul” Jewish philosophers. However, the Kabbalists explained . This separates man from all other life-forms. It is a number of scriptural passages in reference to Gilgulim. related to the intellect and allows man to enjoy and The concept became central to the later Kabbalah of Isaac benefit from the afterlife. It allows one to have some Luria, who systemised it as the personal parallel to the awareness of the existence and presence of God. cosmic process of rectification. Through Lurianic Kabbalah and Hasidic Judaism, reincarnation entered popular The Raaya Meheimna, a section of related teachings Jewish culture as a literary motif. spread throughout the Zohar, discusses fourth and fifth parts of the human soul, the chayyah and yehidah (first mentioned in the Midrash Rabbah). Gershom Scholem 11.3.8 Tzimtzum, Shevirah and Tikkun writes that these “were considered to represent the sublimest levels of intuitive cognition, and to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals”. The Chayyah and the Yechidah do not enter into the body like the other three—thus they received less attention in other sections of the Zohar. • Chayyah ()חיה: The part of the soul that allows one to have an awareness of the divine life force itself. • Yehidah ()יחידה: The highest plane of the soul, in which one can achieve as full a union with God as is possible. Both rabbinic and kabbalistic works posit that there are a few additional, non-permanent states of the soul that people can develop on certain occasions. These extra souls, or extra states of the soul, play no part in any afterlife scheme, but are mentioned for completeness: • Ruach HaKodesh (“( )רוח הקודשspirit of holiness” ): a state of the soul that makes prophecy possible. Since the age of classical prophecy passed, no one (outside of Israel) receives the soul of prophecy any longer. • Neshamah Yeseira: The “supplemental soul”that a Jew can experience on Shabbat. It makes possible an enhanced spiritual enjoyment of the day. This exists only when one is observing Shabbat; it can be lost and gained depending on one's observance. • Neshamah Kedosha: Provided to Jews at the age of maturity (13 for boys, 12 for girls) and is related to the study and fulfillment of the Torah commandments. It exists only when one studies and follows the Torah; it can be lost and gained depending on one's study and observance.
16th-century graves of Safed, Galilee. The messianic focus of its mystical renaissance culminated in Lurianic thought
Tzimtzum (Constriction/Concentration) is the primordial cosmic act whereby God“contracted”His infinite light, leaving a “void”into which the light of existence was poured. This allowed the emergence of independent existence that would not become nullified by the pristine Infinite Light, reconciling the unity of the Ein Sof with the plurality of creation. This changed the first creative act into one of withdrawal/exile, the antithesis of the ultimate Divine Will. In contrast, a new emanation after the Tzimtzum shone into the vacuum to begin creation, but led to an initial instability called Tohu (Chaos), leading to a new crisis of Shevirah (Shattering) of the sephirot vessels. The shards of the broken vessels fell down into the lower realms, animated by remnants of their divine light, causing primordial exile within the Divine Persona before the creation of man. Exile and enclothement of higher divinity within lower realms throughout existence requires man to complete the Tikkun olam (Rectification) process. Rectification Above corresponds to the reorganization of the independent sephirot into relating Partzufim (Divine Personas), previously referred to obliquely
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in the Zohar. From the catastrophe stems the possibil- Tree of Life. In Lurianic expression, each of the 600,000 ity of self-aware Creation, and also the Kelipot (Impure souls of Israel find their own interpretation in Torah. Shells) of previous Medieval kabbalah. The metaphorical “The reapers of the Field are the Comanthropomorphism of the partzufim accentuates the sexrades, masters of this wisdom, because ual unifications of the redemption process, while Gilgul Malkhut is called the Apple Field, and She reincarnation emerges from the scheme. Uniquely, Lurigrows sprouts of secrets and new meanings of anism gave formerly private mysticism the urgency of Torah. Those who constantly create new interMessianic social involvement. pretations of Torah are the ones who reap Her.” According to interpretations of Luria, the catastrophe * [51] stemmed from the “unwillingness”of the residue imprint after the Tzimtzum to relate to the new vitality that As early as the 1st century BCE Jews believed that the began creation. The process was arranged to shed and Torah and other canonical texts contained encoded mesharmonise the Divine Infinity with the latent potential of sages and hidden meanings. Gematria is one method for * evil. [50] The creation of Adam would have redeemed discovering its hidden meanings. Each letter in Hebrew existence, but his sin caused new shevirah of Divine vitalalso represents a number; Hebrew, unlike many other lanity, requiring the Giving of the Torah to begin Messianic guages, never developed a separate numerical alphabet. rectification. Historical and individual history becomes By converting letters to numbers, Kabbalists were able the narrative of reclaiming exiled Divine sparks. to find a hidden meaning in each word. This method of interpretation was used extensively by various schools.
11.3.9
Linguistic mysticism of Hebrew
11.4 Primary texts
Kabbalistic painting of the supernal illumination of Hebrew letters in Creation
Kabbalistic thought extended Biblical and Midrashic notions that God enacted Creation through the Hebrew language and through the Torah into a full linguistic mysticism. In this, every Hebrew letter, word, number, even accent on words of the Hebrew Bible contain esoteric meanings, describing the spiritual dimensions within exoteric ideas, and it teaches the hermeneutic methods of interpretation for ascertaining these meanings. Names of God in Judaism have further prominence, though fluidity of meaning turns the whole Torah into a Divine name. As the Hebrew name of things is the channel of their lifeforce, parallel to the sephirot, so concepts such as “holiness”and "mitzvot" embody ontological Divine immanence, as God can be known in manifestation as well as transcendence. The infinite potential of meaning in the Title page of first printed edition of the Zohar, main sourcebook Torah, as in the Ein Sof, is reflected in the symbol of the of Kabbalah, from Mantua, Italy in 1558 two trees of the Garden of Eden; the Torah of the Tree of Knowledge is the external, Halachic Torah, through Main article: Kabbalah: Primary texts which mystics can perceive the unlimited Torah of the
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Like the rest of the Rabbinic literature, the texts of kabbalah were once part of an ongoing oral tradition, though, over the centuries, much of the oral tradition has been written down.
Moshe Idel has opened up research on the Ecstatic Kabbalah alongside the theosophical, and has called for new multi-disciplinary approaches, beyond the philological and historical that have dominated until now, to psychology, anthropology and Jewish forms of esotericism existed over 2,000 years include phenomenology, * comparative studies. [57] ago. Ben Sira (born c. 170 BCE) warns against it, saying: “You shall have no business with secret things”.* [52] Nonetheless, mystical studies were undertaken and resulted in mystical literature, the first being 11.5.1 Claims for authority the Apocalyptic literature of the second and first preChristian centuries and which contained elements that Historians have noted that most claims for the authority of kabbalah involve an argument of the antiquity of aucarried over to later kabbalah. thority (see, e.g., Joseph Dan's discussion in his Circle of Throughout the centuries since, many texts have been the Unique Cherub). As a result, virtually all early foundaproduced, among them the ancient descriptions of Se- tional works pseudepigraphically claim, or are ascribed, fer Yetzirah, the Heichalot mystical ascent literature, the ancient authorship. For example, Sefer Raziel HaMalach, Bahir, Sefer Raziel HaMalakh and the Zohar, the main an astro-magical text partly based on a magical manual text of Kabbalistic exegesis. Classic mystical Bible com- of late antiquity, Sefer ha-Razim, was, according to the mentaries are included in fuller versions of the Mikraot kabbalists, transmitted by the angel Raziel to Adam after Gedolot (Main Commentators). Cordoveran systemisa- he was evicted from Eden. tion is presented in Pardes Rimonim, philosophical articulation in the works of the Maharal, and Lurianic rectifica- Another famous work, the early Sefer Yetzirah, suppostion in Etz Chayim. Subsequent interpretation of Lurianic edly dates back to the patriarch Abraham. This tendency Kabbalah was made in the writings of Shalom Sharabi, in toward pseudepigraphy has its roots in apocalyptic literaNefesh HaChaim and the 20th-century Sulam. Hasidism ture, which claims that esoteric knowledge such as magic, interpreted kabbalistic structures to their correspondence divination and astrology was transmitted to humans in the in inward perception.* [53] The Hasidic development of mythic past by the two angels, Aza and Azaz'el (in other kabbalah incorporates a successive stage of Jewish mys- places, Azaz'el and Uzaz'el) who fell from heaven (see Genesis 6:4). ticism from historical kabbalistic metaphysics.* [54]
11.5 Scholarship
11.6 Criticism
Main article: List of Jewish mysticism scholars
11.6.1 Dualistic cosmology
The first modern-academic historians of Judaism, the "Wissenschaft des Judentums" school of the 19th century, framed Judaism in solely rational terms in the emancipatory Haskalah spirit of their age. They opposed kabbalah and restricted its significance from Jewish historiography. In the mid-20th century, it was left to Gershom Scholem to overturn their stance, establishing the flourishing present-day academic investigation of Jewish mysticism, and making Heichalot, Kabbalistic and Hasidic texts the objects of scholarly critical-historical study. In Scholem's opinion, the mythical and mystical components of Judaism were at least as important as the rational ones, and he thought that they, rather than the exoteric Halakha, were the living current in historical Jewish development.
Although Kabbalah propounds the Unity of God, one of the most serious and sustained criticisms is that it may lead away from monotheism, and instead promote dualism, the belief that there is a supernatural counterpart to God. The dualistic system holds that there is a good power versus an evil power. There are two primary models of Gnostic-dualistic cosmology: the first, which goes back to Zoroastrianism, believes creation is ontologically divided between good and evil forces; the second, found largely in Greco-Roman metaphysics like Neo-Platonism, argues that the universe knew a primordial harmony, but that a cosmic disruption yielded a second, evil, dimension to reality. This second model influenced the cosmology of the Kabbalah. According to Kabbalistic cosmology, the Ten Sephirot correspond to ten levels of creation. These levels of creation must not be understood as ten different“gods”but as ten different ways of revealing God, one per level. It is not God who changes but the ability to perceive God that changes.
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been a centre of this research, including Scholem and Isaiah Tishby, and more recently Joseph Dan, Yehuda Liebes, Rachel Elior, and Moshe Idel.* [55] Scholars across the eras of Jewish mysticism in America and Britain have included Arthur Green, Lawrence Fine, Elliot Wolfson, Daniel Matt* [56] While God may seem to exhibit dual natures (masculineand Ada Rapoport-Albert. feminine, compassionate-judgmental, creator-creation),
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all adherents of Kabbalah have consistently stressed the ultimate unity of God. For example, in all discussions of Male and Female, the hidden nature of God exists above it all without limit, being called the Infinite or the “No End”(Ein Sof)—neither one nor the other, transcending any definition. The ability of God to become hidden from perception is called“Restriction”(Tzimtzum). Hiddenness makes creation possible because God can become “revealed”in a diversity of limited ways, which then form the building blocks of creation.
11.6.2 Distinction between Jews and nonJews
According to Isaac Luria (1534–72) and other commentators on the Zohar, righteous Gentiles do not have this demonic aspect and are in many ways similar to Jewish souls. A number of prominent Kabbalists, e.g., Rabbi Pinchas Eliyahu of Vilna, the author of Sefer ha-Brit, held that only some marginal elements in the humanity represent these demonic forces. On the other hand, the souls of Kabbalistic texts, including the Zohar, appear to affirm Jewish heretics have much more satanic energy than the dualism, as they ascribe all evil to the separation from worst of idol worshippers; this view is popular in some holiness known as the Sitra Achra* [58] (“the other side” Hasidic circles, especially Satmar Hasidim. ) which is opposed to Sitra D'Kedushah, or the Side of On the other hand, many prominent Kabbalists rejected Holiness.* [59] The “left side”of divine emanation is this idea and believed in essential equality of all human a negative mirror image of the “side of holiness”with souls. Menahem Azariah da Fano (1548–1620), in his which it was locked in combat. [Encyclopaedia Judaica, book Reincarnations of souls, provides many examples of Volume 6, “Dualism”, p. 244]. While this evil aspect non-Jewish Biblical figures being reincarnated into Jews exists within the divine structure of the Sephirot, the Zoand vice versa; the contemporary Habad Rabbi and myshar indicates that the Sitra Ahra has no power over Ein tic Dov Ber Pinson teaches that distinctions between Jews Sof, and only exists as a necessary aspect of the creation and non-Jews in works such as the Tanya are not to be unof God to give man free choice, and that evil is the conderstood as literally referring to the external properties of sequence of this choice. It is not a supernatural force opa person (what religious community they are born into), posed to God, but a reflection of the inner moral combat but rather as referring to the properties of souls as they within mankind between the dictates of morality and the can be re-incarnated in any religious community.* [61] surrender to one's basic instincts. But one point of view is represented by the Hasidic work Rabbi Dr. David Gottlieb notes that many Kabbalists Tanya (1797), in order to argue that Jews have a differhold that the concepts of, e.g., a Heavenly Court or the ent character of soul: while a non-Jew, according to the Sitra Ahra are only given to humanity by God as a workauthor Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (born 1745), can ing model to understand His ways within our own episachieve a high level of spirituality, similar to an angel, his temological limits. They reject the notion that a satan or soul is still fundamentally different in character, but not angels actually exist. Others hold that non-divine spirivalue, from a Jewish one.* [62] A similar view is found in tual entities were indeed created by God as a means for Kuzari, an early medieval philosophical book by Yehuda exacting his will. Halevi (1075–1141 AD) According to Kabbalists, humans cannot yet understand Another prominent Habad Rabbi, Abraham Yehudah the infinity of God. Rather, there is God as revealed to Khein (born 1878), believed that spiritually elevated Genhumans (corresponding to Zeir Anpin), and the rest of the tiles have essentially Jewish souls,“who just lack the forinfinity of God as remaining hidden from human experimal conversion to Judaism”, and that unspiritual Jews are * ence (corresponding to Arich Anpin). [60] One reading “Jewish merely by their birth documents”.* [63] The great of this theology is monotheistic, similar to panentheism; 20th-century Kabbalist Yehuda Ashlag viewed the terms another reading of the same theology is that it is dualistic. “Jews”and “Gentile”as different levels of perception, Gershom Scholem writes: available to every human soul. It is clear that with this postulate of an impersonal basic reality in God, which becomes a person—or appears as a person—only in the process of Creation and Revelation, Kabbalism abandons the personalistic basis of the Biblical conception of God....It will not surprise us to find that speculation has run the whole gamut—from attempts to re-transform the impersonal En-Sof into the personal God of the Bible to the downright heretical doctrine of a genuine dualism between the hidden Ein Sof and the personal Demiurge of Scripture. —Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism Shocken Books (p.11–12)
David Halperin* [64] argues that the collapse of Kabbalah's influence among Western European Jews over the course of the 17th and 18th century was a result of the cognitive dissonance they experienced between the negative perception of Gentiles found in some exponents of Kabbalah, and their own positive dealings with non-Jews, which were rapidly expanding and improving during this period due to the influence of the Enlightenment. However, a number of renowned Kabbalists claimed the exact opposite, stressing universality of all human souls and providing universal interpretations of the Kabbalistic tradition, including its Lurianic version. In their view, Kabbalah transcends the borders of Judaism and can serve as a basis of inter-religious theosophy and a uni-
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versal religion. Rabbi Pinchas Elijah Hurwitz, a prominent Lithuanian-Galician Kabbalist of the 18th century and a moderate proponent of the Haskalah, called for brotherly love and solidarity between all nations, and believed that Kabbalah can empower everyone, Jews and Gentiles alike, with prophetic abilities.* [65] The works of Abraham Cohen de Herrera (1570–1635) are full of references to Gentile mystical philosophers. Such approach was particularly common among the Renaissance and post-Renaissance Italian Jews. Late medieval and Renaissance Italian Kabbalists, such as Yohanan Alemanno, David Messer Leon and Abraham Yagel, adhered to humanistic ideals and incorporated teachings of various Christian and pagan mystics. A prime representative of this humanist stream in Kabbalah was Rabbi Elijah Benamozegh, who explicitly praised Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, as well as a whole range of ancient pagan mystical systems. He believed that Kabbalah can reconcile the differences between the world religions, which represent different facets and stages of the universal human spirituality. In Golden age of Spanish Judaism on the Knesset Menorah, his writings, Benamozegh interprets the New Testament, Maimonides holding Aristotle's work Hadith, Vedas, Avesta and pagan mysteries according to the Kabbalistic theosophy.* [66] For a different perspective, see Wolfson.* [67] He provides numerous examples from the 17th to the 20th centuries, which would challenge the view of Halperin cited above as well as the notion that “modern Judaism”has rejected or dismissed this “outdated aspect”of the religion and, he argues, there are still Kabbalists today who harbor this view. He argues that, while it is accurate to say that many Jews do and would find this distinction offensive, it is inaccurate to say that the idea has been totally rejected in all circles. As Wolfson has argued, it is an ethical demand on the part of scholars to continue to be vigilant with regard to this matter and in this way the tradition can be refined from within. However, as explained above, many well known Kabbalists rejected the literal interpretation of these seemingly discriminatory views. They argued that the term “Jew”was to be interpreted metaphorically, as referring to the spiritual development of the soul, rather than the superficial denomination of the individual, and they added a chain of intermediary states between“Jews”and idol worshippers, or spiritualised the very definition of “Jews”and “non-Jews”and argued that a soul can be re-incarnated in different communities (whether Jewish or not) as much as within a single one.* [61]
11.6.3
Medieval views
The idea that there are ten divine sephirot could evolve over time into the idea that “God is One being, yet in that One being there are Ten”which opens up a debate about what the “correct beliefs”in God should be, according to Judaism. Rabbi Saadia Gaon teaches in his
Kabbalah mysticism on the Knesset Menorah, which shared some similarities of theory with Jewish Neoplatonists
book Emunot v'Deot that Jews who believe in reincarnation have adopted a non-Jewish belief. Maimonides (12th century) rejected many of the texts of the Hekalot, particularly Shi'ur Qomah whose starkly anthropomorphic vision of God he considered heretical.* [68] Nachmanides (13th century) provides background to many kabbalistic ideas. His works offer in-depth of various concepts. In fact, an entire book, entitled Gevuras Aryeh, was authored by Rabbi Yaakov Yehuda Aryeh Leib Frenkel and originally published in 1915, specifically to explain and elaborate on the kabbalistic concepts addressed by Nachmanides in his commentary to the Five books of Moses.
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Rabbi Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon, in the spirit of his father Maimonides, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, and other predecessors, explains at length in his Milḥamot HaShem that God is in no way literally within time or space nor physically outside time or space, since time and space simply do not apply to his being whatsoever. This is in contrast to certain popular understandings of modern Kabbalah which teach a form of panentheism, that his 'essence' is within everything. Around the 1230s, Rabbi Meir ben Simon of Narbonne wrote an epistle (included in his Milḥemet Mitzvah) against his contemporaries, the early Kabbalists, characterizing them as blasphemers who even approach heresy. He particularly singled out the Sefer Bahir, rejecting the attribution of its authorship to the tanna R. Neḥunya ben ha-Kanah and describing some of its content as truly heretical. Rabbi Leone di Modena, a 17th-century Venetian critic of Kabbalah, wrote that if we were to accept the Kabbalah, then the Christian trinity would indeed be compatible with Judaism, as the Trinity closely resembles the kabbalistic doctrine of the sephirot. This critique was in response to the knowledge that some European Jews of the period addressed individual sephirot in some of their prayers, although the practice was apparently uncommon. Apologists explain that Jews may have been praying for and not necessarily to the aspects of Godliness represented by the sephirot.
Tikkun for reading through the night of Shavuot, a popular Jew-
Yaakov Emden, 1697–1776, wrote the Mitpaḥath Sfarim ish custom from the Safed Kabbalists (Veil of the Books), a detailed critique of the Zohar in which he concludes that certain parts of the Zohar contain heretical teaching and therefore could not have been layim Award (English: worthy citizen of Jerusalem) in 1990.* [72] In modern times, rationalists holding similar written by Shimon bar Yochai. views aligned with the rationalism of Dor Daim have described themselves as “talmide ha-Rambam”(disciples of Maimonides) rather than Dor Daim, and are more the11.6.4 Orthodox Judaism ologically aligned with the rationalism of Modern OrthoRabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ, a 20th-century Yemenite Jewish dox Judaism than with Orthodox Ḥasidic or Ḥaredi comleader and Chief Rabbi of Yemen, spearheaded the Dor munities.* [73] Deah (“generation of knowledge”) movement* [69] to There is dispute among modern Haredim as to the status counteract the influence of the Zohar and modern Kab- of Isaac Luria's, the Arizal's Kabbalistic teachings. While balah.* [70] He authored critiques of mysticism in general a portion of Modern Orthodox Rabbis, Dor Daim and and Lurianic Kabbalah in particular; his magnum opus many students of the Rambam, completely reject Arizal's was Milḥamoth ha-Shem (Wars of Hashem)* [71] against Kabbalistic teachings, as well as deny that the Zohar is what he perceived as neo-platonic and gnostic influences authoritative, or from Shimon bar Yohai, all three of on Judaism with the publication and distribution of the these groups completely accept the existence and validity Zohar since the 13th Century. Rabbi Yiḥyah founded of Ma'aseh Merkavah and Ma'aseh B'resheet mysticism. yeshivot, rabbinical schools, and synagogues that featured Their only disagreement concerns whether the Kabbala rationalist approach to Judaism based on the Talmud istic teachings promulgated today are accurate represenand works of Saadia Gaon and Maimonides (Rambam). tations of those esoteric teachings to which the Talmud Yeshayahu Leibowitz (1903–1994), an ultra-rationalist Modern Orthodox philosopher and brother of Nechama Leibowitz, publicly shared views expressed in Rabbi Yiḥyeh Qafeḥ's book Milḥamoth HaShem against mysticism. For example, Leibowitz called Kabbalah “a collection of “pagan superstitions”and “idol worship”in remarks given after receiving the Yakir Yerusha-
refers. Within the Haredi Jewish community one can find both rabbis who sympathise with such a view, while not necessarily agreeing with it,* [74] as well as rabbis who consider such a view absolute heresy. Rabbis Eliyahu Dessler and Gedaliah Nadel maintained that it is acceptable to believe that the Zohar was not written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and that it had a late authorship.* [75]
11.7. CONTEMPORARY STUDY
11.6.5
119
Conservative, Reform and Recon- both the Jewish Theological Seminary and the Ziegler School of Rabbinical Studies of the University of Judaism structionist Judaism in Los Angeles have full-time instructors in Kabbalah and Hasidut, Eitan Fishbane and Pinchas Geller, respectively. In the Reform movement Sharon Koren teaches at the Hebrew Union College. Reform Rabbis like Herbert Weiner and Lawrence Kushner have renewed interest in Kabbalah among Reform Jews. At the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, the only accredited seminary that has curricular requirements in Kabbalah, Joel Hecker is the full-time instructor teaching courses in Kabbalah and Hasidut. According to Artson:
A version of Lekhah Dodi song to welcome the Shabbat, a cross denomination Jewish custom from Kabbalah
Kabbalah tended to be rejected by most Jews in the Conservative and Reform movements, though its influences were not completely eliminated. While it was generally not studied as a discipline, the Kabbalistic Kabbalat Shabbat service remained part of liberal liturgy, as did the Yedid Nefesh prayer. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, Rabbi Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America is reputed to have introduced a lecture by Scholem on Kabbalah with a statement that Kabbalah itself was“nonsense”, but the academic study of Kabbalah was “scholarship”. This view became popular among many Jews, who viewed the subject as worthy of study, but who did not accept Kabbalah as teaching literal truths.
Ours is an age hungry for meaning, for a sense of belonging, for holiness. In that search, we have returned to the very Kabbalah our predecessors scorned. The stone that the builders rejected has become the head cornerstone (Psalm 118:22)... Kabbalah was the last universal theology adopted by the entire Jewish people, hence faithfulness to our commitment to positive-historical Judaism mandates a reverent receptivity to Kabbalah.* [23] The Reconstructionist movement, under the leadership of Arthur Green in the 1980s and 1990s, and with the influence of Zalman Schachter Shalomi, brought a strong openness to Kabbalah and hasidic elements that then came to play prominent roles in the Kol ha-Neshamah siddur series.
11.7 Contemporary study
According to Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson (Dean of the Teaching of classic esoteric kabbalah texts and practice Conservative Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies in the remained traditional until recent times, passed on in JuAmerican Jewish University) daism from master to disciple, or studied by leading rabbinic scholars. This changed in the 20th century, through Many western Jews insisted that their fuconscious reform and the secular openness of knowledge. ture and their freedom required shedding what In contemporary times kabbalah is studied in four very they perceived as parochial orientalism. They different, though sometimes overlapping, ways: fashioned a Judaism that was decorous and strictly rational (according to 19th-century Eu• The traditional method, employed among Jews since ropean standards), denigrating Kabbalah as the 16th century, continues in learned study cirbackward, superstitious, and marginal.* [76] cles. Its prerequisite is to either be born Jewish or be a convert and to join a group of kabbalists unHowever, in the late 20th century and early 21st cender the tutelage of a rabbi, since the 18th century tury there has been a revival in interest in Kabbalah in more likely a Hasidic one, though others exist among all branches of liberal Judaism. The Kabbalistic 12thSephardi-Mizrachi, and Lithuanian Rabbinic scholcentury prayer Anim Zemirot was restored to the new ars. Beyond elite, historical esoteric kabbalah, the Conservative Sim Shalom siddur, as was the B'rikh Shmeh public-communally studied texts of Hasidic thought passage from the Zohar, and the mystical Ushpizin service explain kabbalistic concepts for wide spiritual apwelcoming to the Sukkah the spirits of Jewish forbearplication, through their own concern with popular ers. Anim Zemirot and the 16th-century mystical poem psychological perception of Divine Panentheism. In Lekhah Dodi reappeared in the Reform Siddur Gates of recent times, many Orthodox Jewish outreach orPrayer in 1975. All Rabbinical seminaries now teach ganisations for secular Jews teach Kabbalistic and several courses in Kabbalah—in Conservative Judaism, Hasidic texts.
120 • A second, new universalist form, is the method of modern-style Jewish organisations and writers, who seek to disseminate kabbalah to every man, woman and child regardless of race or class, especially since the Western interest in mysticism from the 1960s. These derive from various cross-denominational Jewish interests in kabbalah, and range from considered theology to popularised forms that often adopt New Age terminology and beliefs for wider communication. These groups highlight or interpret kabbalah through non-particularist, universalist aspects.
CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH • The Kabbalah Centre was founded in the United States in 1965 as The National Research Institute of Kabbalah by Philip Berg and Rav Yehuda Tzvi Brandwein, disciple of Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag's. Later Philip Berg and his wife re-established the organisation as the worldwide Kabbalah Centre.* [80] In recent times its outreach teaching in New Age style has attracted a cross-religious celebrity following and media profile, though the organisation is led by Orthodox Jewish teachers.* [81]
• A third way are non-Jewish organisations, mystery Other prominent Jewish universalist organisations: schools, initiation bodies, fraternities and secret societies, the most popular of which are Freemasonry, • The Kabbalah Society, run by Warren Kenton, an orRosicrucianism and the Golden Dawn, although ganisation based instead on pre-Lurianic Medieval hundreds of similar societies claim a kabbalistic linKabbalah presented in universalist New Age syneage. These derive from syncretic combinations of cretic style. In contrast, traditional kabbalists read Jewish kabbalah with Christian, occultist or contemearlier kabbalah through later Lurianism and the sysporary New Age spirituality. As a separate spiritual temisations of 16th-century Safed. tradition in Western esotericism since the Renaissance, with different aims from its Jewish origin, the • The New Kabbalah, website and books by Sanford non-Jewish traditions differ significantly and do not L. Drob, is a scholarly intellectual investigation of give an accurate representation of the Jewish spiri* the Lurianic symbolism in the perspective of modtual understanding (or vice versa). [77] ern and postmodern intellectual thought. It seeks a “new kabbalah”rooted in the historical tradi• Fourthly, since the mid-20th century, historicaltion through its academic study, but universalised critical scholarly investigation of all eras of Jewthrough dialogue with modern philosophy and psyish mysticism has flourished into an established dechology. This approach seeks to enrich the secupartment of university Jewish studies. Where the lar disciplines, while uncovering intellectual insights first academic historians of Judaism in the 19th cenformerly implicit in kabbalah's essential myth:* [82] tury opposed and marginalised kabbalah, Gershom Scholem and his successors repositioned the historiography of Jewish mysticism as a central, vi“By being equipped with the nonlinear contal component of Judaic renewal through history. cepts of dialectical, psychoanalytic, and deconCross-disciplinary academic revisions of Scholem's structive thought we can begin to make sense and others' theories are regularly published for wide of the kabbalistic symbols in our own time. So readership. equipped, we are today probably in a better position to understand the philosophical aspects of the kabbalah than were the kabbalists them11.7.1 Universalist Jewish organisations selves.”* [83] The two, unrelated organisations that translate the mid20th-century teachings of Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag into a contemporary universalist message, have given kabbalah 11.7.2 Neo-Hasidic a public cross-religious profile: • Bnei Baruch is a group of Kabbalah students, based in Israel. Study materials are available in over 25 languages for free online or at printing cost. Michael Laitman established Bnei Baruch in 1991, following the passing of his teacher, Rabbi Ashlag's son Rav Baruch Ashlag. Laitman named his group Bnei Baruch (sons of Baruch) to commemorate the memory of his mentor. The teaching strongly suggests restricting one's studies to 'authentic sources', kabbalists of the direct lineage of master to disciple.* [78]* [79]
From the early 20th century, Neo-Hasidism expressed a non-Orthodox Jewish interest in Jewish mysticism, becoming organisational among Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionalist Jewish denominations from the 1960s, through Jewish Renewal and the Chavurah movement. The writings and teachings of Zalman SchachterShalomi, Arthur Green, Lawrence Kushner, Herbert Weiner and others, has sought a Kabbalistic and Hasidic study and spirituality among modernist Jews. Arthur Green's translations from the religious writings of Hillel Zeitlin conceive the latter to be a precursor of contemporary neo-Hasidism.
11.9. NOTES
11.7.3
Hasidic
Since the 18th century, Jewish mystical development has continued in Hasidic Judaism, turning kabbalah into a social revival with texts that internalise mystical thought. Among different schools, Chabad-Lubavitch and Breslav with related organisations, give outward looking spiritual resources and textual learning for secular Jews. The Intellectual Hasidism of Chabad most emphasises the spread and understanding of kabbalah through its explanation in Hasidic thought, articulating the Divine meaning within kabbalah through human rational analogies, uniting the spiritual and material, esoteric and exoteric in their Divine source: “Hasidic thought instructs in the predominance of spiritual form over physical matter, the advantage of matter when it is purified, and the advantage of form when integrated with matter. The two are to be unified so one cannot detect where either begins or ends, for 'the Divine beginning is implanted in the end and the end in the beginning' (Sefer Yetzira 1:7). The One God created both for one purpose – to reveal the holy light of His hidden power. Only both united complete the perfection desired by the Creator.”* [84]
11.7.4
Rav Kook
The writings of Abraham Isaac Kook (1864–1935), first Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine and visionary, incorporate kabbalistic themes through his own poetic language and concern with human and divine unity. His influence is in the Religious-Zionist community, who follow his aim that the legal and imaginative aspects of Judaism should interfuse: “Due to the alienation from the 'secret of God' [i.e. Kabbalah], the higher qualities of the depths of Godly life are reduced to trivia that do not penetrate the depth of the soul. When this happens, the most mighty force is missing from the soul of nation and individual, and Exile finds favor essentially... We should not negate any conception based on rectitude and awe of Heaven of any form—only the aspect of such an approach that desires to negate the mysteries and their great influence on the spirit of the nation. This is a tragedy that we must combat with counsel and understanding, with holiness and courage.”* [85]
11.8 See also • Abraham Abulafia
121 • Aggadah • Ayin and Yesh • Jewish mysticism • Ka-Bala board game • Kabbalah: Primary texts • List of Jewish Kabbalists • Mussar literature • Notaricon • Temurah (Kabbalah) • The Four Who Entered Paradise
11.9 Notes [1]
.""ַקָּבָלהMorfix .™ ™מורפיקס,Melingo Ltd. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
[2] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapter 1 “The term and its uses” [3] .""אינסוףMorfix .™ ™מורפיקס,Melingo Ltd. Retrieved 19 November 2014. [4] “Imbued with Holiness” - The relationship of the esoteric to the exoteric in the fourfold Pardes interpretation of Torah and existence. From www.kabbalaonline.org [5] “The Freedom | Yehuda Leib HaLevi Ashlag (Baal HaSulam) | Kabbalah Library - Bnei Baruch Kabbalah Education & Research Institute”. Kabbalah.info. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [6] Shnei Luchot HaBrit, R. Isaiah Horowitz, Toldot Adam, Beit haChokhma, 14 [7] “ZOHAR”. JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 201509-27. [8] “The Written Law - Torah”. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [9] Kabbalah: A very short introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press, Chapters on “the emergence of Medieval Kabbalah”and“doctrines of Medieval Kabbalah” [10] Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, p. 31 [11] Megillah 14a, Shir HaShirim Rabbah 4:22, Ruth Rabbah 1:2, Aryeh Kaplan Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide pp.44–48 [12] Yehuda Ashlag; Preface to the Wisdom of Truth p.12 section 30 and p.105 bottom section of the left column as preface to the “Talmud Eser HaSfirot” [13] See Shem Mashmaon by Rabbi Shimon Agasi. It is a commentary on Otzrot Haim by Haim Vital. In the introduction he list five major schools of thought as to how to understand the Haim Vital's understanding of the concept of Tzimtzum.
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[14] See Yechveh Daat Vol 3, section 47 by Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef [15] See Ktavim Hadashim published by Rabbi Yaakov Hillel of Ahavat Shalom for a sampling of works by Haim Vital attributed to Isaac Luria that deal with other works. [16] Wagner, Matthew. “Kabbala goes to yeshiva - Magazine - Jerusalem Post”. Jpost.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [17] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press 2007. Chapters: 5 Modern Times-I The Christian Kabbalah, 9 Some Aspects of Contemporary Kabbalah [18] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995. Entry: Kabbalah [19] Introduction to Raziel Hamalach. [20] Archived January 24, 2005, at the Wayback Machine. [21] “The Kaballah: Ma’aseh merkavah”. SparkNotes. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [22] “The Kaballah: Ma’aseh bereshit”. SparkNotes. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [23] Artson, Bradley Shavit. From the Periphery to the Centre: Kabbalah and the Conservative Movement, United Synagogue Review, Spring 2005, Vol. 57 No. 2 [24] Urbach, The Sages, pp.184ff. [25] A. W. Streane, A Translation of the Treatise Chagigah from the Babylonian Talmud Cambridge University Press, 1891. p. 83. [26] Louis Ginzberg, Elisha ben Abuyah", Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906. [27] Mishneh Torah, Yesodei Torah, Chapters 2-4.
CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH
[38] “Jews of Ponte Vedra/Jacksonville Beaches Address Relevance of Judaism in Modern Society”. PR.com. 201401-08. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [39] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, chapter on the Contemporary Era [40] Such as the theological novel The Town Beyond The Wall by Elie Wiesel. Norman Lamm gives a Biblical, Midrashic and Kabbalistic exegesis of it in Faith and Doubt: Studies in Traditional Jewish Thought, Ktav pub. [41] Zohar I, 15a English translation from Jewish Mysticism – An Anthology, Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Oneworld pub, p.120121 [42] See Otzrot Haim: Sha'ar TNT"A for a short explanation. The vast majority of the Lurianic system deals only with the complexities found in the world of Atzilut as is explained in the introductions to both Otzrot Haim and Eitz Haim. [43] The Song of the Soul, Yechiel Bar-Lev, p.73 [44] J.H.Laenen, Jewish Mysticism, p.164 [45] Wineberg, chs. 20–21 [46] “Beginner Level Kabbalah: What is Practical Kabbalah? |". Inner.org. 2014-02-24. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [47] Piero Cantoni,“Demonology and Praxis of Exorcism and of the Liberation Prayers”, in Fides Catholica 1 (2006. ) [48] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford, chapter on “Christian Kabbalah” [49] (Otzar Eden Ganuz, Oxford Ms. 1580, fols. 163b-164a; see also Hayei Haolam Haba, Oxford 1582, fol. 12a)
[28] “The Zohar”. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 201509-27.
[50] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, tentative analysis of Gershom Scholem and Isaiah Tishby of Luria's scheme
[29] Rabbi Abraham Ben Mordechai Azulai, Introduction to the book, Ohr HaChama [Light of the Sun]
[51] Moshe Cordovero, Or Ha-Hammah on Zohar III, 106a
[30] Rabbi Avraham Azulai quoted in Erdstein, Baruch Emanuel. The Need to Learn Kabbala
[52] Sirach iii. 22; compare Talmud, Hagigah, 13a; Midrash Genesis Rabbah, viii.
[31] Archived November 6, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[53] “Overview of Chassidut (Chassidus) |". Inner.org. 201402-12. Retrieved 2015-09-27.
[32] Shulhan Arukh YD 246:4 [33] Shulhan Arukh 246:4 S"K 19 [34] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995: entry on Judah Loew [35] “News”. myJLI.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [36] “The Soul of Life: The Complete Neffesh Ha-chayyim: Rav Chayyim of Volozhin, Eliezer Lipa (Leonard) Moskowitz: 9780615699912: Amazon.com: Books”. Amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [37] “Theology on Tap Winter 2014 under way in Mandeville: Keeping the Faith”. NOLA.com. 2014-01-29. Retrieved 2015-09-27.
[54] The Founder of Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov, cautioned against the layman learning Kabbalah without its Hasidic explanation. He saw this as the cause of the contemporary mystical heresies of Sabbatai Zevi and Jacob Frank. Cited in The Great Maggid by Jacob Immanuel Schochet, quoting Derech Mitzvosecha by Menachem Mendel Schneersohn [55] Archived September 21, 2005, at the Wayback Machine. [56] http://www.srhe.ucsb.edu/lectures/info/matt.html#bio [57] Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, p.28 [58] Archived October 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
11.9. NOTES
[59] Dovid, Nissan. “Kelipot and Sitra Achra - Kabbalah, Chassidism and Jewish Mysticism”. Chabad.org. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [60] Archived January 24, 2005, at the Wayback Machine. [61] Dov Ber Pinson, Reincarnation and Judaism [62] שער אכילת מצה,סידור הרב [63] ביהדות התורה,ר' אברהם חן [64] article, The Seductiveness of Jewish Myth [65] Love of one's Neighbour in Pinhas Hurwitz's Sefer haBerit, Resianne Fontaine, Studies in Hebrew Language and Jewish Culture, Presented to Albert van der Heide on the Occasion of his Sixty-Fifth Birthday, p.244-268. [66] Israel and Humanity, Elijah Benamozegh, Paulist Press, 1995 [67] Wolfson, E.R. Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford University Press, 2006, ch.1. [68] Maimonides' responsa siman (117 (Blau) / 373 (Freimann)), translated by Rabbi Yosef Qafih and reprinted in his Collected Papers, Volume 1, footnote 1 on pages 475-476; see also pages 477–478 where a booklet found in Maimonides' Genizah with the text of Shi'ur Qomah appears with an annotation, possibly by Maimonides, cursing believers of Shi'ur Qomah (Hebrew: )ארור המאמינוand praying that God be elevated exceedingly beyond that which the heretics say (Judeo-Arabic: ;תע' ת'ם תע' עמא יקולון אלכאפרון Hebrew: )יתעלה לעילא לעילא ממה שאומרים הכופרים. [69] Encyclopedia of Yemenite Sages (Heb. אנציקלופדיה )לחכמי תימן, ed. Moshe Gavra, vol. 1, Benei Barak 2001, p. 545, s.v. יחיא בן שלמה,( קאפחHebrew) שהקים את דור דעה...( תנועתhe established the Dor Deah movement). [70] A Spark of Enlightenment Among the Jews of Yemen, Amram Gamliel, In: Hebrew Studies Vol. 25, (1984), pp. 82-89 Published by: National Association of Professors of Hebrew (NAPH) Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor. org/stable/27908885 [71] http://www.yahadut.org.il/zohar/milhamot-hashem.pdf [72] “Idol Worship is Still Within Us- Yesayahu Leibowitz”. Scribd.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [73] “halacha - Is one allowed to become a Talmid HaRambam? - Mi Yodeya”. Judaism.stackexchange.com. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [74] E.g., Rabbi Ovadia Yosef, who ruled that it is “impossible”to consider dardaim as heretics: לגבי הדרדעים "אי "אפשר לדונם ככופרים )מעין אומר סימן צג עמ' עדרavailable at http://hydepark.hevre.co.il/topic.asp?topic_id= 2503514&whichpage=4&forum_id=20067#R_3)
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[75] An Analysis of the Authenticity of the Zohar (2005), p. 39, with“Rav E”and“Rav G”later identified by the author as Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler and Rabbi Gedaliah Nadel, respectively (Rabbi Dr. Marc Shapiro in Milin Havivin Volume 5 [2011], Is there an obligation to believe that Rebbe Shimon bar Yochai wrote the Zohar?, p. [ יבPDF page 133]): “I approached Rav A [Aryeh Carmell] with some of the questions on the Zohar, and he responded to me - 'and what about nikud? Nikud is also mentioned in the Zohar despite the fact that it [is] from Geonic times!' he said. I later found this comment in the Mitpachas Seforim. I would just add that not only is nikud mentioned, but only the Tiberian Nikkud - the norm in Europe of the middle ages - is mentioned and not the Yerushalmi nikud or the Babylonian one —which was used then in the Middle East, and is still used by Yemenites today. Also the Taamay Hamikrah - the trop - are referred to in the Zohar only by their Sefardi Names. Rav A told me a remarkable piece of testimony: 'My rebbe (this is how he generally refers to Rav E [Elijah Dessler]) accepted the possibility that the Zohar was written sometime in the 13th century.'" “Rav G [Gedaliah Nadel] told me that he was still unsure as to the origin and status of the Zohar, but told me it was my absolute right to draw any conclusions I saw fit regarding both the Zohar and the Ari.” [76] http://judaism.ajula.edu/Content/ContentUnit.asp? CID=1525&u=5504&t=0 [77] Joseph Dan, Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, chapters on Christian Kabbalah and the Contemporary Era [78] “On Authentic Sources”. Laitman.com. 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [79] “The Teaching of the Kabbalah and Its Essence | Yehuda Leib HaLevi Ashlag (Baal HaSulam) | Kabbalah Library - Bnei Baruch Kabbalah Education & Research Institute” . Kabbalah.info. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [80] “The Kabbalah Centre - learn transform connect”. kabbalah.com. Retrieved 5 October 2015. [81] “Rabbi Philip Berg”. Daily Telegraph. 2013-09-20. Retrieved 2013-09-21. [82] “Kabbalah”. New Kabbalah. Retrieved 2015-09-27. [83] Sanford Drob, Symbols of the Kabbalah: Philosophical and Psychological Perspectives, Jason Aronson publishers, p.xvi-xvii. Comparisons of the Lurianic scheme to Hegel, Freud and Jung are treated in respective chapters of Sanford Drob, Kabbalistic Metaphors: Jewish Mystical Themes in Ancient and Modern Thought, Aronson. The modern disciplines are explored as particular intellectual/emotional perspectives into the inclusive suprarational Lurianic symbolism, from which both emerge enriched [84] HaYom Yom, Kehot publications, p. 110 [85] Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaCohen Kook (Orot 2)
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11.10 References • Bodoff, Lippman; "Jewish Mysticism: Medieval Roots, Contemporary Dangers and Prospective Challenges"; The Edah Journal 2003 3.1
CHAPTER 11. KABBALAH • Idel, Moshe; Kabbalistic Prayer and Color, Approaches to Judaism in Medieval Times, D. Blumenthal, ed., Chicago: Scholar's Press, 1985. • Idel, Moshe; The Mystica Experience in Abraham Abulafia, New York, SUNY Press, 1988.
• Dan, Joseph; The Early Jewish Mysticism, Tel Aviv: MOD Books, 1993.
• Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1988.
• Dan, Joseph; The Heart and the Fountain: An Anthology of Jewish Mystical Experiences, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• Idel, Moshe; Magic and Kabbalah in the 'Book of the Responding Entity'; The Solomon Goldman Lectures VI, Chicago: Spertus College of Judaica Press, 1993.
• Dan, Joseph; “Samael, Lilith, and the Concept of Evil in Early Kabbalah”, AJS Review, vol. 5, 1980. • Dan, Joseph; The 'Unique Cherub' Circle, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1999. • Dan, J. and Kiener, R.; The Early Kabbalah, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1986. • Dennis, G.; The Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, and Mysticism, St. Paul: Llewellyn Worldwide, 2007. • Fine, Lawrence, ed. Essential Papers in Kabbalah, New York: NYU Press, 1995. • Fine, Lawrence; Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and his Kabbalistic Fellowship, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003. • Fine, Lawrence; Safed Spirituality, Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989. • Fine, Lawrence, ed., Judaism in Practice, Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. • Green, Arthur; EHYEH: A Kabbalah for Tomorrow. Woodstock: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2003. • Grözinger, Karl E., Jüdisches Denken Band 2: Von der mittelalterlichen Kabbala zum Hasidismus, (Campus) Frankfurt /New York, 2005 • Hecker, Joel; Mystical Bodies, Mystical Meals: Eating and Embodiment in Medieval Kabbalah. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2005. • Levy, Patrick, HaKabbalist, edi. Yael, Tel Aviv 2010.Author's website. • Idel, Moshe; Kabbalah: New Perspectives. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1988. • Idel, Moshe; The Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid, New York: SUNY Press, 1990. • Idel, Moshe; Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic, New York: SUNY Press, 1995.
• Idel, Moshe; “The Story of Rabbi Joseph della Reina"; Behayahu, M. Studies and Texts on the History of the Jewish Community in Safed. • Kaplan, Aryeh; Inner Space: Introduction to Kabbalah, Meditation and Prophecy. Moznaim Publishing Corp 1990. • McGiney, John W.; 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly • Samuel, Gabriella; “The Kabbalah Handbook: A Concise Encyclopedia of Terms and Concepts in Jewish Mysticism”. Penguin Books 2007. • Scholem, Gershom; Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, 1941. • Scholem, Gershom; Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mysticism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1960. • Scholem, Gershom; Sabbatai Zevi, the Mystical Messiah, 1973. • Scholem, Gershom; Kabbalah, Jewish Publication Society, 1974. • Wineberg, Yosef; Lessons in Tanya: The Tanya of R. Shneur Zalman of Liadi (5 volume set). Merkos L'Inyonei Chinuch, 1998. • Wirszubski, Chaim; Pico della Mirandola's Encounter with Jewish Mysticism, Harvard University Press, 1989. • Wolfson, Elliot; Through a Speculum That Shines: Vision and Imagination in Medieval Jewish Mysticism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. • Wolfson, Elliot; Language, Eros Being: Kabbalistic Hermeneutics and Poetic Imagination, New York: Fordham University Press, 2005. • Wolfson, Elliot; Venturing Beyond: Law and Morality in Kabbalistic Mysticism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. • Wolfson, Elliot; Alef, Mem, Tau: Kabbalistic Musings on Time, Truth, and Death, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
11.11. EXTERNAL LINKS • Wolfson, Elliot; Luminal Darkness: Imaginal Gleanings From Zoharic Literature, London: Onworld Publications, 2007. • The Wisdom of The Zohar: An Anthology of Texts, 3 volume set, Ed. Isaiah Tishby, translated from the Hebrew by David Goldstein, The Littman Library. • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "* article name needed". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
11.11 External links • From the Depth of the Well: An Anthology of Jewish Mysticism • Cabala - the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia's academic view • Don Karr's Bibliographic Surveys of contemporary academic scholarship on all traditions of Kabbalah • “What is Kabbalah?" - Article from ChabadLubavitch Hasidism at Chabad.org • Kabbalah and Jewish Mysticism - Kabbalah article at JewFaq.org
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Chapter 12
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn This article is about the historical organization of the 12.1.1 Cipher Manuscripts late 19th century. For other uses, see Golden Dawn (disambiguation). Main article: Cipher Manuscripts The foundational documents of the original Order of The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (Latin: Ordo Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae; or, more commonly, The Golden Dawn (Aurora Aurea)) was an organization devoted to the study and practice of the occult, metaphysics, and paranormal activities during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was active in Great Britain and focused its practices on theurgy and spiritual development. Many present-day concepts of ritual and magic that are at the centre of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca* [1]* [2] and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn, which became one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism.* [3]* [4] The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott, and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers, were Freemasons and members of Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A.).* [5] Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation like the Masonic Lodges; however women were admitted on an equal basis with men. The “Golden Dawn”was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the “Golden Dawn” . The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four Classical Elements as well as the basics of astrology, tarot divination, and geomancy. The Second or “Inner”Order, the Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Ruby Rose and Cross of Gold), taught magic, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy. The Third Order was that of the "Secret Chiefs", who were said to be highly skilled; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order.
12.1 History
Folio 13 of the Cipher Manuscripts
the Golden Dawn, known as the Cipher Manuscripts, are written in English using the Trithemius cipher. The manuscripts give the specific outlines of the Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, occult tarot, geomancy, and alchemy. According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts passed from Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, a Masonic scholar, to the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder* [6] (although Woodford died shortly after the
126
12.1. HISTORY Order was founded).* [7] The documents did not excite Woodford, and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott, who managed to decode them in 1887.* [6] Westcott, pleased with his discovery, called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion. Westcott asked for Mathers' help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work. Mathers in turn asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist the two, and he accepted.* [6] Mathers and Westcott have been credited with developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format.* [8] Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis (“Ruby Rose and Golden Cross”or the RR et AC).* [9]
127 the manuscripts.* [10]* [11] In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London.* [10] In contrast to the S.R.I.A. and Masonry,* [11] women were allowed and welcome to participate in the Order in “perfect equality”with men. The Order was more of a philosophical and metaphysical teaching order in its early years. Other than certain rituals and meditations found in the Cipher manuscripts and developed further,* [12] “magical practices”were generally not taught at the first temple. For the first four years, the Golden Dawn was one cohesive group later known as “the Outer Order”or “First Order.”An“Inner Order”was established and became active in 1892. The Inner Order consisted of members known as“adepts,”who had completed the entire course of study for the Outer Order. This group of adepts eventually became known as the Second Order. Eventually, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare, the Horus temple in Bradford (both in 1888), and the AmenRa temple in Edinburgh (1893) were founded. In 1893 Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris.* [10]
12.1.3 Secret Chiefs Main article: Secret Chiefs
Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers in Egyptian setup performing a ritual in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
12.1.2
Founding of first temple
In 1891, Westcott's alleged correspondence with Anna Sprengel suddenly ceased. He claimed to have received word from Germany that she was either dead or that her companions did not approve of the founding of the Order and no further contact was to be made. If the founders were to contact the Secret Chiefs, apparently, it had to be done on their own.* [10] In 1892, Mathers professed that a link to the Secret Chiefs had been established. Subsequently, he supplied rituals for the Second Order, calling them the Red Rose and Cross of Gold.* [10] The rituals were based on the tradition of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreuz, and a Vault of Adepts became the controlling force behind the Outer Order.* [13] Later in 1916, Westcott claimed that Mathers also constructed these rituals from materials he received from Frater Lux ex Tenebris, a purported Continental Adept.* [14] Some followers of the Golden Dawn tradition believe that the Secret Chiefs were not human or supernatural beings but, rather, symbolic representations of actual or legendary sources of spiritual esotericism. The term came to stand for a great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order.* [15]
In October 1887, Westcott claimed to have written to a German countess and prominent Rosicrucian named Anna Sprengel, whose address was said to have been found in the decoded Cipher Manuscripts. According to Westcott, Sprengel claimed the ability to contact certain supernatural entities, known as the Secret Chiefs, that were considered the authorities over any magical order or esoteric organization. Westcott purportedly received a reply from Sprengel granting permission to establish a 12.1.4 Golden Age Golden Dawn temple and conferring honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman. By the mid-1890s, the Golden Dawn was well established The temple was to consist of the five grades outlined in in Great Britain, with over one hundred members from
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every class of Victorian society.* [7] Many celebrities be- Order.* [21] longed to the Golden Dawn, such as the actress Florence Farr, the Irish revolutionary Maud Gonne, the Irish poet William Butler Yeats, the Welsh author Arthur Machen, and the English authors Evelyn Underhill and Aleister Splinters Crowley. In 1896 or 1897, Westcott broke all ties to the Golden In 1901, W. B. Yeats privately published a pamphlet tiof R. R. & A. C. to Remain a MagDawn, leaving Mathers in control. It has been speculated tled Is the Order * [22] After the Isis-Urania temple claimed ical Order? that his departure was due to his having lost a number its independence, there were even more disputes, leadof occult-related papers in a hansom cab. Apparently, * ing to Yeats resigning. [23] A committee of three was when the papers were found, Westcott's connection to to temporarily govern, which included P.W. Bullock, the Golden Dawn was discovered and brought to the atM.W. Blackden and J. W. Brodie-Innes. After a short tention of his employers. He may have been told to eitime, Bullock resigned, and Dr. Robert Felkin took his ther resign from the Order or to give up his occupation * place. [24] * as coroner. [16] After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglia. Dr. In 1903, A. E. Waite and Blackden joined forces to reHenry B. Pullen Burry succeeded Westcott as Cancellar- tain the name Isis-Urania, while Felkin and other London ius—one of the three Chiefs of the Order. members formed the Stella Matutina. Yeats remained in conMathers was the only active founding member after West- the Stella Matutina until 1921, while Brodie-Innes * tinued his Amen-Ra membership in Edinburgh. [25] cott's departure. Due to personality clashes with other members and frequent absences from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, however, challenges to Mathers's authority as leader developed among the members of the 12.1.6 Second Order.* [17]
12.1.5
Revolt
Toward the end of 1899, the Adepts of the Isis-Urania and Amen-Ra temples had become dissatisfied with Mathers' leadership, as well as his growing friendship with Aleister Crowley. They had also become anxious to make contact with the Secret Chiefs themselves, instead of relying on Mathers as an intermediary.* [18] Within the Isis-Urania temple, disputes were arising between Farr's The Sphere, a secret society within the Isis-Urania, and the rest of the Adepti Minores.* [18] Crowley was refused initiation into the Adeptus Minor grade by the London officials. Mathers overrode their decision and quickly initiated him at the Ahathoor temple in Paris on January 16, 1900.* [19] Upon his return to the London temple, Crowley requested from Miss Cracknell, the acting secretary, the papers acknowledging his grade, to which he was now entitled. To the London Adepts, this was the final straw. Farr, already of the opinion that the London temple should be closed, wrote to Mathers expressing her wish to resign as his representative, although she was willing to carry on until a successor was found.* [19] Mathers believed Westcott was behind this turn of events and replied on February 16. On March 3, a committee of seven Adepts was elected in London, and requested a full investigation of the matter. Mathers sent an immediate reply, declining to provide proof, refusing to acknowledge the London temple, and dismissing Farr as his representative on March 23.* [20] In response, a general meeting was called on March 29 in London to remove Mathers as chief and expel him from the
Reconstruction
Once Mathers realised that reconciliation was impossible, he made efforts to reestablish himself in London. The Bradford and Weston-super-Mare temples remained loyal to him, but their numbers were few.* [26] He then appointed Edward Berridge as his representative.* [27] According to Francis King, historical evidence shows that there were “twenty three members of a flourishing Second Order under Berridge-Mathers in 1913.”* [27] J.W. Brodie-Innes continued leading the Amen-Ra temple, deciding that the revolt was unjustified. By 1908, Mathers and Brodie-Innes were in complete accord.* [28] According to sources that differ regarding the actual date, sometime between 1901 and 1913 Mathers renamed the branch of the Golden Dawn remaining loyal to his leadership to Alpha et Omega.* [29]* [30]* [31]* [32] BrodieInnes assumed command of the English and Scottish temples, while Mathers concentrated on building up his Ahathoor temple and extending his American connections.* [30] According to occultist Israel Regardie, the Golden Dawn had spread to the United States of America before 1900 and a Thoth-Hermes temple had been founded in Chicago.* [28]* [30] By the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Mathers had established two to three American temples. Most temples of the Alpha et Omega and Stella Matutina closed or went into abeyance by the end of the 1930s, with the exceptions of two Stella Matutina temples: Hermes Temple in Bristol, which operated sporadically until 1970, and the Smaragdum Thallasses Temple (commonly referred to as Whare Ra) in Havelock North, New Zealand, which operated regularly until its closure in 1978.* [33]* [34]
12.3. THE GOLDEN DAWN BOOK
12.2 Structure and grades
129 • Magus 9=2 • Ipsissimus 10=1 The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of“0=0” indicates no position on the Tree. In the other pairs, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether). The First Order Grades were related to the four elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade received instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements and had to pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive admission to that Grade. The Portal Grade was an“Invisible”or in-between grade separating the First Order from the Second Order.* [36] The Circle of existing Adepts from the Second Order had to consent to allow an Aspirant to be initiated as an Adept and join the Second Order. The Second Order was not, properly, part of the“Golden Dawn”, but a separate Order in its own right, known as the R.R. et A.C. The Second Order directed the teachings of the First Order and was the governing force behind the First Order.
Rosy Cross of the Golden Dawn
After passing the Portal, the Aspirant was instructed in the techniques of practical magic. When another exMuch of the hierarchical structure for the Golden dawn amination was passed, and the other Adepts consented, came from the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, which the Aspirant attained the Grade of Adeptus Minor (5=6). was itself derived from the Order of the Golden and Rosy There were also four sub-Grades of instruction for the * Cross. [35] Adeptus Minor, again relating to the four Outer Order grades. First Order A member of the Second Order had the power and authority to initiate aspirants to the First Order, though usu• Introduction—Neophyte 0=0 ally not without the permission of the Chiefs of his or her Lodge. • Zelator 1=10 • Theoricus 2=9 • Practicus 3=8 • Philosophus 4=7 • Intermediate—Portal Grade Second Order • Adeptus Minor 5=6 • Adeptus Major 6=5
12.3 The Golden Dawn book The Golden Dawn, by Israel Regardie; was published in 1937. The book is divided into several basic sections. First are the knowledge lectures, which describe the basic teaching of the Kabalah, symbolism, meditation, geomancy, etc. This is followed by the rituals of the Outer Order, consisting of five initiation rituals into the degrees of the Golden Dawn. The next section covers the rituals of the Inner Order including two initiation rituals and equinox ceremonies.
• Adeptus Exemptus 7=4 Third Order • Magister Templi 8=3
12.4 Known or alleged members • Sara Allgood (1879–1950), Irish stage actress and later film actress in America
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• Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), best known for introducing Buddhism to the West • Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), British novelist* [37] • Edward W. Berridge (ca. 1843–1923), British homeopathic physician* [1]* :148–149 • Algernon Blackwood (1869–1951), English writer and radio broadcaster of supernatural stories* [38] • Anna de Brémont, American-born singer and writer.* [39] • Paul Foster Case was not an original member of the Golden Dawn, but was a member of the successor organization, Alpha et Omega. He was an American occultist and founder of the Builders of the Adytum. • Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), occultist, writer and mountaineer, founder of his own magical society.* [38] • Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930), author of Sherlock Holmes, doctor, scientist, and Spiritualist.* [40] • Florence Farr (1860–1917), London stage actress and musician* [38] • Robert Felkin (1853–1925), medical missionary, explorer and anthropologist in Central Africa, author • Dion Fortune was not an original member of the Golden Dawn, rather a member of the offshoot Golden Dawn order the Stella Matutina. Dion Fortune Founded the Society of Inner Light. • Frederick Leigh Gardner (1857–1930), British stock broker and occultist; published three-volume bibliography Catalogue Raisonné of Works on the Occult Sciences (1912)* [41] • Maud Gonne (1866–1953), Irish revolutionary, actress. • Annie Horniman (1860–1937), British repertory theatre producer and pioneer; member of the wealthy Horniman family of tea-traders* [38]
• Israel Regardie was not a member of the original Golden Dawn, but rather of the Stella Matutina, which he claimed was as close to the original order as could be found in the early 1930s (when he was initiated). Regardie wrote many respected and acclaimed books about magic and the Golden Dawn Order, including The Golden Dawn, The Tree Of Life, Middle Pillar, and A Garden of Pomegranates. • Dario Carpaneda (1856 - 1916) Italian occultist and esotericism professor at the University of Lausanne. • Sax Rohmer, novelist, creator of the Fu Manchu character • Charles Rosher (1885–1974), British cinematographer • Pamela Colman Smith (1878–1951), BritishAmerican artist and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck • William Sharp (1855–1905), poet and author; alias Fiona MacLeod • Bram Stoker* [42]* [43] (1847–1912), Irish writer best-known today for his 1897 horror novel Dracula • John Todhunter (1839–1916), Aktis Heliou Irish poet and playwright who wrote seven volumes of poetry, and several plays • Violet Tweedale (1862–1936), author. • Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), British Christian mystic, author of Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness • Charles Williams (1886–1945), British poet, novelist, theologian, and literary critic • A. E. Waite (1857–1942), British-American author, Freemason and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck* [38] • W. B. Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet, dramatist, writer and Freemason.
12.5 Contemporary Golden Dawn
• Arthur Machen (1863–1947), leading London orders writer of the 1890s, author of acclaimed works of imaginative and occult fiction, such as “The Great While no temples in the original chartered lineage of the God Pan”, “The White People”and “The Hill Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s,* [33]* [34] several of Dreams”. Welsh by birth and upbringing. organizations have since revived its teachings and rituals. • Gustav Meyrink (1868–1932), Austrian author, sto- Among these, the following are notable: ryteller, dramatist, translator, banker, and Buddhist • The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc. • E. Nesbit (1858–1924), real name Edith Bland; English author and political activist • The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn
12.7. REFERENCES
131
• Sodalitas Rosae+Crucis et Solis Alati
[13] King, 1989, page 44
• Orden Hermética de la Aurora Dorada
[14] King, 1989, page 46
• Ordem Esotérica da Aurora Dourada no Brasil
[15] Penczak, Christopher. Spirit Allies, p. 27. Wheel/Weiser Books. ISBN 1-57863-214-5
12.6 See also
Red
[16] King, 1989, page 48
• A∴A∴
[17] Raine, Kathleen (1976) [1972]. Liam Miller, ed. Yeats, the Tarot and the Golden Dawn. New Yeats Papers II (second ed.). Dublin: Dolmen Press. p. 6.
• Hermeticism
[18] King, 1989, page 66
• Tattva
[19] King, 1989, page 67
• Tattva vision
[20] King, 1989, page 68-69 [21] King, 1989, page 69
12.7 References [1] Colquhoun, Ithell (1975) The Sword of Wisdom: MacGregor Mathers & the Golden Dawn. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
[22] Melton, J. Gordon, editor, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, v. 2 p. 1327, Gale Group, 2001 ISBN 0-8103-9489-8 [23] King, 1989, page 78
[2] Phillips, Julia (1991) History of Wicca in England: 1939 - present day. Lecture at the Wiccan Conference in Canberra, 1991.
[24] King, 1989, page 94
[3] Jenkins, Phillip (2000) Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History, pg. 74. “Also in the 1880s, the tradition of ritual magic was revived in London by a group of Masonic adepts, who formed the Order of the Golden Dawn, which would prove an incalculable influence on the whole subsequent history of occultism.” USA: Oxford University Press.
[26] King, 1989, page 109
[4] Smoley, Richard (1999) Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions, ppg 102-103. “Founded in 1888, the Golden Dawn lasted a mere twelve years before it was shattered by personal conflicts. At its height it probably had no more than a hundred members. Yet its influence on magic and esoteric thought in the Englishspeaking world would be hard to overestimate.”USA: Quest Books. [5] Regardie, 1993, page 10 [6] King, 1989, page 42-43 [7] King, 1989, page 47 [8] Golden Dawn researcher R. A. Gilbert has found evidence which suggests that Westcott was instrumental in developing the Order's rituals from the Cipher Manuscripts. See Gilbert's article, From Cipher to Enigma: The Role of William Wynn Westcott in the Creation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, from Carroll Runyon's book Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cypher Manuscripts. [9] Regardie, 1993, page 92
[25] King, 1989, pages 95-96
[27] King, 1989, page 110 [28] Regardie, 1993, page 33 [29] King, 1971, p. 110-111 [30] King, 1989, page 111 [31]“The Golden Dawn ceased to exist by that name after October, 1901, replaced by Mathers' Alpha et Omega and the London group’s Order of the Morgan Rothe. No longer associated with the SRIA after 1902, Mathers continued to oversee a few temples until his death, when his wife, Moina, assumed supervision.”Samuel Liddel MacGregor Mathers biography, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, February 26, 2001 [32] Golden Dawn Time Line, Chic Cicero and Sandra Tabatha Cicero, Llewellyn Encyclopedia [33] Gilbert, R. A. Golden Dawn Companion. Aquarian Press, 1986. ISBN 0-85030-436-9 [34] Llewellyn Encyclopedia: “Golden Dawn Time Line” [35] The masonic career of A.E. Waite by Bro. R. A. Gilbert [36] Golden Dawn Research Center - What is the Golden Dawn? [37] Regardie, 1982, page 16
[10] King, 1989, page 43
[38] Regardie, 1982, foreword - page ix
[11] Regardie, 1993, page 11.
[39] Moyle, Franny (2011). Constance: The Tragic and Scandalous Life of Mrs Oscar Wilde. Hachette UK. p. 118. ISBN 9781848544611.
[12] King, 1997, page 35
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[40] http://moreintelligentlife.com/story/ conan-doyle-spiritualism
• King, Francis (1989). Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism. ISBN 1-85327-032-6
[41] “Frederick Leigh Gardner”, Biographies: Fringe freemasons, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon (Freemasons) web site. Retrieved November 2008.
• King, Francis, ed. (1997). Ritual Magic of the Golden Dawn: Works by S. L. MacGregor Mathers and Others. Destiny Books. ISBN 0-89281-617-1
[42] Ravenscroft, Trevor (1982). The occult power behind the spear which pierced the side of Christ. Red Wheel. p. 165. ISBN 0-87728-547-0.
• Kuntz, Darcy, ed. (1996). The Complete Golden Dawn Manuscript. Introduction by R.A. Gilbert. Deciphered, Translated and Preface by Darcy Kuntz. (Golden Dawn Studies No 1.) Holmes Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1558183254
[43] Picknett, Lynn (2004). The Templar Revelation: Secret Guardians of the True Identity of Christ. Simon and Schuster. p. 201. ISBN 0-7432-7325-7.
12.8 Bibliography
• Regardie, Israel, et al., eds. (1982). The Golden Dawn. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-6646
• Fra. A.o.C. (2002). A Short Treatise on the History, Culture and Practices of The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Retrieved August 3, 2007.
• Israel Regardie|Regardie, Israel, et al., eds. (1989). The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic. Llewellyn. ISBN 0-87542-6638
• Armstrong, Allan & R. A. Gilbert, eds. (1997). Golden Dawn: The Proceedings of the Golden Dawn Conference, London - 1997. Hermetic Research Trust.
• Regardie, Israel (1993). What You Should Know About the Golden Dawn (6th ed.). ISBN 1-56184064-5
• Cicero, Chic and Tabatha Cicero (1991). The New Golden Dawn Ritual Tarot. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-139-3 • Colquhoun, Ithell (1975). Sword of Wisdom: Macgregor Mathers and the Golden Dawn. Neville Spearman. ISBN 0-85435-092-6. • Greer, Mary K. (1994). Women of the Golden Dawn. Park Street. ISBN 0-89281-516-7. • Greer, Mary K. & Darcy Kuntz (1999) The Chronology of the Golden Dawn. Holmes Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55818-354-X • Gilbert, Robert A. (1983). The Golden Dawn: Twilight of the Magicians. The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-278-1 • Gilbert, Robert A. (1986). The Golden Dawn Companion. Weiser Books. ISBN 0-85030-436-9 • Gilbert, Robert A. Golden Dawn Scrapbook - The Rise and Fall of a Magical Order. Weiser Books (1998) ISBN 1-57863-037-1 • Howe, Ellic (1978). The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order 1887-1923. Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-369-9. • Jenkins, Phillip (2000) Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512744-7 • King, Francis (1971). The Rites of Modern Occult Magic. New York: Macmillan Company. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-158-933
• Runyon, Carroll (1997). Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts. C.H.S. ISBN 0-9654881-2-8 • Smoley, Richard (1999). Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions. Quest Books. ISBN 978-0-8356-0844-2 • Suster, Gerald (1990). Crowley's Apprentice: The Life and Ideas of Israel Regardie. Weiser Books. ISBN 0-87728-700-7 • Wasserman, James (2005). The Mystery Traditions: Secret Symbols and Sacred Art. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books. ISBN 1-59477-088-3
12.9 External links • The Golden Dawn FAQ (original from 1990s Usenet groups) • The Golden Dawn Library Project • Golden Dawn entries in Llewellyn Encyclopedia • Golden Dawn Tradition, by co-founder Dr. W. Wynn Westcott • Photocopies and the translation of the original Cipher Manuscripts • Lots of GD material on display in Yeats exhibition including Ritual Notebooks. • The Golden Dawn Roll Call • Golden Dawn at DMOZ
Chapter 13
Freemasonry “Freemasons”redirects here. For other uses, see Freemasons (disambiguation). “Masonic”redirects here. For the ghost town in California, see Masonic, California.
state, province, or national border) by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, world-wide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry; each Grand Lodge is independent, and they do not necessarily recognise each other as being legitimate. Modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Regular Freemasonry insists that a volume of scripture is open in a working lodge, that every member profess belief in a Deity, that no women are admitted, and that the discussion of religion and politics is banned. Continental Freemasonry is now the general term for the “liberal”jurisdictions who have removed some, or all, of these restrictions.
13.1 Masonic Lodge
The Masonic Square and Compasses. (Found with or without the letter G)
Freemasonry or Masonry consists of fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local fraternities of stonemasons, which from the end of the fourteenth century regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities and clients. The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow (now called Fellowcraft), and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft (or Blue Lodge) Freemasonry. Members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, and are usually administered by different bodies than the craft degrees.
Lodge in Palazzo Roffia, Florence set out for French (Moderns) ritual
Main article: Masonic Lodge
The Masonic Lodge is the basic organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the usual formal business of any small organisation (pay bills, organise social and charitable events, elect new members, The basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the etc.). In addition to business, the meeting may perform Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree* [1] or receive a at the regional level (usually coterminous with either a lecture, which is usually on some aspect of Masonic his133
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CHAPTER 13. FREEMASONRY
tory or ritual.* [2] At the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song.* [3] The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies. Candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a separate ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft, and finally they will be raised to the degree of Master Mason. In all of these ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs and grips peculiar to his new rank.* [4] Another ceremony is the annual installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge.* [1] In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, with its own secrets to distinguish its members.* [5] In other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge.* [6] Most Lodges have some sort of social calendar, allowing Masons and their partners to meet in a less ritualised environment.* [7] Often coupled with these events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level. Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief.* [8]* [9] These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these. There also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research. The rank of Master Mason also entitles a Freemason to explore Masonry further through other degrees, administered separately from the Craft, or“Blue Lodge”degrees described here, but having a similar format to their meetings.* [10] There is very little consistency in Freemasonry. Because each Masonic jurisdiction is independent, each sets its own procedures. The wording of the ritual, the number of officers present, the layout of the meeting room, etc. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.* [10]* [11] The officers of the Lodge are elected or appointed annually. Every Masonic Lodge has a Master, two Wardens, a secretary and a treasurer. There is also a Tyler, or outer guard, who is always present outside the door of a working Lodge. Other offices vary between jurisdictions.* [10]
Print from 1870 portraying George Washington as Master of his Lodge
friend at a Lodge social function, or at some form of open evening in the Lodge. In modern times, interested people often track down a local Lodge through the Internet. The onus is on candidates to ask to join; while candidates may be encouraged to ask, they are never invited. Once the initial inquiry is made, an interview usually follows to determine the candidate's suitability. If the candidate decides to proceed from here, the Lodge ballots on the application before he (or she, depending on the Masonic Jurisdiction) can be accepted.* [13]
The absolute minimum requirement of any body of Freemasons is that the candidate must be free, and considered to be of good character.* [14] There is usually an age requirement, varying greatly between Grand Lodges, Each Masonic Lodge exists and operates according to and (in some jurisdictions) capable of being overridden a set of ancient principles known as the Landmarks of by a dispensation from the Grand Lodge. The underlyis that the candidate should be a mature Freemasonry. These principles have thus far eluded any ing assumption * [13] adult. * universally accepted definition. [12] In addition, most Grand Lodges require the candidate to declare a belief in a Supreme Being. In a few cases, the 13.1.1 Joining a Lodge candidate may be required to be of a specific religion. The form of Freemasonry most common in Scandinavia Candidates for Freemasonry will have met most active (known as the Swedish Rite), for example, accepts only members of the Lodge they are joining before they are Christians.* [15] At the other end of the spectrum,“Libinitiated. The process varies between jurisdictions, but eral”or Continental Freemasonry, exemplified by the the candidate will typically have been introduced by a Grand Orient de France, does not require a declaration
13.2. ORGANISATION
135
of belief in any deity, and accepts atheists (a cause of try, state, or geographical area (termed a jurisdiction). discord with the rest of Freemasonry).* [16]* [17] There is no single overarching governing body that preDuring the ceremony of initiation, the candidate is ex- sides over worldwide Freemasonry; connections between jurisdictions depend solely on mutual recognipected to swear (usually on a volume of sacred text ap- different * * tion. [20] [21] propriate to his personal religious faith) to fulfil certain obligations as a Mason. In the course of three degrees, new masons will promise to keep the secrets of their degree from lower degrees and outsiders, and to support a fellow Mason in distress (as far as practicality and the law permit).* [10] There is instruction as to the duties of a Freemason, but on the whole, Freemasons are left to explore the craft in the manner they find most satisfying. Some will further explore the ritual and symbolism of the craft, others will focus their involvement on the social side of the Lodge, while still others will concentrate on the charitable functions of the lodge.* [18]* [19]
Freemasonry, as it exists in various forms all over the world, has a membership estimated by the United Grand Lodge of England at around six million worldwide.* [1] The fraternity is administratively organised into independent Grand Lodges (or sometimes Grand Orients), each of which governs its own Masonic jurisdiction, which consists of subordinate (or constituent) Lodges. The largest single jurisdiction, in terms of membership, is the United Grand Lodge of England (with a membership estimated at around a quarter million). The Grand Lodge of Scotland and Grand Lodge of Ireland (taken together) have approximately 150,000 members.* [1] In the United States total membership is just under two million.* [22]
13.2 Organisation 13.2.2 Recognition, amity and regularity 13.2.1
Grand Lodges Relations between Grand Lodges are determined by the concept of Recognition. Each Grand Lodge maintains a list of other Grand Lodges that it recognises.* [23] When two Grand Lodges recognise and are in Masonic communication with each other, they are said to be in amity, and the brethren of each may visit each other's Lodges and interact Masonically. When two Grand Lodges are not in amity, inter-visitation is not allowed. There are many reasons why one Grand Lodge will withhold or withdraw recognition from another, but the two most common are Exclusive Jurisdiction and Regularity.* [24] Exclusive Jurisdiction
Freemasons Hall, London, home of the United Grand Lodge of England
Main article: Grand Lodge
Exclusive Jurisdiction is a concept whereby only one Grand Lodge will be recognised in any geographical area. If two Grand Lodges claim jurisdiction over the same area, the other Grand Lodges will have to choose between them, and they may not all decide to recognise the same one. (In 1849, for example, the Grand Lodge of New York split into two rival factions, each claiming to be the legitimate Grand Lodge. Other Grand Lodges had to choose between them until the schism was healed.* [25]) Exclusive Jurisdiction can be waived when the two overlapping Grand Lodges are themselves in Amity and agree to share jurisdiction (for example, since the Grand Lodge of Connecticut is in Amity with the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Connecticut, the principle of Exclusive Jurisdiction does not apply, and other Grand Lodges may recognise both).* [26] Regularity
Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are independent and Main article: Regular Masonic jurisdictions sovereign bodies that govern Masonry in a given coun-
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13.3 Other degrees, orders and bodies See also: Masonic bodies and List of Masonic Rites Blue Lodge Freemasonry offers only three traditional degrees, and in most jurisdictions, the rank of past or installed master. Master Masons are also able to extend their Masonic experience by taking further degrees, in appendant bodies approved by their own Grand Lodge.* [30] The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite is a system of 33 degrees (including the three Blue Lodge degrees) administered by a local or national Supreme Council. This Freemasons' Hall, London, c. 1809 system is popular in North America and in Continental Europe. The York Rite, with a similar range, administers three orders of Masonry, namely the Royal Arch, Cryptic Regularity is a concept based on adherence to Masonic Masonry and Knights Templar.* [31] Landmarks, the basic membership requirements, tenets and rituals of the craft. Each Grand Lodge sets its own In Britain, separate bodies administer each order. definition of what these landmarks are, and thus what Freemasons are encouraged to join the Holy Royal Arch, is Regular and what is Irregular (and the definitions do which is linked to Mark Masonry in Scotland and Ireland, in England. Templar and Cryptic Masonry not necessarily agree between Grand Lodges). Essen- but separate * also exist. [32] tially, every Grand Lodge will hold that its landmarks (its requirements, tenets and rituals) are Regular, and judge In the Nordic countries the Swedish Rite is dominant; a other Grand Lodges based on those. If the differences are variation of it is also used in parts of Germany. significant, one Grand Lodge may declare the other “Irregular”and withdraw or withhold recognition.* [27]* [28] The most commonly shared rules for Recognition (based on Regularity) are those given by the United Grand Lodge of England in 1929:
13.4 Ritual and symbolism Main article: Masonic ritual and symbolism
• The Grand Lodge should be established by an existFreemasonry describes itself as a "'beautiful system of ing regular Grand Lodge, or by at least three regular morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols” Lodges. .* [33] The symbolism is mainly, but not exclusively, drawn from the manual tools of stonemasons – the square • A belief in a supreme being and scripture is a con- and compasses, the level and plumb rule, the trowel, dition of membership. among others. A moral lesson is attached to each of these tools, although the assignment is by no means consistent. The meaning of the symbolism is taught and explored • Initiates should take their vows on that scripture. through ritual.* [10] • Only men can be admitted, and no relationship exists All Freemasons begin their journey in the “craft”by being progressively initiated, passed and raised into the with mixed Lodges. three degrees of Craft, or Blue Lodge Masonry. During these three rituals, the candidate is progressively taught • The Grand Lodge has complete control over the first the meanings of the Lodge symbols, and entrusted with three degrees, and is not subject to another body. grips, signs and words to signify to other Masons that he has been so initiated. The initiations are part allegory • All Lodges shall display a volume of scripture with and part lecture, and revolve around the construction of the Temple of Solomon, and the artistry and death of his the square and compasses while in session. chief architect, Hiram Abiff. The degrees are those of Entered apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master Mason. While • There is no discussion of politics or religion. many different versions of these rituals exist, with at least two different lodge layouts and versions of the Hiram •“Antient landmarks, customs and usages”ob- myth, each version is recognisable to any Freemason from served.* [29] any jurisdiction.* [10]
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In some jurisdictions the main themes of each degree are illustrated by tracing boards. These painted depictions of Masonic themes are exhibited in the lodge according to which degree is being worked, and are explained to the candidate to illustrate the legend and symbolism of each degree.* [34]
ans have sought the origins of the movement in a series of similar documents known as the Old Charges, dating from the Regius Poem in about 1425* [37] to the beginning of the 18th century. Alluding to the membership of a lodge of operative masons, they relate a mythologised history of the craft, the duties of its grades, and the in which oaths of fidelity are to be taken on joinThe idea of Masonic brotherhood probably descends manner * [38] The fifteenth century also sees the first evidence ing. from a 16th-century legal definition of a brother as one of ceremonial regalia.* [39] who has taken an oath of mutual support to another. Accordingly, Masons swear at each degree to keep the con- There is no clear mechanism by which these local trade tents of that degree secret, and to support and protect their organisations became today's Masonic Lodges, but the brethren unless they have broken the law.* [35] In most earliest rituals and passwords known, from operative Lodges the oath or obligation is taken on a Volume of lodges around the turn of the 17th–18th centuries, show Sacred Law, whichever book of divine revelation is ap- continuity with the rituals developed in the later 18th cenpropriate to the religious beliefs of the individual brother tury by accepted or speculative Masons, as those mem(usually the Bible in the Anglo-American tradition). In bers who did not practice the physical craft came to be Progressive continental Freemasonry, books other than known.* [40] The minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh scripture are permissible, a cause of rupture between (Mary's Chapel) No. 1 in Scotland show a continuity Grand Lodges.* [36] from an operative lodge in 1598 to a modern speculative Lodge.* [41] It is reputed to be the oldest Masonic Lodge in the world.* [42]
13.5 History Main article: History of Freemasonry
13.5.1
Origins
View of room at the Masonic Hall, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, early 20th century, set up for a Holy Royal Arch convocation
Goose and Gridiron, where the Grand Lodge of England was founded
The first Grand Lodge, the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster (later called the Grand Lodge of England (GLE)), was founded on 24 June 1717, when four existing London Lodges met for a joint dinner. Many English Lodges joined the new regulatory body, which itself entered a period of self-publicity and expansion. However, many Lodges could not endorse changes which some Lodges of the GLE made to the ritual (they came to be known as the Moderns), and a few of these formed a rival Grand Lodge on 17 July 1751, which they called the "Antient Grand Lodge of England.”These two Grand Lodges vied for supremacy until the Moderns promised to return to the ancient ritual. They united on 27 December 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE).* [43]* [44]
Since the middle of the 19th century, Masonic histori- The Grand Lodge of Ireland and the Grand Lodge of
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Scotland were formed in 1725 and 1736 respectively, al- Widespread segregation in 19th- and early 20th-century though neither persuaded all of the existing lodges in their North America made it difficult for African-Americans countries to join for many years.* [45]* [46] to join Lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions – and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities. By the 1980s, such dis13.5.2 North America crimination was a thing of the past, and today most U.S. Grand Lodges recognise their Prince Hall counterparts, The earliest known American lodges were in and the authorities of both traditions are working towards Pennsylvania. The Collector for the port of Penn- full recognition.* [54] The United Grand Lodge of Engsylvania, John Moore, wrote of attending lodges there in land has no problem with recognising Prince Hall Grand 1715, two years before the formation of the first Grand Lodges.* [55] While celebrating their heritage as lodges Lodge in London. The Premier Grand Lodge of England of black Americans, Prince Hall is open to all men reappointed a Provincial Grand Master for North America gardless of race or religion.* [56] in 1731, based in Pennsylvania.* [47] Other lodges in the colony obtained authorisations from the later Antient Grand Lodge of England, the Grand Lodge of Scotland, 13.5.3 Emergence of Continental Freemaand the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was particularly sonry well represented in the travelling lodges of the British Army.* [48]* [49] Many lodges came into existence with no warrant from any Grand Lodge, applying and paying for their authorisation only after they were confident of their own survival.* [50] After the American Revolution, independent U.S. Grand Lodges formed themselves within each state. Some thought was briefly given to organising an overarching “Grand Lodge of the United States,”with George Washington (who was a member of a Virginian lodge) as the first Grand Master, but the idea was short-lived. The various state Grand Lodges did not wish to diminish their own authority by agreeing to such a body.* [51] Masonic initiation, Paris, 1745
Prince Hall Freemasonry Main article: Prince Hall Freemasonry Prince Hall Freemasonry exists because of the refusal of early American lodges to admit African-Americans. In 1775, an African-American named Prince Hall,* [52] along with fourteen other African-Americans, was initiated into a British military lodge with a warrant from the Grand Lodge of Ireland, having failed to obtain admission from the other lodges in Boston. When the military Lodge left North America, those fifteen men were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, but not to initiate Masons. In 1784, these individuals obtained a Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge of England (GLE) and formed African Lodge, Number 459. When the UGLE was formed in 1813, all U.S.-based Lodges were stricken from their rolls – due largely to the War of 1812. Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 – and became a de facto “Grand Lodge”(this Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa). As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each state.* [53]
English Freemasonry spread to France in the 1720s, first as lodges of expatriates and exiled Jacobites, and then as distinctively French lodges which still follow the ritual of the Moderns. From France and England, Freemasonry spread to most of Continental Europe during the course of the 18th century. The Grande Loge de France formed under the Grand Mastership of the Duke of Clermont, who exercised only nominal authority. His successor, the Duke of Orléans, reconstituted the central body as the Grand Orient de France in 1773. Briefly eclipsed during the French Revolution, French Freemasonry continued to grow in the next century.* [57] Schism The ritual form on which the Grand Orient of France was based was abolished in England in the events leading to the formation of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1813. However the two jurisdictions continued in amity (mutual recognition) until events of the 1860s and 1870s drove a seemingly permanent wedge between them. In 1868 the Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of the State of Louisiana appeared in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Louisiana, recognised by the Grand Orient de France, but regarded by
13.5. HISTORY
139
the older body as an invasion of their jurisdiction. The new Scottish rite body admitted blacks, and the resolution of the Grand Orient the following year that neither colour, race, nor religion could disqualify a man from Masonry prompted the Grand Lodge to withdraw recognition, and it persuaded other American Grand Lodges to do the same.* [58]
(CLIPSAS) was set up, which today provides a forum for most of these Grand Lodges and Grand Orients worldwide. Included in the list of over 70 Grand Lodges and Grand Orients are representatives of all three of the above categories, including mixed and women's organisations. The United Grand Lodge of England does not communicate with any of these jurisdictions, and expects its allies AngloA dispute during the Lausanne Congress of Supreme to follow suit. This creates the distinction between American and Continental Freemasonry.* [66]* [67] Councils of 1875 prompted the Grand Orient de France to commission a report by a Protestant pastor which concluded that, as Freemasonry was not a religion, it should 13.5.4 Freemasonry and women not require a religious belief. The new constitutions read, “Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and huMain articles: Freemasonry and women and Coman solidarity”, the existence of God and the immortality Freemasonry of the soul being struck out. It is possible that the immediate objections of the United Grand Lodge of England were at least partly motivated by the political tension be- The status of women in the old guilds and corporations tween France and Britain at the time. The result was the of mediaeval masons remains uncertain. The principle withdrawal of recognition of the Grand Orient of France of “femme sole”allowed a widow to continue the trade by the United Grand Lodge of England, a situation that of her husband, but its application had wide local variations, ranging from full membership of a trade body continues today.* [17] to limited trade by deputation to approved members of Not all French lodges agreed with the new wording. In that body.* [68] In masonry, the small available evidence 1894, lodges favouring the compulsory recognition of the points to the less empowered end of the scale.* [69] Great Architect of the Universe formed the Grande Loge de France.* [59] In 1913, the United Grand Lodge of Eng- At the dawn of the Grand Lodge era, during the 1720s, land recognised a new Grand Lodge of Regular Freema- James Anderson composed the first printed constitutions sons, a Grand Lodge that follows a similar rite to Anglo- for Freemasons, the basis for most subsequent constituAmerican Freemasonry with a mandatory belief in a de- tions, which specifically excluded women from Freemasonry.* [70] As Freemasonry spread, continental maity.* [60] sons began to include their ladies in Lodges of AdopThere are now three strands of Freemasonry in France, tion, which worked three degrees with the same names which extend into the rest of Continental Europe:as the men's but different content. The French officially abandoned the experiment in the early 19th cen• Liberal (also adogmatic or progressive) – Principles tury.* [71]* [72] Later organisations with a similar aim of liberty of conscience, and laicity, particularly the emerged in the United States, but distinguished the names separation of the Church and State.* [61] of the degrees from those of male masonry.* [73] • Traditional – Old French ritual with a requirement Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in 1882, for a belief in a supreme being.* [62] (This strand is then resigned to allow her lodge to rejoin their Grand typified by the Grande Loge de France). Lodge. Having failed to achieve acceptance from any ma• Regular – Standard Anglo-American ritual, manda- sonic governing body, she and Georges Martin started a mixed masonic lodge that actually worked masonic rittory belief in Supreme being.* [63] ual.* [74] Annie Besant spread the phenomenon to the EnThe term Continental Freemasonry was used in Mackey's glish speaking world.* [75] Disagreements over ritual led 1873 Encyclopedia of Freemasonry to “designate the to the formation of exclusively female bodies of FreemaLodges on the Continent of Europe which retain many sons in England, which spread to other countries. Meanusages which have either been abandoned by, or never while, the French had re-invented Adoption as an allwere observed in, the Lodges of England, Ireland, and female lodge in 1901, only to cast it aside again in 1935. Scotland, as well as the United States of America”.* [64] The lodges, however, continued to meet, which gave Today, it is frequently used to refer to only the Liberal ju- rise, in 1959, to a body of women practising continenrisdictions typified by the Grand Orient de France.* [65] tal Freemasonry.* [72] The majority of Freemasonry considers the Liberal (Continental) strand to be Irregular, and thus withhold recognition. For the Continental lodges, however, having a different approach to Freemasonry was not a reason for severing masonic ties. In 1961, an umbrella organisation, Centre de Liaison et d'Information des Puissances maçonniques Signataires de l'Appel de Strasbourg
In general, Continental Freemasonry is sympathetic to Freemasonry amongst women, dating from the 1890s when French lodges assisted the emergent co-masonic movement by promoting enough of their members to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite to allow them, in 1899, to form their own grand council, recognised by the other Continental Grand Councils of
140 that Rite.* [76] The United Grand Lodge of England issued a statement in 1999 recognising the two women's grand lodges there to be regular in all but the participants. While they were not, therefore, recognised as regular, they were part of Freemasonry “in general” .* [1]* [77] The attitude of most regular Anglo-American grand lodges remains that women Freemasons are not legitimate Masons.* [78]
13.6 Anti-Masonry
CHAPTER 13. FREEMASONRY
13.6.1 Religious opposition Freemasonry has attracted criticism from theocratic states and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or supposed heterodoxy within the fraternity itself, and has long been the target of conspiracy theories, which assert Freemasonry to be an occult and evil power.* [85]
Christianity and Freemasonry Main article: Opposition to Freemasonry within Christianity Although members of various faiths cite objections, certain Christian denominations have had high profile negative attitudes to Masonry, banning or discouraging their members from being Freemasons. The denomination with the longest history of objection to Freemasonry is the Roman Catholic Church. The objections raised by the Roman Catholic Church are based on the allegation that Masonry teaches a naturalistic deistic religion which is in conflict with Church doctrine.* [86] A number of Papal pronouncements have been issued against Freemasonry. The first was Pope Clement XII's In eminenti apostolatus, 28 April 1738; the most recent was Pope Leo XIII's Ab apostolici, 15 October 1890. The 1917 Code of Canon Law explicitly declared that joining Freemasonry entailed automatic excommunication, and banned books favouring Freemasonry.* [87]
Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, one of the few Masonic temples that survived the Franco dictatorship in Spain.
Anti-Masonry (alternatively called Anti-Freemasonry) has been defined as“opposition to Freemasonry”,* [79]* [80] but there is no homogeneous anti-Masonic movement. Anti-Masonry consists of widely differing criticisms from diverse (and often incompatible) groups who are hostile to Freemasonry in some form. Critics have included religious groups, political groups, and conspiracy theorists. There have been many disclosures and exposés dating as far back as the 18th century. These often lack context,* [81] may be outdated for various reasons,* [82] or could be outright hoaxes on the part of the author, as in the case of the Taxil hoax.* [83] These hoaxes and exposés have often become the basis for criticism of Masonry, often religious or political in nature or are based on suspicion of corrupt conspiracy of some form. The political opposition that arose after the "Morgan Affair" in 1826 gave rise to the term AntiMasonry, which is still in use today, both by Masons in referring to their critics and as a self-descriptor by the critics themselves.* [84]
In 1983, the Church issued a new code of canon law. Unlike its predecessor, the 1983 Code of Canon Law did not explicitly name Masonic orders among the secret societies it condemns. It states: “A person who joins an association which plots against the Church is to be punished with a just penalty; one who promotes or takes office in such an association is to be punished with an interdict.” This named omission of Masonic orders caused both Catholics and Freemasons to believe that the ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons may have been lifted, especially after the perceived liberalisation of Vatican II.* [88] However, the matter was clarified when Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), as the Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, issued a Declaration on Masonic Associations, which states: "... the Church's negative judgment in regard to Masonic association remains unchanged since their principles have always been considered irreconcilable with the doctrine of the Church and therefore membership in them remains forbidden. The faithful who enroll in Masonic associations are in a state of grave sin and may not receive Holy Communion.”* [89] For its part, Freemasonry has never objected to Catholics joining their fraternity. Those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE deny the Church's claims. The UGLE now states that “Freemasonry does not seek to replace a Mason's religion or pro-
13.6. ANTI-MASONRY vide a substitute for it.”* [1] In contrast to Catholic allegations of rationalism and naturalism, Protestant objections are more likely to be based on allegations of mysticism, occultism, and even Satanism.* [90] Masonic scholar Albert Pike is often quoted (in some cases misquoted) by Protestant antiMasons as an authority for the position of Masonry on these issues.* [91] However, Pike, although undoubtedly learned, was not a spokesman for Freemasonry and was also controversial among Freemasons in general. His writings represented his personal opinion only, and furthermore an opinion grounded in the attitudes and understandings of late 19th century Southern Freemasonry of the USA. Notably, his book carries in the preface a form of disclaimer from his own Grand Lodge. No one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.* [92]
141 those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE explicitly adhere to the principle that“Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate 'Masonic deity,' and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry.”* [97] Christian men, who were discouraged from joining the Freemasons by their Churches or who wanted a more religiocentric society, joined similar fraternal organizations, such as the Knights of Columbus for Catholic Christians, and the Loyal Orange Institution for Protestant Christians,* [98]* [99] although these fraternal organizations have been “organized in part on the style of and use many symbols of Freemasonry”.* [98]* [99] Islam and Freemasonry
Free Methodist Church founder B.T. Roberts was a vocal opponent of Freemasonry in the mid 19th century. Roberts opposed the society on moral grounds and stated, “The god of the lodge is not the God of the Bible.” Roberts believed Freemasonry was a "mystery" or “alternate”religion and encouraged his church not to support ministers who were Freemasons. Freedom from secret societies is one of the “frees”upon which the Free Methodist Church was founded.* [93]
Many Islamic anti-Masonic arguments are closely tied to both antisemitism and Anti-Zionism, though other criticisms are made such as linking Freemasonry to al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the false Messiah).* [100]* [101] Some Muslim anti-Masons argue that Freemasonry promotes the interests of the Jews around the world and that one of its aims is to destroy the Al-Aqsa Mosque in order to rebuild the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.* [102] In article 28 of its Covenant, Hamas states that Freemasonry, Rotary, Since the founding of Freemasonry, many Bishops of and other similar groups“work in the interest of Zionism * the Church of England have been Freemasons, such as and according to its instructions ...” [103] Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher.* [94] In the past, few mem- Many countries with a significant Muslim population do bers of the Church of England would have seen any in- not allow Masonic establishments within their jurisdiccongruity in concurrently adhering to Anglican Chris- tions. However, countries such as Turkey and Morocco tianity and practicing Freemasonry. In recent decades, have established Grand Lodges,* [104] while in countries however, reservations about Freemasonry have increased such as Malaysia* [105]* [106] and Lebanon* [107] there within Anglicanism, perhaps due to the increasing promi- are District Grand Lodges operating under a warrant from nence of the evangelical wing of the church. The for- an established Grand Lodge. mer Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr Rowan Williams, appeared to harbour some reservations about Masonic rit- In Pakistan in 1972, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, then Prime MinLodge ual, whilst being anxious to avoid causing offence to ister of Pakistan, placed a ban on Freemasonry. * buildings were confiscated by the government. [108] Freemasons inside and outside the Church of England. In 2003 he felt it necessary to apologise to British Freema- Masonic lodges existed in Iraq as early as 1917, when sons after he said that their beliefs were incompatible with the first lodge under the United Grand Lodge of England Christianity and that he had barred the appointment of (UGLE) was opened. Nine lodges under UGLE existed Freemasons to senior posts in his diocese when he was by the 1950s, and a Scottish lodge was formed in 1923. Bishop of Monmouth.* [95] However, the position changed following the revolution, * In 1933, the Orthodox Church of Greece officially de- and all lodges were forced to close in 1965. [109] This position was later reinforced under Saddam Hussein; the clared that being a Freemason constitutes an act of death penalty was“prescribed” for those who“promote apostasy and thus, until he repents, the person involved with Freemasonry cannot partake of the Eucharist. This or acclaim Zionist principles, including freemasonry, or associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations.” has been generally affirmed throughout the whole East- who * [100] ern Orthodox Church. The Orthodox critique of Freemasonry agrees with both the Roman Catholic and Protestant versions: “Freemasonry cannot be at all compatible 13.6.2 Political opposition with Christianity as far as it is a secret organisation, acting and teaching in mystery and secret and deifying rationalSee also: Anti-Masonry and Suppression of Freemasonry ism.”* [96] Regular Freemasonry has traditionally not responded to In 1799, English Freemasonry almost came to a halt due these claims, beyond the often repeated statement that to Parliamentary proclamation. In the wake of the French
142 Revolution, the Unlawful Societies Act 1799 banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an oath or obligation.* [110] The Grand Masters of both the Moderns and the Antients Grand Lodges called on Prime Minister William Pitt (who was not a Freemason) and explained to him that Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result, Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each private lodge's Secretary placed with the local “Clerk of the Peace”a list of the members of his lodge once a year. This continued until 1967 when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by Parliament.* [110]
CHAPTER 13. FREEMASONRY left (e.g. the former Communist states in Eastern Europe).* [115]
Even in modern democracies, Freemasonry is sometimes viewed with distrust.* [116] In the UK, Masons working in the justice system, such as judges and police officers, were from 1999 to 2009 required to disclose their membership.* [117] While a parliamentary inquiry found that there has been no evidence of wrongdoing, it was felt that any potential loyalties Masons might have, based on their vows to support fellow Masons, should be transparent to the public.* [116]* [117]* [118] The policy of requiring a declaration of masonic membership of applicants for judicial office (judges and magistrates) was ended in 2009 by Justice Secretary Jack Straw (who had initiated the Freemasonry in the United States faced political pres- requirement in the 1990s). Straw stated that the rule sure following the 1826 kidnapping of William Morgan was considered disproportionate, since no impropriety or by Freemasons and subsequent disappearance. Reports malpractice had been shown as a result of judges being of the “Morgan Affair”, together with opposition to Freemasons.* [119] Jacksonian democracy (Andrew Jackson was a prominent Freemasonry is both successful and controversial in Mason) helped fuel an Anti-Masonic movement, culmi- France; membership is rising, but reporting in the popnating in the formation of a short lived Anti-Masonic ular media is often negative.* [116] Party which fielded candidates for the Presidential elecIn some countries anti-Masonry is often related to tions of 1828 and 1832.* [111] antisemitism and anti-Zionism. For example, In 1980, the Iraqi legal and penal code was changed by Saddam Hussein's ruling Ba'ath Party, making it a felony to“promote or acclaim Zionist principles, including Freemasonry, or who associate [themselves] with Zionist organisations”.* [100] Professor Andrew Prescott of the University of Sheffield writes: “Since at least the time of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, antisemitism has gone hand in hand with anti-masonry, so it is not surprising that allegations that 11 September was a Zionist plot have been accompanied by suggestions that the attacks were inspired by a masonic world order”.* [120] The Holocaust Lodge in Erlangen, Germany. First meeting after World War II with guests from USA, France and Czechoslovakia, 1948.
In Italy, Freemasonry has become linked to a scandal concerning the Propaganda Due lodge (a.k.a. P2). This lodge was chartered by the Grande Oriente d'Italia in 1877, as a lodge for visiting Masons unable to attend their own lodges. Under Licio Gelli's leadership, in the late 1970s, P2 became involved in the financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the Vatican Bank. However, by this time the lodge was operating independently and irregularly, as the Grand Orient had revoked its charter and expelled Gelli in 1976.* [112] Conspiracy theorists have long associated Freemasonry with the New World Order and the Illuminati, and state that Freemasonry as an organisation is either bent on world domination or already secretly in control of world politics. Historically, Freemasonry has attracted criticism —and suppression —from both the politically far right (e.g., Nazi Germany)* [113]* [114] and the far
Main article: Holocaust victims § Freemasons See also: Liberté chérie (Freemasonry) and Suppression of Freemasonry The preserved records of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (the Reich Security Main Office) show the persecution of Freemasons during the Holocaust.* [121] RSHA Amt VII (Written Records) was overseen by Professor Franz Six and was responsible for“ideological”tasks, by which was meant the creation of antisemitic and anti-Masonic propaganda. While the number is not accurately known, it is estimated that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were killed under the Nazi regime.* [122] Masonic concentration camp inmates were graded as political prisoners and wore an inverted red triangle.* [123] The small blue forget-me-not flower was first used by the Grand Lodge Zur Sonne, in 1926, as a Masonic emblem at the annual convention in Bremen, Germany. In 1938 a forget-me-not badge—made by the same factory as the Masonic badge—was chosen for the annual Nazi
13.8. FOOTNOTES
143
[7] For instance “Introduction into Freemasonry”, Provincial Grand Lodge of Hertfordshire, retrieved 8 November 2013 [8] “Charitable work”, UGLE, retrieved 8 November 2013 [9] (editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, Freemasonry, Angus, 2004, pp 214–220 [10] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 101–120 [11] “Les Officiers de Loge” Maconnieke Encyclopedie, retrieved 31 October 2013 [12] Alain Bernheim, “My Approach to Masonic History”, Pietre Stones, from address of 2011, retrieved 8 November 2013
Forget-me-not
[13] “How to become a Freemason”, Masonic Lodge of Education, retrieved 20 November 2013 [14] “Comment devenir franc-maçon?", Grande Loge de Luxembourg, retrieved 23 November 2013
Party Winterhilfswerk, the annual charity drive of the National Socialist People's Welfare, the welfare branch [15] “Swedish Rite FAQ”, Grand Lodge of British Columbia & Yukon, Accessed 19 November 2013 of the Nazi party. This coincidence enabled Freemasons to wear the forget-me-not badge as a secret sign of mem- [16] “Faut-il croire en Dieu?", Foire aux Questions, Grand bership.* [124]* [125]* [126] Orient de France, Retrieved 23 November 2013 After World War II, the forget-me-not flower was again [17] Jack Buta, “The God Conspiracy, The Politics of Grand used as a Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention Lodge Foreign Relations”, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 23 of the United Grand Lodges of Germany in 1948.* [127] November 2013 The badge is now worn in the coat lapel by Freemasons around the world to remember all who suffered in the [18] “Social events and activities”, Hampshire Province, retrieved 20 November 2013 name of Freemasonry, especially those during the Nazi * era. [127] [19] “Who are Masons, and what do they do?", MasonicLodges.com, retrieved 20 November 2013
13.7 See also • List of Freemasons
13.8 Footnotes [1] “Frequently Asked Questions” United Grand Lodge of England retrieved 30 October 2013 [2] “Materials: Papers and Speakers” Provincial Grand Lodge of East Lancashire, retrieved 30 October 2013 [3] “Gentlemen, please be upstanding” Toasts for the festive board, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon retrieved 30 October 2013 [4] “Words, Grips and Signs” H. L. Haywood, Symbolical Masonry, 1923, Chapter XVIII, Sacred Texts website, retrieved 9 January 2014 [5] “Past Master”Masonic Dictionary, retrieved 31 October 2013 [6] “Maçon célèbre : le Maître Installé" GADLU blog Maçonnique, 3 March 2013, retrieved 2 November 2013
[20] (editors) John Hamill and Robert Gilbert, Freemasonry, Angus, 2004, Glossary, p247 [21] “Difficult Questions; Is Freemasonry a Global Conspiracy?" MasterMason.com, retrieved 18 November 2013 [22] Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 52. [23] Campbell, Donald G.; Committee on Ritual.“The Master Mason; Irregular and Clandestine Lodges”. Handbook for Candidate's Coaches (excerpt). Grand Lodge F.&A.M. of California. Retrieved 2007-05-08. [24] Jim Bantolo, “On Recognition”, Masonic Short Talk, Pilar lodge, 2007, retrieved 25 November 2013 [25] Ossian Lang,“History of Freemasonry in the State of New York”(pdf), 1922, pp135-140, Masonic Trowel eBooks [26] “Exclusive Jurisdiction”, Paul M. Bessel, 1998, retrieved 25 November 2013 [27] “Regularity in Freemasonry and its Meaning”, Grand Lodge of Latvia, retrieved 25 November 2013 [28] Tony Pope,“Regularity and Recognition”, from Freemasonry Universal, by Kent Henderson & Tony Pope, 1998, Pietre Stones website, retrieved 25 November 2013
144
CHAPTER 13. FREEMASONRY
[29] UGLE Book of Constitutions,“Basic Principles for Grand Lodge Recognition”, any year since 1930, page numbers may vary.
[49] M. Baigent and R. Leigh, The Temple and the Lodge, Arrow 1998, Appendix 2, pp360-362, “Masonic Field Lodges in Regiments in America”, 1775–77
[30] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason's Code, Rider 2006, p229
[50] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason's Code, Rider 2006, p190
[31] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 95–98
[51] Bullock, Steven C.; Institute of Early American History and Culture (Williamsburg, Va.) (1996). Revolutionary brotherhood: Freemasonry and the transformation of the American social order, 1730–1840. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4750-3. OCLC 33334015.
[32] J S M Ward, “The Higher Degrees Handbook”, Pietre Stones, retrieved 11 November 2013 [33] “What is Freemasonry?" Grand Lodge of Alberta retrieved 7 November 2013 [34] Mark S. Dwor,“Some thoughts on the history of the Tracing Boards”, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, 1999, retrieved 7 November 2013 [35] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason's Code, Rider 2006, p79 [36] “Masonic U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in the 20th century”, Paul M. Bessel. retrieved 8 November 2013 [37] Andrew Prescott, “The Old Charges Revisited”, from Transactions of the Lodge of Research No. 2429 (Leicester), 2006, Pietre-Stones Masonic Papers, retrieved 12 October 2013 [38] A. F. A. Woodford, preface to William James Hughan, The Old Charges of British Freemasons, London, 1872 [39] John Yarker (1909). The Arcane Schools. Manchester. pp. 341–342.
[52] Johnson, Lawrence (1996). “Who is Prince Hall? And other well known Prince Hall Masons”. Retrieved 200511-14. [53] “Prince Hall History Education Class”by Raymond T. Coleman(pdf) retrieved 13 October 2013 [54] Bessel, Paul M. “Prince Hall Masonry Recognition details: Historical Maps”. Retrieved 2005-11-14. [55] “Foreign Grand Lodges”, UGLE Website, retrieved 25 October 2013 [56] “History of Prince Hall Masonry: What is Freemasonry” , Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge Free and Accepted Masons Jurisdiction of Pennsylvania, retrieved 25 October 2013 [57] Histoire de la Franc-maçonnerie, Grand Orient de France, retrieved 12 November 2013
[40] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason's Code, Rider 2006, Chapter 4, p 53
[58] Paul Bessel, “U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in the 1900s”, from Heredom: The Transactions of the Scottish Rite Research Society, vol 5, 1996, pp 221–244, Paul Bessel website, retrieved 12 November 2013
[41] David Murray Lyon, History of the Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No 1, Blackwood 1873, Preface
[59] Historique de la GLDF, Grande Loge de France, retrieved 14 November 2013
[42] Stevenson, David (1988). The Origins of Freemasonry. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–44. ISBN 0521396549.
[60] Alain Bernheim, “My approach to Masonic History”, Manchester 2011, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 14 November 2013
[43] S. Brent Morris (2006). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry. Alpha/Penguin Books. p. 27. ISBN 159257-490-4.
[61] “Liberal Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013
[44] I. R. Clarke, “The Formation of the Grand Lodge of the Antients” , Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, vol 79 (1966), p. 270-73, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, retrieved 28 June 2012 [45] H. L. Haywood, “Various Grand Lodges”, The Builder, vol X no 5, May 1924, Pietre Stones website, retrieved 9 January 2014 [46] Robert L.D. Cooper, Cracking the Freemason's Code, Rider 2006, Chapter 1, p 17 [47] Francis Vicente, An Overview of Early Freemasonry in Pennsylvania, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 15 November 2013 [48] Werner Hartmann, “History of St. John's Lodge No. 1”, St. John's Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M., 2012, retrieved 16 November 2013
[62] “Traditional Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013 [63] “Regular Grand Lodges”, French Freemasonry, retrieved 14 November 2013 [64] “Continental Lodges”,Mackey's Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, retrieved 30 November 2013 [65] For instance “Women in Freemasonry, and Continental Freemasonry”, Corn Wine and Oil, June 2009, retrieved 30 November 2013 [66] Tony Pope,“At a Perpertual Distance: Liberal and Adogmatic Grand Lodges”, Presented to Waikato Lodge of Research No 445 at Rotorua, New Zealand, on 9 November 2004, as the annual Verrall Lecture, and subsequently published in the Transactions of the lodge, vol 14 #1, March 2005, Pietre-Stones, retrieved 13 November 2013
13.8. FOOTNOTES
[67] “Current members”, CLIPSAS, retrieved 14 November 2014 [68] Antonia Frazer, The Weaker Vessel, Mandarin paperbacks, 1989, pp108-109 [69] for example, see David Murray Lyon, History of the lodge of Edinburgh, Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1873, pp 121–123 [70] Anderson, James (1734) [1723]. Paul Royster, ed. The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (Philadelphia ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Benjamin Franklin. p. 49. Retrieved 12 August 2013. The Persons admitted Members of a Lodge must be good and true Men, free-born, and of mature and discreet Age, no Bondmen, no Women, no immoral or scandalous Men, but of good Report. [71] “Adoptive Freemasonry” Entry from Mackey's Lexicon of Freemasonry [72] Barbara L. Thames, “A History of Women's Masonry” , Phoenix Masonry, retrieved 5 March 2013 [73] “Order of the Eastern Star”Masonic Dictionary, retrieved 9 January 2013 [74] “Maria Deraismes (1828–1894)", Droit Humain, retrieved 5 March 2013. (French Language) [75] Jeanne Heaslewood,“A Brief History of the Founding of Co-Freemasonry”, 1999, Phoenix Masonry, retrieved 12 August 2013 [76] “Histoire du Droit Humain”, Droit Humain, retrieved 12 August 2013 [77] “Text of UGLE statement”, Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons, retrieved 12 August 2012 [78] Karen Kidd, Haunted Chambers: the Lives of Early Women Freemasons, Cornerstone, 2009, pp204-205 [79]“Anti-Masonry”– Oxford English Dictionary (Compact Edition), Oxford University Press, 1979, p.369 [80] “Antimasonry – Definition of Antimasonry by Webster Dictionary”. Webster-dictionary.net. Retrieved 201109-08. [81] Morris, S. Brent (2006). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry. New York: Alpha Books. pp. 85 (also discussed in chapters 13 and 16). ISBN 978-1-59257490-2. OCLC 68042376. [82] Robinson, John J. (1993). A Pilgrim's Path. New York: M. Evans. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-87131-732-2. OCLC 27381296. [83] de Hoyos, Arturo; S. Brent Morris (18 August 2002). “Leo Taxil Hoax —Bibliography”. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. Retrieved 2007-07-07. Lists many books which perpetuate Masonic ritual hoaxes. [84] “Anti-mason” infoplease.com retrieved 9 January 2014 [85] Morris, S. Brent; The Complete Idiot's Guide to Freemasonry, Alpha books, 2006, p,204.
145
[86] Cardinal Law, Bernard (19 April 1985). “Letter of 19 April 1985 to U.S. Bishops Concerning Masonry”. CatholicCulture.org. Retrieved 2007-07-09. [87] Canon 2335, 1917 Code of Canon Law from“Canon Law regarding Freemasonry, 1917–1983”. Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. [88] McInvale, Reid (1991). “Roman Catholic Church Law Regarding Freemasonry”. Transactions of Texas Lodge of Research 27: 86–97. OCLC 47204246. [89] Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith, DECLARATION ON MASONIC ASSOCIATIONS, 26 November 1983, retrieved 26 November 2015 [90] Jack Chick.“The Curse of Baphomet”. Retrieved 200709-29. [91] Arturo de Hoyos and S. Brent Morris (2004). Is it True What They Say About Freemasonry, 2nd edition (revised), chapter 1. M. Evans & Company. [92] Pike, Albert; T. W. Hugo; Scottish Rite (Masonic order). Supreme Council of the Thirty-Third Degree for the Southern Jurisdiction (1950) [1871]. Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry. Washington, DC: House of the Temple. OCLC 12870276. In preparing this work [Pike] has been about equally Author and Compiler. (p. iii.) ... The teachings of these Readings are not sacramental, so far as they go beyond the realm of Morality into those of other domains of Thought and Truth. The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite uses the word “Dogma”in its true sense of doctrine, or teaching; and is not dogmatic in the odious sense of that term. Everyone is entirely free to reject and dissent from whatsoever herein may seem to him to be untrue or unsound (p. iv) [93] Snyder, Howard (2006). Populist Saints. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 727. [94] Beresiner, Yasha (July 2006). “Archbishop Fisher – A Godly man and a Brother”. Masonic Quarterly Magazine (18). Retrieved 2007-05-07. [95] Hastings, Chris; Elizabeth Day (20 April 2003).“Rowan Williams apologises to Freemasons”. The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 November 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-09. [96] “Freemasonry: Official Statement of the Church of Greece (1933)". Orthodoxinfo.com. 12 October 1933. Retrieved 2011-01-15. [97]“Freemasonry and Religion”(PDF). United Grand Lodge of England. Retrieved 2013-11-02. [98] Jeffers, H. Paul (2005). Freemasons: A History and Exploration of the World's Oldest Secret Society. Citadel Press. p. 110. ISBN 9780806526621. Founded by Michael J. McGivney, a New Haven, Connecticut, parish priest, the Knights of Columbus paralleled the structure of Freemasonry with ritual, degrees, passwords, and the motto “Charity, Unity, Fraternity, and Patriotism.”
146
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[99] Fields, Rona M. (1 January 1980). Northern Ireland: So- [119] Sparrow, Andrew (5 November 2009). “Jack Straw ciety Under Siege. Transaction Publishers. p. 113. ISBN scraps rule saying judges must declare if they are masons” 9781412845090. . guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 7 November 2009. [100] Sands, David R (1 July 2004). “Saddam to be formally [120] charged”. The Washington Times. Retrieved 2006-06-18. [121] [101] Prescott, Andrew. The Study of Freemasonry as a New Academic Discipline. pp. 13–14. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
Prescott, pp. 13–14, 30, 33. “World War II Documents showing the persecution of Freemasonry”. Mill Valley Lodge #356. Retrieved 200605-21.
[102] “Can a Muslim be a Freemason” Wake up from your [122] Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p. 85, sec. Hitler and slumber, 2007, retrieved 8 January 2014 the Nazi [103] “Hamas Covenant 1988”. Avalon.law.yale.edu. 18 Au[123] Katz. “Jews and Freemasons in Europe”. In Israel Gutgust 1988. Retrieved 2011-01-15. man. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. p. vol. 2, p. [104] Leyiktez, Celil. “Freemasonry in the Islamic World”, 531. ISBN 978-0-02-897166-7. OCLC 20594356. Pietre-Stones Retrieved 2 October 2007. [124] “Das Vergißmeinnicht-Abzeichen und die Freimaurerei, [105] “Home Page”, District Grand Lodge of the Eastern Die wahre Geschichte”(in German). Internetloge.de. ReArchipelago, retrieved 9 January 2014 trieved 2006-07-08. [106] “Mystery unveiled”. The Star Online. 17 April 2005. [125] Bernheim, Alain (10 September 2004). “The Blue Retrieved 13 February 2014. Forget-Me-Not: Another Side Of The Story”. PietreStones Review of Freemasonry. Retrieved 2006-07-08. [107] Freemasonry in Lebanon Lodges linked to the Grand Lodge of Scotland, retrieved 22 August 2013 [126] Francke, Karl Heinz; Ernst-Günther Geppert (1974). Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutschlands und deren Grosslo[108] Peerzada Salman,“Masonic Mystique”, December 2009, gen 1737–1972 (in German) (Second rev. ed.). Bayreuth: Dawn.com (News site), retrieved 3 January 2012 Quatuor Coronati.Also in: Francke, Karl Heinz; ErnstGünther Geppert (1988). Die Freimaurer-Logen Deutsch[109] Kent Henderson, “Freemasonry in Islamic Countries”, lands und deren Grosslogen 1737 – 1985 : Matrikel und 2007 paper, Pietre Stones, retrieved 4 January 2014 Stammbuch; Nachschlagewerk über 248 Jahre Geschichte der Freimaurerei in Deutschland (in German). Bayreuth: [110] Andrew Prescott, “The Unlawful Societies Act”, First Quatuor Coronati. ISBN 978-3-925749-05-6. OCLC published in M. D. J. Scanlan, ed., The Social Impact of 75446479. Freemasonry on the Modern Western World, The Canonbury Papers I (London: Canonbury Masonic Research [127] “The Story Behind Forget Me Not Emblem!". Masonic Centre, 2002), pp. 116–134, Pietre-Stones website, reNetwork. 11 December 2009. trieved 9 January 2014 [111] “The Morgan Affair”, Reprinted from The Short Talk Bulletin – Vol. XI, March, 1933 No. 3, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, retrieved 4 January 2014
13.9 External links
[112] King, Edward L. (2007). “P2 Lodge”. Retrieved 200610-31.
• "Freemasonry". ed.). 1911.
[113] Wilkenson, James; H. Stuart Hughes (1995). Contemporary Europe: A History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-13-291840-4. OCLC 31009810.
• Web of Hiram at the University of Bradford. A database of donated Masonic material.
[114] Zierer, Otto (1976). Concise History of Great Nations: History of Germany. New York: Leon Amiel Publisher. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-8148-0673-9. OCLC 3250405. [115] Michael Johnstone, The Freemasons, Arcturus, 2005, pp 73–75
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th
• Masonic Books Online of the Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry • The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734), James Anderson, Benjamin Franklin, Paul Royster. Hosted by the Libraries at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln
[116] Hodapp, Christopher. Freemasons for Dummies. Indianapolis: Wiley, 2005. p. 86.
• The Mysteries of Free Masonry, by William Morgan, from Project Gutenberg
[117] Bright, Martin (12 June 2005). "MPs told to declare links to Masons", The Guardian
• A Legislative Investigation into Masonry (1832) on the Internet Archive, OCLC 1560509
[118] Cusick, James (27 December 1996). Police want judges and MPs to reveal Masonic links too, The Independent
• The United Grand Lodge of England's Library and Museum of Freemasonry, London
13.9. EXTERNAL LINKS • A page about Freemasonry – claiming to be the world's oldest Masonic website. • Articles on Judaism and Freemasonry • Anti-Masonry: Points of View – Edward L. King's Masonic website
147
Chapter 14
Astrology Not to be confused with Astronomy, the scientific study of celestial objects.
14.1 Etymology
Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4] Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, and has its roots in calendrical systems used to predict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as signs of divine communications.* [5] Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and some – such as the Indians, Chinese, and Maya – developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. Western astrology, one of the oldest astrological systems still in use, can trace its roots to 19th-17th century BCE Mesopotamia, from which it spread to Ancient Greece, Rome, the Arab world and eventually Central and Western Europe. Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems.* [6]* :83 Throughout most of its history astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine.* [7] It was present in political circles, and is mentioned in various works of literature, Marcantonio Raimondi engraving, 15th century from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William The word astrology comes from the early Latin Shakespeare, Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. word astrologia,* [18] which derives from the Greek With the onset of the scientific revolution astrolἀστρολογία—from ἄστρον astron (“star”) and -λογία ogy was called into question; it has been chal-logia, (“study of”—"account of the stars”). As* * * lenged successfully both on theoretical [8] :249; [9] trologia later passed into meaning 'star-divination' with * * and experimental [10] [11] grounds, and has been astronomia used for the scientific term.* [19] * shown to have no scientific validity [6] or explanatory power. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined.* [12] Astrology is now recognized to be 14.2 History pseudoscience.* [13]* [14]* [15]* [16]* [17] Main article: History of astrology Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Maya developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events 148
14.2. HISTORY
149 Chaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine.* [7] At the end of the 17th century, new scientific concepts in astronomy and physics (such as heliocentrism and Newtonian mechanics) called astrology into question. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined.* [12]
14.2.1 Ancient world See also: Babylonian astrology Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky.* [20]* :2,3 Early evidence for humans making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago.* [21]* :81ff This was a first step towards recordThe Zodiac Man a diagram of a human body and astrologi- ing the Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and tocal symbols with instructions explaining the importance of as- wards organising a communal calendar.* [21] Farmers adtrology from a medical perspective. From a 15th-century Welsh dressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of manuscript the constellations that appear in the different seasons— and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald an* from celestial observations. In the West, astrology most nual floods or seasonal activities. [22] By the 3rd millenoften consists of a system of horoscopes purporting to nium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of explain aspects of a person's personality and predict fu- celestial cycles, and may have oriented* temples in alignture events in their life based on the positions of the sun, ment with heliacal risings of the stars. [23] moon, and other celestial objects at the time of their birth. Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known astroThe majority of professional astrologers rely on such sys- logical references are copies of texts made in the antems.* [6]* :83 cient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa thought * Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millen- to be compiled in Babylon around 1700 BCE. [24] A nium BCE, with roots in calendrical systems used to pre- scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology dict seasonal shifts and to interpret celestial cycles as is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler signs of divine communications.* [5] A form of astrol- Gudea of Lagash (c. 2144 – 2124 BCE). This describes ogy was practised in the first dynasty of Mesopotamia how the gods revealed to him in a dream the constellafavourable for the planned con(1950–1651 BCE). Chinese astrology was elaborated in tions that would be most * [25] However, there is controversy struction of a temple. the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE). Hellenistic astrology about whether these were genuinely recorded at the time after 332 BCE mixed Babylonian astrology with Egyptian or merely ascribed to ancient rulers by posterity. The oldDecanic astrology in Alexandria, creating horoscopic asest undisputed evidence of the use of astrology as an intetrology. Alexander the Great's conquest of Asia allowed grated system of knowledge is therefore attributed to the astrology to spread to Ancient Greece and Rome. In Mesopotamia (1950–1651 records of the first dynasty of Rome, astrology was associated with 'Chaldean wisdom'. After the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, as- BCE). This astrology had some parallels with Hellenistic trology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenis- Greek (western) astrology, including the zodiac, a normtic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the ing point near 9 degrees in Aries, the trine aspect, plane(the twelve divi12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe and tary exaltations, and the dodekatemoria * [26] The Babylonians viewed sions of 30 degrees each). translated into Latin. Major astronomers including Tycho celestial events as possible signs rather than as causes of Brahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court as* [26] physical events. trologers. Astrological references appear in literature in the works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey The system of Chinese astrology was elaborated during
150 the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE) and flourished during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE), during which all the familiar elements of traditional Chinese culture – the Yin-Yang philosophy, theory of the five elements, Heaven and Earth, Confucian morality – were brought together to formalise the philosophical principles of Chinese medicine and divination, astrology and alchemy.* [27]* :3,4
Ancient objections
CHAPTER 14. ASTROLOGY then the planet sees some light from the moon, but when the moon is full to us, it is dark, and therefore bad, on the side facing the planet.* [31] Favorinus argued that it was absurd to imagine that stars and planets would affect human bodies in the same way as they affect the tides,* [32] and equally absurd that small motions in the heavens cause large changes in people's fates. Sextus Empiricus argued that it was absurd to link human attributes with myths about the signs of the zodiac.* [33] Carneades argued that belief in fate denies free will and morality; that people born at different times can all die in the same accident or battle; and that contrary to uniform influences from the stars, tribes and cultures are all different.* [34]
14.2.2 Hellenistic Egypt Main article: Hellenistic astrology In 525 BCE, Egypt was conquered by the Persians.
The Roman orator Cicero objected to astrology
Cicero stated the twins objection (that with close birth times, personal outcomes can be very different), later developed by Saint Augustine.* [28] He argued that since the other planets are much more distant from the earth than the moon, they could have only very tiny influence compared to the moon's.* [29] He also argued that if astrology explains everything about a person's fate, then it wrongly ignores the visible effect of inherited ability and parenting, changes in health worked by medicine, or the effects of the weather on people.* [30]
1484 copy of first page of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli
Plotinus argued that since the fixed stars are much more distant than the planets, it is laughable to imagine the planets' effect on mankind should depend on their position with respect to the zodiac. He also argues that the interpretation of the moon's conjunction with a planet as good when the moon is full, but bad when the moon is waning, is clearly wrong, as from the moon's point of view, half of her surface is always in sunlight; and from the planet's point of view, waning should be better, as
With the occupation by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, Egypt became Hellenistic. The city of Alexandria was founded by Alexander after the conquest, becoming the place where Babylonian astrology was mixed with Egyptian Decanic astrology to create Horoscopic astrology. This contained the Babylonian zodiac with its system of planetary exaltations, the triplicities of the signs and the importance of eclipses. It used the Egyptian concept of dividing the zodiac into thirty-six decans of ten degrees
The 1st century BCE Egyptian Dendera Zodiac shares two signs – the Balance and the Scorpion – with Mesopotamian astrology.* [35]
14.2. HISTORY
151
each, with an emphasis on the rising decan, and the Greek Islamic system of planetary Gods, sign rulership and four elements.* [36] 2nd century BCE texts predict positions of Main article: Astrology in medieval Islam planets in zodiac signs at the time of the rising of certain Astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars* [50] followdecans, particularly Sothis.* [37] The astrologer and astronomer Ptolemy lived in Alexandria. Ptolemy's work the Tetrabiblos formed the basis of Western astrology, and, "...enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more.”* [38]
14.2.3
Greece and Rome
The conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great exposed the Greeks to ideas from Syria, Babylon, Persia and central Asia.* [39] Around 280 BCE, Berossus, a priest of Bel from Babylon, moved to the Greek island of Kos, teaching astrology and Babylonian culture.* [40] By the 1st century BCE, there were two varieties of astrology, one using horoscopes to describe the past, present and future; the other, theurgic, emphasising the soul's ascent to the stars.* [41] Greek influence played a crucial role in the transmission of astrological theory to Rome.* [42] The first definite reference to astrology in Rome comes from the orator Cato, who in 160 BCE warned farm overseers against consulting with Chaldeans,* [43] who were described as Babylonian 'star-gazers'.* [44] Among both Greeks and Romans, Babylonia (also known as Chaldea) became so identified with astrology that 'Chaldean wisdom' became synonymous with divination using planets and stars.* [45] The 2nd-century Roman poet and satirist Juvenal complains about the pervasive influence of Chaldeans, saying, “Still more trusted are the Chaldaeans; every word uttered by the astrologer they will believe has come from Hammon's fountain.”* [46]
Latin translation of Abū Maʿshar's De Magnis Coniunctionibus ('Of the great conjunctions'), Venice, 1515
ing the collapse of Alexandria to the Arabs in the 7th century, and the founding of the Abbasid empire in the 8th. The second Abbasid caliph, Al Mansur (754–775) founded the city of Baghdad to act as a centre of learning, and included in its design a library-translation centre known as Bayt al-Hikma 'House of Wisdom', which continued to receive development from his heirs and was to provide a major impetus for Arabic-Persian translations of Hellenistic astrological texts. The early translators included Mashallah, who helped to elect the time for the foundation of Baghdad,* [51] and Sahl ibn Bishr, (a.k.a. Zael), whose texts were directly influential upon later European astrologers such as Guido Bonatti in the 13th century, and William Lilly in the 17th century.* [52] Knowledge of Arabic texts started to become imported into Europe during the Latin translations of the 12th century.
One of the first astrologers to bring Hermetic astrology to Rome was Thrasyllus, astrologer to the emperor Europe Tiberius,* [42] the first emperor to have had a court as* trologer, [47] though his predecessor Augustus had used See also: Christian views on astrology astrology to help legitimise his Imperial rights.* [48]
14.2.4
Medieval world
Hindu The main texts upon which classical Indian astrology is based are early medieval compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra, and Sārāvalī by Kalyāṇavarma. The Horāshastra is a composite work of 71 chapters, of which the first part (chapters 1–51) dates to the 7th to early 8th centuries and the second part (chapters 52–71) to the later 8th century. The Sārāvalī likewise dates to around 800 CE.* [49] English translations of these texts were published by N.N. Krishna Rau and V.B. Choudhari in 1963 and 1961, respectively.
The first astrological book published in Europe was the Liber Planetis et Mundi Climatibus (“Book of the Planets and Regions of the World”), which appeared between 1010 and 1027 AD, and may have been authored by Gerbert of Aurillac.* [53] Ptolemy's second century AD Tetrabiblos was translated into Latin by Plato of Tivoli in 1138.* [53] The Dominican theologian Thomas Aquinas followed Aristotle in proposing that the stars ruled the imperfect 'sublunary' body, while attempting to reconcile astrology with Christianity by stating that God ruled the soul.* [54] The thirteenth century mathematician Campanus of Novara is said to have devised a system of astrological houses that divides the prime vertical into 'houses' of equal 30° arcs,* [55] though the system was used earlier in the East.* [56] The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber As-
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The medieval theologian Isidore of Seville criticised the predictive part of astrology
Dante Alighieri meets the Emperor Justinian in the Sphere of Mercury, in Canto 5 of the Paradiso
tronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century.* [55] In Paradiso, the final part of the Divine Comedy, the Italian poet Dante Alighieri referred “in countless details” * [57] to the astrological planets, though he adapted traditional astrology to suit his Christian viewpoint,* [57] for example using astrological thinking in his prophecies of the reform of Christendom.* [58]
timing of actions (so-called interrogation and election) as wholly false, and rejected the determination of human action by the stars on grounds of free will.* [64]* [65] The friar Laurens Pignon (c. 1368–1449)* [66] similarly rejected all forms of divination and determinism, including by the stars, in his 1411 Contre les Devineurs.* [67] This was in opposition to the tradition carried by the Arab astronomer Albumasar (787-886) whose Introductorium in Astronomiam and De Magnis Coniunctionibus argued the view that both individual actions and larger scale history are determined by the stars.* [68]
14.2.5 Renaissance and Early Modern Medieval objections In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his Etymologiae that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the sun, the moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous.* [59]* [60] In contrast, John Gower in the fourteenth century defined astrology as essentially limited to the making of predictions.* [59]* [61] The influence of the stars was in turn divided into natural astrology, with for example effects on tides and the growth of plants, and judicial astrology, with supposedly predictable effects on people.* [62]* [63] The fourteenth century sceptic Nicole Oresme however included astronomy as a part of astrology in his Livre de divinacions.* [64] Oresme argued that current approaches to prediction of events such as plagues, wars, and weather were inappropriate, but that such prediction was a valid field of inquiry. However, he attacked the use of astrology to choose the
Renaissance scholars commonly practised astrology. Gerolamo Cardano cast the horoscope of king Edward VI of England, while John Dee was the personal astrologer to queen Elizabeth I of England. Catherine de Medici paid Michael Nostradamus in 1566 to verify the prediction of the death of her husband, king Henry II of France made by her astrologer Lucus Gauricus. Major astronomers who practised as court astrologers included Tycho Brahe in the royal court of Denmark, Johannes Kepler to the Habsburgs, Galileo Galilei to the Medici, and Giordano Bruno who was burnt at the stake for heresy in Rome in 1600.* [69] The distinction between astrology and astronomy was not entirely clear. Advances in astronomy were often motivated by the desire to improve the accuracy of astrology.* [70] Ephemerides with complex astrological calculations, and almanacs interpreting celestial events for use in medicine and for choosing times to plant crops, were popular in Elizabethan England.* [71] In 1597, the English
14.3. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
153 Astrology saw a popular revival starting in the 19th century, as part of a general revival of spiritualism and— later, New Age philosophy,* [79]* :239–249 and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes.* [79]* :259–263 Early in the 20th century the psychiatrist Carl Jung developed some concepts concerning astrology,* [80] which led to the development of psychological astrology.* [79]* :251–256;* [81]* [82]
14.3 Principles and practice Advocates have defined astrology as a symbolic language, an art form, a science, and a method of divination.* [83]* [84] Though most cultural astrology systems share common roots in ancient philosophies that influenced each other, many use methods that differ from 'An Astrologer Casting a Horoscope' from Robert Fludd's those in the West. These include Hindu astrology (also known as “Indian astrology”and in modern times reUtriusque Cosmi Historia, 1617 ferred to as “Vedic astrology”) and Chinese astrology, both of which have influenced the world's cultural history. mathematician and physician Thomas Hood made a set of paper instruments that used revolving overlays to help students work out relationships between fixed stars or 14.3.1 Western constellations, the midheaven, and the twelve astrological houses.* [72] Hood's instruments also illustrated, for ped- For more details on this topic, see Western astrology. agogical purposes, the supposed relationships between the signs of the zodiac, the planets, and the parts of the Western astrology is a form of divination based on the human body adherents believed were governed by the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as planets and signs.* [72]* [73] While Hood's presentation a person's birth.* [85] It uses the tropical zodiac, which is was innovative, his astrological information was largely aligned to the equinoctial points.* [86] standard and was taken from Gerard Mercator's astrological disc made in 1551, or a source used by Merca- Western astrology is founded on the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies such as the Sun, tor.* [74]* [75] Moon and planets, which are analysed by their movement English astrology had reached its zenith by the 17th cen- through signs of the zodiac (twelve spatial divisions of tury.* [76] Astrologers were theorists, researchers, and the ecliptic) and by their aspects (based on geometric ansocial engineers, as well as providing individual advice gles) relative to one another. They are also considered by to everyone from monarchs downwards. Among other their placement in houses (twelve spatial divisions of the things, astrologers could advise on the best time to take sky).* [87] Astrology's modern representation in western a journey or harvest a crop, diagnose and prescribe for popular media is usually reduced to sun sign astrology, physical or mental illnesses, and predict natural disasters. which considers only the zodiac sign of the Sun at an inThis underpinned a system in which everything —peo- dividual's date of birth, and represents only 1/12 of the ple, the world, the universe—was understood to be inter- total chart.* [88] connected, and astrology co-existed happily with religion, The horoscope visually expresses the set of relationships magic and science.* [77] for the time and place of the chosen event. These relationships are between the seven 'planets', signifying ten14.2.6 Enlightenment period and onwards dencies such as war and love; the twelve signs of the zodiac; and the twelve houses. Each planet is in a parDuring the Enlightenment, intellectual sympathy for as- ticular sign and a particular house at the chosen time, trology fell away, leaving only a popular following sup- when observed from the chosen place, creating two kinds ported by cheap almanacs.* [78] One English almanac of relationship.* [89] A third kind is the aspect of each compiler, Richard Saunders, followed the spirit of the planet to every other planet, where for example two planage by printing a derisive Discourse on the Invalidity of ets 120° apart (in 'trine') are in a harmonious relationship, Astrology, while in France Pierre Bayle's Dictionnaire of but two planets 90° apart ('square') are in a conflicted 1697 stated that the subject was puerile.* [78] The Anglo- relationship.* [90]* [91] Together these relationships and Irish satirist Jonathan Swift ridiculed the Whig political their interpretations supposedly form "...the language of astrologer John Partridge.* [78] the heavens speaking to learned men.”* [89]
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Along with tarot divination, astrology is one of the core studies of Western esotericism, and as such has influenced systems of magical belief not only among Western esotericists and Hermeticists, but also belief systems such as Wicca that have borrowed from or been influenced by the Western esoteric tradition. Tanya Luhrmann has said that “all magicians know something about astrology,” and refers to a table of correspondences in Starhawk's The Spiral Dance, organised by planet, as an example of the astrological lore studied by magicians.* [92]
Varaha Mihira's texts are considered conclusive evidence of a Greek origin for Hindu astrology.* [97] The Indian techniques may also have been augmented with some of the Babylonian techniques.* [98]* :231
14.3.3 Chinese and East-Asian For more details on this topic, see Chinese astrology and Chinese zodiac.
Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the three harmonies: heaven, earth and man) and uses concepts such as yin and yang, the Five Main article: Hindu astrology phases, the 10 Celestial stems, the 12 Earthly Branches, The earliest Vedic text on astronomy is the Vedanga Jy- and shichen (時辰 a form of timekeeping used for religious purposes). The early use of Chinese astrology was mainly confined to political astrology, the observation of unusual phenomena, identification of portents and the selection of auspicious days for events and decisions.* [27]* :22,85,176
14.3.2
Hindu
The constellations of the Zodiac of western Asia and Europe were not used; instead the sky is divided into Three Enclosures (三垣 sān yuán), and Twenty-eight Mansions (二十八宿 èrshíbā xiù) in twelve Ci (十二次).* [99] The Chinese zodiac of twelve animal signs is said to represent twelve different types of personality. It is based on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (the shichen). The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and the cycle proceeds through 11 other animals signs: the Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog and Pig.* [100] Complex systems of predicting fate and destiny based on one's birthday, birth season, and birth hours, such as ziping and Zi Wei Dou Shu (simplified Chinese: 紫微斗数; traditional Chinese: 紫微斗數; pinyin: zǐwēidǒushù) are still used regularly in modern-day Chinese astrology. They do not rely on direct observations of the stars.* [101]
Page from an Indian astrological treatise, c. 1750
otisha; Vedic thought later came to include astrology as well.* [93]
The Korean zodiac is identical to the Chinese one. The Vietnamese zodiac is almost identical to Chinese zodiac except the second animal is the Water Buffalo instead of the Ox, and the fourth animal is the Cat instead of the Rabbit. The Japanese have since 1873 celebrated the beginning of the new year on 1 January as per the Gregorian Calendar. The Thai zodiac begins, not at Chinese New Year, but either on the first day of fifth month in the Thai lunar calendar, or during the Songkran festival (now celebrated every 13–15 April), depending on the purpose of the use.* [102]
Hindu natal astrology originated with Hellenistic astrology by the 3rd century BCE,* [94]* :361* [95] though incorporating the Hindu lunar mansions.* [96] The names of the signs (e.g. Greek 'Krios' for Aries, Hindi 'Kriya'), 14.4 Theological viewpoints the planets (e.g. Greek 'Helios' for Sun, astrological Hindi 'Heli'), and astrological terms (e.g. Greek 'apok- See also: Christian views on astrology, Jewish views on lima' and 'sunaphe' for declination and planetary con- astrology, and Muslim views on astrology junction, Hindi 'apoklima' and 'sunapha' respectively) in
14.5. SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS AND CRITICISM
14.4.1
Ancient
St. Augustine (354–430) believed that the determinism of astrology conflicted with the Christian doctrines of man's free will and responsibility, and God not being the cause of evil,* [103] but he also grounded his opposition philosophically, citing the failure of astrology to explain twins who behave differently although conceived at the same moment and born at approximately the same time.* [104]
14.4.2
155 the dead or other practices falsely supposed to “unveil”the future. Consulting horoscopes, astrology, palm reading, interpretation of omens and lots, the phenomena of clairvoyance, and recourse to mediums all conceal a desire for power over time, history, and, in the last analysis, other human beings, as well as a wish to conciliate hidden powers. They contradict the honor, respect, and loving fear that we owe to God alone.* [110] —Catechism of the Catholic Church
Medieval
Some of the practices of astrology were contested on the14.5 Scientific analysis and critiological grounds by medieval Muslim astronomers such cism as Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Avicenna. They said that the methods of astrologers conflicted with orthodox religious views of Islamic schol- Main article: Astrology and science ars, by suggesting that the Will of God can be known The scientific community rejects astrology as having and predicted in advance.* [105] For example, Avicenna's 'Refutation against astrology', Risāla fī ibṭāl aḥkām alnojūm, argues against the practice of astrology while supporting the principle that planets may act as agents of divine causation. Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars.* [106] Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and fatalistic predictions could be made from it.* [107] Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), in his Miftah Dar al-SaCadah, also used physical arguments in astronomy to question the practice of judicial astrology.* [108] He recognised that the stars are much larger than the planets, and argued: And if you astrologers answer that it is precisely because of this distance and smallness that their influences are negligible, then why is it that you claim a great influence for the smallest heavenly body, Mercury? Why is it that you have given an influence to al-Ra's and al-Dhanab, which are two imaginary points [ascending and descending nodes]? —Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya* [108]
Popper proposed falsifiability as something that distinguishes science from non-science, using astrology as the example of an idea that has not dealt with falsification during experiment
no explanatory power for describing the universe, and consider it a pseudoscience.* [15]* [16]* [17]* :1350 Scientific testing of astrology has been conducted, and The Catechism of the Catholic Church maintains that no evidence has been found to support any of the divination, including predictive astrology, is incompat- premises or purported effects outlined in astrological ible with modern Catholic beliefs* [109] such as free traditions.* [11]* :424;* [111]* [112] There is no proposed will:* [104] mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events All forms of divination are to be rejected: on Earth that does not contradict well understood, barecourse to Satan or demons, conjuring up sic aspects of biology and physics.* [8]* :249;* [9] Those
14.4.3
Modern
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who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so "...in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary.”* [113] It has also been shown that confirmation bias is a psychological factor that contributes to belief in astrology.* [114]* :344;* [115]* :180–181;* [116]* :42–48 Confirmation bias is a form of cognitive bias.* [loweralpha 1]* [117]* :553 According to available literature, astrology believers tend to selectively remember predictions that turn out to be true, and do not remember those that turn out false. Another, separate, form of confirmation bias also plays a role, where believers often fail to distinguish between messages that demonstrate special ability and those that do not.* [115]* :180–181 Thus there are two distinct forms of confirmation bias that are under study with respect to astrological belief.* [115]* :180–181
14.5.1
Demarcation
Under the criterion of falsifiability, first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper, astrology is a pseudoscience.* [118] Popper regarded astrology as“pseudoempirical”in that“it appeals to observation and experiment,”but “nevertheless does not come up to scientific standards.”* [119]* :44 In contrast to scientific disciplines, astrology has not responded to falsification through experiment.* [120]* :206 In contrast to Popper, the philosopher Thomas Kuhn argued that it was not lack of falsifiability that makes astrology unscientific, but rather that the process and concepts of astrology are non-empirical.* [121]* :401 Kuhn thought that, though astrologers had, historically, made predictions that categorically failed, this in itself does not make it unscientific, nor do attempts by astrologers to explain away failures by claiming that creating a horoscope is very difficult. Rather, in Kuhn's eyes, astrology is not science because it was always more akin to medieval medicine; they followed a sequence of rules and guidelines for a seemingly necessary field with known shortcomings, but they did no research because the fields are not amenable to research,* [122]* :8 and so “they had no puzzles to solve and therefore no science to practise.” * [121]* :401;* [122]* :8 While an astronomer could correct for failure, an astrologer could not. An astrologer could only explain away failure but could not revise the astrological hypothesis in a meaningful way. As such, to Kuhn, even if the stars could influence the path of humans through life astrology is not scientific.* [122]* :8
ing to compare the current theory to alternatives, and not be“selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations.”* [13]* :227–228 Progress is defined here as explaining new phenomena and solving existing problems, yet astrology has failed to progress having only changed little in nearly 2000 years.* [13]* :228* [123]* :549 To Thagard, astrologers are acting as though engaged in normal science believing that the foundations of astrology were well established despite the “many unsolved problems,” and in the face of better alternative theories (psychology). For these reasons Thagard views astrology as pseudoscience.* [13]* [123]* :228 For the philosopher Edward W. James, astrology is irrational not because of the numerous problems with mechanisms and falsification due to experiments, but because an analysis of the astrological literature shows that it is infused with fallacious logic and poor reasoning.* [124]* :34 What if throughout astrological writings we meet little appreciation of coherence, blatant insensitivity to evidence, no sense of a hierarchy of reasons, slight command over the contextual force of critieria, stubborn unwillingless to pursue an argument where it leads, stark naivete concerning the effiacacy of explanation and so on? In that case, I think, we are perfectly justified in rejecting astrology as irrational. ... Astrology simply fails to meet the multifarious demands of legitimate reasoning.” —Edward W. James* [124]* :34
14.5.2 Effectiveness Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity.* [6]* :85;* [11] Where it has made falsifiable predictions under controlled conditions, they have been falsified.* [11]* :424 One famous experiment included 28 astrologers who were asked to match over a hundred natal charts to psychological profiles generated by the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) questionnaire.* [125]* [126] The double-blind experimental protocol used in this study was agreed upon by a group of physicists and a group of astrologers* [11] nominated by the National Council for Geocosmic Research, who advised the experimenters, helped ensure that the test was fair* [10]* :420;* [126]* :117 and helped draw the central proposition of natal astrology to be tested.* [10]* :419 They also chose 26 out of the 28 astrologers for the tests (two more volunteered afterwards).* [10]* :420 The study, published in Nature in 1985, found that predictions based on natal astrology were no better than chance, and that the testing "...clearly refutes the astrological hypothesis.”* [10]
The philosopher Paul Thagard asserts that astrology cannot be regarded as falsified in this sense until it has been replaced with a successor. In the case of predicting behaviour, psychology is the alternative.* [13]* :228 To Thagard a further criterion of demarcation of science from pseudoscience is that the state-of-the-art must progress and that the community of researchers should be attempt- In 1955, astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin
14.6. CULTURAL IMPACT stated that though he had failed to find evidence that supported indicators like zodiacal signs and planetary aspects in astrology, he did find positive correlations between the diurnal positions of some planets and success in professions that astrology traditionally associates with those planets.* [127]* [128] The best-known of Gauquelin's findings is based on the positions of Mars in the natal charts of successful athletes and became known as the Mars effect.* [129]* :213 A study conducted by seven French scientists attempted to replicate the claim, but found no statistical evidence.* [129]* :213–214 They attributed the effect to selective bias on Gauquelin's part, accusing him of attempting to persuade them to add or delete names from their study.* [130] Geoffrey Dean has suggested that the effect may be caused by self-reporting of birth dates by parents rather than any issue with the study by Gauquelin. The suggestion is that a small subset of the parents may have had changed birth times to be consistent with better astrological charts for a related profession. The sample group was taken from a time where belief in astrology was more common. Gauquelin had failed to find the Mars effect in more recent populations, where a nurse or doctor recorded the birth information. The number of births under astrologically undesirable conditions was also lower, indicating more evidence that parents choose dates and times to suit their beliefs.* [126]* :116 Dean, a scientist and former astrologer, and psychologist Ivan Kelly conducted a large scale scientific test that involved more than one hundred cognitive, behavioural, physical, and other variables —but found no support for astrology.* [131]* [132] Furthermore, a meta-analysis pooled 40 studies that involved 700 astrologers and over 1,000 birth charts. Ten of the tests—which involved 300 participants—had the astrologers pick the correct chart interpretation out of a number of others that were not the astrologically correct chart interpretation (usually three to five others). When date and other obvious clues were removed, no significant results suggested there was any preferred chart.* [132]* :190
14.5.3
157 of a large but distant planet such as Jupiter is far smaller than that produced by ordinary household appliances.* [134] Western astrology has taken the earth's axial precession (also called precession of the equinoxes) into account since Ptolemy's Almagest, so the 'first point of Aries', the start of the astrological year, continually moves against the background of the stars.* [135] The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations.* [136] Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as being "...empty boxes that have nothing to do with anything and are devoid of any consistency or correspondence with the stars.”* [136] Sole use of the tropical zodiac is inconsistent with references made, by the same astrologers, to the Age of Aquarius, which depends on when the vernal point enters the constellation of Aquarius.* [11] Astrologers usually have only a small knowledge of astronomy, and often do not take into account basic principles —such as the precession of the equinoxes, which changes the position of the sun with time. They commented on the example of Élizabeth Teissier, who claimed that, “The sun ends up in the same place in the sky on the same date each year,”as the basis for claims that two people with the same birthday, but a number of years apart, should be under the same planetary influence. Charpak and Broch noted that,“There is a difference of about twenty-two thousand miles between Earth's location on any specific date in two successive years,”and that thus they should not be under the same influence according to astrology. Over a 40 years period there would be a difference greater than 780,000 miles.* [136]
14.6 Cultural impact 14.6.1 Western politics and society
Lack of mechanisms and consis- In the West, political leaders have sometimes consulted astrologers. Louis de Wohl worked as an astrologer for tency the British intelligence agency MI5, after claims surfaced
Testing the validity of astrology can be difficult, because there is no consensus amongst astrologers as to what astrology is or what it can predict.* [6]* :83 Most professional astrologers are paid to predict the future or describe a person's personality and life, but most horoscopes only make vague untestable statements that can apply to almost anyone.* [6]* [116]* :83 Many astrologers claim that astrology is scientific,* [133] while some have proposed conventional causal agents such as electromagnetism and gravity.* [133] Scientists reject these mechanisms as implausible* [133] since, for example, the magnetic field, when measured from earth,
that Adolf Hitler used astrology to time his actions. The War Office was "...interested to know what Hitler's own astrologers would be telling him from week to week.” * [137] In fact, de Wohl's predictions were so inaccurate that he was soon labelled a “complete charlatan,” and later evidence showed that Hitler considered astrology“complete nonsense.”* [138] After John Hinckley's attempted assassination of US President Ronald Reagan, first lady Nancy Reagan commissioned astrologer Joan Quigley to act as the secret White House astrologer. However, Quigley's role ended in 1988 when it became public through the memoirs of former chief of staff, Donald Regan.* [139]
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30 Births Deaths 25
Rates per thousand
There was a boom in interest in astrology in the late 1960s. The sociologist Marcello Truzzi described three levels of involvement of“Astrology-believers”to account for its revived popularity in the face of scientific discrediting. He found that most astrology-believers did not claim it was a scientific explanation with predictive power. Instead, those superficially involved, knowing “next to nothing”about astrology's 'mechanics', read newspaper astrology columns, and could benefit from “tensionmanagement of anxieties”and“a cognitive belief-system that transcends science.”* [140] Those at the second level usually had their horoscopes cast and sought advice and predictions. They were much younger than those at the first level, and could benefit from knowledge of the language of astrology and the resulting ability to belong to a coherent and exclusive group. Those at the third level were highly involved and usually cast horoscopes for themselves. Astrology provided this small minority of astrology-believers with a "meaningful view of their universe and [gave] them an understanding of their place in it.”* [lower-alpha 2] This third group took astrology seriously, possibly as a sacred canopy, whereas the other two groups took it playfully and irreverently.* [140]
20
15
10
5
0 1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2008
Birth (in blue) and death (in red) rates of Japan since 1950, with the sudden drop in births during hinoeuma year (1966)
enced by astrology.* [148] It is still considered a branch of the Vedanga.* [149]* [150] In 2001, Indian scientists and politicians debated and critiqued a proposal to use state money to fund research into astrology,* [151] resulting in permission for Indian universities to offer courses in Vedic astrology.* [152]
On February 2011, the Bombay High Court reaffirmed astrology's standing in India when it dismissed a case that In 1953, sociologist Theodor W. Adorno conducted a challenged its status as a science.* [153] study of the astrology column of a Los Angeles newspaper as part of a project examining mass culture in In Japan, strong belief in astrology has led to dramatic capitalist society.* [141]* :326 Adorno believed that pop- changes in the fertility rate and the number of abortions ular astrology, as a device, invariably leads to state- in the years of Fire Horse. Adherents believe that women ments that encouraged conformity—and that astrologers born in hinoeuma years are unmarriageable and bring bad who go against conformity, by discouraging performance luck to their father or husband. In 1966, the number of at work etc., risk losing their jobs.* [141]* :327 Adorno babies born in Japan dropped by over 25% as parents concluded that astrology was a large-scale manifestation tried to avoid the stigma of having a daughter born in the of systematic irrationalism, where individuals are subtly hinoeuma year.* [154]* [155] led—through flattery and vague generalisations—to believe that the author of the column is addressing them directly.* [142] Adorno drew a parallel with the phrase 14.6.3 Literature and music opium of the people, by Karl Marx, by commenting,“occultism is the metaphysic of the dopes.”* [141]* :329 The fourteenth-century English poets John Gower A 2005 Gallup poll and a 2009 survey by the Pew Research Center reported that 25% of US adults believe in astrology.* [143]* [144] According to data released in the National Science Foundation's 2014 Science and Engineering Indicators study, “Fewer Americans rejected astrology in 2012 than in recent years.”* [145] The NSF study noted that in 2012, “slightly more than half of Americans said that astrology was 'not at all scientific,' whereas nearly two-thirds gave this response in 2010. The comparable percentage has not been this low since 1983.”* [145]
14.6.2
India and Japan
In India, there is a long-established and widespread belief in astrology. It is commonly used for daily life, particularly in matters concerning marriage and career, and makes extensive use of electional, horary and karmic astrology.* [146]* [147] Indian politics have also been influ-
and Geoffrey Chaucer both referred to astrology in their works, including Gower's Confessio Amantis and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales.* [156] Chaucer commented explicitly on astrology in his Treatise on the Astrolabe, demonstrating personal knowledge of one area, judicial astrology, with an account of how to find the ascendant or rising sign.* [157] In the fifteenth century, references to astrology, such as with similes, became “a matter of course”in English literature.* [156] In the sixteenth century, John Lyly's 1597 play, The Woman in the Moon, is wholly motivated by astrology,* [158] while Christopher Marlowe makes astrological references in his plays Doctor Faustus and Tamburlaine (both c. 1590),* [158] and Sir Philip Sidney refers to astrology at least four times in his romance The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (c. 1580).* [158] Edmund Spenser uses astrology both decoratively and causally in his poetry, revealing "...unmistakably an abid-
14.7. SEE ALSO
159
Title page of Calderón de la Barca's Astrologo Fingido, Madrid, 1641
Title page of John Lyly's astrological play, The Woman in the Moon, 1597
is the orchestral suite The Planets. Written by the British composer Gustav Holst (1874–1934), and first performed in 1918, the framework of The Planets is based upon the astrological symbolism of the planets.* [162] Each of the seven movements of the suite is based upon a different planet, though the movements are not in the order of the planets from the Sun. The composer Colin Matthews wrote an eighth movement entitled Pluto, the Renewer, first performed in 2000.* [163] In 1937, another British composer, Constant Lambert, wrote a ballet on astrological themes, called Horoscope.* [164] In 1974, the New Zealand composer Edwin Carr wrote The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment for orchestra without strings.* [165] Camille Paglia acknowledges astrology as an influence on her work of literary criticism Sexual Personae (1990).* [166]
ing interest in the art, an interest shared by a large number of his contemporaries.”* [158] George Chapman's play, Byron's Conspiracy (1608), similarly uses astrology as a causal mechanism in the drama.* [159] William Shakespeare's attitude towards astrology is unclear, with contradictory references in plays including King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, and Richard II.* [159] Shakespeare was familiar with astrology and made use of his knowledge of astrology in nearly every play he wrote,* [159] assuming a basic familiarity with the subject in his commercial audience.* [159] Outside theatre, the physician and mystic Robert Fludd practised astrology, as did the quack doctor Simon Forman.* [159] In Elizabethan England,“The Luusual feeling about astrology ... [was] that it is the most Astrology features strongly in Eleanor Catton's The * minaries, recipient of the 2013 Man Booker Prize. [167] * useful of the sciences.” [159] In seventeenth century Spain, Lope de Vega, with a detailed knowledge of astronomy, wrote plays that ridicule astrology. In his pastoral romance La Arcadia (1598), it leads to absurdity; in his novela Guzman el Bravo (1624), he concludes that the stars were made for man, not man for the stars.* [160] Calderón de la Barca wrote the 1641 comedy Astrologo Fingido (The Pretended Astrologer); the plot was borrowed by the French playwright Thomas Corneille for his 1651 comedy Feint Astrologue.* [161] The most famous piece of music influenced by astrology
14.7 See also • Barnum effect • List of astrological traditions, types, and systems • List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
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14.8 Notes [1] see Heuristics in judgement and decision making [2] Italics in original.
14.9 References [1] “astrology”. Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 11 December 2015. [2] “astrology”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. MerriamWebster Inc. Retrieved 11 December 2015. [3] “Wordnik, astrology”. [4] Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2008). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 57. [5] Koch-Westenholz, Ulla (1995). Mesopotamian astrology: an introduction to Babylonian and Assyrian celestial divination. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. Foreword, 11. ISBN 978-87-7289-287-0. [6] Jeffrey Bennett; Megan Donohue; Nicholas Schneider; Mark Voit (2007). The cosmic perspective (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. pp. 82–84. ISBN 0-8053-9283-1. [7] Kassell, Lauren (5 May 2010). “Stars, spirits, signs: towards a history of astrology 1100–1800”. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41 (2): 67–69. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2010.04.001. [8] Vishveshwara, edited by S.K. Biswas, D.C.V. Mallik, C.V. (1989). Cosmic Perspectives: Essays Dedicated to the Memory of M.K.V. Bappu (1. publ. ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521-34354-2. [9] Peter D. Asquith, ed. (1978). Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, vol. 1. Dordrecht u.a.: Reidel u.a. ISBN 978-0-917586-05-7. • “Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding”. science and engineering indicators 2006. National Science Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2012. About three-fourths of Americans hold at least one pseudoscientific belief; i.e., they believed in at least 1 of the 10 survey items[29]"... " Those 10 items were extrasensory perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts/that spirits of dead people can come back in certain places/situations, telepathy/communication between minds without using traditional senses, clairvoyance/the power of the mind to know the past and predict the future, astrology/that the position of the stars and planets can affect people's lives, that people can communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation/the rebirth of the soul in a new body after death, and channeling/allowing a “spirit-being”to temporarily assume control of a body.
[10] Carlson, Shawn (1985). “A double-blind test of astrology” (PDF). Nature 318 (6045): 419–425. Bibcode:1985Natur.318..419C. doi:10.1038/318419a0. [11] Zarka, Philippe (2011). “Astronomy and astrology” . Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5 (S260): 420–425. doi:10.1017/S1743921311002602. [12] David E. Pingree; Robert Andrew Gilbert. “Astrology Astrology in modern times”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 October 2012. [13] Thagard, Paul R. (1978). “Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience” (PDF). Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association (The University of Chicago Press) 1: 223–234. [14] Astrology. Encyclopædia Britannica. [15] Sven Ove Hansson; Edward N. Zalta. “Science and Pseudo-Science”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 6 July 2012. [16] “Astronomical Pseudo-Science: A Skeptic's Resource List”. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. [17] Hartmann, P.; Reuter, M.; Nyborga, H. (May 2006). “The relationship between date of birth and individual differences in personality and general intelligence: A largescale study”. Personality and Individual Differences 40 (7): 1349–1362. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.11.017. To optimise the chances of finding even remote relationships between date of birth and individual differences in personality and intelligence we further applied two different strategies. The first one was based on the common chronological concept of time (e.g. month of birth and season of birth). The second strategy was based on the (pseudoscientific) concept of astrology (e.g. Sun Signs, The Elements, and astrological gender), as discussed in the book Astrology: Science or superstition? by Eysenck and Nias (1982). [18] Harper, Douglas. “astrology”. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 December 2011. Differentiation between astrology and astronomy began late 1400s and by 17c. this word was limited to “reading influences of the stars and their effects on human destiny.” [19] “astrology, n.”. Oxford English Dictionary (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2011. In Old French and Middle English astronomie seems to be the earlier and general word, astrologie having been subseq. introduced for the 'art' or practical application of astronomy to mundane affairs, and thus gradually limited by 17th cent. to the reputed influences of the stars, unknown to science. Not in Shakespeare. [20] Campion, Nicholas (2009). History of western astrology. Volume II, The medieval and modern worlds. (first ed.). Continuum. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9. [21] Marshack, Alexander (1991). The roots of civilization : the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol and notation (Rev. and expanded ed.). Moyer Bell. ISBN 9781-55921-041-6.
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[146] Kaufman, Michael T. (23 December 1998).“BV Raman Dies”. New York Times, 23 December 1998. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
165
Secretorum, Brunetto Latini's Trésor, and the Speculum Astronomiae ascribed to Albert the Great.
[157] Wood, 1970. pp.12–21 [147] Dipankar Das. “Fame and Fortune”. Retrieved 12 May [158] De Lacy, Hugh (October 1934). “Astrology in the Po2009. etry of Edmund Spenser”. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 33 (4): 520–543. JSTOR 27703949. [148] “Soothsayers offer heavenly help”. BBC News. 2 September 1999. Retrieved 21 July 2012. [159] Camden Carroll, Jr. (April 1933). “Astrology in Shakespeare's Day”. Isis 19 (1): 26–73. doi:10.1086/346721. [149]“In countries such as India, where only a small intellecJSTOR 225186. tual elite has been trained in Western physics, astrology manages to retain here and there its position among the sciences.”David Pingree and Robert Gilbert, “Astrol- [160] Halstead, Frank G. (July 1939). “The Attitude of Lope de Vega toward Astrology and Astronomy”. Hispanic ogy; Astrology In India; Astrology in modern times”. Review 7 (3): 205–219. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008 [150] Mohan Rao, Female foeticide: where do we go? Indian [161] Steiner, Arpad (August 1926). “Calderon's Astrologo Fingido in France”. Modern Philology 24 (1): 27–30. Journal of Medical Ethics October–December 2001 9(4) [151] “Indian Astrology vs Indian Science”. BBC. 31 May [162] Campion, Nicholas.:A History of Western Astrology: Volume II: The Medieval and Modern Worlds. (Continuum 2001. Books, 2009) pp. 244–245 ISBN 978-1-84725-224-1 [152] “Guidelines for Setting up Departments of Vedic Astrology in Universities Under the Purview of University [163] Adams, Noah (10 September 2006). "'Pluto the Renewer' is no swan song”. National Public Radio (NPR). ReGrants Commission”. Government of India, Departtrieved 13 June 2013. ment of Education. Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011. There is an urgent need [164] Vaughan, David (2004). “Frederick Ashton and His Balto rejuvenate the science of Vedic Astrology in India, to lets 1938”. Ashton Archive. Retrieved 13 June 2013. allow this scientific knowledge to reach to the society at large and to provide opportunities to get this important [165] “The Twelve Signs: An Astrological Entertainment”. science even exported to the world, Centre for New Zealand Music. Retrieved 13 June 2013. [153] 'Astrology is a science: Bombay HC', The Times of India, [166] Paglia, Camille. Sex, Art, and American Culture: Essays. 3 February 2011 Penguin Books, 1992, p. 114. [154] Japanese childrearing: two generations of scholarship. [167] Catton, Eleanor. “Eleanor Catton on how she wrote The 1996. Retrieved 22 July 2012. Luminaries”. The Guardian. Retrieved 10 December 2015. [155] The Political Economy of Japan: Cultural and social dynamics. 1992. Retrieved 22 July 2012. [156] Wedel, Theodore Otto (2003) [1920]. “9: Astrology in Gower and Chaucer”. Mediæval Attitude Toward Astrology, Particularly in England. Kessinger. pp. 131– 156. The literary interest in astrology, which had been on the increase in England throughout the fourteenth century, culminated in the works of Gower and Chaucer. Although references to astrology were already frequent in the romances of the fourteenth century, these still retained the signs of being foreign importations. It was only in the fifteenth century that astrological similes and embellishments became a matter of course in the literature of England. Such innovations, one must confess, were due far more to Chaucer than to Gower. Gower, too, saw artistic possibilities in the new astrological learning, and promptly used these in his retelling of the Alexander legend—but he confined himself, for the most part, to a bald rehearsal of facts and theories. It is, accordingly, as a part of the long encyclopaedia of natural science that he inserted into his Confessio Amantis, and in certain didactic passages of the Vox Clamantis and the Mirour de l'Omme, that Astrology figures most largely in his works ... Gower's sources on the subject of astrology ... were Albumasar's Introductorium in Astronomiam, the Pseudo-Aristotelian Secretum
14.10 Sources • Barton, Tamsyn (1994). Ancient Astrology. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11029-7. • Campion, Nicholas (1982). An Introduction to the History of Astrology. ISCWA. • Holden, James Herschel (2006). A History of Horoscopic Astrology (2nd ed.). AFA. ISBN 0-86690463-8. • Kay, Richard (1994). Dante's Christian Astrology. Middle Ages Series. University of Pennsylvania Press. • Long, A.A. (2005). “6: Astrology: arguments pro and contra”. In Barnes, Jonathan; Brunschwig, J. Science and Speculation. Cambridge University Press. pp. 165–191. • Parker, Derek; Parker, Julia (1983). A history of astrology. Deutsch. ISBN 978-0-233-97576-4.
166 • Robbins, Frank E., ed. (1940). Ptolemy Tetrabiblos. Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library). ISBN 0-674-99479-5. • Tester, S. J. (1999). A History of Western Astrology. Boydell & Brewer. • Veenstra, J.R. (1997). Magic and Divination at the Courts of Burgundy and France: Text and Context of Laurens Pignon's“Contre les Devineurs”(1411). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10925-4. • Wedel, Theodore Otto (1920). The Medieval Attitude Toward Astrology: Particularly in England. Yale University Press. • Wood, Chauncey (1970). Chaucer and the Country of the Stars: Poetical Uses of Astrological Imagery. Princeton University Press.
14.11 Further reading • Forer, Bertram R. (January 1949). “The Fallacy of Personal Validation: A Classroom Demonstration of Gullibility”. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 44 (1): 118–123. doi:10.1037/h0059240. • Osborn, M. (2002). Time and the Astrolabe in The Canterbury Tales. University of Oklahoma Press. • Thorndike, Lynn (1955). “The True Place of Astrology in the History of Science”. Isis 46 (3): 273. doi:10.1086/348412.
14.12 External links • Astrology at DMOZ • Digital International Astrology Library at International Astrology Research Center • Carl Sagan on Astrology
CHAPTER 14. ASTROLOGY
Chapter 15
Theurgy Theurgy (/ˈθiːɜːrdʒi/; from Greek θεουργία, Theourgia) describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action or evoking the presence of one or more gods, especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, achieving henosis, and perfecting oneself.
des Places (Paris, 1971): 'For the theourgoí do not fall under the fate-governed herd').* [5] The source of Western theurgy can be found in the philosophy of late Neoplatonists, especially Iamblichus. In late Neoplatonism, the spiritual Universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the One. From the One emanated the Divine Mind (Nous) and in turn from the Divine Mind emanated the World Soul (Psyche). Neoplatonists insisted that the One is absolutely transcendent and in the 15.1 Definitions emanations nothing of the higher was lost or transmitted to the lower, which remained unchanged by the lower em• Proclus (c. 480): theurgy is “a power higher than anations. all human wisdom embracing the blessings of divination, the purifying powers of initiation and in a Although the Neoplatonists are considered polytheists, they embraced a form of monism. word all the operations of divine possession”* [1] • Keith Thomas: “Spiritual magic or theurgy was For Plotinus, and Iamblichus' teachers Anatolius and based on the idea that one could reach God in an as- Porphyry, the emanations are as follows: cent up the scale of creation made possible by a rig• To Hen (τό ἕν), The One: Deity without quality, orous course of prayer, fasting and devotional prepasometimes called The Good. ration.”* [2] • Nous (Νοῦς), Mind: The Universal consciousness, • Anne Sheppard: “Theurgy, the religious magic from which proceeds practised by the later Neoplatonists, has been commonly regarded as the point at which Neoplatonism • Psychē (Ψυχή), Soul: Including both individual and degenerates into magic, superstition and irrationalworld soul, leading finally to ism. A superficial glance at the ancient lives of the Neoplatonists, and in particular at Eunapius' Lives • Physis (Φύσις), Nature. of the Sophists, reveals a group of people interested in animating statues, favoured with visions of gods Plotinus urged contemplations for those who wished to and demons, and skilled in rain-making”* [3] perform theurgy, the goal of which was to reunite with • Pierre A. Riffard: “Theurgy is a type of magic. It The Divine (called henosis). Therefore, his school resemconsists of a set of magical practices performed to bles a school of meditation or contemplation. Iamblichus evoke beneficent spirits in order to see them or know of Calcis (Syria), a student of Porphyry (who was himself them or in order to influence them, for instance by a student of Plotinus) taught a more ritualized method of forcing them to animate a statue, to inhabit a human theurgy that involved invocation and religious, as well as being (such as a medium), or to disclose mysteries.” magical, ritual.* [6] Iamblichus believed theurgy was an * [4] imitation of the gods, and in his major work, On the Egyptian Mysteries, he described theurgic observance as “ritualized cosmogony" that endowed embodied souls with the divine responsibility of creating and preserving the 15.2 Neoplatonism cosmos. Theurgy means “divine-working”. The first recorded Iamblichus' analysis was that the transcendent cannot be use of the term is found in the mid-second-century grasped with mental contemplation because the transcenneo-Platonist work the Chaldean Oracles (Fragment 153 dent is supra-rational. Theurgy is a series of rituals and 167
168 operations aimed at recovering the transcendent essence by retracing the divine 'signatures' through the layers of being.* [7] Education is important for comprehending the scheme of things as presented by Aristotle, Plato and Pythagoras but also by the Chaldaean Oracles.* [8] The theurgist works 'like with like': at the material level, with physical symbols; at the higher level, with mental and purely spiritual practices. Starting with correspondences of the divine in matter, the theurgist eventually reaches the level where the soul's inner divinity unites with The Divine.* [9]
15.3 Emperor Julian The Emperor Julian (332-363), embraced Neoplatonic philosophy and worked to replace Christianity with a version of Neoplatonic paganism. Because of his death and the hold mainstream Christianity had over the empire at the time, this was ultimately unsuccessful, but he did produce several works of philosophy and theology, including a popular hymn to the sun. In his theology, Helios, the sun, was the ideal example of the perfection of the gods and light, a symbol of divine emanation. He also held the mother goddess Cybele in high esteem.
CHAPTER 15. THEURGY ally solitary practitioners and seek the divine light alone through ritual and inner spiritual and psychological equilibration. Theurgy in this hermetic sense stresses the need for the individual to separate and analyze the individual components that constitute everyday consciousness and reunite them in a way that changes one's personal awareness into a state that understands and partakes in spiritual grace.* [13]
15.5 Jewish theurgy Following a pattern very similar to the Neoplatonists, the Medieval Jewish mystical tradition of Kabbalah developed the concept that the Universe is regarded as a series of emanations from the Godhead, namely, the 10 sephirot. It is said that God created the world using the sephirot, pouring Divinity into creation through these “vessels,”which also have personality traits. The highest sephirah, Kether, holds the most divine light and is the least accessible to humanity. The lowest sephirah, Malkuth, is still higher than matter itself, so the parallel with Neoplatonism is not complete, but Malkuth is considered that aspect of God that can be perceived in the material world. It is also known as the Shekhinah.
Julian favored ritual theurgy, with an emphasis on For the Kabbalist, God is a single oneness, not separate sacrifice and prayer. He was heavily influenced by the “gods”. The teaching avoids polytheism by insisting that the sephirot are not to be prayed to, but rather, to be medideas of Iamblichus. itated on and experienced as manifestations of how God acts in the world. They are envisioned as arranged in three columns, in a pattern called the Tree of Life. By medi15.4 Esoteric Christian theurgy tating on the sephirot and praying for their unification, Kabbalists seek the theurgic goal of healing a shattered Esoteric Christianity accepts theurgy as a tradition that world. could greatly benefit a person. The main feat of Esoteric Christianity is to learn the mysteries of God (see Raziel) For Kabbalists, the sephirot are as follows: Kether and to rise to higher consciousness in the understand- (Crown); Chokmah (Wisdom); Binah (Understanding of God's relationship relative to individual conscious- ing); Chesed (Loving kindness); Geburah (Strength); ness. Theurgy, in the esoteric tradition, using this knowl- Tiphareth (Beauty); Netzach (Endurance); Hod (Glory); edge to heighten one's own spiritual nature.* [10] In Eso- Yesod (Foundation); and Malkuth (Kingdom or teric Christianity, theurgy usually is the practice of trying Sovereignty). to gain the knowledge and conversation of one's Higher Self, or Inner God, to teach one spiritual truths and wisdom from God that one couldn't learn from man (see 15.6 See also Alchemy, Kabbalah, and Theosophy). Some branches of Esoteric Christianity hold that if an Esoteric Chris• Invocation tian, Rosicrucian, or Theosophist practices it, he or she • Chaldean Oracles could potentially rise to the degree of Magus, or Adept after a certain level of spiritual attainment. In a tradi• Esoteric Christianity tional and magical sense, Theurgy is seen as the opposite of Goetia, even though many argue that they overlap • Deity Yoga each other.* [11] Some organizations, such as The Her• Henosis metic Order of the Golden Dawn claim to teach a type of theurgy that would help one ascend spiritually as well • Iamblichus as understand the true nature of the self and its relation to the Divine and the Universe. The Golden Dawn • Julian (emperor) has a somewhat significant historical following and influ• Kabbalah ence;* [12] while it is held that many theurgists are usu-
15.8. EXTERNAL LINKS • Magi
169
15.8 External links
• Magician (paranormal)
• Two Orations of the Emperor Julian
• Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
• Plotinus' Enneads
• Tantra
• Iamblichus' Theurgia or On the Egyptian Mysteries
• Thaumaturgy • Theosophy
15.7 References [1] Proclus, On the theology of Plato, 1.26.63. E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, University of California Press, 1959). [2] Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (1971), Penguin, 1973, 320-321. [3] Anne Sheppard,“Proclus attitude to theurgy”, Classical Quarterly, 32 (1982), 212-224. Eunopius, The Lives of the sophists (c. 395), chap. III, London: Harvard University Press, 1921). [4] Pierre A. Riffard, Dictionnaire de l'ésotérisme, Paris: Payot, 1983, 340. [5] Cf. “Lewy">Lewy, Hans, Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy, Cairo 1956, pp. 421–466 (mostly consulted and quoted from the revised edition by Michel Tardieu, Revue des Études Augustiniennes 58 (1978)). [6] http://www.iep.utm.edu/neoplato/ [7] SIORVANES, LUCAS (1998). Iamblichus. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved September 17, 2013, from http:// www.rep.routledge.com/article/A062 [8] http://thedivinescience.org/ origin-and-nature-of-theurgy/ [9] Cf. “Shaw">Shaw, Gregory, Theurgy and the Soul: The Neoplatonism of Iamblichus, Penn State Press, 1971, page 115. [10] Christian Mysticism: An Introduction to Contemporary Theoretical Approaches by Louise Nelstrop, Kevin Magill, Bradley B. Onishi, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009, pages 109-110. [11] Secrets of the Magickal Grimoires By:Aaron Leitch pgs. 241 - 278 (chapter 8) [12] Self-Initiation into the Golden Dawn tradition: Chic and Tabatha Cicero, Chapter 1 [13] The Tree of Life: an Illustrated Study in Magic By: Israel Regardie, Revised by Chic and Sandra Tabatha Cicero
• A Modern Theurgic School • Ars-Theurgica.org A site devoted to theurgy
Chapter 16
A. E. Waite Arthur Edward Waite (2 October 1857 – 19 May 1942), commonly known as A. E. Waite, was an American-born British poet and scholarly mystic who wrote extensively on occult and esoteric matters, and was the co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck. As his biographer R. A. Gilbert described him,“Waite's name has survived because he was the first to attempt a systematic study of the history of western occultism—viewed as a spiritual tradition rather than as aspects of proto-science or as the pathology of religion.”* [1]
16.1 Early life Waite was born in Brooklyn, New York, United States.* [2] Waite's father, Capt. Charles F. Waite, died when he was very young, and his widowed mother, Emma Lovell, returned to her home country of England, where he was then raised.* [3] As they were not well off, Waite was educated at a small private school in North London. When he was 13, he was then educated at St. Charles' College.* [4] When he left school to become a clerk he wrote verse in his spare time. In 1863 Waite's mother converted to Catholicism. The death of his sister Frederika Waite in 1874 soon attracted him into psychical research. At 21, he began to read regularly in the Li- Waite photographed in London, 13 January 1921. brary of the British Museum, studying many branches of esotericism. In 1881 Waite discovered the writings of the Golden Dawn. In 1896 he rejoined the Outer OrEliphas Levi. der of the Golden Dawn. In 1899 he entered the SecWhen Waite was almost 30 he married Ada Lakeman ond order of the Golden Dawn. He became a Freemason (also called“Lucasta”), and they had one daughter, Sybil. in 1901,* [6]* [7] and entered the Societas Rosicruciana in Some time after Lucasta's death in 1924, Waite married Anglia in 1902. In 1903 Waite founded the Independent Mary Broadbent Schofield. He spent most of his life in and Rectified Order R. R. et A. C. This Order was disor near London, connected to various publishing houses banded in 1914. The Golden Dawn was torn by interand editing a magazine, The Unknown World. nal feuding until Waite's departure in 1914; in July 1915 he formed the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross,* [8] not to be confused with the Societas Rosicruciana. By that time 16.2 Career there existed some half-dozen offshoots from the original Golden Dawn, and as a whole it never recovered.* [9]
16.2.1
Golden Dawn
Aleister Crowley, Waite's foe, referred to him as the villainous“Arthwate”in his novel Moonchild and referred to Waite joined the Outer Order of the Hermetic Order him as“Dead Waite”in his magazine Equinox. Lovecraft of the Golden Dawn in January 1891 after being intro- has a villainous wizard in his short story "The Thing on duced by E.W. Berridge.* [5] In 1893 he withdrew from the Doorstep" called Ephraim Waite; according to Robert 170
16.5. NOTES
171
M. Price, this character was based on Waite.* [10]
• The Alchemical Writings of Edward Kelly, London, 1893.
16.2.2
• Devil-Worship in France. London: George Redway, 1896.
Author and scholar
Waite was a prolific author and many of his works were well received in academic circles. He wrote occult texts on subjects including divination, esotericism, Rosicrucianism, Freemasonry, and ceremonial magic, Kabbalism and alchemy; he also translated and reissued several important mystical and alchemical works. His works on the Holy Grail, influenced by his friendship with Arthur Machen, were particularly notable.* [11]* [12] A number of his volumes remain in print, including The Book of Ceremonial Magic (1911), The Holy Kabbalah (1929), A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry (1921), and his edited translation of Eliphas Levi's 1896 Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual (1910), having seen reprints in recent years. Waite also wrote two allegorical fantasy novels, Prince Starbeam (1889) and The Quest of the Golden Stairs (1893), and edited Elfin Music, an anthology of poetry based on English fairy folklore.* [13]
• The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts, 1898.
16.3 Tarot deck
• The collected poems of Arthur Edward Waite, in two volumes, London: William Rider & Son Ltd.
Waite is best known as the co-creator of the popular and widely used Rider-Waite Tarot deck and author of its companion volume, the Key to the Tarot, republished in expanded form the following year, 1911, as the Pictorial Key to the Tarot, a guide to Tarot reading.* [14] The RiderWaite-Smith tarot was notable for being one of the first tarot decks to illustrate all 78 cards fully, not only the 22 major arcana cards. Golden Dawn member Pamela Colman Smith illustrated the cards for Waite, and the deck was first published in 1909. It remains in publication today.
• A New Encyclopaedia of Freemasonry (Ars Magna Latomorum) and of Cognate Instituted Mysteries: Their Rites, Literature, and History, New York: Wings Books, 1994. ISBN 0517191482.
It is known that the inspiration for this deck was partly provided by Sola-Busca Tarot (Northern Italy, 1491), the first and only fully illustrated Tarot deck up to the time of publication of the Rider-Waite Tarot.
• Inner and Outer Order Initiations of the Holy Order of the Golden Dawn, Canada: Burnaby, 2005. ISBN 0-9735931-7-2.
16.4 Publications • Israfel: Letters, Visions and Poems, London: Allen, 1886.
• The Pictorial Key to the Tarot. London: William Ryder & Son, Ltd., 1911. • The Secret Tradition in Freemasonry, in two volumes. London: Rebman, 1911. • The Book of Destiny and The Art of Reading Therein, London: William Rider & Son Ltd., 1912. • The Book of Ceremonial Magic, London: 1913. • The Holy Kabbalah, 1929. • A New Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, 1921. • The Brotherhood of the Rosy Cross: Being Records of the House of the Holy Spirit in its Inward and Outward History, London: William Rider & Son Ltd., 1924.
• The Hidden Church of the Holy Grail: Its Legends and Symbolism Considered in Their Affinity with Certain Mysteries of Initiation and Other Traces of a Secret Tradition in Christian Times, Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Fredonia Books, 2002. ISBN 158963-905-7.
• Theories As to the Authorship of the Rosicrucian Manifestos, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-4253-3290-0.
16.5 Notes
• The Mysteries of Magic: A Digest of the Writings of Eliphas Levi, London: George Redway, 1886.
[1] Gilbert, R.A. A.E. Waite: Magician of Many Parts, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, 1987, p. 361.
• The Occult Sciences: A Compendium of Transcendental Doctrine and Experiment, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd, 1891.
[2] “Arthur Edward Waite”. Kheper.
• The Hermetic Museum, in two volumes. London, 1893.
[3] “Arthur Edward Waite”. Controverscial. [4] “Arthur Edward Waite”. Everything2.com. [5] King, Modern RM, page 52
172
[6] “Arthur E. Waite”. Freemasonry.bcy.ca. Retrieved 31 March 2012. [7] Gilbert, R. A. “The Masonic Career of A. E. Waite”. Ars Quatuor Coronatorum. QCCC Correspondence Circle Limited. Retrieved 23 May 2010. [8] “Arthur Edward Waite by Lee Prosser”. Ghostvillage.com. Retrieved 31 March 2012. [9] Howe, Ellic,The Magicians of the Golden Dawn, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972 [10] Price, Robert M., ed. (1995). The Azathoth Cycle: tales of the blind idiot god. Oakland, California: Chaosium. p. vi. ISBN 978-1-56882-040-8. [11] Waite, A.E., Shadows of Life and Thought: A Retrospective Review in the Form of Memoirs, London: Selwyn and Blount, 1938 [12] Gilbert, R.A., A.E. Waite: Magician of Many Parts, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, 1987 [13] Brian Stableford, “Waite, A.E.”, The A to Z of Fantasy Literature, (pp. 420–21). ISBN 0-8108-6829-6 [14] Waite, A.E., The Key to the Tarot, London, 1910
16.6 References • King, Francis X. Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism (2nd ed.).
16.7 External links • Short Biography • Works by Arthur Edward Waite at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about A. E. Waite at Internet Archive • “The Masonic Career of A.E. Waite”, AQC Vol 99 1986 • Works by Arthur Edward Waite at sacred-texts.com (plain text and HTML) • Bibliography of A.E. Waite
CHAPTER 16. A. E. WAITE
Chapter 17
Rosicrucianism The Rosicrucian Manifestos heralded a “Universal Reformation of Mankind”, through a science allegedly kept secret for decades until the intellectual climate might receive it. Controversies have arisen on whether they were a hoax, whether the“order of the Rosy Cross”existed as described in the Manifestos, or whether the whole thing was a metaphor disguising a movement that really existed, but in a different form. In 1616, Johann Valentin Andreae famously designated it as a "ludibrium". By promising a spiritual transformation at a time of great turmoil, the Manifestos tempted many figures to seek esoteric knowledge. Seventeenth-century occult philosophers such as Michael Maier, Robert Fludd and Thomas Vaughan interested themselves in the Rosicrucian world view.* [1] According to historian David Stevenson, it was influential to Freemasonry as it was emerging in Scotland.* [4] In later centuries, many esoteric societies have claimed to derive from the original Rosicrucians. Rosicrucianism is symbolized by the Rosy Cross or Rose Cross.
The Temple of the Rose Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618.
17.1 Rosicrucian Manifestos
Rosicrucianism can refer to one of several things:
17.1.1 Origins
• As a cultural movement, also referred to by historian Dame Frances Yates as the Rosicrucian Enlightenment, it aroused in Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of the Rosicrucian Manifestos, which purported to announce the existence of a hitherto unknown esoteric order to the world and made seeking its knowledge attractive to many.* [1]* [2] • As the mysterious doctrine of the aforementioned order, it is allegedly “built on esoteric truths of the ancient past”, which “concealed from the average man, provide insight into nature, the physical universe and the spiritual realm.”* [3] The Manifestos do not elaborate extensively on the matter but clearly combine references to the Kabbalah, Hermeticism and the imagery of Christianity.
Between 1607 and 1616, two anonymous manifestos were published, first in Germany and later throughout Europe.* [5] These were the Fama Fraternitatis RC (The Fame of the Brotherhood of RC) and the Confessio Fraternitatis (The Confession of the Brotherhood of RC). The Fama Fraternitatis presented the legend of a German doctor and mystic philosopher referred to as“Frater C.R.C.”(later identified in a third manifesto as Christian Rosenkreuz, or “Rose-cross”). The year 1378 is presented as being the birth year of “our Christian Father” , and it is stated that he lived 106 years. After studying in the Middle East under various masters, possibly adhering to Sufism,* [6] he was unable to spread the knowledge he had acquired to any prominent European figures. Instead, he gathered a small circle of friends/disciples and founded the Rosicrucian Order (this can be deduced to have occurred around 1407).
173
174
CHAPTER 17. ROSICRUCIANISM
During Rosenkreuz's lifetime, the Order was said to consist of no more than eight members, each a doctor and a sworn bachelor. Each member undertook an oath to heal the sick without payment, to maintain a secret fellowship, and to find a replacement for himself before he died. Three such generations had supposedly passed between c.1500 and c.1600, a time when scientific, philosophical and religious freedom had grown so that the public might benefit from the Rosicrucians' knowledge, so that they were now seeking good men.* [7]
17.1.2
Reception
The manifestos were and are not taken literally by many but rather regarded either as hoaxes or as allegorical statements. The manifestos directly state: “We speak unto you by parables, but would willingly bring you to the right, simple, easy, and ingenuous exposition, understanding, declaration, and knowledge of all secrets.” It is evident that the first Rosicrucian manifesto was influenced by the work of the respected hermetic philosopher Heinrich Khunrath, of Hamburg, author of the Amphitheatrum Sapientiae Aeternae (1609), who was in turn influenced by John Dee, author of the Monas Hieroglyphica (1564). The invitation to the royal wedding in the Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz opens with Dee's philosophical key, the Monas Hieroglyphica symbol. The writer also claimed the brotherhood possessed The publication of the Fama Fraternitatis Rosae Crucis (1614) a book that resembled the works of Paracelsus. Their literature announced them as moral and religious reformers. They used the techniques of chemistry about 400 manuscripts and books were published which (alchemy) and of the sciences generally as media through discussed the Rosicrucian documents. which to publicize their opinions and beliefs. The peak of the “Rosicrucianism furore”was reached In his autobiography, Johann Valentin Andreae (1586– when two mysterious posters appeared on the walls of 1654) claimed that the anonymously published Chymical Paris in 1622 within a few days of each other. The first Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz was one of his works, said“We, the Deputies of the Higher College of the Roseand he subsequently described it as a ludibrium. In his Croix, do make our stay, visibly and invisibly, in this city later works, he makes alchemy an object of ridicule and (...)", and the second ended with the words“The thoughts places it along with music, art, theater and astrology in attached to the real desire of the seeker will lead us to him the category of less serious sciences. According to some and him to us.”* [10] sources, his role in the origin of the Rosicrucian legend is controversial.* [8] However, it was generally accepted The legendary first manifesto, Fama Fraternitatis Rosae Crucis, (1614) inspired the works of Michael Maier according to others.* [9] (1568–1622) of Germany; Robert Fludd (1574–1637) and Elias Ashmole (1617–1692) of England; Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, Gotthardus Arthusius, Julius Sperber, Henricus Madathanus, Gabriel Naudé, Thomas 17.2 Rosicrucian Enlightenment Vaughan and others.* [11] In Elias Ashmole's Theatrum In the early 17th century, the manifestos caused excite- Chimicum britannicum (1650) he defends the Rosicrument throughout Europe by declaring the existence of cians. Some later works impacting Rosicrucianism were a secret brotherhood of alchemists and sages who were the Opus magocabalisticum et theosophicum by George preparing to transform the arts, sciences, religion, and von Welling (1719)--of alchemical and paracelsian inspipolitical and intellectual landscape of Europe. Wars of ration—and the Aureum Vellus oder Goldenes Vliess by politics and religion ravaged the continent. The works Hermann Fictuld in 1749. were re-issued several times, followed by numerous pam- Michael Maier was appointed Pfalzgraf (Count Palatine) phlets, favorable or otherwise. Between 1614 and 1620, by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Hungary
17.3. LEGACY IN ESOTERIC ORDERS
175
and King of Bohemia. He also was one of the most prominent defenders of the Rosicrucians, clearly transmitting details about the “Brothers of the Rose Cross” in his writings. Maier made the firm statement that the Brothers of R.C. exist to advance inspired arts and sciences, including alchemy. Researchers of Maier's writings point out that he never claimed to have produced gold, nor did Heinrich Khunrath or any of the other ′Rosicrucianists′. Their writings point toward a symbolic and spiritual alchemy, rather than an operative one. In a combination of direct and veiled styles, these writings conveyed the nine stages of the involutive-evolutive transmutation of the threefold body of the human being, the threefold soul and the threefold spirit, among others esoteric knowledge related to the “Path of Initiation”. In his 1618 pamphlet, Pia et Utilissima Admonitio de Fratribus Rosae Crucis, Henrichus Neuhusius wrote that the Rosicrucians departed for the east due to European instability caused by the start of the Thirty Years' War. In 1710, Sigmund Richter, founder of the secret society of the Golden and Rosy Cross, also suggested the Rosicrucians had migrated eastward. In the first half of the 20th century, René Guénon, a researcher of the occult, presented this same idea in some of his works.* [12] An eminent author of the 19th century, Arthur Edward Waite, presented arguments contradicting this idea.* [13] It was in this fertile field of discourse that many Rosicrucian societies arose. They were based on the occult, inspired by Frater C.R.C. – Christian Rose Cross (symbolical representation) the mystery of this “College of Invisibles”. The literary works of the 16th and 17th centuries were interrupted in both our Universities), ... I had the opporfull of enigmatic passages containing references to the tunity of being acquainted with divers worthy persons, Rose Cross, as in the following (somewhat modernized): inquisitive natural philosophy, and other parts of human learning; and particularly of what hath been called the New Philosophy or Experimental Philosophy. We did by For what we do presage is not in grosse, agreements, divers of us, meet weekly in London on a cerFor we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse; tain day and hour, under a certain penalty, and a weekly We have the Mason Word and second sight, contribution for the charge of experiments, with certain Things for to come we can foretell aright. rules agreed amongst us, to treat and discourse of such —Henry Adamson, The Muses' Threnodie affairs...”* [16] (Perth, 1638).
The idea of such an order, exemplified by the network of astronomers, professors, mathematicians, and natural philosophers in 16th-century Europe promoted by such men as Johannes Kepler, Georg Joachim Rheticus, John Dee and Tycho Brahe, gave rise to the Invisible College. This was the precursor to the Royal Society founded in 1660.* [14] It was constituted by a group of scientists who began to hold regular meetings to share and develop knowledge acquired by experimental investigation. Among these were Robert Boyle, who wrote: “the cornerstones of the Invisible (or as they term themselves the Philosophical) College, do now and then honour me with their company...";* [15] John Wilkins and John Wallis, who described those meetings in the following terms: “About the year 1645, while I lived in London (at a time when, by our civil wars, academical studies were much
17.3 Legacy in esoteric orders 17.3.1 Rose-Cross Degrees in Freemasonry According to Jean Pierre Bayard,* [17] two Rosicrucianinspired Masonic rites emerged toward the end of 18th century, the Rectified Scottish Rite, widespread in Central Europe where there was a strong presence of the “Golden and Rosy Cross”, and the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, first practised in France, in which the 18th degree is called Knight of the Rose Croix. The change from“operative”to“speculative”Masonry occurred between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 18th century. Two of the earliest speculative
176
CHAPTER 17. ROSICRUCIANISM “Builders from the East”. In 1785 and 1788 the Golden and Rosy Cross group published the Geheime Figuren or “The Secret Symbols of the 16th and 17th century Rosicrucians”. Led by Johann Christoph von Wöllner and General Johann Rudolf von Bischoffwerder, the Masonic lodge (later: Grand Lodge) Zu den drei Weltkugeln (The Three Globes) was infiltrated and came under the influence of the Golden and Rosy Cross. Many Freemasons became Rosicrucianists and Rosicrucianism was established in many lodges. In 1782 at the Convent of Wilhelmsbad the Alte schottische Loge Friedrich zum goldenen Löwen (Old Scottish Lodge Friedrich at the Golden Lion) in Berlin strongly requested Ferdinand, Duke of BrunswickLüneburg and all other Freemasons to submit to the Golden and Rosy Cross, without success. After 1782, this highly secretive society added Egyptian, Greek and Druidic mysteries to its alchemy system.* [19] A comparative study of what is known about the Gold and Rosenkreuzer appears to reveal, on the one hand, that it has influenced the creation of some modern Initiatic groups and, on the other hand, that the Nazis (see The Occult Roots of Nazism) may have been inspired by this German group.
18° Knight of the Rose Croix jewel (from the Masonic Scottish Rite)
Masons for whom a record of initiation exists were Sir Robert Moray and Elias Ashmole. Robert Vanloo states that earlier 17th century Rosicrucianism had a considerable influence on Anglo-Saxon Masonry. Hans Schick sees in the works of Comenius (1592–1670) the ideal of the newly born English Masonry before the foundation of the Grand Lodge in 1717. Comenius was in England during 1641. The Gold und Rosenkreuzer (Golden and Rosy Cross) was founded by the alchemist Samuel Richter who in 1710 published Die warhhaffte und vollkommene Bereitung des Philosophischen Steins der Brüderschaft aus dem Orden des Gülden-und Rosen-Creutzes (The True and Complete Preparation of the Philosopher's Stone by the Brotherhood from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross) in Breslau under the pseudonym Sincerus Renatus* [18] in Prague in the early 18th century as a hierarchical secret society composed of internal circles, recognition signs and alchemy treatises. Under the leadership of Hermann Fictuld the group reformed itself extensively in 1767 and again in 1777 because of political pressure. Its members claimed that the leaders of the Rosicrucian Order had invented Freemasonry and only they knew the secret meaning of Masonic symbols. The Rosicrucian Order had been founded by Egyptian "Ormusse" or "LichtWeise" who had emigrated to Scotland with the name
According to the writings of the Masonic historian E.J. Marconis de Negre,* [20] who together with his father Gabriel M. Marconis is held to be the founder of the "Rite of Memphis-Misraim" of Freemasonry, based on earlier conjectures (1784) by a Rosicrucian scholar Baron de Westerode* [21] and also promulgated by the 18th century secret society called the "Golden and Rosy Cross", the Rosicrucian Order was created in the year 46 when an Alexandrian Gnostic sage named Ormus and his six followers were converted by one of Jesus' disciples, Mark. Their symbol was said to be a red cross surmounted by a rose, thus the designation of Rosy Cross. From this conversion, Rosicrucianism was supposedly born, by purifying Egyptian mysteries with the new higher teachings of early Christianity.* [22] According to Maurice Magre (1877–1941) in his book Magicians, Seers, and Mystics, Rosenkreutz was the last descendant of the Germelshausen, a German family from the 13th century. Their castle stood in the Thuringian Forest on the border of Hesse, and they embraced Albigensian doctrines. The whole family was put to death by Landgrave Conrad of Thuringia, except for the youngest son, then five years old. He was carried away secretly by a monk, an Albigensian adept from Languedoc, and placed in a monastery under the influence of the Albigenses, where he was educated and met the four Brothers later to be associated with him in the founding of the Rosicrucian Brotherhood. Magre's account supposedly derives from oral tradition. Around 1530, more than eighty years before the publication of the first manifesto, the association of cross and rose already existed in Portugal in the Convent of the
17.3. LEGACY IN ESOTERIC ORDERS Order of Christ, home of the Knights Templar, later renamed Order of Christ. Three bocetes were, and still are, on the abóboda (vault) of the initiation room. The rose can clearly be seen at the center of the cross.* [23]* [24] At the same time, a minor writing by Paracelsus called Prognosticatio Eximii Doctoris Paracelsi (1530), containing 32 prophecies with allegorical pictures surrounded by enigmatic texts, makes reference to an image of a double cross over an open rose; this is one of the examples used to prove the “Fraternity of the Rose Cross”existed far earlier than 1614.* [25]
17.3.2
Modern groups
177 and an all-embracing altruism. According to it the Rosicrucian Order was founded in 1313* [27] and is composed of twelve exalted Beings gathered around a thirteenth, Christian Rosenkreuz. These great Adepts have already advanced far beyond the cycle of rebirth; their mission is to prepare the whole wide world for a new phase in religion—which includes awareness of the inner worlds and the subtle bodies, and to provide safe guidance in the gradual awakening of man's latent spiritual faculties during the next six centuries toward the coming Age of Aquarius.* [28] According to Masonic writers, the Order of the Rose Cross is expounded in a major Christian literary work that molded the subsequent spiritual views of the western civilisation, The Divine Comedy (ca. 1308–1321) by Dante Alighieri.* [29]* [30]* [31] Other Christian-Rosicrucian oriented bodies include: • Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924 • Archeosophical Society, 1968 Freemasonic Rosicrucian bodies providing preparation either through direct study and/or through the practice of symbolic-initiatic journey. • Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 1801 • Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, 1866, in Scotia (SRIS; Scotland), in Civitatibus Foederatis (MSRICF/SRICF; United States) etc. This Masonic esoteric society reprinted the Rosicrucian manifestos in 1923. A well-known member was Arthur Edward Waite.
Centro de Estudios Rosacruz (Zaragoza).
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various groups styled themselves Rosicrucian. The diverse groups who link themselves to a“Rosicrucian Tradition” can be divided into three categories: Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian groups, which profess Christ; Masonic Rosicrucian groups such as Societas Rosicruciana; and initiatory groups such as the Golden Dawn and the Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC). Esoteric Christian Rosicrucian schools provide esoteric knowledge related to the inner teachings of Christianity.* [26]
Initiatory groups which follow a degree system of study and initiation include: • The Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC), incorporated in the U.S. in 1915 • Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, U.S. based Order, 2008 • The Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose + Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930 • The Rosicrucian Order, reestablished in Canary Islands, Spain in 1988.
• The Rosicrucian Fellowship, 1909/11. Teachings 17.3.3 Chronological list of groups formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and present the mysteries, in the form of esoteric knowledge, of which Christ spoke in Matthew 13:11 and related subjects Luke 8:10. The Fellowship seeks to prepare the individual through harmonious development of mind Many of these groups generally speak of a lineal descent and heart in a spirit of unselfish service to mankind from earlier branches of the ancient Rosicrucian Order
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CHAPTER 17. ROSICRUCIANISM
in England, France, Egypt, or other countries. However, some groups speak of a spiritual affiliation with a true and invisible Rosicrucian Order. Note there are other Rosicrucian groups not listed here. Some do not use the name “Rosicrucian”to name themselves. Some groups listed may have been dissolved and are no longer operating. • Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross, 1750s • Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, 1776
• Lectorium Rosicrucianum, 1924* [32] • Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua (FRA), 1927 • The Saint Paul Rosicrucian Fellowship (Fraternidade Rosacruciana São Paulo), 1929 • Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, established in the Philippines in 1930 • Fraternitas Rosicruciana Antiqua, 1932 • Archeosophical Society, 1968
• Fraternitas Rosae Crucis, 1861
• Fraternity of the Hidden Light, 1982
• Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (SRIA). ca. 1860– 1865* [32]
• Rosicrucian Order, * [35]1988
• Societas Rosicruciana 1878* [32]
• Ancient Rosae Crucis (ARC), ?* [32]
in
America
(SRIA),
• Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (SRICF), 1879* [32] • Cabalistic Order of the Rosicrucian (Kabbalistique de la Rose Croix), 1888 • Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, 1888* [32]
• Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, a.k.a. Christian Order of the Hermetic Gold and Rose+Cross, established in the Philippines in 2002 by former members of the defunct AMORC Pronaos of the Philippines* [36] • Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn, 2008 • The Knights of the Militia Crucifera Evangelica (KMCE), Alchemical Order de la Rosé-Croix * [37]
• Rose Cross Order, 1889 • Order of the Temple & the Graal and of the Catholic Order of the Rose-Croix (l'Ordre de la Rose Croix Catholique et Esthetique, du Temple et du Graal) (CRC) ('Catholic', as in 'Universal'), 1890* [32] • Alchemical Rose-Croix Society Alchimique de France), 1896
• Confraternity Rosae + Crucis (CR+C), 1989* [32]
(Association
17.4 See also • Anthroposophy • Ashrama Hall and Christchurch Garden Theatre
• Rose-Croix de l'Orient (Rose-Cross of the East) (RCO) ?
• Behmenism
• The Elder Brothers of the Rose-Croix (Les Freres Aînés de la Rose-Croix)
• Brethren of Purity
• Antiquus Arcanus Ordo Rosæ Rubæ Aureæ Crucis (AAORRAC) ?
• Druzism
• Ordo Aureæ & Rosæ Crucis (Antique Arcanæ Ordinis Rosæ Rubeæ et Aureæ Crucis)(OARC) ?
• Gnosticism
• Rosicrucian Fellowship (Association of Christian Mystics) 1909* [33]
• Bogomilism • Catharism • Essenes • Manichaeism • Martinism
• Anthroposophical Society, 1912
• Michał Sędziwój
• Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross, 1912* [32]
• Neoplatonism
• Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis (AMORC), 1915* [34]
• Numerology • Parabola Allegory
• Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, 1915
• Pythagoreanism
• Corona Fellowship of Rosicrucians (CFR), c. 1918* [32]
• Rosicrucian cipher
• Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship, 1924
• Western Esotericism (academic field)
• Western esotericism
17.5. REFERENCES
17.5 References 17.5.1
Footnotes
[1] Yates, Frances A. (1972), The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London [2] Vickers, Brian (June 1979),“Frances Yates and the Writing of History”, The Journal of Modern History 51 (2, Technology and War): 287-316 [3] Lindgren, Carl Edwin, The way of the Rose Cross; A Historical Perception, 1614–1620. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research, Volume 18, Number 3:141–48. 1995. [4] “The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 2/3 (Jul. - Oct., 1919), pp. 265-270 by Joseph A. Murray; Review of New England and the Bavarian Illuminati by Vernon Stauffer; Vol. LXXXII of Studies in History, Economics and Public Law by The Faculty of Political Science; Columbia University Press (1918)" (PDF). Catholic University of America Press. Retrieved 1 February 2015. [5] Philalethes, Eugenius (1997). Fame and Confession of the Fraternity of the Rosy Cross. City: Kessinger Publishing. p. 9ff. ISBN 1-56459-257-X. [6] http://www.nthposition.com/lususserius.php [7] Gorceix, Bernard (1970), La Bible des Rose-Croix, Paris: a work of reference, containing translations of the three Rosicrucian Manifestos, recommended in Accès de l'Ésoterisme Occidental (1986, 1996) by Antoine Faivre (École Pratique des Hautes Études, Sorbonne)
179
[17] Jean-Pierre Bayard, Les Rose-Croix, M. A. Éditions, Paris, 1986 [18] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, The Occult Roots of Nazism, p. 59 [19] Bayard, Jean-Pierre, Les Rose-Croix, M.A.Édition, Paris 1986 [20] de Negre, E.J. Marconis (1849), Brief History of Masonry [21] Nesta Webster's, Secret Societies and Subversive Movements, London, 1924, p. 87 and note 37 [22] Further research in Legend and Mythology: Ormus by Sol, The Book of THoTH, 2004 [23] Macedo, António de (2000), Instruções Iniciáticas – Ensaios Espirituais, 2nd edition, Hughin Editores, Lisbon, ISBN 972-8534-00-0, p.55 [24] Gandra, J. Manuel (1998), Portugal Misterioso (Os Templários), Lisbon, pp. 348–349 [25] Stanislas de Guaita (1886), Au seuil du Mystère [26] Skogstrom, Jan (2001), Some Comparisons Between Exoteric & Esoteric Christianity, a table comparing exoteric and esoteric Christian beliefs [27] The Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity by The Rosicrucian Fellowship [28] The Rosicrucian Mysteries by Max Heindel. Accessed 29 March 2006
[8] Cf. Yates, Frances A. (1972), The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London & Edighoffer, Roland (I-1982, II-1987), Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae, Paris
[29] Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, “XXX: Knight Kadosh”, p. 822, 1872
[9] Cf. Dickson, Donald R. (1996), “Johann Valentin Andreae's Utopian Brotherhoods”, Renaissance Quarterly 22 Dec. 1996
[30] René Guénon, El Esoterismo de Dante, pp. 5–6, 14, 15– 16, 18–23, 1925
[10] Cited by Sédir in Les Rose-Croix, Paris (1972), pp. 65–66
[31] Manly Palmer Hall, The Secret Teachings of All Ages: The Fraternity of The Rose Cross, p. 139, 1928
[11] Sédir (1972), Les Rose-Croix, Paris, p. 59 to 68 [12] Guénon, René, Simboles de la Science Sacrée″, Paris 1962, p.95ff [13] Waite, Arthur E. (1887), The Real History of the Rosicrucians – founded on their own Manifestos, and on facts and documents collected from the writings of Initiated Brethren, London, p.408 [14]“The origins of the Royal Society lie in an 'invisible college' of natural philosophers who began meeting in the mid-1640s to discuss the new philosophy of promoting knowledge of the natural world through observation and experiment, which we now call science.”http: //royalsociety.org/about-us/history accessed 2 May 2014 [15] Cited by R Lomas (2002) in The Invisible College, London [16] Cited by H. Lyons (1944) in The Royal Society 1660– 1940, Cambridge
[32] Frater Melchior.“Manifestations of the Neo-Rosicrucian Current” [33] 8 August 1909, in Seattle, Washington, at 3:00 p.m; cf. http://mount_ecclesia.tripod.com/chronology_ about_max_heindel.htm [34] Not 1909: a Charter forming this organization is dated from 1 April 1915 in New York, after a previous document titled “American Pronunziamento Number One” or “First American Manifesto”by H. Spencer Lewis issued in February, 1915; cf. http://www.parareligion.ch/ sunrise/vanloo/ameng.htm [35] cf. http://www.rosicrucian-order.com [36] cf. http://www.rosecrossohgrc.com [37] cf. http://www.knightsofmceglobal.com
180
17.5.2
CHAPTER 17. ROSICRUCIANISM
Bibliography
Old editions • Among the treasures of the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam are books on the Gnosis and the Corpus Hermeticum as published in Florence in 1471. • The University of Wisconsin–Madison Digital Collections Center has a digital edition of the Geheime Figuren der Rosenkreuzer, aus dem 16ten und 17ten Jahrhundert (1785–1788). Publications • Bayard, Jean-Pierre (1986) Les Rose-Croix M. A. Éditions, Paris, ISBN 2-86676-229-0, in French • Bayard, Jean-Pierre (1990) La Spiritualité de la Rose-Croix: Histoire, Tradition et Valeur Initiatique Dangles, Saint-Jean-de-Braye, France, ISBN 2-7033-0353-X, in French • Bernard, Christian (2001) Rosicrucian Order AMORC: Questions and Answers Grand Lodge of the English Language Jurisdiction, AMORC, San Jose, California, ISBN 978-1-893971-02-8; based upon the earlier versions by Harve Spencer Lewis 1929 and following, and Heindel, Max (1910) 'The Rosicrucian philosophy in questions and answers M.A. Donohue & Company, Chicago, OCLC 67395149 • Clymer, R. Swinburne (1916) The Rose Cross order: a short sketch of the history of the Rose Cross order in America, together with a sketch of the life of Dr. P. B. Randolph, the founder of the order Philosophical Publishing Company, Allentown, Pennsylvania, OCLC 6671066 • Churton, Tobias (2009) The Invisible History of the Rosicrucians: The World's Most Mysterious Secret Society Inner Traditions, Rochester, Vermont, ISBN 978-1-59477-255-9 • Dietzfelbinger, K. (2005) Rosicrucians through the ages (translation of Dietzfelbinger, K. (1998) Rozenkruisers toen en nu Rozekruis Pers, Haarlem, Netherlands, ISBN 90-6732-199-0) Rozekruis Pers, Haarlem, Netherlands, ISBN 90-6732-323-3 • Edighoffer, Roland (1982) Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae (volume 1) Arma Artis, Neuilly-sur-Seine, OCLC 39787480, in French • Edighoffer, Roland (1987) Rose-Croix et Société Idéale selon Johann Valentin Andreae (volume 2) Arma Artis, Neuilly-sur-Seine, OCLC 311787409, in French
• Frietsch, Wolfram (1999) Die Geheimnisse der Rosenkreuzer Rowohlt, Reinbeck bei Hamburg, ISBN 3-499-60495-7, in German • Gorceix, Bernard (1970) La Bible des Rose-Croix: traduction et commentaire des trois premiers écrits rosicruciens (1614–1615–1616) PUF, Paris, OCLC 64751560, in French • Hall, Manly Palmer (1929) “Chapter 19: Rosicrucian and Masonic Origins”Lectures on Ancient Philosophy: An Introduction to the Study and Application of Rational Procedure Hall Publishing Company, Los Angeles, OCLC 2028728; full text from The Mystic Light • Hall, Manly Palmer (1928) The Secret Teachings of All Ages: An Encyclopedic Outline of Masonic, Hermetic, Quabbalistic and Rosictucian Symbolical PhilosophyPhilosophical Research Society, Los Angeles, OCLC 1358719; see full text from The Internet Sacred Text Archive • Heindel, Max (1909) The Rosicrucian CosmoConception or Christian Occult Science, An Elementary Treatise Upon Man's Past Evolution, Present Constitution and Future Development Independent Book Company, Chicago, OCLC 7466633; full text of updated version entitled 'The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception or Mystic Christianity, An Elementary Treatise Upon Man's Past Evolution, Present Constitution and Future Development from The Rosicrucian Fellowship • Jennings, Hargrave (1870) The Rosicrucians: Their Rites and Mysteries John Camden Hotten, London, OCLC 301465719; reprinted in 1976 by Arno Press, New York, ISBN 0-405-07957-5 • Lindgren, Carl Edwin as “Neophyte”(1996) Spiritual Alchemists: Rosicrucians, the Brotherhood of Light Ars Latomorum Publications, New Orleans, Louisiana, ISBN 1-885591-18-7 • Lindgren, Carl Edwin The Rose Cross Order: A Historical and Philosophical View full text from Professor Lindgren’s web site • Macedo, António de (2000) Instruções Iniciáticas – Ensaios Espirituais (2nd edition) Hughin Editores, Lisbon; see partial view from Hughin Editores, in Portuguese • Matthews, John (1999) The Rosicrucian Enlightenment Revisited Lindisfarne Books, Hudson, New York, ISBN 0-940262-84-3 • McIntosh, Christopher (1992) The Rose Cross and the Age of Reason: Eighteenth-century Rosicrucianism in Central Europe and its relationship to the Enlightenment, E.J. Brill, New York, ISBN 90-0409502-0
17.5. REFERENCES
181
• Palou, Jean (1964) La franc-Maçonnerie (The French Masons) Payot, Paris, OCLC 417482551, in French
the Golden Dawn Arthur Edward Waite ISBN 9780-9783883-4-8 book description from Ishtar Publishing
• Pincus-Witten, Robert (1976) Occult Symbolism in France: Joséphin Péladan and the Salons de la RoseCroix Garland Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-82402003-0
• Westcott, William Wynn (1885) Rosicrucian Thoughts on the Ever-Burning Lamps of the Ancients (pamphlet) G. Kenning, London; reprinted in 1979 by David Medina, London, ISBN 09505859-2-0; see full text from The Alchemy Web Site
• Rebisse, Christian (2005) Rosicrucian History and Mysteries (translation of Rebisse, Christian (2003) Rose-croix histoire et mysteres) Supreme Grand Lodge of AMORC, San Jose, California, ISBN 1893971-05-8
• Williamson, Benedict J. (editor) (2002) The Rosicrucian Manuscripts Invisible College Press, Arlington, Virginia, ISBN 1-931468-12-5
• Yates, Frances (1972) The Rosicrucian Enlighten• Silberer, Herbert (1917) Problems of mysticism ment Routledge, London, ISBN 0-7100-7380-1; and its symbolism (translation of Silberer, Herreprinted in 2002 by Routledge, New York, ISBN bert (1914) Probleme der mystik und ihrer symbolik 0-415-26769-2 Heller, Vienna, OCLC 4943853) Moffat, Yard and Company, New York, OCLC 538149; reprinted in 1970 by S. Weiser, New York, ISBN 0-87728-038- Essays X • Alexandre David, Fama Fraternitatis – Introduction • Steiner, Rudolf (1984) Esoteric Christianity and www the Mission of Christian Rosenkreutz: Thirteen lec• Corinne Heline, The Seven Jewels and the Seven tures given in various European cities in the years Stages of Initiation www 1911 and 1912 (a partial translation of Steiner, Rudolf (1962) Das esoterische Christentum und die • Prinke, Rafal T. Michael Sendivogius and Christian geistige Führung der Menschheit: dreiundzwanzig Rosenkreutz, The Unexpected Possibilities, The HerVorträge, gehalten in den Jahr. 1911 und 1912 in metic Journal, 1990, 72-98 verschiedenen Städten Verlag der Rudolf SteinerNachlassverwaltung, Dornach, Switzerland) Rudolf Steiner Press, London, OCLC 264715257; see full Fictional literature text from the Rudolf Steiner Archive • St. Leon: A Tale of the Sixteenth Century by • Steiner, Rudolf (1965) Rosicrucianism and ModWilliam Godwin, 1799 ern Initiation: Mystery Centres of the Middle Ages: • St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian by Percy Bysshe Six lectures given in Dornach, 4–13 January 1924 Shelley, 1811, London, John Joseph Stockdale (translation of Steiner, Rudolf (1950) Mepterienstätte des Mittelalters: Rosenkreuzertum und Mod• Wolfstein; or, The Mysterious Bandit by Percy ernes Einweihungsprinzip, printed as volume two of Bysshe Shelley, circa 1815, J. Bailey, London, a The Mission of Christian Rozenkreuz) R. Steiner, chapbook reduction of St. Irvyne London, OCLC 7209265; see full text from the Rudolf Steiner Archive • Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Zanoni: A Rosicrucian Tale • Waite, Arthur Edward (1887) The Real History of the Rosicrucians G. Redway, London OCLC 7080058; reprinted in 1960 by Society of Metaphysicians, Hastings, England, ISBN 1-85228-7055; reprinted in 2000 by Garber Communications, Blauvelt, New York, ISBN 0-89345-018-9; see full text from The Internet Sacred Text Archive • Waite, Arthur Edward (1916–1918) Complete Rosicrucian Initiations of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross ; reprinted in 2005 ISBN 978-0-9735931-7-4 and 2007 ISBN 978-0-9783883-4-8 by Ishtar Publishing, Burnaby, British Columbia; renamed in 2008 Rosicrucian Rites and Ceremonies of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross by Founder of the Holy Order of
(1842), www • Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Vril: The Power of the Coming Race (1870) www • Franz Hartmann, With the Adepts: An Adventure Among the Rosicrucians (1910) www • Hermann Hesse, Journey to the East (1932, also “Journey to the Land of the Morning/of the Tomorrow”(Die Morgenlandfahrt)) • Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game (1943), also known as “Magister Ludi”(Master of the Game) • Prentiss Tucker, In the Land of the Living Dead: an Occult Story (1929) www
182 • Antal Szerb, "The Pendragon Legend" (1934) (Translated by Len Rix). Conspiracy literature • Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, Holy Blood, Holy Grail (1982), advanced a pseudohistorical relation of Rosicrucianism with a secret society called Priory of Sion. • Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum (1988), Serendipities: Language and Lunacy (1998). • Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code (2003), follows the Holy Blood, Holy Grail's conspiracy theories line. • Dan Brown, The Lost Symbol (2009)
17.6 External links • Accessible magazine (2006): The Portugal Code: the Knights Templar, the Rosicrucian Order and the Holy Grail • Alchemy Web Site (The): Rosicrucianism • Catholic Encyclopedia: Rosicrucians • CESNUR: 2005 International Conference – Spiritual filiation or doctrinal conflicts in modern Rosicrucian movements • Orthodox America: The Rosicrucians • Reverse Spins: The Mysterious Rosicrucian... • Rosie: Speculum Sophicum Rhodo-Stauroticum • Straight Dope (The): What is Rosicrucianism all about? • textfiles.com – Occult (The): Rosicrucianism • Secret Symbols of the Rosicrucians in hi-rez full color • Harvey Spencer Lewis, Rosicrucian Credo in Rosicrucian Digest January 1932 • Michael Sendivogius and Christian Rosenkreutz, The Unexpected Possibilities, The Hermetic Journal, 1990, 72-98, online
CHAPTER 17. ROSICRUCIANISM
Chapter 18
Gnosticism 18.1.1 Main features
Not to be confused with Agnosticism. Gnosticism (from Ancient Greek: γνωστικός gnostikos, “having knowledge”, from γνῶσις gnōsis, knowledge) is a modern term categorizing a collection of ancient religions whose adherents shunned the material world – which they viewed as created by the demiurge – and embraced the spiritual world.* [1] Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions* [2] that teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as knowledge, enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or 'oneness with God') may be reached by practicing philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers, entirely for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others.* [3] However, practices varied among those who were Gnostic.
A common characteristic of some of these groups was the instruction that the realisation of Gnosis (esoteric or intuitive knowledge) is the way to salvation of the soul from the material world. Gnostic systems, particularly the Syrian-Egyptian schools, are typically marked by: • The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity • The introduction by emanation of further divine beings known as Aeons. • The introduction of a distinct creator god or demiurge, which is an illusion and a later emanation from the single monad or source. • The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as an “error”or flawed simulacrum of a higher-level reality, but possibly as good as its constituent material might allow.* [8]
In Gnosticism, the world of the demiurge is represented by the underworld, which is associated with flesh, time, and more particularly, the imperfect ephemeral world. The world of God is represented by the upper world and is associated with the soul and perfection. The world of God is eternal and not part of the physical. It is impalpable and timeless. Gnosticism is primarily defined in a Christian context.* [4]* [5] In the past, some scholars thought that gnosticism predated Christianity and included preChristian religious beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be common to early Christianity, Neoplatonism, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, and Zoroastrianism (especially Zurvanism). The discussion of gnosticism changed radically with the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library and led to a revision of older assumptions. To date, no pre-Christian gnostic texts have been found,* [6] and gnosticism as a unique and recognizable belief system is considered to be a second century (or later) development.* [7]
• A complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element “falls”into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings • A doctrine of salvation in which the divine element may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening. The supreme divine source is known under a variety of names, including "Pleroma" (fullness, totality) and "Bythos" (depth, profundity). Aeons are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature. The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event.
18.1 Nature and structure
The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is because the greatest expressions of the Persian gnostic school – 183
184 Manicheanism and Mandaeanism – are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical usage of“Gnosticism”is to refer to the SyrianEgyptian schools alone, while“Manichean”describes the movements of the Persian school. This conception of Gnosticism has in recent times come to be challenged (see below). Nonetheless, the understanding presented above remains the most common and is useful in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism. Above all, the central idea of gnōsis, a knowledge superior to and independent of faith made it attractive to many. The Valentinians, for example, considered pistis (Greek: “faith”) as consisting of accepting a body of teaching as true, being principally intellectual or emotional in character.* [9]
The demiurge The demiurge or creator god is a lesser and inferior or false god. In most of the systems, this demiurge was seen as imperfect, in others even as evil. This creator god is commonly referred to as the demiourgós used in the Platonist tradition.* [10] Different gnostic schools sometimes identified the demiurge as Ahriman, El, Saklas, Samael, Satan, Yaldabaoth, or Yahweh. The gnostic demiurge bears resemblance to figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. In the former, the demiourgós is a central figure, a benevolent creator of the universe who works to make the universe as benevolent as the limitations of matter will allow; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic “desire”in Socrates' model of the psyche bears a resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion; the relevant passage of The Republic was found within a major gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi,* [11] wherein a text existed describing the demiurge as a“lion-faced serpent”.* [12] Elsewhere, this figure is called “Ialdabaoth”,* [12] “Samael”(Aramaic: sæmʻa-ʼel,“blind god”) or“Saklas”(Syriac: sækla,“the foolish one”), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior god, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. The demiurge typically creates a group of co-actors named archons who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it.* [12] The inferiority of the demiurge's creation may be compared to the technical inferiority of a work of art, painting, sculpture, etc.—to the thing the art represents. In other cases it takes on a more ascetic tendency to view material existence negatively, which then becomes more extreme when materiality, and the human body, is perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants.
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM Savior figures Jesus is identified by some Gnostics as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnōsis to the earth,* [13] while others adamantly denied that the supreme being came in the flesh, claiming Jesus to be merely a human who attained divinity through gnosis and taught his disciples to do the same. Among the Mandaeans, Jesus was considered a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist.* [14] Still other traditions identify Mani and Seth, third son of Adam and Eve, as salvific figures.* [15]
18.1.2 Dualism and monism Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being “dualistic”in nature, meaning that they have the view that the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities. Hans Jonas writes: “The cardinal feature of gnostic thought is the radical dualism that governs the relation of God and world, and correspondingly that of man and world.”* [16] Within this definition, they run the gamut from the “radical dualist”systems of Manicheanism to the “mitigated dualism”of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner. • Radical dualism or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness that become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism inherits* [17]* [18] this dualistic mythology from Zurvanist Zoroastrianism,* [19] in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant. The Mandaean creation myth witnesses progressive emanations of the Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, a demiurge who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm. Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically found in Iranian groups; for instance, see "The Hymn of the Pearl") commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped in-
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side it, or literally to keep them “in the dark”, or resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, exaggerated) ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction. allegations of libertinism, or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being either based on incorrect interpretations of • Mitigated dualism —where one of the two princi- scripture or simply duplicitous in nature. Irenaeus deples is in some way inferior to the other. Such clas- clares in his treatise“Against Heresies”* [23] that Gnossical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived tic movements subjected all morality to the caprice of of the material world as being created by a lesser the individual and made any fixed rule of faith imposdivinity than the true God that was the object of sible. According to Irenaeus, a certain sect known as the their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of "Cainites" professed to impart a knowledge“greater and as being radically different from the material world, more sublime”than the ordinary doctrine of Christians, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home and believed that Cain derived his power from the suof certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, perior Godhead.* [24] Epiphanius provides an example these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute when he writes of the "Archontics": “Some of them alienation within the world, and their resultant aim ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostenwas to allow the soul to escape the constraints pre- sible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride sented by the physical realm. themselves with a sort of abstinence, under the disguise of monks”(Panarion, 40.1.4). • Qualified monism —where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or semi-divine. El- In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth sug- ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct gest to some that its understanding of the universe behaviour. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora lays out a project may have been monistic rather than a dualistic one. of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the Elaine Pagels states that “Valentinian gnosticism moral inclination of the individual: [...] differs essentially from dualism";* [20] while, “External physical fasting is observed even according to Schoedel “a standard element in the among our followers, for it can be of some interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundareason (logos), whenever it is done neither by mentally monistic”.* [21] In these myths, the malevway of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor olence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of because of the day, as if it had been specially a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing appointed for that purpose.” on his part, but due to his imperfection by contrast —Ptolemy, Letter to Flora to the superior entities of which he is unaware.* [8] As such, Valentinians already have less cause to treat physical reality with contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic. This extract marks a definite shift away from the orthoThe Valentinian tradition conceives of materiality, dox position that the correct behaviour for Christians is rather than as being a separate substance from the di- best administered and prescribed by the central authorvine, as attributable to an error of perception, which ity of the Church, as transmitted through the Apostles becomes symbolized mythopoetically as the act of to the Church's bishops. Instead, the internalised inclimaterial creation.* [8] nation of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effective18.1.3 Moral and ritual practice ness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation. Numerous early Christian Fathers accused some Gnostic teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the while simultaneously freely indulging their physical ap- works of Irenaeus. According to this writer, Simon Mapetites; however, there is reason to question the accuracy gus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of of these claims. Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnosticism, and who had previously tried to buy sacraGnostic moral behaviour as being generally ascetic in ba- mental authority of ordination from St. Peter the Apostle) sis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary founded the school of moral freedom ('amoralism'). Irepractice.* [22] Many monks would deprive themselves of naeus reports that Simon's argument was that those who food, water, or necessary needs for living. This presented put their trust in him and his consort Helen need trouble a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic move- themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their ments: this mode of behaviour was one they themselves moral exhortations and are free “to do what they wish” and not by their favoured and supported, so the Church Fathers would be , as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace * Haereses [25]). “righteous works”(Adversus required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. To avoid this, a common heresi- Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save ological approach was to avoid the issue completely by for his curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to
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CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
be a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the 18.1.4 Social context Testimony of Truth that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse; they seem to asceticism can likewise be ruled out. have originated in Alexandria and coexisted with the early Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he character- Christians until the 4th century AD, and because there izes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they eat food was as yet no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre“offered to idols”(idol-worship), are sexually promis- existing belief systems as well as new religions were often cuous (“immoderately given over to the desires of the embraced. According to Clement of Alexandria, "... In flesh”) and are guilty of taking wives under the pre- the times of the Emperor Hadrian appeared those who they continued until the age of the tence of living with them as adopted “sisters”. In devised heresies, and * elder Antoninus.” [27] the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as“brother”and“sister": intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes. Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic sacrament in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired syzygies that constitute the Valentinian Pleroma. Though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the Catholic Church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.
The Christian groups first called Gnostics a branch of Christianity, but according to the modern scholars the theology's origin is not so clear.* [28]* [29] For example, Joseph Jacobs and Ludwig Blau note that much of the terminology employed is Jewish and note that this “proves at least that the principal elements of gnosticism were derived from Jewish speculation, while it does not preclude the possibility of new wine having been poured into old bottles”.* [28] The movement spread in areas controlled by the Roman Empire and Arian Goths,* [30] and the Persian Empire; it continued to develop in the Mediterranean and Middle East before and during the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the Middle Ages, though a few Mandaean communities still exist. Gnostic and pseudognostic ideas became influential in some of the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups.
Of the Carpocratians Irenaeus makes much the same report: they “are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the 18.2 Origins eyes of man”.* [26] Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he 18.2.1 Buddhism has received through his adherence to a system of gnosis; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an Main article: Buddhism and Gnosticism attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture. The idea that Gnosticism was derived from Buddhism On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behaviour was first proposed by the Victorian gem collector tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiologiand numismatist Charles William King (1864).* [31] cal accusation of duplicity in such practises should not Mansel (1875)* [32] considered the principal sources of be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations Gnosticism to be Platonism, Zoroastrianism, and Budof amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself dhism.* [33] However, the influence of Buddhism in any is full of passages that appear to encourage abstinence sense on either the gnostikos Valentinus (c. 170) or the over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic moveNag Hammadi texts (3rd century) is not supported by ments appear to take the “ancient schema of the two modern scholarship, but in the latter case is considered ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to quite possible by Elaine Pagels (1979),* [34] who called human endeavour and promises a reward for those who for Buddhist scholars to try to find parallels.* [35] make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent”(Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis:The Nature and History of Early 3rd and 4th-century Christian writers such as Hippolytus and Epiphanius write about a Scythianus who Gnosticism, 262). visited India around 50 AD and brought back “the doctrine of the Two Principles”. Karl Ritter (1838)* [36] suggested that when Cyril of Jerusalem remarks that one
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187
of Scythianus' pupils Terebinthus had changed his name to Buddas to escape detection while passing through Judea, and then died in Judea from a fall from a rooftop, that this is connected with the Buddha.* [37] “But Terebinthus, his disciple in this wicked error, inherited his money and books and heresy, and came to Palestine, and becoming known and condemned in Judæa he resolved to pass into Persia: but lest he should be recognised there also by his name he changed it and called himself Buddas. However, he found adversaries there also in the priests of Mithras: and being confuted in the discussion of many arguments and controversies, and at last hard pressed, he took refuge with a certain widow. Then having gone up on the housetop, and summoned the dæmons of the air, whom the Manichees to this day invoke over their abominable ceremony of the fig , he was smitten of God, and cast down from the housetop, and expired: and so the second beast was cut off.” —Cyril of Jerusalem,“Catechetical lecture 6”
Also in the 3rd century the Syrian writer and Christian Gnostic theologian Bar Daisan (154–222) described his exchanges with the religious missions of holy men from India passing through Syria on their way to Elagabalus or another Severan dynasty Roman Emperor. His accounts were quoted by Porphyry (On Abstinence 4:17) and Stobaeus (Eccles., iii, 56, 141). Clement of Alexandria in his Stromateis distinguishes Sramanas (Greek: Σαρμαναίοι) and Brahmans, without making any gnostic connection.* [38] From the 3rd century to the 12th century, some Gnostic religions such as Manichaeism, which combined Christian, Hebrew and Buddhist influences (Mani, the founder of the religion, resided for some time in Kushan lands),* [39] spread throughout the Old World, to Gaul and Great Britain in the West, and to China in the East. Augustine of Hippo, like some other leading Christian theologians, was Manichaean before converting to orthodox Christianity.* [40]* [41]
18.2.2
Neoplatonism
See also: Neoplatonism and Neoplatonism and Christianity
Gnosticism
The earliest origins of Gnosticism are obscure and still disputed. For this reason, some scholars prefer to speak of “gnosis”when referring to 1st-century ideas that later developed into gnosticism and to reserve the term “gnosticism”for the synthesis of these ideas into a coherent movement in the 2nd century.* [42] Probable influences include Plato, Middle Platonism and NeoPythagoreanism academies or schools of thought, and this seems to be true both of the more Sethian Gnostics, and of the Valentinian Gnostics.* [43] Further, if we compare different Sethian texts to each other in an attempted chronology of the development of Sethianism during the first few centuries, it seems that later texts are continuing to interact with Platonism. Earlier texts such as Apocalypse of Adam show signs of being preChristian and focus on the Seth, third son of Adam and Eve. These early Sethians may be identical to or related to the Nazarenes (sect), Ophites or to the sectarian group called heretics by Philo.* [44] Later Sethian texts such as Zostrianos and Allogenes draw on the imagery of older Sethian texts, but utilize“a large fund of philosophical conceptuality derived from contemporary Platonism, (that is late middle Platonism) with no traces of Christian content.”* [45] Indeed, the doctrine of the“triple-powered one”found in the text Allogenes, as discovered in the Nag Hammadi Library, is“the same doctrine as found in the anonymous Parmenides commentary (Fragment XIV) ascribed by Hadot to Porphyry [...] and is also found in Plotinus' Ennead 6.7, 17, 13– 26.”* [43] However, by the 3rd century Neoplatonists such as Plotinus, Porphyry and Amelius are all attacking the Sethians. It looks as if Sethianism began as a pre-Christian tradition, possibly a syncretic* [46] that incorporated elements of Christianity and Platonism as it grew, only to have both Christianity and Platonism reject and turn against it. Professor John D Turner believes that this double attack led to Sethianism fragmentation into numerous smaller groups (Audians, Borborites, Archontics and perhaps Phibionites, Stratiotici, and Secundians).* [45]
Scholarship on Gnosticism has been greatly advanced by the discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi texts, which shed light on some of the more puzzling comments by Plotinus and Porphyry regarding the Gnostics. More importantly, the texts help to distinguish different kinds of early Gnostics. It now seems clear that“Sethian”and “Valentinian”* [47] gnostics attempted“an effort towards conciliation, even affiliation”with late antique philosophy,* [48] and were rebuffed by some Neoplatonists, inand cluding Plotinus.
Philosophical relations with Neoplatonism Ancient Greek philosophy See also: Platonic Academy
Gnostics borrow a great deal of ideas and terms from Platonism. They exhibit a keen understanding of Greek philosophical terms and the Greek Koine language in gen-
188 eral, and use Greek philosophical concepts throughout their text, including such concepts as hypostasis (reality, existence), ousia (essence, substance, being), and demiurge (creator God). Good examples include texts such as the Hypostasis of the Archons (Reality of the Rulers) or Trimorphic Protennoia (The first thought in three forms).
Criticism by antique Greek philosophy Being a pagan mystic, Plotinus considered his opponents heretics* [49] and elitist blasphemers,* [50] arriving at misotheism as the solution to the problem of evil, being not traditional or genuine Hellenism (in philosophy or mysticism), but rather one invented taking all their truths over from Plato,* [51] coupled with the idea expressed by Plotinus that the approach to the infinite force, which is the One or Monad cannot be through knowing or not knowing (i.e., dualist, which is of the dyad or demiurge).* [52]* [53] Although there has been dispute as to which gnostics Plotinus referred to, it appears they were indeed Sethian.* [54] Plotinus' main objection to the gnostics he was familiar with, however, was their rejection of the goodness of the demiurge and the material world. He attacks the gnostics as vilifying Plato's ontology of the universe as contained in the Timaeus. He accused Gnosticism of vilifying the Demiurge, or craftsman that crafted the material world, and even of thinking that the material world is evil, or a prison. As Plotinus explains, the demiurge is the nous (as the first emanation of the One), the ordering principle or mind, and also reason. Plotinus was also critical of the gnostic origin of the demiurge as the offspring of wisdom, represented as a deity called Sophia. She was anthropomorphically expressed as a feminine spirit deity not unlike the goddess Athena or the Christian Holy Spirit. Plotinus even went so far as to state at one point that if the gnostics did believe this world was a prison then they could at any moment free themselves by committing suicide. To some degree the texts discovered in Nag Hammadi support his allegations, but others such as the Valentinians and the Tripartite Tractate insist on the goodness of the world and the Demiurge.
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM of Gnosticism upon Christianity is speculative. The necessity of immediate revelation through divine knowledge in order to attain transcendence in a Supreme Deity is important to understand in the identification of what evidence there is pertaining to Gnosticism* [57] in the New Testament (NT), which would influence orthodox teaching.* [58] Central Gnostic beliefs that differ from orthodox Christian teachings include: the creator as a lower being [‘Demiurge’] and not a Supreme Deity; the belief that all matter is evil and the body is a prison to escape from (versus the Nicene Creed teaching that there will be a physical resurrection of all people); scripture having a deep, hidden meaning whose true message could only be understood through “secret wisdom";* [59] and Jesus as a spirit that“seemed”* [60] to be human, leading to a rejection of the incarnation (Docetism).* [61] The traditional “formula which enshrines the Incarnation...is that in some sense God, without ceasing to be God, was made man...which is a prima facie [‘at first sight’] contradiction in theological terms...the NT nowhere reflects on the virgin birth of Jesus as witnessing to the conjunction of deity and manhood in His person...the deity of Jesus was not...clearly stated in words and [the book of] Acts gives no hint that it was”.* [62] This philosophy* [63] was known by the Church Fathers such as Origen, Irenaeus, and Tertullian.* [64] At its core, Gnosticism formed a speculative interest in the relationship of the oneness of God to the ‘triplicity’ of his manifestations. It seems to have taken Neoplatonic metaphysics of substance and hypostases ["being"]* [65] as a departure point for interpreting the relationship of the “Father”to the “Son”* [66] in its attempt to define a new theology.* [67] This would point to the infamous theological controversies by Arius* [68] against followers of the Greek Alexandrian school,* [69] headed by Athanasius.* [70]
The ancient Nag Hammadi Library, discovered in Egypt in the 1940s, revealed how varied this movement was. The writers of these manuscripts considered themselves ‘Christians’, but owing to their syncretistic beliefs, borrowed heavily from the Greek philosopher Plato. The find included the hotly debated Gospel of Thomas, which parallels some of Jesus’sayings in the Synoptic Gospels. This may point to the existence of a postulated lost tex18.2.3 Christianity tual source for the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, known as the Q document.* [71] Thus, modern debate is split beSee also: Christian Gnosticism and Gnosticism and the tween those who see Gnosticism as a pre-Christian form New Testament of ‘theosophy’* [72] and those who see it as a postChristian counter-movement. Although some scholars hypothesize that gnosticism developed before or contemporaneous with Christianity, no gnostic texts have been discovered that pre-date Christianity.* [55] James M. Robinson, a noted proponent of pre-Christian Gnosticism, has admitted “pre-Christian Gnosticism as such is hardly attested in a way to settle the debate once and for all.”* [56] Since pre-Christian Gnosticism, as such, is strictly hypothetical, any influence
It is hard to sift through what actual evidence there is regarding Gnosticism in the New Testament due to their historical synchronicity. The Hammadi library find contains Pagan, Jewish, Greek and early Gnostic influences.* [73] The antiquity of the find is of utmost importance since it shows primary evidence of texts that may also have influenced the process of New Testament can-
18.3. HISTORY onization.* [74]* [75]
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18.3.1 Sources Main articles: Church Fathers and Nag Hammadi Library
18.2.4
Judaism
Many heads of gnostic schools were identified as Jewish Christians by Church Fathers and Hebrew words and names of God were applied in some gnostic systems.* [76] The cosmogonic speculations among Christian Gnostics had partial origins in Ma`aseh Bereshit and Ma`aseh Merkabah.* [77]
Gnostic rejection of Judaism Modern research (Cohen 1988) identifies Judaism, rather than Persia, as a major origin of Gnosticism. Many of the Nag Hammadi texts make reference to Judaism, in some cases with a violent rejection of the Jewish God.* [78] Gershom Scholem once described Gnosticism as “the Greatest case of metaphysical anti-Semitism”.* [79] Professor Steven Bayme said gnosticism would be better characterized as anti-Judaism.* [80] Recent research into the origins of Gnosticism shows a strong Jewish influence, particularly from Hekhalot literature.* [81]
Kabbalah Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. Many core Gnostic ideas reappear in Kabbalah, where they are used for dramatically reinterpreting earlier Jewish sources according to this new system.* [82] The Kabbalists originated in 13th-century Provence,* [83] which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. While some scholars in the middle of the 20th century tried to assume an influence between the Cathar “gnostics”and the origins of the Kabbalah, this assumption has proved to be an incorrect generalization not substantiated by any original texts.* [84] On the other hand, other scholars, such as Scholem, have postulated that there was originally a Jewish gnosticism, which influenced the early origins of gnosticism.* [85] Kabbalah does not employ the terminology or labels of non-Jewish Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (the first five books of the Hebrew Bible).* [86] The 13th-century Zohar ( “Splendor”), a foundational text in Kabbalah, is written in the style of a Jewish Aramaic Midrash, clarifying the five books of the Torah with a new Kabbalistic system that uses completely Jewish terms.* [87]
18.3 History Main article: History of Gnosticism
Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Library, much of what we know today about gnosticism was preserved only in the summaries and assessments of early church fathers. The Nag Hammadi library * [88] is a collection of Gnostic texts discovered in 1945 near Nag Hammadi, Upper Egypt. Twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman.* [89] The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. In his introduction to The Nag Hammadi Library in English, James Robinson suggests that these codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery, and were buried after Bishop Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367 AD.
18.3.2 Development of Egyptian school
the
Syrian-
Bentley Layton has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to The Gnostic Scriptures (SCM Press, London, 1987). In this model, “Classical Gnosticism”and “The School of Thomas”antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both Alexandria and Rome, whom Layton called “the great [Gnostic] reformer”and“the focal point”of Gnostic development. While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him. Valentinianism flourished after the middle of the 2nd century AD. This movement was named after its founder Valentinus (c. 100 – 180 AD). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of “reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident.”* [90] It is known that Valentinus' students elaborated on his teachings and materials (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through Ptolemy. Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically“dense”form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers. Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in Egypt until the 4th century.
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Simone Petrement, in A Separate God, in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded as a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.)
emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out by the Catholic Church. In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire.
18.4 Major movements Schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as being a member of two broad categories. These are the “Eastern"/"Persian”school, and a “Syrian-Egyptic”school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zurvanist Zoroastrians. Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements that seem to include elements of both categories, namely: the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians, which are included in their own section.
18.4.1 Persian
Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in Sogdian. Manuscript from Khocho, Tarim Basin.
18.3.3
Development of the Persian school
An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph in his book Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism (Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, 1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. The decline of Manicheism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa (where Augustine was a member of the school from 373–382); from Syria it progressed still farther, into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the
The Persian Schools, which appeared in the western Persian province of Babylonia (in particular, within the Sassanid province of Asuristan), and whose writings were originally produced in the Aramaic dialects spoken in Babylonia at the time, are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism. • Mandaeanism is still practiced in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. The name of the group derives from the term Mandā d-Heyyi, which roughly means“Knowledge of Life.”Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually came to be a key figure in the religion, as an emphasis on baptism is part of their core beliefs. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity,* [91] Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture, written in
18.4. MAJOR MOVEMENTS Mandaean Aramaic, survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd century AD. There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia).
191 • The Apocalypse of Adam • The Reality of the Rulers, Also known as The Hypostasis of the Archons • The Thunder, Perfect Mind
• The Three-fold First Thought (Trimorphic Proten• Manichaeism, which represented an entire indenoia) pendent religious heritage, but is now extinct, was founded by the Prophet Mani (216–276 AD). The • The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also original writings were written in Syriac Aramaic, known as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians)* [94] in a unique Manichaean script. Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeans was • Zostrianos believed lost, the discovery of an original series • Allogenes of documents have helped to shed new light on the subject. Now housed in Cologne Germany, a • The Three Steles of Seth Manichaean religious work written in Greek, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, contains mainly bi• The Gospel of Judas ographical information on the prophet and details • Marsanes on his claims and teachings. Before the discovery of these authentic Manichaean texts, scholars had to • The Coptic Apocalypse of Paul rely on anti-Manichaean polemical works, such as the Christian anti-Manichaean Acta Archelai (also • The Thought of Norea written in Greek), which has Mani saying, for example, “The true God has nothing to do with the • The Second Treatise of the Great Seth material world or cosmos,”and,“It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their The texts commonly attributed to the Thomasine school priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pa- are: gans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts • The Hymn of the Pearl, or, the Hymn of Jude he taught them.”* [92]* [93] Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians
18.4.2
Syrian-Egyptian
The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. As a result, these schools tend to view evil in terms of matter that is markedly inferior to goodness—evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms “evil”and “good”as being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between such realities and confused in its orientation, with“evil” indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements included source material related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite different from the Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms). Most of the literature from this category is known to us through the Library discovered at Nag Hammadi. Sethian works typically include: • The Apocryphon of John
• The Gospel of Thomas • The Infancy Gospel of Thomas • The Acts of Thomas • The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect • The Psalms of Thomas • The Apocalypse of Thomas Valentinian works are named in reference to the bishop and teacher Valentinius. Circa 153 AD, Valentinius developed a complex cosmology outside the Sethian tradition. At one point he was close to being appointed the Bishop of Rome of what is now the Roman Catholic Church. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk: • The Divine Word Present in the Infant (Fragment A) * • On the Three Natures (Fragment B) * • Adam's Faculty of Speech (Fragment C) *
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• To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System (Fragment 18.4.3 D) * • Annihilation of the Realm of Death (Fragment F) * • On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom (Fragment G) * • Epistle on Attachments (Fragment H) * • Summer Harvest* • The Gospel of Truth* • Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth • Prayer of the Apostle Paul • Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora • Treatise on the Resurrection (Epistle to Rheginus) • Gospel of Philip Basilidian works are named for the founder of their school, Basilides (132–? AD). These works are mainly known to us through the criticisms of one of his opponents, Irenaeus in his work Adversus Haereses. The other pieces are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria: • The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A) • The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B) • Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C) • The State of Virtue (Fragment D) • The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E) • Reincarnation (Fragment F) • Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G) • Forgivable Sins (Fragment H) The Gospel of Judas is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. National Geographic has published an English translation of it, bringing it into mainstream awareness. It portrays Judas Iscariot as the “thirteenth spirit (daemon)",* [95] who “exceeded”the evil sacrifices the disciples offered to Saklas by sacrificing the “man who clothed me (Jesus)".* [96] Its reference to Barbelo and inclusion of material similar to the Apocryphon of John and other such texts, connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian Gnosticism.
Gnostic-influenced groups
people
and
• Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher. The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. • Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil. • Justin identifies Marcion of Sinope as a false teacher. Both developed a sizable following. Marcion is generally labeled a gnostic, however some scholars do not consider him to be a gnostic at all, for example G. R. S. Mead does consider him to be a Gnostic "...it is evident that the Marcionite tradition was of a distinctly Gnostic tendency* [97] but Harnack does not.* [98] Also the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Marcion clearly states: “In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his church—to which he was first driven by opposition—amounts to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic”. • Cerinthus (c. 100 AD), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus.* [99] • The Ophites, so-named by Hippolytus of Rome because, Hippolytus claims, they worshiped the serpent of Genesis as the bestower of knowledge. • The Cainites are so-named since Hippolytus of Rome claims that they worshiped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group. Hippolytus claims that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism). The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain. • The Carpocratians, a libertine sect following only the Gospel according to the Hebrews
18.6. STUDIES
193
• The Borborites, a libertine Gnostic sect, said to be descended from the Nicolaitans Later groups accused by their contemporaries of being in line with the “gnostics”of Irenaeus. Various later groups were also associated with earlier heretics by their contemporaries: • The Paulicans, an Adoptionist group of which little is known first-hand, were accused by orthodox medieval sources of being Gnostic and quasi Manichaean Christian. They flourished between 650 and 872 in Armenia and the Eastern Themes of the Byzantine Empire • The Bogomils, the synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church reform movement, which emerged in Bulgaria between 927 and 970 and spread throughout Europe • The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) were also accused by their enemies of the traits of Gnosticism; though whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. If their critics are reliable the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), though they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force.
18.5 Origin of the term The term “Gnosticism”does not appear in ancient sources,* [100] and was first coined in the 17th Century by Henry More in a commentary on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation, where More used the term “Gnosticisme”to describe the heresy in Thyatira.* [101] The term derives from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos (“learned”, “intellectual”, Greek γνωστικός) by St. Irenaeus (c. 185 AD) to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis “the heresy called Learned (gnostic)".* [102] This occurs in the context of Irenaeus' work On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis, (Greek: elenchos kai anatrope tes pseudonymou gnoseos, ἔλεγχος καὶ ἀνατροπὴ τῆς ψευδωνύμου γνώσεως) where the term “knowledge falsely so-called”(pseudonymos gnosis) covers various groups, not just Valentinus, and is a quotation of the apostle Paul's warning against “knowledge falsely so-called”in 1 Timothy 6:20.* [103] The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is “learned”or“intellectual”, such as used in the comparison of“practical”(praktikos) and“intellectual”(gnostikos) in Plato's dialogue between Young Socrates and the
Irenaeus, who first used “gnostic”to describe heresies
Foreigner in his The Statesman (258e).* [104] Plato's use of “learned”is fairly typical of Classical texts.* [105] By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, becoming synonymous with the Greek term musterion. The adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria in Book 7 of his Stromateis speaks of the “learned” (gnostikos) Christian in complimentary terms.* [106] The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus. Some scholars, for example A. Rousseau and L. Doutreleau, translators of the French edition (1974),* [107] consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean“intellectual”, as in 1.25.6, 1.11.3, 1.11.5, whereas his mention of “the intellectual sect”(Adv. haer. 1.11.1) is a specific designation. Irenaeus' comparative adjective gnostikeron“more learned” , evidently cannot mean“more Gnostic”as a name.* [108] Of those groups that Irenaeus identifies as “intellectual”(gnostikos), only one, the followers of Marcellina use the term gnostikos of themselves.* [109] Later Hippolytus uses“learned”(gnostikos) of Cerinthus and the Ebionites, and Epiphanius applied“learned”(gnostikos) to specific groups.
18.6 Studies
194
18.6.1
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
19th century to 1930s
Prior to the discovery of Nag Hammadi, evidence for gnostic movements was of necessity largely seen through the testimony of the early church heresiologists. The “church historical model,”represented by Adolf von Harnack among others, saw gnosticism as an internal development within the church under the influence of Greek philosophy.* [110]
mysteries for an élite”." —Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, p. 13
In essence, this decided that“Gnosticism”would become a historically specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while “gnosis” would be a universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained“for a privileged élite.”However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, because the historical term“Gnosticism”was 18.6.2 After the discovery of the Nag Ham- an entirely modern construction, while the new universal madi library, 1945 term “gnosis”was a historical term: “something was being called “gnosticism”that the ancient theologians See also: Nag Hammadi library had called 'gnosis' ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical * Study of Gnosticism and of early Alexandrian Christian- sense”. [114] In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what ity received a strong impetus from the discovery of the * exactly constituted knowledge; the unitary conception that Coptic Nag Hammadi Library in 1945. [111] the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.* [114] In 1979, Elaine Pagels, Professor of Religion at Princeton University, published a popular* [112]* [113] book, The These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an * Gnostic Gospels, which detailed the suppression of some exact definition of Gnosticism persist. [115] It remains of the writings found at Nag Hammadi by early bishops current convention to use “Gnosticism”in a historical sense, and“gnosis”universally. Leaving aside the issues of the Christian church. with the latter noted above, the usage of “Gnosticism” to designate a category of 3rd-century religions has re18.6.3 “Gnosis”as a potentially flawed cat- cently been questioned as well. Of note is Michael Allen Williams' Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the egory Dismantling of a Dubious Category, in which the author In 1966 in Messina, Italy, a conference was held concern- examines the terms by which Gnosticism as a category ing systems of gnosis. Among its several aims were the is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions need to establish a program to translate the recently ac- with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly required Nag Hammadi library and the need to arrive at an covered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance * agreement concerning an accurate definition of “Gnos- to his argument). [116] ticism”. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which since the 18th century, to use the term “gnostic”less as the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has for contemporary philosophical and religious movements. been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and matterFor example, in 1835, New Testament scholar Ferdinand hatred, and anticosmism* [117] without these supposiChristian Baur constructed a developmental model of tions being properly tested. In essence, the interpretive Gnosticism that culminated in the religious philosophy of definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagoHegel; one might compare literary critic Harold Bloom's nistic efforts of the early church heresiologists has been recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contem- taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a categorporary American religion, or Eric Voegelin's analysis ical definition, even though the means now existed to verof totalitarian impulses through the interpretive lens of ify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, Gnosticism. reveals the dubious nature of categorical “Gnosticism” The“cautious proposal”reached by the conference con- , and he concludes that the term needs replacing to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises.* [116] cerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies: Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term “the Biblical “In the concluding document of Messina demiurgical tradition”has not become widely used. the proposal was “by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods” to designate “a particular group of systems of 18.7 Modern times the second century after Christ”as gnosticism, and to use gnosis to define a conception of Main article: Gnosticism in modern times knowledge that transcends the times, which was described as “knowledge of divine
18.8. TERMS AND CONCEPTS
195
A number of 19th-century thinkers such as Arthur Schopenhauer,* [118] Albert Pike and Madame Blavatsky studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced.* [119] Jules Doinel “re-established”a Gnostic church in France in 1890, which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and, though small, is still active today.* [120] Early 20th-century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderatedly influenced. Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more“Perennialist”position). Gnostic Thelemite organizations, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis, trace themselves to Crowley's thought. The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 has had a huge effect on Gnosticism since World War II. Intellectuals who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Lawrence Durrell, Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced.* [119] A number of ecclesiastical bodies that think of themselves as Gnostic have set up or refounded since World War II as well, including the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica, Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica, the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johan- Engraving from an Abraxas stone. nite Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American College of Gnostic Bishops. Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own phiThe word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique gemlosophy.* [121] stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may Alfred North Whitehead was aware of the existence have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic groups. of the newly discovered Gnostic scrolls. Accordingly, In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the Michel Weber has proposed a Gnostic interpretation of name of a god who incorporated both Good and evil * his late metaphysics. [122] (god and demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the monotheistic god, singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not omnibenevolent. Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been 18.8 Terms and concepts claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of SaSee also: List of gnostic terms tan/Lucifer. Abraxas/Abrasax
The above information relates to interpretations of ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters, which are not always clear.
Main article: Abraxas The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I.24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of the term archon, which may simply mean “ruler”in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear.
Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abraxas as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who
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CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.
teach man how to achieve gnosis, by which they may return to the Pleroma.* [13]
Aeon
Main article: Demiurge The term Demiurge derives from the Latinized form of
Archon
In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term archon to refer to several servants of the demiurge.* [131] In this context they may be seen as having Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also ap- the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament. pear in the Greek Magical Papyri. There are similariAccording to Origen's Contra Celsum, a sect called the ties and differences between such figures in reports about Ophites posited the existence of seven archons, beginning Basiledes' teaching, in the larger magical traditions of the with Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth, who created the six that folGraeco-Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic texts low: Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Hosuch as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical raios.* [132] Similarly to the Mithraic Kronos and Vedic and esoteric writings. Narasimha, a form of Vishnu, Ialdabaoth had a head of a The Swiss psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic lion.* [12]* [133]* [134] treatise in 1916 called Seven Sermons to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Demiurge Devil, that combines all opposites into one Being.
Main article: Aeon (Gnosticism) In many Gnostic systems, the aeons are the various emanations of the superior God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleios (Αἰὼν τέλειος, “The Complete Æon”), Bythos (Greek: Βυθός,“Depth, Profundity”), Proarkhe (Greek: Προαρχή,“Before the Beginning”), he Arkhe (Greek: ἡ ἀρχή, “The Beginning”), Ennoia (Greek: Ἔννοια, “Thought”) of the Light* [123] or Sige (Greek: Σιγή, “Silence”).* [124] From this first being, also an æon, a series of different emanations occur, beginning in certain Gnostic texts with the hermaphroditic Barbelo,* [12]* [125]* [126] from which successive pairs of aeons emanate, often in malefemale pairings called syzygies;* [127] the numbers of these pairings varied from text to text, though some identify their number as being thirty.* [128] The aeons as a totality constitute the pleroma, the “region of light”. The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world. Two of the most commonly paired æons were Jesus and Sophia (Greek: “Wisdom”); the latter refers to Jesus as her “consort”in A Valentinian Exposition.* [129] Sophia, emanating without her partner, resulting in the production of the Demiurge (Greek: lit.“public builder” ),* [130] who is also referred to as Yaldabaoth and variations thereof in some Gnostic texts.* [12] This creature is concealed outside the Pleroma;* [12] in isolation, and thinking itself alone, it creates materiality and a host of co-actors, referred to as archons. The demiurge is responsible for the creation of mankind; trapping elements of the Pleroma stolen from Sophia inside human bodies.* [12]* [131] In response, the Godhead emanates two savior aeons, Christ and the Holy Spirit; Christ then embodies itself in the form of Jesus, in order to be able to
A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge; however, cf. Mithraic Zervan Akarana* [135]
the Greek term dēmiourgos, δημιουργός (literally“public or skilled worker”), and refers to an entity responsible for the creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity. The term dēmiourgos occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism. Moral judgements of the demiurge vary from group to group within the broad category of Gnosticism —such judgements usually correspond to
18.8. TERMS AND CONCEPTS
197
each group's judgement of the status of materiality as be- Gnosis ing inherently evil, or else merely flawed and as good as its passive constituent matter allows. In Gnosticism the Main article: Gnosis Demiurge, creator of the material world, was not God but the Archon.* [136] The word“Gnosticism”is a modern construction, though As Plato does, Gnosticism presents a distinction between based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes a supranatural, unknowable reality and the sensible mate- from the Greek word meaning “knowledge”, gnosis riality of which the demiurge is creator. However, in con- (γνῶσις). However, gnosis itself refers to a very spetrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present cialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exthe Demiurge as antagonistic to the Supreme God: his act meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in act of creation either in unconscious and fundamentally Platonist philosophy. flawed imitation of the divine model, or else formed with Ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the didifferent forms of knowing. These different forms may vine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demibe described in English as being propositional knowledge, urge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the Apocryphon of John (several versions of which are found reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as “I in the Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the name know of George Bush”or“I know Berlin is in Germany” "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as God: ), and empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or acquaintance (such as“I know George Bush perNow the archon who is weak has three names. sonally”or “I know Berlin, having visited”). The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Saklas, and the third is Samael. And he is imTherefore, in a religious context, to be“Gnostic”should pious in his arrogance which is in him. For he be understood as being reliant not on knowledge in a gensaid,“I am God and there is no other God beeral sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or side me,”for he is ignorant of his strength, the esoteric experiences of direct participation with the diplace from which he had come.* [137] vine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause ( acquaintance with” “Samael”, in the Judeo-Christian tradition, refers to the of salvation is this“knowledge of”“ ) the divine. This is commonly identified with a process evil angel of death, and corresponds to the Christian deof inward“knowing”or self-exploration, comparable to mon of that name, one second only to Satan. Literally, it that encouraged by Plotinus. This is what helps separate can mean“blind god”or“god of the blind”in Aramaic Gnosticism from proto-orthodox views, where the ortho(Syriac sæmʻa-ʼel); another alternative title is “Saklas”, * dox views are considered to be superficial. [138] The inAramaic for “fool”(Syriac sækla “the foolish one”). adequate take then requires a correct form of interpretaGnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally tion. With “gnosis”comes a fuller insight that is conmeaning“wisdom”), the Demiurge's mother and a par- sidered to be more spiritual. Greater recognition of the tial aspect of the divine Pleroma or“Fullness”, desired to deeper spiritual meanings of doctrines, scriptures, and create something apart from the divine totality, and with- rituals are obtained with this insight. However, as may out the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of be seen, the term “gnostic”also had precedent usage in separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demi- several ancient philosophical traditions, which must also urge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups. Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, Monad being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birthplace. Main article: Monad (Gnosticism) The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in (The Perfect Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and HE Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the mate- Arkhe (The Beginning, ἡ ἀρχή). God is the high source rial forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the of the pleroma, the region of light. The various emanamaterial universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was tions of God are called æons. typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those return by the subject to the superior, non-material reali- inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons). ties that were its primal source.
198 According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. This was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus. This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via Numenius as well.
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the gnostic sense.
This Monad is the spiritual source of everything that emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark Sophia Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter. The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon (“Secret book”) of John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of heaven and earth. In describing the nature of a creator god associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and truly benevolent. The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, “he”is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, “all-containing”. In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god.
Main article: Sophia (wisdom) In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for “wisdom”) refers to the final and lowest emanation of God. In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90.
Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively “lesser”beings in sequence. The lowest of these pairs An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found were Sophia and Christ. The Aeons together made up throughout gnosticism, Vedanta, and Platonic and Aris- the Pleroma, or fullness of divinity and thus should not totelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic be seen as identical with God nor as distinct from the disources. vine, but as embodied divine emanations. Pleroma
Main article: Pleroma Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. The term means fullness, and is used in Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally, and in Colossians 2:9. Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil archons, one of whom is the demiurge, according to some the deity of the Old Testament (YHWH) who holds the human spirit captive. The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light “above”(the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology.
18.9 See also • Christian anarchism • Christian mysticism • Druze • First Council of Nicaea • Gnosiology • Hermeticism • Jesuism • John D. Turner • Sethian Gnosticism • Theosophy • Western Esotericism
18.10. NOTES
18.10 Notes [1] On the complexity of gnosticism, see Larry W. Hurtado (2005). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 519– 561.
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[13] “An Introduction to Gnosticism and The Nag Hammadi Library”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 200912-02. [14] Macuch, Rudolf (1965). Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: De Gruyter & Co. pp. 61 fn. 105.
[2] John Hinnel (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Religion. Penguin Books UK.
[15] “The Gnostic World View: A Brief Introduction”. The Gnosis Archive. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
[3] Tobias Churton (2005). Gnostic Philosophy: From Ancient Persia to Modern Times. Inner Traditions, VA USA. ISBN 978-159477-035-7.
[16] Hans Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, p. 42, Beacon Press, 1963, ISBN 0-8070-5799-1; 1st ed. 1958
[4] Adolf von Harnack (1885) defined it as “the acute Hellenization of Christianity”. Moritz Friedländer (1898) advocated Hellenistic Jewish origins, and Wilhelm Bousset (1907) advocated Persian origins.
[17] Middle Persian Sources: D. N. MacKenzie, Mani’s Šābuhragān, pt. 1 (text and translation), BSOAS 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34, pt. 2 (glossary and plates), BSOAS 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310.
[5] Karen L. King, What is Gnosticism? (2005) “Bousset held that Gnosticism was a pre-Christian religion, existing alongside of Christianity. It was an Oriental product, antiJewish and un-Hellenic... "
[18] Bevan, A. A. (1930). Manichaeism. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Volume VIII Ed. James Hastings. London
[9] “Faith (pistis) and Knowledge (gnosis)". The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
[28] J. Jacobs, L. Blau Gnosticism from the Jewish Encyclopedia 1911
[19] Zaehner, Richard Charles (1961). The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam. ISBN 1-84212[6] James M. Robinson, one of the chief scholars on Gnosti165-0. A section of the book is available online. Several cism said at the 1978 International Conference on Gnostiother websites have duplicated this text, but include an cism at Yale “At this stage we have not found any Gnos“Introduction”that is very obviously not by Zaehner. tic texts that clearly antedate the origin of Christianity.” cited in Edwin Yamauchi,“Pre-Christian Gnosticism, the New Testament and Nag Hammadi in recent debate,”in [20] Pagels, Elaine (1978). The Gnostic Gospels. Themelios 10.1 (Sept 1984): 22–27. [21] Schoedel, William (1980). “Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, [7] To this end Paul Trebilco cites the following in his article Vol.1: The School of Valentinus, (ed.) Bentley Layton,. “Christian Communities In Western Asia Minor Into The Leiden: E.J.Brill. Early Second Century: Ignatius And Others As Witnesses Against Bauer”in JETS 49.1: E.M. Yamauchi, “Gnosticism and Early Christianity,”in W. E. Helleman, ed. [22] Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press —Introduction to“Against Heresies”by St. Irenaeus (1994). Hellenization Revisited: Shaping a Christian Response Within the Greco-Roman World. University Press of America. p. 38. ; Karen L. King (2003). What is [23] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, II, 27, 1”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Gnosticism?. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 175.; C. Markschies (2003). Gnosis: An Introduction. London: T&T Clark. pp. 67–69.; cf. H. [24] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 31, 2”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Koester (1982). Introduction to the New Testament, Vol 2: History and Literature of Early Christianity. Walter de Gruyter. p. 286.; For discussions of “Gnosticism”see [25] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 23, 3”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Yamauchi,“Gnosticism”29–61; M. A. Williams (1996). Rethinking “Gnosticism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton University Press.; Gerd [26] Irenaeus.“Against Heresies, I, 25, 4”. Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Theissen (1999). A Theory of Primitive Christian Religion. London: SCM Press. pp. 231–39.. [27] Huidekoper, Frederic (1891). Judaism at Rome: BC 76 to [8] “Valentinian Monism”. The Gnostic Society Library. AD 140. D. G. Francis. p. 331. First on our list stand the Retrieved 2009-02-12. Gnostics ...
[10] “Demiurge”. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 200902-12. [11] “Plato, Republic 588A-589B”. “The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12. [12] “The Apocryphon of John”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12.
[29] Brakke, David (January 1, 2011). The Gnostics (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ASIN B004Z14APQ. [30] Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 By Guy Halsall pg 293 Publisher: Cambridge University Press (January 28, 2008) ISBN 0-521-43491-2 ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1
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[31] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, Clare Goodrick-Clarke G. R. S. Mead and the Gnostic Quest 2005 p8 “The idea that Gnosticism was derived from Buddhism was first postulated by Charles William King in his classic work, The Gnostics and their Remains (1864). He was one of the earliest and most emphatic scholars to propose the Gnostic debt to Buddhist thought.” [32] H. L. Mansel, Gnostic Heresies of the First and Second Centuries (1875); p.32 [33] International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J p490 ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley —1982“Mansel ... summed up the principal sources of Gnosticism in these three: Platonism, the Persian religion, and the Buddhism of India.” [34] “The Gnostic Gospels”. [35] The Eastern Buddhist Society (1981) “This paper is an initial attempt to follow up Pagels' call for a comparative study of the Nag Hammadi tractates and Indian sources,6 by considering some of the similarities in theory and practice present in certain Nag Hammadi texts, in certain Buddhist wisdom scriptures, and in the works of two second to third century cE Mahayana Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna and Aryadeva.” [36] Ritter Die Stupa's: oder die architectonischen Denkmale 1838 [37] “CHURCH FATHERS: Catechetical Lecture 6 (Cyril of Jerusalem)". [38]“There are two classes of these, called Sarmans and Brahmans. Among the Sarmans, the so-called forest dwellers do not occupy cities or have roofs over their heads.” [39] Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer. The Gnostic Bible, p.7, p.569, p.572, Shambhala Publications, 2006. [40] Cross, Frank L.; Livingstone, Elizabeth, eds. (2005). “Platonism”. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19280290-9. [41] TeSelle, Eugene (1970). Augustine the Theologian. London. pp. 347–349. ISBN 0-223-97728-4. March 2002 edition: ISBN 1-57910-918-7. [42] R. McL. Wilson, “Nag Hammadi and the New Testament”, New Testament Studies, vol. 28, (1982), 292. [43] Turner, John (1986). “Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History”in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity. p. 59. [44] Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Rise and Decline of the Roman World) Vl 21/1 Volume 2; Volume 21 By Hildegard Temporini, Joseph Vogt, Wolfgang Haase Publisher: Walter de Gruyter (December 31, 1983) Language: German ISBN 3-11-008845-2 ISBN 978-3-11008845-8 [45] Turner, John. “Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History”in Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity, 1986 p. 59
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
[46] “No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins: Carl B. Smith: 9781565639447: Amazon.com: Books”. [47] This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1. From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, SophiaAchamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events after the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferior and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply “Gnostics.”Gnostic groups borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other Gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162–163 and 179–180. [48] Schenke, Hans Martin. “The Phenomenon and Significance of Gnostic Sethianism”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism. E. J. Brill 1978 [49] Introductory Note This treatise (No.33 in Porphyry's chronological order) is in fact the concluding section of a single long treatise that Porphyry—to carry out the design of grouping his master's works more or less according to subject into six sets of nine treatise—roughly hacked into four parts, which he put into different Enneads, the other three being III. 8 (30) V. 8 (31) and V .5 (32). Porphyry says (Life ch. 16.11) that he gave the treatise the Title “Against the Gnostics”(he is presumably also responsible for the titles of the other sections of the cut-up treatise). There is an alternative title in Life. ch. 24 56–57, which runs“Against those who say that the maker of the universe is evil and the universe is evil. The treatise as it stands in the Enneads is a most powerful protest on behalf of Hellenic philosophy against the un-Hellenic heresy (as it was from the Platonist as well as the orthodox Christian point of view) of Gnosticism. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [50] They claimed to be a privileged caste of beings, in whom God alone was interested, and who were saved not by their own efforts but by some dramatic and arbitrary divine proceeding; and this, Plotinus claimed, led to immorality. Worst of all, they despised and hated the material universe and denied its goodness and the goodness of its maker. For a Platonist, this is utter blasphemy —and all the worse because it obviously derives to some extent from the sharply other-worldly side of Plato's own teaching (e.g. in the Phaedo). At this point in his attack Plotinus comes very close in some ways to the orthodox Christian opponents of Gnosticism, who also insist that this world is the work of God in his goodness. But, here as on the question of salvation, the doctrine Plotinus is defending is as
18.10. NOTES
sharply opposed in other ways to orthodox Christianity as to Gnosticism: for he maintains not only the goodness of the material universe but also its eternity and its divinity. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [51] The teaching of the Gnostics seems to him untraditional, irrational and immoral. They despise and revile the ancient Platonic teachings and claim to have a new and superior wisdom of their own: but in fact anything that is true in their teaching comes from Plato, and all they have done themselves is to add senseless complications and pervert the true traditional doctrine into a melodramatic, superstitious fantasy designed to feed their own delusions of grandeur. They reject the only true way of salvation through wisdom and virtue, the slow patient study of truth and pursuit of perfection by men who respect the wisdom of the ancients and know their place in the universe. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220–222 [52] “Faith and Philosophy”. [53] Enneads VI 9.6 [54] This is what the scholar A. H. Armstrong wrote as a footnote in his translation of Plotinus' Enneads in the tract named against the Gnostics. Footnote from Page 264 1. From this point to the end of ch.12 Plotinus is attacking a Gnostic myth known to us best at present in the form it took in the system of Valentinus. The Mother, Sophia-Achamoth, produced as a result of the complicated sequence of events that followed the fall of the higher Sophia, and her offspring the Demiurge, the inferior and ignorant maker of the material universe, are Valentinian figures: cp. Irenaues adv. Haer 1.4 and 5. Valentinius had been in Rome, and there is nothing improbable in the presence of Valentinians there in the time of Plotinus. But the evidence in the Life ch.16 suggests that the Gnostics in Plotinus's circle belonged rather to the other group called Sethians on Archonties, related to the Ophites or Barbelognostics: they probably called themselves simply“Gnostics.”Gnostic groups borrowed freely from each other, and it is likely that Valentinius took some of his ideas about Sophia from older Gnostic sources, and that his ideas in turn influenced other gnostics. The probably Sethian Gnostic library discovered at Nag Hammadi included Valentinian treatise: ep. Puech, Le pp. 162–163 and 179–180.
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[58] What is understood as“orthodox”and“Gnostic”teachings in this early period (1st and 2nd centuries) must be redefined due to the complexities now unfolding regarding their historical and doctrinal similarities and dissimilarities (e.g., the gnostic belief that all matter is evil and the body is a prison to escape from, versus the NT insistence on a physical resurrection). [59] The terminology has ties to the passage in Prov 8:23, taking a well known Judaic-concept of ‘personification’ and defining it with Christ as the “wisdom of God”[1 Co 1:24]. This metaphor was common and understood by most church fathers like Athanasius, Basil, Gregory, Epiphanius and Cyril. (Racovian Catechism, pp. 73–75) [60] From the Greek dokein, hence Docetism (Dictionary of the Later NT & its Developments, Intervarsity Press, 1997) [61] Jesus was Sui Generis, the doctrine of the “pre-existent” Christ accepted by some Gnostics and‘orthodox’Christians. Hanson R. P. C (The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381 A.D. Edinburgh T. & T. Clark, 1988) [62] New Bible Dictionary, (Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub., Grand Rapids, MI, 1975), pp. 558–560. Furthermore, some New Testament texts indicate that this is not in line with Judaic [or rabbinic] teaching, something Jesus himself adhered to [Luke 2; John 4:24; Phil 3:3–4]. Also see, Nuesner, Jacob, The Modern Study of the Mishna, 1997; & Mishne Torah. [63] In Platonism the soul [psuchē] was self-moving, indivisible; degenerated and eternal, existing before the body which housed it, and longing to be free from its earthly imprisonment, leading to the Docetist-dualist concept of ‘good’& ‘evil’matter. Ed. Note. [64] Their own heresiology would later be attacked as heretical. Holt, Reinhard. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason (Winston N.Y., 1971), p. 382; Logan, Alastair H. B. Gnostic Truth and Christian Heresy (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, 1996). [65]“Was the Lord’s prayer addressed only to the hypostasis of the Father as ‘our Father’and the Father of the Son, or to the entire ousia of the Godhead?" Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 1, the Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971.
[55]“At this stage we have not found any Gnostic texts that clearly antedate the origin of Christianity.”J. M. Robinson, “Sethians and Johannine Thought: The Trimorphic Protennoia and the Prologue of the Gospel of John”in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, vol. 2, Sethian Gnosticism, ed. B. Layton (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1981), 662.
[66] A new theological vocabulary capable of explaining this doctrine was created [e.g. homoousios=same essence]. Adopting an idea of Origen’s that easterners would appreciate in their own Sabellianism. Hanson, Search, pp. 687–688
[56] J. M. Robinson, “Jesus: From Easter to Valentinus (Or to the Apostles' Creed),”Journal of Biblical Literature, 101 (1982), p.5.
[67] The crisis of the later Roman Empire and move towards the east brought a new realism, which may have inclined Christians to accept the new theological doctrine. Ed. note
[57] First coined in Plato’s Politikos [‘Statement’] as gnostikoi [‘those capable of knowing’], and linking it with knowledge [episteme] (Introduction to Politikos. Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. [Eds.] (1997)
[68] Arius preached that, “before Christ, God was not yet a Father...there was when he [Jesus] was not.”Since most of his works are lost, the accounts are based on reports of others. Hanson, Search, pp. 5–8.
202
[69] Alexandria had long been a hotbed of theological innovation and debate where high ranking Christian thinkers used methods from Greek philosophy as well as Jewish and Christian sources for their teachings. [70] Although he took his monotheism seriously, he later taught the only way to save mankind from moral and physical extinction was for God to do the unthinkable, descend into human flesh. Athanasius,“On the Incarnation of the World”, in Phillip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, vol. 4, Athanasius: Select Works and Letters (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994) [71] See Goodacre, Mark. The Case against Q: Studies in Marcan Priority and the Synoptic Problem (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2002); Robinson, James, M. The Nag Hammadi Library (HarperOne, 1990). [72] The word became familiar to Greeks in the 3rd century with Ammonius Saccas and the Alexandrian NeoPlatonists [or Theurgists]: it was adopted in 1875 by H. P. Blavatsky and others associated with the Theosophical Society (Blavatsky, H. P. The Secret Doctrine, the synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy, Theosophical Uni. Press, first published 1888) [73] Dictionary of the Later New Testament, p.410. [74] Ferguson, Everett. “Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon,”in The Canon Debate, eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002); Lindberg, Carter. A Brief History of Christianity (Blackwell Publishing, 2006)) [75] Works Cited I. Alastair, H. B. Logan, Gnostic Truth and Christian Heresy (Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, 1996) II. Bewkes, E. G. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, N.Y., 1960). III. Blavatsky, H. P. The Secret Doctrine, the synthesis of science, religion, and philosophy, Theosophical Uni. Press, first published 1888. IV. Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) Introduction to Politikos, 1997. V. Danielou, Jean. The Origin of Latin Christianity (Westminster Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1977). VI. Dictionary of Paul and his Letters, Intervarsity Press, 1993. VII. Dictionary of the Later New Testament & its Developments, Intervarsity Press, 1997. VIII. Hanson, R. P. C. The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381 AD. Edinburgh T. & T. Clark, 1988. IX. Holt, Reinhard. The Western Heritage of Faith and Reason, Winston N.Y., 1971. X. Horner, G. W. The Coptic version of the New Testament in the southern dialect, otherwise called Sahidic and Thebaic, 1911. XI. New Bible Dictionary, Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub., Grand Rapids, MI, 1975. XII. Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine. Vol. 1, the Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600). Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1971. XIII. Phillip, Schaff & Wace, Henry eds., Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd Series, vol. 4, Athanasius: Select Works and Letters (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1994). XIV. Selwyn, E. G. ‘Image, Fact and Faith’, NTS 1 no. 4 (May 1955). XV. Wolfson, H. A. ‘Notes on Patristic Philosophy’, Harvard Theological Review 57, no.
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
2 (Apr. 1964) & the Philosophy of the Church Fathers (Harvard Uni. Press, Publishing, PA. 1976). [76] Jewish Encyclopedia Gnosticism:“Jewish gnosticism unquestionably antedates Christianity, for Biblical exegesis had already reached an age of five hundred years by the first century C.E. Judaism had been in close contact with Babylonian-Persian ideas for at least that length of time, and for nearly as long a period with Hellenistic ideas. Magic, also, which, as shown further on, was a not unimportant part of the doctrines and manifestations of gnosticism, largely occupied Jewish thinkers. There is, in general, no circle of ideas to which elements of gnosticism have been traced, and with which the Jews were not acquainted. It is a noteworthy fact that heads of gnostic schools and founders of gnostic systems are designated as Jews by the Church Fathers. Some derive all heresies, including those of gnosticism, from Judaism (Hegesippus in Eusebius, “Hist. Eccl.”iv. 22; comp. Harnack, “Dogmengesch.”3d ed. i. 232, note 1). It must furthermore be noted that Hebrew words and names of God provide the skeleton for several gnostic systems. Christians or Jews converted from paganism would have used as the foundation of their systems terms borrowed from the Greek or Syrian translations of the Bible. This fact proves at least that the principal elements of gnosticism were derived from Jewish speculation, while it does not preclude the possibility of new wine having been poured into old bottles.” [77] According to The Jewish Encyclopedia entry Gnosticism, 'Pre-Christian. —Cosmogonic-theological speculations, philosophemes on God and the world, constitute the substance of gnosis. They are based on the first sections of Genesis and Ezekiel, for which there are in Jewish speculation two well-established and therefore old terms: “Ma'aseh Bereshit”and“Ma'aseh Merkabah.”Doubtless Ben Sira was thinking of these speculations when he uttered the warning: “Seek not things that are too hard for thee, and search not out things that are above thy strength. The things that have been commanded thee, think thereupon; for thou hast no need of the things that are secret” (Ecclus. [Sirach] iii. 21–22, R. V.). The terms here emphasized recur in the Talmud in the accounts of gnosis. “There is no doubt that a Jewish gnosticism existed before a Christian or a Judæo-Christian gnosticism. As may be seen even in the apocalypses, since the second century B.C. gnostic thought was bound up with Judaism, which had accepted Babylonian and Syrian doctrines; but the relation of this Jewish gnosticism to Christian gnosticism may, perhaps, no longer be explained "(Harnack,” “Geschichte der Altchristlichen Litteratur,”p. 144). The great age of Jewish gnosticism is further indicated by the authentic statement that Johanan b. Zakkai, who was born probably in the century before the common era, and was, according to Sukkah 28a, versed in that science, refers to an interdiction against “discussing the Creation before two pupils and the throne-chariot before one."' The passage in Sukkah mentioned in the extract says,“They said of R. Johanan b. Zakkai that he did not leave [unstudied] Scripture, Mishnah, Gemara, Halachah, Aggada, details of the Torah, details of the Scribes, inferences a minori ad majus, analogies, calendrical computations, gematrias, the speech of the Minstering Angels, the speech of spir-
18.10. NOTES
its, and the speech of palm-grees, fullers' parables and fox fables, great matters or small matters; 'Great matters' mean the Ma'aseh merkabah, 'small matters' the discussions of Abaye and Raba”(אמרו עליו על רבן יוחנן בן זכאי שלא הניח מקרא ומשנה תלמוד הלכות ואגדות דקדוקי תורה ודקדוקי סופרים קלים וחמורים וגזרות שוות תקופות וגימטריאות שיחת מלאכי השרת ושיחת שדים ושיחת דקלים משלות כובסין משלות שועלים דבר גדול ודבר קטן דבר גדול )מעשה מרכבה דבר קטן הויות דאביי ורבא. [78] 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought Arthur A. Cohen, Paul Mendes-Flohr, Arthur Allen Cohen 1988 republished 2010 – Page 286 “Recent research, however, has tended to emphasize that Judaism, rather than Persia, was a major origin of Gnosticism. Indeed, it appears increasingly evident that many of the newly published Gnostic texts were written in a context from which Jews were not absent. In some cases, indeed, a violent rejection of the Jewish God, or of Judaism, seems to stand at the basis of these texts. ... facie, various trends in Jewish thought and literature of the Second Commonwealth appear to have been potential factors in Gnostic origins. [79] Gager, John G. (1985-02-14). The origins of antisemitism: attitudes toward Judaism in pagan and Christian antiquity. Oxford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-019-503607-7. [80] Understanding Jewish History: Texts and Commentaries by Steven Bayme Publisher: Ktav Publishing House ISBN 0-88125-554-8 ISBN 978-0-88125-554-6 [81] Idel, Moshe. Kabbalah: New Perspectives, Yale University Press, 1990, p. 31. ISBN 978-0-300-04699-1 [82] Scholem, Gershom Origins of the Kabbalah, 1962.
203
[92] Classical Texts:Acta Archelai Now, he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests he says is the archont of Darkness, and the Christians, Jews, and pagans (ethnic) are one and the same, as they revere the same god. For in his aspirations he seduces them, as he is not the god of truth. And so therefore all those who put their hope in the god who spoke with Moses and the prophets have (this in store for themselves, namely) to be bound with him, because they did not put their hope in the god of truth. For that one spoke with them (only) according to their own aspirations. Page 76 [93] Likewise, Manichaeism, being another Gnostic sect, preached a similar doctrine of positioning God against matter. This dualistic teaching embodied an elaborate cosmological myth that included the defeat of a primal man by the powers of darkness that devoured and imprisoned the particles of light. The Acta Archelai further has Mani saying,“It is the Prince of Darkness who spoke with Moses, the Jews and their priests. Thus the Christians, the Jews, and the Pagans are involved in the same error when they worship this God. For he leads them astray in the lusts he taught them.” [94] Meyer, Marvin (2007). The Nag Hammadi Scriptures: International Edition. p. 247. [95] Gospel of Judas, pg 44. translated by Kasser, Meyer, Wurst. [96] Gospel of Judas, pg 56. translated by Kasser, Meyer, Wurst. [97] “An Introduction to Marcion by G.R.S. Mead”. [98] “Adolf Von Harnack: Marcion”.
[99] González, Justo L.(1970). A History of Christian Thought, [83] The first kabbalistic text with a known author that reached Vol. I. Abingdon. pp. 132–3 us is a brief treatise, a commentary on the Sefer Yezira written by Rabbi Isaac ben Abraham the Blind, in Provence [100] Ismo Dunderberg Beyond gnosticism: myth, lifestyle, and near the turn of the thirteenth century. Dan, Joseph Kabsociety in the school of Valentinus. Columbia University balah: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Press, 2008. p.16;“The problems with the term“Gnos2006, p 25. ticism”itself are now well known. It does not appear in ancient sources at all, ... " [84] Dan, Joseph Kabbalah: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2006, p 24. [101] Birger Albert Pearson Gnosticism and Christianity in Roman and Coptic Egypt 2004 p210 “As Bentley Layton [85] Scholem, Gershom. Jewish Gnosticism, Merkabah Mystipoints out, the term Gnosticism was first coined by Henry cism, and the Talmudic Tradition, 1965. More (1614–1687) in an expository work on the seven letters of the Book of Revelation.29 More used the term [86] Lessons from the Kabbalah and Jewish history By Josef Gnosticisme to describe the heresy in Thyatira.” Blaha, Page 183 [87] Jewish mysticism: an introduction By J. H. Laenen, Page [102] Stephen Charles Haar Simon Magus: the first gnostic? p231 130 [88] Sometimes popularly known as the Gnostic Gospels after Elaine Pagels' 1979 book of the same name, but the term has a wider meaning.
[103] Dominic J. Unger, John J. Dillon —1992 St. Irenaeus of Lyons Against the heresies, Vol.1 p3 “the final phrase of the title “knowledge falsely so-called”is found in 1 Timothy 6:20.
[89] Marvin Meyer and James M. Robinson, Nag Hammadi [104] LSJ entry γνωστ-ικός , ή, όν, A. of or for knowing, Scriptures, The: The International Edition. HarperOne, cognitive: ἡ -κή (sc. ἐπιστήμη), theoretical science 2007. pp 2-3. ISBN 0-06-052378-6 (opp. πρακτική), Pl.Plt.258e, etc.; τὸ γ. ib.261b; "ἕξεις γ.”Arist.AP0.100a11 (Comp.); "γ. εἰκόνες" Hierocl.in [90] Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, 94. CA25p.475M.: c. gen., able to discern, Ocell. 2.7. Adv. [91] King, Karen L. What Is Gnosticism? , p.91. "-κῶς" Procl.Inst.39, Dam.Pr.79, Phlp.in Ph.241.22.
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[105] In Perseus databank 10x Plato, Cratylus, Theaetetus, 'Gnosticism'. Future research will have to show whether Sophist, Statesman 2x Plutarch, Compendium libri de ana new, working ...” imae procreatione + De animae procreatione in Timaeo, [116] Williams, Michael Allen (1999). Rethinking “Gnosti2x Pseudo-Plutarch, De musica cism": An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0[106] Morton Smith History of the term gnostikos 1973 691-00542-7. [107] A. Rousseau and L. Doutreleau Saint Irénée de Lyon : [117] Afloroaei, Lucia (2009).“Religious Dualism: Some LogTraité contre les hérésies 1974 ical and Philosophical Difficulties” (PDF). Journal for [108] Williams Rethinking “Gnosticism": an argument for disInterdisciplinary Research on Religion and Science 4 (Janmantling a dubious category 1999 p36: “But several of uary): 83–111. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Irenaeus's uses of the designation gnostikos are more ambiguous, and it is not so clear whether he is indicating the [118] Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. II, Ch. XLVIII specific sect again or using “gnostics”now merely as a shorthand reference for virtually all of the"; p37: “They [119] Smith, Richard.“The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism” argue that Irenaeus uses gnostikos in two senses: (1) with in The Nag Hammadi Library, 1990 ISBN 0-06-066935the term's 'basic and customary meaning' of 'learned' (sa7 vant), and (2) with reference to adherents of the specific sect called 'the gnostic heresy' in Adv. haer. 1.11.1."; [120] Cf. l'Eglise du Plérôme p271: “1.25.6 where they think that gnostikos means 'learned' are in 1.11.3 ('A certain other famous teacher [121] Green, Celia (1981,2006). Advice to Clever Children. Oxford: Oxford Forum. Ch.s XXXV-XXXVII. of theirs, reaching for a doctrine more lofty and learned [gnostikoteron] ...') and 1.11.5 ('... in order that they [122] Michael Weber. Contact Made Vision: The Apocryphal [i.e.,])" Whitehead Pub. in Michel Weber and William Desmond, Jr. (eds.), Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought, [109] Williams p42-43 “On the other hand, the one group Frankfurt / Lancaster, Ontos Verlag, Process Thought X1 whom Irenaeus does explicitly mention as users of this & X2, 2008, I, pp. 573-599. self-designation, the followers of the second-century CE teacher Marcellina, are not included in Layton's anthology [123] “The Thought of Norea”. The Gnostic Society Library. at all, on the grounds that their doctrines are not similar Retrieved 2009-02-13. to those of the “classic”gnostics.44 As we have seen, Epiphanius is one of the witnesses for the existence of a [124] “Valentinian Theology”. The Gnostic Society Library. special sect called“the gnostics,”and yet Epiphanius himRetrieved 2009-02-13. self seems to distinguish between these people and “the Sethians”(Pan 40.7.5), whereas Layton treats them as [125] “Allogenes”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 2009-02-13. both under the “classic gnostic”category.” [110] Trames – 2006 Vol. 10, n° 3 “One of the most difficult [126] “Trimorphic Protennoia”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved September 29, 2013. questions in the history of the study of Gnosticism has been the issue of the origins of gnostic movement, ... The [127] “The Pair (Syzygy) in Valentinian Thought”. Retrieved main representative of that model was Adolf von Harnack 2009-02-13. in the 19th century; however, the model has had [128] Mead, G.R.S. (2005). Fragments of a Faith Forgotten. [111] R. van den Broek Studies in Gnosticism and Alexandrian Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-8413-9. Christianity Page vii 1996“The study of Gnosticism and, to a lesser extent, of early Alexandrian Christianity re- [129] “A Valentinian Exposition”. The Gnostic Society Liceived a strong impetus by the discovery of the Coptic brary. Retrieved 2009-02-13. Nag Hammadi Library, in 1945,” [130] “Demiurge”.“Catholic encyclopedia”. Retrieved 2009[112] “National Book Awards – 1980”. National Book Foun02-13. dation. Retrieved March 8, 2012. [131] “The Hypostasis of the Archons”. The Gnostic Society [113] Sheahen, Laura (June 2003). “Matthew, Mark, Luke Library. Retrieved 2009-02-12. and... Thomas?: What would Christianity be like if gnostic texts had made it into the Bible?". Beliefnet. Retrieved [132] Origen. “Cotra Celsum”. The Gnostic Society Library. Retrieved 13 February 2009. June 7, 2009. [114] Markschies, “Christolph”(2003). Gnosis: An Introduc- [133] “Mithraic Art”. Retrieved 2009-12-13. tion. T.& T.Clark Ltd. pp. 14–15. [134] “Narashimba”. Manas: Indian Religions. Retrieved 2009-02-13. [115] The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies – Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter – 2008 Page 216 [135] Campbell, Joseph: Occidental Mythology, page 262. Pen“As the first section of this chapter paradoxically demonguin Arkana, 1991. strates, during the last 20 years the definition of 'Gnosticism' has become the most difficult issue in the study of [136] “demiurge”.
18.11. REFERENCES
[137]“Images of the Feminine in Gnosticism”by Karen L. King, Page 243 [138] Ehrman, Bart D."Lost Christianities”. Oxford University Press, 2003, p.185.
18.11 References 18.11.1
Books
Primary sources • Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2003). The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala Books. p. 880. ISBN 1-57062-242-6.
205 • Haardt, Robert (1967). Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse. Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg. pp. 352 pages., translated as Haardt, Robert (1971). Gnosis: Character and Testimony. Brill, Leiden. • Hoeller, Stephan A. (2002). Gnosticism —New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing. Wheaton: Quest. pp. 257 pages. ISBN 0-83560816-6. • Jonas, Hans (1993). Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1–2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53841-3. • King, Charles William (1887). The Gnostics and Their Remains.
• Barnstone, Willis; Meyer, Marvin (2010). Essential Gnostic Scriptures. Shambhala Books. p. 271. ISBN 978-1590309254.
• King, Karen L. (2003). What is Gnosticism?. Harvard University Press. pp. 343 pages. ISBN 0-67401071-X.
• Layton, Bentley (1987). The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press. pp. 526 pages. ISBN 0-334-02022-0.
• Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1993). Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia. Harper, San Francisco. ISBN 0-06-064586-5.
• Barnstone, Willis (1984). The Other Bible: Gnostic Scriptures, Jewish Pseudepigrapha, Christian Apocyrypha, Kabbalah, Dead Sea Scrolls. San Francisco: Harper & Row. p. 771. ISBN 978-0-06-081598-1. • Kosack, Wolfgang: Geschichte der Gnosis in Antike, Urchristentum und Islam. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-06-6 • Robinson, James (1978). The Nag Hammadi Library in English. San Francisco: Harper & Row. pp. 549 pages. ISBN 0-06-066934-9. • Plotinus (1989). The Enneads 1. translated by A.H. Armstrong. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-67499484-1. Secondary sources • Aland, Barbara (1978). Festschrift für Hans Jonas. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-58111-4.
• Layton, Bentley (1995).“Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism”. In edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough. The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks. Fortress Press, Minneapolis. ISBN 0-80062585-4. • Layton, Bentley (ed.) (1981). The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism. E.J. Brill. • Markschies, Christoph (2000). Gnosis: An Introduction. trans. John Bowden. T & T Clark. pp. 145 pages. ISBN 0-567-08945-2. • Mins, Denis (1994). Irenaeus. Geoffrey Chapman. • Pagels, Elaine (1979). The Gnostic Gospels. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 182 pages. ISBN 0-67972453-2.
• Burstein, Dan (2006). Secrets of Mary Magdalene. CDS Books. ISBN 1-59315-205-1.
• Pagels, Elaine (1989). The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press. pp. 128 pages. ISBN 1-55540-334-4.
• Filoramo, Giovanni (1990). A History of Gnosticism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 9780631187073.
• Petrement, Simone (1990), A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-066421-5
• Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (2002). Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-00-710071X.
• Rudolph, Kurt (1987). Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06067018-5.
• Green, Henry (1985). Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism. Scholars P.,U.S. ISBN 0-89130-8431.
• Tuckett, Christopher M. (1986). Nag Hammadi and the Gospel Tradition: Synoptic Tradition in the Nag Hammadi Library. T & T Clark. ISBN 0-56709364-6. (206 pages)
206 • Walker, Benjamin (1990). Gnosticism: Its History and Influence. Harper Collins. ISBN 1-85274-0574. • Williams, Michael (1996). Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01127-3. • Yamauchi, Edwin M. (1983). Pre-Christian Gnosticism : A Survey of the Proposed Evidences. ISBN 0-8010-9919-6. (278 pages) • Yamauchi, Edwin M., "Pre-Christian Gnosticism in the Nag Hammadi Texts?,”in Church History vol. 48, pp129–141.
18.12 External links • Gnostic texts at sacred-texts.com • Religious Tolerance —A survey of Gnosticism • Early Christian Writings —primary texts • The Gnostic Society Library —primary sources and commentaries. • Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism • Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism • Pre-Christian Gnosticism, the New Testament and Nag Hammadi in Recent Debate • Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism • Gnosticism at DMOZ
CHAPTER 18. GNOSTICISM
Chapter 19
Aleister Crowley Aleister Crowley (/ˈkroʊli/; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist, and mountaineer. He founded the religion and philosophy of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century.
paigned for the German war effort against Britain, later revealing that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920 he established the Abbey of Thelema, a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, GerBorn to a wealthy Plymouth Brethren family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected this many, and England, and continued to promote Thelema fundamentalist Christian faith to pursue an interest in until his death. Western esotericism. He was educated at the University Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, of Cambridge, where he focused his attentions on moun- being a recreational drug experimenter, bisexual and an taineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. individualist social critic. He was denounced in the popSome biographers allege that here he was recruited into a ular press as “the wickedest man in the world”and a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he re- Satanist. Crowley has remained a highly influential figmained a spy throughout his life. In 1898 he joined the ure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture, and esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. In was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell Mac- 2002, a BBC poll ranked him as the seventy-third greatest Gregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. Moving to Boleskine Briton of all time. House by Loch Ness in Scotland, he went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. He married Rose Edith 19.1 Early life Kelly and in 1904 they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named Aiwass, who provided him with 19.1.1 Youth: 1875–94 The Book of the Law, a sacred text that served as the basis for Thelema. Announcing the start of the Æon of Horus, Crowley was born as Edward Alexander Crowley at The Book declared that its followers should adhere to the 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, War* code of“Do what thou wilt”and seek to align themselves wickshire, on 12 October 1875. [2] His father, Edward Crowley (1834–87), was trained as an engineer, but his with their Will through the practice of magick. share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley's After an unsuccessful attempt to climb Kanchenjunga Alton Ales, had allowed him to retire before his son and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to was born.* [3] His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848– Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author 1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he a strained relationship with her son; she described him as and George Cecil Jones co-founded a Thelemite order, “the Beast”, a name that he revelled in.* [4] The couple the A∴A∴, through which they propagated the religion. had been married at London's Kensington Registry Office After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiin November 1874,* [5] and were evangelical Christians. ated into another esoteric order, the German-based Ordo Crowley's father had been born a Quaker, but had conTempli Orientis (O.T.O.), rising to become the leader verted to the Exclusive Brethren, a faction of a Christian of its British branch, which he reformulated in accorfundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren, dance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through the O.T.O., with Emily joining him upon marriage. Crowley's father Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling and North America. Crowley spent the First World War preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible in the United States, where he took up painting and camto his wife and son after breakfast every day.* [6] Follow207
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CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY
ing the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill, Surrey.* [7] At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H.T. Habershon's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings, and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge, run by the Reverend Henry d'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.* [8]
Ted or Ned were even less appropriate. Alexander was too long and Sandy suggested tow hair and freckles. I had read in some book or other that the most favourable name for becoming famous was one consisting of a dactyl followed by a spondee, as at the end of a hexameter: like Jeremy Taylor. Aleister Crowley fulfilled these conditions and Aleister is the Gaelic form of Alexander. To adopt it In March 1887, when Crowley was 11, his father died would satisfy my romantic ideals. of tongue cancer. Crowley described this as a turning Aleister Crowley, on his name change.* [21] point in his life,* [9] and he always maintained an admi- Crowley had his first significant mystical experience ration of his father, describing him as “his hero and his while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896.* [22] friend”.* [10] Inheriting a third of his father's wealth, Several biographers, including Lawrence Sutin, Richard he began misbehaving at school and was harshly pun- Kaczynski, and Tobias Churton, believed that this was ished by Champney; Crowley's family removed him from the result of Crowley's first same-sex sexual experience, the school when he developed albuminuria.* [11] He then which enabled him to recognise his bisexuality.* [23] attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School, both At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life, of which he despised and left after a few terms.* [12] largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he He became increasingly sceptical regarding Christian- caught syphilis, but eventually he took part in same-sex ity, pointing out inconsistencies in the Bible to his re- activities, despite their illegality.* [24] In October 1897, ligious teachers,* [13] and went against the Christian Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt, president of the morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, and the and having sex with prostitutes from whom he con- two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because tracted gonorrhea.* [14] Sent to live with a Brethren tu- Pollitt did not share Crowley's increasing interest in Westtor in Eastbourne, he undertook chemistry courses at ern esotericism, a breakup that Crowley would regret for Eastbourne College. Crowley developed interests in many years.* [25] chess, poetry, and mountain climbing, and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining In 1897, Crowley travelled to St Petersburg in Russia, the Scottish Mountaineering Club. The following year he later claiming that he was trying to learn Russian as he * returned to the Bernese Alps, climbing the Eiger, Trift, was considering a future diplomatic career there. [26] Bi* ographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton suggested Jungfrau, Mönch, and Wetterhorn. [15] that Crowley had done so as an intelligence agent under the employ of the British secret service, speculating that 19.1.2 Cambridge University: 1895–98 he had been enlisted while at Cambridge.* [27] Having adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered.* [16] Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player.* [17] Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley.* [18] Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as The Granta, Cambridge Magazine, and Cantab.* [19] He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein, and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.* [20]
In October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and “the futility of all human endeavour”, and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult.* [28] In March 1898, he obtained A.E. Waite's The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts (1898), and then Karl von Eckartshausen's The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary (1896), furthering his occult interests.* [29] In 1898 Crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In, but it was not a particular success.* [30] That same year he published a string of other poems, including White Stains, a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities.* [31] In July 1898, he left Cambridge, not having taken any degree at all despite a “first class” showing in his 1897 exams and consistent“second class honours”results before that.* [32]
19.1.3 The Golden Dawn: 1898–99
For many years I had loathed being called Alick, partly because of the unpleasant sound and sight of the word, In August 1898, Crowley was in Zermatt, Switzerland, partly because it was the name by which my mother called where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker, and the two me. Edward did not seem to suit me and the diminutives began discussing their common interest in alchemy.* [33]
19.1. EARLY LIFE
209 Tragic Poems, Tales of Archais, Songs of the Spirit, Appeal to the American Republic, and Jephthah in 1898–99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although Jephthah was considered a particular critical success.* [40] Crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group's inner Second Order.* [41] He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation, and he had developed feuds with some of the members, including W.B. Yeats.* [42] When the Golden Dawn's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade.* [43] A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule.* [44] Acting under Mathers' orders, Crowley – with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson – attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington, from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space's rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group.* [45] Spence suggested that the entire scenario was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers' authority.* [46]
Crowley in Golden Dawn garb
19.1.4 Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900–03 Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones, Baker's brother in-law, and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which had been founded in 1888.* [34] Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn's Isis-Urania Temple held at London's Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name “Frater Perdurabo” , which he interpreted as “I shall endure to the end” .* [35] Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley joined the Order under the command of the British secret services to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a Carlist.* [36] Crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67–69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, Allan Bennett, to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the Goetia,* [37] until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism.* [38] In November 1899, Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the “Laird of Boleskine”, and took to wearing traditional highland dress, even during visits to London.* [39] He continued writing poetry, publishing Jezebel and Other
In 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in Mexico City and taking a local woman as his mistress. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with John Dee's Enochian invocations. He later claimed to have been initiated into Freemasonry while there, and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser as well as a series of poems, published as Oracles (1905). Eckenstein joined him later that year, and together they climbed several mountains, including Iztaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, and Colima, the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption.* [47] Spence has suggested that the purpose of the trip might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence.* [48] Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the Nippon Maru. On the ship he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; saying he had fallen in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as Alice: An Adultery (1903).* [49] Briefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying Shaivism. The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition, travelling to Burma to
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CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY (1904).* [55]
19.2 Developing Thelema 19.2.1 Egypt and The Book of the Law: 1904
Crowley during the K2 Expedition
Had! The manifestation of Nuit. The unveiling of the company of heaven. Every man and woman is a star. Every number is infinite; there is no difference. Help me, o warrior lord of Thebes, in my unveiling before the Children of men! The opening lines of The Book of the Law.
*
do so. [50] Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of raja yoga, from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of dhyana. He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madura. At this time he also composed and also wrote poetry which was published as The Sword of Song (1904). He contracted malaria, and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon.* [51] In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. Together the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted K2, which had never been climbed. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with influenza, malaria, and snow blindness, and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of 20,000 feet (6,100 m) before turning back.* [52] Having arrived in Paris in November 1902 he socialised with friend and future brother-in-law, the painter Gerald Kelly, and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene. Whilst there, Crowley authored a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor Auguste Rodin. These poems were later published as Rodin in Rime (1907).* [53] One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham, who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel The Magician (1908).* [54] Returning to Boleskine in April 1903, in August Crowley wed Gerald's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a “marriage of convenience”to prevent her entering an arranged marriage; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire Why Jesus Wept
In February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo. Claiming to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic.* [56] According to Crowley's later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him “they are waiting for you”. On 18 March, she explained that “they”were the god Horus, and on 20 March proclaimed that “the Equinox of the Gods has come”. She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit's number was 666, the number of the beast in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the“Stele of Revealing.”* [57] According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice that claimed to be that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it Liber L vel Legis or The Book of the Law.* [58] The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law,”and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion, Thelema.* [59] Crowley said that at the time he had been unsure what to do with The Book of the Law. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world's languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript away and ignoring it.* [60]
19.2. DEVELOPING THELEMA
19.2.2
211
Kangchenjunga and China: 1905– the purpose.* [67] Spence has suggested that this trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence 06
Returning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers had begun using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down.* [61] On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley's first child, a daughter named Lilith, with Crowley authoring the pornographic Snowdrops From a Curate's Garden to entertain his recuperating wife.* [62] He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among its first publications were Crowley's Collected Works, edited by Ivor Back.* [63] His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of £100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller, a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, The Star in the West (1907), heralded Crowley's poetry as some of the greatest ever written.* [64]
scheme to monitor the region's opium trade.* [68] Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang, Tali, Yunnanfu, and then Hanoi. On the way he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the “Bornless Ritual”, an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel, on a daily basis.* [69]
While Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by The Book of the Law; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kangchenjunga.* [70] Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon, something he later blamed on Rose's increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations.* [71] He began shortlived romances with actress Vera “Lola”Neville (née Snepp)* [72] and author Ada Leverson,* [73] while Rose gave birth to Crowley's second daughter, Lola Zaza, in February 1907.* [74]
19.2.3 The A∴A∴ and the Holy Books of Thelema: 1907–09
Kangchenjunga, as seen from Darjeeling
Crowley decided to climb Kangchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognised as the world's most treacherous mountain. Assembling a team consisting of Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley's control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley's warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.* [65] Spending time in Moharbhanj, where he took part in big game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work The Scented Garden, Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after shooting dead a native man who tried to mug him.* [66] Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for
With his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon, Surrey. Crowley claimed that in doing so he attained samadhi, or union with Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life.* [75] Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals, he wrote an essay on “The Psychology of Hashish”(1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism.* [76] He also claimed to have been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him,“Liber VII”and “Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente”, both of which were later classified in the corpus of Holy Books of Thelema.* [77] Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including“Liber LXVI” , “Liber Arcanorum”, “Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X”,“Liber Tau”,“Liber Trigrammaton”and“Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita”, which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source.* [78] Crowley stated that in June 1909, when the manuscript of The Book of the Law was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth.* [79] Crowley's inheritance was running out.* [80] Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the Earl of Tankerville, to help protect him from witchcraft; recognising Bennett's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to
212 France and Morocco to recuperate.* [81] In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice.* [82] Victor Neuburg, whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier, Morocco.* [83] The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism.* [84] Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as Ambergris, Clouds Without Water, and Konx Om Pax,* [85] as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, The World's Tragedy.* [86] Recognising the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published,* [87] and he also published several articles in Vanity Fair, a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris.* [88] He also wrote Liber 777, a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.* [89] Into my loneliness comes -The sound of a flute in dim groves that haunt the uttermost hills. Even from the brave river they reach to the edge of the wilderness. And I behold Pan. The opening lines of Liber VII (1907), the first of the Holy Books of Thelema to be revealed to Crowley after The Book of the Law.* [90]
CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY Saâda, and then Dā'leh Addin, with Crowley reciting the Quran on a daily basis. During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic, with Neuburg recording the results, later published in The Equinox as The Vision and the Voice. Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual, Crowley also performed an invocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice, considering the results to be a watershed in his magical career.* [95] Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in The Equinox; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame.* [96] Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.* [97] The publicity attracted new members to the A∴A∴, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram.* [98] The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley's lover.* [99] Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A∴A∴ members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A∴A∴ headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the Rites of Eleusis, at Caxton Hall, Westminster; this time press reviews were mixed.* [100] Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of The Looking Glass newspaper, who called him “one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times”.* [101] Fenton's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel.* [102] Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal,* [103] and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.* [104]
In November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the A∴A∴. The group's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis.* [91] Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist Austin Osman Spare, Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and Charles Stansfeld Jones.* [92] In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled The Equinox. He billed this periodical, which was to become the “Official Organ” The Equinox continued publishing, and various books of of the A∴A∴, as “The Review of Scientific Illuminism” literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley's Ambergris, The Winged Beetle, and .* [93] The Scented Garden, as well as Neuburg's The Triumph Crowley had become increasingly frustrated with Rose's of Pan and Ethel Archer's The Whirlpool.* [105] In 1911, alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny-sur-Loing, grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose's where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stocare; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to ries, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, inlive at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a re- cluding the two final Holy Books of Thelema.* [106] sult she was institutionalised in September 1911.* [94] In Paris, he met Mary Desti, who became his next “Scarlet Woman”, with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz; Crowley believed that one 19.2.4 Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: of the Secret Chiefs, Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through 1909–11 her.* [107] Based on Desti's statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume Book 4 (1912–13) and at In November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Al- the time developed the spelling“magick”in reference to geria, touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale, Bou
19.2. DEVELOPING THELEMA
213
the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, it from the stage magic of illusionists.* [108] where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler.* [112] In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including "Hymn to 19.2.5 Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Pan", and the Gnostic Mass, a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy.* [113] Churton sugWorking: 1912–14 gested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.* [114] In January 1914 Crowley and Neuburg settled in to an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein's new monument to Oscar Wilde.* [115] Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week “Paris Working”, a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley authored Liber Agapé, a treatise on sex magic.* [116] Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him.* [117]
19.2.6 United States: 1914–19
Crowley in ceremonial garb, 1912
In early 1912, Crowley published The Book of Lies, a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as “his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus”.* [109] The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), within The Book. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of the O.T.O's British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed“X° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons”.* [110] With Reuss' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on Freemasonry; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by the O.T.O's emphasis on sex magic, Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who had been initiated into the eleventh degree. * [111]
By 1914 Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A∴A∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O.* [118] In May he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons,* [119] and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the First World War broke out.* [120] After recuperating from a bout of phlebitis, Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the RMS Lusitania in October 1914.* [121] Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of Vanity Fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams.* [122] In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.* [123]
Professing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York's pro-German movement, and in January 1915 German spy George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, The Fatherland, which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict.* [125] In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action.* [126] In reality, Crowley was a double agent, working for the British intelligence services to infiltrate and undermine Germany's operation in New York. Many of In March 1913 Crowley acted as producer for The Ragged his articles in The Fatherland were hyperbolic, for inRagtime Girls, a group of female violinists led by Wad- stance comparing Kaiser Wilhelm II to Jesus Christ; in dell, as they performed at London's Old Tivoli theatre. July 1915 he orchestrated a publicity stunt – reported on
214
CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY short stories based on J.G. Frazer's The Golden Bough and a work of literary criticism, The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw.* [131] In December he moved to New Orleans, his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in Titusville, Florida.* [132] Returning to New York, he moved in with artist and A∴A∴ member Leon Engers Kennedy, in May learning of his mother's death.* [133] After the collapse of The Fatherland, Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal The International. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication.* [134] He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, Crowley believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Alamantrah. The relationship soon ended.* [135]
In 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of Esopus Island on the Hudson River. Here, he began a translation of the Tao Te Ching, painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and – he later claimed – experienced past life memories of being Ge Xuan, Pope Alexander VI, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Eliphas Levi.* [136] Back in New York, he moved to Greenwich Village, where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman.* [137] He took up painting as a May Morn, one of Crowley's paintings from his time in the US hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village LibHe explained it thus:“The painting represents the dawning of the eral Club and attracting the attention of the New York day following a witches' celebration as described in Faust. The Evening World.* [138] With the financial assistance of witch is hanged, as she deserves, and the satyr looks out from sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived The Equinox behind a tree.”* [124] with the first issue of volume III, known as “The Blue Equinox”.* [139] He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holby The New York Times – in which he declared indepen- iday* in Montauk before returning to London in Decemdence for Ireland in front of the Statue of Liberty; the real ber. [140] intention was to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public.* [127] It has been argued that he encouraged the German Navy to destroy 19.2.7 Abbey of Thelema: 1920–23 the Lusitania, informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would Now destitute and back in London, Crowley came unbring the US into the war on Britain's side.* [128] der attack from the tabloid John Bull, which labelled him Crowley entered into a relationship with Jeanne Robert traitorous“scum”for his work with the German war efwork urged Foster, with whom he toured the West Coast. In fort; several friends aware of his intelligence * [141] When he was him to sue, but he decided not to. Vancouver, headquarters of the North American O.T.O., suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, he met with Charles Stansfeld Jones and Wilfred Talbot * Smith to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the con- to which he soon became addicted. [142] In January tinent. In Detroit he experimented with anhalonium at 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in Fontainebleau Parke-Davis, then visited Seattle, San Francisco, Santa with Leah Hirsig; they were soon joined in a ménage Cruz, Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, and the Grand à trois by Ninette Shumway, and also *by Leah's newCanyon, before returning to New York.* [129] There born daughter Anne “Poupée”Leah. [143] Crowley he befriended Ananda Coomaraswamy and his wife Al- had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which ice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de magic in April 1916, following which she became preg- Thélème in François Rabelais' satire Gargantua and Pannant and then miscarried.* [130] Later that year he took tagruel. After consulting the I Ching, he chose Cefalù (on a “magical retirement”to a cabin by Lake Pasquaney Sicily, Italy) as a location, and after arriving there, bethe old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy gan renting * [144] 2 April. use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself“Master Therion”. He also wrote several Moving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their
19.3. LATER LIFE
The dilapidated Abbey of Thelema in 2004
children Hansi, Howard, and Poupée, Crowley described the scenario as “perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven.” * [145] They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests.* [146] Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on The Book of the Law, and revised the third part of Book 4.* [147] He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic.* [148] He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity.* [149] There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary.* [150] Poupée died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.* [151]
215 to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun“I”. Loveday drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press.* [157] John Bull proclaimed Crowley“the wickedest man in the world”and“a man we'd like to hang”, and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, John Bull continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America.* [158] The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley's activities and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.* [159]
19.3 Later life 19.3.1 Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923– 29 Crowley and Hirsig went to Tunis, where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin,* [160] and began writing what he termed his "autohagiography", The Confessions of Aleister Crowley.* [161] They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd, who became Crowley's public relations consultant.* [162] Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta, where they performed sex magic together.* [163] In January 1924, Crowley travelled to Nice, France, where he met with Frank Harris, underwent a series of nasal operations,* [164] and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man, and had a positive opinion of its founder, George Gurdjieff.* [165] Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar,* [166] before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote To Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity.* [167] After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote The Heart of the Master (1938) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance.* [168] In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.* [169]
New followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star Jane Wolfe, who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A∴A∴ and became Crowley's secretary.* [152] Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year.* [153] More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey.* [154] In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction.* [155] He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in The English Review criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel, Diary of a Drug Fiend, completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the Sunday Express, which called for its burning and used its According to Crowley, Reuss had named him head of influence to prevent further reprints.* [156] the O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a Subsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday leader of the German O.T.O., Heinrich Tränker. Tränker moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Love- called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia, Gerday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life many, which Crowley attended. There, prominent memat the commune. She later said that Loveday was made bers like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed
216
CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY
Crowley's leadership, but other key figures like Albin Grau, Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it, resulting in a split in the O.T.O.* [170] Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic.* [171] Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions.* [172] In 1928, Crowley was introduced to young Englishman Israel Regardie, who embraced Thelema and became Crowley's secretary for the next three years.* [173] That year, Crowley also met Gerald Yorke, who began organising Crowley's finances but never became a Thelemite.* [174] He also befriended Thomas Driberg; Driberg did not accept Thelema either.* [175] It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, Magick in Theory and Practice, which received little attention at the time.* [176] In December 1929 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez.* [177] Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent.* [178] So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929.* [179] Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel Moonchild and book of short stories The Stratagem. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley's Confessions could be published.* [180] Mandrake's owner P.R. Stephenson meanwhile wrote The Legend of Aleister Crowley, an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.* [181]
19.3.2
Berlin and London: 1930–38
In April 1930, Crowley moved to Berlin, where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled.* [182] In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation.* [183] He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery NeumannNierendorf. Crowley's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable.* [184] In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another.* [185] He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city,* [186] and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler.* [187] After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.* [188]
I have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet. Justice Swift, in Crowley's libel case.* [189]* [190] Crowley left Busch and returned to London,* [191] where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman.* [192] Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research.* [193] In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed had libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett's Laughing Torso (1932) – a book he thought libelled him – but lost the case.* [194] The court case added to Crowley's financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley had been spending three times his income for several years.* [195] Crowley developed a platonic friendship with Deidre Patricia O'Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk.* [196] Crowley continued to socialise with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them.* [197] In 1936, he published his first book in six years, The Equinox of the Gods, which contained a facsimile of The Book of the Law and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of The Equinox periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run.* [198] In 1937 he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho.* [199] Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the O.T.O.'s Agape Lodge in California, led by rocket scientist John Whiteside“Jack”Parsons.* [200] Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician.* [201]
19.3.3 Second World War and death: 1939–47 When the Second World War broke out, Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain's intelligence community at the time, in-
19.4. BELIEFS AND THOUGHT
Crowley specified that Grady McMurtry succeed his chosen successor as Head of O.T.O., Karl Germer.
217 cal teaching rather than wages.* [215] He was also introduced to John Symonds, whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing negative biographies of him.* [216] Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther, it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain's ailing O.T.O.* [217] Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler, who interviewed Crowley for her book The Myth of the Magus.* [218] Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley's son Aleister Atatürk.* [219] On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72.* [220] His funeral was held at a Brighton crematorium on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, The Book of the Law, and“Hymn to Pan”. The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids. Crowley's ashes were sent to Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in Hampton, New Jersey.* [221]
cluding Dennis Wheatley, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and 19.4 Beliefs and thought Maxwell Knight,* [202] and claimed to have been behind the "V for Victory" sign first used by the BBC; this has never been proven.* [203] In 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted.* [204] As the Blitz hit London, Crowley relocated to Torquay, where he was briefly hospitalised with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club.* [205] Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry, to whom Crowley awarded the title of “Hymenaeus Alpha”.* [206] He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of the O.T.O. after the latter's death.* [207] With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris, Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as The Book of Thoth by Chiswick Press in 1944.* [208] To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, Liber Oz, and a poem for the liberation of France, Le Gauloise.* [209] Crowley's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Aleister Crowley's rendition of the Unicursal Hexagram, the symYears of Song.* [210] Another of his projects, Aleister Ex- bol of Thelema plains Everything, was posthumously published as Magick Without Tears.* [211] Main article: Thelema In April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire,* [212] where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard,* [213] before relocating to Hastings in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house.* [214] He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary, paying him in magi-
Crowley's thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, scientific naturalism, and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremo-
218 nial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot.* [222] Philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley's thought was rooted in Romanticism and the Decadent movement,* [223] an assessment shared by historian Alex Owen, who noted that Crowley adhered to the “modus operandi”of the decadent movement throughout his life.* [224] Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship.* [225] Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe.* [226] The moral code of “Do What Thou Wilt”is believed by Thelemites to be the faith's ethical law, although academic Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.* [227]
CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY and remarkable focus of will”while at the same time showing a“blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, [and] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men”.* [235] The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley“was by no means perfect”and “often alienated those who loved him dearest.”* [236] Crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality,* [237] with John Symonds noting that he “was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time”.* [238] Crowley's political thought was subjected to an in-depth study by academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones.* [222] Pasi argued that it was difficult to classify Crowley as being either on the political left or right, but he was perhaps best categorised as a“conservative revolutionary”despite not being affiliated with the German-based conservative revolutionary movement.* [239] Pasi noted that Crowley sympathised with extreme ideologies like Nazism and Marxism-Leninism, in that they wished to violently overturn society, and hoped that both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union might adopt Thelema.* [240] Crowley described democracy as an “imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness”,* [241] and commented that The Book of the Law proclaimed that “there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the 'lone wolf' and the herd”.* [227] In this attitude he was influenced by the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and by Social Darwinism.* [242] Crowley also saw himself as an aristocrat, describing himself as Laird Boleskine; he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy,* [243] and once described his ideology as “aristocratic communism”.* [244]
Crowley believed in the objective existence of magic, which he chose to spell “Magick”. In his book Magick in Theory and Practice, Crowley defined Magick as“the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will”.* [228] He also told his disciple Karl Germer that“Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level.”* [229] Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giv- Crowley was bisexual, and exhibited a sexual prefering The Equinox the subtitle of“The Method of Science; ence for women.* [245] In particular he had an attraction the Aim of Religion”.* [230] toward “exotic women”,* [246] and claimed to have Both during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley that “when he loved, he did so with his* whole being, stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he but the passion was typically short-lived”. [247] Even in women worship Satan, as he did not accept the Christian world later life, he was able to attract young bohemian * to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma. [248] Dur* view in which Satan was believed to exist. [231] He was ing same-sex anal intercourse, he usually played the pasalso accused of advocating human sacrifice, largely be* sive role, [249] which Booth believed “appealed to his cause of a passage in Book 4 in which he stated that “A * masochistic side”. [250] Crowley argued that gay and male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim”. This was intended as a bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation, commenting that a person “must not be ashamed veiled reference to male masturbation.* [232] or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise.” 19.5 Personal life * [251] On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believCrowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley ing that no woman following her True Will would ever was “self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly desire one.* [252] intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel”.* [233] Similarly, Richard Spence noted that Crowley was “capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty”.* [234] Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited“courage, skill, dauntless energy,
19.6. LEGACY AND INFLUENCE
19.5.1
Views on race and gender
Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that“blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings”.* [253] Sutin thought Crowley“a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries”,* [254] noting that he “embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of their culture, coupled with a fascination with people of colour” .* [255] Crowley insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg using anti-Semitic slurs, and he had mixed opinions about Jews as a group. Although he praised their “sublime”poetry and stated that they exhibited “imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity”, he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jews to exhibit“avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest”.* [256] He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a “spiritual superiority” to the English,* [257] and praised Muslims for exhibiting “manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and selfrespect”.* [258] Crowley also exhibited a “general misogyny”that Booth believed arose from his bad relationship with his mother.* [259] Sutin noted that Crowley “largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility”.* [260] Crowley described women as “moral inferiors”who had to be treated with “firmness, kindness and justice”.* [261]
19.6 Legacy and influence "[H]e is today looked upon as a source of inspiration by many people in search of spiritual enlightenment and/ or instructions in magical practice. Thus, while during his life his books hardly sold and his disciples were never very numerous, nowadays all his important works are constantly in print, and the people defining themselves as “thelemites”(that is, followers of Crowley's new religion) number several thousands all over the world. Furthermore, Crowley's influence over magically oriented new religious movements has in some cases been very deep and pervasive. It would be difficult to understand, for instance, some aspects of Anglo-Saxon neo-paganism and contemporary satanism without a solid knowledge of Crowley's doctrines and ideas. In other fields, such as poetry, alpinism and painting, he may have been a minor figure, but it is only fair to admit that, in the limited context of occultism, he has played and still plays a major role.”
219 occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley seventy-third in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons.* [263] Richard Cavendish has written of him that “In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the bestequipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century.”* [264] Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of“the dark side of the occult”,* [265] while philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a “Modern Master”when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff, P.D. Ouspensky, Rudolf Steiner, or Helena Blavatsky,* [266] also describing him as a “living embodiment”of Oswald Spengler's "Faustian Man".* [267] Biographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley “a pioneer of consciousness research”,* [268] and Sutin thought that he had made “distinctly original contributions”to the study of yoga in the West.* [269] Thelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley's death. In 1969, the O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry;* [270] in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta.* [270] Another American Thelemite was the filmmaker Kenneth Anger, who had been influenced by Crowley's writings from a young age.* [271]* [272] In the United Kingdom, Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the Typhonian Order.* [273] Also in Britain, an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley's son; this has been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado claimed to be propagating.* [274] Several Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley. Gerald Gardner, founder of Gardnerian Wicca, made use of much of Crowley's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy,* [275] and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley's ideas.* [276] L. Ron Hubbard, the American founder of Scientology, was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s (with Jack Parsons), and it has been argued that Crowley's ideas influenced some of Hubbard's work.* [277] Two prominent figures in religious Satanism, Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino, were also influenced by Crowley's work.* [278]
Crowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967),* [270] and his motto of “Do What Thou Wilt”was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Marco Pasi, 2003.* [262] Led Zeppelin III (1970).* [270] Led Zeppelin co-founder Crowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the
220
CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY
band's film The Song Remains the Same was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992.* [279] David Bowie made reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song "Quicksand" (1971),* [270] while Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled "Mr Crowley" (1980).* [280]
[18] Kaczynski 2010, p. 35.
19.7 Bibliography
[21] Crowley 1989, p. 139.
[19] Booth 2000, pp. 50–51; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 33–35. [20] Symonds 1997, p. 13; Booth 2000, pp. 53–56; Sutin 2000, pp. 50–52; Kaczynski 2010, p. 35, 42–45, 50–51; Churton 2011, p. 35.
[22] Symonds 1997, p. 14; Booth 2000, pp. 56–57; Kaczynski 2010, p. 36; Churton 2011, p. 29.
Main article: List of works by Aleister Crowley
[23] Sutin 2000, p. 38; Kaczynski 2010, p. 36; Churton 2011, p. 29.
19.8 References
[24] Booth 2000, pp. 59–62; Sutin 2000, p. 43; Churton 2011, pp. 27–28.
19.8.1
[25] Booth 2000, pp. 64–65; Sutin 2000, pp. 41–47; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 37–40, 45; Churton 2011, pp. 33– 24.
Footnotes
[1] “Louise Muhler”. SFGate. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 9 December 2014. [2] Booth 2000, pp. 4–5; Sutin 2000, p. 15; Kaczynski 2010, p. 14. [3] Booth 2000, pp. 2–3; Sutin 2000, pp. 31–23; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 4–8; Churton 2011, pp. 14–15. [4] Booth 2000, p. 3; Sutin 2000, pp. 18–21; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 13–16; Churton 2011, pp. 17–21. [5] Booth 2000, p. 3; Kaczynski 2010, p. 13–14; Churton 2011, p. 17. [6] Booth 2000, pp. 3–4, 6, 9–10; Sutin 2000, pp. 17–23; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 11–12, 16.
[26] Spence 2008, pp. 19–20; Sutin 2000, p. 37; Kaczynski 2010, p. 35; Churton 2011, pp. 30–31. [27] Spence 2008, pp. 19–20; Churton 2011, pp. 30–31. [28] Booth 2000, pp. 57–58; Sutin 2000, pp. Kaczynski 2010, p. 36.
37–39;
[29] Booth 2000, pp. 58–59; Sutin 2000, p. 41; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 40–42. [30] Symonds 1997, pp. 14–15; Booth 2000, pp. 72–73; Sutin 2000, pp. 44–45; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 46–47. [31] Symonds 1997, p. 15; Booth 2000, pp. 74–75; Sutin 2000, pp. 44–45; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 48–50.
[7] Booth 2000, pp. 6–7; Kaczynski 2010, p. 16; Churton 2011, p. 24.
[32] Booth 2000, pp. 78–79; Sutin 2000, pp. 35–36.
[8] Booth 2000, pp. 12–14; Sutin 2000, p. 25–29; Kaczynski 2010, pp. 17–18; Churton 2011, p. 24.
[33] Booth 2000, pp. 81–82; Sutin 2000, pp. Kaczynski 2010, pp. 52–53.
52–53;
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19.8.2 Sources
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Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. (2012). “Introduction”. In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–14. ISBN 978-0-19-986309-9. Booth, Martin (2000). A Magick Life: The Biography of Aleister Crowley. London: Coronet Books. ISBN 978-0-340-71806-3. Cavendish, Richard (1978). “Crowley and After”. A History of Magic. London: Sphere Books. pp. 167–79. Churton, Tobias (2011). Aleister Crowley: The Biography. London: Watkins Books. ISBN 978-178028-012-7. Crowley, Aleister (1989). The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography. London: Arkana. ISBN 978-0-14-019189-9. Crowley, Aleister (1970). The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography. London: Hill and Wang. ISBN 978-0-80-903591-5. DuQuette, Lon Milo (2003). The Magick of Aleister Crowley: A Handbook of Rituals of Thelema. San Francisco: Weiser. ISBN 9781-57863-299-2. Dyrendal, Asbjørn (2012). “Satan and the Beast: The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Modern Satanism”. In Bogdan, Henrik;
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CHAPTER 19. ALEISTER CROWLEY Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 369–394. ISBN 978-019-986309-9. Evans, Dave (2007). The History of British Magick After Crowley. n.p.: Hidden Publishing. ISBN 978-09555237-0-0. Granholm, Kennet (2013). “Ritual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice” (PDF). Correspondences: An Online Journal for the Academic Study of Western Esotericism 1 (1): 5–33. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2012). “Foreword”. In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. vii–x. ISBN 978-0-19-986309-9. Hutton, Ronald (2012). “Crowley and Wicca”. In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 285–306. ISBN 978-0-19-986309-9. Kaczynski, Richard (2010). Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books. ISBN 9780-312-25243-4. Landis, Bill (1995). Anger: The Unauthorised Biography of Kenneth Anger. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-016700-4. Moreman, Christopher M. (2003). “Devil Music and the Great Beast: Ozzy Osbourne, Aleister Crowley, and the Christian Right”. The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 3 (1). Morgan, Mogg (2011).“The Heart of Thelema: Morality, Amorality, and Immorality in Aleister Crowley's Thelemic Cult”. The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies 13 (2) (London: Equinox). Moore, John (2009). Aleister Crowley: A Modern Master. Oxford: Mandrake. ISBN 978-1906958-02-2. Owen, Alex (2012). “The Sorcerer and His Apprentice: Aleis-
ter Crowley and the Magical Exploration of Edwardian Subjectivity” . In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15– 52. ISBN 978-0-19-986309-9. Pasi, Marco (2003). “The Neverendingly Told Story: Recent Biographies of Aleister Crowley”. Aries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism 3 (2). pp. 224– 245. Pasi, Marco (2014) [1999]. Aleister Crowley and the Temptation of Politics. Ariel Godwin (translator). Durham: Acumen. ISBN 978-184465-696-7. Richmond, Keith (2012). “Through the Witch's Looking Glass: The Magick of Aleister Crowley and the Witchcraft of Rosaleen Norton”. In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 307–334. ISBN 978-0-19-986309-9. Spence, Richard B. (2008). Secret Agent 666: Aleister Crowley, British Intelligence and the Occult. Port Townsend, WA: Feral House. ISBN 978-1-932595-33-8. Sutin, Lawrence (2000). Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-25243-4. Symonds, John (1997). The Beast 666: The Life of Aleister Crowley. London: Pindar Press. ISBN 9781-899828-21-0. Tully, Caroline (2010). “Walk Like an Egyptian: Egypt as Authority in Aleister Crowley's Reception of The Book of the Law". The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies 12 (1) (London: Equinox). Urban, Hugh B. (2012). “The Occult Roots of Scientology? L. Ron Hubbard, Aleister Crowley, and the Origins of a Controversial New Religion”. In Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 335–368. ISBN
19.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 978-0-19-986309-9.
19.9 External links • Works by Aleister Crowley at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Aleister Crowley at Internet Archive • Works by Aleister Crowley at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • Aleister Crowley Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin • The Libri of Aleister Crowley Many of the writings of Crowley have been published for free online. • Aleister Crowley Foundation Dedicated to perpetuating the teachings of Aleister Crowley and Thelema. • Photos of the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù. • Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?) A film on the Abbey of Thelema by Carlos Atanes.
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Thelema For the EP by Murder City Devils, see Thelema (EP). Nuit, Hadit and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. Crowley described these Thelema (/θəˈliːmə/) is a religion based on a deities as a “literary convenience”.* [5] The religion is founded upon the idea that the 20th century marked the beginning of the Aeon of Horus, in which a new ethical code would be followed; “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law”. This statement indicates that adherents, who are known as Thelemites, should seek out and follow their own true path in life, known as their True Will.* [6] The philosophy also emphasizes the ritual practice of Magick. The word thelema is the English transliteration of the Koine Greek noun θέλημα (pronounced [θélima])“will” , from the verb θέλω“to will, wish, want or purpose.”As Crowley developed the religion, he wrote widely on the topic, as well as producing more 'inspired' writing that he collectively termed The Holy Books of Thelema. He also included ideas from occultism, yoga and both Eastern and Western mysticism, especially the Qabalah.* [7]
20.1 Historical precedents The Unicursal Hexagram, one of the important symbols in Thelema, equivalent of the Egyptian Ankh* [1] or the Rosicrucians' Rosy Cross,* [1] but first derived in 1639 by Blaise Pascal's Hexagrammum Mysticum
philosophical law of the same name, adopted as a central tenet by some religious organizations. The law of Thelema is “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law. Love is the law, love under will.”The law of Thelema was developed in the early 1900s by Aleister Crowley, an English writer and ceremonial magician.* [2] He believed himself to be the prophet of a new age, the Æon of Horus, based upon a spiritual experience that he and his wife, Rose Edith, had in Egypt in 1904.* [3] By his account, a possibly non-corporeal or“praeterhuman”being that called itself Aiwass contacted him and dictated a text known as The Book of the Law or Liber AL vel Legis, which outlined the principles of Thelema.* [4] An adherent of Thelema is a Thelemite.
The word θέλημα (thelema) is rare in classical Greek, where it “signifies the appetitive will: desire, sometimes even sexual”,* [8] but it is frequent in the Septuagint.* [8] Early Christian writings occasionally use the word to refer to the human will,* [9] and even the will of God's opponent, the Devil,* [10] but it usually refers to the will of God.* [11] One well-known example is in the "Lord's Prayer" (Matthew 6:10), “Thy kingdom come. Thy will (Θελημα) be done, On earth as it is in heaven.”It is used later in the same gospel (26:42), “He went away again a second time and prayed, saying, “My Father, if this cannot pass away unless I drink it, Thy will be done.”In his 5th-century Sermon on 1 John 4:4-12, Augustine of Hippo gave a similar instruction:* [12] “Love, and what thou wilt, do.”(Dilige et quod vis fac).* [13]
In the Renaissance, a character named“Thelemia”represents will or desire in the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili of the Dominican monk Francesco Colonna. The protagonist Poliphilo has two allegorical guides, Logistica The Thelemic pantheon includes a number of deities, (reason) and Thelemia (will or desire). When forced primarily a trio adapted from ancient Egyptian religion, to choose, he chooses fulfillment of his sexual will over who are the three speakers of The Book of the Law: logic.* [14] Colonna's work was a great influence on the 228
20.1. HISTORICAL PRECEDENTS Franciscan monk François Rabelais, who in the 16th century, used Thélème, the French form of the word, as the name of a fictional abbey in his novels, Gargantua and Pantagruel.* [15] The only rule of this Abbey was “fay çe que vouldras”(“Fais ce que tu veux”, or,“Do what thou wilt”). In the mid-18th century, Sir Francis Dashwood inscribed the adage on a doorway of his abbey at Medmenham,* [16] where it served as the motto of the Hellfire Club.* [16] Rabelais' Abbey of Thelema has been referred to by later writers Sir Walter Besant and James Rice, in their novel The Monks of Thelema (1878), and C. R. Ashbee in his utopian romance The Building of Thelema (1910).
20.1.1
François Rabelais
Main article: François Rabelais François Rabelais was a Franciscan and later a
229 *
[19] within the French Church,* [20] the reference to the Greek word θέλημα“declares that the will of God rules in this abbey”.* [21] Sutin writes that Rabelais was no precursor of Thelema, with his beliefs containing elements of Stoicism and Christian kindness.* [18] In his first book (ch. 52-57), Rabelais writes of this Abbey of Thélème, built by the giant Gargantua. It is a classical utopia presented in order to critique and assess the state of the society of Rabelais' day, as opposed to a modern utopian text that seeks to create the scenario in practice.* [22] It is a utopia where people's desires are more fulfilled.* [23] Satirical, it also epitomises the ideals considered in Rabelais' fiction.* [24] The inhabitants of the abbey were governed only by their own free will and pleasure, the only rule being “Do What Thou Wilt” . Rabelais believed that men who are free, well born and bred have honour, which intrinsically leads to virtuous actions. When constrained, their noble natures turn instead to remove their servitude, because men desire what they are denied.* [15] Some modern Thelemites consider Crowley's work to build upon Rabelais' summary of the instinctively honourable nature of the Thelemite. Rabelais has been variously credited with the creation of the philosophy* [25] of Thelema, as one of the earliest people to refer to it,* [26] or with being “the first Thelemite”.* [27] However, the current National Grand Master General of the U.S. Ordo Templi Orientis Grand Lodge has stated: Saint Rabelais never intended his satirical, fictional device to serve as a practical blueprint for a real human society ... Our Thelema is that of The Book of the Law and the writings of Aleister Crowley* [28]
François Rabelais
Aleister Crowley wrote in The Antecedents of Thelema, (1926), an incomplete work not published in his day, that Rabelais not only set forth the law of Thelema in a way similar to how Crowley understood it, but predicted and described in code Crowley's life and the holy text that he claimed to have received, The Book of the Law. Crowley said the work he had received was deeper, showing in more detail the technique people should practice, and revealing scientific mysteries. He said that Rabelais confines himself to portraying an ideal, rather than addressing questions of political economy and similar subjects, which must be solved in order to realize the Law.* [29]
Benedictine monk of the 16th century. Eventually he left the monastery to study medicine, and moved to the French city of Lyon in 1532. There he wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel, a connected series of books. They tell the story of two giants—a father (Gargantua) and his son (Pantagruel) and their adventures—written in an amus- Rabelais is included among the Saints of Ecclesia Gnosing, extravagant, and satirical vein. tica Catholica.* [30]
Most critics today agree that Rabelais wrote from a Christian humanist perspective.* [17] The Crowley biographer Lawrence Sutin notes this when contrasting 20.1.2 Francis Dashwood and the Hellfire Club the French author's beliefs with the Thelema of Aleister Crowley.* [18] In the previously mentioned story of Thélème, which critics analyze as referring in part to the Sir Francis Dashwood adopted some of the ideas of Rasuffering of loyal Christian reformists or “evangelicals” belais and invoked the same rule in French, when he
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CHAPTER 20. THELEMA sion followed its public model precisely.* [36]
20.2 Aleister Crowley Main article: Aleister Crowley Aleister Crowley (1875–1947) was an English occultist and writer. In 1904, Crowley claimed to have received The Book of the Law from an entity named Aiwass, which was to serve as the foundation of the religious and philosophical system he called Thelema.* [4]* [37]
20.2.1 The Book of the Law Main article: The Book of the Law
Portrait of Francis Dashwood, 11th Baron le Despencer, by William Hogarth from the late 1750s
founded a group called the Monks of Medmenham (better known as the Hellfire Club).* [16] An abbey was established at Medmenham, in a property which incorporated the ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1201. The group were known as the Franciscans, not after Saint Francis of Assisi, but after its founder, Francis Dashwood, 11th Baron le Despencer. John Wilkes, George Dodington and other politicians were members.* [16] There is little direct evidence of what Dashwood's Hellfire Club practiced or believed.* [31] The one direct testimonial comes from John Wilkes, a member who never got into the chapter-room of the inner circle.* [31]* [32] He describes the group as hedonists who met to “celebrate woman in wine”, and added ideas from the ancients just to make the experience more decadent.* [33]
Crowley's system of Thelema begins with The Book of the Law, which bears the official name Liber AL vel Legis. It was written in Cairo, Egypt during his honeymoon with his new wife Rose Crowley (née Kelly). This small book contains three chapters, each of which he claimed to have written in exactly one hour, beginning at noon, on April 8, April 9, and April 10, 1904. Crowley claims that he took dictation from an entity named Aiwass, whom he later identified as his own Holy Guardian Angel.* [38] Disciple, author, and onetime Crowley secretary Israel Regardie prefers to attribute this voice to the subconscious, but opinions among Thelemites differ widely. Crowley claimed that“no forger could have prepared so complex a set of numerical and literal puzzles”and that study of the text would dispel all doubts about the method of how the book was obtained.* [39]
Besides the reference to Rabelais, an analysis by Dave Evans shows similarities to The Beloved of Hathor and Shrine of the Golden Hawk,* [40] a play by Florence Farr.* [41] Evans says this may result from the fact that “both Farr and Crowley were thoroughly steeped in Golden Dawn imagery and teachings”,* [42] and that Crowley probably knew the ancient materials that inspired some of Farr's motifs.* [43] Sutin also finds similarities between Thelema and the work of W. B. Yeats, In the opinion of Lt. Col. Towers, the group derived attributing this to “shared insight”and perhaps to the * more from Rabelais than the inscription over the door. older man's knowledge of Crowley. [44] He believes that they used caves as a Dionysian oracular Crowley wrote several commentaries on The Book of the temple, based upon Dashwood’s reading of the relevant Law, the last of which he wrote in 1925. This brief statechapters of Rabelais.* [34] Sir Nathaniel Wraxall in his ment called simply "The Comment" warns against disHistorical Memoires (1815) accused the Monks of per- cussing the book's contents, and states that all“questions forming Satanic rituals, but these claims have been dis- of the Law are to be decided only by appeal to my writmissed as hearsay.* [31] Gerald Gardner and others such ings”and is signed Ankh-af-na-khonsu.* [45] as Mike Howard* [35] say the Monks worshipped “the Goddess”. Daniel Willens argued that the group likely practiced Freemasonry, but also suggests Dashwood may 20.2.2 True Will have held secret Roman Catholic sacraments. He asks if Wilkes would have recognized a genuine Catholic Mass, Main article: True Will even if he saw it himself and even if the underground ver-
20.2. ALEISTER CROWLEY
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According to Crowley, every individual has a True Will, to be distinguished from the ordinary wants and desires of the ego. The True Will is essentially one's“calling”or “purpose”in life. Some later magicians have taken this to include the goal of attaining self-realization by one's own efforts, without the aid of God or other divine authority. This brings them close to the position that Crowley held just prior to 1904.* [46] Others follow later works such as Liber II, saying that one's own will in pure form is nothing other than the divine will.* [47] Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law for Crowley refers not to hedonism, fulfilling everyday desires, but to acting in response to that calling. The Thelemite is a mystic.* [46] According to Lon Milo DuQuette, a Thelemite is anyone who bases their actions on striving to discover and accomplish their true will,* [48] when a person does their True Will, it is like an orbit, their niche in the universal order, and the universe assists them.* [49] In order for the individual to be able to follow their True Will, the everyday self's socially-instilled inhibitions may have to be overcome via deconditioning.* [50]* [51] Crowley believed that in order to discover the True Will, one had to free the desires of the subconscious mind from the control of the conscious mind, especially the restrictions placed on sexual expression, which he associated with the power of divine creation.* [52] He identified the True Will of each individual with the Holy Guardian Angel, a daimon unique to each individual.* [53] The spiritual quest to find what you are meant to do and do it is also known in Thelema as the Great Work.* [54] The Stèle of Revealing, depicting Nuit, Hadit as the winged globe, Ra-Hoor-Khuit seated on his throne, and the creator of the Stèle, the scribe Ankh-af-na-khonsu
20.2.3
Cosmology
Thelema draws its principal gods and goddesses from Ancient Egyptian religion. The highest deity in the cosmology of Thelema is the goddess Nuit. She is the night sky arched over the Earth symbolized in the form of a naked woman. She is conceived as the Great Mother, the ultimate source of all things.* [55] The second principal deity of Thelema is the god Hadit, conceived as the infinitely small point, complement and consort of Nuit. Hadit symbolizes manifestation, motion, and time.* [55] He is also described in Liber AL vel Legis as “the flame that burns in every heart of man, and in the core of every star”.* [56] The third deity in the cosmology of Thelema is Ra-Hoor-Khuit, a manifestation of Horus. He is symbolized as a throned man with the head of a hawk who carries a wand. He is associated with the Sun and the active energies of Thelemic magick.* [55] Other deities within the cosmology of Thelema are Hoor-paarkraat (or Harpocrates), god of silence and inner strength, the brother of Ra-Hoor-Khuit,* [55] Babalon, the goddess of all pleasure, known as the Virgin Whore,* [55] and Therion, the beast that Babalon rides, who represents the wild animal within man, a force of nature.* [55]
20.2.4 Magick and ritual Main articles: Magick (Thelema) and Thelemic mysticism Thelemic magick is a system of physical, mental, and spiritual exercises which practitioners believe are of benefit.* [57] Crowley defined magick as “the Science and Art of causing Change to occur in conformity with Will” ,* [58] and spelled it with a 'k' to distinguish it from stage magic. He recommended magick as a means for discovering the True Will.* [59] Generally, magical practices in Thelema are designed to assist in finding and manifesting the True Will, although some include celebratory aspects as well.* [60] Crowley was a prolific writer, integrating Eastern practices with Western magical practices from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.* [61] He recommended a number of these practices to his followers, including basic yoga; (asana and pranayama);* [62] rituals of his own devising or based on those of the Golden Dawn, such as the Lesser ritual of the pentagram, for banishing and invocation;* [60] Liber Samekh, a ritual for the invocation of the Holy Guardian Angel;* [60]
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eucharistic rituals such as The Gnostic Mass and The Mass of the Phoenix;* [60] and Liber Resh, consisting of four daily adorations to the sun.* [60] Much of his work is readily available in print and online. He also discussed sex magick and sexual gnosis in various forms including masturbatory, heterosexual, and homosexual practices, and these form part of his suggestions for the work of those in the higher degrees of the Ordo Templi Orientis.* [63] Crowley believed that after discovering the True Will, the magician must also remove any elements of himself that stand in the way of its success.* [64]
Kether
1 Binah
3
Chokhmah
Daath
Chesed
Geburah
5
2
Tiphareth
4
6
Netzach
Hod
8
Yesod
7
9
Malkuth
10
as Liber Resh. One goal in the study of Thelema within the magical Order of the A∴A∴ is for the magician to obtain the knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel: conscious communication with their own personal daimon, thus gaining knowledge of their True Will.* [65] The chief task for one who has achieved this goes by the name of “crossing the abyss";* [66] completely relinquishing the ego. If the aspirant is unprepared, he will cling to the ego instead, becoming a Black Brother. Rather than becoming one with God, the Black Brother considers his ego to be god.* [67] According to Crowley, the Black Brother slowly disintegrates, while preying on others for his own self-aggrandisement.* [68] Crowley taught skeptical examination of all results obtained through meditation or magick, at least for the student.* [69] He tied this to the necessity of keeping a magical record or diary, that attempts to list all conditions of the event.* [70]* [71] Remarking on the similarity of statements made by spiritually advanced people of their experiences, he said that fifty years from his time they would have a scientific name based on “an understanding of the phenomenon”to replace such terms as “spiritual”or “supernatural”. Crowley stated that his work and that of his followers used“the method of science; the aim of religion”,* [72] and that the genuine powers of the magician could in some way be objectively tested. This idea has been taken on by later practitioners of Thelema, chaos magic and magick in general. They may consider that they are testing hypotheses with each magical experiment. The difficulty lies in the broadness of their definition of success,* [73] in which they may see as evidence of success things which a non-magician would not define as such, leading to confirmation bias. Crowley believed he could demonstrate, by his own example, the effectiveness of magick in producing certain subjective experiences that do not ordinarily result from taking hashish, enjoying oneself in Paris, or walking through the Sahara desert.* [74] It is not strictly necessary to practice ritual techniques to be a Thelemite, as due to the focus of Thelemic magick on the True Will, Crowley stated “every intentional act is a magickal act”.* [75]
The qabalistic tree of life, important in the magical order A∴A∴ as the degrees of advancement in are related to it.
20.2.5 Ethics
The emphasis of Thelemic magick is not directly on material results, and while many Thelemites do practice magick for goals such as wealth or love, it is not required. Those in a Thelemic magical Order, such as the A∴A∴, or Ordo Templi Orientis, work through a series of degrees or grades via a process of initiation. Thelemites who work on their own or in an independent group try to achieve this ascent or the purpose thereof using the Holy Books of Thelema and/or Crowley's more secular works as a guide, along with their own intuition. Thelemites, both independent ones and those affiliated with an order, can practice a form of performative prayer known
Liber AL vel Legis does make clear some standards of individual conduct. The most primary of these is“Do what thou wilt”which is presented as the whole of the law, and also as a right. Some interpreters of Thelema believe that this right includes an obligation to allow others to do their own wills without interference,* [76] but Liber AL makes no clear statement on the matter. Crowley himself wrote that there was no need to detail the ethics of Thelema, for everything springs from“Do what thou Wilt”.* [77] Crowley wrote several additional documents presenting his personal beliefs regarding individual conduct in light of the Law of Thelema, some of which do address the
20.3. CONTEMPORARY THELEMA
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topic interference with others: Liber OZ, Duty, and Liber II.
20.3 Contemporary Thelema
Liber Oz enumerates some of the rights of the individual implied by the one overarching right,“Do what thou wilt”. For each person, these include the right to: live by one's own law; live in the way that one wills to do; work, play, and rest as one will; die when and how one will; eat and drink what one will; live where one will; move about the earth as one will; think, speak, write, draw, paint, carve, etch, mould, build, and dress as one will; love when, where and with whom one will; and kill those who would thwart these rights.* [78]
20.3.1 Diversity of Thelemic thought
Duty is described as“A note on the chief rules of practical conduct to be observed by those who accept the Law of Thelema.”* [79] It is not a numbered“Liber”as are all the documents which Crowley intended for A∴A∴, but rather listed as a document intended specifically for Ordo Templi Orientis.* [79] There are four sections:* [80] • A. Your Duty to Self: describes the self as the center of the universe, with a call to learn about one's inner nature. Admonishes the reader to develop every faculty in a balanced way, establish one's autonomy, and to devote oneself to the service of one's own True Will. • B. Your Duty to Others: An admonishment to eliminate the illusion of separateness between oneself and all others, to fight when necessary, to avoid interfering with the Wills of others, to enlighten others when needed, and to worship the divine nature of all other beings. • C. Your Duty to Mankind: States that the Law of Thelema should be the sole basis of conduct. That the laws of the land should have the aim of securing the greatest liberty for all individuals. Crime is described as being a violation of one's True Will. • D. Your Duty to All Other Beings and Things: States that the Law of Thelema should be applied to all problems and used to decide every ethical question. It is a violation of the Law of Thelema to use any animal or object for a purpose for which it is unfit, or to ruin things so that they are useless for their purpose. Natural resources can be used by man, but this should not be done wantonly, or the breach of the law will be avenged. In Liber II: The Message of the Master Therion, the Law of Thelema is summarized succinctly as “Do what thou wilt—then do nothing else.”Crowley describes the pursuit of Will as not only with detachment from possible results, but with tireless energy. It is Nirvana but in a dynamic rather than static form. The True Will is described as the individual's orbit, and if they seek to do anything else, they will encounter obstacles, as doing anything other than the will is a hindrance to it.* [81]
The core of Thelemic thought is “Do what thou wilt” . However, beyond this, there exists a very wide range of interpretation of Thelema. Modern Thelema is a syncretic philosophy and religion,* [82] and many Thelemites try to avoid strongly dogmatic or fundamentalist thinking. Crowley himself put strong emphasis on the unique nature of Will inherent in each individual, not following him, saying he did not wish to found a flock of sheep.* [83] Thus, contemporary Thelemites may practice more than one religion, including Wicca, Gnosticism, Satanism, Setianism and Luciferianism.* [82] Many adherents of Thelema, none more so than Crowley, recognize correlations between Thelemic and other systems of spiritual thought; most borrow freely from the methods and practices of other traditions, including alchemy, astrology, qabalah, tantra, tarot divination and yoga.* [82] For example, Nu and Had are thought to correspond with the Tao and Teh of Taoism, Shakti and Shiva of the Hindu Tantras, Shunyata and Bodhicitta of Buddhism, Ain Soph and Kether in the Hermetic Qabalah.* [84]* [85]* [86]* [87] There are some Thelemites who do accept The Book of the Law in some way but not the rest of Crowley's “inspired”writings or teachings. Others take only specific aspects of his overall system, such as his magical techniques, ethics, mysticism, or religious ideas, while ignoring the rest. Other individuals who consider themselves Thelemites regard what is commonly presented as Crowley's system to be only one possible manifestation of Thelema, creating original systems, such as those of Nema and Kenneth Grant. And one category of Thelemites are non-religious, and simply adhere to the philosophical law of Thelema.
20.3.2 Thelemic holidays The Book of the Law gives several holy days to be observed by Thelemites. There are no established or dogmatic ways to celebrate these days, so as a result Thelemites will often take to their own devices or celebrate in groups, especially within Ordo Templi Orientis. These holy days are usually observed on the following dates: • March 20. The Feast of the Supreme Ritual, which celebrates the Invocation of Horus, the ritual performed by Crowley on this date in 1904 that inaugurated the New Aeon. • March 20/March 21. The Equinox of the Gods, which is commonly referred to as the Thelemic New Year (although some celebrate the New Year on April 8). Although the equinox and the Invocation
234
•
•
•
•
•
•
CHAPTER 20. THELEMA of Horus often fall on the same day, they are often during his lifetime, some later collected as Freedom is a treated as two different events. This date is the Au- Two-edged Sword. He died in 1952 as a result of an extumnal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. plosion, and while not a prolific writer himself, has been the subject of two biographies; Sex and Rockets by John April 8 through April 10. The Feast of the Three Carter, and Strange Angel by George Pendle. Days of the Writing of the Book of the Law. These three days are commemorative of the three Since Crowley's death in 1947, there have been other days in the year 1904 during which Aleister Crow- Thelemic writers such as Israel Regardie, who edited ley wrote the Book of the Law. One chapter was many of Crowley's works and also wrote a biography of written each day, the first being written on April 8, him, The Eye in the Triangle, as well as books on Qabalah. the second on April 9, and the third on April 10. Kenneth Grant wrote numerous books on Thelema and Although there is no official way of celebrating any the occult, such as The Typhonian Trilogy. Lon Milo DuThelemic holiday, this particular feast day is usually Quette has written several books which analyze Crowley's celebrated by reading the corresponding chapter on system. each of the three days, usually at noon. Other notable contemporary writers who address Thelema include Allen H. Greenfield, Christopher Hyatt, June 20/June 21. The Summer solstice in the Richard Kaczynski, Marcelo Ramos Motta, Rodney Northern Hemisphere and the Winter solstice in the Orpheus, IAO131, Phyllis Seckler, James Wasserman, Southern Hemisphere. Sam Webster, and Robert Anton Wilson. There are also August 12. The Feast of the Prophet and His journals which print original Thelemic writing. Bride. This holiday commemorates the marriage of Aleister Crowley and his first wife Rose Edith Crowley. Rose was a key figure in the writing of the Book 20.3.4 Thelemic organizations of the Law. Several modern organizations of various sizes claim to September 22/September 23. The Autumnal follow the tenets of Thelema. The two most prominent equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and the Vernal are both organizations that Crowley headed during his Equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. lifetime: the A∴A∴, an Order founded by Crowley, based on the grades of the Golden Dawn system; and Ordo December 21/December 22. The Winter solstice Templi Orientis, an order which initially developed from in the Northern Hemisphere and the Summer Sol- the Rite of Memphis and Mizraim in the early part of stice in the Southern Hemisphere. the 20th century, and which includes Ecclesia Gnostica The Feast for Life, celebrated at the birth of a Catholica as its religious arm. Thelemite and on birthdays.
• The Feast for Fire/The Feast for Water. These feast days are usually taken as being when a child hits puberty and steps unto the path of adulthood. The Feast for Fire is celebrated for a male, and the Feast for Water for a female. • The Feast for Death, celebrated on the death of a Thelemite and on the anniversary of their death.* [88]
20.3.3
Contemporary Thelemic literature
Aleister Crowley was highly prolific and wrote on the subject of Thelema for over 35 years, and many of his books remain in print. During his time, there were several who wrote on the subject, including U.S. O.T.O. Grand Master Charles Stansfeld Jones, whose works on Qabalah are still in print, and Major-General J. F. C. Fuller.
Since Crowley's death in 1947, other organizations have formed to carry on his initial work, for example, the College of Thelema, the Temple of Thelema, the College of Thelema of Northern California, the Holy Order Of RaHoorKhuit, the Temple of the Silver Star, the Typhonian Order of Kenneth Grant, the Order of Thelemic Knights, and The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn. Other groups of widely varying character exist which have drawn inspiration or methods from Thelema, such as the Illuminates of Thanateros and the Temple of Set. Some groups accept the Law of Thelema, but omit certain aspects of Crowley's system while incorporating the works of other mystics, philosophers, and religious systems. The Fraternitas Saturni (Brotherhood of Saturn), founded in 1928 in Germany, accepts the Law of Thelema, but extends it with the phrase “Mitleidlose Liebe!" (“Compassionless love!"). The Thelema Society, also located in Germany, accepts Liber Legis and much of Crowley's work on magick, while incorporating the ideas of other thinkers, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Charles Sanders Peirce, Martin Heidegger and Niklas Luhmann. Horus-Maat Lodge combines the ideas of the occultist Nema with those of Crowley.
Jack Parsons was a scientist researching the use of various fuels for rockets at the California Institute of Technology, and one of Crowley's first American students, for a time leading the Agape Lodge of the Ordo Templi Orientis Thelemites can also be found in other organizations. The for Crowley in America. He wrote several short works president of the Church of All Worlds, LaSara FireFox,
20.5. REFERENCES
235
identifies as a Thelemite. A significant minority of other CAW members also identify as Thelemites.* [82]
• Categorical imperative -“Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.”
20.3.5
• Libri of Aleister Crowley
Thelema and the British justice system
• Wiccan Rede
• Works of Aleister Crowley In May 2009 Thelema was recognised by Her Majesty's Court Service in the United Kingdom as a religion, as it has both a“Holy Book”(The Book of the Law) and deity (primarily for the purposes of the oath, Nuit) as required 20.5 References in law. John Mitchell of Seaford, East Sussex was on Jury Service at Lewes Crown Court and after providing infor- [1] Lon Milo DuQuette in Understanding Aleister Crowley's mation to Justice Richard Brown, the Senior Recorder Thoth Tarot, Weiser, 2003, ISBN 1578632765, p.43-53 for East Sussex – mainly Liber AL and the article“Your Duty to Mankind,”gained recognition of Thelema as a [2] Moore, John S. Aleister Crowley as Guru in Chaos International, Issue No. 17. valid religion. The article, “Your Duty to Mankind,” states that: [3] Christopher Penczak. Ascension Magick. Llewellyn. p. 41. ISBN 0-7387-1047-4.
Crime being a direct spiritual violation of the Law of Thelema, it should not be tolerated in the community. Those who possess the instinct should be segregated in a settlement to build up a state of their own, so to learn the necessity of themselves imposing and maintaining rules of justice. All artificial crimes should be abolished. When fantastic restrictions disappear, the greater freedom of the individual will itself teach him to avoid acts, which really restrict natural rights. Thus real crime will diminish automatically.
[4] Wilson, Robert Anton. The Illuminati Papers. And/Or Press, 1980. ISBN 1-57951-002-7 [5] Crowley, Aleister (1976). The Book of the Law. Red Wheel/Weiser, LLC. p. Page 7. ISBN 978-0-87728-3348. [6] Orpheus, Rodney. Abrahadabra. Weiser, 2005, ISBN 157863-326-5, p.64 [7] Crowley, Aleister.Aleister Crowley, Liber XIII vel Graduum Montis Abiegni: A Syllabus of the Steps Upon the Path, Hermetic webssite, retrieved July 7, 2006. [8] Gauna, Max. The Rabelaisian Mythologies, pp. 90-91. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. ISBN 08386-3631-4
Mitchell demonstrated that Thelema was a religion and created an oath that could be used instead of the affirmation: “I swear upon Nuit and by my own True Will, that [9] I will faithfully try the defendant and give a true verdict [10] according to the evidence.” The swearing of the oath was first used after the sitting Judge, Justice Tain, ruled it was acceptable; after some confusion due to the regular court ushers being on holiday, word had not got to the judge before the case started, causing a delay in proceedings while the legal technicalities were sorted out. The stand-in court officer had a copy of the letter from Justice Brown, saying Mitchell could use the oath and swear on Liber AL. Justice Tain ruled that if this is the case, HMCS should be notified so this sort of thing does not happen again to avoid embarrassment for Thelemites who are called up to jury service. * [89]
e.g. John 1:12-13 e.g. 2 Timothy 2:26
[11] Pocetto, Alexander T. Rabelais, Francis de Sales and the Abbaye de Thélème, retrieved July 20, 2006. [12] Sutin, p. 127. [13] The Works of Saint Augustine: A New Translation for the 21st Century, (Sermons 148-153), 1992, part 3, vol. 5, p. 182. ISBN 1-56548-007-4 [14] Salloway, David. Random Walks, p. 203. McGillQueen's Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7735-1679-4 [15] Rabelais, François. Gargantua and Pantagruel. Everyman's Library. ISBN 978-0-679-43137-4 [16] Encyclopædia Britannica (1911). Buckingham,
20.4 See also • Bacchanalia • Brethren of the Free Spirit
[17] Bowen, Barbara. Enter Rabelais, Laughing, p. 2. Vanderbilt University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8265-1306-9. [18] Sutin, Lawrence. Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley, p. 126. New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin, 2002. ISBN 978-0-312-28897-6.
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CHAPTER 20. THELEMA
[19]“Rabelais, like his protectress Marguerite de Navarre, was an evangelical rather than a Protestant”, definition follows. Catharine Randall, “Reformation,”The Rabelais Encyclopedia, edited by Elizabeth Chesney Zegura. p. 207. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. 2004. ISBN 0313-31034-3
[36] Willens, Daniel. The Hell-Fire Club: Sex, Politics, and Religion in Eighteenth-Century England in Gnosis, summer 1992. Retrieved July 22, 2006
[20] E. Bruce Hayes, “enigmatic prophecy”entry in The Rabelais Encyclopedia p. 68.
[38] Crowley, Aleister. The Equinox of the Gods. New Falcon Publications, 1991. ISBN 978-1-56184-028-1
[21] Marian Rothstein,“Thélème, ABBEY OF”entry in The Rabelais Encyclopedia p. 243.
[39] Crowley, Aleister. “The Equinox of the Gods - Chapter 7”. The Equinox of the Gods. Hermetic.com. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
[22] Stillman, Peter G.“Utopia and Anti-Utopia in Rousseau's Thought”in Rubin & Stroup (1999), p. 60 [23] Stillman, Peter G.“Utopia and Anti-Utopia in Rousseau's Thought”in Rubin & Stroup (1999), p. 70 [24] Rothstein, Marian. "Androgyne, Agape, and the Abbey of Thélème" (PDF) p. 17, n. 23, in French Forum, V. 26, No. 1. [25] Thelema is seen by some neutral parties as a philosophy, and not a religion. See Crowley, Aleister. Little Essays Toward Truth,p. 61-62 New Falcon Publications; 2 Rev Sub edition (May 1, 1996) ISBN 1-56184-000-9 (“These and similar considerations lead to certain types of philosophical skepticism. Neschamic conceptions are nowise exempt from this criticism, for, even supposing them identical in any number of persons, their expression, being intellectual, will suffer the same stress as normal perceptions. [...] But none of this shakes, or even threatens, the Philosophy of Thelema. On the contrary, it may be called the Rock of its foundation.”); See also Thelemapedia, “Arguments against Thelema being a religion”available at: http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Arguments_ against_Thelema_being_a_religion [26] Edwards, Linda. A Brief Guide to Beliefs: Ideas, Theologies, Mysteries, and Movements, p 478. Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22259-5. [27] Rabelais: The First Thelemite [28] National Grand Master General Sabazius X°. Address delivered by National Grand Master General Sabazius X° to the Sixth National Conference of the U.S. O.T.O. Grand Lodge, August 10, 2007
[37] Crowley, Aleister.“De Lege Libellum”, in The Equinox III(1) (Detroit: Universal, 1919).
[40] Farr, F., & Shakespear, O. The Beloved of Hathor and the Shrine of the Golden Hawk. Croydon. Farncombe & Son. Dating uncertain, approx. 1902 [41] Evans, Dave. Aleister Crowley and the 20th Century Synthesis of Magick, p. 10, pp. 26-30. Hidden Publishing, Second Revised Edition, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9555237-24 [42] Dave Evans, “Strange distant Gods that are not dead today”, p. 5. [43] Evans, Strange Gods p3 [44] Sutin pp 68, 137–138 [45] Crowley, Aleister. Liber AL vel Legis [46] Frater U.D. High Magic: Theory & Practice. Llewellyn Worldwide, 2005. p. 214. ISBN 0-7387-0471-7 [47]“But the Magician knows that the pure Will of every man and every woman is already in perfect harmony with the divine Will; in fact they are one and the same”-DuQuette, Lon Milo. The Magick of Aleister Crowley: A Handbook of the Rituals of Thelema, p. 12. Weiser, 2003. ISBN 1-57863-299-4. [48] DuQuette, Lon Milo, Angels, demons & gods of the new millennium, Weiser, 1997, ISBN 1-57863-010-X, p.3 [49] DuQuette, Lon Milo, The Magick of Aleister Crowley, Weiser, 2003, ISBN 1-57863-299-4, p. 12 [50] Morris, Brian. Religion and anthropology, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-521-85241-2, p. 302
[51] Harvey, Graham. Listening People, Speaking Earth, C. [29] Aleister Crowley, 1926,“The Antecedents of Thelema,” Hurst & Co., 1997, ISBN 1-85065-272-4 p. 98 in The Revival of Magick, edited by Hymenaeus Beta & [52] Sutin, p. 294. R. Kaczynski. [30] Crowley, Aleister. Liber XV, The Gnostic Mass. [31] Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. The Hellfire Clubs, retrieved July 22, 2006 [32] Philip Coppens (2006). Hell, no damnation. Retrieved July 21, 2006.
[53] Hymenaeus Beta (ed.) in Crowley, Aleister. The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King, p. xxi. Red Wheel, 1995. ISBN 0-87728-847-X [54] Kraig, Donald Michael. Falorio, Linda. Nema. Tara. Modern Sex Magick, 1998, Llewellyn, ISBN 1-56718394-8, p. 44
[34] Towers (1987) quoted in Coppens (2006)
[55] Orpheus, Rodney. Abrahadabra: Understanding Aleister Crowley's Thelemic Magick, pp. 33-44. Weiser, 2005. ISBN 1-57863-326-5
[35] Howard, Mike. The Hellfire Club, retrieved July 22, 2006
[56] Crowley, Aleister. Liber AL vel Legis, II,6.
[33] quoted in Sainsbury (2006), p.111
20.6. SOURCES
[57] DuQuette, Lon Milo in Orpheus, Rodney. Abrahadabra, p. 1 [58] Crowley, Aleister. Magick, Book 4, Introduction to Part III
237
[82] Rabinovitch, Shelley; Lewis, James. The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism,, pp. 267–270. Citadel Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8065-2406-5 [83] Crowley, Aleister. The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, ch. 66
[59] Gardner, Gerald Brosseau. The Meaning of Witchcraft, p. 86. Red Wheel, 2004. ISBN 1-57863-309-5
[84] Orpheus, p. 124 (Qabalah) and p. 131 (on Liber 777).
[60] DuQuette, Lon Milo. The Magick of Thelema
[85] Suster, p. 184 for Nuit and Tao, p. 188 for Hadit, Kether and Tao Teh, p. 146 & 150 for link to Tantra.
[61] Pearson, Joanne. A Popular Dictionary of Paganism, p. 44. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 0-7007-1591-6 [62] Orpheus, pp. 9-16, 45-52
[86] Jonathan Bethel & Michael McDaniel, Kundalini Rising A Comparative Thesis on Thelema and Kashm, retrieved March 23, 2009.
[63] Urban, Hugh. Magia Sexualis: Sex, Magic, and Liberation in Modern Western Esotericism. University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0-520-24776-0
[87] Crowley, Aleister. “777 Revised”in The Qabalah of Aleister Crowley. New York: Samuel Weiser, 1973. ISBN 0-87728-222-6
[64] Crowley, Aleister. Magick, Book 4
[88] Chappel, V.“Thelemic Calendar and Holidays”. Thelema 101. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
[65] Whitcomb, Bill. The Magician's Companion. Llewellyn, 1993, ISBN 0-87542-868-1, p.51
[89] John Mitchell, “Thelema in Court”, Sorath Shemesh Lodge OTO, Hastings, Vol. II No. 2 January 2010.
[66] Whitcomb, Bill. The Magician's Companion. Llewellyn, 1993, ISBN 0-87542-868-1 p.483 [67] Kaczinski, Richard. Wasserman, James. Weiser Concise Guide to Aleister Crowley Weiser, 2009. ISBN 1-57863456-3, p.41 [68] Cavendish, Richard. The Black Arts, Taylor & Francis, 1977, ISBN 0-330-25140-6, p.130 [69] Crowley, Aleister. Liber O, I.2-5 [70] Liber E vel Exercitiorum, section I in its entirety. [71] Wasserman, James. Aleister Crowley and the Practice of the Magical Diary. Weiser, 2006. ISBN 1-57863-372-9 [72] Crowley, Aleister. Liber ABA (Magick (Book 4) Part 1 (written 1912–13) [73] Luhrmann, Tanya. Persuasions of the witch's craft, p. 124. Harvard University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-674-66324-1 [74] Crowley, John St. John, entries for 2.5 and 2.22 on the Eleventh Day. [75] Kraig, Donald Michael. Modern Magick, Llewellyn, 1988, ISBN 0-87542-324-8 p.9 [76] Suster, Gerald. The legacy of the beast W.H. Allen, 1988, ISBN 0-491-03446-6 p.200 [77] Crowley, Aleister. Symonds, John. Grant, Kenneth. The confessions of Aleister Crowley Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979, p.400 [78] Crowley, Aleister. Liber OZ [79] Crowley, Aleister. Magick, Book 4, Appendix I:“Official Instructions of the O.T.O”, p. 484 [80] Crowley, Aleister. Duty. [81] Crowley, Aleister. Liber II: The Message of the Master Therion
20.6 Sources • Free Encyclopedia of Thelema (2005). Thelema. Retrieved March 12, 2005. • Thelemapedia. (2004). Thelema. Retrieved April 15, 2006. • This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "* article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
20.7 Further reading • Del Campo, Gerald. Rabelais: The First Thelemite. The Order of Thelemic Knights. • Melton, J. Gordon (1983). “Thelemic Magick in America”. Alternatives to American Mainline Churches, ed. Joseph H. Fichter. Barrytown, NY: Unification Theological Seminary. • Starr, Martin P. (2004) A Hundred Years Hence: Visions of a Thelemic Future (Conference Paper presented at the Thelema Beyond Crowley ) • Starr, Martin P. (2003). The Unknown God: W.T. Smith and the Thelemites. Bolingbrook, IL: Teitan Press. • van Egmond, Daniel (1998). “Western Esoteric Schools in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries”. In: van den Broek, Roelof and Hanegraaff, Wouter J.: Gnosis and Hermeticism From Antiquity To Modern Times. Albany: State University of New York Press.
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20.8 External links • Thelema 101 – a complete introduction to the spiritual philosophy of Thelema • Thelema at the Internet Sacred Texts Archive – a collection of texts on the topic of Thelema • Thelema For Beginners – a resource of quotations and links on basic topics related to Thelema • The Law of Thelema – by Alexander Duncan • Thelema at DMOZ • The Journal of Thelemic Studies • The Scarlet Letter
CHAPTER 20. THELEMA
Chapter 21
Hermetic Qabalah This article is about traditional Herm Qabalah. For other These emanations arise out of three preliminary states Kabbalistic traditions see Kabbalah, Christian Cabala, that are considered to precede manifestation. The first and Hurufism, Practical Kabbalah is a state of complete nullity, known as Ain (“ איןnothing”); the second state, considered a“concentration”of Hermetic Qabalah (from the Hebrew “ ַקָּבָלהrecep- Ain, is Ain Suph (“ אין סוףwithout limit, infinite”); the tion”or “accounting”) is a Western esoteric tradition third state, caused by a“movement”of Ain Suph, is Ain involving mysticism and the occult. It is the underly- Suph Aur (“ אין סוף אורlimitless light”), and it is from ing philosophy and framework for magical societies such this initial *brilliance that the first emanation of creation as the Golden Dawn, Thelemic orders, mystical-religious originates. [4] societies such as the Builders of the Adytum and the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross, and is a precursor to the Neopagan, Wiccan and New Age movements.* [1] The 21.1.2 The Sephiroth in Hermetic Qabalah Hermetic Qabalah is the basis for Qliphothic Qabala as studied by left hand path orders, such as the Typhonian Main article: Tree of life (Kabbalah) The emanations of creation arising from Ain Suph Aur Order. are ten in number, and are called Sephiroth (ְסִפירֹות, sinOccult Hermetic Qabalah arose alongside and united gular Sephirah ְסִפיָרה, “enumeration”). These are conwith the Christian Cabalistic involvement in the Euro- ceptualised somewhat differently in Hermetic Qabalah to pean Renaissance, becoming variously Esoteric Chris- the way they are in Jewish Kabbalah.* [5] tian, non-Christian, or anti-Christian across its different schools in the modern era. It draws on a great many in- From Ain Suph Aur crystallises Kether, the first sephifluences, most notably: Jewish Kabbalah, Western as- rah of the Hermetic Qabalistic tree of life. From Kether trology, Alchemy, pagan religions, especially Egyptian emanate the rest of the sephirot in turn, viz. Kether and Greco-Roman (the latter being from which the term (1), Chokhmah (2), Binah (3), Daath, Chesed (4), Gebu“Hermetic”is derived), neoplatonism, gnosticism, the rah (5), Tiphareth (6), Netzach (7), Hod (8), Yesod (9), as it is Enochian system of angelic magic of John Dee and Malkuth (10). Daath is not assigned a number * considered part of Binah or a hidden sephirah. [6] Edward Kelley, hermeticism, tantra and the symbolism of the tarot. Hermetic Qabalah differs from the Jewish Each sephirah is considered to be an emanation of the diform in being a more admittedly syncretic system, how- vine energy (often described as 'the divine light') which ever it shares many concepts with Jewish Kabbalah. ever flows from the unmanifest, through Kether into manifestation.* [7] This flow of light is indicated by the lightning flash shown on diagrams of the sephirotic tree which passes through each sephirah in turn according to their 21.1 Teachings enumerations.
21.1.1
Conception of Divinity
A primary concern of Hermetic Qabalah is the nature of divinity, its conception of which is quite markedly different from that presented in monotheistic religions; in particular there is not the strict separation between divinity and humankind which is seen in monotheisms.* [2] Hermetic Qabalah holds to the neoplatonic conception that the manifest universe, of which material creation is a part, arose as a series of emanations from the godhead.* [3]
Each sephirah is a nexus of divine energy and each has a number of attributions. These attributions enable the Qabalist to form a comprehension of each particular sephirah's characteristics. This manner of applying many attributions to each sephirah is an exemplar of the diverse nature of Hermetic Qabalah. For example, the sephirah Hod has the attributions of; Glory, perfect intelligence, the eights of the tarot deck, the planet Mercury, the Egyptian god Thoth, the archangel Michael, the Roman god Mercury and the alchemical element Mercury.* [8]* [9] The general principle involved is that the Qabalist will
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CHAPTER 21. HERMETIC QABALAH
Kether
1 Binah
3
Chokhmah
Chesed
Geburah
5
2
Daath
4
Tiphareth
6
Netzach
Hod
8
Yesod
7
9
Malkuth
10
The Qabalistic Tree of Life in the Servants of the Light organisation's Hermetic theory
The Sephirothic tree showing the lightning flash and the paths
meditate on all these attributions and by this means acquire an understanding of the character of the sephirah including all its correspondences.
21.1.3
Tarot and the Tree of Life
Main article: Divinatory, esoteric and occult tarot Hermetic Qabalists see the cards of the tarot as keys to the Tree of Life. The 22 cards including the twenty-one Trumps plus the Fool or Zero card are often called the "Major Arcana" or “Greater Mysteries”and are seen as corresponding to the twenty-two Hebrew letters and Syncretism of Cabala, Alchemy, Astrology and other esoteric the twenty-two paths of the Tree; the ace to ten in each Hermetic disciplines in a 1616 German depiction suit correspond to the ten Sephiroth in the four Qabalistic worlds; and the sixteen court cards relate to the classical elements in the four worlds.* [10]* [11]* [12] While the sephiroth describe the nature of divinity, the paths be- 21.2 History tween them describe ways of knowing the Divine.* [13]
21.2. HISTORY
21.2.1
241
Hermetic views of Qabalah origins
See also: Gnosticism Traditionalist Judaic views of Kabbalah's origins view it as an inherent development from within the Jewish religion, perhaps expressed through syncretic terminology from Medieval Jewish Neoplatonism. Contemporary academics of Jewish mysticism have reassessed Gershom Scholem's theory that the new doctrine of Medieval Kabbalah assimilated an earlier Jewish version of Gnosticism;* [14] Moshe Idel instead has posited a historical continuity of development from early Jewish mysticism.* [15] In contrast, Hermeticists have taken different views of Qabalah's origins. Some authors see the origins of Qabalah not in Semitic/Jewish mysticism, or ancient Egyptian Gnosticism, but in a western tradition originating in classical Greece with Indo-European cultural roots, later adopted by Jewish mystics.* [16] According to this view, “Hermetic Qabalah”would be the original Qabalah, even though the word itself is Judaic Hebrew, over the Christian Cabalah or the Jewish Kabbalah: Alongside the historical process of Christian conversion from paganism, Jewish mystical circles would have been able to incorporate gematria and the Tree of life to their own concepts and fully monotheistic framework, without being suspect. Christians, in contrast, would have been persecuted for the same process, as it would have been similar to their pre-Christian polytheistic panentheism. With the Renaissance, this wisdom would have been relearned by Christianity from Judaism.
The“Kircher Tree": Athanasius Kircher's 1652 depiction of the Tree of Life, based on a 1625 version by Philippe d'Aquin. This is still the most common arrangement of the Sephiroth and paths on the tree in Hermetic Qabalah
enment Age of Reason and its skepticism of mainstream religion, the tradition of exoteric-theological Christian 21.2.2 Renaissance occultism Cabala declined, while esoteric-occult Hermetic Qabalah flourished in the Western mystery tradition. Non-Jewish Jewish Kabbalah was absorbed into the Hermetic tradiCabala, unlike in Judaic Kabbalah's mainstream censure tion at least as early as the 15th century when Giovanni of its magical side, became a central component of WestPico della Mirandola promoted a syncretic world view ern occult, magic and divination. combining Platonism, Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Hermeticism and Kabbalah.* [17] Heinrich Cornelius Rosicrucianism and esoteric branches of Freemasonry Agrippa (1486–1535), a German magician, occult writer, taught religious philosophies, Qabalah, and divine magic theologian, astrologer, and alchemist, wrote the influen- in progressive steps of initiation. Their esoteric teachings, tial Three Books of Occult Philosophy, incorporating Kab- and secret society structure of an outer body governed by balah in its theory and practice of Western magic. It a restricted inner level of adepts, laid the format for modcontributed strongly to the Renaissance view of ritual ern esoteric organisations. magic's relationship with Christianity. Pico's Hermetic syncretism was further developed by Athanasius Kircher, a Jesuit priest, hermeticist and polymath, who wrote ex- 21.2.4 Nineteenth-century magical revival tensively on the subject in 1652, bringing further elements such as Orphism and Egyptian mythology to the Post-Enlightenment Romanticism encouraged societal interest in occultism, of which Hermetic Qabalistic writmix.* [18] ing was a feature. Francis Barrett's The Magus (1801) handbook of ceremonial magic gained little notice until 21.2.3 Enlightenment era esoteric societies it influenced the French magical enthusiast Eliphas Levi (1810-1875). His fanciful literary embellishments of Once Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Chris- magical invocations presented Qabalism as synonymous tian Church it was driven underground and a number of with both so-called White and so-called Black magic. Hermetic brotherhoods were formed. With the Enlight- Levi's innovations included attributing the Hebrew letters
242
CHAPTER 21. HERMETIC QABALAH
to the Tarot cards, thus formulating a link between Western magic and Jewish esotericism which has remained fundamental ever since in Western magic. Levi had a deep impact on the magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Through the occultists inspired by him (including Aleister Crowley, who considered himself Levi's reincarnation) Levi is remembered as one of the key founders of the 20th century revival of magic.
21.2.5
Pat Zalewski is a student of Jack Taylor, who was in turn a student of Robert Felkin's Golden Dawn school, as taught in New Zealand after Felkin emigrated there. Zalewski has published numerous on Hermetic Qabalah and the Golden Dawn tradition.
Samael Aun Weor has written many significant works that discuss Kabbalah within many religions, such as the Egyptian, Pagan, and Central American religions, which Hermetic Order of the Golden is summarized in his work The Initiatic Path in the Arcana of Tarot and Kabbalah. Dawn
Hermetic Qabalah was developed extensively by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn,* [19] Within the Golden Dawn, the fusing of Qabalistic principles such as the ten Sephiroth with Greek and Egyptian deities was made more cohesive and was extended to encompass other systems such as the Enochian system of angelic magic of John Dee and certain Eastern (particularly Hindu and Buddhist) concepts, all within the structure of a Masonic or Rosicrucian style esoteric order. Aleister Crowley, who passed through the Golden Dawn before going on to form his own magical orders, is the most widely known exponent of Hermetic Magic* [20] or Magick as he preferred to spell it. Crowley's book Liber 777 is a good illustration of the wider Hermetic approach. It is a set of tables of correspondences relating various parts of ceremonial magic and Eastern and Western religion to the thirty-two numbers representing the ten spheres (Sephiroth) plus the twenty-two paths of the Qabalistic Tree of Life. The panentheistic nature of Hermetic Qabalists is plainly evident here, as one may simply check the table to see that Chesed (“ חסדMercy”) corresponds to Jupiter, Isis, the colour blue (on the Queen Scale), Poseidon, Brahma, and amethyst.
21.2.6
meditation.
After the Golden Dawn
Many of the Golden Dawn's rituals were published by Crowley, altered in various ways to align them with his own New Aeon magickal approach. Israel Regardie eventually compiled the more traditional forms of these rituals and published them in book form.* [21] Dion Fortune, an initiate of Alpha et Omega (an offshoot of the Golden Dawn), who went on to found the Fraternity of the Inner Light wrote the seminal book The Mystical Qabalah, widely considered one of the best general introductions to modern Hermetic Qabalah.* [22]* [23] Paul Foster Case (1884–1954) was an American occultist and author of influential books on occult tarot and Qabalah. He founded the Builders of the Adytum (B.O.T.A) mystery school, rooted in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Masonic blue lodge system, later extended by Ann Davies. B.O.T.A. teaches esoteric psychology, occult tarot, Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, and
21.3 See also • English Qabalah • Goetia • Hermetism and other religions • Invocation • Magical organizations • Renaissance magic • Thaumaturgy • Theosophy • Theurgy • Sephirot • Western esotericism
21.4 References [1] Bogdan, H; “Western Esotericism and Rituals of Initiation”, University Of New York Press, 2007, ISBN 9780-7914-7069-5, p 49. [2] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 44. [3] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 37-42. [4] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 29-36. [5] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3. [6] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 51. [7] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 1. [8] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 20-21
21.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
243
[9] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 238-251
• Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives, New Haven and London, Yale University Press 1988.
[10] Waite, A.E.; “The Holy Kabbalah”, University Books, 1971, p 554-557
• Israel Regardie A Garden of Pomegranates: Skrying on the Tree of Life, Llewellyn Publications 1995.
[11] Regardie, Israel;“The Golden Dawn”, Llewellyn, 2000, ISBN 978-0-87542-663-1, p 540-593
• Kocku von Stuckrad (ed,), Kabbalah and Modernity: Interpretations, Transformations, Adaptations, Leiden, Brill 2010.
[12] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 107. [13] Fortune, Dion;“The Mystical Qabalah”, Aquarian Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-85030-335-3, p 102 [14] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford. Chapter on early Jewish mysticism discusses contemporary views that Gnosticism did not form a distinct religion. [15] Kabbalah: New Perspectives, Moshe Idel, Yale 1990 [16] The Greek Qabalah: Alphabetic Mysticism and Numerology in the Ancient World, Kieren Barry, Samuel Weiser 1999 [17] Farmer, S.A;“Syncretism in the West: Pico's 900 Theses (1486)", Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86698-209-2 [18] Schmidt, Edward W. “The Last Renaissance Man: Athanasius Kircher”, SJ. Company: The World of Jesuits and Their Friends. 19(2), Winter 2001–2002. [19] York, The Magicians of the Golden Dawn, (1972) p. ix. [20] Symonds, J & Grant, K; The Confessions of Aleister Crowley, Hill & Wang, 1969, ISBN 978-0-8090-3591-5. [21] Cicero, Chic & Cicero, Sandra; `Self Initiation into the Golden Dawn Tradition, Llewellyn, 1998, ISBN 978-156718-136-4, p xix. [22] Fielding, Charles and Collins, Carr; The Story of Dion Fortune, Thoth Books, 1998, ISBN 978-1-870450-33-1, p. 151 [23] Richardson, Alan, The Magical Life of Dion Fortune, Aquarian Press, 1991, p. 137, ISBN 978-1-85538-0516
21.5 Further reading • Paul A. Clark, The Hermetic Qabalah, Fraternity of the Hidden Light, 1999. • Dion Fortune, The Mystical Qabalah Aziloth Books, 2012. • Lon Milo DuQuette,The Chicken Qabalah of Rabbi Lamed Ben Clifford: Dilettante's Guide to What You Do and Do Not Need to Know to Become a Qabalist, Weiser Books 2001. • John Michael Greer, Paths of Wisdom: A Guide to the Magical Cabala, Thoth Publications 2007.
21.6 External links • Survey of Occultism in the Renaissance • Hermetic Kabbalah website
Chapter 22
Israel Regardie Francis Israel Regardie (né Regudy; November 17, 1907 – March 10, 1985), known simply as Israel Regardie (/ˈɪzriəl rᵻˈɡɑːrdi/), was an occultist, a writer, and Aleister Crowley's personal secretary and transcriptionist, widely known for his books and commentaries on the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
tonomous center of individual consciousness, energy and will – a soul, in a word. Like a star shining and existing by its own inward light it pursues its way in the star-spangled heavens, solitary, uninterfered with, except insofar as its heavenly course is gravitationally modified by the presence, near or far, of other stars. Since in the vast stellar spaces seldom are there conflicts between the celestial bodies, unless one happens to stray from its appointed course – a very rare occurrence – so when the realms of humankind there would be no chaos, little conflict and no mutual disturbance were each individual content to be grounded in the reality of his own high consciousness, aware of his ideal nature and his true purpose in life, and eager to pursue the road which he must follow.* [5]
22.1 Early life Regardie was born Francis Israel Regudy (Франсис Израиль Регудий) in London to Barnet Regudy, a cigarette maker, and his wife, Phoebe Perry, poor orthodox Jewish immigrants from Zhitomir, Ukraine. His family changed their surname to “Regardie”after a clerical mixup resulted in Israel's brother being enrolled in the British Army under that name.* [1] Regardie emigrated with his parents to the United States in August 1921 and settled in Washington, DC. He studied art in Washington, DC and Philadelphia, PA. With a Hebrew tutor he gained a linguistic knowledge which would prove invaluable in his later studies of Hermetic Qabalah.* [2] With easy access to the Library of Congress, he read widely and became interested in Theosophy, Hindu philosophy and yoga. He also joined the Societas Rosicruciana in America at around this time.* [3]
22.2 Career
Regardie would later write a biography of Crowley, The Eye in the Triangle, and continue to edit and republish Crowley's works up until the 1970s. In 1934 Regardie joined Stella Matutina, a successor organization of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.* [1] When the group disbanded, Regardie acquired the bulk of the Order's documents and compiled the book, The Golden Dawn, which earned him the enmity of many of the other former members and the reputation of being an oath-breaker because of the information it revealed. However, the book transformed the work of the Order into an entirely new branch of the Western Occult Tradition. As Regardie observed in his work A Garden of Pomegranates, "...it is essential that the whole system should be publicly exhibited so that it may not be lost to mankind. For it is the heritage of every man and woman – their spiritual birthright.”* [6] The various occult organizations claiming descent from the original Golden Dawn, and the systems of magic practiced by them, owe their continuing existence and popularity to Regardie's work.
After reading Part I of Book 4 by the occultist Aleister Crowley, Regardie initiated a correspondence which led to his return at 21 to the U.K. at Crowley's 1928 invitation to become his secretary. When the two parted company four years later, in 1932, Regardie distanced himself from Crowley personally, but still retained a great deal of respect for his writings.* [4] In 1931 he wrote A Garden of Pomegranates, a primer on Qabalah based on notes he had taken while working for Crowley. In 1937, at the age of 30, Regardie returned to the U.S., In 1932 Regardie published The Tree of Life, a book entering Chiropractic College in New York City. In addition, he studied psychoanalysis with Dr. E. Clegg and Dr. many consider his magnum opus. In it he states: J. L. Bendit, and psychotherapy with Dr. Nandor Fodor. According to the traditional philosophy of He opened a chiropractic office and taught psychiatry – the Magicians, every man is a unique auReichian, Freudian, and Jungian – retiring in 1981 at the 244
22.5. PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY age of 74, when he moved to Sedona, Arizona.* [7]
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22.5 Partial bibliography • A Garden of Pomegranates, 1932
22.3 Death Regardie died from a heart attack in the presence of close friends during a dinner at a restaurant in Sedona, Arizona on March 10, 1985 at the age of 77.* [8]
• The Tree of Life, 1932 • The Art of True Healing: The Unlimited Power of Prayer and Visualization, 1932 • My Rosicrucian Adventure, 1936 • The Golden Dawn, 1937-40 (4 vol.)
22.4 Legacy Regardie is a principal reliable source for much of what is known about the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. His writings and the students he taught or influenced provide much of the foundation for modern Western occultism. In addition to preserving the knowledge, Regardie also preserved a valid branch of the initiatory lineage of the Golden Dawn in America:
The second significant task carried out by Regardie was, as an Adept, to bring a valid branch of the initiatory lineage of the Golden Dawn to America the alchemical melting pot where the New Age was incubating. Such tasks are not always easy. A. M. A. G. waited here four decades until the threads of the pattern came together. Then, in one of those graceful synchronicities which often play midwife to significant magical events, a couple in Georgia were inspired—at that time scarcely aware of what they were undertaking —to build a Rosicrucian Vault, the powerful ritual chamber required to pass on the Adept Initiation, at precisely the time when two magicians (one on the east coast of the United States and one on the west coast), unknown to each other or to the Georgia couple, came to be ready to receive that Initiation. And A.M.A.G., with the right to confer the Initiation in such a Vault, was the connecting link among them. And so, in one remarkable weekend, Regardie presided over two Initiations into the Inner Order, the first and the last which he ever performed; and the Lamp of the Keryx was passed into American hands. —Forrest, Adam P. in Cicero (1995), p. 541
Note: in the above paragraph, A.M.A.G. refers to Regardie. Participants in the Order took on a pseudonym or magical motto. In Regardie's case, his motto was Ad Majorem Adonai Gloriam which means “To the Greater Glory of Adonai".
• The Middle Pillar, 1938 • The Philosopher's Stone, 1938 • The Romance of Metaphysics, 1945 • The Art and Meaning of Magic, 1964 • Be Yourself, the Art of Relaxation, 1965 • Twelve Steps to Spiritual Enlightenment, 1969 • The Eye in the Triangle, 1970
22.6 See also • List of occultists
22.7 Notes [1] Cicero 1997. [2] Regardie 1998b, p. xv. [3] SRIA: Dr. Israel Regardie [4] Regardie 1998b, pp. xv-xvii. [5] Regardie 1998a, p. 25. [6] Regardie 1936. [7] Llewellyn Publications. Author Bio: Israel Regardie [8] Regardie 1998b, p. xxi.
22.8 References • Cicero, Chic and Sandra Tabatha Cicero (1995). Secrets of a Golden Dawn Temple. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-150-4 • Cicero, Chic and Sandra Tabatha Cicero (1997), Israel Regardie • Regardie, Israel (1936), My Rosicrucian Adventure, Chicago: Aries Press
246 • Regardie, Israel (1998a) [1972], The Tree of Life: A Study in Magic, York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, ISBN 0-87728-149-1 • Regardie, Israel (1998b), The Middle Pillar: The Balance Between Mind and Magic (3rd ed.), St. Paul: Llewellyn, ISBN 1-56718-140-6
22.9 External links • Israel Regardie Foundation website
CHAPTER 22. ISRAEL REGARDIE
Chapter 23
Eliphas Levi Éliphas Lévi, born Alphonse Louis Constant (Febru- ings were highly popular in socialist circles. An especially ary 8, 1810 – May 31, 1875), was a French occult author radical pamphlet, La voix de la famine (1846, The Voice and ceremonial magician.* [1] of Famine), earned Constant another prison sentence that was significantly shortened at the request of his pregnant "Éliphas Lévi,”the name under which he published his * books, was his attempt to translate or transliterate his wife, Marie-Noémi Cadiot. [2] given names“Alphonse Louis”into the Hebrew language. In his Testament de la liberté (1848), Constant reacted to the atmosphere that would produce the February Revolution. In 1848, he was the leader of an especially notorious Montagnard club known for its radicalism. Although 23.1 Life and work until 1848 it has been claimed that the Testament marked the end of Constant's socialist ambitions,* [3] it has been argued that its content is in fact highly euphoric, announcing the end Constant was the son of a shoemaker in Paris; he atof the people's martyrdom and the“resurrection”of Libtended the seminary of Saint Sulpice since 1830 and beerty: the perfect universal, socialist order.* [4] Like many gan to study to enter the Roman Catholic priesthood. other socialists, the course of events, especially the masHowever, while at the seminary he fell in love and left sacres of the June Uprising in 1849, left him devastated in 1836 without being ordained. He spent the following and disillusioned. As his friend Esquiros recounted, their years among his socialist and Romantic friends, including belief in the peaciful realization of a harmonious univerAlphonse Esquiros and so-called petits romantiques such sal had been shattered.* [5] as Gérard de Nerval and Théophile Gautier. During this time he turned to a radical socialism that was decisively inspired by the writings of Félicité de Lamennais, the former leader of the influential neo-Catholic movement who 23.2 Life and work after 1848 had recently broken with Rome and propagated a Christian socialism. When Constant published his first radical In December 1851, Louis-Napoléon organized a coup writing, La Bible de la liberté (1841, The Bible of Lib- that would end the Second Republic and give rise to the erty), he was sentenced to an eight-month prison term Second Empire. Similar to many other socialists at the and a high fine. Contemporaries saw in him the most no- time, Constant saw the Emperor as the defender of the torious “disciple”of Lamennais, although the two men people and the restorer of public order. In the Moniteur do not seem to have established a personal contact. In parisien of 1852, Constant praised the new governement's the following years, Constant would describe his ideol- actions as“veritably socialist,”but he soon became disogy as communisme néo-catholique and publish a number illusioned with the rigid dictatorship and was eventually of socialist books and pamphlets. Like many socialists, imprisoned in 1855 for publishing a polemical chanson he propagated socialism as “true Christianity”and de- against the Emperor. What had changed, however, was nounced the Churches as corruptors of the teachings of Constant's attitude towards “the people.”As early as Christ. in La Fête-Dieu and Le livre des larmes from 1845, he Important friends at that time include, next to Esquiros, the feminist Flora Tristan, the excentric socialist mystic Simon Ganneau, and the socialist Charley Fauvety. In the course of the 1840s, Constant developed close ties to the Fourierist movement, publishing in Fourierist publications and praising Fourierism as the“true Christianity.” Several of his books were published by the Fourierist Librairie phalanstérienne. He also turned to the writings of the Catholic traditionalist Joseph de Maistre, whose writ-
had been skeptical of the uneducated people's ability to emancipate themselves. Similar to the Saint-Simonians, he had adopted the theocratical ideas of de Maistre in order to call for the establishment of a“spiritual authority” led by an élite class of priests. After the disaster of 1849, he was completely convinced that the“masses”were not able to establish a harmonious order and needed instruction (a concept similar to other socialist doctrines such as the “revolution from above,”the Avantgarde, or the
247
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CHAPTER 23. ELIPHAS LEVI tions of an ongoing rivalry between Spiritualists and occultists. The major reason for this was Constant's neoCatholic background, resulting in a determined Catholic self-understanding. For this reason, Constant equalled ( “true”) Catholicism and occultism. Developing the neoCatholic notion of a “primitive revelation,”Constant claimed that the Kabbalah and the Tarot were the means to decipher the true essence of the single true, universal religion, which is Catholicism.* [9] Constant commenced to write the volumes of his famous Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie in 1854. It began to appear in several livraisons but was only published in two volumes in 1855-1856. The two books were later combined into one book, which was translated into English by Arthur Edward Waite as Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual in 1896. Its famous opening lines, only added in the edition of 1861, present the essential theme of Occultism and gives some of the flavour of its atmosphere:
Baphomet, in Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie 1856
Partei neuen Typs.* [6] Constant's activities reflect the socialist struggle to come to terms both with the failure of 1848 and the tough repressions by the new government. He participated on the socialist Revue philosophique et religieuse, founded by his old friend Fauvety, wherein he propagated his “Kabbalistic”ideas, for the first time in public, in 1855-156 (notably using his civil name). The debates in the Revue do not only show the tensions between the old “Romantic Socialism”of the Saint-Simonians and Fourierists, they also demonstrate how natural it was for a socialist writer to discuss topics like magic, the Kabbalah, or the occult sciences in a socialist journal.* [7] It has been shown that Constant has developed his ideas about magic in a specific milieu that was marked by the confluence of socialist and magnetistic ideas.* [8] Influential authors included Henri Delaage (1825–1882) and Jean Du Potet de Sennevoy (1796–1881), who were, to different extents, propagating magnetistic, magical, and kabbalistic ideas as the foundation of a superior form of socialism. It has often been noted that Constant's reception of medieval or early modern magical sources has been remarkably superficial and often flawed. This can be explained by the fact that he developed his theory of magic in the particular magnetistic context of the 1850s, building on his earlier theory of a science universelle, a concept that he had developed in a FourieristSwedenborgian context. Indeed, many Fourierist became ardent Spiritualists at that time. Constant, however, was highly critical of Spiritualism, thus laying the founda-
Behind the veil of all the hieratic and mystical allegories of ancient doctrines, behind the darkness and strange ordeals of all initiations, under the seal of all sacred writings, in the ruins of Nineveh or Thebes, on the crumbling stones of old temples and on the blackened visage of the Assyrian or Egyptian sphinx, in the monstrous or marvelous paintings which interpret to the faithful of India the inspired pages of the Vedas, in the cryptic emblems of our old books on alchemy, in the ceremonies practised at reception by all secret societies, there are found indications of a doctrine which is everywhere the same and everywhere carefully concealed. (Introduction) Lévi began to write in succession Histoire de la magie in 1860. The following year, in 1861, he published a sequel to Dogme et rituel, La clef des grands mystères (“The Key to the Great Mysteries”). In 1861 Lévi revisited London. Further magical works by Lévi include Fables et symboles (“Stories and Images”), 1862, Le sorcier de Meudon ( “The Wizard of Meudon”, an extended edition of two novels originally published in 1847) 1861, and La science des esprits (“The Science of Spirits”), 1865. In 1868, he wrote Le grand arcane, ou l'occultisme Dévoilé (“The Great Secret, or Occultism Unveiled”); this, however, was only published posthumously in 1898.* [10] Remarkably, Constant would resume to use an openly socialist language after the government had loosened the restrictions against socialist doctrines in 1859. From La clef on, he extensively cited his radical writings, even his infamous Bible de la liberté. He contninued to developed his idea of an élite of initiates that would lead the people to its final emancipation. In several passges he explicitly identitied socialism, Catholicism, and occultism.* [11] The magic propagated by Eliphas Lévi became a great
23.4. DEFINITION OF MAGIC success, especially after his death. That Spiritualism was popular on both sides of the Atlantic from the 1850s contributed to this success. His magical teachings were free from obvious fanaticisms, even if they remained rather murky; he had nothing to sell, and did not pretend to be the inititate of some ancient or fictitious secret society. He incorporated the Tarot cards into his magical system, and as a result the Tarot has been an important part of the paraphernalia of Western magicians.* [12] He had a deep impact on the magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and later on the ex-Golden Dawn member Aleister Crowley. He was also the first to declare that a pentagram or five-pointed star with one point down and two points up represents evil, while a pentagram with one point up and two points down represents good. It was largely through the occultists inspired by him that Lévi is remembered as one of the key founders of the 20th century revival of magic.
23.3 Socialist Background and Alleged Initiation
249 first time. Instead, it was the aforementioned socialistmagnetistic context that formed the background of Constant's interest in magic.* [16] It should also be noted that the relationship between Constant and the novelist Edward Bulwer-Lytton has not been as intimate as it is often claimed.* [17] In fact, Bulwer-Lytton's famous novel A Strange Story (1862) includes a rather unflattering remark about Constant's Dogme et rituel.* [18]* [19]
23.4 Definition of Magic Lévi's works are filled with various definitions for “Magic”and the “Magician": Magic •“To practice magic is to be a quack; to know magic is to be a sage.” •“Magic is the divinity of man conquered by science in union with faith; the true Magi are Men-Gods, in virtue of their intimate union with the divine principle.”* [20]
It was long believed that the socialist Constant disap- Magician peared with the demise of the Second Republic and gave way to the occultist Eliphas Lévi. It has been argued re•“He looks on the wicked as invalids whom one must cently, however, that this narrative has been constructed pity and cure; the world, with its errors and vices, is at the end of the nineteenth century in occultist circles to him God's hospital, and he wishes to serve in it.” and was uncritically adopted by later scholarship. Ac•“They are without fears and without desires, domicordings to this argument, Constant not only developed nated by no falsehood, sharing no error, loving withhis “occultism”as a direct consequence of his socialout illusion, suffering without impatience, reposing ist and neo-catholic ideas, but he continued to propagate in the quietude of eternal thought... a Magus cannot the realization of “true socialism”throughout his entire * be ignorant, for magic implies superiority, masterlife. [13] ship, majority, and majority signifies emancipation According to the narrative developed by the occultist Paby knowledge. The Magus welcomes pleasure, acpus (i.e., Gérard Encausse) and cemented by the occultist cepts wealth, deserves honour, but is never the slave biographer Paul Chacornac, Constant's turn to occultism of one of them; he knows how to be poor, to abstain, has been the result of an“initiation”by the excentric Poland to suffer; he endures oblivion willingly because ish expatriate Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński. However, it he is lord of his own happiness, and expects or fears has been argued that Wronski's influence has been brief, nothing from the caprice of fortune. He can love between 1852 and 1853, and superficial.* [14] However, without being beloved; he can create imperishable this narrative had been developed before Papus and his treasures, and exalt himself above the level of honcompanions had any access to reliable information about ours or the prizes of the lottery. He possesses that Constant's life. This becomes most obvious in the light which he seeks, namely, profound peace. He regrets of the fact that Papus had tried to contact Constant by nothing which must end, but remembers with satismail on January 11, 1886 – almost eleven years after his faction that he has met with good in all. His hope is death. Later on, the construction of a speficically French a certitude, for he knows that good is eternal and evil esoteric tradition, in which Constant was to form a crucial transitory. He enjoys solitude, but does not fly the link, perpetuated this idea of a clear rupture betwwen the society of man; he is a child with children, joyous socialist Constant and the occultist Lévi. A different narwith the young, staid with the old, patient with the rative has been developed independently by Arthur Edfoolish, happy with the wise. He smiles with all who ward Waite, who had even less information about Consmile, and mourns with all who weep; applauding stant's life.* [15] strength, he is yet indulgent to weakness; offending Also, a journey to London that Constant made in May no one, he has himself no need to pardon, for he 1854 did not cause his occupation with magic, although never thinks himself offended; he pities those who he seems to have been involved in practical magic for the misconceive him, and seeks an opportunity to serve
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CHAPTER 23. ELIPHAS LEVI them; by the force of kindness only does he avenge himself on the ungrateful...”
•“Judge not; speak hardly at all; love and act.”
• Histoire de la magie, (The History of Magic), 1860 • La clef des grands mystères (The Key to the Great Mysteries), 1861 • Fables et symboles (Stories and Images), 1862 • La science des esprits (The Science of Spirits), 1865 • Le grand arcane, ou l'occultisme dévoilé (The Great Secret, or Occultism Unveiled), 1868 • Magical Rituals of the Sanctum Regnum, 1892, 1970 • The Book of Splendours: The Inner Mysteries of Qabalism
23.7 See also • Ceremonial magic • Magic (paranormal) • Occultism • Tarot Éliphas Lévi's Tetragrammaton pentagram, which he considered to be a symbol of the microcosm, or human being.
23.5 Cultural references • H. P. Lovecraft referred to Lévi twice in his novella The Case of Charles Dexter Ward.
• Witchcraft
23.8 Notes and references [1] Christopher McIntosh, Éliphas Lévi and the French Occult Revival, 1972. [2] Strube, Julian. Sozialismus. pp. 212–359.
• Angela Carter referred to Lévi in the short story "The Bloody Chamber.”
[3] Chacornac, Paul (1989) [1926]. Eliphas Lévi. Paris. p. 119.
• Anthony Powell quotes Lévi in his novel "The Military Philosophers".
[4] Strube, Julian (2016). Sozialismus, Katholizismus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 376–383. [5] Strube, Julian. Sozialismus. pp. 383–388.
23.6 Selected writings
[6] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 418–426.
• La Bible de la liberté (The Bible of Liberty), 1841
[7] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 470–488.
• Doctrines religieuses et sociales (Religious and Social Doctrines), 1841
[8] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 523–563.
• L'assomption de la femme (The Assumption of Woman), 1841 • La mère de Dieu (The Mother of God), 1844 • Le livre des larmes (The Book of Tears), 1845 • Le testament de la liberté (The Testament of Liberty), 1848 • Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, (Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual), 1854–1856
[9] See Strube,“Socialist Religion”and Strube, Sozialismus, p. 489-522 for details. [10] For a complete list, see Strube, Sozialismus, pp. 635-638. [11] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 565–589. [12] Josephson, Jason Ānanda. “God’s Shadow”History of Religions, Vol. 52, No. 4 (May 2013), 321. [13] Strube, Julian (2016-03-29). “Socialist religion and the emergence of occultism: a genealogical approach to socialism and secularization in 19th-century France”. Religion 0 (0): 1–30. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2016.1146926. ISSN 0048-721X.
23.10. EXTERNAL LINKS
[14] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 426–438. [15] Strube. Sozialismus. pp. 590–618. [16] Strube. Sozialsimus. pp. 455–470. [17] C. Nelson Stewart, Bulwer Lytton as Occultist 1996:36 notes that the one surviving letter from Lévi to Lytton “would appear to be addressed to a stranger or to a very distant acquaintance”(A.E. Waite). [18] Strube. Sozialsimus. pp. 584–585.
251 • Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual (Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie) trans. A.E. Waite (HTML at the Wayback Machine (archived September 19, 2008), PDF ) • How to attract your desires (1854) • The Key of Mysteries (HTML) • The Magical Ritual of the Sanctum Regnum (HTML, multiple formats)
[19] Bulwer-Lytton, A Strange Story, Edingburgh/London 1866, pp. 208-209: "...a book less remarkable for its learning than for the earnest belief of a scholar of our own day in the reality of the art of which he records the history...”
• Extensive biography in French
[20] Lévi, Éliphas; Blavatsky, H. P. (2007). Paradoxes of the Highest Science. Wildside Press LLC. p. 15. ISBN 9781434401069.
• Josephson, Jason Ānanda.“God’ s Shadow”History of Religions, Vol. 52, No. 4 (May 2013),
23.9 Further reading • Bowman, Frank Paul (1969). Eliphas Lévi, visionnaire romantique. Presses Universitaires de France. • Chacornac, Paul (1926). Eliphas Lévi: Rénovateur de l'Occultisme en France. Chacornac frères. • McIntosh, Christopher (1975). Eliphas Lévi and the French Occult Revival. Rider. • Mercier, Alain (1974). Eliphas Lévi et la pensée magique au XIXe siècle Alain Mercier. Seghers. • Strube, Julian (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France.”Religion. doi: 10.1080/0048721X.2016.1146926 • Strube, Julian (2016). Sozialismus, Katholizismus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts: Die Genealogie der Schriften von Eliphas Lévi. De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110478105.
23.10 External links • Works by Éliphas Lévi at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Eliphas Levi at Internet Archive • Works by or about Eliphas Levi at Internet Archive • Online books by Lévi • 19 Unpublished Fables by Éliphas Lévi Free download • New English translation (2014) of Dogma of High Magic by Éliphas Lévi
• Lévi, Éliphas. Clefs Majeurs et Clavicules de Salomon (“Major Arcana and Keys of Solomon”) – text online. Retrieved 19 October 2006
Chapter 24
Ceremonial magic Ceremonial magic or ritual magic, also referred to as high magic and as learned magic in some cases,* [1] is a broad term used in the context of Hermeticism or Western esotericism to encompass a wide variety of long, elaborate, and complex rituals of magic. It is named as such because the works included are characterized by ceremony and a myriad of necessary accessories to aid the practitioner. It can be seen as an extension of ritual magic, and in most cases synonymous with it. Popularized by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, it draws on such schools of philosophical and occult thought as Hermetic Qabalah, Enochian magic, Thelema, and the magic of various grimoires.
vival of ceremonial magic.
24.1 Renaissance magic
24.2.2 Eliphas Levi
24.2.1 Francis Barrett Among the various sources for ceremonial magic, Francis Barrett's The Magus embodies deep knowledge of alchemy, astrology, and the Kabbalah, and has been cited by the Golden Dawn, and is seen by some as a primary source. But according to Aleister Crowley, perhaps the most influential ceremonial magician of the Modern era, much of it was cribbed from Agrippa's Three Books of Occult Philosophy.
Eliphas Lévi conceived the notion of writing a treatise on magic with his friend Bulwer-Lytton. This appeared in 1855 under the title Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, The term originates in 16th-century Renaissance magic, and was translated into English by Arthur Edward Waite referring to practices described in various Medieval and as Transcendental Magic, its Doctrine and Ritual. Renaissance grimoires and in collections such as that of Johannes Hartlieb. Georg Pictor uses the term synony- In 1861, he published a sequel, La Clef des Grands Mystères (The Key to the Great Mysteries). Further magical mously with goetia. works by Lévi include Fables et Symboles (Stories and ImJames Sanford in his 1569 translation of Heinrich Cor- ages), 1862, and La Science des Esprits (The Science of nelius Agrippa's 1526 De incertitudine et vanitate scien- Spirits), 1865. In 1868, he wrote Le Grand Arcane, ou tiarum has“The partes of ceremoniall Magicke be Geo- l'Occultisme Dévoilé (The Great Secret, or Occultism Uncie, and Theurgie”. For Agrippa, ceremonial magic was veiled); this, however, was only published posthumously in opposition to natural magic. While he had his mis- in 1898. givings about natural magic, which included astrology, alchemy, and also what we would today consider fields Lévi's version of magic became a great success, especially of natural science, such as botany, he was nevertheless after his death. That Spiritualism was popular on both prepared to accept it as“the highest peak of natural phi- sides of the Atlantic from the 1850s contributed to his losophy”. Ceremonial magic, on the other hand, which success. His magical teachings were free from obvious included all sorts of communication with spirits, includ- fanaticisms, even if they remained rather murky; he had ing necromancy and witchcraft, he denounced in its en- nothing to sell, and did not pretend to be the inititate of some ancient or fictitious secret society. He incorporated tirety as impious disobedience towards God.* [2] the Tarot cards into his magical system, and as a result the Tarot has been an important part of the paraphernalia of Western magicians. He had a deep impact on the 24.2 Revival magic of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and later Aleister Crowley, and it was largely through this imStarting with the Romantic movement, in the 19th cen- pact that Lévi is remembered as one of the key founders tury, a number of people and groups have effected a re- of the twentieth century revival of magic. Main article: Renaissance magic
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24.4. SEE ALSO
24.2.3
253
Hermetic Order of the Golden 24.3.1 Grimoires Dawn
A grimoire /ɡrɪmˈwɑːr/ is a textbook of magic. Books of this genre, typically giving instructions for invoking Main article: Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn angels or demons, performing divination and gaining magical powers, have circulated throughout Europe since The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (or, more com- the Middle Ages. monly, the Golden Dawn) was a magical order of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, practicing a form of Magicians were frequently prosecuted by the Christian theurgy and spiritual development. It was probably the church, so their journals were kept hidden to prevent the single greatest influence on twentieth century Western owner from being burned. Such books contain astrologoccultism. Some aspects of magic and ritual that be- ical correspondences, lists of angels and demons, direccame core elements of many other traditions, includ- tions on casting charms and spells, on mixing medicines, ing Wicca,* [3]* [4] Thelema and other forms of magi- summoning unearthly entities, and making talismans. cal spirituality popular today, are partly drawn from the Magical books in almost any context, especially books of magical spells, are also called grimoires. Golden Dawn tradition.
24.3.2 Enochian magic 24.2.4
Aleister Crowley
Main article: Aleister Crowley
Enochian magic is a system of ceremonial magic based on the evocation and commanding of various spirits. It is based on the 16th-century writings of Dr John Dee and Edward Kelley, who claimed that their information was delivered to them directly by various angels. Dee's journals contained the Enochian script, and the table of correspondences that goes with it. It claims to embrace secrets contained within the apocryphal Book of Enoch.
English author and occultist Aleister Crowley often introduced new terminology for spiritual and magical practices and theory. For example, he termed theurgy “high magick”and thaumaturgy“low magick”. In The Book of the Law and The Vision and the Voice, the Aramaic magical formula Abracadabra was changed to Abrahadabra, which he called the new formula of the Aeon of Horus. 24.3.3 Organizations He also famously spelled magic in the archaic manner, as magick, to differentiate “the true science of the Magi Among the many organizations which practice forms of from all its counterfeits.”* [5] ceremonial magic aside from the Golden Dawn are the A∴A∴, Ordo Templi Orientis, and the Builders of the Adytum.
24.3 Magical tools 24.4 See also The practice of ceremonial magic often requires tools made or consecrated specifically for this use, which are required for a particular ritual or series of rituals. They may be a symbolic representation of psychological elements of the magician or of metaphysical concepts. In Magick (Book 4), Part II (Magick), Aleister Crowley lists the tools required as a circle drawn on the ground and inscribed with the names of god, an altar, a wand, cup, sword, and pentacle, to represent his true will, his understanding, his reason, and the lower parts of his being respectively. On the altar, too, is a phial of oil to represent his aspiration, and for consecrating items to his intent. The magician is surrounded by a scourge, dagger, and chain intended to keep his intent pure. An oil lamp, book of conjurations and bell are required, as is the wearing of a crown, robe, and lamen. The crown affirms his divinity, the robe symbolizes silence, and the lamen declare his work. The book of conjurations is his magical record, his karma. In the East is the magick fire in which all burns up at last.* [6]
• List of magical terms and traditions • Sex magic • Chaos magic • Invocation • Magic circle
24.5 Notes [1] Davies, Owen (2003). Cunning-Folk: Popular Magic in English History. London: Hambledon Continuum. Page ix. [2] Charles G. Nauert, Jr., Magic and Skepticism in Agrippa's Thought, Journal of the History of Ideas (1957), p. 176 [3] Colquhoun, Ithell (1975) The Sword of Wisdom. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
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[4] Phillips, Julia (1991) History of Wicca in England: 1939 - present day. Lecture at the Wiccan Conference in Canberra, 1991. [5] (Crowley, Magick (Book 4), p. 47) [6] Crowley, Aleister. Magick (Book 4).
24.6 References • Barrett, Francis. The Magus • Hall, Manly P. The Secret Teachings of All Ages • Mathers, S.L. MacGregor and Aleister Crowley. The Lesser Key of Solomon • Waite, A. E. The Book of Ceremonial Magic
24.7 External links • Journal of Thelemic Studies - the first non-partisan journal investigating the occult tradition of Thelema, founded by the author and occultist Aleister Crowley • Solomonic Magic by Don Karr
CHAPTER 24. CEREMONIAL MAGIC
Chapter 25
Theosophy Theosophy is a collection of mystical and occultist philosophies* [1] concerning, or seeking direct knowledge of, the presumed mysteries of life and nature, particularly of the nature of divinity and the origin and purpose of the universe.* [2] Theosophy is considered part of Western esotericism, which believes that hidden knowledge or wisdom from the Ancient past offers a path to enlightenment and salvation.
25.2.1 Antiquity and Medieval ending c. 1450 CE
The term theosophy was used as a synonym for theology as early as the 3rd century CE* [6] The 13th century work Summa philosophiae attributed to Robert Grosseteste made a distinction between theosophers and theologians. In Summa, theosophers were described as auTheosophy comes from the Greek theosophia (θεοσο- thors only inspired by the holy books, while theologians φία), which combines theos (θεός), 'God'* [3] and sophia like Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Origen were (σοφία), 'wisdom', meaning 'Divine wisdom'. From described as persons whose task was to explain theosthe late 19th century onwards, the term Theosophy has ophy. Therefore, the terms were the opposite of the * generally been used to refer to the religio-philosophic present-day meaning. [8] doctrines of the Theosophical Society, founded in New In Jewish mysticism, the theosophical* [10] doctrinal York City in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky, William Quan system of Kabbalah (Hebrew: “received tradition”) Judge, and Henry Steel Olcott. Blavatsky's major work, emerged in late 12th-century southern France (the book The Secret Doctrine (1888), was one of the foundational Bahir), spreading to 13th-century Spain (culminating in works of modern theosophy.* [4] As of 2015, organiza- the late 13th-century book Zohar). Kabbalah became the tions descended from, or related to, the Theosophical So- basis of later Jewish mystical development. The theociety were active in more than 52 countries around the sophical Kabbalah in Judaism was recast into its secworld.* [lower-alpha 1] Modern Theosophy has also given ond version, Lurianic Kabbalah, in 16th-century Ottoman rise to, or influenced, the development of other mystical, Palestine. From the Renaissance onwards, syncretic nonphilosophical, and religious movements.* [5] Jewish traditions of theological Christian Cabala and
25.1 Etymology The term theosophia appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early Church Fathers, as a synonym for theology: * [6] the theosophoi are“those who know divine matters.”* [7] The derived term theosophy was originally also a synonym for theology; * [8] however, it acquired various other meanings throughout its history.* [9]
25.2 Traditional theosophy
and
magical Hermetic Qabalah studied the Judaic texts, incorporating its system into their different philosophies, where it remains a central component of Western esotericism. Gershom Scholem, the founder of Jewish mysticism academia, saw Medieval and Lurianic Kabbalah as the incorporation into Judaism of Gnostic motifs,* [11] though interpreted strictly monotheistically. At the centre of Kabbalah are the 10 Sephirot powers in the divine realm, their unification being the task of man. In Lurianism, man redeems the sparks of holiness in materiality, rectifying the divine persona from its primordial exile.
Christian 25.2.2 16th and 17th century
During the Renaissance, use of the term diverged to refer to gnostic knowledge that offers the individual enSee also: Transcendent theosophy, Christian theosophy, lightenment and salvation through a knowledge of the and Western occultism bonds that are believed to unite her or him to the world of divine or intermediary spirits.* [7] By the 16th cen255
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CHAPTER 25. THEOSOPHY
tury the word theosophy was being used in at least one of its current meanings.* [7]. Christian theosophy arose in Germany in the 16th century. Inspired to a considerable extent by the works of Paracelsus (1493–1541),* [12] theosophy flourished in the works of Aegidius Gutmann (1490–1584), Valentin Weigel (1533–1588), Heinrich Khunrath (1560–1605), Johann Arndt (1555–1621), and Kaspar Schwenckfeld (1490–1584). The term had not yet reached a settled meaning, however, as the mid-16th century Theosophia by Johannes Arboreus provided a lengthy exposition that included no mention of esotericism.* [13] The work of the 17th-century German Christian mystic Jakob Boehme (1575–1624) strongly contributed to spread the use of the word “theosophy”, even though Boehme rarely used the word in his writings. It is on account of the title of some of his works, but these titles appear to have been chosen more by the editors than by Boehme himself.* [14] Moreover, Boehme gave the word “theosophy”a limited meaning, making it clear that he was not conflating nature with God.* [15] There were relatively few theosophers in the 17th century, but many of them were prolific.* [16] Outside of Germany, there were also theosophers from Holland, England, and France. This group is represented by Jan Baptist van Helmont (1618–1699), Robert Fludd (1574–1637), John Pordage (1608–1681), Jane Leade (1623–1704), Henry More (1614–1687), Pierre Poiret (1646–1719), and Antoinette Bourignon (1616–1680).* [17] Theosophers of this period often inquired into nature using a method of interpretation founded upon a specific myth or revelation, applying active imagination in order to draw forth symbolic meanings and further their pursuit of knowledge toward a complete understanding of these mysteries.* [7]* [18] In Athanasius Kircher's Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652), Kircher assigned the word theosophy to the methaphysics of the Egyptians and to Neo-Platonism, and thus he gave once again the word one of its most generally accepted meanings, that of divine methaphysics.* [19]
25.2.3
18th century
In the 18th century, the word theosophy came into more widespread use among some philosophers. However, the term “theosophy”was still “practically absent” throughout the entire eighteenth century in dictionaries and encyclopedias, where it only appeared more and more frequently beginning in the second half of the nineteenth century.* [20] Theosophers themselves used the word theosophy sparingly, at least up until the middle of the nineteenth century.* [21] Johann Jakob Brucker (1696–1770) included a long chapter on theosophy in his monumental work Historia critica philosophia. (1741). He included theosophers alongside other currents in esotericism in what was then a standard reference in the
history of philosophy. German philosophers produced major works of Christian theosophy during this period: Theophilosophia theoritica et practica. (1710) by Samuel Richter (pseudo. Sincerus Renatus) and Opus magocabalsticum et theosophicum. (1721) by Georg von Welling (pseudo. Salwigt, 1655-1727). Other notable theosophers of the period include Johann George Gichtel (1638–1710), Gottfried Arnold (1666–1714), Friedrich Christoph Oetinger (1702–1782), William Law (1686– 1761), and Dionysius Andreas Freher (1649–1728) . By the 18th century, the word theosophy was often used in conjunction with panosophy, i.e., a knowledge of divine things that is acquired by deciphering the supposed hieroglyphics of the concrete universe. The term theosophy is more properly reserved for the reverse process of contemplating the divine in order to discover the content of the concrete universe.* [22] In England, Robert Hindmarsh, a printer with a Methodist background, formed a “Theosophical Society”in 1783, for translating, printing and distributing the writings of Swedenborg.* [23] This society was renamed in 1785 as “The British Society for the Propagation of the Doctrines of the New Church", consisting of Swedenborgian based beliefs.* [24]* [25]* [lower-alpha 2] In France, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743–1803) and Jean-Philippe Dutoit-Membrini (alias Keleph Ben Nathan, 1721-1793) contributed to a resurgence of theosophy in the late 18th century. Other theosophical thinkers of this period include Karl von Eckartshausen (1752– 1803), Johann Heinrich Jung (1740–1817), FrédéricRodolphe Saltzmann (1749–1821), Johann Michael Hahn (1758–1819), and Franz von Baader (1765–1841). . Denis Diderot gave the word theosophie more attention than other encyclopedias of this period by including an article on it in his Encyclopédie, published during the French Enlightenment.* [26] The article dealt mostly with Paracelsus and essentially plagiarized Brucker's “Historia”.* [27]
25.2.4 19th century Groups such as the Martinist Order founded by Papus in 1891, followed the theosophical current closely linked to the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition and Western esotericism. Theosophers outside of the initiate societies included people such as Vladimir Solovyov (1853–1900), whose views have been described as follows: “although empiricism and rationalism rest on false principles, their respective objective contents, external experience, qua the foundation of natural science, and logical thought, qua the foundation of pure philosophy, are to be synthesized or encompassed along with mystical knowledge in 'integral knowledge,' what Solovyov terms 'theosophy.'"* [28]
25.3. BLAVATSKYAN THEOSOPHY AND THE THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
25.2.5
Common characteristics
Theosophy actually designates a specific flow of thought or tradition within the modern study of esotericism. Thus, it follows the path starting from the more modern period of the 15th century onward. Faivre describes the “theosophic current”or theosophy as a single esoteric current among seven other esoteric currents in early modern Western thought (i.e., alchemy, astrology, NeoAlexandrian hermetism, Christian Kabbalah, Paracelsism, philosophia occulta and Rosicrucianism).* [29] Christian theosophy is an under-researched area, a general history of it has never been written.* [30] Faivre noted that there are “obvious similarities”between earlier theosophy and modern Theosophy as both play an important part in Western esotericism and both claim to deal with wisdom from a gnostic perspective. But he says there are also differences, since they do not actually rely on the same reference works; and their style is different. The referential corpus of earlier theosophy “belongs essentially to the Judeo-Christian type”, while that of modern Theosophy“reveals a more universal aspect”.* [31] Although there are many differences between Christian theosophy and the Theosophical movement begun by Helena Blavatsky, the differences“are not important enough to cause an insurmountable barrier.”* [32] When referring to the ideas related to Blavatsky and the Theosophical Society, the word“Theosophy”is capitalized; otherwise it is not. Theosophy and theosophists refer to Blavatsky's philosophy while theosophy and theosophers refer to Christian theosophy. Some Theosophists were also theosophers.* [8] Blavatsky linked her use of the word theosophy to the Neoplatonists and Ammonius Saccas, rather than to the later Christian theosophers.* [33] Theosophers engage in analysis of the universe, humanity, divinity, and the reciprocal effects of each on the other. The starting point for theosophers may be knowledge of external things in the world or inner experiences and the aim of the theosopher is to discover deeper meanings in the natural or divine realm. Antoine Faivre notes, “the theosophist dedicates his energy to inventing (in the word's original sense of 'discovering') the articulation of all things visible and invisible, by examining both divinity and nature in the smallest detail.”* [7] The knowledge that is acquired through meditation is believed to change the being of the meditator.* [34]
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2. Primacy of the Mythic: The creative Imagination, an external world of symbols, glyphs, myths, synchronicities and the myriad, along with image, all as a universal reality for the interplay conjoined by creative mind. 3. Access to Supreme Worlds: The awakening within, inherently possessing the faculty to directly connect to the Divine world(s). The existence of a special human ability to create this connection. The ability to connect and explore all levels of reality; copenetrate the human with the divine; to bond to all reality and experience a unique inner awakening.
25.3 Blavatskyan Theosophy and The Theosophical Society
The emblem of the Theosophical Society
See also: Theosophical Society and Theosophical mysticism
The Theosophical Society was founded in New York City in 1875 with the motto, “There is no Religion higher Faivre identified three characteristics of theosophy. [35] than Truth”.* [36] Its principal founding members were The three characteristics of theosophy are listed below. Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (1831–1891), Henry Steel Theosophy: Olcott (1832–1907), and William Quan Judge (1851– 1896). 1. Divine/Human/Nature Triangle: The inspired analysis which circles through these three angles. The After several changes and *iterations its declared objecintradivine within; the origin, death and placement tives became the following: [37] of the human relating to Divinity and Nature; Na1. To form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of ture as alive, the external, intellectual and material. Humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, All three complex correlations synthesize via the incaste, or color. tellect and imaginative processes of Mind. *
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CHAPTER 25. THEOSOPHY
2. To encourage the study of Comparative Religion, 25.3.1 The World Teacher Project Philosophy, and Science. Main articles: Maitreya (Theosophy) and Order of the Star in the East 3. To investigate the unexplained laws of Nature and the powers latent in man. During the 1890s and 1900s, the international leadership of the Society and their circle became increasingly conThe emblem of the Theosophical Society includes seven vinced that the appearance of an “emissary”from the symbols of particular importance to the Society's sym- Spiritual Hierarchy was imminent; the expected emisbology: 1) the motto of the Society; 2) a serpent biting sary was further identified as the so-called World Teacher its tail (ouroboros); 3) the swastika; 4) the hexagram; 5) or Maitreya, originally by Leadbeater, who “discovthe cruxansata (Ankh); 6) the pin of the Society, com- ered”fourteen-year-old Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) posed of cruxansata and serpent entwined, forming to- as the entity's probable “vehicle”.* [43] Krishnamurti gether “T.S.”, and 7) Om (or aum). The seal of the was groomed extensively for his expected messianic role, Society contains all of these symbols, except aum, and and a new organization, the Order of the Star in the East thus contains, in symbolic form, the doctrines its mem- (OSE), was formed in 1911 to support him in this misbers follow.* [38] sion. The project received widespread publicity and enThe Society was organized as a non-proselytizing, non- joyed worldwide following, chiefly among Theosophists. sectarian entity.* [39]* [40] Blavatsky and Olcott (the first It also encountered opposition within and without the President of the Society) moved from New York to Theosophical Society, and contributed or led to years of Bombay, India in 1878. The International Headquarters upheaval, power struggles and doctrinal schism within * of the Society was eventually established in Adyar, a sub- Theosophy. [44] Additional negative repercussions ocurb of Madras. The original organization, after splits curred in 1929, when Krishnamurti repudiated the mesand realignments has (as of 2011) several offshoots; all sianic status claimed on his behalf and dissolved the OSE; of them accept the three objectives above, and the pre- soon after he severed ties with the Society and Theosocepts put forth by Blavatsky. Blavatsky was influential on phy in general. The adverse reactions and mixed publicity spiritualism and related subcultures: “The western es- generated by the entire World Teacher Project, and espeoteric tradition has no more important figure in modern cially by its demise and aftermath, damaged the standing of Theosophy and of its institutions. However, Krishnatimes.”* [41] murti eventually established a worldwide reputation as an Helena Blavatsky was a charismatic, unconventional and original and respected independent speaker and thinker controversial woman of mixed Russian and German de- on spiritual and philosophical issues.* [45] scent, who had reputedly travelled extensively; she became the major proponent of both theoretical and practical Theosophy.* [42] Since its inception, and through doctrinal assimilation or divergence, Theosophy has also 25.4 Post-Blavatskyan Theosophy given rise to or influenced the development of other mysand new religious movements tical, philosophical, and religious movements.* [5] Following Blavatsky's death, disagreements among promiMain article: Neo-Theosophy nent Theosophists caused a series of splits and sev* eral Theosophical organizations emerged. [lower-alpha 3] The formal successor of the original Society is as of Contemporaries of Blavatsky, as well as later 2011 known as the Theosophical Society Adyar. After theosophists, contributed to the development of a split in 1895, William Quan Judge established a new this school of theosophical thought, producing works Theosophical organization in New York City which later that at times sought to elucidate the ideas she presented eventually moved to Pasadena, California. It is known as (see Gottfried de Purucker), and at times to expand upon of 2011 as the Theosophical Society Pasadena. The lat- them.* [lower-alpha 5] Since its inception, and through ter split yet again; another Theosophical organization, the doctrinal assimilation or divergence, Theosophy has also United Lodge of Theosophists was the result, formed by given rise to or influenced the development of other Robert Crosbie in 1909. mystical, philosophical, and religious movements.* [46] Contemporaries of Blavatsky, including William Quan Judge and Alfred Percy Sinnett, and later exponents have contributed to the development of this Theosophy, producing works that at times expanded on the original concepts.* [lower-alpha 4] Through the various Theosophical Societies and Organizations, Theosophy remains an active philosophical school with presences in more than 50 countries around the world.
During the two decades that followed the death of Blavatsky, a number of leading Theosophists expanded or reinterpreted her own and other theosophical works. Prominent among them were Charles Webster Leadbeater (1854–1934), then considered the Society's main occult investigator, and Annie Besant (1847–1933), who became the International President of the Society in 1907, following the death of Olcott. Some of their (and
25.4. POST-BLAVATSKYAN THEOSOPHY AND NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS others') prolific commentaries and newly introduced concepts became subjects of doctrinal debate and dispute; dissidents charged them with straying from Theosophical orthodoxy and derisively labeled such works NeoTheosophy.* [47] However, in later usage the term came to signify presumed theosophical or quasi-theosophical thought advanced by people not directly connected to the Theosophical movement or its institutions, especially former Theosophist Alice Bailey and groups associated with her; and also the people and organizations mentioned below under the heading New Age Movement. G.R.S. Mead was an early Theosophist. In 1909 he resigned from the Theosophical Society which was Orientalist. Prior to his break from the Society Mead had already begun emphasizing sources from the Western esoteric tradition in his writing. Mead was among the first Theosophists to explicate a "'Western' theosophy deriving from Alexandrian and Hellenistic sources in the early centuries A.D.”* [48]
25.4.1
Influence
259
Some early members of the Theosophical Society were closely linked to the Indian independence movement, including Allan Octavian Hume, Annie Besant and others. Hume was particularly involved in the founding of the Indian National Congress.* [52] The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism* [53] and Hindu reform movements, and the spread of those modernised versions in the west.* [53] Main article: Buddhist modernism Blavatsky and Olcott took part in Anagarika Dharmapala's revival of Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon.* [54]* [55] Anthroposophy Rudolf Steiner, head of the German branch of the Theosophical Society in the early part of the 20th-century, disagreed with the Adyar-based international leadership of the Society over several doctrinal matters including the so-called World Teacher Project (see above). Steiner left the Theosophical Society in 1913 to promote his own theosophy-influenced philosophy,* [56]* [57] which he called Anthroposophy, through a new organization, the Anthroposophical Society; the great majority of Germanspeaking members of the Theosophical Society joined the newly formed Anthroposophical Society. New Age movement
The book The Voice of the Silence presented by Blavatsky to Leo Tolstoy
Following
The present-day New Age movement is said to be based to a considerable extent on original Theosophical tenets and ideas.“No single organization or movement has contributed so many components to the New Age Movement as the Theosophical Society. ... It has been the major force in the dissemination of occult literature in the West in the twentieth century.”* [58]
During the 1920s the Theosophical Society Adyar had around 7,000 members in the United States.* [49] According to a Theosophical source, the Indian section in 2008 was said to have around 13,000 members while in the US the 2008 membership was reported at around 3,900.* [50]
Other organizations loosely based on Theosophical texts and doctrines include the Agni Yoga, and a group of religions based on Theosophy called the Ascended Master Teachings: the “I AM”Activity, The Bridge to Freedom and The Summit Lighthouse, which evolved into the Church Universal and Triumphant. These various offshoots dispute the authenticity of their rivals.
India and Sri Lanka
Scholarship
The Theosophical Society Adyar was closely linked to the Indian independence movement: the Indian National Congress was founded across the street in 1885 during a Theosophical conference, and many of its leaders, including M. K. Gandhi were associated with Theosophy. However Hindu spiritual teacher and leader Swami Vivekananda has criticized Theosophy and Theosophists.* [51]
Scholar Alvin Boyd Kuhn wrote his thesis, Theosophy: A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom, on the subject – the first instance in which an individual obtained his doctorate with a thesis on Theosophy.* [59] It can called also Olav Hammer's and Arnold Kalnitsky's doctoral dissertations (in 2000 and in 2003 respectively).* [60]* [61] Art, music, literature
260
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Artists and authors who investigated Theosophy include Talbot Mundy, Charles Howard Hinton, Geoffrey Hodson, James Jones,* [62] H. P. Lovecraft, and L. Frank Baum. Composer Alexander Scriabin was a Theosophist whose beliefs influenced his music, especially by providing a justification or rationale for his chromatic language. Scriabin devised a quartal synthetic chord, often called his“mystic”chord, and before his death Scriabin planned a multimedia work to be performed in the Himalayas that would bring about the armageddon; “a grandiose religious synthesis of all arts which would herald the birth of a new world.”* [63] This piece, Mysterium, was never realized, due to his death in 1915. Leonid Sabaneyev, in his book Reminiscences about Scriabin (1925), wrote that The Secret Doctrine and journals“Bulletin of theosophy” constantly were on Scriabin's work table.* [64] Scriabin reread The Secret Doctrine very carefully and marked the most important places by a pencil.* [65]* [lower-alpha 6] Artists reported to be Theosophists were Wassily Kandinsky and Piet Mondrian. Blavatsky presented her book The Voice of the Silence, The Seven gates, Two Paths to Leo Tolstoy. In his works, Tolstoy used the dicta from the theosophical journal Theosophischer Wegweiser.* [66] In his diary, he wrote on 12 February 1903,“I am reading a beautiful theosophical journal and find many common with my understanding.” * [67]
25.5 References 25.5.1
Notes
[1] Societies and Organizations include, but are not limited to: The Theosophical Society, Adyar , The Theosophical Society, Pasadena , The United Lodge of Theosophists [2] For mention of the 1783 Theosophical Society, see Odhner, Carl T., ed. (1898). Annals of the New Church. Philadelphia: Academy of the New Church. pp. 119– 120, 122–123, 125, 127, 140, 219, 297, 314, 330, 405. OCLC 680808382. [3] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes. [4] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes. See Neo-Theosophy. [5] Some of the later works have become the focus of, or have contributed to, lively discussion among leading proponents of Theosophy, and on occasion have led to serious doctrinal disputes. See Neo-Theosophy. [6] For more about how Scriabin was influenced by Blavatsky, see Adamenko, Victoria (2007) [2006]. Neo-mythologism in music : from Scriabin and Schoenberg to Schnittke and
Crumb. Interplay series 5. Hillsdale, NY: Pendagon Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 9781576471258.
25.5.2 Citations [1] Huss, Boaz (2013), “Forward, to the East: Mapthali Herz Imber's Perception of Kabbalah” , Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 12 (3): 398, doi:10.1080/14725886.2013.826464 [2] Hanegraaff, Wouter J (2013), Western Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed, London; New York: Bloomsbury Academic, p. 35, 99, ISBN 9781441146748, LCCN 2012019254, OCLC 777652932 [3] LIddell and Scott: Greek-English Lexicon [4] Blavatsky 1888 [5] Melton 1990, xxv–xxvi [6] Lobel 2007, p. 27 [7] Faivre 1987 [8] Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0791421783. [9] Faivre 2000, p. 4 [10] The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Louis Jacobs, Oxford University Press 1995; entry on Kabbalah [11] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Oxford University Press; chapters on Medieval and Lurianic Kabbalah [12] Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. State University of New York Press. p. 8. ISBN 0791421783. [13] Faivre 1987, p. 465 [14] Faivre 2000, p. 13, see also p.19 [15] Faivre 2000, p. 13 [16] Faivre 2000, pp. 10–11 Faivre's list of 17th century theosophers in North-Western Europe (including Germany) consists of roughly ten names. [17] Faivre 2000, p. 10-11 Henry More is added to the list by Faivre with some reservations [18] OED 1989 v. XVII, p. 903. [19] Faivre 2000, p. 14 [20] Faivre 2000, p. 47 (Diderot is the one exception Faivre mentions) [21] Faivre 2000, p. 24 [22] Faivre 1987, p. 467 [23] Hindmarsh, Robert, Rise and Progress of The New Jerusalem Church In England, America and Other Parts, Hoderson and Sons, London 1861; ISBN 1-4021-3146-1. Online
25.5. REFERENCES
261
[24] Rix 2007, p. 98.
[47] Thomas 2003.
[25] Goodrick-Clarke 2008, pp. 168-169.
[48] Goodrick-Clarke, Claire and Nicholas (2005). G. R. S. Mead and the Gnostic Quest. North Atlantic Books. pp. 9, 19 and 32. ISBN 155643572X.
[26] Faivre 1987, p. 466 [27] Faivre 2000, pp. 18–19 [28] Nemeth IEP [29] Faivre 2000, p. 32 [30] Faivre 2000, p. 31, also xxx.(Preface)
[49] Tillet 1986, pp. 942–947 [Volume III: “Appendix 4: Membership of the Theosophical Society"]. [50] TIS 2009 [51] STRAY REMARKS ON THEOSOPHY
[31] Faivre 2000, pp. 4–5 [32] Faivre 2000, p. 5 Faivre quotes and agrees with JeanLouis Siémons.
[52] Кранстон 1999, sect. 5/1. [53] McMahan 2008.
[33] Blavatsky, H.P. (1889). The Key to Theosophy. p. Section 1 “The name Theosophy dates from the third century of [54] Gombrich 2006, pp. 136-140. our era, and began with Ammonius Saccas and his disciples (1), who started the Eclectic Theosophical system.” [55] Fields 1992, pp. 83–118. . [56] Rudolf Steiner's book Theosophy, An Introduction to Su[34] Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: persensible Knowledge of the World and the Destination of Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements (HIMM) as New Man (published in German as,“Theosophie. Einfuerung Religion. New York, NY: New York University Press. p. in uebersinnliche Welterkenntnis und Menschenbestim31. ISBN 978-0-8147-9449-4. mung”), first appeared in 1904 [35] Faivre 2000, pp. 7–8 [36] Blavatsky 1888, p. xli [Volume I: Introduction]. “In other words—'THERE IS NO RELIGION (OR LAW) HIGHER THAN TRUTH' —'SATYÂT NÂSTI PARO DHARMAH'—the motto of the Maharajah of Benares, adopted by the Theosophical Society.”
[57] Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy of the Rosicrucian, lectures given in 1907 [58] Melton 1990, pp. 458–461. Note “Chronology of the New Age Movement”pp. xxxv–xxxviii in same work, starts with the formation of the Theosophical Society in 1875; see also Lewis & Melton 1992, xi.
[37] Kuhn 1992, pp. 63-64. [38] Nilakant 1886. [39] Olcott 1891. “Article I: Constitution: 4. The Theosophical Society is absolutely unsectarian, and no assent to any formula of belief, faith or creed shall be required as a qualification of membership; but every applicant and member must lie in sympathy with the effort to create the nucleus of a Universal Brotherhood of Humanity.” [40] Blavatsky 1888b. [41] Johnson 1994.
[59] Kuhn 1992. [60] Hammer 2003. [61] Kalnitsky 2003. [62] Carter 1998. [63] Minderovic 2011; Кранстон 1999, sect. 7/4-6 [64] Сабанеев, Леонид Л., ed. (2000). Воспоминания о Скрябине. Москва: Классика-XXI. pp. 63, 173, 241.
[42] Davenport-Hines 2004
[44] Tillet 1986, pp. 506–553 [Volume I: “Chapter 15: Conflict over Krishnamurti"]. Information on the contemporary controversies regarding Krishnamurti, inside and outside the Theosophical Society. See also Anthroposophy in this page.
[65] Schloezer, Boris de (1923). A. Skrjabin 1. Berlin: Grani. p. 27. OCLC 723767921. Цит. по: Бандура А. И. А. Н. Скрябин и Е. П. Блаватская // 175 лет со дня рождения Е. П. Блаватской. Материалы Международной научно-общественной конференции. – СанктПетербургское отделение Международного Центра Рерихов, Санкт-Петербург, 2006 г. – С. 120 (А. И. Бандура – кандидат искусствоведения, председатель музыкально-философского общества имени А. Н. Скрябина, Москва)
[45] Campbell 1980, p. 130; Vernon 2001, pp. 188–189, 268– 270; see also alpheus 2001.
[66] Толстой 1955, p. 67.
[46] Melton 1990, xxv–xxvi.
[67] Толстой 1935, p. 155.
[43] Wood 1964. Eyewitness account of Krishnamurti's“discovery”, and comments on related events and controversies, by one of Leadbeater's close associates.
262
25.5.3
CHAPTER 25. THEOSOPHY
Bibliography
• Blavatsky, Helena (1888). The Secret Doctrine: The Synthesis of Science, Religion, and Philosophy. London: The Theosophical Publishing Company. • ————(November 1888). "Is Theosophy a Religion?". Lucifer (London: Theosophical Publishing Company) 3 (15): 177–187. • ————(1889). The Key to Theosophy. London: The Theosophical Publishing Company. • Carter, Steven R. (1998). James Jones: an American literary orientalist master. Urbana, Il and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02371-4. • Davenport-Hines, Richard (Jan 2011) [2004]. “Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna (1831–1891)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/40930. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) • Faivre, Antoine (1987). “Theosophy”. In Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. The encyclopedia of religion 14. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 9780029094808. • Faivre, Antoine (2000). Theosophy, imagination, tradition : studies in western esotericism. SUNY series in Western esoteric traditions. Translated by Christine Rhone. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791444351. • Fields, Rick (1992) [1981]. How the swans came to the lake: a narrative history of Buddhism in America (3rd rev. and updated ed.). Boston; London: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 0-87773-583-2. • Gombrich, Richard F. (2006) [1988]. Theravāda Buddhism: a social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. Library of religious beliefs and practices (Reprint of 1st ed.). London; New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-415-07585-8. • Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2008). The Western Esoteric Traditions. New York: Oxford University Press. • Godwin, Joscelyn (1994). The theosophical enlightenment. SUNY series in Western esoteric traditions. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791421512. • Hammer, Olav (2003) [2001]. Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age (PhD thesis). Studies in the history of religions. Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004136380. • Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2006). “Esotericism”. In Hanegraaff, Wouter J. The dictionary of Gnosis and Western Esotericism. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill.
• Johnson, K. Paul (1994). The masters revealed: Madame Blavatsky and the myth of the Great White Lodge. SUNY series in Western esoteric traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2063-9. • Kalnitsky, Arnold (2003). The Theosophical Movement of the Nineteenth Century: The Legitimation of the Disputable and the Entrenchment of the Disreputable (PDF) (D. Litt. et Phil. thesis). Promoter Dr H. C. Steyn. Pretoria: University of South Africa (published 2009). OCLC 732370968. Retrieved 2016-06-14 – via Unisa ETD. • Kuhn, Alvin Boyd (1992) [Originally published 1930]. Theosophy: A Modern Revival of Ancient Wisdom (PhD thesis). American religion series: Studies in religion and culture. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-56459-175-3. Retrieved 14 June 2016. • Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon, eds. (1992). Perspectives on the New Age. SUNY series in religious studies. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791412138. Retrieved 15 June 2016. • Lobel, Diane (2007). A Sufi-Jewish dialogue: philosophy and mysticism in Baḥya Ibn Paqūda's“Duties of the heart”. Jewish culture and contexts. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8122-3953-9. • Melton, J. Gordon, ed. (1990). New Age Encyclopedia. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale Research. ISBN 0-8103-7159-6. • Minderovic, Zoran (2011). “Alexander Scriabin (Biography)". AllMusic. Retrieved 15 June 2016. • Nemeth, Thomas.“Vladimir Solovyov”. In Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley Harris. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Martin, TN: University of Tennessee at Martin. ISSN 2161-0002. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08. • Oxford English Dictionary 17. Oxford University Press. 1989. p. 903. • McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 • Nilakant (May 1886). Judge, William Q., ed. “Theosophical symbolism”. The path (New York: W. Q. Judge) 1 (2): 51. LCCN 2003221012. Transcribed in “Theosophical symbolism”. Pasadena: theosociety.org. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2016. • Olcott, Henry S. (January 1891). “Constitution and Rules of the Theosophical Society”. The
25.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
263
Theosophist 12 (4): 65–72. ISSN 0040-5892. As Revised in Session of the General Council, all the Sections being represented, at Adyar, December 27, 1890
• Ellwood, Robert S. (1986). Theosophy : a modern expression of the wisdom of the ages. Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publishing House. p. 237. ISBN 08356-0607-4.
• Rix, Robert (2007). William Blake and the cultures of radical Christianity. Burlington, VT [u.a.]: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754656005.
• Judge, William Q. (1893). The ocean of theosophy (2nd ed.). New York: The Path. OCLC 262627129. Also republished, with errors corrected, as“The ocean of theosophy”(PDF). theosociety.org (online ed.). Pasedena: Theosophical University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-55700-213-6.
• Santucci, James A. (2005). “The Theosophical Society”. In Lewis, James R.; Aagaard Petersen, Jesper. Controversial new religions. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/019515682X.003.0012. ISBN 9780195156829. • Sellon, Emily (1987).“Blavatsky, H. P.”. In Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. The encyclopedia of religion 2. New York: Macmillan. pp. 245–246. ISBN 9780029094808. • “Theosophical Society Membership Statistics 2007/2008”. teozofija.info. Theosophy in Slovenia. January 2009. Retrieved 15 June 2016. • Thomas, Margaret (2003). “Theosophy Versus Neo-Theosophy”. blavatskyarchives.com. Blavatsky Study Center. Retrieved 2016-06-15. • Tillett, Gregory J. (1986). Charles Webster Leadbeater 1854–1934: a biographical study (PhD thesis). Sydney: University of Sydney (published 2007). OCLC 220306221 – via Sydney Digital Theses. • Кранстон, С. (1999) [1996]. Данилов, Леонид Л., ed. Е.П. Блаватская: Жизнь и творчество основательницы современного теософского движения [HPB: the extraordinary life and influence of Helena Blavatsky, founder of the modern Theosophical movement] (in Russian) (2nd ed.). Рига: Лигатма. ISBN 5-7738-0017-9. • Толстой, Лев Н. (1935). Чертков, Владимир Г., ed. Полное собрание сочинений (in Russian) 54. Moscow: Гос. изд-во худож. лит-ры. LCCN 51015050. OCLC 6321531. • ——(1955). Чертков, Владимир Г., ed. Полное собрание сочинений (in Russian) 80. Moscow: Гос. изд-во худож. лит-ры. LCCN 51015050. OCLC 6321531.
25.5.4
Further reading
• Antes, Peter; Geertz, Armin W.; Warne, Randi Ruth, eds. (2004). New approaches to the study of religion: regional, critical, and historical approaches. Religion and reason 42. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-0176988.
• Carlson, Maria. No Religion Higher than Truth: A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875-1922. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-691-05682-X • Ellwood, Robert S. (1986). Theosophy: a Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages. Wheaton, Illinois: Theosophical Publishing House. ISBN 9780835606073. • Campbell, Bruce F. (1980). Ancient Wisdom Revived: History of the Theosophical Movement. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03968-8. • Dixon, Joy (2003) [2001]. Divine feminine : theosophy and feminism in England. Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801864995. • Lavoie, Jeffrey D. (2012). The Theosophical Society: The History of a Spiritualist Movement. • Greenwalt, Emmett A. (1978). California utopia: Point Loma, 1897-1942. • Schuon, Frithjof. Esoterism as a Principle and as a way. London: Perennial Books, 1990. ISBN 9780900588235 • Schuon, Frithjof. Survey of Metaphysics and Esoterism. Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, 2003. ISBN 978-0941532273
25.6 External links • Blavatsky Study Center – Online Blavatsky Archive. • Theosophical History – Website associated with the independent, peer-reviewed journal of the same name. • International Theosophical Centre, Naarden, The Netherlands • Modern Theosophy Large collection of Theosophy related articles
264 • “Theosophy” – Entry from the online version of the Skeptics Dictionary. • Theosophy Library Online – Associated with the United Lodge of Theosophists, Phoenix, Arizona. • Theosophical University Press Online Literature – Associated with the Theosophical Society Pasadena. • Theosophy Network Library and Resources
CHAPTER 25. THEOSOPHY
Chapter 26
Spiritualism This article is about the religion. For the Spiritualist doctrine of Allan Kardec, see Spiritism. For the general concept of spiritual experiences, see Spirituality. For other uses of spiritualism, see Spiritualism (disambiguation). Spiritualism is a belief that spirits of the dead have
branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today found mostly in Continental Europe and Latin America, especially Brazil, emphasizes reincarnation. Spiritualism developed and reached its peak growth in membership from the 1840s to the 1920s, especially in English-speaking countries.* [2]* [3] By 1897, spiritualism was said to have more than eight million followers in the United States and Europe,* [4] mostly drawn from the middle and upper classes. Spiritualism flourished for a half century without canonical texts or formal organization, attaining cohesion through periodicals, tours by trance lecturers, camp meetings, and the missionary activities of accomplished mediums. Many prominent spiritualists were women, and like most spiritualists, supported causes such as the abolition of slavery and women's suffrage.* [2] By the late 1880s the credibility of the informal movement had weakened due to accusations of fraud perpetrated by mediums, and formal spiritualist organizations began to appear.* [2] Spiritualism is currently practiced primarily through various denominational spiritualist churches in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.
26.1 Beliefs Although various spiritualist traditions have their own beliefs, known as“principles”, there are some shared concepts: By 1853, when the popular song Spirit Rappings was published, spiritualism was an object of intense curiosity.
• A belief that the soul continues to exist after the death of the physical body
both the ability and the inclination to communicate with the living. The afterlife, or "spirit world", is seen by spiritualists, not as a static place, but as one in which spirits continue to evolve. These two beliefs: that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits are more advanced than humans, leads spiritualists to a third belief, that spirits are capable of providing useful knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about the nature of God. Some spiritualists will speak of a concept they refer to as a "spirit guides"–specific spirits, often contacted, who are relied upon for spiritual guidance.* [1]* [2] Spiritism, a
• A belief in spirit communication
265
• Even after death it is possible for the soul to learn and improve • A belief in a god, often referred to as “infinite intelligence” • The natural world considered as an expression of said intelligence • Personal responsibility for life circumstances
266
26.1.1
CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM
Mediumship and spirits
Protestant Christianity
Spiritualists believe in the possibility of communication with the spirits of dead people, whom they regard as“discarnate humans”. They believe that spirit mediums are gifted to carry on such communication, but that anyone may become a medium through study and practice. They believe that spirits are capable of growth and perfection, progressing through higher spheres or planes, and that the afterlife is not a static state, but one in which spirits evolve. The two beliefs—that contact with spirits is possible, and that spirits may dwell on a higher plane— lead to a third belief, that spirits can provide knowledge about moral and ethical issues, as well as about God and the afterlife. Many believers therefore speak of "spirit guides"—specific spirits, often contacted, and relied upon for worldly and spiritual guidance.* [1]* [2]
As spiritualism emerged in a Protestant Christian environment, it acquired features in common with Protestantism, ranging from its moral system to practices such as Sunday services and the singing of hymns. Nevertheless, on significant points Christian Protestantism and spiritualism are different. Spiritualists do not believe that the works or faith of a mortal during a brief lifetime can serve as a basis for assigning a soul to an eternity of Heaven or Hell; they view the afterlife as containing hierarchical “spheres,”through which each spirit can progress. Spiritualists differ from Protestant Christians in that the Judeo-Christian Bible is not the primary source from which they derive knowledge of God and the afterlife: for them, their personal contacts with spirits provide that.* [1]* [2]
According to spiritualists, anyone may receive spirit messages, but formal communication sessions (séances) are held by mediums, who claim thereby to receive information about the afterlife.* [1]
Also, Christianity, following the Council of Nicaea and the teachings of Paul (“And though worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God”- Job 19:26), has traditionally asserted that there will be a bodily resurrection of the dead, and a physical, not merely spiritual, afterlife. This view is self-evidently incompatible with spiritualism, where the merely spiritual existence is superior to the embodied one.
26.1.2
Comparisons with other religions
There are quite a number of spiritualist churches which are explicitly Christian in theology, forms of worship and praise, and liturgical orientation. Among these Christian spiritualist groups are the historically African American denominations collectively known as the "Spiritual Church Movement", a group which includes multichurch organizations such as the Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ,* [5] and Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ International.* [6] Judaism It is held by some adherents of the Jewish religion that spiritualism is strictly forbidden by the Bible (Old Testament). In Leviticus, one of the books concerning God's laws to Moses, it is written that God says: “I will set my face against the person who turns to mediums and spiritists to prostitute himself by following them, and I will cut him off from his people.”(Leviticus 20:6). However, among Jews who are inclined toward spiritualism it is common to refer to trance mediumship as “prophecy,”a “vision,”or a “dream,”and to cite as a counter-text the verse from Numbers 12:6 in which God says, “Hear my words: If there be among you a prophet of the Lord, I will appear to him in a vision, or I will speak to him in a dream.”* [7] Islam Spiritualism was equated by some Christians with witchcraft. This 1865 broadsheet, published in the United States, also blamed spiritualism for causing the U.S. Civil War.
Within Islam, only rarely do some traditions - notably Sufism, consider communication with human spirits possible.* [8] Most Muslims deem it impossible.
26.2. ORIGINS Despite this, the majority of the followers of Islam believe in the existence of spirits as a fundamental aspect of their religion. However, these spirits are not those of humans but of a third sapient creation said to be made by God (other than the creation of man and angels) called the jinn. Jinn are spirits made from smokeless fire, in a realm not visible to the eyes of people, who are also subject to follow the laws of God and, alike to people, may enter either Heaven or Hell. A famous jinn in the Muslim tradition is Satan, as opposed to the Christian belief that he is a fallen angel. Communication with these 'spirits', whether the spirit is good or evil in nature, is generally not encouraged in Islam.
267 This region of New York State was an environment in which many thought direct communication with God or angels was possible, and that God would not behave harshly —for example, that God would not condemn unbaptised infants to an eternity in Hell.* [1]
26.2.1 Swedenborg and Mesmer
Additionally, the concept of Tawassul recognises the existence of good spirits on a higher plane of existence closer to God, and thus people may ask something from God through their virtue. Spiritism Spiritism, the branch of spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec and today found mostly in Brazil, has emphasised reincarnation. According to Arthur Conan Doyle, most British spiritualists of the early 20th century were indifferent to the doctrine of reincarnation, a few supported it, while a significant minority were opposed, since it had never been mentioned by spirits contacted in séances. Thus, according to Doyle, it is the empirical bent of Anglophone spiritualism—its effort to develop religious views from observation of phenomena, that kept spiritualists of this period from embracing reincarnation.* [9] Occultism Spiritualism also differs from occult movements, such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn or the contemporary wiccan covens, in that spirits are not contacted to obtain magical powers (with the exception of power for healing). Eliphas Lévi, who is regarded as the founder of occultism, strongly rejected Spiritism and paved the way for a lasting rivalry between occultists and spiritualists.* [10] Later on, Madame Blavatsky (1831–91), the founder of the Theosophical Society, only practiced mediumship to contact powerful spirits capable of conferring esoteric knowledge. Blavatsky did not believe these spirits were deceased humans, and held beliefs in reincarnation different from the views of most spiritualists.* [2] Spiritualists at that time viewed theosophy as unscientific and both occultist and cult-like. Theosophists viewed spiritualism as unsophisticated and uncosmopolitan.* [11]
Hypnotic séance. Painting by Swedish artist Richard Bergh, 1887.
In this environment, the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) and the teachings of Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) provided an example for those seeking direct personal knowledge of the afterlife. Swedenborg, who claimed to communicate with spirits while awake, described the structure of the spirit world. Two features of his view particularly resonated with the early spiritualists: first, that there is not a single Hell and a single Heaven, but rather a series of higher and lower heavens and hells; second, that spirits are intermediates between God and humans, so that the divine sometimes uses them as a means of communication.* [1] Although Swedenborg warned against seeking out spirit contact, his works seem to have inspired in others the desire to do so. Mesmer did not contribute religious beliefs, but he brought a technique, later known as hypnotism, that it was claimed could induce trances and cause subjects to report contact with supernatural beings. There was a great deal of professional showmanship inherent to demonstrations of Mesmerism, and the practitioners who lectured in mid19th-century North America sought to entertain their audiences as well as to demonstrate methods for personal contact with the divine.* [1]
Perhaps the best known of those who combined Swedenborg and Mesmer in a peculiarly North American 26.2 Origins synthesis was Andrew Jackson Davis, who called his system the “harmonial philosophy”. Davis was a Spiritualism first appeared in the 1840s in the "Burned- practicing Mesmerist, faith healer and clairvoyant from over District" of upstate New York, where earlier reli- Poughkeepsie, New York. He was also strongly influgious movements such as Millerism and Mormonism had enced by the socialist theories of Fourierism.* [12] His emerged during the Second Great Awakening. 1847 book, The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Reve-
268
CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM
lations, and a Voice to Mankind,* [13] dictated to a friend while in a trance state, eventually became the nearest thing to a canonical work in a spiritualist movement whose extreme individualism precluded the development of a single coherent worldview.* [1]* [2] • Emanuel Swedenborg • Franz Mesmer • Andrew Jackson Davis, about 1860
of 1848. Immediately convinced of the veracity of the sisters' communications, they became early converts and introduced the young mediums to their circle of radical quaker friends. It therefore came about that many of the early participants in spiritualism were radical quakers and others involved in the reforming movement of the mid-nineteenth century. These reformers were uncomfortable with established churches, because they did little to fight slavery and even less to advance the cause of women's rights.* [2] Such links with reform movements, often radically socialist, had already been prepared in the 1840s, as the example of Andrew Jackson Davis shows. After 1848, many socialists became ardent spiritualists or occultists.* [14] Socialist ideas, especially in the Fourierist vein, exerted a decisive influence on Kardec and other Spiritists.
Cora L. V. Scott The Fox sisters
26.2.2
Reform-movement links
Spiritualists often set March 31, 1848, as the beginning of their movement. On that date, Kate and Margaret Fox, of Hydesville, New York, reported that they had made contact with a spirit. The spirit was said to have communicated through rapping noises, audible to onlookers. The evidence of the senses appealed to practicallyminded Americans, and the Fox sisters became a sensation. However, the Fox sisters in 1888 admitted that this “contact”with the spirit was a hoax. Shortly afterward they recanted that admission.* [1]* [2]
The most popular trance lecturer prior to the American Civil War was Cora L. V. Scott (1840–1923). Young and beautiful, her appearance on stage fascinated men. Her audiences were struck by the contrast between her physical girlishness and the eloquence with which she spoke of spiritual matters, and found in that contrast support for the notion that spirits were speaking through her. Cora married four times, and on each occasion adopted her husband's last name. During her period of greatest activity, she was known as Cora Hatch.* [2]
Another famous woman spiritualist was Achsa W. Sprague, who was born November 17, 1827, in Plymouth Notch, Vermont. At the age of 20, she became ill with rheumatic fever and credited her eventual recovery to intercession by spirits. An extremely popular trance lecAmy and Isaac Post, Hicksite quakers from Rochester, turer, she traveled about the United States until her death New York, had long been acquainted with the Fox family, in 1861. Sprague was an abolitionist and an advocate of and took the two girls into their home in the late spring women's rights.* [2]
26.2. ORIGINS
269
Paschal Beverly Randolph
Yet another prominent spiritualist and trance medium prior to the civil war was Paschal Beverly Randolph (1825–1875), of mixed race, who also played a part in the abolitionist movement.* [15] Nevertheless, many abolitionists and reformers held themselves aloof from the Audiences paid to see Houdini expose the tricks of fraudulent movement; among the skeptics was the famous abolition- mediums ist, Frederick Douglass.* [16] in the White House which were attended by her husband, President Abraham Lincoln.* [16] The surge of spiritualism during this time, and later during World War I, In the years following the sensation that greeted the was a direct response to those massive battlefield casuFox sisters, demonstrations of mediumship (séances and alties.* [19] automatic writing, for example) proved to be a profIn addition, the movement appealed to reformers, who itable venture, and soon became popular forms of entertainment and spiritual catharsis. The Fox sisters were fortuitously found that the spirits favored such causes du jour as abolition of slavery, and equal rights for to earn a living this way and others would follow their * * * lead. [1] [2] Showmanship became an increasingly im- women. [2] It also appealed to some who had a materialist orientation and rejected organized religion. portant part of spiritualism, and the visible, audible, and tangible evidence of spirits escalated as mediums com- The influential socialist Robert Owen embraced religion following his experiences in spiritualist circles. peted for paying audiences. As independent investigating commissions repeatedly established, most notably the Many scientists who investigated the phenomenon also 1887 report of the Seybert Commission,* [17] fraud was became converts. They included chemist and physicist widespread, and some of these cases were prosecuted in William Crookes (1832–1919), evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)* [20] Nobel laureate the courts.* [18] interest in the Despite numerous instances of chicanery, the appeal of Pierre Curie took a very serious scientific * work of medium Eusapia Palladino. [21] Other promispiritualism was strong. Prominent in the ranks of its William T. nent adherents included journalist and pacifist adherents were those grieving the death of a loved one. * Stead (1849–1912) [22] and physician and author Arthur Many families during the time of the American Civil War * (1859–1930). [19] Conan Doyle had seen their men go off and never return, and images
26.2.3
Believers and skeptics
of the battlefield, produced through the new medium of photography, demonstrated that their loved ones had not only died in overwhelmingly huge numbers, but horribly as well. One well known case is that of Mary Todd Lincoln who, grieving the loss of her son, organized séances
Doyle, who lost his son as a result of the war, was also a member of the Ghost Club. Founded in London in 1862, its focus was the scientific study of alleged paranormal activities in order to prove (or refute) the existence of paranormal phenomena. Famous members of the club in-
270 clude Charles Dickens, Sir William Crookes, Sir William F. Barrett and Harry Price.* [23] Pioneering American psychologist William James studied spiritualism, publishing supportive conclusions. The séances of Eusapia Palladino were attended by investigators including Pierre and Marie Curie. The celebrated New York City physician, John Franklin Gray, was also a well-known and prominent spiritualist in New York City.* [24] The claims of spiritualists and others as to the reality of ghosts were investigated by the Society for Psychical Research, founded in London in 1882. The society set up the Committee on Haunted Houses and a literary committee which looked at the literature on the subject.* [25] Prominent investigators who exposed cases of fraud came from a variety of backgrounds, including professional researchers such as Frank Podmore of the Society for Psychical Research and Harry Price of the National Laboratory of Psychical Research, and professional conjurers such as John Nevil Maskelyne. Maskelyne exposed the Davenport brothers by appearing in the audience during their shows and explaining how the trick was done. During the 1920s, professional magician Harry Houdini undertook a well-publicised campaign to expose fraudulent mediums. He was adamant that “Up to the present time everything that I have investigated has been the result of deluded brains.”* [26]
CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM as the London Spiritualist Alliance, which published a newspaper called The Light, featuring articles such as “Evenings at Home in Spiritual Séance”, “Ghosts in Africa”and “Chronicles of Spirit Photography”, advertisements for “Mesmerists” and patent medicines, and letters from readers about personal contact with ghosts.* [31] In Britain, by 1853, invitations to tea among the prosperous and fashionable often included tableturning, a type of séance in which spirits were said to communicate with people seated around a table by tilting and rotating the table. One prominent convert was the French pedagogist Allan Kardec (1804–1869), who made the first attempt to systematise the movement's practices and ideas into a consistent philosophical system. Kardec's books, written in the last 15 years of his life, became the textual basis of spiritism, which became widespread in Latin countries. In Brazil, Kardec's ideas are embraced by many followers today.* [1]* [2]* [32] In Puerto Rico, Kardec's books were widely read by the upper classes, and eventually gave birth to a movement known as mesa blanca (white table).
The psychical researcher Hereward Carrington exposed the tricks of fraudulent mediums such as those used in slate-writing, table-turning, trumpet mediumship, materializations, sealed-letter reading and spirit photography.* [27] The skeptic Joseph McCabe documented many mediums who had been caught in fraud and the tricks they used in his book Is Spiritualism Based on Fraud? (1920).* [28] Magicians have a long history of exposing the fraudulent methods of mediumship. Early debunkers include Chung Ling Soo, Henry Evans and Julien Proskauer.* [29] Later magicians to reveal fraud were Fulton Oursler, Joseph Dunninger, and Joseph Rinn.* [30]
Middle-class Chicago women discuss spiritualism (1906)
The movement quickly spread throughout the world; though only in the United Kingdom did it become as widespread as in the United States.* [3] Spiritualist organizations were formed in America and Europe, such
A number of spiritualist periodicals appeared in the nineteenth century, and these did much to hold the movement together. Among the most important were the weeklies the Banner of Light (Boston), the Religio-Philosophical
Spiritualism was mainly a middle- and upper-class movement, and especially popular with women. American spiritualists would meet in private homes for séances, at lecture halls for trance lectures, at state or national conIn February 1921 Thomas Lynn Bradford committed sui- ventions, and at summer camps attended by thousands. cide in an experiment designed to ascertain the existence Among the most significant of the camp meetings were of an afterlife. No further communications were received Camp Etna, in Etna, Maine; Onset Bay Grove, in Onset, from him after that date. Massachusetts; Lily Dale, in western New York State; Camp Chesterfield, in Indiana; the Wonewoc Spiritualist Camp, in Wonewoc, Wisconsin; and Lake Pleasant, in • Frank Podmore, ca. 1895. Montague, Massachusetts. In founding camp meetings, • William Crookes. Photo published 1904. the spiritualists appropriated a form developed by U.S. Protestant denominations in the early nineteenth century. • Harry Price, 1922. Spiritualist camp meetings were located most densely in New England, but were also established across the upper Midwest. Cassadaga, Florida, is the most notable spiritu26.2.4 Unorganized movement alist camp meeting in the southern states.* [1]* [2]* [33]
26.2. ORIGINS
271
Journal (Chicago), Mind and Matter (Philadelphia), the Spiritualist (London), and the Medium (London). Other influential periodicals were the Revue Spirite (France), Le Messager (Belgium), Annali dello Spiritismo (Italy), El Criterio Espiritista (Spain), and the Harbinger of Light (Australia). By 1880, there were about three dozen monthly spiritualist periodicals published around the world.* [34] These periodicals differed a great deal from each other, reflecting the great differences among spiritualists. Some, such as the British Spiritual Magazine were Christian and conservative, openly rejecting the reform currents so strong within spiritualism. Others, such as Human Nature, were pointedly non-Christian and supportive of socialism and reform efforts. Still others, such as the Spiritualist, attempted to view spiritualist phenomena from a scientific perspective, eschewing discussion on both theological and reform issues.* [35] Books on the supernatural were published for the growing middle class, such as 1852's Mysteries, by Charles Elliott, which contains “sketches of spirits and spiritual things”, including accounts of the Salem witch trials, the Cock Lane Ghost, and the Rochester rappings.* [36] The Night Side of Nature, by Catherine Crowe, published in 1853, provided definitions and accounts of wraiths, doppelgangers, apparitions and haunted houses.* [37] Mainstream newspapers treated stories of ghosts and haunting as they would any other news story. An account in the Chicago Daily Tribune in 1891,“sufficiently bloody to suit the most fastidious taste”, tells of a house believed to be haunted by the ghosts of three murder victims seeking revenge against their killer's son, who was eventually driven insane. Many families,“having no faith in ghosts” , thereafter moved into the house, but all soon moved out again.* [38] In the 1920s many“psychic”books were published of varied quality. Such books were often based on excursions initiated by the use of Ouija boards. A few of these popular books displayed unorganized spiritualism, though most were less insightful.* [39]
Eusapia Palladino
as movement of objects and materializations. All of his feats were exposed as tricks.* [40]* [41]
William Stainton Moses (1839–92) was an Anglican clergyman who, in the period from 1872 to 1883, filled 24 notebooks with automatic writing, much of which was said to describe conditions in the spirit world. However, Frank Podmore was skeptical of his alleged ability to communicate with spirits and Joseph McCabe described Moses as a“deliberate impostor”, suggesting his apports The movement was extremely individualistic, with each and all of his feats were the result of trickery.* [42]* [43] person relying on his or her own experiences and reading to discern the nature of the afterlife. Organisation London-born Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–99) moved was therefore slow to appear, and when it did it was re- to the United States in 1855 and was active in spiritualsisted by mediums and trance lecturers. Most members ist circles as a trance lecturer and organiser. She is best were content to attend Christian churches, and particu- known as a chronicler of the movement's spread, especially in her 1884 Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits larly universalist churches harbored many spiritualists. and their Work in Every Country of the Earth, and her As the spiritualism movement began to fade, partly 1870 Modern American Spiritualism, a detailed account through the publicity of fraud accusations and partly of claims and investigations of mediumship beginning through the appeal of religious movements such as with the earliest days of the movement. Christian science, the Spiritualist Church was organised. This church can claim to be the main vestige of the move- Eusapia Palladino (1854–1918) was an Italian spiritualist medium from the slums of Naples who made a cament left today in the United States.* [1]* [2] reer touring Italy, France, Germany, Britain, the United States, Russia and Poland. Palladino was said by believers to perform spiritualist phenomena in the dark: levitating 26.2.5 Other mediums tables, producing apports, and materializing spirits. On In the late 19th century the British medium William investigation, all these things were found to be products Eglinton claimed to perform spiritualist phenomena such of trickery.* [44]* [45]
272
CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM of humanity threatened the foundation of the immortality of the spirit, for if humans had not been created by God, it was scarcely plausible that they would be specially endowed with spirits. This led to spiritualists embracing spiritual evolution.* [53] The spiritualists' view of evolution did not stop at death. Spiritualism taught that after death spirits progressed to spiritual states in new spheres of existence. According to spiritualists evolution occurred in the spirit world “at a rate more rapid and under conditions more favourable to growth”than encountered on earth.* [54]
In a talk at the London Spiritualist Alliance, John Page Hopps (1834–1911) supported both evolution and spiritualism. Hopps claimed humanity had started off imperHelen Duncan fect “out of the animal's darkness”but would rise into the “angel's marvellous light”. Hopps claimed humans Adelma Vay (1840–1925), Hungarian (by origin) spiritis- were not fallen but rising creatures and that after death tic medium, homeopath and clairvoyant, authored many they would evolve on a number of spheres of existence to books about spiritism, written in German and translated perfection.* [54] into English. Theosophy is in opposition to the spiritualist interpretaMina Crandon a spiritualist medium in the 1920s was tion of evolution. Theosophy teaches a metaphysical theknown for producing an ectoplasm hand during her ory of evolution mixed with human devolution. Spirituséances. The hand was later exposed as a trick when bi- alists do not accept the devolution of the theosophists. ologists found it to be made from a piece of carved ani- To theosophy humanity starts in a state of perfection (see mal liver.* [46] In 1934, the psychical researcher Walter Golden age) and falls into a process of progressive mateFranklin Prince described the Crandon case as“the most rialization (devolution), developing the mind and losing ingenious, persistent, and fantastic complex of fraud in the spiritual consciousness. After the gathering of experithe history of psychic research.”* [47] ence and growth through repeated reincarnations humanThe American voice medium Etta Wriedt was exposed as ity will regain the original spiritual state, which is now one a fraud by the physicist Kristian Birkeland when he dis- of self-conscious perfection. Theosophy and spiritualism covered the noises produced by her trumpet were caused were both very popular metaphysical schools of thought by chemical explosions induced by potassium and water especially in the early 20th century and thus were always clashing in their different beliefs. Madame Blavatsky and in other cases by lycopodium powder.* [48] was critical of spiritualism; she distanced theosophy from Another well known medium was the Scottish material- spiritualism as far as she could and allied herself with ization medium Helen Duncan. In 1928 the photogra- eastern occultism.* [55] pher Harvey Metcalfe attended a series of séances at the house of Duncan. During a séance he took various flash The spiritualist Gerald Massey, claimed that Darwin's photographs of Duncan and her alleged “materializa- theory of evolution was incomplete: tion”spirits including her spirit guide “Peggy”.* [49] The theory contains only one half the exThe photographs that were taken reveal the“spirits”to be planation of man's origins and needs spiritualfraudulently produced, such as a doll made from a painted * ism to carry it through and complete it. For papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet. [50] Duncan while this ascent on the physical side has been was later tested by Harry Price at the National Laboraprogressing through myriads of ages, the Ditory of Psychical Research. Photographs of Duncan in vine descent has also been going on – man behis laboratory revealed her ectoplasm to be made from ing spiritually an incarnation from the Divine cheesecloth, rubber gloves and cut-out heads from maga* * as well as a human development from the anizine covers. [51] [52] mal creation. The cause of the development is spiritual. Mr. Darwin's theory does not in the least militate against ours – we think it neces26.3 Evolution sitates it; he simply does not deal with our side of the subject. He can not go lower than the Spiritualists reacted with an uncertainty to the theories of dust of the earth for the matter of life; and for evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century. Broadly us, the main interest of our origin must lie in speaking the concept of evolution fitted the spiritualist the spiritual domain.* [56] thought of the progressive development of humanity. At the same time however, the belief in the animal origins Spiritualists believed that without spiritualism “the doc-
26.4. AFTER THE 1920S
273 Oliver Lodge also promoted a version of spiritual evolution in his books Man and the Universe (1908), Making of Man (1924) and Evolution and Creation (1926). The spiritualist element in the synthesis was most prominent in Lodge's 1916 book Raymond, or Life and Death which revived a large interest for public in the paranormal.* [63]
26.4 After the 1920s Main articles: Spiritualist Church, Spiritualists' National Union, Survivalism (life after death), and Spiritualist Association of Great Britain After the 1920s, spiritualism evolved in three different directions, all of which exist today.
26.4.1 Syncretism
Gerald Massey
trine of Darwin is a broken link”. Gerald Massey said “Spiritualism will accept evolution, and carry it out and make both ends meet in the perfect circle”.* [57] A famous medium who rejected evolution was Cora L. V. Scott, she dismissed evolution in her lectures and instead supported a type of pantheistic spiritualism.* [58] Alfred Russel Wallace believed qualitative novelties could arise through the process of spiritual evolution, in particular the phenomena of life and mind. Wallace attributed these novelties to a supernatural agency.* [59] Later in his life, Wallace was an advocate of spiritualism and believed in an immaterial origin for the higher mental faculties of humans, he believed that evolution suggested that the universe had a purpose, and that certain aspects of living organisms are not explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled “The World of Life”, which he later expanded into a book of the same name.* [60] Wallace argued in his 1911 book World of Life for a spiritual approach to evolution and described evolution as “creative power, directive mind and ultimate purpose”. Wallace believed natural selection could not explain intelligence or morality in the human being so suggested that nonmaterial spiritual forces accounted for these. Wallace believed the spiritual nature of humanity could not have come about by natural selection alone, the origins of the spiritual nature must originate “in the unseen universe of spirit”.* [61]* [62]
The first of these continued the tradition of individual practitioners, organised in circles centered on a medium and clients, without any hierarchy or dogma. Already by the late 19th century spiritualism had become increasingly syncretic, a natural development in a movement without central authority or dogma.* [2] Today, among these unorganised circles, spiritualism is similar to the new age movement. However, theosophy with its inclusion of Eastern religion, astrology, ritual magic and reincarnation is an example of a closer precursor of the 20th century new age movement.* [11] Today's syncretic spiritualists are quite heterogeneous in their beliefs regarding issues such as reincarnation or the existence of God. Some appropriate new age and neo-pagan beliefs, while others call themselves “Christian spiritualists”, continuing with the tradition of cautiously incorporating spiritualist experiences into their Christian faith.
26.4.2 Spiritualist church Main articles: Spiritualist church, Spiritualists' National Union, Spiritualist Association of Great Britain, and Spiritual church movement The second direction taken has been to adopt formal organization, patterned after Christian denominations, with established liturgies and a set of seven principles, and training requirements for mediums. In the United States the spiritualist churches are primarily affiliated either with the National Spiritualist Association of Churches or the loosely allied group of denominations known as the spiritual church movement; in the U.K. the predominant organization is the Spiritualists' National Union, founded in 1890. Formal education in spiritualist practice emerged in 1920s, with organizations like the William T. Stead Center in Chicago, Illinois, and continue today with the
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CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM
26.4.3 Psychical research Main article: Parapsychology Already as early as 1882, with the founding of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), parapsychologists emerged to investigate spiritualist claims.* [64] The SPR's investigations into spiritualism exposed many fraudulent mediums which contributed to the decline of interest in physical mediumship.* [65]
26.5 See also • Camp Chesterfield • List of Spiritualist organizations • Spiritism • Spiritualism in fiction
26.6 Notes [1] Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. (Religion in North America.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-253-33315-6. Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes
[2] Braude, Ann Braude (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America, Second Edition. Indiana University Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-253-21502-1. [3] Britten, Emma Hardinge (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and their Work in Every Country of the Earth. New York: William Britten. ISBN 0-7661-6290-7.
Arthur Findlay College at Stansted Hall in England, and the Morris Pratt Institute in Wisconsin, United States. Diversity of belief among organized spiritualists has led to a few schisms, the most notable occurring in the U.K. in 1957 between those who held the movement to be a religion sui generis (of its own with unique characteristics), and a minority who held it to be a denomination within Christianity. In the United States, this distinction can be seen between the less Christian National Spiritualist Association of Churches and the more Christian spiritual church movement.
[4] Times, New York (29 November 1897). “THREE FORMS OF THOUGHT; M.M. Mangassarian Addresses the Society for Ethical Culture at Carnegie Music Hall.” . The New York Times: 200. [5] “Metropolitan Spiritual Churches of Christ”. Retrieved 2011-05-15. [6] “Pentecostal Spiritual Assemblies of Christ International” . Retrieved 2011-05-15. [7] “House of Prophecy Spiritual Church”. Retrieved 201105-15.
The practice of organized spiritualism today resembles [8] Noor Muhammad Kalachvi 1999: Irfan that of any other religion, having discarded most show[9] Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, manship, particularly those elements resembling the convolume 2. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2. jurer's art. There is thus a much greater emphasis on “mental”mediumship and an almost complete avoid- [10] Julian Strube. (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialance of the apparently miraculous“materializing”mediism and Secularization in 19th-Century France.”In: Reumship that so fascinated early believers such as Arthur ligion. pp. 16-18. * Conan Doyle. [33] The first spiritualist church in Australia was the United Stanmore & Enmore Spiritual- [11] Hess, David J. (June 15, 1993). Science In The New Age: ist Church established in 1913. In 1921 Doyle gave a The Paranormal, Its Defenders & Debunkers. University farewell to Australia speech there. of Wisconsin Press. p. 20. ISBN 0-299-13820-8.
26.6. NOTES
[12] Catherine Albanese. (2007). A Republic of Mind and Spirit. A Cultural History of American Metaphysical Religion. Yale University Press. pp. 171-176, 208-218.
275
[13] The Principles of Nature, Her Divine Revelations, and a Voice to Mankind, Andrew Jackson Davis, 1847.
[30] Fulton Oursler. (1930). Spirit Mediums Exposed. New York: Macfadden Publications. Joseph Dunninger. (1935). Inside the Medium's Cabinet. New York, D. Kemp and Company. Joseph Rinn. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists. Truth Seeker.
[14] Julian Strube. (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France.”In: Religion.
[31] The Light: A Journal Devoted to the Highest Interests of Humanity, both Here and Hereafter, Vol I, January to December 1881, London Spiritualist Alliance, Eclectic Publishing Company: London, 1882.
[15] Deveney, John Patrick (1997). Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician. Sunny Press. ISBN 0-7914-3119-3.
[32] Hess, David (1987). “Spiritism and Science in Brazil”. Ph.D thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, Cornell University.
[16] Telegrams from the Dead (a PBS television documentary in the "American Experience" series, first aired October 19, 1994). [17] Preliminary Report of the Commission Appointed by the University of Pennsylvania, The Seybert Commission, 1887. 2004-04-01. [18] Williams, Montagu Stephen. 1891. Later Leaves: Being the Further Reminiscences of Montagu Williams. Macmillan. See chapter 8.
[33] Guthrie, John J. Jr.; Phillip Charles Lucas; Gary Monroe (2000). Cassadaga: the South's Oldest Spiritualist Community. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1743-2. [34] (Harrison 1880: 6) [35] (Alvarado, Biondi, and Kramer 2006: 61–63) [36] Charles Wyllys Elliott, Mysteries, or Glimpses of the Supernatural, Harper & Bros: New York, 1852. [37] Catherine Crowe, The Night Side of Nature, or Ghosts and Ghost-seers, Redfield: New York, 1853.
[19] Arthur Conan Doyle, The History of Spiritualism Vol I, Arthur Conan Doyle, 1926.
[38]“Dreadful Tale of a Haunted Man in Newton County, Missouri”, Chicago Daily Tribune, January 4, 1891.
[20] “The Scientific Aspect of the Supernatural, by Alfred Russel Wallace”. wku.edu.
[39] White, Stewart Edward (March 1943). The Betty Book. USA: E. P. Dutton & CO., Inc. pp. 14–15. ISBN 089804-151-1.
[21] Anna Hurwic, Pierre Curie, translated by Lilananda Dasa and Joseph Cudnik, Paris, Flammarion, 1995, pp. 65, 66, 68, 247-48. [22] “W.T. Stead and Spiritualism - The W.T. Stead Resource Site”. attackingthedevil.co.uk. [23] Underwood, Peter (1978) “Dictionary of the Supernatural”, Harrap Ltd., ISBN 0-245-52784-2, Page 144 [24] “The spiritual magazine”. 1871. [25] John Fairley, Simon Welfare (1984). Arthur C. Clarke's world of strange powers, Volume 3. Putnam. ISBN 0399-13066-7. [26] A Magician Among the Spirits, Harry Houdini, Arno Press (June 1987), ISBN 0-405-02801-6 [27] Hereward Carrington. (1907). The Physical Phenomena of Spiritualism. Herbert B. Turner & Co. [28] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. [29] Chung Ling Soo. (1898). Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena. Munn & Company. Henry Evans. (1897). Hours With the Ghosts Or Nineteenth Century Witchcraft. Kessinger Publishing. Julien Proskauer. (1932). Spook crooks! Exposing the secrets of the prophet-eers who conduct our wickedest industry. New York, A. L. Burt.
[40] Montague Summers. (2010). Physical Phenomena of Mysticism. Kessinger Publishing. p. 114. ISBN 9781161363654. Also see Barry Wiley. (2012). The Thought Reader Craze: Victorian Science at the Enchanted Boundary. McFarland. p. 35. ISBN 978-0786464708 [41] Simeon Edmunds. (1966). Spiritualism: A Critical Survey. Aquarian Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0850300130 “1876 also saw the first of several exposures of another physical medium, William Eglington, in whose trunk a false beard and a quantity of muslin were found by Archdeacon Colley. He was exposed again in 1880, after which he turned to slate-writing. In this he was exposed by Richard Hodgson and S. J. Davey of the SPR in 1885. Davey a clever conjuror, was able to duplicate all Eglington's phenomena so perfectly that some spiritualists, notably Alfred Russel Wallace, insisted that he too was really a genuine medium.” [42] Frank Podmore. (1902). Modern Spiritualism: A History and a Criticism. Volume 2. Methuen & Company. pp. 283-287 “It seems reasonable to conclude that all the marvels reported at [Moses] seances were, in fact, produced by the medium's own hands: that it was he who tilted the table and produced the raps, that the scents, the seed pearls, and the Parian statuettes were brought into the room in his pockets: and that the spirit lights were, in fact, nothing more than bottles of phosphorised oil. Nor would the feats described have required any special skill on the medium's part.”
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[43] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Spiritualism: A Popular History From 1847. Dodd, Mead and Company. pp. 151-173
[62] Edward Clodd, Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism, p. 300
[44] Joseph Jastrow. (1918). The Psychology of Conviction. Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 101-127
[63] Peter J. Bowler, Science for all: the popularization of science in early twentieth-century, 2009, p. 44
[45] Walter Mann. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co. pp. 115-130
[64] Ray Hyman. (1985). A Critical Historical Overview of Parapsychology. In Paul Kurtz. A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 3-96. ISBN 087975-300-5
[46] Brian Righi. (2008). Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists: An Exploration of the Supernatural through History. Llewellyn Publications. p. 52. ISBN 978-0738713632 “One medium of the 1920s, Mina Crandon, became famous for producing ectoplasm during her sittings. At the height of the séance, she was even able to produce a tiny ectoplasmic hand from her navel, which waved about in the darkness. Her career ended when Harvard biologists were able to examine the tiny hand and found it to be nothing more than a carved piece of animal liver.”
[65] Rosemary Guiley. (1994). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits. Guinness Publishing. p. 311. ISBN 978-0851127484
26.7 References
[47] C. E. M. Hansel. (1989). The Search for Psychic Power: ESP and Parapsychology Revisited. Prometheus Books. p. 245. ISBN 978-0879755331
• Albanese, Catherine L. (2007). A Republic of Mind and Spirit: A Cultural History of American Metaphysical Religion. New Haven/London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300136159.
[48] Joseph McCabe. (1920). Is Spiritualism based on Fraud?: The Evidence Given by Sir A.C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co. p. 126
• Brandon, Ruth (1983). The Spiritualists: The Passion for the Occult in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
[49] Malcolm Gaskill. (2001). Hellish Nell: Last of Britain's Witches. Fourth Estate. p. 100. ISBN 978-1841151090
• Braude, Ann (2001). Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253-21502-1.
[50] Jason Karl. (2007). An Illustrated History of the Haunted World. New Holland Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 9781845376871 [51] Simeon Edmunds. (1966). Spiritualism: A Critical Survey. Aquarian Press. pp. 137-144.ISBN 9780850300130
• Britten, Emma Hardinge (1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles: Spirits and their Work in Every Country of the Earth. New York: William Britten. ISBN 0-7661-6290-7.
[52] Paul Kurtz. (1985). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. p. 599. ISBN 0-87975300-5
• Brown, Slater (1970). The Heyday of Spiritualism. New York: Hawthorn Books.
[53] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 267 [54] Janet Oppenheim, The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914, 1988, p. 270 [55] G. Baseden Butt, Madame Blavatsky, p. 120 [56] Gerald Massey, Concerning evolution, p. 55 [57] Gerald Massey, Concerning evolution, pp. 60–61 [58] Frank Podmore, Bob Gilbert, Modern spiritualism: a history and a criticism: Volume 2, 2001, pp. 135–136 [59] Debora Hammond, The Science of Synthesis: Exploring the Social Implications of General Systems Theory, 2003, p. 39 [60] Wallace, Alfred Russel. “World of Life”. The Alfred Russel Wallace Page hosted by Western Kentucky University. Retrieved 2011-03-23. [61] Martin Fichman, An elusive Victorian: the evolution of Alfred Russel Wallace, 2004, p. 159
• Buescher, John B. (2003). The Other Side of Salvation: Spiritualism and the Nineteenth-Century Religious Experience. Boston: Skinner House Books. ISBN 1-55896-448-7. • Carroll, Bret E. (1997). Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33315-6. • Chapin, David. Exploring Other Worlds: Margaret Fox, Elisha Kent Kane, and the Antebellum Culture of Curiosity, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004. • Davenport, Reuben Briggs (1888). The Death-Blow to Spiritualism. New York: G.W. Dillingham. • Deveney, John Patrick; Franklin Rosemont (1996). Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3120-7.
26.8. FURTHER READING
277
• Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, volume 1. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2.
• Telegrams from the Dead (a PBS television documentary in the "American Experience" series, first aired October 19, 1994).
• Doyle, Arthur Conan (1926). The History of Spiritualism, volume 2. New York: G.H. Doran. ISBN 1-4101-0243-2.
• Tokarzówna, Krystyna; Stanisław Fita (1969). Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: Kalendarz życia i twórczości (Bolesław Prus, 1847–1912: a Calendar of [His] Life and Work). Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy.
• Fodor, Nandor (1934). An Encyclopaedia of Psychic Science. • Guthrie, John J. Jr.; Phillip Charles Lucas; Gary Monroe (2000). Cassadaga: the South's Oldest Spiritualist Community. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1743-2. • Harrison, W.H. 1880. Psychic Facts, a Selection from Various Authors. London: Ballantyne Press. • Hess, David (1987). “Spiritism and Science in Brazil”. Ph.D thesis, Dept. of Anthropology, Cornell University. • Lindgren, Carl Edwin (January 1994). “Spiritualism: Innocent Beliefs to Scientific Curiosity”. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research 17 (1): 8–15. ISSN 2168-8621. • Lindgren, Carl Edwin (March 1994).“Scientific investigation and Religious Uncertainty 1880–1900”. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research 17 (2): 83–91. ISSN 2168-8621. • Moore, William D. (1997). "'To Hold Communion with Nature and the Spirit-World:' New England's Spiritualist Camp Meetings, 1865–1910”. In Annmarie Adams and Sally MacMurray (editors). Exploring Everyday Landscapes: Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture, VII. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0-87049-983-1.
• Weisberg, Barbara (2004). Talking to the Dead. San Francisco: Harper. • Wicker, Christine (2004). Lily Dale: the True Story of the Town that talks to the Dead. San Francisco: Harper.
26.8 Further reading • Clodd, Edward. (1917). The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism. Grant Richards, London. • Hall, Trevor H. (1963). The Spiritualists: The Story of Florence Cook and William Crookes. Helix Press. • Kurtz, Paul. (1985). Spiritualists, Mediums and Psychics: Some Evidence of Fraud. In Paul Kurtz (ed.). A Skeptic's Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 177-223. ISBN 0-87975300-5 • Lehman, Amy (2009). Victorian Women and the Theatre of Trance: Mediums, Spiritualists and Mesmerists in Performance. McFarland. ISBN 0-78643479-1. • Mann, Walter. (1919). The Follies and Frauds of Spiritualism. Rationalist Association. London: Watts & Co.
• Natale, Simone (2016) Supernatural Entertainments: Victorian Spiritualism and the Rise of Modern Media Culture. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-07104-6.
• McCabe, Joseph. (1920). Is Spiritualism Based On Fraud? The Evidence Given By Sir A. C. Doyle and Others Drastically Examined. London: Watts & Co.
• Podmore, Frank, Mediums of the 19th Century, 2 vols., University Books, 1963.
• Mercier, Charles Arthur. (1917). Spiritualism and Sir Oliver Lodge. London: Mental Culture Enterprise.
• Salter, William H., Zoar; or the Evidence of Psychical Research Concerning Survival, Sidgwick, 1961. • Strube, Julian (2016). "Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularizadoi tion in 19th-Century France.”Religion. 10.1080/0048721X.2016.1146926. • Strube, Julian (2016). Sozialismus, Katholizisimus und Okkultismus im Frankreich des 19. Jahrhunderts. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11047810-5.
• Moreman, Christopher M. (2013). The Spiritualist Movement: Speaking with the Dead in America and around the World 3 Vols. Praeger. ISBN 978-0313-39947-3. • Podmore, Frank. (1911). The Newer Spiritualism. Henry Holt and Company. • Price, Harry; Dingwall, Eric. (1975). Revelations of a Spirit Medium. Arno Press. Reprint of 1891 edition by Charles F. Pidgeon. This rare, overlooked, and forgotten, book gives the“insider's knowledge” of 19th century deceptions.
278 • Rinn, Joseph. (1950). Sixty Years Of Psychical Research: Houdini And I Among The Spiritualists. Truth Seeker.
26.9 External links • “American Spirit: A History of the Supernatural” - An hour-long history public radio program exploring American spiritualism. • Open Directory Project page for “Spiritualism” • Video and Images of the original Fox Family historic home site. •“Investigating Spirit Communications”- Joe Nickell • “Spiritualism Exposed: Margaret Fox Kane Confesses Fraud” - Skeptic Report
CHAPTER 26. SPIRITUALISM
Chapter 27
Syncretism For the linguistic term, see Syncretism (linguistics).
thus incorporating elements of Catholicism while resisting it.
Syncretism (/ˈsɪŋkrətɪzəm/) is the combining of different beliefs, while blending practices of various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merger and analogizing of several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting an underlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths. Syncretism also occurs commonly in expressions of arts and culture (known as eclecticism) as well as politics (syncretic politics).
Some religious movements have embraced overt syncretism, such as the case of melding Shintō beliefs into Buddhism or the amalgamation of Germanic and Celtic pagan views into Christianity during its spread into Gaul, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Indian influences are seen in the practice of Shi'i Islam in Trinidad. Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing and compromising precious and genuine distinctions; examples of this include post-Exile Second Temple Judaism, Islam, and most of Protestant Christianity.
Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and unity between otherwise different cultures and worldviews (intercultural competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi-ethnic realms. Conversely, the rejection of syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" The Oxford English Dictionary first attests the word syn- and "orthodoxy", may help to generate, bolster or authencretism in English in 1618. It derives from modern ticate a sense of uncompromised cultural unity in a wellLatin syncretismus, drawing on Greek συγκρητισμός defined minority or majority. (synkretismos), meaning “Cretan federation”.
27.1 Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology
The Greek word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on “Fraternal Love”in his Moralia (2.490b). He 27.3 Religious syncretism cites the example of the Cretans, who compromised and reconciled their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external dangers. “And that is their Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorposo-called Syncretism". ration into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated Erasmus probably coined the modern usage of the Latin traditions. This can occur for many reasons, and the latter word in his Adagia (“Adages”), published in the winter scenario happens quite commonly in areas where multiof 1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters ple religious traditions exist in proximity and function acin spite of their differences in theological opinions. In a tively in the culture, or when a culture is conquered, and letter to Melanchthon of April 22, 1519, Erasmus specif- the conquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but ically adduced the Cretans of Plutarch as an example of do not succeed in entirely eradicating the old beliefs or, his adage “Concord is a mighty rampart”. especially, practices. Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but adherents of so-labeled systems often frown 27.2 Social and political roles on applying the label, especially adherents who belong to “revealed”religious systems, such as the Abrahamic reliOvert syncretism in folk belief may show cultural accep- gions, or any system that exhibits an exclusivist approach. tance of an alien or previous tradition, but the “other” Such adherents sometimes see syncretism as a betrayal of cult may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis their pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatnevertheless. For example, some Conversos developed a ible belief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no sort of cult for martyr-victims of the Spanish Inquisition, longer true. Indeed, critics of a specific syncretistic trend 279
280 may sometimes use the word“syncretism”as a disparaging epithet, as a charge implying that those who seek to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system actually distort the original faith. Non-exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporate other traditions into their own. Others state that the term syncretism is an elusive one,* [1] and can be applied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of a dominant religion by beliefs or practices introduced from somewhere else. The consequence under this definition, according to Keith Ferdinando, is a fatal compromise of the dominant religion's integrity. In modern secular society, religious innovators sometimes create new religions syncretically as a mechanism to reduce inter-religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the original religions in question. Such religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience. Discussions of some of these blended religions appear in the individual sections below.
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM venerated deity. The countless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect their syncretic identification with these various figures. One defines "Zeus Molossos" (worshipped only at Dodona) as “the god identical to Zeus as worshipped by the Molossians at Dodona”. Much of the apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic fabling results from later mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.
27.3.2 Ancient Rome See also: Religion in ancient Rome
The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though without usually copying cult practices. (For details, see Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and 27.3.1 Ancient Greece Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean See also: Ancient Greek religion goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus into Rome, where he merged with the Latin mead god Classical Athens was exclusive in matters of religion. The Liber, and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into the RoDecree of Diopeithes made the introduction of and belief man Sabazius. in foreign gods a criminal offence and only Greeks were The degree of correspondence varied: Jupiter makes perallowed to worship in Athenian temples and festivals as haps a better match for Zeus than the rural huntress foreigners were considered impure. Diana does for the feared Artemis. Ares does not quite On the other hand, Athens imported many foreign cults, including those of Cybele and the Thracian goddess Bendis, and in some cases this involved a merging of identities: for example, Heracles, who had traditionally been regarded as a mortal hero, began here and elsewhere in the Aegean world to be identified as a divine (Olympian) figure, perhaps under the influence of Eastern counterparts like the Tyrian Melqart.
match Mars. The Romans physically imported the Anatolian goddess Cybele into Rome from her Anatolian cultcenter Pessinos in the form of her original aniconic archaic stone idol; they identified her as Magna Mater and gave her a matronly, iconic image developed in Hellenistic Pergamum. Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Germanic peoples, they mingled these peoples' gods with their own, creating Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Germanic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Hercules as Thor and Mercury as Odin.
Syncretism functioned as a feature of Hellenistic Ancient Greek religion, although only outside of Greece. Overall, Hellenistic culture in the age that followed Alexander the Great itself showed syncretist features, essentially blending of Mesopotamian, Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan–Roman) elements within an Hellenic formula. The Egyptian god Amun developed as the Hellenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into Romans were familiar with the concept of syncretism bethe desert to seek out Amun's oracle at Siwa.* [2]* [3] cause from their earliest times they had experienced it Such identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, with, among others, the Greeks. The Romans incorpothe Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparate rated the originally Greek Apollo and Hercules into their mythologies with their own. When the proto-Greeks religion. They did not look at the religious aspects that (peoples whose language would evolve into Greek proper) they adopted from other cultures to be different or less first arrived in the Aegean and on the mainland of meaningful from religious aspects that were Roman in modern-day Greece early in the 2nd millennium BCE, origin. The early Roman acceptance of other cultures rethey found localized nymphs and divinities already con- ligions into their own made it easy for them to integrate nected with every important feature of the landscape: the newly encountered religions they found as a result of mountain, cave, grove and spring all had their own locally their expansion.* [4]
27.3. RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM
27.3.3
Bahá'í
Main article: Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Krishna and Abraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouraged some to regard the Bahá'í religion as a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writings explicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related, revelation from God. Its relationship to previous dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. They regard beliefs held in common as evidence of truth, progressively revealed by God throughout human history, and culminating in (at present) the Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís have their own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís, supersede those of other faiths.* [5]* [6]
27.3.4
Barghawata
The Barghawata kingdom of Morocco followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism) with elements of Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their own Qur'an in the Berber language comprising 80 suras under the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysara uprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the final Mahdi of Islamic tradition, and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.
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27.3.6 Caribbean religions and cultures The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (The technical term "Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of ethnicity.) The shared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and Great Britain) and the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands, producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean. The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from the Bible, Marcus Garvey's Pan Africanism movement, a text from the European grimoire tradition the Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses, Hinduism, and Caribbean culture. Another highly syncretic religion of the area, vodou, combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs. See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.
27.3.7 Christianity
Gnosticism is identified as an early form of syncretism that challenged the beliefs of early Christians. Gnostic dualism posited that only spiritual or invisible things were good, and that material or visible things were evil. Orthodox Christians have always insisted that matter is essentially good, since, as they believe, God created all things, both spiritual and material,* [15] and said that it was“very good”.* [16] Simon Magus appears as one of the early proponents of Gnosticism, and is considered by some as 27.3.5 Buddhism one of its founders. He was denounced by many Church authorities, including Peter himself, and is regarded by See also: Three teachings, Shinbutsu-shūgō, East Asian some as the source of all heresies. Buddhism, and Buddhism by country In the first few centuries after the death and resurrection Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs of Jesus, there were various competing “Jesus moveused syncretism to help in East Asian societies as it was seen as compatible with ments”. The Roman emperors * [17] Social conversion to unite the expanding empire. local religions. Notable syncretization of Buddhism Christianity happened all over Europe. It became even with local beliefs includes the Three Teachings, or more effective when missionaries concurred with estabTriple Religion, that harmonizes Mahayana Buddhism lished cultural traditions and interlaced them into a funwith Confucian philosophy and elements of Taoism, * [18] damentally Christian synthesis. and Shinbutsu-shūgō, which is a syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism.* [7] The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprise the majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditions including Confucianism, the Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Shinto, and Korean shamanism.* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]* [13] Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named Jimon Ogasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.* [14]
Syncretism must be distinguished from assimilation, the latter of which refers the Church's ability to incorporate into herself all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world. This idea was present in the early Church, as we read in the Second Apology of Justin Martyr: “Whatever things were rightly said among all men,”says Justin,“are the property of us Christians”.* [19] The Church has assimilated many (though not all) of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Augustine of Hippo is remembered for assimi-
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lating the ideas of Plato, while Thomas Aquinas is known for doing so with the ideas of Aristotle. In his essay on the development of Christian doctrine,* [20] John Henry Newman clarified the idea of assimilation.* [21]
The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod has created controversy by disciplining pastors for syncretism when they participated in multi-faith services in response to the 9/11 attacks and to the shootings at Newtown, Connecticut, on One can contrast Christian syncretism with the grounds that merely* sharing a worship setting with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of other faiths was in error. [26] making Christianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a Mormonism change in the styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and building In the Latter Day Saint movement, doctrine from previstyles into churches in other parts of the world, in a ous dispensations as recorded in the LDS canon are concontextualization approach, they would build churches, sidered official, though it is accepted that ancient teachsing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. Some Jesuit ings can be warped, misunderstood, or lost as a result of missionaries adapted local systems and images to teach apostasy.* [27] While it does not officially recognize docChristianity, as did the Portuguese in China, the practice trine from other religions, it is believed that truth in other of which was opposed by the Dominicans, leading to the sources can be identified via personal revelation.* [28] Chinese rites controversy. Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the Great Schism. It became involved, however, with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with Desiderius Erasmus's readings of Plutarch. Even earlier, syncretism was a fundamental aspect of the efforts of Neoplatonists such as Marsilio Ficino to reform the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.* [22] In 1615, David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a “pious syncretism”in opposing the Antichrist, but few 17th-century Protestants discussed the compromises that might affect a reconciliation with the Catholic Church: Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612–85) opposed the Lutheran Georg Calisen“Calixtus”(1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his“syncretism”.* [23] (See: Syncretistic controversy.)
27.3.8 Druze religion The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism.
27.3.9 Indian religions Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia, assimilating elements of various diverse religious traditions. One example of this is the Yoga Vasistha.* [29]
The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propounded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to Catholicism in Central and South America has been merge the best elements of the religions of his empire integrated with a number of elements derived from Meivazhi (Tamil: மெய்வழி) is a syncretic monotheistic indigenous and slave cultures in those areas (see the minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India. Its focus Caribbean and modern sections); while many African Ini- is spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, tiated Churches demonstrate an integration of Protestant through the teachings. Mevaizhi preaches the Oneness and traditional African beliefs. In Asia the revolutionary of essence message of all the previous major scriptures movements of Taiping (19th-century China) and God's - particularly Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Army (Karen in the 1990s) have blended Christianity Christianity - allowing membership regardless of creed. and traditional beliefs. The Catholic Church allows some Meivazhi's disciples are thousands of people belonging symbols and traditions to be carried over from older belief once to 69 different castes of different religions being systems, so long as they are remade to fit into a Christian united as one family of Meivazhi Religion. worldview; syncretism of other religions with Catholicism, such as Voudun or Santería, is condemned by the 27.3.10 Islam Roman Catholic Church. Catholicism in South Korea has been syncretized with The Islamic mystical tradition known as Sufism appears traditional Mahayana Buddhist and Confucian customs somewhat syncretic in nature in its origins. A better exthat form an integral part of traditional Korean culture. planation is that, As a result, South Korean Catholics continue to practice ancestral rites and observe many Buddhist and Confucian “Oneness of being does not mean that the customs and philosophies.* [24]* [25] The image of Our created universe is God, for God's Being is Lady of Guadalupe and the subsequent devotion to her necessary while the universe's being is merely are seen as assimilating some elements of native Mexican possible, that is, subject to non-being, beginculture into Christianity. ning, and ending, and it is impossible that one
27.3. RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM of these two orders of being could in any sense be the other; but rather, the created universe's act of being is derived from and subsumed by the divine act of creation, from which it has no ontic independence and hence is only through the being of its Creator, the one true being. So Wahdat-al-Wujud or Oneness of Being entails that nothing exists except Allah, His attributes, His actions, and His rulings, while created being, as manifest to us, cannot be identified with His entity or attributes but only with His actions and rulings: the world, as it were, is pure act, while Allah is pure Being. In short [Wahdat-alWujud] is not pantheism, because the world is not Allah. Spinoza's definition in the Ethica of God as “simple substance”(pantheism properly speaking), has nothing to do with the experience of those who possess ma'rifa [gnosis]. Rather, the world's existence is through Allah, in Arabic bi Llah, the point under the Arabic letter ba' being both a point of ontic connection and a point of demarcation...The matter is between Lord (Rabb), and slave who is through Lord ('abd bi Rabb)".* [30] Mainstream Tasawwuf does not present itself as a separate set of beliefs from the mainstream Sunni tradition; well-established traditions like Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Shadhili, and most others have always been part and parcel of normative Islamic life. No doubt some groups in the name of Sufism, just like in any religion, do espouse theologically unorthodox positions. During Sufi presence in Bengal, Muslim–Hindu syncretism was a general trend, and Nabibangsha by Syed Sultan is an example of it. The book tells the lineage of the prophets of Islam. Apart from Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, the poet also describes Indian deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, Rama and Krishna.
27.3.11
Judaism
283 Christianity and Islam. Until relatively recently, China had a Jewish community which had adopted some Confucian practices.* [34]
27.3.12 Other modern syncretic religions Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the African diasporic religions Candomblé, Vodou and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African deities to the Roman Catholic saints. Some sects of Candomblé have also incorporated Native American deities, and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism. Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some African American communities in the Southern United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America include Louisiana Voodoo as well as Pennsylvania Dutch Pow-wow, in which practitioners invoke power through the Christian God. Many historical Native American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence, like the Native American Church, the Ghost Dance, and the religion of Handsome Lake. Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots to Universalist and Unitarian Christian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freely incorporates elements from other religious and non-religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as “Christian.” The Theosophical Society, as opposed to Theosophy, professes to go beyond being a syncretic movement that combines deities into an elaborate Spiritual Hierarchy, and assembles evidence that points to an underlying (or occult) reality of Being that is universal and interconnected, common to all spirit-matter dualities. It is maintained that this is the source of religious belief, each religion simply casting that one reality through the prism of that particular time and in a way that is meaningful to their circumstances.
In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud made a case for Judaism arising out of the pre-existing monotheism that was briefly imposed upon Egypt during the rule of Akhenaten. The Code of Hammurabi is also cited as a likely starting point for the Jewish Ten Commandments. Some scholars hold that Judaism refined its concept of monotheism and adopted features such as its eschatology, angelology and demonology through contacts with Zoroastrianism.* [31]* [32]* [33]
Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to“realize and spread the knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faiths and beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused by distinctions and differences be rooted out.”* [35]
In spite of the Jewish halakhic prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (Avodah Zarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Messianic Judaism, Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism and Judeo-Paganism. Several Jewish Messiah claimants (such as Jacob Frank) and the Sabbateans came to mix Kabbalistic Judaism with
Several Japanese new religions, such as Konkokyo and Seicho-No-Ie, are syncretistic.
In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Taoism.
The Nigerian religion Chrislam combines Christian and Islamic doctrines. Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including Hermeticism, Eastern
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Mysticism, Yoga, 19th century libertarian philosophies (i.e. Nietzsche), occultism, and the Kabbalah, as well as ancient Egyptian and Greek religion. Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements with some religious elements include mysticism, occultism, Theosophical Society, modern astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Age movement. In China, most of the population follows syncretist religions combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and elements of Confucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85.7% adhere to Chinese traditional religion, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Many of the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities. In Réunion, the Malbars combine elements of Hinduism and Christianity. The Unification Church, founded by religious leader Sun Myung Moon in South Korea in 1954. Its teachings are based on the Bible, but include new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism and Christianity and incorporates Asian traditions.* [36]* [37] The traditional Mun faith of the Lepcha people predates their seventh century conversion to Lamaistic Buddhism. Since that time, the Lepcha have practiced it together with Buddhism. Since the arrival of Christian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that faith as well. The traditional religion permits incorporation of Buddha and Jesus Christ as a deities, depending on household beliefs.* [38]* [39]* [40]
27.4 Cultures and societies
27.5 See also • Conflation • Folk religion • Hermeneutics • Ietsism • Inclusivism • Interfaith dialogue • Multifaith space • New religious movement • Religious pluralism • Sheilaism
27.6 Notes [1] http://www.missiology.org.uk/pdf/cotterell-fs/15_ ferdinando.pdf [2] “Ammon (Siwa)". Livius.Org. Retrieved 9 August 2014. [3]“Temple of Amun, Siwa Oasis, Egypt”. SacredSites.com. Retrieved 9 August 2014. [4] Scheid, John. Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods. Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome : Influence, Integration, Resistance (1995), 15-31. [5] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 276–277 & p.291. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
Main article: Moral syncretism
[6] Stockman, Robert (1997). The Baha'i Faith and Syncretism.
Syncretism helped create possible cultural compromise. It contributed for a chance to establish beliefs, values, and customs in a place with different cultural traditions. This also allowed expansive traditions to win popular support in foreign lands.* [41]
[7] Sanjiao: The Three Teachings. Columbia University [8] “Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion”. Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
“Syncretism is often used to describe the product of the [9] Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions large-scale imposition of one alien culture, religion, or [10] “Religions and Beliefs in China”. Travelchinaguide.com. body of practices over another that is already present.” Retrieved 20 November 2011. * [42] [11] “SACU Religion in China”. Sacu.org. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
27.4.1
During the Enlightenment
[12] “Buddhism in China”. AskAsia. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
The modern, rational non-pejorative connotations of syn- [13] “Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road”. Globaled.org. Retrieved 20 November 2011. cretism date from Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie articles: Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou Concilia- [14] Dumoulin, Heinrich; Maraldo, John C. (1976). Budteurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism as the concordance dhism in the Modern World. The University of Virginia: of eclectic sources. Macmillan. p. 258.
27.7. FURTHER READING
[15] The Apostles Creed and The Nicene Creed [16] Genesis1:31 [17] Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (1999). The Jesus Mysteries. United Kingdom: Harmony. ISBN 0609807986. [18] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). [19] Étienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Justin Martyr, page 13 [20] An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine [21] “Chapter 8. Application of the Third Note of a True Development—Assimilative Power”, An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine [22] Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4610-9382-4 [23]“Syncretism”, Cyclopedia, LCMS [24] Park, Chang-Won (10 June 2010). Cultural Blending in Korean Death Rites. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-4411-1749-6. [25] [26] Pastor Apologizes to His Denomination for Role in Sandy Hook Interfaith Service, The New York Times, 7 February 2013 [27] “Chapter 16: The Church of Jesus Christ in Former Times”, Gospel Principles, LDS Church, 2011, pp. 87– 93, archived from the original on 2014-11-12 [28] “Chapter 22: Gaining Knowledge of Eternal Truths”, Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith, LDS Church, 2007, pp. 261–70, archived from the original on 2014-11-12 [29] Christopher Chapple, The concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha By Venkatesananda, 1985, pp. xii [30] Sea Without Shore: Nuh Ha Mim Keller [31] Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo-Christian World. London: William's Trust. [32] Black, Matthew and Rowley, H. H. (eds.) (1982). Peake's Commentary on the Bible. New York: Nelson. ISBN 0415-05147-9. [33] Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1988).“Zoroastrianism”. Encyclopedia Americana 29. Danbury: Grolier. pp. 813– 815. [34] www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/israel/losttribes3.html#chiang [35] Hazrat Pir-o-Murshid Inayat Khan, The 3 Objects of the Sufi Movement at the Wayback Machine (archived December 27, 2007), Sufi Ruhaniat International (1956– 2006).
285
[36] George D. Chryssides, “Unificationism: A study in religious syncretism”, Chapter 14 in Religion: empirical studies, Editor: Steven Sutcliffe, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, ISBN 0-7546-4158-9, ISBN 978-0-7546-4158-2 [37] Religious Requirements and Practices of Certain Selected Groups: A Handbook for Chaplains, By U. S. Department of the Army, Published by The Minerva Group, Inc., 2001, ISBN 0-89875-607-3, ISBN 978-0-89875-607-4, page 1–42. Google books listing [38] Hamlet Bareh, ed. (2001). “Encyclopaedia of NorthEast India: Sikkim”. Encyclopaedia of North-East India 7. Mittal Publications: 284–86. ISBN 8170997879. [39] Torri, Davide (2010). “10. In the Shadow of the Devil. traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted”. In Fabrizio Ferrari. Health and Religious Rituals in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 149–156. ISBN 1136846298. [40] Barbara A. West, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts on File library of world history. Infobase Publishing. p. 462. ISBN 1438119135. [41] Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), viii. [42] Peter J. Claus and Margaret A. Mills, South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: (Garland Publishing, Inc., 2003).
27.7 Further reading • "Syncretism". Encyclopædia Britannica 26 (11th ed.). 1911. • Cotter, John (1990). The New Age and Syncretism, in the World and in the Church. Long Prairie, Minn.: Neumann Press. 38 p. N.B.: The approach to the issue is from a conservative Roman Catholic position. ISBN 0-911845-20-8
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27.8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 27.8.1
Text
• Tarotology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarotology?oldid=730754563 Contributors: Topbanana, Goethean, Auric, Bodnotbod, R. S. Shaw, Woohookitty, Jorunn, Bgwhite, Dialectric, Morgan Leigh, タチコマ robot, SmackBot, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Sct72, Saltlakejohn, Smiloid, Cydebot, Yyem, Mojo Hand, Second Quantization, Magioladitis, Hiplibrarianship, R'n'B, Ian.thomson, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, SpiderMum, Mild Bill Hiccup, KitMarlowe3, Naleh, Ernobe, Editor2020, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Arraes.daniel, Download, Griffin700, AadaamS, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Flopsy Mopsy and Cottonmouth, Citation bot, RevelationDirect, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, JimVC3, Khajidha, Shanman7, Wikiy2k, ユアン, Skyerise, RavenRaven24, DeeMeeTree, John of Reading, Aciel.Samael, Kikolock, RaptureBot, Manytexts, Soul Development, Vanished user jfj23rinafi9j23r9jmwef, Nobody60, Perse1975, Delusion23, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Adom2000, Sinceretarot, MrBill3, The Traditionalist, Ms Mystical, ProfPolySci45, Cta2012, ChrisGualtieri, Vestic, Faizan, Dr.Sosteric, Paul2520, 20acole, Magic37, Datingwebseries, Cvogels, Jeff.forrester, Millerlau and Anonymous: 67 • Divination Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination?oldid=730994684 Contributors: Derek Ross, BF, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Justfred, Eclecticology, Panairjdde~enwiki, Netesq, KF, Olivier, Nina, (, Ihcoyc, Rboatright, TUF-KAT, Salsa Shark, Amcaja, Glenn, Andres, Rl, JASpencer, Tom Peters, Alex S, Charles Matthews, Fuzzywolfenburger, JimTheFrog, Wetman, Robbot, Mirv, Nilmerg, Texture, Phthoggos, Nunh-huh, Snowdog, Guanaco, Bluejay Young, Jurema Oliveira, Andycjp, LiDaobing, Quadell, Noe, Ihavenolife, DNewhall, Rdsmith4, Pitchka, Didactohedron, Spectatrix, Esperant, Jayjg, Lectiodifficilior, 4pq1injbok, Flamewine, Vsmith, Freestylefrappe, Dbachmann, Bender235, Brian0918, El C, Femto, Bill Thayer, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Mdd, HasharBot~enwiki, Chadofborg, AStogie, Morningstar2651, JubbaG, RJFJR, BarkMe, Versageek, Jun-Dai, Electrode, Bobrayner, Weyes, Woohookitty, Maprovonsha172, Sburke, John Hill, Jcbos, Daniel Lawrence, Toussaint, Devatta, TheRingess, RobertG, MacRusgail, Malhonen, Hall Monitor, RobotE, Waitak, Stormerne, Boticario, Pigman, Gimbeljeremy, Yamara, Lemon-s, Retired username, Aquarius rising, Mission9801, Botteville, Mike Serfas, 2over0, Arthur Rubin, Jeffw57, BorgQueen, Anclation~enwiki, UltraMuffin, Tropylium, Semperveritas, Amberrock, SmackBot, NZUlysses, Zserghei, Ifnord, Vassyana, Portillo, Saint Midge, Colonies Chris, Mladifilozof, OneVeryBadMan, Alan8895, Aquarius Rising, Amber388, Clinkophonist, Lapisphil, MaxMangel, Just plain Bill, Giancarlo Rossi, Six.oh.six, Csari, The Man in Question, A. Parrot, Hvn0413, Ehheh, Gotnoglory, JMK, Clarityfiend, TwoWings, Catherineyronwode, Ascensionblade, Courcelles, Harold f, CharlusIngus, Insanephantom, Smiloid, Lgh, Neelix, Fordmadoxfraud, Julian Mendez, Acs4b, Frater5, Casliber, Svetaohio, John254, Picus viridis, Pcbene, WinBot, Luna Santin, Newyorknews4, CPWinter, Eyecaster, WikiLambo, Uchohan, Dreaded Walrus, Vorpal blade, Roman à clef, The Transhumanist, Simon Burchell, Vituperex, Magioladitis, Aqui, Objectivesea, PelleSmith, Asktheanswer, B9 hummingbird hovering, Yasingam, Richard34, R'n'B, Tabithacat, Wiki Raja, McSly, Jotunn, PaulHX400W, Thismightbezach, Attilio74, Davehi1, DieBuche, Achillu, Alborz Fallah, Enigmaman, Dz3, Lamro, Harry rowbo, Sapphic, Spinningspark, LovelyLillith, Trigaranus, Tiptoety, Afiya27, Mr. Granger, Martarius, ClueBot, Drmies, Silent Key, Yoshi Canopus, Pete unseth, Nayanajoy, Sdiekmann, Selburcott, Penguinmuncher12, Unixluv, SchreiberBike, M.boli, Grrrlriot, Wakablogger~enwiki, Certes, Alligator77002, Editor2020, DumZiBoT, Semitransgenic, Ost316, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn, Fyrael, USchick, Download, Tide rolls, Verbal, PrincessGnomie, AadaamS, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, Edwin Luciano, AnomieBOT, Pulaski15, Self-ref, Mrspalmreader, Transity, Pontificalibus, GenQuest, Cleo bandgeek, Cubaking, Crzer07, Psppatrick, Jezhotwells, Wikiy2k, Aristeiakorps, Savonneux, Tamsier, Reconsider the static, Christopheranton, Andysarts, Pezanos, HelenOnline, Aspie18, Miracle Pen, GW4psychic, FarfromHvar, Eekerz, Nø, Mitchel2, GoingBatty, Solarra, Wikipelli, Deutschgirl, AndyTheGrump, Rmashhadi, Splashen, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Ace4848, Frietjes, Delusion23, Dream of Nyx, Allahallala, Bahnheckl, BlueMoonset, Jeraphine Gryphon, MrBill3, Winterbliss, Vegetarianjovfg320, Joshuaw711, ChrisGualtieri, Karma61538, All Worlds, Aurora909, Lugia2453, WilliamDigiCol, Selasco, JustAMuggle, Schrauwers, Alexandrathom, Aellithy, HealthyGirl, Jagupard, MaxtonTheGreat, Jfeedae, Mac4904, Amywatson01, Omo Obatalá, Whalestate, KasparBot, Csldigicol, Malur 9999, EleintMaster, Ogiason and Anonymous: 216 • Cleromancy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleromancy?oldid=726997253 Contributors: MartinHarper, Optim, Francs2000, Carlj7, Gtrmp, Andycjp, Noe, DNewhall, Histrion, Lectiodifficilior, Freestylefrappe, Xezbeth, Exabyte, Kaisershatner, Purplefeltangel, Kwamikagami, Remuel, David Haslam, Toussaint, Pigman, Trovatore, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Andomhain, NYKevin, OneVeryBadMan, Furby100, Clinkophonist, JesseRafe, Isonomia, Lambiam, דניאל צבי, Fils du Soleil, Fordmadoxfraud, Wgkelley, Pais, Synergy, Doug Weller, Fyedernoggersnodden, Oreo Priest, Fenra, Maurice Carbonaro, MickelsonBJ, MishaPan, Jvpwiki, Spellcast, Dave Andrew, Yehonatan, StAnselm, Torik1216, Ceas webmaster, Kumioko (renamed), Southtown, Spectrality, Phil wink, SlackerMom, TheOldJacobite, Pdch, Editor2020, Addbot, Yobot, Sprachpfleger, BobKilcoyne, J04n, Omnipaedista, Brutaldeluxe, Carlog3, Surv1v4l1st, Jandalhandler, Pastorkryz, GW4psychic, John of Reading, Hanstate, ZéroBot, Abbaa, ClueBot NG, Jeraphine Gryphon, Athomas.wadh, Connielafon, ValentinaPhilosopher, Aisteco, Rlstrupe, JohnL4 27709, All Worlds, Ashorocetus, Josh2415, Mune Shadowe and Anonymous: 39 • Occult Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occult?oldid=730277196 Contributors: AxelBoldt, General Wesc, Dan~enwiki, Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Ixfd64, CatherineMunro, Darrell Greenwood, Glenn, Harry Potter, RL Barrett, Lommer, JASpencer, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Martinphi, Paul-L~enwiki, Lichtkind, Joy, Jusjih, Jeffq, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Sam Spade, Mirv, Hadal, Alan Liefting, Gwalla, Gtrmp, Gene Ward Smith, Holizz, Luis Dantas, Nunh-huh, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, San de Berg, Infinitysnake, Loremaster, PFHLai, Karl-Henner, Trc, Gscshoyru, Gary D, DMG413, Ashami, Eep², Jayjg, Discospinster, WegianWarrior, Bender235, RJHall, CanisRufus, El C, Carlon, Huntster, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Perfecto, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Smalljim, Viriditas, Forteanajones, Nk, Solar, Pearle, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Arvedui, Goldom, Bart133, DreamGuy, LFaraone, Ndteegarden, Freyr, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Pdwerryh, Ria777, Chemical Halo, Weyes, Alyblaith, Pol098, Pacobob, Wikiklrsc, Tysalpha, Skinhat, Kralizec!, GalaazV, Farhansher, Mandarax, Ashmoo, Cuchullain, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Josiah Rowe, XLerate, Gcfromct, Krash, Psionicpigeon, Algebra, Titoxd, Wragge, FlaBot, Somecallmetim, Margosbot~enwiki, Fragglet, Jameshfisher, SteveBaker, Vidkun, Kazuba, Gdrbot, Gwernol, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy Dude, 999~enwiki, Pigman, Stephenb, Chaos, JohanL, Aeusoes1, BenStevenson, Qirex, Aaron Brenneman, Bro. 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Gerard armando, Belovedfreak, Tsuzuki26, Juliancolton, Zara1709, Treisijs, Ccc-media, Bluberry939, Thismightbezach, Idioma-bot, Sdirrim, Wikidbitch, VolkovBot, CWii, Johan1298~enwiki, Aeqea, Philip Trueman, Thadius856AWB, Vipinhari, Baumfreund-FFM, Redhand9113, Vinug, Angel2000~enwiki, IPSOS, Una Smith, LeaveSleaves, Manyminds17, Me I'm the grea tone, Streetsanto, Groundpounder, Deconstructhis, Xeeria, Gunnerclark, StAnselm, DiarrheaOmellette, Anyep, Portalian, Motuleños, KingRantheMan, OKBot, Kumioko (renamed), Pharaoh602, Firefly322, Twinsday, Traveler100, Niceguyedc, LizardJr8, Thobe, DragonBot, Nymf, Jusdafax, GoRight, Siriuslee, Alexander Tendler, BurgererSF~enwiki, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Lucyintheskywithdada, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, WikHead, Addbot, Joeyiscool12341, Friginator, Reidlophile, Diptanshu.D, Rosewater Alchemist, Pitshot, OffsBlink, OlEnglish, Bermicourt, Tobi, Legobot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, QueenCake, Mtaylor1795, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, LeafromOZ, Materialscientist, Tamir-Yehuda Ben Avraham, Millahnna, J04n, Brandon5485, Reflections of Memory, Mattis, Shadowjams, თეკა, Green Cardamom, YuukiKiryuu, Wikiy2k, WPANI, Pergamino, Haeinous, Rodneyorpheus, Machine Elf 1735, Aleister Wilson, Henry123ifa, Citation bot 1, Xxglennxx, Pinethicket, Prcchati, B. Whitestone, NortyNort, Torchrunner, HelenOnline, GossamerBliss, Vrenator, SeoMac, GW4psychic, Kitfoxxe, Paul 94Leask420, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, JoshuaWestfalen, RjwilmsiBot, AsceticRose, Michael Essmeyer, Kabir Talat, Christina Silverman, Wayne Slam, L Kensington, Loganloganlogand, Eglino, Mlang.Finn, Manytexts, Sylartk, ClueBot NG, Mehtank, CindyC78, Dream of Nyx, Widr, Easprem, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Jeraphine Gryphon, Waysofman, BG19bot, Jamescrouch74, PhnomPencil, Dragenfly, Rohanidoc, Compfreak7, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, H. 217.83, Melodychick, Amitrochates, Smithasalma, Davidlwinkler, Naturaldoubt, TwoTwoHello, Philosavant, Cherubinirules, Saha.rj, BadKittieKat76, Mas Rodin, Lajj831, XercesBlue1991, Mckross2000, Alexis1102, Glorious Sparrow, Vieque, Mystical13, Colecampbell98, DarkMystik1, ReptilianGod, Riazj14234, Patrick8888888, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, Knife-in-the-drawer, Pandit Gaurav Acharya, Thecontemporists and Anonymous: 390 • Magic (paranormal) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)?oldid=730391557 Contributors: Kpjas, CYD, BF, The Anome, Tarquin, Slrubenstein, RK, Andre Engels, Khendon, PierreAbbat, Ellmist, Apollia, Heron, Netesq, Modemac, Stevertigo, Rbrwr, Ubiquity, Patrick, D, Tubby, Michael Hardy, Bewildebeast, Fred Bauder, Nixdorf, Ian23, Sannse, Yann, Delirium, Alfio, CesarB, Ihcoyc, Ronabop, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Snoyes, Darkwind, Habj, LouI, Andres, Uyanga, EdH, RL Barrett, JASpencer, Alexwatson, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Ike9898, Timc, Haukurth, Maximus Rex, David Shay, Nv8200pa, Martinphi, Fvw, Pakaran, Phil Boswell, Gentgeen, Robbot, Ibrahim Abdullah, Korath, Altenmann, Lowellian, Postdlf, Ashley Y, Academic Challenger, SchmuckyTheCat, Hadal, UtherSRG, Benc, Xanzzibar, Jooler, Carnildo, Pablo-flores, Matt Gies, Gtrmp, Andromeda~enwiki, Elf, Barbara Shack, Wolfkeeper, Wighson, Bradeos Graphon, Noone~enwiki, DO'Neil, Xorx77, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Geni, Knutux, Rdsmith4, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Gary D, Joyous!, Tromatic, Machenphile, Danarmak, Grm wnr, Jayjg, Rfl, Poccil, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Peccavimus, Antaeus Feldspar, Dbachmann, Mani1, Corvun, Lachatdelarue, Hapsiainen, Violetriga, RJHall, Putrescent stench, El C, Kwamikagami, Art LaPella, Triona, Rockslave, Bobo192, AmosWolfe, Ray Dassen, Infocidal, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Kashasu, Elipongo, Acjelen, Idleguy, Lysdexia, Melah Hashamaim, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Sumalsn, Anthony Appleyard, SnowFire, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Mr Adequate, Ricky81682, Yamla, Ynhockey, Hu, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Velella, Binabik80, Denial, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, Geraldshields11, Kusma, Peter Pan, Alai, Drbreznjev, Zereshk, HGB, Feezo, Weyes, OwenX, Woohookitty, Maprovonsha172, Jacobolus, Scjessey, Commander Keane, MONGO, Jwanders, CiTrusD, Wikiklrsc, John Hill, Dionyziz, AdeptOmega, Allen3, Dbutler1986, Mandarax, Tslocum, Graham87, Keeves, BD2412, Wizardswand, Yurik, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tjc, Gabrielsimon, Ojmorales0002, Strait, Seraphimblade, Voretus, SeanMack, The wub, Bhadani, Ptdecker, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, Nineveh, Somecallmetim, Nihiltres, Nivix, Fragglet, Gurch, Magicalpath, M7bot, BradBeattie, WhyBeNormal, Chobot, Vorpal Suds, DVdm, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Wack'd, Ben Tibbetts, Mercury McKinnon, Hairy Dude, Wikky Horse, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Bogboy1978, Shelper, Anonymous editor, Bhny, Pigman, Vladislaus Draculea, Manop, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Neilbeach, Wimt, Probell, NawlinWiki, EWS23, Wiki alf, Neural, Grafen, Trovatore, Justin Eiler, Srinivasasha, J E Bailey, Apokryltaros, Irishguy, RL0919, Ospalh, Romarin, Priyanath, Gadget850, Rwalker, Morgan Leigh, DeadEyeArrow, Psy guy, Botteville, Cadillac, Jkelly, Theodolite, Zzuuzz, Andrew Lancaster, Ninly, Jameta, Josh3580, Sepand, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, LadyClaudius, Snaxe920, Thomas Blomberg, Stumps, MaeseLeon, Vanka5, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Raelyan, Lestrade, Tom Lougheed, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Bomac, Davewild, WookieInHeat, Ixtli, Hardyplants, AnOddName, Gjs238, Onebravemonkey, Edgar181, Septegram, Yamaguchi 先 生, Vassyana, Gilliam, Monkeytail39, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Cowman109, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, SalomonMuriel, Blindogenius, MK8, Master of Puppets, Stratosphere, TheFeds, FARAZ, Brendanrusso10, Colonies Chris, Sentinel75, Zachorious, Rogermw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Alphathon, OrphanBot, Kr5t, Onorem, Prometheuspan, KaiserbBot, Sommers, Pnkrockr, RedHillian, Cybercobra, Nakon, Fullstop, Jev the cat, Dreadstar, MattKolter, Fuzzypeg, LizFL, Where, Pilotguy, Wilt, Cast, Kuru, Titus III, AmiDaniel, Heimstern, Filmcom, Heyiquit, JoshuaZ, Coyoty, Elvenearth, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, Beetstra, Optimale, Sir192, Meco, TastyPoutine, TheOtherStephan, Midnightblueowl, Caiaffa, Andreworkney, Jc37, Alltonight, OnBeyondZebrax, RhoOphuichi, CzarB, Buffyfan7420, Debeo Morium, Wjejskenewr, Catherineyronwode, J Di, TurabianNights, Tony Fox, Vedek Wren, Anger22, Coffee Atoms, Tawkerbot2, Pi, George100, Eastlaw, Shamil, Drblood, Banyan, J Milburn, JForget, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Estéban, Smiloid, ShelfSkewed, Lazulilasher, Iokseng, Dmwarren, Whereizben, Thevibe, Cahk, Steel, Goldfritha, Indeterminate, Aristeo, Magicbook, Frater5, Odie5533, The snare, Doug Weller, Da remixCeo, Myhlow, SteveMcCluskey, Omicronpersei8, Repliedthemockturtle, Rosser1954, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Keraunos, Igbale, Marek69, Tomasf, Aristox, Grayshi, Riotnikki, Natalie Erin, Noclevername, Escarbot, Bookworm7878, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, MsDivagin, Quintote, Doc Tropics, LuckyLouie, MECU, Wmgries, Narfil Palùrfalas, Arkayne Magii, Wahabijaz, JAnDbot, Niaz, Barek, MER-C, Janejellyroll, Sophie means wisdom, Smith Jones, PhilKnight, Kerotan, Yahel Guhan, Norfolkdumpling, Magioladitis, SteelersFan UK06, VoABot II, P64, AtticusX, Knowledge for All, Vbbdesign, ***Ria777, PelleSmith, Yaum, Catgut, Theroadislong, Animum, Nposs, Ben Ram, 2206, Allstarecho, Ours18, Mayan666, DerHexer, CC80, Brandon1978, Pax:Vobiscum, Urco, Voln, Robin S, Vishvax, Gjd001, Flowanda, Timmy12, Xomic, MartinBot, CliffC, BetBot~enwiki, Kebritproject, MaraNeo127, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Apola, Boston, Werothegreat, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, C decola, Riverfield, Adavidb, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, WarthogDemon, Ian.thomson, Marcsin, Power level (Dragon Ball), Matsimons, McSly, Slippered sleep, Sofeil, AntiSpamBot, RoboMaxCyberSem, Hanacy, Bill Conrad, Walfalah89, DH85868993, FenixEden, Ja 62, Jarry1250, Redblossom, HighKing, Joekerr, Noriso, Thismightbezach, Idioma-bot, Black Kite, VolkovBot, CWii, Tunnels of Set, BoogaLouie, Bovineboy2008, Ryan032, DarkShroom, Saziel, TXiKiBoT, Park70, Sorathius, Jake123456789123, Fcb981, IPSOS, Phillip Rosenthal, Shishire Maiga, Clarince63, Melsaran, Brunton, Rol3y2104, Azebiak, Nostradamus427, LeaveSleaves, Shadowlapis, Wiae, Steve3849, Saturn star, RadiantRay, Nikosgreencookie, Eih066, Dirkbb, Tikuko, Turgan, Ebonyskye, Sesshomaru, Why Not A Duck, Votick, Chickyfuzz14, Chenzw, Laval, Icebug, Runewiki777, Dither-indelible, Ironman8, SieBot, Dragondreams, Dusti, Sonicology, Tresiden, ToePeu.bot, Sakkaku Kaikou, Gerakibot, Jsc83, Legion fi, Caltas, Xymmax, Big rocky, Srushe, Nite-Sirk, Exert, Wizzard2k, Allmightyduck, Mimihitam, Duaa1234, Doctorfluffy, Oxymoron83, Wgzzr, Zylox, Curts75, Kellovesbooks, Frog45, Quin26071, Moonside, DRTllbrg, Denisarona, ImageRemovalBot, Legeres, WikipedianMarlith, Tanvir Ahmmed, ClueBot, ParlerVousWiki, LAX, Userafw, Polentario, Deanlaw, The Thing That Should Not Be, Stealthepiscopalian, MikeVitale, The Other Guy 27, Lmateo002, DJ fathead, WDavis1911, Mild Bill Hiccup, Shinpah1, Drivehell, Sdiekmann, PMDrive1061, DragonBot, Excirial, Nymf, Canis Lupus, GooferMan, PixelBot, Sun Creator, Magician888, Lunchscale, 0XQ, La Pianista, Aitias, 7, Tuzapicabit, Editor2020, Ladybugoflight, Vanished User 1004, Hongkonghong, XLinkBot, Hotcrocodile, Gonzonoir, Dthomsen8, Ost316, Richard-of-Earth, Skarebo, Will in China,
288
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Casewicz, ESO Fan, Azxcvbnmk, Roklok, Cunard, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Trasman, TutterMouse, Vatrena ptica, Fielddaysunday, Startstop123, Amberghaffar, Supabig, MrOllie, Proxima Centauri, CarsracBot, BepBot, Glane23, Chzz, Favonian, Lucian Sunday, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Ccgman8, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Krano, Jarble, Legobot, Math Champion, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Faisaleen, Themfromspace, Wheelsthem, Historyinfo, AnakngAraw, Truelifeinfo, K2709, Wookie planet, AnomieBOT, Magex1001, AlotToLearn, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Sucro, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, 14nu5, Pablohacker112, Winxlover777, Frankenpuppy, Magegg, LilHelpa, Tadakastu, LydiaParrish, Xqbot, Anders Torlind, Langereis, Capricorn42, Jeffrey Mall, Smk65536, Daman69xo, Iprocomp, Hi878, J04n, Omnipaedista, DaAwalk, Oaktwig, RibotBOT, Jackrt66, Doulos Christos, SchnitzelMannGreek, Sesu Prime, Thenannubiotch, FrescoBot, Flygongengar, Vipinfogirl, Weetoddid, Neophytesage, TipperJames, Machine Elf 1735, Aleister Wilson, Shakur makar, Xxglennxx, Vipinfoisabellez9, Guruspiritual, Kitty555, DrilBot, Wikiparisajun, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Vicenarian, Magicephs, Jonesey95, AmazingMaleeni, Superultracookie, Whiterabbitone, A8UDI, Trelawnie, Exile1, Ottokarten, Bstnsx704, Steve19, Followthewhite, Scoops of information, Lotje, Zvn, Seahorseruler, GW4psychic, Stalwart111, Unrulyevil, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Lexeon, RjwilmsiBot, Blueinc123, Elspru, Gome103, VirJenia, Salvio giuliano, Deagle AP, LcawteHuggle, Nyxaus, EmausBot, Editor4800, Wizard of Wizards, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Invaraeden, Waltwear, Technoburn, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, AvicBot, Fæ, LukeCopenspire, Michael Essmeyer, Heretofore N. Afterward, Zezen, Sisterwanda, Abu Muslim Abdirahim, Wayne Slam, Sjfhgeirgoshfyge, Ben Ammi, Staszek Lem, Obotlig, Jay-Sebastos, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Willhowell, Donner60, ArtemisPhoenix, Forever Dusk, DASHBotAV, Name123456, AUN4, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, RyanMiletiWIKI, Jack Greenmaven, BATUK SHUKLA, Nobody60, Satellizer, Iritakamas, Spygirl88, Snotbot, Amr.rs, Frietjes, Widr, Vibhijain, Helpful Pixie Bot, Steve1997~enwiki, Titodutta, Derelict Hobo, Wbm1058, Mechanaguy, H870rce, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Tototamd6, Kyrmyzy gul, Tozza23, PhnomPencil, Palltrast, MusikAnimal, Possumpowers, Imran1012, Joydeep, DPL bot, MrBill3, Paradiddy4444444, TBrandley, Chip123456, Carliitaeliza, BattyBot, Xrex479, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, ScarletBrow, ChrisGualtieri, Sermadison, TwizteDope, Smithasalma, Yaratam, Mari bel 92, Karma61538, Mlitwa1, Raymond Phoenix, JYBot, All Worlds, Dexbot, Indigodallas, FoCuSandLeArN, TS2020, Paw42uk, Stringfellowaaron, Ltuazon0214, Ferdinando Castaldo, Brendanator22, Sowlos, Schrauwers, Epicgenius, Jaroslove BonDar, Melonkelon, Shanleyrichardson, Ahsanraza22, Joedog12, Astrolog medyum ömer, Sylar 103, Mas Rodin, Ugog Nizdast, TankThank, John.v.Winterhulk, Ginsuloft, Xpeteyzx, TemporalanomalyX, Juhuyuta, Boardwalkring, Asimifortia, Grandpa ray, Hannibal Smythe, CosmicMC11, Paquiaçao, Lagoset, Monkbot, Mystical13, Raize666, DarkMystik1, JessieSX, Daß Wölf, ILoveDanmark, Armani G55, Takao8, NQ, Signedzzz, Tangielove, AChickenThatCanType, WikiEditorial101, Andrew Feikema, Sy.moosa, Altenmaeren, Owenvuke, Omo Obatalá, IEditEncyclopedia, Sarr Cat, Matts J, Glorious Beauty, Vivatheviva, Whalestate, Isiskskasa, Trumpet21, Fatasticmom137, JJMC89, Falendal, Colie8898, Gjankent, The Novac, Asdfhsgfsj, Mtm029, InstantMaruchan, Pizzacult, GabyO 15, Ebookomane, Ritchie2015, Jamielewist, Skscoolrocky, Rejewskifan, Ciaspy13, Enzu360, Officialgking, SonicSteve, Umjammerlammyfan, Ggo4th, StickMannequin, Sam233633 and Anonymous: 992 • Western esotericism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism?oldid=730312266 Contributors: Shii, Ewen, Llywrch, Sannse, Jdforrester, Ike9898, Wik, Optim, Robbot, Goethean, Altenmann, Gadfium, Trc, Dbachmann, Bender235, Ray Dassen, Giraffedata, Jonathunder, Ekhalom, Hanuman Das, Weyes, Woohookitty, T. Baphomet, The-Watermammal, Hughcharlesparker, GalaazV, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, PinchasC, Naraht, Nihiltres, Russavia, 999~enwiki, Hiyya54, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Yahya Abdal-Aziz, MSJapan, AdelaMae, Morgan Leigh, GeoffCapp, Igiffin, Jkelly, Ultron, Petri Krohn, Akrabbim, SmackBot, ^^James^^, Hu Gadarn, Vassyana, Hmains, Chris the speller, Ryan Paddy, Kittybrewster, Blueboar, Zygnus, Fullstop, Fuzzypeg, Wwwdlhow27, GameKeeper, Jason Farrow, Razum, Midnightblueowl, Iridescent, Harry Stoteles, Lottamiata, Daggerstab, Smiloid, Fyodor Dos, Senorelroboto, Cydebot, Underpants, Thijs!bot, Jozef1321, JustAGal, Corgana, Deadsyfan, Frater Sepa, Geneisner, Andrasnm, Avicennasis, Upholder, JaGa, Tgeairn, Joestein, McSly, Zara1709, Ina custers~enwiki, John Carter, Andrewaskew, Gillyweed, Sueyen, GlassFET, Deconstructhis, Anyep, Jojalozzo, AeliusHadrianus, TheOldJacobite, Niceguyedc, Simon D M, McSquidwich, JDPhD, Ospix, Editor2020, Arthur chos, The-wes, Dubmill, Goolulusaurs, Aokw, Madagascar periwinkle, Lightbot, Jarble, Yobot, Eduen, AnomieBOT, QaBobAllah, Aurelius787, Slarty2, Rodneyorpheus, Tom.Reding, Micraboy, Lotje, LilyKitty, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Qwesiya, Bollyjeff, The Nut, Manytexts, Benvhoff, Easprem, Aggelakis, KLBot2, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Car Henkel, Joshua Jonathan, H. 217.83, BattyBot, Mogism, Totalenlightenment, Jodosma, Kirby677, SJ Defender, XercesBlue1991, DarkMystik1, Signedzzz, Trinity9538, Xinheart, Evksivanand, Jjs hd and Anonymous: 72 • Tarot Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarot?oldid=729376913 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Cunctator, BenBaker, Fredbauder, Walter, Nate Silva, Bignose, Hephaestos, Topory, Nealmcb, Smelialichu, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Sannse, AlexR, Ihcoyc, Ronabop, Mkweise, Rboatright, Doug Pardee, Julesd, Goblin, Glenn, Tristanb, Jiang, Arteitle, Agtx, Alexwatson, Wik, Haukurth, Maximus Rex, Furrykef, Dogface, Topbanana, Wetman, Masssiveego, Jph, David.Monniaux, JorgeGG, Rossumcapek, Lumos3, PuzzletChung, Branddobbe, AlexPlank, Robbot, Lowellian, Texture, JackofOz, Robbe~enwiki, Seano1, JerryFriedman, Dina, Radagast, Gwalla, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Everyking, Varlaam, Digital infinity, Rick Block, Enfors, Datepalm17, Crag, Bluejay Young, Velkr0, Andycjp, Geni, CryptoDerk, Slowking Man, Quadell, Kaldari, Jossi, DNewhall, Icairns, TonyW, Asbestos, Tsemii, Klemen Kocjancic, Thephotoman, Master Of Ninja, Lacrimosus, Ashami, DanielCD, Pak21, Bender235, Pedant, *drew, El C, Chalst, Kwamikagami, SatyricalCynic, 2005, Perfecto, Bastique, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Wilfredo Martinez, Cmdrjameson, Dtremenak, Thanos6, Pokrajac, Blotwell, Warrenokeefe, Aleph1, Flammifer, Hargrimm, Sam Korn, Pearle, Orangemarlin, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Jeltz, TracyRenee, M7, Hippocrates, DreamGuy, Cough, BarkMe, Zawersh, Versageek, ConfessedSockPuppetJunior, Ron Ritzman, A D Monroe III, Weyes, Woohookitty, LOL, PoccilScript, The-Watermammal, Tabletop, BenSamples, Wikiklrsc, Optichan, SCEhardt, Palica, Gerbrant, Rgbea, Sin-man, Jack Cox, Sparkit, Cuchullain, BD2412, James26, L-Zwei, Josh Parris, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Carl Logan, AwkwardSocks, Phantom784, Jb-adder, Sandstorrm, Infosocialist, Mikedelsol, Ptdecker, Cassowary, Yamamoto Ichiro, FayssalF, SchuminWeb, Last1in, RexNL, WhyBeNormal, Chobot, DVdm, Mhking, Bgwhite, Dell Adams, Daduzi, Mercury McKinnon, Stormerne, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hede2000, Bhny, Pigman, TimNelson, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Kyorosuke, Schoen, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, The Ogre, Daniel Bonniot de Ruisselet, Countakeshi, Aquarius rising, Prayformojo, JHVipond, RFenno, Gadget850, ILFoxtrot, Morgan Leigh, Bota47, Adistius, Wknight94, Bob247, Igiffin, Jkelly, Sledgeh101, J S Ayer, Ninly, Closedmouth, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Staffelde, Bookmarc, Emc2, Jesup, Katieh5584, John Broughton, Nick Michael, Hide&Reason, Luk, Weapon X, Attilios, Veinor, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Miyuki, Mscuthbert, Hunterreborn, HalfShadow, Ohnoitsjamie, M4lomb, GoneAwayNowAndRetired, Xpi6, Ryalth, B00P, Oli Filth, Deli nk, CSWarren, Nbarth, Colonies Chris, Ulises Sarry~enwiki, Emurphy42, QuimGil, Vae victis, Aquarius Rising, Benten, Fiziker, Tim Pierce, Sommers, Rrburke, Wes!, CorbinSimpson, Blueboar, Gavin Moodie, Goddessshira, Gnosis1185, MichaelBillington, Fuzzypeg, A.V.~enwiki, Jklin, A gx7, Filpaul, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, GarrieIrons, SashatoBot, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Nephraiel, Rory096, Kuru, Johanna-Hypatia, Dr. John Gold, Jperrylsu, Mantegna t, Danielcz, Maggotx, NongBot~enwiki, Stephencummins, Kereal, Silverthorn, Meco, Mets501, Redeagle688, LaMenta3, Kvng, Bougearel, B7T, Carlainz, Vrkaul, Dr X, George100, Renophaston, CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Ellie Nash, Galo1969X, Smiloid, Kylu, SuperStarAD, Oden, Omglazers, Vanished user fj0390923roktg4tlkm2pkd, Mr.Slade, Kantiandream, Gogo Dodo, Kosunen, 1gnostic, Jayen466, Synergy, Bsmuc64ger, Вasil, November Jack, JLD, Surturz, Garik, Temporal Dissonance, AncientNova, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Parsa, Fourchette, Don Leon, GentlemanGhost, Yyem, Mojo Hand, Sprhodes, Dtgriscom, John254, NigelR, The
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
289
Fat Man Who Never Came Back, Jestermonkey, Frater enoc, Escarbot, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Dr.Sunlight, ReverendG, Gwswicord, Siukin, Deflective, Kaobear, MER-C, Kiko812, Katekathryn, ElSmacko, Geniac, Mizipzor, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Wikidudeman, Estmere, Jay Gatsby, Massjit, Clint317, Madmumbler, Singularity, Vanished user dkjsdfkljeritekk4, Jojomanee, Wayne Miller, Patstuart, Asktheanswer, Wikinger, Seba5618, L'aubergine, LeslieAnne, BunsenH, Graphitus, Natasiakith, Burdel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Mystie010, Gabyabed, Holly golightly202, EdBever, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Katblack, KazakhPol, Maurice Carbonaro, Eliz81, Ian.thomson, Whitelighttarot, Maproom, McSly, AntiSpamBot, Master shepherd, Ml6868, Seusomon, Mufka, Fjbfour, Kvdveer, Edgehawk, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Sam Blacketer, VolkovBot, Fences and windows, Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, Mercurywoodrose, A4bot, Liko81, Anna Lincoln, Greenbailiwick, Adrianjkpg, WazzaMan, Buddhipriya, KitMarlowe2, Alchemicalegg, PeterBiddlecombe, Billinghurst, Wasted Sapience, Gillyweed, Enviroboy, Sapphic, AlleborgoBot, Backed Turd76, Austriacus, Deconstructhis, Lylefor, SieBot, Coffee, Hlund05, AlphaPyro, WereSpielChequers, Sleightflow, Nishatarotreader, Typritc, Keilana, Wilson44691, Artfullheart, Wogga31, Arnobarnard, Creatcher, Fratrep, OKBot, StaticGull, MarkinBoston, Astrologist, Randy Kryn, Poker0face, SpiderMum, ClueBot, KellyAna, The Thing That Should Not Be, Meteorit~enwiki, DanielDeibler, KitMarlowe3, Oldbuddyhank, McMarcoP, Iancb1, Mizuyajuu, Excirial, Wikiscribe, Danausi, Eeekster, Zaharous, Sun Creator, Hans Adler, CowboySpartan, Micha, Kkarma, Hyperturbine, NintendoFan, MelonBot, Alligator77002, Averizi, Christianw7, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Manbu, Qgil-WMF, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn, Willking1979, Loicduros, Teqmc2, Douglasw30, Rodrigotebani, Runestonearts, Noozgroop, MrOllie, Download, CarsracBot, Redheylin, Dacic, Fredstreet, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, WuBot, Delhovlyn, Krenakarore, Quantumobserver, Bogus.Koszalka, Leovizza, Luckas-bot, AadaamS, Yobot, Nutfortuna, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Cx3 lalonde, AnomieBOT, Jcardoza22, Piano non troppo, Chuckiesdad, Self-ref, Flopsy Mopsy and Cottonmouth, Battezu, Mrspalmreader, Utada27, QaBobAllah, LilHelpa, יונה בנדלאק, Bihco, Renaissancee, Grim23, Aa arquiza, Anonymous from the 21st century, SassoBot, MadameSeaqueen, Bern1000, Delbertpeach, WillMall, Bbcweaver, Shadowjams, Who then was a gentleman?, Lbkaley, Raphael1966, Surv1v4l1st, Wikiy2k, Flygongengar, ユアン, Aleister Wilson, Ronamo84, InTheLapofMorpheus, Emsnba, MecnunTurgay, Lolknuth, Skyerise, RedBot, ДП, Salvidrim!, Fulldate unlinking bot, DMoore74028, Issuesixty soulsgreat, VNNS, AidoWedo, Theo10011, Aoidh, Malachi Romano-Fermin, Atrempance, Mean as custard, Jhandlc, 1337monger, Bossanoven, Dax Carlisle, EmausBot, John of Reading, Jo Esoteric, Nuujinn, Mashaunix, GoingBatty, Iyyobh, Dcirovic, Fæ, The Nut, Tomolder10, Susanlevitt999, Stacyjj, Dreamsilver, Ogarram, Jaque Hammer, Droachllc, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Wisdawn, EmmaJ78, Majabjekovic, Perse1975, Yanclae, 666cgislvl666, Madddomaw, Helpful Pixie Bot, Shrish11, Regulov, BG19bot, Stelpa, Dan653, Mark Arsten, Blaziken rjcf, Nerakdon, Deeptarot, Francoferret, Cwobeel, Saruman38, Classicmilds, SFK2, Jamesx12345, HullIntegrity, JustAMuggle, Epicgenius, Jamesmcmahon0, Lingzhi, Szpak444, Everymorning, Dr.Sosteric, DavidLeighEllis, Finnusertop, Ndorchak, Pooya b941, BillMoyers, JaconaFrere, YishE, Steve-Raymore, Monkbot, Laura majestic, Tranquility of Soul, BethNaught, Cindybeerspsy, TantalusIX, Elizzan, Meesalikeu, Jannice454, Aluracein82, SM Preston, Jeff.forrester, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, SerpentRevolution666, Quatral5112, Mckburton, Tungli72, Nhamcmo, Markoni93, TheOneAnonymousUser and Anonymous: 711 • Mysticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticism?oldid=731698394 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, ClaudeMuncey, Mav, Wesley, Eclecticology, Mark Christensen, Danny, Rgamble, Froderik, SimonP, Soulpatch, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Andy Baker, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Kalki, IZAK, Skysmith, TUF-KAT, Setu, Александър, Kh7, Djnjwd, Evercat, Norwikian, Heidimo, RodC, Charles Matthews, Jwrosenzweig, Andrewman327, Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Jjshapiro, Kkawohl, James Arthur Reed, Topbanana, Joy, Optim, Bcorr, Lumos3, PuzzletChung, Dimadick, Robbot, Chealer, Fredrik, RedWolf, Goethean, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Stewartadcock, Rursus, Texture, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, Wikibot, Seano1, Mattflaschen, Imma, Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, San de Berg, Maroux, MOBY, Mboverload, Jds, Eequor, Ojl, Harisingh, Lucky 6.9, Mateuszica, Wmahan, Gadfium, Neophile, Andycjp, Jonel, Antandrus, Jossi, Satori, Pmanderson, Trc, ZZyXx, Gary D, Neutrality, Kevin Rector, Shotwell, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, CALR, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, H0riz0n, FT2, Wrp103, Vsmith, Dbachmann, Mani1, Bender235, Pietzsche, El C, Bobo192, Forteanajones, Jojit fb, VBGFscJUn3, Allenjwsc, Ekhalom, Wayfarer, Ogress, Ramashray, Raj2004, Alansohn, Paradiso, Scarecroe, Clifflandis, DreamGuy, RJII, Ogambear, Kelly Martin, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, Havermayer, Uncle G, Kokoriko, Jacobolus, Kzollman, WadeSimMiser, Zelse81, Trapolator, Tabletop, Aaroamal, GalaazV, Palica, Mandarax, RichardWeiss, Graham87, BD2412, Solace098, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Gabrielsimon, PinchasC, Josiah Rowe, Heah, Vegaswikian, FuelWagon, Lostsocks, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, Winhunter, John Z, RexNL, Tedder, Fourdee, Jared Preston, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, JoeMystical, Peter G Werner, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hiyya54, Arado, Pleonic, PWhittle, Hede2000, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Eleassar, Wimt, Friday, Nirvana2013, Jgrantduff, Welsh, Midnite Critic, Juggins, Larry laptop, Moe Epsilon, Apeman, Priyanath, AdelaMae, Psican, Trainra, Bmju, Twisturbed Tachyon, Igiffin, Smkolins, J. Van Meter, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, Ogo, Kungfuadam, FAThomssen, Infinity0, Kf4bdy, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Amcbride, Narayani~enwiki, Lestrade, McGeddon, Jfurr1981, Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Pasha Abd, Cool3, Gilliam, Gizmoguy, Universal1300, Holy Ganga, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Stevenwagner, Madmedea~enwiki, Static Universe, BrandonCsSanders, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, Deli nk, Go for it!, Zachorious, Dragice, JFQ, Ig0774, Zambaccian, Nixeagle, Paddel~enwiki, Rrburke, RedHillian, Stangbat, Cybercobra, Daqu, Hoof Hearted, Lcarscad, LoveMonkey, FWadel, Fuzzypeg, Wwwdlhow27, Wisco, DMacks, GourangaUK, GameKeeper, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Nishkid64, John, AC2000, Anapraxic, DLPanther, Makyen, Sharnak, Texas Dervish, Novangelis, Kripkenstein, Hectorian, Drpaluga, MouseRancher, Potashnik, Nehrams2020, Fan-1967, BananaFiend, Iridescent, Libratune, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Greenie2600, JStewart, Sam Li, Thirdgatebaptist, Tawkerbot2, IronChris, ChrisCork, Thedanturner, Patrickwooldridge, CmdrObot, Bridesmill, Amalas, Punanimal, Lighthead, Mak Thorpe, WeggeBot, John courtneidge, Gregbard, Vaquero100, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Metanoid, Evenmadderjon, Steel, Aristophanes68, Peterdjones, Soetermans, Miguel de Servet, Frater5, Psuliin, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, YorkBW, DBaba, Kozuch, Questmaster, Superbeatles, Leonjbrm, Arb, Jonathanbethel, Nhelferty, Lectert, Bigwyrm, Perennial~enwiki, Headbomb, Pacific PanDeist, Tjpob, Logan0703, Nick Number, Leewonbum, Abracadab, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Sobaka, Cacahuate, James Epstein, Julia Rossi, Geokerk, Jayrav, Modernist, Danny lost, Alphachimpbot, Myrddin Masery, Kent Witham, Drhipp, TheGunslinger, Kariteh, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, Isatay, Ekabhishek, Andonic, Hele 7, Naval Scene, Ophion, Loosestring, BlueRobot~enwiki, Dragonnas, Atulkulki, Magioladitis, Da baum, 1shaman, Mystiq0, Arthur B, Rivertorch, ELinguist, Truthspreader, Presearch, Nposs, Kristinemcole, DerHexer, JaGa, DAVIDY, NMaia, B9 hummingbird hovering, Arenarax, MartinBot, Nazroon, Kostisl, R'n'B, Earthdenizen, Fconaway, Vanwhistler, J.delanoy, Randerson 3535, BeckyBeck, AstroHurricane001, StevenTCramer, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Cpiral, PhiloNysh, Rmbtm p, Joshuareagan, Bailo26, Tarotcards, Chiswick Chap, Sheiknazim2, Happy138, Rosenknospe, A. Ben-Shema, Andy Marchbanks, Axaladl, Naqshabandi, RJASE1, Myklove, N.B. Miller, VolkovBot, Iosef, TXiKiBoT, Soma77, MysticReaders, Gdzierlenga, Ontoraul, DSGruss, ^demonBot2, Mytchill, Tommytocker, Cnilep, M.hayek, Hrafn, Caterinato, WereSpielChequers, Malcolmxl5, Tillmangirl72, Ravensfire, Nullist, David Plum, Theun k, HughJLF, Benny the wayfarer, WickerGuy, ClueBot, Dakinijones, Mild Bill Hiccup, Boing! said Zebedee, Hafspajen, CounterVandalismBot, Dhyanatmika, Michaelchecht, Gavin Kettis!, PixelBot, Ludwigs2, Get2therage, Simon D M, ZuluPapa5, Arjayay, Kippson, SchreiberBike, IamNotU, Yozer1, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Voiceofspirit, VirginiaLou, Lama Ding Dong, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Mitsube, Avoided, Wordwebber, SgtSchumann, WikiDao, Dgreenbergz, Kaldar, Addbot, Queenmomcat, Marcgblainey, Shankara1000, LaaknorBot, Bassbonerocks, Favonian, Tassedethe, Konstantinos~enwiki, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Romaioi, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Bunnyhop11, Librsh, Denispir,
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CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Raphael26, Dan1138, AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, Jim1138, Billegge, Piano non troppo, Cacala17, Citation bot, VedicScience, Eumolpo, Kngwa83, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, FreeRangeFrog, Xqbot, Csfun1, Suddha, Nasnema, DSisyphBot, Headlikeawhole, Gdallaire, Makeswell, Ragityman, J04n, Tenofour, Micione, NancyBrownMiller, تسلیم, Wolf Ashkenazi, Dougofborg, FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, Neonic333, Kirtanman, D'ohBot, Haeinous, Aleister Wilson, Alexisniche, Aditya soni, The kicker, Traben, Sopher99, Perrybrad1, Buddhaamaatya, MolBioMan, Ency456, Dazedbythebell, Trelawnie, PSY7, ImmortalYawn, Vejlefjord, Pollinosisss, Leftsideend, Kered77, Lotje, EliTaz, Dinamik-bot, LilyKitty, 30daysinAK, Lsousek, Diannaa, Bobby122, Woodlot, Blaze1974, BrightBlackHeaven, BastardoTheGreat, Obsidian Soul, RjwilmsiBot, PPdd, EmausBot, Parkywiki, Sikander.alis, Jujhar.pannu, Vortexengineer, Dewritech, 8oclockmovement, Rarevogel, Phoenixthebird, ARCitect, Mjerskey, Jrh98409, Unreal7, SporkBot, Tolly4bolly, Jacobisq, Doctorilluminatus, Xchri5o8x, Cincybluffa, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Manytexts, Sylartk, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Nobody60, Gilderien, Elwinbennington, Movses-bot, PurpleMundi, Ambkj123, Snotbot, Jogmiers, Kasirbot, Anthony maybury, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Dragenfly, Trismegistus33, Drift chambers, Thehumandignity, CitationCleanerBot, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, SympatheticResonance, Docsufi, JEMead, BattyBot, DemirBajraktarevic, Alchohilcsementhrower, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Qexigator, Will I Am CCE, Siggy101, Mogism, Rnacafov, Khunrath1595, Randykitty, Newthoughts34, Cherubinirules, DavidLeighEllis, Flobbadob, John.v.Winterhulk, JimRenge, Noyster, Bladesmulti, Juhuyuta, DTPolet, Monkbot, VictoriaGrayson, Commie2014, Khabboos, Filedelinkerbot, Poveglia, Ankitapasricha, Isambard Kingdom, Pixarh, RabbiSimeon, March232013, Soulgazer, KasparBot, Wpaul1972, Philosi4, Robot psychiatrist and Anonymous: 574 • Hermeticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticism?oldid=731807139 Contributors: Slrubenstein, Deb, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, Ihcoyc, RL Barrett, Norwikian, Charles Matthews, Lichtkind, Kenatipo, Twang, Altenmann, Babbage, Ojigiri~enwiki, DocWatson42, Marcika, Jorge Stolfi, Infinitysnake, Loremaster, Quarl, DNewhall, Tothebarricades.tk, PFHLai, Clarknova, Ashami, DanielCD, Dbachmann, Bender235, Art LaPella, Perfecto, Bastique, Stesmo, Ray Dassen, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Dtremenak, Nk, Rje, Solar, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Eleuthero, Rd232, DreamGuy, Jheald, TShilo12, Dejvid, RHaworth, Gil-Galad, Oferrriko, Rgbea, Graham87, Cuchullain, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, NatusRoma, Kinu, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Nandesuka, Ptdecker, RexNL, Gurch, Robert Prummel, AllyD, Roboto de Ajvol, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Leutha, Ptcamn, Justin Eiler, Rajachow, MSJapan, Morgan Leigh, Shralk, Tomisti, Ultron, AdamFunk, Deville, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Oakwood, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Stepa, Ogdred, Bluebot, TimBentley, Hibernian, Monkeycheetah, Oatmeal batman, Beowulf314159, Clinkophonist, Blueboar, King Vegita, PiPhD, Cybercobra, Savidan, Ligulembot, Yonderboy~enwiki, Sophia, Dr. John Gold, Greyscale, LancasterII, Kirbytime, Astrolog~enwiki, Armadel, Dan Gluck, TwoHorned, IvanLanin, Lenoxus, Psilosphere, Chris55, Mellery, Geremia, Smiloid, Basawala, Heylel, Moreschi, Antioco79, AndrewHowse, Jpb1301, Sloth monkey, Synergy, Doug Weller, Arb, Sweetmoose6, Raistlin Majere, KamiLian, Thijs!bot, Qwyrxian, Dogaroon, HappyInGeneral, Nalvage, Deschreiber, JustAGal, Frater FiatLux, ThePeg, Frater Xyzzy, MoogleDan, Byrgenwulf, JAnDbot, Sophie means wisdom, Magus007, SiobhanHansa, Professor marginalia, Revery~enwiki, Zostrianos, KellyArt, Rico77, Jim.henderson, Kostisl, R'n'B, Sam Weller, All Is One, Ian.thomson, Arion 3x3, McSly, Alphapeta, Jstar37, Jorjun, OrganicAtom, Davecrosby uk, Ottershrew, Shinju, W. B. Wilson, Ina custers~enwiki, Salome777, Jonathan.McGregor.Bethel, TXiKiBoT, Akeenan, Nihiliststar, IPSOS, John Carter, Hermetizam~enwiki, DieBuche, Enviroboy, Riversong, Gabe777, Tomcusack, ThriceGreat, Trinsic1, Jojalozzo, DanBLOO, Anchor Link Bot, Mr. Stradivarius, Journalist492, Wahrmund, JL-Bot, Martarius, Samuel Grant, IPAddressConflict, Ferma12e3pe, TheOldJacobite, Wikijens, CFPeterson, Curious Blue, Phso2, Audaciter, FeelyViewy, Lx 121, Editor2020, Tdslk, UnionJack123, Quenstedt, Addbot, Smetanahue, Ronhjones, Jncraton, Mseanbrown, Moreschi2, CarsracBot, Debresser, Tyler8779, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Algorithme, Materialscientist, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, RevelationDirect, Hermotimus, Xqbot, Sionus, Gehadad, TechBot, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Basileias, Flygongengar, Rhadryn, Aleister Wilson, Citation bot 1, XxTimberlakexx, Bookerj, Skyerise, Shelhabiron, Pollinosisss, ItsZippy, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Syncategoremata, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Donner60, Gschiffino, ClueBot NG, Manosty, Dream of Nyx, Helpful Pixie Bot, BlueMoonset, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Adom2000, Dkoiia1154, Car Henkel, Joshua Jonathan, JEMead, Khuenaten, ChrisGualtieri, Mogism, Sowlos, Corinne, GeoffHoeber, Lauralilly, MolodoiG, Metadox, Ilovetopaint, Frogger48, Sepamu92, Sociosphere, JudeccaXIII, Crito10, TVShowFan122, Autismrevolution342342234, Mdmerovee, Billix0008, LobsterJameson, Granitic, Megalodon34, Atlantisfoundation and Anonymous: 243 • Alchemy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy?oldid=730448004 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Lee Daniel Crocker, BF, Vicki Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, Manning Bartlett, Sjc, RK, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Matusz, Fubar Obfusco, Apollia, Mswake, Heron, BryceHarrington, Edward, Patrick, Tim Starling, Kwertii, DopefishJustin, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Sannse, Tregoweth, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Ronz, William M. Connolley, Theresa knott, Angela, Jdforrester, Александър, Nikai, Susurrus, Rotem Dan, Jouster, Ghewgill, Norwikian, Heidimo, Charles Matthews, Timwi, RickK, Stone, Slathering, Malcohol, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Markhurd, EACH, Big Bob the Finder, Maximus Rex, SEWilco, Omegatron, Wernher, Elwoz, Wetman, Flockmeal, David.Monniaux, Donarreiskoffer, Robbot, Vardion, Mazin07, Chrism, Fredrik, Ly, Romanm, Mirv, Chiramabi, Flauto Dolce, Blainster, Humus sapiens, Timrollpickering, Hadal, Jsonitsac, Wereon, TPK, Wayland, Timvasquez, Smjg, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Gtrmp, Sj, Dr spork, Lupin, Timpo, Monedula, Bradeos Graphon, Xerxes314, Everyking, Anville, LarryGilbert, Duncharris, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Jorge Stolfi, Mboverload, Luigi30, Solipsist, Darrien, Chameleon, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Wmahan, Bacchiad, Isidore, Chowbok, R. fiend, Jonel, GeneralPatton, Pcarbonn, Quadell, Antandrus, Zaha, Phe, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Jossi, Rdsmith4, Oneiros, Tothebarricades.tk, Bodnotbod, Kuralyov, Icairns, Gscshoyru, LHOON, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Hilarleo, Joyous!, Syvanen, Fenrir~enwiki, Adashiel, Esperant, ProjeX, Ashami, PRiis, Oskar Sigvardsson, Mr Bound, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Mercurius~enwiki, Moverton, Discospinster, Steve Farrell, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, JBradHicks, Vsmith, Silence, Bishonen, MeltBanana, Dbachmann, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Indrian, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Metaquasi, Kbh3rd, Fenice, Crux Ansata, Brian0918, El C, Huntster, Bletch, Edward Z. Yang, Chairboy, RoyBoy, AlexTheMartian, Thuresson, Bobo192, 23skidoo, Ray Dassen, Htmlism, Sivaraj, Viriditas, Jericho4.0, Markryherd, Idban, Forteanajones, Tiresias BC, Microtony, Sam Korn, Fugg, Jumbuck, Patsw, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Gerweck, CyberSkull, Wiki-uk, Keenan Pepper, Jet57, Andrew Gray, Riana, Primalchaos, SlimVirgin, Fourthgeek, Alex '05, Malo, Avenue, House of Shin, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Homo universalis, Fasten, Velella, Here, Knowledge Seeker, Suruena, Wimvandorst, Rhialto, LFaraone, BDD, Sleigh, Ghirlandajo, Zereshk, Oleg Alexandrov, Marasmusine, Bloodsorr0w, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, Linas, Onari, T. Baphomet, Uncle G, Kzollman, Nefertum17, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, QuetschJL, Jeff3000, LeaMaimone, Twthmoses, Kmg90, Wikiklrsc, Damicatz, TotoBaggins, Adam Field, Tickle me, Macaddct1984, Rchamberlain, GalaazV, Crucis, MarcoTolo, Sweetfreek, V8rik, Cuchullain, BD2412, Galwhaa, Kbdank71, Jclemens, Josh Parris, Sjö, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Nightscream, Matt.whitby, Phileas, Tawker, Oblivious, Ligulem, NeonMerlin, ElKevbo, Mjsedgwick, Brighterorange, TheGWO, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, SlaunchaMan, FlaBot, RobertG, Windchaser, AJR, Gparker, RexNL, Gurch, Whateley23, Mitsukai, Robert Prummel, Mehrshad123, Codex Sinaiticus, Nick81, Bihzad, Samuel Levine, Benjwong, Jidan, DaGizza, Aethralis, Korg, Digitalme, Gwernol, EamonnPKeane, Satanael, YurikBot, Wavelength, Spacepotato, RobotE, JJB, PowerGamer6, Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia, Rtkat3, Hillman, Brandmeister (old), 999~enwiki, Pip2andahalf, Lighterside, The Storm Surfer, Hornplease, Pigman, Chris Capoccia, Sasuke Sarutobi, Jtbandes, GG Crono, Akamad, Stephenb, Manop, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Bisqwit, Wimt, EnakoNosaj, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds,
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
291
Leutha, Onias, Joshdboz, Henleydude, Janarius, Justin Eiler, Ragesoss, Rubaphilos, Aaron Brenneman, PhilipC, Dr Debug, Waqas1987, Dayana Hashim, Misza13, Semperf, Srammij, Syrthiss, Mkill, Mishalak, Mysid, Kortoso, Karl Meier, PS2pcGAMER, Wujastyk, T-rex, FestivalOfSouls, Phenz, Vaisnavi, Nlu, Wknight94, Protozoid~enwiki, Cheese Sandwich, Ms2ger, Bomkia~enwiki, Wiqi55, NickD, Zzuuzz, Ninly, Theda, Jwissick, Reyk, Brina700, Nothlit, Hound Doggie, LeonardoRob0t, Cjwright79, Fram, TopGear, Curpsbot-unicodify, Nightscrawler, Staxringold, Kramden, Ephilei, Kungfuadam, JDspeeder1, Cookiedog, Payneos, Finell, CIreland, NickelShoe, Boss1000, That Guy, From That Show!, Abramul, Luk, ChemGardener, MaeseLeon, Itub, Yvwv, Edenbeast, Attilios, Crystallina, Joshbuddy, SmackBot, Moeron, Oxford Comma, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, VigilancePrime, Lagalag, Ze miguel, Pgk, MeiStone, Bomac, Jagged 85, Thunderboltz, Chairman S., Delldot, Sleevies, J.J.Sagnella, Teiler Köregäten, Vassyana, Aksi great, Gilliam, Monkeytail39, Hmains, Skizzik, Kevinalewis, Chris the speller, Kurykh, IMacThere4iAm, Jnelson09, Jprg1966, Aro888, MalafayaBot, Honey bee155, Kashami, Nozzleman, Bazonka, Jerome Charles Potts, Kungming2, Gracenotes, Hotwiki, Royboycrashfan, Zsinj, Rogermw, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Vanished user llkd8wtiuawfhiuweuhncu3tr, TheGerm, Benten, Kr5t, Dan Ferrario, Rrburke, Kittybrewster, Addshore, Tlusťa, Dali, Huon, Khoikhoi, King Vegita, Brogersoc, Makemi, Theodore7, Kntrabssi, Mistamagic28, EVula, D J L, Harvestman, Localzuk, Wirbelwind, Drphilharmonic, LordHoborgXVII, Fuzzypeg, Henrydms, SuperDT, Sadi Carnot, Josellis, Pilotguy, Kukini, Yoshiko-Chan, Deepred6502, Doug Miller, Ken M., Rory096, Harryboyles, Axem Titanium, NormalGoddess, Kuru, John, STemplar, DavidCooke, DRaGZ, Heimstern, SilkTork, Alcumista, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Pthag, Tktktk, Linnell, JoshuaZ, Maziar fayaz, ManiF, Peterlewis, IronGargoyle, Pennyforth, Asdfv, Drork, A. Parrot, Slakr, Piercetp, Alethiophile, DragoonWraith, Dicklyon, Xiaphias, Aarktica, Mets501, Doczilla, Ryulong, Sharnak, Citicat, PSUMark2006, WindOwl, John1014, Gotnoglory, Keahapana, Iridescent, Sarastro777, Thenobleageofsteam, Colinjl, JoeBot, Twas Now, Somaterc, Courcelles, Heliomance, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Filelakeshoe, Hirtenfeuer, Xcentaur, Planktonbot, CmdrObot, Sir Vicious, Groovysoul, Comrade42, Ninetyone, Anakata, KyraVixen, Leevanjackson, Dgw, DanielRigal, NickW557, Casper2k3, Ken Gallager, John S Moore, Pratikthakore, Speedy342315, Cydebot, Astrochemist, Goldfritha, Synergy, Frater5, Odie5533, Karafias, Doug Weller, Christian75, DumbBOT, Aintsemic, Chrislk02, Dooly00000, SteveMcCluskey, JodyB, Satori Son, .:Debil:., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Rsage, Headbomb, RevolverOcelotX, Marek69, Esowteric, Tapir Terrific, RickinBaltimore, Msbluerasp, GideonF, Nick Number, ThePeg, Natalie Erin, Mentifisto, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, G.o.narada, Majorly, Phuff, Luna Santin, Yomangani, Fire3500, The Templar, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, Julia Rossi, Goldenrowley, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Cinnamon42, Fayenatic london, Ereiyo, Bakabaka, Modernist, Dylan Lake, Glacierfairy, Leevclarke, Rico402, Myanw, Defordj, Gökhan, Mightywayne, Avani patel, Davewho2, Aurumsolis, Laboratorio.Ricerche.Evolutive, OllyG, Hut 8.5, Chevellefan11, Flashinpon, Acroterion, I80and, Caffeinepuppy, Magioladitis, Hroðulf, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jeff Dahl, Professor marginalia, Juanradeliz, Ling.Nut, Sodabottle, Vikrant A Phadkay, Nyttend, Balloonguy, Samjohnston, Nick Cooper, NotACow, FrF, Animum, Upholder, IkonicDeath, Practical123, Deepinthenight, MetsBot, Deanostrodamus, Hamiltonstone, Allstarecho, Frotz, Vssun, Ksvaughan2, DerHexer, Edward321, Thyroidpsychic, Teardrop onthefire, DukeTwicep, War wizard90, Gun Powder Ma, Ztobor, B9 hummingbird hovering, FisherQueen, Paul Gard, Hdt83, Mmoneypenny, CliffC, Equisis, Dr. TaO, Artemis-Arethusa, C0nsumer, Naohiro19, Anaxial, Vincentrijlaarsdam, David J Wilson, R'n'B, Rh64815, WelshMatt, Smokizzy, LedgendGamer, Amt1018, J.delanoy, M.m.a, PCock, Owl320, Bitethesilverbullet, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, HiddenTreasures06, Ishamid, Polenth, TomS TDotO, Ian.thomson, Exploravisionx2, Jkaplan, Sssuuuzzzaaannn, Minderbinder~enwiki, Xyzt1234, Bot-Schafter, L'Aquatique, AdamBMorgan, Gurchzilla, WebHamster, 2wingo, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, NewEnglandYankee, Vermeer1, SJP, Alnokta, Fjbfour, Doug4, KylieTastic, STBotD, Ot Manu, FuegoFish, Jamesontai, Skryinv~enwiki, XKiichigo, DrunkinRoxtar, Gtg204y, Bonadea, Levcampbell, Jones9999, Sixiki, Jakeman2005, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Sesshoumaru-sama~enwiki, Chromancer, Alchemy999, VolkovBot, Metal.lunchbox, Alienlifeformz, Xeltifon, ABF, Beatnik Party, DOHC Holiday, Macedonian, TallNapoleon, Shinju, AlnoktaBOT, LeilaniLad, QuackGuru, CinderAlchemist, Philip Trueman, Ken.Dickey, Saziel, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, GimmeBot, BuickCenturyDriver, Keefer.t, Hobe, Apepch7, Atomcoeur, IPSOS, Qxz, Goldisgood, Zmod101, DennyColt, Martin451, Jackfork, Ripepette, Psyche825, Vgranucci, Natg 19, Flyingw, Fishhook, CO, RadiantRay, Isaacrob, Chickenpower, Joelwyland, Staka, Vritti, AnnekeBart, Merkabaman, Nmhall, TravelingCat, Blaze Flame, Spinningspark, Mikrofone877, Ajrocke, Why Not A Duck, Anton H, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, LuigiManiac, Yaksar, MrChupon, W4chris, Wikiajmail, Steven Weston, D. Recorder, LOTRrules, Ponyo, Gabe777, SieBot, Paul20070, Anyep, Alabaster Crow, Scarian, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Dawn Bard, YBorg, Caltas, Racro 16, Kageskull, Ralecourtze, Calabraxthis, Mrpearcee, SuzanneIAM, Typritc, Nummer29, Mar(c), Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Perspicacite, Larek, Oda Mari, Momo san, Doctorfluffy, Oxymoron83, Treehappy, KoshVorlon, Historicus800, Lightmouse, Smartkid112358, Nancy, Dogbeast, Shadygrove2007, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Dcattell, Sxp151, Centralplexus, Hamiltondaniel, Vanished User 8902317830, Dust Filter, Ptr123, Wahrmund, Simsin1, Denisarona, Eriador~enwiki, WickerGuy, Troy 07, Explicit, BHenry1969, JiggeryPokery, Onemillionthmonkey, Faithlessthewonderboy, Secfile, Felipe Aira, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Hawks vial er-u-m vail, AlchemicPaladin, Thirteen O' Clock, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Tseavey1, Csarami, AeliusHadrianus, J8079s, Niceguyedc, Ottawahitech, Rotational, Trivialist, Neverquick, ACHKC, John J. Bulten, SpencerJordan, XofWiki, Sirius85, DragonBot, Excirial, Jusdafax, Waiwai933, Alejandrocaro35, Sun Creator, Creatatron, ZuluPapa5, Ernobe, AmontonarPapeles, Arjayay, Btre2007, Bremerenator, JamieS93, Tnxman307, CowboySpartan, Andreas Groß, Frozen4322, Curious Blue, SchreiberBike, Joshua Arent, Orathaic, Shikyomaru, 1ForTheMoney, Mczack26, Versus22, Painus69, LiuMasters, Phynicen, SoxBot III, Apparition11, +u3)u!^ 7!3N, Oore, DumZiBoT, Zodiacdog, Alchemist Jack, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Spitfire, Pichpich, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Mavigogun, Pgallert, Cozmo131, WikHead, Yoshi thomas, Padfoot79, Will in China, Noctibus, NHJG, Navy Blue, The full metal alchemist, Boocah305, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Some jerk on the Internet, Guoguo12, Mabdul, Non-dropframe, Smetanahue, GSMR, PicklesofDOOM, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Abbiejoice, MrOllie, Download, Redheylin, Theneogon, AndersBot, Favonian, Zi Yi Quan, Doniago, LinkFA-Bot, Kidsrule15893, Dtrain8211, Kisbesbot, AgadaUrbanit, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Bfigura's puppy, Isis2197, MuZemike, ReginaGoesMoo, LuK3, Angrysockhop, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Nyanatusita, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Billaknz43, Fraggle81, Nutfortuna, Karanne, Dsowner, Ningauble, Call Me K, W-dueck, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, IRP, Aeirom1, Piano non troppo, Ularevalo98, AdjustShift, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Cyanidethistles, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Kasaalan, GB fan, Andraiw, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Vulcan Hephaestus, Xqbot, Kpind6916, Suddha, Capricorn42, Dont watch dat, Sellyme, Timmyshin, RedKiteUK, حسن علي البط, Buleleader, Fordee11, - ), Khruner, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), J04n, GrouchoBot, Xashaiar, Webwat, Omnipaedista, Anoot7, Ssarti, Etgel, Vinnyintrousers, TboneMN, Sophus Bie, Calcinations, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Looplog, Vishnu2011, Machine Elf 1735, Garfgarfgarf, Tetraedycal, Citation bot 1, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, Grannieweatherwax, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Parabombastus, Elockid, Demon Lord 302, GrailTyger, Skyerise, Petermopar, Annbrepols, Archangels9, Kibi78704, Tea with toast, FoxBot, Cmdahler, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Layth Sbaihat, Vrenator, January, Kildwyke, Dddiiii, Seahorseruler, Jeffrd10, Unrulyevil, Reach Out to the Truth, Lord of the Pit, RjwilmsiBot, Lung salad, Rocko945, NameIsRon, Act Up, Blueinc123, Jamol96, Enauspeaker, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96, Juanita Saenz S, Avenue X at Cicero, Barkert89, Gfoley4, Facesmasher69, Syncategoremata, Active Banana, RenamedUser01302013, Mjazena, Vanished user zq46pw21, CrimsonBlue, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Selfchosen, Werieth, AvicBot, ZéroBot, LuzoGraal, Ida Shaw, Entiex, Creepy geek, Érico, Zloyvolsheb, Deaburnham, Fagetboy, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Staszek Lem, EricWesBrown, THEGREATKRAMER, Sbmeirow, Jacobisq, AIM1796, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Donner60, Inka 888, Xiaoyu of Yuxi, Homeaccount, Orange Suede Sofa, Dansalignatious, ChuispastonBot,
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CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Herk1955, Ladnadruk, GrayFullbuster, Ordibehesht22, DASHBotAV, Spicemix, 28bot, Michael Bailes, WMC, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Proclus27, IKill-Animation, Eonsword, Angelcook, J151e, Movses-bot, Alchemyalchemy, Encycloshave, Rahence, Wonderingraven, Thexiii, HazelAB, Dream of Nyx, Rurik the Varangian, Bidwoud, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bidwoud13, Baghermolavi, HMSSolent, Mdavid9, Bibcode Bot, 2001:db8, WNYY98, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Will Timony, Ph.D, Car Henkel, Rijinatwiki, Draven099, Captainmighty, Highandseeking, Surya Neeraj, GrammarFascist, Hurricanefan24, MrBill3, Glacialfox, Dr. Remo F. Roth, Lieutenant of Melkor, Janus945, BattyBot, Matthawk0328, EgillSchologrim, Smasongarrison, TheCascadian, ChrisGualtieri, ZappaOMati, Torvalu4, Laberkiste, Khazar2, Iry-Hor, JYBot, Dexbot, Alchemy 1997, Webclient101, Mogism, Barnaculus, Luna Fire, Lugia2453, UnsourcedBlanker222, Tawnyaninjacat, Blamestars, Lerr, King jakob c, Jinx1002, JustAMuggle, Silverbrooks100, BurritoBazooka, Sunlight1361, Cetelem07, Ngoodnow, Madisongouin, Ekips39, PC-XT, Ilacin, Demgiraffes, Harshal123456, Lukekfreeman, Shrikarsan, DavidLeighEllis, Metadox, Ginsuloft, Oliszydlowski, Jackmcbarn, AhBengI, Rons corner, StevenD99, Theseus001, Stamptrader, Fidasty, Politicalanthropology, Eisborne, JaconaFrere, Alexis1102, Kintastic hair, Naelahkiin, Overthemountains222, Great Escape Hero, Monkbot, Linzybee, Chrisbrooks59, Renganwa, Howrde1, Jeremiah90moon, Egg151, Amjertyu, ChamithN, Monkutis, Pixal Storm, Inazuma261, Wafflesareprettyflippincool, Orduin, KirbyMario12345, Obasha1, Chris degs, Mxgnrtnx02, Isambard Kingdom, TheEditorOnline, Scroom84, Drmrc, KasparBot, Totochemist, Gmr1994, ChildsC24, Slashingfear, Emperorclothes, Kellpet11, KSFT, PressAllocation, Di Serra, Bob5525, Ziyahashmi, CLCStudent, Xelkman, Fornax7, WhateverWalrus, 2003spud.ball, Aurumaletheia, Reallyytamn, Spanielc, Phamt, Zzeenn, Soosa07 and Anonymous: 1742 • Kabbalah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabbalah?oldid=726678414 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, The Cunctator, Dreamyshade, BF, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Slrubenstein, RK, Danny, Zoe, Hephaestos, Olivier, Rickyrab, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, DopefishJustin, Chris~enwiki, Nixdorf, Liftarn, IZAK, Sannse, AlexR, Qaz, Error, Uriber, Jallan, Peregrine981, Anton Hein, Carol Fenijn, Mir Harven, Spikey, HarryHenryGebel, Khym Chanur, Fvw, Optim, Carbuncle, Hmackiernan, Robbot, Donreed, Goethean, Sam Spade, Chris Roy, Chiramabi, Humus sapiens, Hadal, UtherSRG, Mushroom, Xanzzibar, Dina, Nagelfar, Snobot, Graeme Bartlett, DocWatson42, Jahaza, Marcika, Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Noone~enwiki, Everyking, Snyderwd, Varlaam, Jgritz, Jfdwolff, Jew~enwiki, LarryGilbert, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Clossius, Eequor, Wesley crossman, Masterhomer, Chowbok, Dvavasour, Gdr, Knutux, Gzuckier, Antandrus, Quarl, DNewhall, Rdsmith4, Icairns, JulieADriver, Gary D, Neutrality, Fintor, JohnArmagh, Canterbury Tail, Ashami, Eep², Mike Rosoft, ChanochGruenman, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, FWBOarticle, Zappaz, Georgemg, Dbachmann, Bender235, Crevaner, Sunborn, JoeSmack, Mattisgoo, El C, Marcok, -jkb-, Triona, Etz Haim, Perfecto, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Infocidal, Clawson, AugustinMa, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, Nitnorth, Aleph1, NetJohn, MPerel, Helix84, Jez, ClementSeveillac, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Arthena, Paradiso, SpaceFalcon2001, Truthaboutchabad, Jnothman, Wdfarmer, Spangineer, DreamGuy, Snowolf, Fivetrees, Velella, ReyBrujo, Suruena, Garzo, Kusma, Arnold1, Versageek, T3gah, Zosodada, TShilo12, Nortonew, FeanorStar7, Scriberius, PoccilScript, SamS, Nemonoman, MGTom, Fraterm, Uris, Grika, SeventyThree, Toussaint, Banpei~enwiki, Mandarax, Tslocum, Ashmoo, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Agrumer, Koavf, George Burgess, Wikibofh, Strait, PinchasC, Amire80, Salix alba, Jtpaladin, NeonMerlin, Peripatetic, Leningrad, Yamamoto Ichiro, Gringo300, Heycam, Musical Linguist, Crazycomputers, RexNL, Gurch, 1523, BlkStarr, Benanhalt, Chobot, Haldrik, DVdm, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, HG1, Alan216, Abba Poemon the Ubermensch, MightyAtom, 999~enwiki, AVM, Pigman, SpuriousQ, Hellbus, ClareyF, Akamad, Stephenb, Maxim Leyenson, Gaius Cornelius, Theelf29, Sanguinity, Whale~enwiki, Fnorp, NawlinWiki, Yserarau, Teb728, Nowa, Wiki alf, Heycos, Veledan, Grafen, Justin Eiler, Jndrline, Michalis Famelis, Toya, Yoninah, Thiseye, Aaron Schulz, Morgan Leigh, Psy guy, Asarelah, DRosenbach, Kewp, Adistius, Caroline Sanford, Avraham, Tuckerresearch, FF2010, Ultron, Zzuuzz, Cspalletta, BorgQueen, Ion seal, Spliffy, Zalmang, Curpsbot-unicodify, Fractalchez, Andrewbarista, Sethie, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Proof Reader, Prodego, InverseHypercube, Stephensuleeman, Lucas9000, Eugenefx32, Sunetos, Apers0n, Boshea, Rotemliss, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Dhall10067, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Jibbajabba, Jon513, Saint Midge, SchfiftyThree, The Rogue Penguin, FTAAPJE, Ikiroid, Colonies Chris, John Reaves, Theneokid, RyanEberhart, DLand, Chlewbot, Phaedriel, Blueboar, The tooth, Huon, PiMaster3, Nakon, Itchjones, Dreadstar, RandomP, Ildkugle, Badboyjamie, Drett, Derek R Bullamore, Fuzzypeg, Wwwdlhow27, Seekwisdom, Illnab1024, JackO'Lantern, Giancarlo Rossi, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, Eliyak, Rory096, Harryboyles, John, Yonah mishael, Žiga, Slowmover, Dr. John Gold, JohnCub, Shlomke, Nygdan, Dfass, Cryptomnesia, The Man in Question, 16@r, NumberMan, Rizome~enwiki, Ryulong, Spollen770, Morganie, Hu12, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Talmid78, Newone, Octane, CapitalR, T B Pereira, Tawkerbot2, Orangutan, Shirahadasha, Baba Louis, Americasroof, CmdrObot, Lighthead, Prodaea, Kylu, Californicus, Crazy Ivan (usurped), Frozen fish, Evilgohan2, Biblicalgarden, FilipeS, Karimarie, Ashpaa, Jamescrow, POLLUX, CaliforniaKid, Jeangophile, Echad, Kris10le, Ragwad, Accipio Mitis Frux, H. Bebo, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Arb, ParvatiM, Atomsmasher86, Jonathanbethel, Junckerg, Eliyyahu, Suckmybowls, Nalvage, Sacredone, Missvain, John254, Jimbob615, JustAGal, Gnosis wiki, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Jimhoward72, Nick Number, Ancientanubis, Dmprantz, Pja123, AnAj, Julia Rossi, Frater Sepa, Lkitrossky, Jayrav, VictorAnyakin, Mikezappy, Mwprods, Kariteh, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, Husond, MER-C, Avaya1, Areaseven, Gerash77, Sims21, Hanina, RebelRobot, LemonJuice, MegX, Yahel Guhan, Wasell, Amrikray, Merboy, Neutral Notions, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Adamapple1, Riversplitter, JamesBWatson, SHCarter, Redaktor, JohnMGilchrist, Consistent1, Chesdovi, Branka France, Not a dog, Animum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, Suntrader, Gede, Canyouhearmenow, Agetraer, DerHexer, Anya sm, DAVIDY, Patstuart, P Russell, Wittyname, MartinBot, IgorSF, Pagw, Comperr, Ultraviolet scissor flame, SeeYa32, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Verdatum, Dr.simsim, Holoner, Slash, J.delanoy, David Regev, D2vge, Mr Spunky Toffee, AAA!, KazakhPol, Adavidb, JoDonHo, Bo Basil, Maurice Carbonaro, Omedyashar, Daver914, Ian.thomson, Laplandian, FrummerThanThou, Dispenser, Mrg3105, Jmshaw, SJP, MKoltnow, Vrite2me, Cmichael, Jorjun, Gwen Gale, YoavD, Zephyr103, Random Passer-by, Yehoishophot Oliver, TreasuryTag, Sage Connerson, Meaningful Username, Tunnels of Set, Jeff G., Savagephish, Kakoui, Tenacious D Fan, Salome777, Dextrose, Philip Trueman, Joel Samuel Weisberger, Charleca, Hananya1, Steven J. Anderson, Lradrama, Rich Janis, Ontoraul, Loki~enwiki, ^demonBot2, Jeeny, Gilisa, MRaphael68, Cheedoo, Lips Like Morphiene288, Jonglob, Burntsauce, Jharris6088, Dale R. Gowin, Alaniaris, Jfb123, Magiclite, Insanity Incarnate, Herut, Monty845, Laval, Wolf2191, Kapalama, Egfrank, Cosprings, SieBot, Coffee, Kwork, Elireifman, Cae prince, Gerakibot, Abafied, Sephiroth storm, Imbobdole69, Purbo T, B2dave, Budvar Ravarino, Oxymoron83, Nuttycoconut, D3av, Greenwallpaper, JackSchmidt, Integratedhuman, Thirteen squared, Rupertskin, Smilo Don, Rasheed33, Cjscarpa, Angelo De La Paz, ImageRemovalBot, Eddy23, Soidi, ClueBot, A1b2c3d8, CiudadanoGlobal, The Thing That Should Not Be, Lmateo002, Uncle Milty, Sureupon, Memerym, Puchiko, DragonBot, Sreifa01, Pentadog, Wndl42, Sun Creator, Mcdooglede, Arjayay, 7&6=thirteen, Dannyza1981, Dekisugi, The Red, SchreiberBike, Luvbug18, Thingg, Versus22, LordPrometheus, Ospix, Editor2020, Shamanchill, Shoteh, DumZiBoT, Wparfitt, XLinkBot, April8, Valtyr, Kwork2, Johnshoemaker, Addbot, RavAlkohen, Sarkozila, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Ccacsmss, Debresser, Tyw7, Dtrain8211, Meieimatai, Trakhtenberg, Species8473, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jarble, Sandiegosurfer, Ben Ben, Yobot, Betzalel153, Themfromspace, ZeeknayTzfat, Rsquire3, Raphael26, KamikazeBot, Empireheart, Eric-Wester, Bility, AnomieBOT, Cubic time, Wikiniac, Bubbysally, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Elmmapleoakpine, OllieFury, QaBobAllah, Chashmal~enwiki, BLaafg, Xqbot, 613kpiggy, Cvrgoje, XZeroBot, Potter999, NickelKnowledge, RibotBOT, Reggieknopoff, RavShimon, Dovidtsap, Faisonmontie, Patrij, Abushai, Elithejew, FrescoBot, Rabbi Alyjah, Osawiki, JohnMorra, TexasYenta, Peace4all613, Henry123ifa, Winterst, MJ94, Calmer Waters, Skyerise,
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Tichael12, Megahebrew, Fat&Happy, RedBot, Lars Washington, Researcher613, Noizes, Dc6470, Dutchmonkey9000, Rm125, Lotje, Yuri Kozharov, Jane happerfield, Kibbutz2, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Woodlot, Homesanto, Enoughwithterror, Sängerkrieg auf Wartburg, TjBot, GiovanniVegaz, Eronfalbo, Verbluft, Kabalist, KabStudent, EmausBot, John of Reading, Lechaim10, RenamedUser01302013, Lechaim66, Evanh2008, ZéroBot, Darkwolf10, LuzoGraal, Hodgdon's secret garden, Elimas2509, Polo the Clown, Shmilyshy, Tolly4bolly, Demiurge1000, Ludovica1, Moreh405, Glandorff, Vergilous, HaKavanah, Shivanarayana, ClueBot NG, Yaphehm'odh, Widr, Peter6677, Ageku, Theopolisme, Vesnine, Robert Towers, Lew-is-darn-old, Calabe1992, BG19bot, Sterling.M.Archer, Icarus the younger, TomUSA, Frze, TwoFourtyEight, Noah Bernstein, Johnny Squeaky, Seekingshadow, Michael Cockrell, Jennifer.sunshine87, Djathinkimacowboy, Brighella11, H. 217.83, BattyBot, Justincheng12345-bot, Arr4, Monozigote, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Ngfarb, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Moshiach770, JYBot, Dexbot, Mogism, Табалдыев Ысламбек, Nhunt99, Waywind, Frosty, EstudosCabala, JustAMuggle, Rupert loup, Gabby Merger, EhadHaam, Ruby Murray, Debouch, ElHef, Robert4565, Isolde L. G., St Malo, Kennethaw88, LuciferTheGreat, Joyful651, Jayaguru-Shishya, GreyWinterOwl, Aetgar, Viragoletsgo, Berg is god, Filedelinkerbot, Pathsleftundone, Daß Wölf, Adamreinman, Contributor613, Friedrich10, CHaLYS, Ayeletshacar, DaoXan, DasMerd, KasparBot, Truth1973, AddMore der Zweite, CAPTAIN RAJU, Zpeopleheart, DatGuy, Bizertshine, Cath Pajarito, محسن گلپاand Anonymous: 1005 • Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn?oldid=729577785 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, The Cunctator, Dan~enwiki, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Olivier, Pit~enwiki, Nixdorf, Lquilter, Ihcoyc, Spikey, Robbot, Altenmann, Rursus, Profoss, Alan Liefting, Djinn112, Gzornenplatz, Infinitysnake, Quarl, DenisMoskowitz, Austin Hair, Gary D, Eiserlohpp, Rich Farmbrough, Dbachmann, Wadewitz, ESkog, Sunborn, El C, Huntster, Mwanner, Ray Dassen, Gatta, Teorth, Viriditas, Mn extra, Hanuman Das, Arthena, DreamGuy, Denial, Docboat, LFaraone, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Axeman89, Tariqabjotu, Woohookitty, Davidkazuhiro, Rchamberlain, M Alan Kazlev, Jdemarcos, Rjwilmsi, ElKevbo, FlaBot, Somecallmetim, Mathbot, Nihiltres, Isotope23, Magicalpath, Vorpal Suds, The One True Fred, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, NTBot~enwiki, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Kauffner, Pigman, Nicke L, Deskana, Kitabparast, Aaron Schulz, Morgan Leigh, Sandstein, Eduard Gherkin, JDspeeder1, Doom127, Draicone, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Bomac, Eskimbot, Humbleservant, Commander Keane bot, Casper777, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Cyberdenizen, Emurphy42, Skoglund, ApolloCreed, Kimania, King Vegita, Decltype, Fuzzypeg, Maelnuneb, ALR, Coat of Arms, MartinTurner, JMax555, Fraterhh, Barthimaeus, Dr. John Gold, Lamarth, A. Parrot, Argotechnica, Beetstra, Dr. Gold, Ehheh, Astrolog~enwiki, Midnightblueowl, Amacker, Knight of the soundtable, Catherineyronwode, Lovykar, Lenoxus, Kephera975, Gil Gamesh, Baba Louis, CmdrObot, Smiloid, Vanished user 2345, ShelfSkewed, Gregbard, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, Sloth monkey, Synergy, Frater5, DumbBOT, Casliber, Thijs!bot, Nalvage, Marek69, Aericanwizard, Nutemple, Frater FiatLux, Nick Number, Nycdi, Escarbot, Justificatus, AntiVandalBot, Frater Xyzzy, Zanoni666, Esoteric770, Sebastien9677, WikiWarrior69, SgtRevert, Deadrabbits, Ste4k, Handsaw, Darklilac, JAnDbot, Talk74, Lanarklad, Askari Mark, ***Ria777, Zostrianos, MA'AT, Gasheadsteve, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Richard34, Sororyzbl, Infernal jester, Mathglot, Splendorsolis, Chiswick Chap, DadaNeem, STBotD, N.B. Miller, Antiquarian~enwiki, Alfietucker, Ina custers~enwiki, Chienlit, TXiKiBoT, Java7837, Thaddeus Slamp, IPSOS, Someguy1221, Parsifal, Earl Marischal, GlassFET, Victorguillen, AdRock, SieBot, Motuleños, Alabaster Crow, Hogd120, KarnwieldTheSeeker, Hogd2007, Mp474ret, Tatenen, Leviathan6~enwiki, Jmlptzlp, Dogbeast, Svick, Shadygrove2007, Linda, Franciscoh, Wahrmund, ClueBot, Rondus, Dr. Larry Silver, Brahman0, C00483033, Stealthepiscopalian, Podzemnik, Pi zero, AeliusHadrianus, Aimaelohim, Dr. Richard Starkey, Wikiscribe, JDPhD, Rafael Chiron, Lx 121, Editor2020, SF007, Tdslk, XLinkBot, WikHead, Addbot, Rosewater Alchemist, Fratermenandro, MrOllie, Download, ValliNagy, Roux, Ficina, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Tdeluce, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, BennyK95, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, HoundsOfSpring, Wrighrp, Dou Gweler, LEpstein5, Med12, Wireless Keyboard, Rapsar, Sarandioti, Skyerise, RedBot, Bobb999, Shelhabiron, Stormrider770, Zsalya, Felixed01, Active Banana, ZéroBot, Caathan, Ruskinmonkey, Patterner37, Rosy13, Cathbhadh III, XMIKEYx, Hughgaynorlongarm, Inciardi23, Keanorules, Quick and Dirty User Account, Altairirfan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Scogdill, Whitjr, H. 217.83, Fiddlersmouth, Rí Lughaid, Khazar2, Mogism, Frater AA, Masterofthename, Jamesduckworth96, Sigehelmus, JudeccaXIII, Narky Blert and Anonymous: 224 • Freemasonry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry?oldid=731705229 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Slrubenstein, Ted Longstaffe, Moly, Matusz, Fubar Obfusco, Branden, Ortolan88, Stepnwolf, Fredb, Erwan~enwiki, Branko, Ewen, Hephaestos, Olivier, AntonioMartin, Stevertigo, Clintp, Rbrwr, Jdlh, Edward, D, Michael Hardy, Rhorn, Kroose, Isomorphic, Nixdorf, BoNoMoJo (old), Gabbe, Menchi, Bcrowell, Sannse, Karada, Delirium, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, CesarB, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, 5ko, Angela, AllanR~enwiki, Ping, Andrewa, Julesd, Error, Whkoh, Bogdangiusca, Cyan, LouI, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Evercat, John K, Harry Potter, JASpencer, Charles Matthews, PaulinSaudi, Viajero, Visorstuff, Daniel Quinlan, WhisperToMe, Timc, Haukurth, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Taxman, Val42, Ed g2s, Morven, Bjarki S, Geraki, Fvw, Kenatipo, Raul654, Pakaran, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Pollinator, Carlossuarez46, Rick Davis, Denelson83, Jni, Sjorford, Opponent, Nufy8, Robbot, Murray Langton, Astronautics~enwiki, Earl Andrew, Moriori, RedWolf, Donreed, Moncrief, Moondyne, Altenmann, Romanm, Modulatum, Sam Spade, COGDEN, Wjhonson, Chiramabi, Auric, Sunray, Bkell, Hadal, JesseW, JackofOz, SpellBott, Finlander, Adam78, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Matthew Stannard, Gershom, Centrx, Smjg, DocWatson42, Hbrockett, Bogdanb, Nat Krause, Gruesome~enwiki, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Lupin, Jahaza, Zigger, Bfinn, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Bkonrad, Curps, Michael Devore, Cantus, Guanaco, Mboverload, Rchandra, JillandJack, ElfMage, Matt Crypto, Darrien, Ojl, Just Another Dan, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Sexyfoxboy, Peter Ellis, Infinitysnake, Neilc, Stevietheman, Db7178, Pinnecco, Mu, SoWhy, Pamri, Geni, Popefauvexxiii, SarekOfVulcan, Pm356, Quadell, Antandrus, AntiJew, Loremaster, MisfitToys, Cjewell, Jfliu, Cberlet, Jdl32579, Paddyez, Jossi, CaribDigita, Rdsmith4, Mista-X, Secfan, Tothebarricades.tk, Thincat, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, Icairns, Eranb, Clarknova, Soman, Beginning, SecondCurator, Pitchka, Scout32, Starfoxy, Jvedral, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, CountZero, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Ham II, Felix Wiemann, Chris j wood, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, KillerChihuahua, Rhobite, Guanabot, Leibniz, Supercoop, Cjoshuav, Ffirehorse, Hydrox, Amicuspublilius, WGFinley, Cnyborg, Autiger, User2004, Antaeus Feldspar, Kadett, Mani1, Martpol, WegianWarrior, Bender235, ESkog, Sc147, Sunborn, Kaisershatner, Jarsyl, Ben Standeven, Scott.graham, Violetriga, Billlion, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Rsvargas, El C, Hayabusa future, Marcok, Kross, Shanes, Tom, Susvolans, Rsmelt, Orlady, Perfecto, Prsephone1674, Spinboy, Bobo192, Bsktcase, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, AllyUnion, Elipongo, Unquietwiki, Eo, VBGFscJUn3, Snacky, BenM, Maebmij, MPerel, Sam Korn, Aesha, C-squared, Jumbuck, Gary, JYolkowski, KingRichard, Anthony Appleyard, Belgarath TS, Karlthegreat, Free Bear, FaustX, Theaterfreak64, Mu5ti, Spikemill, Uogl, Atlant, Keolah, Hipocrite, Craigy144, AdamBradley, Ronline, Cjthellama, Sade, Axl, Mailer diablo, Pmeisel, Jvano~enwiki, Mysdaao, Hu, DreamGuy, Melaen, Keepsleeping, Stephan Leeds, Docboat, MikeEstes, Tony Sidaway, Lapinmies, Jon Cates, RainbowOfLight, LFaraone, Dominic, VoluntarySlave, Computerjoe, Ianblair23, Alai, Instantnood, PullUpYourSocks, Phi beta, Notcarlos, Dismas, Tom.k, Dtobias, Vitruvius~enwiki, Stephen, Moodeyes113, Hq3473, Joriki, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Roboshed, Gabereal, Bellhalla, Blumpkin, Scriberius, Temuler, Alex Kennedy, Sesmith, Uncle G, Mark K. Jensen, JiriPragman, Jacobolus, Pol098, Before My Ken, Commander Keane, WadeSimMiser, JeremyA, Trödel, Sdgjake, Mpatel, Lapsed Pacifist, Kelisi, Uris, NormanEinstein, Wikiklrsc, Damicatz, Bobbyciraldo, J M Rice, Junes, Toussaint, EmilioSilva~enwiki, Prashanthns, Pmlunn, Loki33, Horatio86, Mrbartjens, Ashmoo, Graham87, Ryoung122, Qwertyus, Tradnor, Dilvie, Haikupoet, OMouse, RxS, Xorkl000, JFPerry, Search4Lancer, Canderson7, Gryffindor, Apesbrain, Vary, Ikh, Toddas, ChadJK, Hiberniantears, Josiah Rowe,
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CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Linuxbeak, Tangotango, Arisa, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Kazrak, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Wingover, Chtirrell, LjL, Lairor, Muj0, Lehk, Nandesuka, BirdbrainedPhoenix, Sango123, Ptdecker, A Man In Black, Bubamara (usurped), FayssalF, Franzeska, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, DDerby, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, Mark83, Hackloon, Rune.welsh, Elmer Clark, RexNL, Gurch, Bloomfield, BjKa, Quuxplusone, Brendan Moody, Avador, Magicalpath, BitterMilton, Alphachimp, Faustus37, Alexmb, Exe, Vidkun, Darby~enwiki, Bedford, Scott Mingus, Scimitar, Chobot, Jdhowens90, Benlisquare, Jawr256, Zef, Commander Nemet, Bdelisle, Adoniscik, Gwernol, Amaurea, Touseefliaqat, Banaticus, Wasted Time R, Satanael, YurikBot, RobotE, Mhocker, Kinneyboy90, Hairy Dude, Jachin, Kafziel, StuffOfInterest, 999~enwiki, Jwm2004, RussBot, Jtkiefer, Warshy, Diliff, KamuiShirou, Splash, Pigman, Xastic, Netscott, Worenklein, Stormbay, FDR, Samuel Curtis, Yamara, BlueTemplar13, Stephenb, Rintrah, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Chaos, Revmaj, Pseudomonas, Neilbeach, Wimt, Claunia, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Shreshth91, Wiki alf, Ytcracker, Eduardo Cuellar, Iani, Jonathan Webley, Leutha, Meekrob, NickBush24, Logawi, Johann Wolfgang, Trovatore, DavidH, Proyster, Twin Bird, Justin Eiler, Rjensen, Ondenc, Foreigner, Thiseye, Lexicon, JDoorjam, Anetode, Dppowell, Brian Crawford, Cholmes75, CecilWard, Jmh123, Benne, Ђорђе Д. Божовић, Misza13, Tony1, Bucketsofg, MSJapan, Aaron Schulz, EEMIV, Kyle Barbour, Samir, BeastRHIT, Bota47, Doncram, CLW, Jpeob, Dan Austin, Black Falcon, Jezzabr, Crisco 1492, Pawyilee, J S Ayer, Druff, Teiladnam, Theda, Closedmouth, Djkimmons, MrThomas, E Wing, Everamorc, Tomcully, RobotF, Sonaris, Urocyon, Scoutersig, Phentos, M.A.Dabbah, Jenda, Draicone, CIreland, Steve G~enwiki, Street Scholar, Luk, EJSawyer, Vanka5, Wally11, Tadorne, SmackBot, WilliamThweatt, Sean.nobles, YellowMonkey, Shaxpeer, Dglumac, Elonka, Lightbringer (usurped - blocked), Hkhenson, NSLE, Comicsubversion, Mister X, Reedy, Tom Lougheed, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Webbsters, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, Squaredeal, Pgk, Grye, GRYE~enwiki, Bwilliams, Jacek Kendysz, Setanta747 (locked), Delldot, Dazzla, PenguinCDF, Rastapopoulos, AnOddName, Victrix, Gjs238, Kintetsubuffalo, Eloil, Commander Keane bot, Xaosflux, Dylnuge, XDev, Buck Mulligan, Hmains, Skizzik, Nfgii, Jcarroll, Rohnadams, Wookipedian, Marc Kupper, Arthurchappell, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Agateller, Garethfoot, Kaliz, Master of Puppets, Andrew Parodi, Ultiam, Khoshzaban.m, Atlas29, Call of Duty~enwiki, Naidim, Apeloverage, SchfiftyThree, Danielhorner@mail.com, Ortale, Gracenotes, Skull 'n' Femurs, John Reaves, Cate0012, PeRshGo, Novembre 19, Zsinj, The Brotherhood, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Garydave, Allemannster, Systemworks, DLand, Not a Mason, Jsmack, Not a Banned Editor, Robertmoray, Mason POV bias ruining this page, Thisisbossi, Freemasonry is permanently condemned, Rrburke, TonySt, PigottDM, Addshore, AltheaJ, Anas hashmi, Blueboar, DerAnstifter, Wandering Writer, Anna2005~enwiki, Rarelibra, Collector12, Martin Jackson Eldridge, King Vegita, Jmlk17, Felix St. Amour, YankeeDoodle14, MS Japan, Michigan Knight, 2B1LIE41, JR98664, Simonapro, Millennium Sentinel, Epachamo, Nakon, Mharris, Funky Monkey, Localzuk, Richard001, Basil Rathbone, Dave-ros, Mistress Selina Kyle, Weregerbil, Fuzzypeg, Zdszdszdszds, Gbinal, Jeffery 52, Kschwerdt514, Jeremyb, BonanzaforLightbringer, Maelnuneb, SeraphimXI, Kabalyonkey, ALR, Bolton TI~enwiki, Darth Dalek, Amherst5282, Marcus Brute, Liquidswords, Daniel Matheson, Besselpaulm, Starghost, Kukini, Ardenn, Blahm, The undertow, Katecasares, Esrever, NascarKT, KenCavallon, Rory096, RexRex84, Harryboyles, Rklawton, KrazyCaley, Nsbendel, RaptorKMS, Imacomp, Ziatonic, Tcsei, NormalGoddess, Ergative rlt, Euchiasmus, Trevor W. McKeown, Blue Square, Scientizzle, Wtwilson3, Crazyfurf, Eshafoshaf, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Edwy, F1r3r41n, Nygdan, Accurizer, Joffeloff, Baphin, Needlenose, AsaRoast, Partyboyj911, CJames745, Helloelan, MarkSutton, Jimmy James, Slakr, Dozing, Werdan7, Santa Sangre, LRJones, Vinyltrash, WaynaQhapaq, Ima User, Mets501, TastyPoutine, Trandoshan Slaver, Jason Gortician, RG~enwiki, Big Smooth, Bugwit, Drigg, Citicat, MTSbot~enwiki, Larry660, PM GL PA, Sunday Service, Dl2000, Gremial, Iridescent, Xinyu, Peter M Dodge, Wfgiuliano, JoeBot, Lottamiata, MikeJohnJames9456, Funetikahl, Gregory Benoit, JHP, StephenBuxton, Cbrown1023, Aperiodic, Nap1815, Anderson12, Crocodilicus, The Letter J, ChronicallyUninspired, Chris55, Bohica1971, Holyrollerjim, MightyWarrior, Amniarix, Lanternshine, Ratman9999, Cassavau, JForget, Keystrokes, Healthy eating, Vaughan Pratt, CmdrObot, Escaper7, PGNormand, Leopheard, Morganfitzp, Reddog7712, Fossick, StarlitGlitter, Fyodor Dos, CWY2190, Bolognaking, Highgamma, Jcoffland, M Faulks, Liberal Freemason, Joelholdsworth, Avillia, Adam bones, Zoide, Pail~enwiki, Jowan2005, Phatom87, Md84419, Joshua BishopRoby, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, SAWgunner, Jros83, Perfect Proposal, Steel, Tooltroll, UncleBubba, Aanderson@amherst.edu, ST47, VQHernandez, Jeremy68, JustinH, Jayen466, Sloth monkey, Synergy, B, Shirulashem, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Telex, Nabokov, Vashx14, Inform ation, Surturz, Jake the wiki, Btharper1221, JodyB, Fantabulosa time of your life, Mamalujo, Ermorse, Nosig638, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Steve Dufour, Ambanmba, Mojo Hand, Anupam, Juanvillalobos, Marek69, Smile a While, Secretsqurl, MesserWoland, Unidiode, Grahamdubya, Comason, Assianir, Leon7, Hardcore legend, Dfrg.msc, Highvoltage81, AlysWiki, Marsman57, Natalie Erin, Scaper8, Escarbot, Hmrox, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Frater Xyzzy, Shada nai, Luna Santin, Psomax, Maltos, Centrepull, Gmacnay, Augusta2, HairyDan, Quintote, Smith2006, Fashionslide, Thunderbird15, Goldenrowley, Dr who1975, Jj137, Bridgeplayer, Farosdaughter, Chill doubt, Specialthings, Alphachimpbot, Cml 1976, Deltascribe, Etr52, Myanw, Geoffkirby, Genuem, Bigjimr, JAnDbot, Mousescribe, Areopagiticus, MER-C, Matthewrobinson, Stagehand, Struthious Bandersnatch, Hut 8.5, Rick.Wicks, East718, WikiWoo, Xact, .anacondabot, Bdhook, Magioladitis, Literaryagent, VoABot II, AuburnPilot, MJD86, -Kerplunk-, SHCarter, Aquizard, Farquaadhnchmn, Andrea Allais, Argusol, Nyttend, GazMan7, Asaa00, Shabeky, Cartoon Boy, Mr.troughton, Generic Character, Catgut, Theroadislong, Zelator, Animum, Cgingold, Jsanstella, Daarznieks, Allanlewis, JaGa, The Blaque, Black-Snow, Pietrestones, Valerius Tygart, Pax:Vobiscum, Balazs.varadi, Jdorwin, Dryfoo, Wikianon, Rickard Vogelberg, Gwern, Gjd001, Pvosta, Alexfoley, Jaguar2898, Flaxmoore, Youkai no unmei, Nykofade, Denis tarasov, BMRR, Hdt83, MartinBot, Zsh, Phantomsnake, Grandia01, Church of emacs, CalefTex, Tirral, Reddan, RFM57, Agnellous, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, PrestonH, Boston, Dinkytown, J.delanoy, Fred.e, JohnPritchard, Ciotog, Maurice Carbonaro, Athaenara, Mycroft~enwiki, Extransit, Caferato, Whitebox, Chrisfow, The Truthish, Ian.thomson, Jokerst44, JNShutt, Iordanis 777, LightningOffense, Kekartopolis, Katalaveno, McSly, Nlegault, Notreallydavid, Skier Dude, Anthonyebert, Bilbobee, RenniePet, Jasonwilkes42, 4B54L0M, Bucinka, SJP, Anietor, Ryan1810, Olegwiki, Han Solar de Harmonics, MetsFan76, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, SirJibby, Whiteandnerdy52, DH85868993, Mrpatx, Dwbro1, DoubleEagle32, Andy Marchbanks, AndrewJFulker, Phr0gor, Panzertank, Goyston, Spellcast, Starwars10, Lcenter, Jaaschutz, Lights, Deor, Gbickford, VolkovBot, CWii, Rwcwalter, ABF, Jlaramee, Dave Andrew, Indubitably, Ataxerxes, Davidwr, SexyBern, Philip Trueman, Fredf5, Mike Cline, TXiKiBoT, SeanNovack, DakotaDocMartin, Gifts of knowledge, Martin.ebon, Jaques Lafraische, Rei-bot, Freimaurer32, Ucypanp, John Carter, Jake1982, Altimaro, Jeff Herman, Seisakusho, Brian0814, Intuition24, Martin451, Oskoreien, LeaveSleaves, Wassermann~enwiki, Cremepuff222, BudJJ, Geometry guy, StillTrill, Wandering canadian, Lcg.wda, Alpha376, Maxim, RiverStyx23, MistrOrnge, Nikosgreencookie, Doug, Another account, MerlynWiki, Fharper, Rockpiper, Burntsauce, GlassFET, Bruce Condell, Insanity Incarnate, Sardaka, Brianga, Laval, Devaigergely, Trautmann, Tvinh, Roland zh, JJKotalik, Maengpong, EmxBot, Rknasc, Deconstructhis, Evergreen1056, Nstott, Glst2, SieBot, StAnselm, Grumpyrob, Brenont, Gravis187, Prakash Nadkarni, Sparrowman980, Robbor, BotMultichill, Ilikebakedziti, NB-NB, Ori, Mwalbert, Expositor of truth, Jacotto, Xymmax, Boooooom, Mrpearcee, ThriceGreat, Brandonstefanik, Keilana, Vabniru, RucasHost, Clionescu, Tiptoety, Exert, Salvatorelli, Luis215, Hntimmerman~enwiki, Oxymoron83, Hzan~enwiki, Jack1956, Byebyeviking, Faradayplank, AngelOfSadness, LapisExCoelis, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Takuta-Nui, UNBESIEGBAR, EnduranceRace, JohnSawyer, Wikimaann, Maelgwnbot, Retew Boy, NormanBro, Alatari, Anchor Link Bot, Sean.hoyland, Ltkaffee, Onomonopod, Baldrick's Mum, Targetonmyback, Pre1mjr, Ptr123, MMAfan2007, Pinkadelica, Geminidog, Madotobunchi, JL-Bot, Magisteriu, Bee Cliff River Slob, PsyberS, Lestervee, Llywelyn2000, Faithlessthewonderboy, Joeraybray, Loren.wilton, Millenn, Wfgh66, Elassint, ClueBot, QueenofBattle, Cederlund, Jackollie, Motlpots, Anus Goblin, Vacio, Kylers, Dankelol, Cygnis insignis, Lmateo002, Silkccut, Meekywiki, Peter Harding-Roberts,
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
295
The murray, Yamakiri, Al kirtley, CounterVandalismBot, JJIG, Blanchardb, Sonoiome, Forestgarden, Parkwells, Internette~enwiki, Dimitrakopulos, SSJ4Buster, Neverquick, ChandlerMapBot, W3y2ohott, No such user, Newyorkchk, H2onE2, Bjrothschild7, Joshiscool94, Zpearson, Hugh shakespeare, Shamesean, OregonMason, Blogbby, H64, Yorkshirian, ParisianBlade, Vkutah, Leonardo212, NuclearWarfare, Beyahhaahaha, Angelicusmaximus, Terra Xin, Iohannes Animosus, RayquazaDialgaWeird2210, Eric Beer, Photomy, La Pianista, MikeOrrJ, Light show, Thingg, Aitias, JDPhD, Katanada, Myland, Limonns, Rasmr1013, Editor2020, ZepherG, DumZiBoT, Saucy626, Apsenoj, Not050, Visorman, XLinkBot, Rror, Ost316, Skarebo, Bwt757171, Noctibus, MarmadukePercy, Artaxerxes, Oldpossumgunnar, WikiDao, Vianello, MystBot, Medupin, UnknownForEver, Ahawaiiguy, RyanCross, Devildave, Noname32, John61vermont, OhSoOrdinary, Randomperson101, Asrghasrhiojadrhr, Addbot, Twaz, Mick Lynn BCL, Davinciscode, Ambrosia274, Pigeon33, Mrasdf, Kingstonp, Quokly, Alex AITM, Abdunnafi, Laurinavicius, Orinoco-w, Leszek Jańczuk, GraceCourt, Jeff Darby, Skyezx, Poppyfurkin, Proxima Centauri, Glane23, Lihaas, Talha, AnotherObserver, Jgrosay~enwiki, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Dushant, Lucian Sunday, LinkFABot, Tassedethe, Howardisshort496, Myheartinchile, Tyranno324, OlEnglish, Ergo-Nord, 50blues, Yodamaster1, Sueverner, Folklore1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpuff, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Cflm001, Downzero, Rsoutram, House1630, Philistineembassy, Nallimbot, Naipicnirp, P-nice, Rodondo1, Unclefester89, Bility, Frenchmason, AnomieBOT, Jsp91470, Johnyemes, Rubinbot, Tazio Ratnayeke, Jeni, Fanoftheworld, Савелий В А, Sz-iwbot, Jo3sampl, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Toblerone flyte, Dan Murphy, Orhan94, Quebec99, Christopher754, Tannalein, Oedipus X, Xqbot, Anders Torlind, Spidern, Drilnoth, Gigemag76, Kai9er, Anna Frodesiak, Garkeith, Socrates42, GrouchoBot, Jnorbett, Omnipaedista, Egospoon, RibotBOT, Mvaldemar, Cresix, Carrite, Multixfer, Mattis, Wolfpeaceful, Tktru, FrescoBot, Canton Viaduct, Paine Ellsworth, Daknightfall, Tobby72, RicHard-59, YOKOTA Kuniteru, Haeinous, ElijahBosley, SCFilm29, Citation bot 1, Toolboks, Marixist101, Tvst28, Anibar E, R Católico, Tom.Reding, JordanITP, Calmer Waters, Lars Washington, UnreferencedPOV, Wlush2, Elekhh, VMHman, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Schnittlauch, Ansumang, Skakkle, 序名三, Midhart90, Esoglou, EmausBot, Cricobr, John of Reading, Santamoly, Mambo Bananapatch, CanaryIslands, Triton Rocker, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, CanonLawJunkie, Hirumon, RaymondSutanto, H3llBot, Wayne Slam, Rcsprinter123, MeriwetherLewis, Ihardlythinkso, Brigade Piron, Bowness, Autodidact1, Cc21002, Joefromrandb, Lm 997, Kazemita1, Philadelphia 2009, Erik Ulevik, North Atlanticist Usonian, Sören Koopmann, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dlw20070716, MarilynConant, BG19bot, Sahara4u, Ibrahim.ID, DadrianT,Esq, The Traditionalist, Traveller360, Fiddlersmouth, Liam987, Bengsig, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Wjcw, Dexbot, Indiasummer95, BroadcastDonkey, Truther2012, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, Albertpirck, Spirit Tune, Camyoung54, Sharialaw1, Dr.Sosteric, Berengaria, Jb423, Eric Corbett, Foleo, Uhbooh, JanZdreantza, Elaqueate, Carlos Rojas77, Monkbot, Zumoarirodoka, Jaronie, Chelm261, Capistranese, Cirflow, The Average Wikipedian, KasparBot, SundayRequiem, Jujutsuan, Chris from Houston and Anonymous: 1309 • Astrology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology?oldid=731032737 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, Sodium, Lee Daniel Crocker, JvaGoddess, Eloquence, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, AstroNomer, Gareth Owen, RK, Zunbot, Eclecticology, Shii, Apollia, Heron, Mintguy, Montrealais, Modemac, Someone else, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Alan Peakall, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Dante Alighieri, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Chuck SMITH, Tannin, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Two16, Cyde, AlexR, Alfio, Looxix~enwiki, Ihcoyc, Mkweise, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Glenn, Chimpa, Andres, Jeandré du Toit, Jonik, Yngwin, Cardsharque, LordK, Vroman, Tom Peters, Valluvan~enwiki, Novum, Timwi, Dino, Timc, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Ed g2s, Samsara, Ardeo, Optim, Rbellin, Wetman, Jusjih, Johnleemk, SimonWarcup, Jeffq, Lumos3, Shantavira, Jason Potter, Nufy8, Robbot, Moriori, Fredrik, Zandperl, Jotomicron, WormRunner, Stephan Schulz, Lowellian, Ashley Y, PedroPVZ, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Hemanshu, Texture, Blainster, Humus sapiens, Rasmus Faber, Hadal, Wikibot, Nerval, Borislav, Raeky, HaeB, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Wayland, Spellbot, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Centrx, Philwiki, Zuytdorp Survivor, Mousomer, Spazzm, Wolfkeeper, Nunh-huh, Tom harrison, Doovinator, Art Carlson, Fastfission, Aphaia, Monedula, Acampbell70, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, OldManCoyote, Curps, Michael Devore, FeloniousMonk, Niteowlneils, Duncharris, Guanaco, Alensha, Crag, Finn-Zoltan, Prosfilaes, Matthead, Brockert, Gzornenplatz, Pne, Bobblewik, Jrdioko, RayTomes, ALargeElk, Wmahan, Neilc, Gadfium, Pamri, Alexf, Zendonut, Slowking Man, Antandrus, Beland, OverlordQ, Nick-in-South-Africa, Jossi, Vina, Rdsmith4, Mitaphane, Maximaximax, Jokestress, Bodnotbod, Satori, Kmweber, Gary D, Neutrality, Pitchka, Urhixidur, Joyous!, Goobergunch, Sonett72, Intrigue, Lacrimosus, Ashami, Jameserven, Mike Rosoft, Rfl, Poccil, CALR, RossPatterson, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Flamewine, Guanabot, Laoma, Pjacobi, Vsmith, Silence, Bishonen, SocratesJedi, Dbachmann, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Night Gyr, Bender235, A purple wikiuser, Mashford, Violetriga, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Tom, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, Causa sui, JRM, Bastique, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Smalljim, Wipe, Func, Adraeus, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Casanova~enwiki, Foobaz, Cohesion, Artw, Zoso~enwiki, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, SpeedyGonsales, Man vyi, Jojit fb, Cazimi, Qazzx, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Seaj11, Nsaa, 0101LOcw, Ekhalom, Orangemarlin, Espoo, Differentname, Storm Rider, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Vanished user kasjqwii3km4tkid, Misodoctakleidist, Diego Moya, TracyRenee, Hipocrite, Andrewpmk, Calton, Morningstar2651, Marianocecowski, Garzo, Tony Sidaway, Count Iblis, Orthotox, Deathphoenix, Sfacets, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Versageek, Alai, Drbreznjev, Redvers, BadSeed, Squiquifox, Sam Vimes, Feezo, Bobrayner, Gmaxwell, OwenX, Shreevatsa, Uncle G, Ganeshk, Scjessey, Pol098, Rmisiak, Ruud Koot, Jeff3000, MONGO, Al E., Albertindian2001, Wikiklrsc, Blackcats, Jonnabuz, GalaazV, Toussaint, Farhansher, Ufiuza, Palica, Gerbrant, Rgbea, GSlicer, Marskell, Descendall, BD2412, Bunchofgrapes, JIP, Edison, Rjwilmsi, Wahoofive, Koavf, Teklund, Seraphimblade, Captain Disdain, Oxydo~enwiki, Ligulem, Bubba73, Afterwriting, Toby Douglass, Hsriniva, Reinis, Yamamoto Ichiro, SNIyer12, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, Nihiltres, Jameshfisher, RexNL, Gurch, Str1977, Quuxplusone, Vilcxjo, SteveBaker, BradBeattie, Mstroeck, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Metropolitan90, DVdm, Random user 39849958, Bgwhite, Gwernol, Poorsod, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Sceptre, Jimp, Brandmeister (old), 999~enwiki, RussBot, Petiatil, Petrus4, Sarranduin, Carl T, Pigman, Balancer, Fsolda~enwiki, CanadianCaesar, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Bcatt, NawlinWiki, Mccready, Ragesoss, Aaron Brenneman, Midas touch, Anetode, Goblin Prince, PhilipO, Aquarius rising, Pixiequix, Brian, Berlin Stark, Aaron Schulz, John Charles Webb, Deckiller, Samir, BOT-Superzerocool, Morgan Leigh, DeadEyeArrow, Elkman, Caerwine, Maunus, Searchme, Zero1328, 2over0, Rudrasharman, Ninly, Moshe Berlin, Chris Brennan, BorgQueen, GraemeL, DGaw, Mssnlayam, Bookmarc, Whobot, JLaTondre, Willbyr, RPGLand2000, Nealparr, StarHeart, Arkon, Benandorsqueaks, Lewys, GrinBot~enwiki, DVD R W, CIreland, Eenu, Binerman, Amalthea, Lundse, A bit iffy, SmackBot, PiCo, Ashenai, Jclerman, Moeron, Mangoe, Tom Lougheed, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Pgk, Lawrencekhoo, Lifebaka, KocjoBot~enwiki, WalterJKin, Jagged 85, Frymaster, Brossow, BiT, MediaMangler, Yamaguchi 先生, AxelHarvey, UnqstnableTruth, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Johnny06man, Squiddy, Bluebot, Northern, B00P, MartinPoulter, Raymond arritt, Renamed user Sloane, Effer, Colonies Chris, Rizzardi, Saturn1975, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jefffire, Aquarius Rising, Saberlotus, OrphanBot, Vanished User 0001, Astrobhadauria~enwiki, Britmax, Addshore, King Vegita, Theodore7, Dreadstar, RandomP, ShahJahan, BullRangifer, Clean Copy, NaySay, RaVenX, Lacatosias, Fuzzypeg, Jitterro, Suidafrikaan, Jtm71, Veryscarymary, Shridharvk, Ollj, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Byelf2007, The undertow, SashatoBot, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Zymurgy, Erich Schneider, Akendall, John, Adeneus, General Ization, DaveRusin, Scientizzle, Philosophus, Siddharth srinivasan, Heimstern, Loodog, Ramayan, MSchmahl, AstroChemist, JoshuaZ, Dilcoe, Ickydog, RandomCritic, Bless sins, Momolee, Wander apr, Beetstra, Eonechoes, Mr Stephen, Astrolog~enwiki, Icez, Davydog, Ryulong, Dr.K., Qualihost, Novangelis, Jose77, Dacium, Sethian, Rlinfinity, Iridescent, Ellegirl, Sptata, Dermod, Delhibm40m, Kinst, Aeternus, PetaRZ, Gerfinch, Amakuru, Lenoxus, Zeusnoos, Adambiswanger1, Courcelles, Angeldeb82, Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, Vanisaac, Billbike, INkubusse, Ken
296
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
McRitchie, Phillip J, CmdrObot, Bercg, Smiloid, Vajay31, Mystylplx, Aquirata, Piper Almanac, Moreschi, Casper2k3, Dstanfor, Islander(Scandinavia), Annur, Shanoman, Jgtl2, Island Dave, MayoPaul5, Andrew Homer, Alvahir, Hyperdeath, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, Frostlion, Daniel J. Leivick, Frater5, Quibik, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Asenine, Ebyabe, Cardiffajax, Landroo, NadirAli, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Pstanton, Eggsyntax, Dasani, Astrofaces, Arielastrology, Pepperbeast, Headbomb, Resti, Pjvpjv, Phasis, Aiko, Missvain, Tapir Terrific, Itsmejudith, Second Quantization, Nick Number, Bmorton3, Porqin, AntiVandalBot, Budfin, Majorly, Luna Santin, AstroLynx, Doc Tropics, Jayron32, Tyco.skinner, Jj137, Modernist, Danny lost, Shlomi Hillel, Mutt Lunker, G Rose, Rico402, Jordan Rothstein, Storkk, Rlongman, Phil153, JAnDbot, Gatemansgc, Vorpal blade, Kaobear, Barek, Dsp13, David Cochrane, Slayer of Cliffracers, Andonic, 100110100, UtDicitur, The elephant, MSBOT, Lalupamia, Lawilkin, Rothorpe, Kerotan, The man 2000, Meeples, Pseudothyrum, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, P64, Cruising2hell, Karanis, DoomScythe, JohnBump, Wikisy, Avenash, Occult wizard, ***Ria777, Phattanner007, Cicciostar, Whiskey Rebellion, PelleSmith, Notary137, Theroadislong, Indon, ClovisPt, Nposs, GarryP, Coldwatersupertramp, Old Watchman, Vssun, DerHexer, Psychicguild, WLU, TimidGuy, Kristopolous, Seba5618, S3000, Yobol, Hdt83, MartinBot, Mythealias, Jeendan, NAHID, Bissinger, R'n'B, Apola, Tududu, Digitalfestival, Paulmcdonald, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Arrow740, JoDonHo, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Ciuboda, Thaurisil, EthicsGradient, IdLoveOne, McSly, Jeepday, Rohiniranjan, Naniwako, Rarehoarder, Ashra enchantments, SteveChervitzTrutane, 97198, Klocek, HiLo48, Chiswick Chap, NewEnglandYankee, Natascha1, TheScotch, Anupamjolly, Astrologbg, Obsessivelanguagelearner, Siteguru~enwiki, Jimokay, Iching88, Jethro the Bus Driver, Bricology, Burlywood, Littleolive oil, Deor, Wiowio, RasputinJSvengali, VolkovBot, Expertseries, Hersfold, Tunnels of Set, NikolaiLobachevsky, Kyle the bot, TylerJarHead, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Cosmic Latte, Bharat6663, Vivek.calvin, Mauricelavenant, Guillaume2303, Ann Stouter, Qxz, Aeon2012, Kitiwiskas, Buddhipriya, Fengshuimasterwu, Wassermann~enwiki, Noformation, Ahm2307, Robert1947, Achillu, Terrymacro, SheffieldSteel, Bruce Millard, Yk Yk Yk, Meters, Wolfrock, Gillyweed, Synthebot, Rurik3, FKmailliW, Sylent, Sapphic, Senyor Nuclear, Cgosh, Alcmaeonid, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot, BobMak, Logan, DarthBotto, RedRabbit1983, Jivatmanx, Yzalzy, SieBot, Coffee, Slatersteven, Cazamic, JamesA, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Askganesha, GENE RAY 33, BIsopp, Dawn Bard, ConfuciusOrnis, Wayne888, Yintan, Xelgen, Seoss, Yagazuzy, Chemist3456, Marcercam, Fractain, WRK, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Siha, FridayFourthMay2007, ScAvenger lv, JSpung, Goustien, Robertcurrey, Lightmouse, Techman224, Grace suriel, Sunrise, OKBot, Jimifloydrix, Adam Cuerden, Kamlesh kam2003, Nahums1, Astrologist, Struway2, Science Solider, Myrvin, Explicit, Twinsday, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Samuel Grant, Binksternet, 1c33y37, Gurukkal, Zachariel, Foxj, Petersburg, Wordup 10, EoGuy, WoweeeZoweee, Cjcooper, Drmies, Raju Veluthakkal, Kathleen.wright5, Polyamorph, Niceguyedc, Warkos, Harland1, Agge1000, Dimitrakopulos, Smartallic2345, Trivialist, Naileshpatel, Passargea, Puchiko, SamuelTheGhost, DragonBot, Jusdafax, Erebus Morgaine, Eeekster, Dinofant, Ludwigs2, Estirabot, Halfunits, 55asdd, Sun Creator, Prietoquilmes, NuclearWarfare, Hans Adler, SchreiberBike, Magicstuff99, Joshua Arent, La Pianista, Rumbird, Thingg, JDPhD, Gwendolynsutherland, SciFiApostle, Johnuniq, BlinkingBlimey, Random-chess, Ospix, Ali the Munificent, Editor2020, RogoPD, BarretB, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Thiselena, Fastily, Roxy the dog, Nuzvid, Kwork2, Realtymatching, Pgallert, Astrologyisrubbish, SilvonenBot, AstrologyIsStupid, Patellokesh, Xaoiv, AstrologyIsVeryStupid, Kbdankbot, HexaChord, Angryapathy, AstrologyIsVeryVeryStupid, Tayste, Odin 85th gen, Cxz111, Eskild~enwiki, Sparree, C6541, Manisero399, DOI bot, Atethnekos, Haruth, Kenneth Cooke, DougsTech, CanadianLinuxUser, Rtrrt, Diptanshu.D, Miladt, Jim10701, Favonian, Doniago, Arousingeyehole, Valravn, Dayewalker, Jonnysonthespot, Tide rolls, Verbal, Guyonthesubway, Jarble, DaveChild, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Macalves, Nbb0ffice, TaBOT-zerem, LNchic, Victor Dorantes, Jan Arkesteijn, Fulcanelli, Amble, Latacash999, Anypodetos, Horsechestnut, Azcolvin429, Againme, Gokulayur, MinorProphet, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, MEKILOOLOO, Tryptofish, Quangbao, Bsimmons666, Rsokhi, Jim1138, Kakarot 9517634, Galoubet, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, Piano non troppo, Edwinhubbel, Self-ref, Kingpin13, Joy10, Pendimethalin, Mann jess, Visakavel, Rajeshwaranand, Linkin park for gb, Mrspalmreader, Citation bot, UnnaturalSelection, Lolx23lol, Davidgutierrezalvarez, Paul Quigley, LilHelpa, Marshallsumter, Xqbot, Valheed, JimVC3, Bihco, Nfr-Maat, Revels4454, Horoworld, The Evil IP address, Crzer07, GrouchoBot, Starjack, Indya1000, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Thirdeye99, Bellerophon, The www www, Blink 2008, Grfpopl, Aquageek 22, Doulos Christos, MakeSense64, Shadowjams, Aaron Kauppi, Sohan113, SD5, TehShyster, Bwalls93, Terra angelica, FreeKnowledgeCreator, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Hamdello, Gråbergs Gråa Sång, StaticVision, Recognizance, CapitalElll, Wcs187, WhatWasDone, Haeinous, Greenboite, Citation bot 1, Peterstrempel, Dlc.usa, Rameshguru, Gaba p, Pinethicket, Andrei Rublev, DTMGO, NiceGuyEduardo, Yahia.barie, Skyerise, RedBot, Serols, Grungey baby, FormerIP, Apagogeron, Sengupta6931, Pomoblackbird, Leasnam, Astrosutraindia, Removedbelow, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Someot, Bzzzzzzzzster, Vrenator, Leonid 2, MisterTin, Usability 3, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Nederlandse Leeuw, Astromaze, Onel5969, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Jimmy5466, Ripchip Bot, Mishabogic, Becritical, DASHBot, EmausBot, JohnnyJr, John of Reading, Philippe Ginouillac, Dominus Vobisdu, SummitFreeze, Griswaldo, Syncategoremata, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, Ellenlongo, Werieth, AvicBot, Sinhala Jyotishaya, LuzoGraal, Checkingfax, Other Choices, Sgerbic, Ocaasi, Intelligentqa, Sbmeirow, TyA, Jembooth, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Deutschgirl, Donner60, Inka 888, Polisher of Cobwebs, Expertricky, Nmaxcom, AndyTheGrump, Fdearmas, ClamDip, Xpaulk, LikeLakers2, Teapeat, DASHBotAV, Santbetra, Mmpant, Amitsystem, ClueBot NG, Erik Lönnrot, Avoratio, Satellizer, Chesseball97, Dr.Siju, Masteryorlando, Jbhunley, Cmicovich, Movses-bot, Quantamflux, WhatProbablyKnow, Amitranjanamit, Frietjes, Moneya, O.Koslowski, Huxtopic, Erekint, James Chamberlan, Widr, Costmary, Gary PH, Helpful Pixie Bot, Martin Berka, Curb Chain, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, Nashhinton, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Vagobot, ArtifexMayhem, Sharks554, Kaltenmeyer, OpenMind, Frze, Coaster92, Solomon7968, Mark Arsten, StarLightPiazza, Minerva20, Toccata quarta, WP Editor 2011, Ninewind, Neckbrace, Givedarkkk, Risingstar12, Angry Python, Zedshort, Alarbus, Haidam, Loriendrew, Rafkha86, Achowat, Wikitrololo, Sidewalkvendor, BattyBot, Dharmaruci, Brianbryant, Darylgolden, Csamschick, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Saedon, Tdonelson, Echosthefall, EagerToddler39, 12text12, Dandylian, TippyGoomba, Thoross, Lugia2453, Scepticalidealist, Jamesx12345, Iamamm, Doctor Girl, PebblesMeow, Jilethemile, Hillbillyholiday, Fzvarun, Vedicfolks, BreakfastJr, Julian Felsenburgh, François Robere, Macadoods, ZarhanFastfire, Pottage99, Der zukünftige Führer von Amerika, Garryj145, Rampratapbishnoi, Vashikaran11, IM-yb, Anuragblogger, Anarcham, Bladesmulti, Cantelo, Kartikay1955, Ankit4321, History by Christians, CyberSeraph, Kathrinalewis, Suelru, 7Sidz, Shan2014, VanishedUser000000000, Monkbot, K.J.Grey, Second Quantisation, Edwardjones2320, VinceCarter32, Astrochologist13, Jackk Slattery, DarkMystik1, Rzvas, Zach bender, Macofe, Amortias, Outlookc, Signedzzz, Aluracein82, Vishal4092832, Jlakshminarayan, Searchingsachin, VeNeMousKAT, Pixal Storm, Bernalicious, Mikey McNeilly, Khgtcv, StanfordLinkBot, Isambard Kingdom, Arctos889, Jason.nlw, Astrologyjunction, UnknownBungHole, Faisalwani, Jerodlycett, KasparBot, Gegacha, Arunprakash1990, CAPTAIN RAJU, Astrologer 8284988896, Astrologer+91-8284988896 in jalandhar, 12thdimension12, Scorpius1975, Png4lyfe, Thebriggs, Outedexits, Astrologer Seth Morris, InternetArchiveBot, Uttertrash, Silva1978, Jdecuffa, Vishnu123teja, Goodhealthify, GreenC bot, Hhhhhhhhiiii, Motivação, Shubhamsverma, Junosoon, Rajikia and Anonymous: 1127 • Theurgy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theurgy?oldid=715745020 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Stevertigo, Csernica, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, The Phoenix, Sam Spade, Blainster, Hadal, Nagelfar, Smjg, Michael Devore, DNewhall, DMG413, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Oliver Lineham, Peccavimus, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Gpvos, GalaazV, Matturn, Tixity, Slackr007, FlaBot, Trivial, Str1977, DTOx, EamonnPKeane, RussBot, Rax, BirgitteSB, Irishguy, Bota47, Ninly, Sshadow, Tadorne, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Gjs238, Bluebot, Saint Midge, Tsca.bot, Nick Levine, King Vegita, KnowBuddy, LoveMonkey, Domsta333, RookZERO, Jamoche, Antioco79, Cydebot, Khem Caigan, Accipio Mitis Frux, DBaba, Thijs!bot, Faigl.ladislav, Muaddeeb,
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
297
Cynwolfe, .anacondabot, B9 hummingbird hovering, SergioPascual, Bissinger, Ian.thomson, Belovedfreak, Nwbeeson, Squids and Chips, Eriugena121, IPSOS, DSGruss, Doug, SieBot, StAnselm, Gerakibot, Anglicanus, Paintman, Mild Bill Hiccup, Practical321, Kwork2, Addbot, Tyler8779, OlEnglish, Yobot, Betzalel153, AnomieBOT, Alexzabbey, J04n, Omnipaedista, Jsp722, Yarkon, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Philafrenzy, ClueBot NG, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Mark Arsten, Dmurawsky, Mogism, Mutley1989, Prokaryotes and Anonymous: 70 • A. E. Waite Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Waite?oldid=726812820 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, Andre Engels, Hephaestos, Leandrod, AlexR, Ihcoyc, Salsa Shark, Charles Matthews, Itai, Optim, AnonMoos, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Moncrief, Wikibot, FriedMilk, Tom-, Necrothesp, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Merle rickard, Bender235, Hanuman Das, Sherurcij, Oneliner, Saga City, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Scriberius, Zzyzx11, Chrkl, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, RussBot, Amanaplanacanalpanama, Cliodule, Morgan Leigh, Tuckerresearch, SmackBot, Mangoe, Eskimbot, Skoglund, Aquarius Rising, Blueboar, Ohconfucius, Nathanael BarAur L., Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mtonline, Sharnak, GiantSnowman, Smiloid, Cydebot, Synergy, Ebyabe, Boboroshi, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Julia Rossi, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Ekabhishek, ***Ria777, Waacstats, Nyttend, Avicennasis, BilCat, Coffeepusher, NMaia, CommonsDelinker, IPSOS, RiverStyx23, Pahuson, SpiderMum, Kkarma, El bot de la dieta, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Addbot, Rodrigotebani, Martindo, Fothergill Volkensniff IV, Chzz, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Materialscientist, RevelationDirect, LilHelpa, Winter luso, Anonymous from the 21st century, Omnipaedista, Green Cardamom, Fortdj33, Wikiy2k, Lyrical Israfel, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, AvicBot, Yowzemz, Manytexts, Penforge, Helpful Pixie Bot, Independent2100, OttawaAC, Fillinthegaps, Sibyls giggle, VIAFbot, Killuminator, Skylion007, Vladis13, KasparBot, SuffrenXXI and Anonymous: 46 • Rosicrucianism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosicrucianism?oldid=729425948 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Dachshund, Olivier, Paul Barlow, Earth, Nixdorf, Skysmith, ArnoLagrange, Goblin, Poor Yorick, Rossami, Vzbs34, Kaihsu, Harry Potter, JASpencer, Dino, Reddi, Daniel Quinlan, Dogface, VeryVerily, Optim, Robbot, Sam Spade, Desmay, Wereon, Aetheling, DocWatson42, Gtrmp, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, Niteowlneils, Micru, Pascal666, Infinitysnake, Bacchiad, YusufMJH, Chowbok, Utcursch, SarekOfVulcan, Quadell, IdahoEv, Beland, Jossi, DNewhall, Tail, Sam Hocevar, Hillel, Discospinster, Ponder, Dbachmann, Mashford, Pedant, El C, Marcok, Dom Lochet, Ray Dassen, Jguk 2, Forteanajones, Nk, Kunzite, Hooperbloob, Cachilders, Ekhalom, Hanuman Das, Anthony Appleyard, DreamGuy, Subramanian, Voltagedrop, Dismas, Woohookitty, Anilocra, Rchamberlain, GalaazV, Marudubshinki, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Jivecat, Bruce1ee, Fel64, Pljones, Afterwriting, Gsp, Somecallmetim, Mathbot, Sanbeg, Sergio1, Robert Prummel, RobyWayne, Chobot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Pigman, Stephenb, Bill52270, ENeville, Wiki alf, Leutha, Korny O'Near, Howcheng, Chal7ds, MSJapan, Morgan Leigh, Evrik, Tuckerresearch, J S Ayer, Deville, RDF, StevenAArmstrong, Banana04131, Ori.shammah, Modify, Mbirgi, LeonardoRob0t, GrinBot~enwiki, Bumbieriitis~enwiki, LadyPhi, Scolaire, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Dweller, Elonka, Reedy, Bjelleklang, Vald, Hctbm, Eskimbot, Gjs238, Peacay, Hmains, Ghosts&empties, Chris the speller, Zephyrad, Rlevse, Skull 'n' Femurs, Nixeagle, Puddingpie, Blueboar, King Vegita, Dreadstar, RandomP, Clean Copy, Fuzzypeg, DMacks, Readmedottext, GourangaUK, Zeamays, Bejnar, Ohconfucius, Txensen, Breno, Ckatz, Dr. Gold, Meco, Astrolog~enwiki, Vindheim, Peter Horn, Wwagner, John1014, Violncello, Hu12, N0osphR~enwiki, JoeBot, Twas Now, Dp462090, CmdrObot, Mewaqua, Haetzchiam, Kylu, Rosaecruz, ShelfSkewed, Liberal Freemason, Avillia, Penbat, AndrewHowse, Joshua BishopRoby, Cydebot, Josemaat, Synergy, DBaba, Trueblood, Barticus88, Falklorn, Esowteric, Frater FiatLux, ThePeg, Seaphoto, Adaywijaya, G.J. Goodrich, Eleos, Barek, Geneisner, Viriathus, Hurtstotouchfire, SiobhanHansa, Billix, ***Ria777, KConWiki, Dotyacd, V-Man737, Keith D, Asalt2233~enwiki, Filll, Maurice Carbonaro, Peko2, Mathglot, Royalhistorian, Afluegel, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Uirdhein, Burzmali, Zara1709, VolkovBot, KineticTalk, Uhrwerkaffefass, Grammarmonger, TXiKiBoT, Ozdawn, IPSOS, John Carter, M0RD00R, Michaeldsuarez, Sensei-CRS, The News Hound, GlassFET, Beingandtruth, Temporaluser, Lusitanian, Gilbertemano, Ayudante, Eyouell, Arnobarnard, IdreamofJeanie, Melrich, Bdahdaleh, Astrologist, Parafaustus, EPadmirateur, Aaron816, Samuel Grant, Spiraluxa, Welthir, Jakobus molensis, Rjd0060, Lmateo002, Parkwells, Yorkshirian, Searchinginlove, C881play, Tekto9, Chaosdruid, ModestMouse2, Kennethzky04, Christianw7, XLinkBot, SilvonenBot, Solleone, Addbot, Ka Faraq Gatri, Fratermenandro, Redheylin, Akwilks, LinkFA-Bot, Lightbot, Tdeluce, Hiram111, Luckas-bot, Nutfortuna, Hinio, Mikhailovich, Ripohopeteg, AnomieBOT, Bsimmons666, Algorithme, ℍuman, Text mdnp, ArthurBot, Haputdas, Willermoz, Celator, Anonymous from the 21st century, J04n, GrouchoBot, RolyatLeahcim, Nitpyck, NovellaGirl, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Fortdj33, Pergamino, Jhilliard, Atlantia, Groomtech, AstaBOTh15, AQUIMISMO, Overlookpress, Skyerise, RedBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Pollinosisss, Rbaumg, Pp.paul.4, Wikipelli, Sheeana, Crews Giles, Ὁ οἶστρος, Filipino scribe, ChuispastonBot, Plumitife, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Teddy.william, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Oliver Puertogallera, Fiddlersmouth, Rootalchemy, Khazar2, Qexigator, Dexbot, Chicbyaccident, FRCJJY888, Yonderboy777, Lasse Lucidor, Deadpool 69503, Pampuco, KasparBot, Hrafnar2, Atheoleo, Permstrump, Peregrinusfrc, Aidanwitherow and Anonymous: 327 • Gnosticism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism?oldid=731771298 Contributors: AxelBoldt, MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, Calypso, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Manning Bartlett, 0, Ktsquare, Hotlorp, Sfdan, Renata, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Llywrch, Nixdorf, MartinHarper, Jketola, Menchi, Bobby D. Bryant, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Snoyes, 5ko, TUF-KAT, Jebba, Irmgard, Julesd, Glenn, Peter Kaminski, Andres, Cratbro, Evercat, Sethmahoney, Harvester, Jonik, Wfeidt, Ehn, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Randyc~enwiki, Stone, Ike9898, Denni, Vincent Ramos, Rvolz, Zoicon5, Grendelkhan, Dogface, Khym Chanur, AnonMoos, Wetman, Shafei, Huangdi, Twang, Phil Boswell, Robbot, Goethean, Psychonaut, Sam Spade, Mirv, Ashley Y, M1shawhan, Wjhonson, Chiramabi, Puckly, Anglican1, Rursus, Thesilverbail, Blainster, LGagnon, Sunray, Wereon, SoLando, Unyounyo, GreatWhiteNortherner, Nagelfar, Dave6, DocWatson42, Cobra libre, Tom harrison, Timpo, Marcika, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Anville, Curps, Per Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, Eequor, Golbez, Bacchiad, Geoffspear, Gadfium, Physicist, Beatnick~enwiki, Andycjp, Quadell, Antandrus, Savant1984, Rdsmith4, Pmanderson, Fratley, Manchineel, ArcticFrog, Joyous!, Ukexpat, Kevin Rector, Lacrimosus, Ashami, Danc, Eep², D6, Jayjg, Rfl, Freakofnurture, DanielCD, Ultratomio, Bpage, Fuffzsch, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Florian Blaschke, Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters, Euthydemos, Ahkond, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, ESkog, Andrejj, Sunborn, JoeSmack, Hapsiainen, Gnrlotto, El C, Huntster, Cedders, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Kross, Summer Song, Tverbeek, Visualerror, Lima, Etimbo, Etz Haim, Jpgordon, Gedanken, Rrreese, Bastique, Bobo192, Ray Dassen, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Dungodung, BM, Saluyot, Jaredfaulkner, Jonathunder, Craig.lz, Jumbuck, Storm Rider, Schuyler, ThorstenNY, Eric Kvaalen, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Apoc2400, Flata, Malo, Yau~enwiki, Polyphilo, Snowolf, Ross Burgess, Noosphere, Fivetrees, Trylks, ReyBrujo, Garzo, Drbreznjev, Geographer, Kbolino, Zorblek, Postrach, Zntrip, OwenX, Woohookitty, Linas, RHaworth, S36e175, David Haslam, T. Baphomet, Percy Snoodle, Honzinek, Jeff3000, Trödel, MONGO, -Ril-, Wikiklrsc, John Hill, Sdelat, Nerrin, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Tydaj, Revolver Ocelot, Graham87, Grundle, Justin Bailey, A Train, BD2412, Kbdank71, Kane5187, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Arberor, Koavf, DeadlyAssassin, AwkwardSocks, Kalogeropoulos, AndyKali, Ddhageman, Afterwriting, Paul Hjul, Ashgene, Somecallmetim, CDThieme, Nihiltres, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Robert Prummel, Newmhost, SpectrumDT, 2ct7, BradBeattie, Theshibboleth, Kazuba, GangofOne, Bgwhite, Algebraist, Zephret, CunningLinguist14, Failsafeman, Ugha, Wavelength, Meridius, Sceptre, Retodon8, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hiyya54, FrenchIsAwesome, Pigman, TimNelson, Thomaschina03, Hydrargyrum, Theelf29, Aaronwinborn, Thane, PaulGarner, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Nirvana2013, Bloodofox, Toya, BlackAndy, Abb3w, CecilWard, Pkearney, Amakuha, Crasshopper, Matrixfusion, Tomisti, Nlu, Dantedanti, Langdell~enwiki, RDF,
298
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Eduard Gherkin, SMcCandlish, Tvleavitt, Olen Watson, Spikespeigel42, GEWJ, Opiaterein, JLaTondre, Molly ringwald, Humbabba, Kramden, Philip Stevens, CIreland, JordanStratford, SmackBot, Radak, Thomas Ash, Mangoe, Nihonjoe, Lestrade, Reedy, Melchoir, Grantb, Kim FOR sure, Jfurr1981, Delldot, Jcbarr, Kintetsubuffalo, Flannel, Vassyana, Quotemstr, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, BirdValiant, Rmosler2100, Keytool, Chris the speller, Davigoli, Xpi6, Oblemboy, Enkyklios, Kleinzach, Hibernian, Bazonka, CSWarren, Octahedron80, Whispering, Baa, A. B., Eusebeus, Scwlong, Ig0774, Trekphiler, Jahiegel, Leinad-Z, Ankur.sinha, Aratron, Furby100, Sephiroth BCR, Clinkophonist, Rrburke, Cícero, Doh286, Tcmcgonigal, *Ria777*, Stevenmitchell, Jerrch, Шизомби, Whoosisman, Nibuod, Fullstop, John D. Croft, RaCha'ar, Harvestman, Dreadstar, LoveMonkey, Andrew c, Maelnuneb, Kendrick7, GameKeeper, CIS, The Ungovernable Force, Rory096, LinuxDude, Tower Junkie, Gnostique, Saturn V~enwiki, Capmo, Mattpersons, Jason Farrow, A. Parrot, Argotechnica, Davemcarlson, Vikimedia, Meco, Waggers, CharlesMartel, Sparkwidget, Midnightblueowl, Vindheim, Cerealkiller13, Keahapana, DabMachine, General Eisenhower, Asclepias, Iridescent, Lanem, Sarastro777, Maestlin, Gualtieri, JoeBot, Lottamiata, Gregory Benoit, Gtmoore, Jwchen89, Psychoelf, Courcelles, Jbolden1517, Tawkerbot2, Chris55, Maester, Zackp, Wolfdog, 850 C, Ariel, Scohoust, Horselover Fat, Kylu, Jokes Free4Me, Ndru01, Cracker017, Gregbard, Ekajati, FilipeS, Equendil, Cydebot, Jonathan Tweet, Aristophanes68, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Theendtimeprophet, Idiotoff, HumbleGod, Skittleys, Tawkerbot4, Dynaflow, DBaba, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Sheila.bliss, Kozuch, Arb, Jonathanbethel, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Brian G. Wilson, Pacific PanDeist, Amity150, Ernie G C P Spiggot, JustAGal, Bunzil, Jimhoward72, Nick Number, Matthew Proctor, DjidiDjidi, Bmorton3, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Crezia Hext Knight, Figma, Kenjacobsen, Fennessy, JAnDbot, Geneisner, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Ringsjöodjuren, Mohammad ihs, Clean2, Solis93, Rothorpe, Beowulf327, SiobhanHansa, Skorpio-88, Bongwarrior, Kaddeesh, Adam keller, Swpb, Valentinus~enwiki, Crazytonyi, LeVoyageur, Ranger2006, Prestonmcconkie, Markoff Chaney, Sam Medany, AlephGamma, Zostrianos, EagleFan, Mkdw, Glen, JaGa, JdeJ, Michael J., SquirleyWurley, Lost tourist, 27pence, Phelpsfan44, XCluvr16, Shinybubbles, Rev Troy, Spunkiel, Dewener, MartinBot, BetBot~enwiki, Kiore, Nikpapag, Bissinger, Jerry teps, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Tgeairn, Catasoft, Randerson 3535, Adavidb, Informed1212, Maurice Carbonaro, KrytenKoro, Natty4bumpo, Ian.thomson, OfficeGirl, Johnbod, Wmgreene, Lupussy, Jamatta, Student7, BrettAllen, Reymma, Remember the dot, Owen Slatraigh, A. Ben-Shema, Ktoonen, Lamblash, The enemies of god, Yasuna, JasonJD48, A Ramachandran, Alpha774, Flyingidiot, Maghnus, Voxofspirit, Philip Trueman, Judicata, Charleca, TXiKiBoT, BackMaun, Java7837, Liquidcentre, Chazersize2004, IPSOS, Corvus cornix, Psyche825, Harpakhrad11, Lejarrag, Frenchy1985, Craig Browning, Synthebot, Shanalk, Seresin, Sondrawaggoner, Thanatos666, Insanity Incarnate, Palaeovia, - tSR - Nth Man, Munci, Demize, Plasmasphere, SieBot, StAnselm, Tresiden, Simplifier, Jolfawnzo, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, GlassCobra, Brotherrog, Oxymoron83, GeorgeChristopher, MiNombreDeGuerra, Kharga, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, PbBot, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Cyfal, Alatari, Eebahgum, Lookimfamous, RevMarsha, Helios solaris, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, ArdClose, Xav71176, Stealthepiscopalian, Soonerzbt, Cptmurdok, TheOldJacobite, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Singinglemon~enwiki, DragonBot, Excirial, Zaharous, Quaffed, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Hans Adler, SchreiberBike, Askahrc, ChrisHamburg, Rui Gabriel Correia, Thinkingclearer, JDPhD, Pilotusa, Ospix, Editor2020, Akira-otomo, Finalnight, Heironymous Rowe, Wednesday Next, XLinkBot, Pichpich, Jytdog, Gaarik, WikHead, Will in China, Rayanazecca~enwiki, EmmettLBrown, Addbot, JBsupreme, Metawombat, Krthomas, DougsTech, Metagignosko, Mteshima, Rosewater Alchemist, Download, Drakusrazel, Urbanmystick1, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Lineface, Katharine908, HandThatFeeds, JohnArbogast, Jonnysonthespot, Tide rolls, Gail, ScienceApe, Christopher.derks, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Brithnoth, Legobot II, Amirobot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, 802SnowyOwl, Jim1138, Galoubet, Darolew, Materialscientist, Jonathanlivingstone, Citation bot, VedicScience, Vanished user zm34pq51mz, Barnstone, Paulatim, Deadly Dozen, Icarus580, LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Ptr1968, Makeswell, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Kirkevan11, Baba Bom, Mattis, Tao3100, Doubtintom, Shadowjams, Pauswa, Thehelpfulbot, Father.rassbach, FrescoBot, Lebanese bebe, LucienBOT, Eugnostos, Noneofyourbussiness, SiIIyLiIIyPiIIy, Cdw1952, Galorr, D'ohBot, UncorkedJet, Sciguybm, JawadTazari, Citation bot 1, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, JIK1975, AstaBOTh15, DrilBot, Ladolchivita, I dream of horses, Edderso, Chiscotheque, Dazedbythebell, Skyerise, Fat&Happy, SpaceFlight89, , TobeBot, Pollinosisss, Akasriel, Fama Clamosa, Benelohim74, Dinamik-bot, Ivan84m, Some Wiki Editor, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Jfmantis, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Marie Paradox, Noommos, In ictu oculi, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading, Lunaibis, GnosticMovement, Denode, GoingBatty, RenamedUser01302013, Laurel Lodged, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, Bkatayab, ZéroBot, CoolCoolFace, Spacexplosion, Spøkelse, H3llBot, SporkBot, OnePt618, Ben Ammi, StasMalyga, Jbribeiro1, Texanator2, Tot12, ChuispastonBot, Jayodavis, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Adville, Rattakorn c, 1shields1, Dream of Nyx, Dancer619, Yeaunome, Helpful Pixie Bot, SumerianFable, R R Pat, Linds531, BG19bot, Neesrine, Northamerica1000, AxisAbove, DesertRat262, Supotmails, Cuthbertofgilead, Babyface152, Drift chambers, Acheinlein, Joshua Jonathan, Tpetgood, Truth-seeker2004, Oct13, Lieutenant of Melkor, JEMead, BattyBot, Paco1097, Seanmcdh, ChrisGualtieri, GoShow, Lapsoo, Dexbot, SeekYeTheTruth, Mogism, Nphar, Corinne, PinkAmpersand, DangerouslyPersuasiveWriter, Sreneebrel, FiredanceThroughTheNight, Blake'sMistress, Ornowhere, Finnusertop, Shearflyer, Jianhui67, Jayaguru-Shishya, Xenxax, Man of Steel 85, Mike82199, Joe Abdul, Monkbot, Fish storm, JudeccaXIII, TranquilHope, Gnostic1349, Gnostic1234, Pixarh, Dr3wsa7ag3, KasparBot, HamzaWahabi, Philosi4, CAPTAIN RAJU, Munus Deus, Michaelle rubenok and Anonymous: 870 • Aleister Crowley Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleister_Crowley?oldid=731597389 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Eloquence, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, Eclecticology, Fubar Obfusco, Ortolan88, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, DW, Tzartzam, ChrisSteinbach, Olivier, Edward, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Kwertii, Modster, Bewildebeast, Nixdorf, Shyamal, Wapcaplet, Cyde, Tgeorgescu, Skysmith, Paul A, Pcb21, Tregoweth, Ihcoyc, Emperor, Pseudo daoist, Jdforrester, Julesd, Nikai, Andres, Jacquerie27, RL Barrett, Rbraunwa, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Jakenelson, Fibonacci, Omegatron, Gaidheal, Khranus, Stormie, Optim, Carbuncle, Palefire, Dimadick, Bearcat, Ray Radlein, RedWolf, Moncrief, Sam Spade, Phatsphere, Babbage, Bertie, Auric, Blainster, UtherSRG, JackofOz, ElBenevolente, Comrade~enwiki, Oobopshark, Mattflaschen, Dina, Alan Liefting, Snobot, Martinwguy, Centrx, CorpDan, Gtrmp, Luis Dantas, Tom harrison, Lupin, Bradeos Graphon, Alterego, Everyking, Supergee, Emuzesto~enwiki, Curps, Guanaco, Mboverload, Siroxo, Eequor, Sexyfoxboy, Infinitysnake, Bacchiad, DougEngland, Jariku, Old Nol, Gadfium, Woggly, Alexf, Sonjaaa, Quadell, Antandrus, Piotrus, Quarl, Elembis, Kaldari, Murple, DragonflySixtyseven, Bodnotbod, Satori, Kuralyov, F13nd, DenisMoskowitz, Karl-Henner, Salvadors, Gary D, Pitchka, Marcus2, Klemen Kocjancic, Trilobite, Subsume, Lobosolo, Ashami, D6, Freakofnurture, Pyrop, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, NrDg, YUL89YYZ, Bishonen, Crowley, User2004, MeltBanana, Auto movil, Pavel Vozenilek, Gonzalo Diethelm, SpookyMulder, Bender235, ESkog, Violetriga, Pietzsche, Huntster, Kwamikagami, Kross, Art LaPella, Triona, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, JRM, Fugazi32, Bobo192, Smalljim, Cje~enwiki, Cmdrjameson, .:Ajvol:., Brim, Foobaz, Ziggurat, Compulsion, Giraffedata, Cavrdg, Rajah, TheProject, Solar, DCEdwards1966, Mixcoatl, Pacula, DannyMuse, Linuxlad, Jumbuck, Macai, Hanuman Das, Alansohn, Eraserhead~enwiki, Jared81, Arthena, Punarbhava, Lectonar, Hoary, Theri, Laurencetimms, DreamGuy, Ross Burgess, Oneliner, Mdriftmeyer, Leoadec, Stygian23, Kusma, Pauli133, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Versageek, Djsasso, Nightstallion, Blaxthos, Throbblefoot, Dismas, Zorblek, Sk4p, Mullet, Angr, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Scriberius, Ataru, S36e175, Benbest, Broquaint, Pol098, GeorgeOrr, Pogue, Trevor Andersen, Jleon, GregorB, Philodox-ohki, FluffyPanda, Daniel Lawrence, Matthew Platts, Palica, Rgbea, Marudubshinki, KrisW6, Graham87, Sparkit, Cuchullain, BD2412, Wizardswand, Kbdank71, RxS, SouthernComfort, Shimbo, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Wahoofive, Koavf, Gryffindor, Vary, SpNeo, Vegaswikian, Dewrad, Ligulem, ElKevbo, Fish and karate, Somecallmetim, Nivix, Aloneyouaregeek, Mitsukai, Born2cycle, The Dogandpony, Wingsandsword, NotJack-
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
299
horkheimer, SpectrumDT, Gareth E. Kegg, Theshibboleth, Amchow78, Spencerk, Mongreilf, Hatch68, Visor, Zef, DVdm, Bgwhite, Geg, YurikBot, Kinneyboy90, 999~enwiki, JarrahTree, RussBot, KamuiShirou, Ericorbit, Pigman, Kooshmeister, Scott5834, Al Hallaj, Gaius Cornelius, Megastar, Rsrikanth05, Hawkeye7, Naukhel, Complainer, Aboverepine, Justin Eiler, VinceBowdren, PhilipC, Moe Epsilon, Formeruser-82, Tony1, Mooveeguy, Morgan Leigh, Bota47, GeoffCapp, Scope creep, Djdaedalus, Igiffin, Cmskog, Tuckerresearch, Slunky, FF2010, Womble, KingKane, SFGiants, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Fang Aili, Rms125a@hotmail.com, BorgQueen, Fram, Scoutersig, Arundhati bakshi, NickJones, Curpsbot-unicodify, Sepand, Pfistermeister, Mjroots, NeilN, Tom Morris, AlfredL, Ross Lawhead, NetRolller 3D, Harthacnut, Telewis, Pearce.duncan, Attilios, SmackBot, OthelloMT, Zazaban, Slashme, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, McGeddon, CRKingston, Rokfaith, Blue520, Bomac, Allixpeeke, Setanta747 (locked), Bwithh, Wandjina, Horawiki~enwiki, Gjs238, Ian Rose, Marktreut, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Spacelord~enwiki, Theavalonian, Chris the speller, Autarch, DStoykov, AntelopeInSearchOfTruth, Metarob, Sadads, Dustimagic, Jeff5102, ASigIAm213, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Skoglund, DéRahier, Writtenright, OrphanBot, Snowmanradio, Liberaljoe, Krsont, Pax85, King Vegita, Soosed, Feazey, X-Flare-x, Nakon, Mcorco2, Dreadstar, RandomP, Fuzzypeg, Jklin, DMacks, Hobbs von Wackamole, Smerus, Rhkramer, J.smith, Leon..., Ohconfucius, Snowgrouse, Clown in black and yellow, Eliyak, Arnoutf, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Valfontis, Srikeit, JzG, Soap, John, Gobonobo, Five-, Edwy, Merchbow, Mary Read, ManiF, Runningfridgesrule, IronGargoyle, A. Parrot, XWayfarer, JValenc1, Renwick, MCWicoff, Mr Stephen, Meco, Midnightblueowl, E-Kartoffel, Ryulong, Sharnak, Dr.K., Novangelis, MTSbot~enwiki, Caiaffa, Vince In Milan, Sethian, AndyBoyd, Hu12, Quaeler, Patrick Schwemmer, Iridescent, JustinLillich, Laddiebuck, JoeBot, Skapur, Onefinalstep, Catherineyronwode, Paul Knight, Deporodh, IvanLanin, Cls14, CapitalR, Courcelles, Nuttyskin, Secos5, Tawkerbot2, Lokiloki, Kendroche, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Gowron, Smiloid, ShelfSkewed, Hopsyturvy, Avillia, Bb1230, Jagle, Chicheley, John S Moore, Ekajati, Cydebot, Death metal, Kovzhun, DrunkenSmurf, Gogo Dodo, Bellerophon5685, Red Director, Bazarov, Xxanthippe, Jeremy68, TEPutnam, Sloth monkey, Synergy, Frater5, Tawkerbot4, Taschenrechner~enwiki, Chris Henniker, MikeOso, Karuna8, Ward3001, Boboroshi, Mtpaley, Carsonc, Algabal, PamD, Raschd, Malleus Fatuorum, Jon C., Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, D4g0thur, Fourchette, AgentAJD, Daniel, Bear475, Rrose Selavy, HappyInGeneral, Mibelz, Memty Bot, N5iln, CynicalMe, Missvain, Bobblehead, Neil916, Second Quantization, Lotans, Nick Number, Phobe, Ted Newsom, Noclevername, DennisRandall, Rulerboyz, Sidasta, AntiVandalBot, Frater Xyzzy, Widefox, Akradecki, Emeraldcityserendipity, Augusta2, Bookworm857158367, Julia Rossi, Marquess, Dragon Emperor, Canadian-Bacon, Lesterjames, Deflective, Kprateek88, Dsp13, Nthep, Shaftman1, Sophie means wisdom, Andonic, Necrogolem, NSR77, TAnthony, PhilKnight, Adroito, Msalt, Repku, Bencherlite, Andreas Toth, Magioladitis, Captainbarrett, 75pickup, SyG, Xn4, TheTank264, SHCarter, ***Ria777, Usien6, Zenomax, Brusegadi, Zelator, JackLondon77, Upholder, Lordbutterfly, Justanother, Systemlover, St.Jimmy666, Memotype, DerHexer, Edward321, Coffeepusher, Truthordare, Pax:Vobiscum, Mr Vain, Jonomacdrones, B9 hummingbird hovering, FisherQueen, Alien666, MartinBot, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, GoldenMeadows, Naohiro19, Thiebes, Rettetast, Keith D, Bruin69, Kostisl, CommonsDelinker, Cathar maiden, EdBever, J.delanoy, Millenium kid 1, Amyeis, Herbythyme, SteveLamacq43, Polenth, Beveridge.r, Johnnybriggs, Ramblingwithoutadestination, Cpiral, Thedeadlypython, Stuffentein, Mgmax~enwiki, Amoghasiddhi, NewEnglandYankee, Al B. Free, Kasanax, STBotD, FrankEldonDixon, Choronzonclub, The Behnam, Squids and Chips, Coachs, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Aurashafa, ACSE, Deor, VolkovBot, Hovaness, Chaos5023, Aeqea, Tunnels of Set, Indubitably, Jmrowland, Embobee, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, BackMaun, Godo Larner, Technopat, Cath reen, Richard Gillard, Veronica max, Barbieyou, Aymatth2, IPSOS, Qxz, Secrowl, Voorlandt, Steven J. Anderson, John Carter, Khabs, Eldaran~enwiki, Ra-Hoor-Khu, S t hathliss, Mannafredo, Lashtal.com, Sumafi, K d f m, MRaphael68, Malick78, Hyper7, Unholy One, Tam Patton, The Devil's Advocate, Dick Shane, Bitbut, Jarhurst, Daveh4h, Vodak, SieBot, RHodnett, Coffee, Hiram816, TJRC, Aristarco de Samotracia, ClarkSavageJr, Motuleños, Alabaster Crow, Transcendentalist, ProfessorWilhelmSmerthy, Vincentjennings, Kecantu, Chelseyrl, Yintan, Crash Underride, Jessemilby, EternityExplosion~enwiki, KingRantheMan, Phil Bridger, Granf, Bagatelle, Filiusvita, Lightmouse, Hemlock850, Moletrouser, Nancy, Dogbeast, Dravecky, Maelgwnbot, CharlesGillingham, TheTaternumber13, Hadit93, 9eyedeel, Anchor Link Bot, Dabomb87, Ryukaiel, Wonchop, Randy Kryn, Rabbelrauser, ImageRemovalBot, Invertzoo, Sfan00 IMG, SpiderMum, ClueBot, ParlerVousWiki, IPAddressConflict, Momosgarage, StevethePaladin, Jaydoubleyew, Agnostic Gnostic, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow's Wraith, Icarusgeek, Stealthepiscopalian, Zderjoos, Thepeeblesman666, Boing! said Zebedee, Iconoclast.horizon, CounterVandalismBot, Intlmusique, Kinlaso, Septemberfourth476, Nmate, Excirial, Nymf, Jusdafax, Zddoodah, Lartoven, Simon D M, Sun Creator, Kiiss Marks, Romanov55, Arjayay, Jotterbot, Brianboulton, Gaz wit da gatz~enwiki, Basil45, Redthoreau, Mebadatbball, Thehelpfulone, Cjarbo2, Aitias, Mapadin, Brandoid, JDPhD, Jlamrhein, Canihaveacookie, Stupod, Indopug, Bluegoatrampant, DumZiBoT, Agentxyz, Frater-sphinx, Leninliker, XLinkBot, Fastily, RogDel, Pichpich, Lucas Malor~enwiki, Detroitgoth, Wikigonish, Sjouker, Will in China, Tthheeppaarrttyy, NHJG, Dubmill, Good Olfactory, ColtM4, Deantuhka, Hollyprobert, Bookbrad, Cxz111, Grayfell, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Fyrael, ZhaneXeditor, Sashafresh, DougsTech, Metagraph, Sadiemonster, PositiveSpin, AkhtaBot, SiegfreidZ, CanadianLinuxUser, In Tyler We Trusted, Teagleton Steves, Rosewater Alchemist, LaaknorBot, FerrousTigrus, Gtk123, Digitalpear, D.c.camero, Michael772292, YasOcratic, Chzz, AnnaFrance, Favonian, LemmeyBOT, Teflon Dog, Aacugna, Qwrk, Tassedethe, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Kzazar, Gail, Barnt001, BlackMarlin, Contributor777, Ochib, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Granpuff, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Hansihippi, Avatar723, KamikazeBot, SwisterTwister, DropShadow, Eduen, Flagsofscarlet, Dickdock, Eric-Wester, Mission Fleg, AnomieBOT, Pabs77, AnthonyBurgess, Dwayne, Taam, Mintrick, Piano non troppo, Blindmanoregon, RayvnEQ, Ian Rons, Jeff Muscato, Materialscientist, Dendlai, Paranormal Skeptic, Citation bot, QaBobAllah, Wrelwser43, Ruby2010, ArthurBot, Watery Tart, Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, The Elves Of Dunsimore, JimVC3, NikVandiver, Chilas123, Termininja, 4twenty42o, Wicked lemm, MyDerniereDanse, Ragityman, Anonymous from the 21st century, J04n, Firedrum71, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, XTech102, Mvaldemar, Beechka, Slarty2, Abacchus1974, Piquant00, Laughingmemeboy, Auréola, RoundDisc, Sqgl, Sissssou, Smallman12q, Ankhefenkhons, Marlen Vargas, Shadowjams, Eugene-elgato, Volatile.memory, WebCiteBOT, Thehelpfulbot, Green Cardamom, MarkkuP, FrescoBot, Artimaean, Ryryrules100, MLKLewis, Rodneyorpheus, Seanbond5, Gekke11, Aleister Wilson, Enver62, DivineAlpha, Stephen Morley, HamburgerRadio, Nonexyst, Citation bot 1, Chenopodiaceous, Kenzey818, Warbuff 4, Tyrenon, Eameece, Sarandioti, Skyerise, Moonraker, Serols, 5tgoodyer, B-Machine, Dallas1991, Dr.Szląchedzki, Kgrad, Lightlowemon, Trappist the monk, Jondalf, Stifyn, Badasa, Lotje, Changeay, MissAli555, Thesniperremix, A Star Is Here, GreyDaWolf, Reaper Eternal, Reach Out to the Truth, Bigrz15, RjwilmsiBot, Bossanoven, Felixiscool, Hajatvrc, Salvio giuliano, DASHBot, 4rock4roll, Whywhenwhohow, EmausBot, And we drown, Man without qualities, Immunize, Gfoley4, Torsrthidesen, GoingBatty, DaltonGD, Jwloohou, GoatGod, TurkishSultan, Aquidneck, Solarra, Khatai, Dcirovic, Camocon, ArchangelIdiotis, The Blade of the Northern Lights, ZéroBot, SVG, Fæ, Traxs7, Liadmalone, Akerans, Empty Buffer, AmericanHeraldist, Krispaige78, Access Denied, Matthew weiner, Jarikrun, AManWithNoPlan, Wikignome0530, Taterdono, Larryyr, MelissaYvonne, Toshio Yamaguchi, L Kensington, Theplastik, Donner60, Morgan TG, MALLUS, Odysseus1479, Orange Suede Sofa, Bill william compton, ClamDip, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Penforge, FourLights, Ronald418, BarrelProof, Jørdan, Frietjes, half-moon bubba, Widr, Andrew Thomas 2, Lisatree, St.HocusPocus, RafikiSykes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Stnwiki, Nirame, HMSSolent, Wuweiguru, Titodutta, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Sacksquatch, Smcg8374, Parzivalamfortas, Marcocapelle, Gaulish~enwiki, Toccata quarta, Codylmoore1314, Addaline, The Traditionalist, Okeyes (WMF), Glacialfox, 9711CA, TBrandley, H. 217.83, Henry McClean, Killuminati666999, Fylbecatulous, Fiddlersmouth, AnonNep, The Illusive Man, ChrisGualtieri, Synthgod, Pobtron, EuroCarGT, Jebediah M, Alois Kruise, Semarkham, Reverend Mick man34, Zgoutreach, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, Dnaspark99,
300
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Jackninja5, Periglio, Everything Is Numbers, VIAFbot, Sophg6, MaybeMaybeMaybe, LordAnon of Essex, Shariqchhapra, Hillbillyholiday, Globuel, Dara Allarah, Aufels, Diana Wyndham, Los358, Homechallenge55, FrankRadioSpecial, CensoredScribe, Berengaria, Eric Corbett, NottNott, GustavoCarneiro, Frater AA, StraightOuttaBrisbane, Jack C2, Vladis13, Falconettifalconetti, Agroupaccount, Xenxax, Eşşeğinziki, Londonstudent13, Halfman halfthing, Frater UI, Mystical13, Posen607, Patrick jason, Peter238, Morgenstern91, Grzegorz Thelemski, Niga756, BoxOfChickens, TorqueGreg, Bljenkins, ClaraJones1986, 360noscopelsr, HinataFan928, Sir NIJOLOT of Treshholdington, Feoffer, Amccann421, KasparBot, Symmetricbomb, Cszek, Vast Ego Humility, MusikBot, TGIFFTW!, Cisjazcorn, Emilym15, Mscottdunder, You better look out below!, RaymondLull, Widetoad, Thepatriarch523, Ecolleary, Tevlev3 and Anonymous: 1368 • Thelema Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thelema?oldid=724020458 Contributors: Jimbo Wales, Dan~enwiki, The Anome, Fubar Obfusco, DW, Olivier, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Gabbe, Jizzbug, IZAK, Raven in Orbit, Charles Matthews, Savantpol, Fibonacci, Naddy, Rursus, Xanzzibar, Nagelfar, Gtrmp, Luis Dantas, Geeoharee, Eequor, Bacchiad, SarekOfVulcan, Elembis, Jossi, Rlquall, Ashami, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Wclark, Auto movil, WegianWarrior, Bender235, Sunborn, El C, Shanes, Jpgordon, Robotje, AugustinMa, Cmdrjameson, Savvo, Solar, M0rph, Hanuman Das, Zeborah, Vicxanulo, Arthur Warrington Thomas, Zosodada, Harvestdancer, Richwales, Rodii, Mel Etitis, Sburke, Ruud Koot, Mpatel, SeventyThree, Mutante23, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, ElKevbo, Psionicpigeon, FlaBot, Somecallmetim, CDThieme, Gurch, Quuxplusone, The Dogandpony, Malhonen, Gdrbot, Antiuser, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Ste1n, 999~enwiki, Pigman, Lusanaherandraton, Johndarrington, Brandon, Morgan Leigh, Asarelah, Thane Eichenauer, J S Ayer, Lendu, BorgQueen, Urocyon, LeonardoRob0t, Narkstraws, Jackturner3, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, Allixpeeke, Groon, Alosel, Kintetsubuffalo, Buck O'Nollege, Vassyana, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Spacelord~enwiki, Betacommand, Anastasios~enwiki, Ciacchi, Blindogenius, The Moose, Colonies Chris, Jwillbur, Lesnail, King Vegita, Feazey, Jwy, PuckSmith, Techpriest~enwiki, Pharaoh480, Giancarlo Rossi, Wikipedical, Ohconfucius, AdultSwim, Midnightblueowl, Sethian, Hectorian, Debeo Morium, CapitalR, OlivierMehani, J Milburn, Renophaston, Smiloid, Neelix, Nealdodge, Kosunen, Synergy, Frater5, Biblbroks, Arcayne, Second Quantization, Sunspot, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Frater Xyzzy, Mukake, Deflective, Sophie means wisdom, Premarun, Magioladitis, Captainbarrett, VoABot II, Aristilus, Zostrianos, MartinBot, Thiebes, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Adavidb, Tikiwont, Ginsengbomb, RoboMaxCyberSem, Jorfer, AlanBarnet, Stigler, Redblossom, Squids and Chips, VolkovBot, Derekbd, Chaos5023, Tunnels of Set, Saddy Dumpington, A4bot, IPSOS, 0nlyth3truth, Khabs, Don4of4, Geometry guy, Harpakhrad11, Rumiton, GlassFET, Cnilep, Laval, Epavlica, Motuleños, Alabaster Crow, Mungo Kitsch, Vchappell, Aruton, OKBot, Dogbeast, Susan118, Heru418, J. Ash Bowie, Mr. Granger, Phyte, Fl1942, The Thing That Should Not Be, Meisterkoch, Stealthepiscopalian, Zderjoos, Parkwells, Alexbot, Tagros, Arjayay, Muro Bot, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, Rui Gabriel Correia, JDPhD, Rossen4, Frater-sphinx, Akonyte, XLinkBot, Revealer93, Valtyr, SilvonenBot, Starchamber007, Will in China, Addbot, Grayfell, Otisjimmy1, Atethnekos, PatrickFlaherty, Ccacsmss, Tassedethe, Madagascar periwinkle, Lightbot, Anoikswtostomamou, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Tausciam, Paraconsistent, Flagsofscarlet, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Ulric1313, RevelationDirect, ArthurBot, J04n, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Skyerise, BrPangloss, Charles charlie, HelenOnline, Lotje, Kitfoxxe, WikiTome, Pravinhota, Onel5969, WildBot, Orphan Wiki, Wondering Wiccan, Babalon156, Theseus1776, ZéroBot, Hydao, RaptureBot, Larryyr, Frater Liberabit, Mitchelljohn93, North Atlanticist Usonian, Inmotionnow, Juror Branch, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, Futuri, Smcg8374, AvocatoBot, LimesThermae, Kinpacal, CitationCleanerBot, H. 217.83, Pythagoras418, ChrisGualtieri, Jebediah M, Tahc, Everything Is Numbers, JerryT718, Hermes Dawn, MaybeMaybeMaybe, Dara Allarah, Ruby Murray, Milicevic01, Eric Corbett, MasterofPlay7, Perdurabo777, Sphinx418, Paradox509, MRD2014, Dverba09, Knife-in-the-drawer and Anonymous: 360 • Hermetic Qabalah Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_Qabalah?oldid=721077661 Contributors: DocWatson42, Varlaam, Sihan, Viriditas, Pigman, Wiki alf, Morgan Leigh, Sethie, SmackBot, Chris the speller, King Vegita, Fuzzypeg, Quaeler, CmdrObot, Smiloid, AndrewHowse, Doug Weller, Msnicki, Alaibot, Surturz, Klasovsky, Kariteh, Americash, CommonsDelinker, Adavidb, Crakkpot, IPSOS, Ontoraul, Achillu, Chillywillycd, Revent, Artfullheart, Ndenison, Lmateo002, TheOldJacobite, Memerym, Alexbot, SchreiberBike, Editor2020, XLinkBot, April8, Ghyslaine ROC, Addbot, Bootboy41, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Eduen, AnomieBOT, QaBobAllah, J04n, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Aleister Wilson, Skyerise, Lindalina, Charles charlie, Tbhotch, Alan1411, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Midas02, Jeraphine Gryphon, Whitjr, H. 217.83, Binarycodefixerguy, Jayaguru-Shishya, WordSeventeen and Anonymous: 44 • Israel Regardie Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Regardie?oldid=728118879 Contributors: Gabbe, Paul A, Ronz, Sabbut, Gary D, Kevin Rector, D6, Kwamikagami, Hanuman Das, Docboat, TShilo12, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Sburke, Wikibofh, Geoduck, FlaBot, YurikBot, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Hiyya54, MSJapan, Bayyoc, Carabinieri, SmackBot, CRKingston, Frasor, Silverhand, Hmains, Homestarmy, King Vegita, Macula Lutea, PuckSmith, Fuzzypeg, Infinity8, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mathiasrex, The Man in Question, Meco, Midnightblueowl, Nkife, Danaeverard, TwoHorned, Panpiper, Renophaston, Cydebot, Frater5, Boboroshi, Julia Rossi, Abraham chan, Bencherlite, ***Ria777, Oshwah, IPSOS, John Carter, GlassFET, Laval, Hogd120, Lisatwo, Verfalschungen, Johnny savage, ClueBot, Stealthepiscopalian, Basil45, Will in China, Addbot, Lightbot, Contributor777, Yobot, QaBobAllah, PIL1987, ArthurBot, NoVomit, Omnipaedista, D'ohBot, Rodneyorpheus, Aleister Wilson, Sarandioti, Trappist the monk, RjwilmsiBot, Matej175, Cosmillogica, Jeraphine Gryphon, VIAFbot, Frater AA, Tigercompanion25, Tombreaper, Cybersister27, KasparBot and Anonymous: 46 • Eliphas Levi Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliphas_Levi?oldid=727615163 Contributors: William Avery, David spector, Gabbe, AlexR, Ihcoyc, Optim, AnonMoos, Wetman, Dimadick, Mirv, Diderot, Nagelfar, Jossi, Gary D, MakeRocketGoNow, Ma'ame Michu, Bender235, Dennis Brown, House of Shin, Dominic, Adrian.benko, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Tdevries, Zwobot, Morgan Leigh, Kramden, SmackBot, Lightbringer (usurped - blocked), Bpfurtado, Alex earlier account, Bluebot, Sadads, Skoglund, Chlewbot, Fuzzypeg, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Gobonobo, Midnightblueowl, MTSbot~enwiki, Catherineyronwode, Danielsteinbock, Papouche, Smiloid, Jmgamble, Cydebot, Synergy, Frater5, Bookworm857158367, JAnDbot, Matthew Fennell, Arch dude, New Babylon, Sanjin Vukojevic, Xn4, Waacstats, Mygotta, Keith D, Ian.thomson, IleanaCosanziana, Tsuzuki26, Idioma-bot, Kyle the bot, WOSlinker, Rei-bot, Broadbot, Inductiveload, AlleborgoBot, Stevejacobson, Trigaranus, Monegasque, ClueBot, PipepBot, Podzemnik, Wutsje, Iriath Zhul, Silvanus42, Europe22, Misa666, Lucyintheskywithdada, Wednesday Next, Addbot, LatitudeBot, Leszek Jańczuk, Inbar Arie, Chzz, Lightbot, Yobot, Mmxx, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Amadeus webern, Citation bot, RevelationDirect, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jan olieslagers, Anonymous from the 21st century, Omnipaedista, Green Cardamom, Rodneyorpheus, Morbid Fairy, Go7776-2500, RedBot, MastiBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Lung salad, EmausBot, Jonpatterns, Manytexts, Capsicum Sulfide, BG19bot, Justincheng12345-bot, Mogism, Cerabot~enwiki, VIAFbot, LahmacunKebab, MichaelRay3221, Vladis13, Jayaguru-Shishya, Hosogami, OccultZone, Karelian P., Fluxfnord, SatanistSin, KasparBot, Bostinnova, Jjs hd and Anonymous: 70 • Ceremonial magic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial_magic?oldid=731191745 Contributors: The Anome, JohnOwens, Goatasaur, Charles Matthews, Bacchiad, Peccavimus, Dbachmann, Kwamikagami, Ray Dassen, Denial, Woohookitty, Nihiltres, 999~enwiki, Pigman, Robertvan1, Justin Eiler, Extreme Unction, SmackBot, Sticky Parkin, Gjs238, Gilliam, Carl.bunderson, Bluebot, Tsca.bot, King Vegita, Hoof Hearted, Fuzzypeg, Midnightblueowl, SimuEva, CmdrObot, AndrewHowse, Synergy, Frater5, Deflective, Rich257, Syberpuppy, S (usurped also), Aestheteka, BackMaun, IPSOS, Secrowl, Archallem, Doug, MRaphael68, NinjaRobotPirate, Cameron272, Lucyintheskywithdada, XLinkBot, Addbot, MrOllie, Tyler8779, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Kpalkovi, Xqbot, J04n,
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
301
Chronus, Machine Elf 1735, Aleister Wilson, Pinethicket, Skyerise, RedBot, Baal-Hiram, Mk5384, ZéroBot, Michael Essmeyer, TYelliot, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Z03PR0N, Jeraphine Gryphon, Smcg8374, Forestfrolic, Klilidiplomus, Eric Corbett, Tombreaper, Crystallizedcarbon and Anonymous: 40 • Theosophy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy?oldid=728738122 Contributors: Mav, Wesley, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, F. Lee Horn, Eclecticology, SJK, Shii, Heron, Leandrod, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64, ArnoLagrange, Pweemeeuw, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Ceekaye, Kh7, Evercat, Ghewgill, Ehn, Daniel Quinlan, Peregrine981, Hyacinth, Topbanana, KazimirMajorinc, Robbot, Goethean, Sam Spade, Ashley Y, Wjhonson, Rursus, Blainster, Sunray, Hadal, Modeha, Luis Dantas, Leflyman, Bradeos Graphon, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Eequor, Isidore, Popefauvexxiii, Antandrus, Beland, Jossi, Ot, Hasbeen101, Tothebarricades.tk, Sam Hocevar, Kelson, Gary D, Neutrality, Mschlindwein, Lpangelrob, The stuart, Jiy, Brianhe, Cacycle, Dbachmann, Bender235, Sunborn, El C, Omoo, Randwolf, Cmdrjameson, Kjkolb, Lauri-San, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Lysdexia, Wiki-uk, Loa, AzaToth, DreamGuy, Polyphilo, P Ingerson, Knightt, Tainter, LukeSurl, Mcsee, Jpfulton, GregorB, Rchamberlain, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Liface, Tydaj, Kbdank71, Search4Lancer, Rjwilmsi, Juggertrout, Parababelico, FlaBot, Nihiltres, CarolGray, Ewlyahoocom, Frjwoolley, YurikBot, Pigman, Lucinos~enwiki, Shell Kinney, Theelf29, Badagnani, Lexicon, MSJapan, Ormanbotanigi, BOT-Superzerocool, Sauseek, Bota47, Pelister, Maunus, JdwNYC, JQF, Piecraft, Sethie, AndrewWTaylor, A bit iffy, SmackBot, PiCo, Danielhcaldwell, Jagged 85, Scifiintel, Rojomoke, Frymaster, Hbackman, Vassyana, Bardias, Mallarme, Mladifilozof, Proofreader, Misoshiru, Nima Baghaei, Blueboar, Havik~enwiki, Kingdon, Nakon, Clean Copy, Revdrcr, AndyBQ, Leon..., Ceoil, Spiritia, Aldaniel, Wtwilson3, Stelio, A. Parrot, Erwin, CharlesMartel, Midnightblueowl, Vindheim, Violncello, Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Pathosbot, Gco, CmdrObot, Iced Kola, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Derekacameron, Treepour, Julian Mendez, Frater5, Michael C Price, Algabal, Epbr123, Ning-ning, Qwyrxian, Typing monkey, Keraunos, Esowteric, Itsmejudith, Second Quantization, Floridasand, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, RoMo37, Courtjester555, Modernist, Wahabijaz, Baumannp, Husond, Ekabhishek, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Robina Fox, TAnthony, WolfmanSF, VoABot II, Yandman, TL789, Mr.troughton, Cardamon, Mrmayfield, Lyonscc, Elliotb2, GuelphGryphon98, Wayne Miller, Bartl, Shehanw, Johnpacklambert, Ash, Fred.e, Ali, Nived 90, M. Buenviaje, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Libroman, Arion 3x3, AdamBMorgan, M-le-mot-dit, Knulclunk, Jorfer, Student7, BrettAllen, KeithHebden, Borat fan, Deor, RashmiPatel, Johnfos, TallNapoleon, Xeropoint, AlnoktaBOT, Senzar, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, GcSwRhIc, Missmae, Domitius, Rumiton, Plazak, P1h3r1e3d13, Ph03n1xs74r, Parsifal, Lamro, Gillyweed, Synthebot, Thanatos666, Bellowed, Sardaka, Palaeovia, AlleborgoBot, Munci, Hrafn, Tiddly Tom, Anglicanus, Strife911, Mimihitam, Anchor Link Bot, Linda, JL-Bot, Dick Emery, Vcashk, Jrphaller, Martarius, Gratedparmesan, Binksternet, BoBoMisiu, Unbuttered Parsnip, Orsoblonde, Mild Bill Hiccup, MrKIA11, 718 Bot, Accampb, PixelBot, Steve2711, SchreiberBike, Samowen89, Alexander Tendler, Editor2020, Erwindia, XLinkBot, April8, Terrance321, Juan234, Tmyoung, Shoemaker's Holiday, Mspickiness, Addbot, Devananda.vdv, Reidlophile, Download, AndersBot, Favonian, Abiyoyo, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pink!Teen, Ezequiels.90, EnochBethany, Rh7691, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, DynamoDegsy, Xqbot, Valheed, JFY, DustFormsWords, Makeswell, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Gerald Roark, RibotBOT, WikiBlues, Factuarius, FrescoBot, Flygongengar, Nino.shoshia, Markeilz, Rodneyorpheus, Citation bot 1, Gdje je nestala duša svijeta, I dream of horses, Buddhaamaatya, Jonesey95, A412, Ency456, Skyerise, Fentlehan, Khidr7, Peace and Passion, Trappist the monk, Pollinosisss, Jonkerz, Stravon, Lvx1313, Dandelionslayer, Kitfoxxe, EmausBot, Sikander.alis, Oneiroy, Rodurp, Nikolaidonskoj, ZéroBot, Marthavi, Xabier Armendaritz, Sgerbic, Thatfield977, Ebrambot, SporkBot, Doug Shaver, Roddy76, Bill william compton, AndyTheGrump, MacStep, ClueBot NG, CactusBot, DonaldRichardSands, Doh5678, Snotbot, Norlns22, JonCameron310, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wmeegan, Curb Chain, SERGEJ2011, Exactness, Graham11, Azuizo, Josephross, Supotmails, Allecher, Joshua Jonathan, MrBill3, H. 217.83, GreenUniverse, LuminalSage, JFergus, JEMead, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Qexigator, Factseducado, Desmondous, Bobthegreat157, Sowlos, GeoffHoeber, TinaCFLE, Neoconfederate, Archeofructus, Rustynail127, Ingmardb, Xenxax, Owensp22, Jyddcc, TerryAlex, Givg4665, Mannerheimcross, JudeccaXIII, Shreeharioffice, Stefsera, Trinity9538, Rxet, Jerodlycett, TheCorduroyEffect, KasparBot, Wugapodes, De la Marck, BD2412bot, Gewe01, Alirgout, Permstrump and Anonymous: 323 • Spiritualism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritualism?oldid=730504193 Contributors: Leandrod, Ahoerstemeier, Kingturtle, Александър, Kh7, Jacquerie27, Dino, Piolinfax, Cleduc, Nv8200pa, Martinphi, Robbot, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Wjhonson, UtherSRG, Lupo, Alan Liefting, Andries, Luis Dantas, Wighson, Kadzuwo~enwiki, Bluejay Young, Beland, Zerbey, Rlquall, DanielDemaret, Gary D, GdB, Eep², Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Freestylefrappe, Dbachmann, Bender235, Fee mercury moon, El C, Kross, Bobo192, Enric Naval, WikiLeon, Pearle, Espoo, TracyRenee, Logologist, DreamGuy, Polyphilo, Wtmitchell, Tony Sidaway, Sfacets, Zosodada, Raygirvan, Agingjb, Bobrayner, Guy M, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Grika, Damicatz, Asifshiraz, Wayward, GSlicer, Cuchullain, BD2412, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, SeanMack, Krash, FlaBot, Daderot, Moroboshi, DivineLight, David H Braun (1964), Kazuba, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, 999~enwiki, RussBot, Pigman, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, Artful Dodger, NawlinWiki, Nirvana2013, The Ogre, Ospalh, Gadget850, Sauseek, AdelaMae, Jkelly, Ninly, RDF, Clocke, Danharms, Nealparr, SmackBot, McGeddon, Brossow, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, JAn Dudík, Wookipedian, Chris the speller, Blindogenius, CSWarren, Clydeman, Arges, Homestarmy, Anthon.Eff, Dreadstar, RandomP, BullRangifer, J.smith, Leon..., Ollj, Nrgdocadams, Rklawton, Steve3311848, Capmo, Mr Stephen, Dcflyer, Midnightblueowl, Northmeister, Tony Papard, JoeBot, Catherineyronwode, Shoshonna, Keeton69, Charvex, Keeton193, Gregbard, Owen2510, Ntsimp, InterFarFacing, Tkynerd, Jasonschnarr, Arb, Mamalujo, Pacific PanDeist, Marek69, Astynax, Apierrot~enwiki, Shabicht, Sreejithk2000, Gökhan, JAnDbot, Kaobear, Scarlett Lily, Desertsky85451, Simon Burchell, Magioladitis, Celithemis, TimMagic, Lilac Soul, Jacksp, EmmaRen, 5Q5, Geogerus, Royalhistorian, Thatotherperson, Chiswick Chap, Alexb102072, Belovedfreak, Touch Of Light, Jorfer, Tom Butler, Bonadea, Thismightbezach, Sam Blacketer, Johnfos, Davidwr, Jean-Louis Lascoux, DarkShroom, DoorsAjar, Jdcrutch, Aymatth2, Steven J. Anderson, Londonconsideration, Artsunlimited, Justinfr, Tbrittreid, Steve3849, Rory737-800, Kizza g, Sylent, Sapphic, Sardaka, Creactivebeing, Bvrly, GirasoleDE, Nihil novi, Gerakibot, Yintan, Monashsc, Editore99, Godfinger, GaryColemanFan, Fratrep, Precious Roy, Denisarona, Randy Kryn, Johnhuk, Dwish, Parkwells, Les woodland, Ktr101, Oxnard28, Spacopt, Audaciter, Vegetator, Dralansun, Johnuniq, Editor2020, Lucyintheskywithdada, Bsconroy, Jbmweb1, Kwork2, Imunuri, Dthomsen8, Ost316, Eyrew, Longstudios, Buskahegian, Addbot, DOI bot, Theleftorium, Martindo, Hopefulhope, Thatsthespirit, SoxNdMoomins, Verbal, Lightbot, Dorsetpatriot, AHbot, Spiritualight, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Gongshow, KamikazeBot, Contributingfactor, AnomieBOT, Chazzmania, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Comicbook tattoo, Xqbot, Doozer33, Almabot, Dranster, Ableowned2, Noproblem60, LilyDaleResident, Cdw1952, Henry123ifa, Citation bot 1, Mosemamenti, Jonesey95, Skyerise, Full-date unlinking bot, RaphaelHeart, January, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, John of Reading, Gfoley4, SMGJohn, Richardwong62, JenniferLynnMorrow, AvicBot, Ttarmec, Michael Essmeyer, Wickedlyweird, Deas Plant, Brandmeister, Adrian-from-london, BaDyer, ClueBot NG, Liveintheforests, Primergrey, Hazhk, Widr, MerlIwBot, Ebotter, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mystikim, Voyal, Jeraphine Gryphon, MarkEdwardSanders, Cthulhu Rising, PhnomPencil, Cusop Dingle, Mark Arsten, KayC Love, Joshua Jonathan, Grovyle4life, CastleWolfenstein, Troll ov Grimness, Honestjon888, None but shining hours, Honestjon8888, Taddeush, Joolzzt, Klauss Zert, DILLIGAFFWYT, Aosgene, Sol1, Hansmuller, Firmgood, Thisient, Monkbot, Filedelinkerbot, Goblin Face, Ephemeratta, Alrich44, 14rayvonne16, Conspirasee1, Orduin, Foresteezy, JuliaHunter, Stavrogin30, Vivekrohi15, Jjs hd and Anonymous: 237 • Syncretism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncretism?oldid=729268422 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, Wesley, F. Lee Horn, Scipius, Phil Bordelon, David spector, DonDaMon, Sfdan, Rickyrab, Leandrod, PhilipMW, Michael
302
CHAPTER 27. SYNCRETISM
Hardy, Nixdorf, Liftarn, IZAK, Delirium, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Error, Rotem Dan, Andres, Harvester, JonMoore, Redhughs, Anakolouthon, Jstanley01, Pedant17, Maximus Rex, Thue, Topbanana, Wetman, Jerzy, Hajor, Robbot, Altenmann, Mirv, Ashley Y, Rursus, Diderot, Ntropie, Rasmus Faber, Sunray, Mrendo, Jonabbey, Aoi, LLarson, DO'Neil, Jorge Stolfi, Jds, Beland, Loremaster, GeoGreg, Gscshoyru, Gary D, Thorwald, Sysy, Beoran, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Florian Blaschke, Silence, Euthydemos, Ascánder, Dbachmann, Bender235, STGM, El C, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, RoyBoy, Lubap, Ajevic, Kjkolb, Hintha, Espoo, ADM, Ungtss, 119, Wiki-uk, CheeseDreams, Logologist, Bart133, Noosphere, Wtmitchell, Mrcolj, Jakes18, NicM, Bastin, Navidazizi, Angr, Joriki, Alvis, Woohookitty, Timo Laine, PaulHammond, PatGallacher, Jeff3000, TomMc~enwiki, Toussaint, Tydaj, Jdemarcos, RichardWeiss, Graham87, Bforte, BD2412, FreplySpang, Squideshi, Koavf, Jmcc150, Tawker, FlaBot, Da Stressor, Earendill~enwiki, Ben Babcock, Rekleov, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Speedfranklin, RussBot, No Account, Hede2000, Pigman, ChristianEdwardGruber, Leutha, BlackAndy, Humansdorpie, Benne, Romarin, TheMcManusBro, Avraham, Nuudlpop, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Jbenhill, Allens, Mr. Christian, Onodevo, SmackBot, MARussellPESE, Herostratus, DCGeist, AndrewTReynolds, Big Adamsky, WookieInHeat, Bradtcordeiro, Kintetsubuffalo, JFHJr, Psiphiorg, Colonies Chris, Aaron Solomon Adelman, Scix, Rrburke, Greenshed, Pigottsm, RolandR, Dreadstar, LoveMonkey, Gschadow, Nathans, Saippuakauppias, Byelf2007, SashatoBot, Nareek, Jghuman2, Ramayan, Azate, Hotblaster, Epiphyllumlover, Halaqah, RichardF, Skinsmoke, The Wrong Man, MikeWazowski, Iridescent, Skapur, Highspeed, Freelance Intellectual, Tawkerbot2, CRGreathouse, Ts252, Avanu, KyraVixen, Deadlygio, Terot, Hukkinen, El aprendelenguas, WeggeBot, Neelix, Gregbard, Cydebot, Mike2000~enwiki, A876, Cory Kohn, Languagehat, Frater5, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Avazina, Keraunos, The Proffesor, E. Ripley, Notmyrealname, Nick Number, Libertyernie2, Escarbot, Cladeal832, Cstreet, Fayenatic london, Mack2, Cherylyoung, Dfitzgerald, JAnDbot, Deflective, Arch dude, Albany NY, Dirdum, Sam Medany, Indon, Franktaveras, JaGa, PRMerkley, Kkrystian, B9 hummingbird hovering, GoldenMeadows, Anaxial, R'n'B, Jarhed, J.delanoy, Nived 90, Siryendor, Skier Dude, Themoodyblue, Evb-wiki, Andy Marchbanks, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Mbaudier, Rei-bot, Donatus, Llamabr, Hasta Nakshatra, Transitive Sam, ^demonBot2, P M Yonge, Synthebot, MCTales, Munci, Bym007, Kbrose, Botev, SieBot, Kwork, Adrianhaight, Sakkura, WRK, Davidbanuelos, Phalanxpursos, Strike Freedom Gundam, Robertcurrey, OKBot, JohnSawyer, Vice regent, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Angelo De La Paz, Vanhorn, Mr. Granger, ClueBot, Dwgatewood, Chris Bainbridge, Cpq29gpl, Parkwells, TypoBoy, Piledhigheranddeeper, SamuelTheGhost, CohesionBot, Star Mississippi, Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, Estirabot, Simon D M, Vegetator, 7, JoyUnspeakable, Versus22, Yozer1, Editor2020, RustDragon, XLinkBot, Quenstedt, Borock, The Rationalist, Iranway, Addbot, LaaknorBot, BepBot, Lihaas, Favonian, CuteHappyBrute, Konstantinos~enwiki, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Legobot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Legobot II, Dam59, Estudiarme, EnochBethany, Nallimbot, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Mann jess, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, DrGuled, Smk65536, Gilo1969, Tad Lincoln, Albert Non, Omnipaedista, Mattis, Patrick Faas, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Machine Elf 1735, Artifice242, Talcos, HelenOnline, Kitfoxxe, PleaseStand, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, Zujine, EmausBot, Laryaghat, PBS-AWB, Bilpen, SporkBot, Someone65, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Prioryman, Passignano, Widr, Cognate247, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, JohnChrysostom, MusikAnimal, Reviewer17, Compfreak7, Atomician, Joydeep, AnEyeSpy, HMman, JEMead, SlingPro, MeanMotherJr, Nicrorus, JBrown23, Nathanielfirst, Soni, FoCuSandLeArN, Hmainsbot1, RupJana, Belobogist, Foonarres, Rupert loup, Mark viking, Epicgenius, Chris96706, Yasashiku, Tinnb, ProtossPylon, Cherubinirules, Redplain, Heirspecks, SJ Defender, Nuren411, Zambelo, Kinetic37, Mdalspaugh, IslamicrevialistmMujahid, Meticulo, AsteriskStarSplat, BrandenburgG, Radicalpilgrim, 468SM, RuneMan3, Farhanhanz, Redzemp, Tibboy59, Sciovore and Anonymous: 291
27.8.2
Images
• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:4Q201.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/4Q201.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/scrolls/scr3.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Abraham_abulafia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Abraham_abulafia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Vatican Library, Vat. ebr. 597 leaf 113 recto. Original artist: Unknown artist; the author of the book is Abulafia. • File:Abraxas,_Nordisk_familjebok.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Abraxas%2C_Nordisk_ familjebok.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Akivakever.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Akivakever.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Almog • File:Alchemik_Sedziwoj_Matejko.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Alchemik_Sedziwoj_ Matejko.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: www.pinakoteka.zascianek.pl Original artist: Jan Matejko • File:Alchemy_of_Happiness.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Alchemy_of_Happiness.png License: Public domain Contributors: Bibliothèque nationale de France Original artist: Abū Hāmid al-Ghazzālī • File:Aleister_Crowley'{}s_May_Morn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/34/Aleister_Crowley%27s_May_ Morn.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Aleister_Crowley,_Golden_Dawn.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ec/Aleister_Crowley%2C_Golden_ Dawn.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Used in publicity material for The Rites of Eleusis in 1910 (see deletion discussion). Photograph originally uploaded to Commons by Commons user Dnaspark99 as Commons:File:Aleister Crowley, Golden Dawn.jpg, but now deleted. Original artist: Unknown • File:Aleister_Crowley,_Magus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a7/Aleister_Crowley%2C_Magus.png License: PD-US Contributors: Book 4, Part 2 (1912). See deletion discussion. Originally uploaded to Commons by Commons user Dnaspark99 as Commons:File:Aleister Crowley, Magus.png, but now deleted. Original artist: Unknown
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
303
• File:Aleister_Crowley_1902_K2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Aleister_Crowley_1902_K2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.letemps.ch/Page/Uuid/3e54419e-16f2-11e2-9647-3f362e417c28/En_1902_Jules_ Jacot_Guillarmod_pionnier_au_K2#.UIBKQBJ5MxC Original artist: Jules Jacot Guillarmod (24 December 1868 – 5 June 1925) • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Anahata_blue.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Anahata_blue.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mirzolot2 • File:AntoineCourtdeGebelin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/AntoineCourtdeGebelin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AntoineCourtdeGebelin.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Ark_of_the_Covenant_19th-century.png 19th-century.png License: PD-US Contributors: Personal scan Original artist: User:Reddi
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2b/Ark_of_the_Covenant_
• File:ArthurEdwardWaite~{}1880.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/ArthurEdwardWaite~{}1880. JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cafes.net/ditch/GDgallery.htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Arthur_Edward_Waite_London_Jan_13_1921.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Arthur_ Edward_Waite_London_Jan_13_1921.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: New York Public Library Archive Original artist: Coburn Collection • File:Astrologia-tynkä.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Astrologia-tynk%C3%A4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Astrologo_Fingido_Calderon_de_la_Barca_title_page_1641.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ e7/Astrologo_Fingido_Calderon_de_la_Barca_title_page_1641.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cervantesvirtual. com/obra/el-astrologo-fingido-$-$0/ Original artist: Pedro Calderon de la Barca • File:Astrologyproject.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Astrologyproject.svg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia Original artist: User Chris Brennan on en.wikipedia • File:Baphomet.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Baphomet.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Basmala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Basmala.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Creator: ( خالد حسنيprevious version Baba66) • File:Bdrates_of_Japan_since_1950.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Bdrates_of_Japan_since_ 1950.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was created with gnuplot. Original artist: Demmo • File:Besht_Shul2_Medzhibozh.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Besht_Shul2_Medzhibozh.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Klezmer~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Personal Photo by user Cro-maat @fr.Wikipedia; Cro-maat's authorization into GFDL: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Image:Bijou_fm_18eme.jpg Original artist: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Maksim. The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. • File:Broadsheet_equating_spiritualism_with_witchcraft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/ Broadsheet_equating_spiritualism_with_witchcraft.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Page_from_an_Astrological_Treatise.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/6e/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Page_from_an_Astrological_Treatise.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Online Collection of Brooklyn Museum; Photo: Brooklyn Museum, 71.120_IMLS_SL2.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-W1028-507,_Erlangen,_Freimaurer_bei_Zeremonie.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ CC wikipedia/commons/1/11/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-W1028-507%2C_Erlangen%2C_Freimaurer_bei_Zeremonie.jpg License: BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown • File:Caduceus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Caduceus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawing by Rama. Vectorized with Inkscape by Eliot Lash. Original artist: Rama and Eliot Lash
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• File:Centro_de_Estudios_Rosacruz_-_Zaragoza.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Centro_de_ Estudios_Rosacruz_-_Zaragoza.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pampuco • File:ChickenDivination.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/ChickenDivination.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.rollins.edu/Foreign_Lang/Russian/Lubok/hens.jpg Original artist: Anonymous folk artist • File:Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Cicero_-_Musei_Capitolini. JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Glauco92 • File:Circe_Offering_the_Cup_to_Odysseus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Circe_Offering_ the_Cup_to_Odysseus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Circe_Offering_the_Cup_to_Odysseus.jpg http://moontale. egloos.com/865206 Original artist: John William Waterhouse • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Conan_doyle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Conan_doyle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: PD image from http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/compsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/ Original artist: Arnold Genthe • File:CoraLVHatch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cd/CoraLVHatch.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Crowley_unicursal_hexagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Crowley_unicursal_hexagram. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Elembis • File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona • File:Draig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Draig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg Original artist: Liftarn • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Ein_sof.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/15/Ein_sof.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Eliphas_Levi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Eliphas_Levi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Waite, Arthur Edward. “The Secret Tradition in Freemasonry”, Rebman Publishing, London. 1911. Original artist: Book author is A.E. Waite • File:Emb_logo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Emb_logo.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://ts-adyar.org/emblem.html Original artist: Adyar • File:EndlessKnot03d.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/EndlessKnot03d.png License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:EndlessKnot03d.png , Created by en:User:Rickjpelleg in Paint Shop Pro 7 for the “Endless Knot”articles (to replace the simpler drawing EndlessKnot.png) Original artist: en:User:Rickjpelleg, first uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:13, 28 October 2005 • File:Esoteric_Taijitu.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Esoteric_Taijitu.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kenny Shen • File:Eusapia_Palladino_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Eusapia_Palladino_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pflyceum.org/193.html Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Fama.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2b/Fama.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Folio_13.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/Folio_13.png License: PD Contributors: Scan of original diagram, artist unknown, http://www.hermetic.com/gdlibrary/cipher/folio13.htm Original artist: ? • File:Forgetmenotflower.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Forgetmenotflower.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by iordanis_athanasiadis. Original artist: Calibas at English Wikipedia • File:Fotothek_df_tg_0006103_Theosophie_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Alchemie_\__xunadd_text_ character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Judentum_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Kabbala.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Fotothek_df_tg_0006103_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_ Kabbala.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Deutsche Fotothek Original artist: ? • File:Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Alchemie_\__xunadd_text_ character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Judentum_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textasciicircum}{^}{}_Kabbala.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Fotothek_df_tg_0006104_Theosophie_%5E_Alchemie_%5E_Judentum_%5E_ Kabbala.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Deutsche Fotothek Original artist: ? • File:Fox_sisters.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Fox_sisters.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Francois_Rabelais_-_Portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Francois_Rabelais_-_Portrait. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.banqueimages.crcv.fr/fullscreenimage.aspx?rank=1&numero=MV4046 Original artist: Anonymous
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• File:Freemasons'{}_Hall,_London.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Freemasons%27_Hall%2C_ London.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Eluveitie • File:Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Freimaurer_Initiation.jpg Original artist: User:Liberal Freemason • File:Gema_o_Piedra_Abraxas_de_la_obra_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}The_Gnostics_and_their_ remains\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}_de_Charles_W._King,_1887.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/33/Gema_o_Piedra_Abraxas_de_la_obra_%22The_Gnostics_and_their_remains%22_de_Charles_W._King% 2C_1887.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Gnostics and their remains en Open Library Original artist: Charles W. King • File:Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gerald_Massey_1856.jpg Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/ Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work. Based on File:Gnome-mime-audio-openclipart. svg, which is public domain. Original artist: User:Eubulides • File:Goose_and_Gridiron.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Goose_and_Gridiron.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Grady_Louis_McMurtry_1941.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Grady_Louis_McMurtry_ 1941.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cornelius93.com/Grady-IdentificationCards-WWII.html Original artist: United States Department of War • File:Headstone_of_Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto_in_Tiberias.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/ Headstone_of_Moshe_Chaim_Luzzatto_in_Tiberias.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jonat • File:Helen_Duncan_fake_ectoplasm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Helen_Duncan_fake_ ectoplasm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Harry Price. Leaves from a Psychist's Case-Book (Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1933) Original artist: Harvey Metcalfe • File:Helm_of_Awe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Helm_of_Awe.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ch1902 • File:HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/HermesTrismegistusCauc.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: user:Tomisti • File:Hildegard_von_Bingen_Liber_Divinorum_Operum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ Hildegard_von_Bingen_Liber_Divinorum_Operum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Creator:Hildegard von Bingen • File:Hogarth_Dashwood.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Hogarth_Dashwood.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: William Hogarth • File:Holst-_mars.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Holst-_mars.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: • Composition: Gustav Holst • File:Holst-_uranus.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Holst-_uranus.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: Gustav Holst • File:Holst-_venus.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Holst-_venus.ogg License: Contributors: http://www.heritageofamericaband.af.mil/recordings/frontiers.asp Original artist: Gustav Holst
Public domain
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Original artist: Unspecified • File:Hypnotisk_seans_av_Richard_Bergh_1887.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Hypnotisk_ seans_av_Richard_Bergh_1887.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, photo by Szilas in the Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Original artist: Richard Bergh
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• File:Hécate_-_Mallarmé.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/H%C3%A9cate_-_Mallarm%C3%A9. png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Bartolomé Esteban Murillo • File:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence Original artist: (uploaded by user Halfdan) • File:Jean_Dodal_Tarot_trump_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Jean_Dodal_Tarot_trump_01. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Josep_Benlliure_Gil43.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Josep_Benlliure_Gil43.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.pjvofm.org/75imag/02/1/43.php Original artist: José Benlliure y Gil • File:Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Joseph_Wright_ of_Derby_The_Alchemist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0706/fig3.jpg Original artist: Joseph Wright of Derby • File:Joueurs_de_tarot.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Joueurs_de_tarot.JPG License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Havang(nl) • File:Ju-ju_house.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Ju-ju_house.png License: Public domain Contributors: Illustrated London News Original artist: Mr. Harries • File:Juju_charm_protecting_dugout_canoe_on_riverbank,_1954.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 2/25/Juju_charm_protecting_dugout_canoe_on_riverbank%2C_1954.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was John Hill at English Wikipedia • File:Kanchenjunga_India.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Kanchenjunga_India.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Kangchenjunga, Indian Himalaya Original artist: Aaron Ostrovsky • File:Kaphtziel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Kaphtziel.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: from a medieval Jewish magic text. 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Original artist: Athanasius Kircher • File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200009J.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Knesset_Menorah_ P5200009J.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Deror avi • File:Knesset_Menorah_Spain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Knesset_Menorah_Spain.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from Knesset Menorah P5200011.JPG: <a href='//commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG' class='image'><img alt='Knesset Menorah P5200011.JPG' src='https: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG/50px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG' width='50' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG/ 75px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Knesset_Menorah_ P5200011.JPG/100px-Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG 2x' data-file-width='1712' data-file-height='2288' /></a> Original artist: Knesset_Menorah_P5200011.JPG: Deror avi • File:Lekah_Dodi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Lekah_Dodi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jewish Encyclopedia Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata: Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo. svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/ 40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Leo_Tolstoy_The_Voice_of_the_Silence.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Leo_Tolstoy_The_ Voice_of_the_Silence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Дом-Музей Л. 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• File:Magician_visconti.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Magician_visconti.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://trionfi.com/0/i/c/01/ Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/ Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Manicheans.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Manicheans.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Maksim. The original description page was here. All following user names refer to en.wikipedia. Original artist: unknown artist • File:Marcantonio_Raimondi_-_Two_Women_with_the_Signs_of_Libra_and_Scorpio.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Marcantonio_Raimondi_-_Two_Women_with_the_Signs_of_Libra_and_Scorpio.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Saint Louis Art Museum official site Original artist: Marcantonio Raimondi • File:Meister_von_San_Vitale_in_Ravenna_004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Meister_von_ San_Vitale_in_Ravenna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna • File:Menora.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Menora.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedysty:Marcin_n' class='extiw' title='pl:Wikipedysty:Marcin n'>Marcin n* ®</a> <a href='//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyskusja_Wikipedysty:Marcin_n' class='extiw' title='pl:Dyskusja Wikipedysty: Marcin n'> </a> • File:Mevlana_Konya.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Mevlana_Konya.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Mevlanax.jpg Original artist: User:Intension • File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_038_-_Freemasons'{}_Hall_(tone).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/8c/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_038_-_Freemasons%27_Hall_%28tone%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:Microcosm of London Plate 038 - Freemasons' Hall.jpg Original artist: Thomas Rowlandson (1756–1827) and Augustus Charles Pugin (1762–1832) (after) John Bluck (fl. 1791–1819), Joseph Constantine Stadler (fl. 1780–1812), Thomas Sutherland (1785–1838), J. Hill, and Harraden (aquatint engravers)[1] • File:Miniature_of_Guru_Nanak_from_Astronomical_treatise.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/ Miniature_of_Guru_Nanak_from_Astronomical_treatise.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ onlineex/apac/other/033ori000005259u00009000.html Original artist: Durgashankar Pathak • File:Moai_Easter_Island_InvMH-35-61-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Moai_ Easter_Island_InvMH-35-61-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jastrow (2006) Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Mosque02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Mosque02.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. DarkPhoenix assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Muenster-100725-15996-Überwasserkirche-Schlüssel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/ Muenster-100725-15996-%C3%9Cberwasserkirche-Schl%C3%BCssel.jpg License: GFDL 1.2 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mbdortmund • File:NAMA_Mystères_d'Eleusis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/NAMA_Myst%C3%A8res_d% 27Eleusis.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Marsyas assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Nahmanides_painting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nahmanides_painting.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Cropped from File:Rabbi Moses ben Nachman (Nahmanides) - Wall painting in Acre, Israel.jpg Original artist: Chesdovi • File:Nicolas_Conver_Tarot_trump_07.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ee/Nicolas_Conver_Tarot_trump_07. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Nuvola_kdict_glass.svg License: LGPL Contributors: • Nuvola_apps_kdict.svg Original artist: Nuvola_apps_kdict.svg: *Nuvola_apps_kdict.png: user:David_Vignoni • File:Om.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Om.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, but using one of characters in the Wingdings font Original artist: Kashmiri • File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Open_Access_logo_ PLoS_transparent.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://www.plos.org/ Original artist: art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, and JakobVoss • File:P._26_'The_Zodiac_Man'_a_diagram_of_a_human_body_and_astrological_symbols_with_instructions_explaining_the_ importance_of_astrology_from_a_medical_perspective.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/P._26_ %27The_Zodiac_Man%27_a_diagram_of_a_human_body_and_astrological_symbols_with_instructions_explaining_the_importance_ of_astrology_from_a_medical_perspective.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: National Library of Wales Original artist: Gutun Owain • File:P_religion_world.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/P_religion_world.svg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Palazzo_Roffia,_galleria_00.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Palazzo_Roffia%2C_galleria_ 00.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
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• File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Alighieri, Dante; Cary, Henry Francis (ed) (1892) "Canto XXXI" in The Divine Comedy by Dante, Illustrated, Complete, London, Paris & Melbourne: Cassell & Company Retrieved on 13 July 2009. Original artist: Gustave Doré • File:Pentacle_2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Pentacle_2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Nyo~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Pentagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Pentagram.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ineligible Original artist: ineligible • File:Pentagram_(Levi).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Pentagram_%28Levi%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Levi, Eliphas (1855) Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie. Original artist: Eliphas Levi • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_166.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Peter_Paul_Rubens_166.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: collectie.boijmans.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Peter Paul Rubens • File:PikiWiki_Israel_11324_The_city_wore_white.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/PikiWiki_ Israel_11324_The_city_wore_white.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: lehava zfat via the PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Original artist: דוד ברמן • File:Portae_Lucis,_Joseph_Gikatilla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Portae_Lucis%2C_Joseph_ Gikatilla.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photo of Exhibit at the Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv - en:Beit Hatefutsot Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https:// upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Prosphil.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Prosphil.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Quadritpartitum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Quadritpartitum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Title page of Quadripartitum Original artist: Claudius Ptolemy • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/de/RWS_Tarot_01_Magician.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: a 1909 card scanned by Holly Voley (http://home.comcast.net/~{}vilex/) for the public domain, and retrieved from http://www.sacred-texts. com/tarot (see note on that page regarding source of images). Original artist: Copyright holder was Arthur Edward Waite. Pamela Coleman Smith was just doing an artist's 'work for hire.' She was paid for her work and was not the copyright holder. • File:Raimundus_Lullus_alchemic_page.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Raimundus_Lullus_ alchemic_page.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Book scan Original artist: Ramon Llull, 1232?−1316 • File:Rakia-Letters.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Rakia-letters.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Rakia, photographed by Orrling at the artist's Bezalel Street studio • File:Randolph-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ad/Randolph-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: scaled from image at http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Original artist: ? • File:Rhumsiki_crab_sorceror.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Rhumsiki_crab_sorceror.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Robert_Fludd'{}s_An_Astrologer_Casting_a_Horoscope_1617.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b5/Robert_Fludd%27s_An_Astrologer_Casting_a_Horoscope_1617.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bridgemanart.com/asset/202566/German-School-17th-century-after/An-Astrologer-casting-a-Horoscope-copy-of-an-illu? search_context=\protect\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbraceleft}{{}%22url%22%3A%22\__xunadd_text_character: nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2Fsearch\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2Fartist\__xunadd_text_character: nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2FGerman-School-17th-century-after\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textbackslash}{\}{}%2F16801% 22%2C%22num_results%22%3A19%2C%22search_type%22%3A%22creator_assets%22%2C%22creator_id%22%3A%2216801% 22%2C%22item_index%22%3A16} Original artist: Robert Fludd • File:Room_at_Masonic_Hall_Bury_St_Edmunds_Suffolk_England.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 4/4c/Room_at_Masonic_Hall_Bury_St_Edmunds_Suffolk_England.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bury St Edmunds Past and Present Society [1] Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata: Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo. svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050' data-file-height='590' /></a> • File:Rose_Cross_Lamen.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Rose_Cross_Lamen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by Fuzzypeg using Inkscape Original artist: Fuzzypeg
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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• File:SafedDSCN4077.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/SafedDSCN4077.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yoav Dothan • File:Saint_Irenaeus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Saint_Irenaeus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Samuel_Liddell_MacGregor_Mathers_in_Egyptian_getup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/ Samuel_Liddell_MacGregor_Mathers_in_Egyptian_getup.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Telrúnya. Original artist: The original uploader was Ihcoyc at English Wikipedia • File:Schafkopf_Tarock_bayerisches_Bild.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Schafkopf_Tarock_ bayerisches_Bild.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sönke Kraft aka Arnulf zu Linden • File:Sefiroticky_strom.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Sefiroticky_strom.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Thomazzo Original artist: Thomazzo • File:Seven_spiritualists_1906.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Seven_spiritualists_1906.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Shefa_Tal.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Shefa_Tal.png License: Public domain Contributors: Original uploaded on en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploaded by Zappaz (Transfered by Ineuw) • File:Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_Jilani..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Shrine_of_Abdul_Qadir_ Jilani..jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: VrMUSLIM • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Spirit_rappings_coverpage_to_sheet_music_1853.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Spirit_ rappings_coverpage_to_sheet_music_1853.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: American Memory Original artist: Rossington, W. W. and Garrett, J. Ellwood • File:Square_compasses.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: MesserWoland • File:Star_of_David.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Star_of_David.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Stelae_of_Ankh-af-na-khonsu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Stelae_of_ Ankh-af-na-khonsu.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Taj_Mahal_pr.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pedro Roque Hidalgo • File:Talis02.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Talis02.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Tarot_Piedmont_0.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Tarot_Piedmont_0.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: self-scannerized and then self-modified Original artist: Gian• File:Templeofrosycross.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Templeofrosycross.png License: Public domain Contributors: T. Schweighart, Speculum sophicum Rhodostauroticum (1604) Original artist: T. Schweighart • File:Templo_masónico_histórico,_Santa_Cruz_de_Tenerife,_España,_2012-12-15,_DD_03.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Templo_mas%C3%B3nico_hist%C3%B3rico%2C_Santa_Cruz_de_Tenerife%2C_Espa%C3%B1a%2C_ 2012-12-15%2C_DD_03.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Diego Delso • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_ with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/The_ Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Chemical Heritage Foundation, Photograph by Will Brown. Original artist: Johann Kerseboom • File:The_grave_of_Rabbi_Shimon_bar_Yochai2_(before_1899).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/ 5a/The_grave_of_Rabbi_Shimon_bar_Yochai2_%28before_1899%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Old book, see the description Original artist: See the description • File:Thelema_Abbey_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Thelema_Abbey_2.jpg License: CC BYSA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.inventati.org/amprodias/thelema/photo.htm Original artist: Frater Kybernetes • File:Theosophicalseal.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Theosophicalseal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on various published documents since 1875 Original artist: Frater5 (probable main designer of original emblem, Madame Blavatsky, died 1891) • File:Tikun_l_s.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Tikun_l_s.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: יעל י • File:Traditional_welcome_performance,_Mitral,_Kheda_district,_Gujarat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/7/73/Traditional_welcome_performance%2C_Mitral%2C_Kheda_district%2C_Gujarat.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Yann Forget • File:Translation_of_Albumasar_Venice_1515_De_Magnis_Coniunctionibus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/5/5c/Translation_of_Albumasar_Venice_1515_De_Magnis_Coniunctionibus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, Musee du Monde Arabe Original artist: Albumasar
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• File:Translation_to_english_arrow.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Translation_to_english_arrow. svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work, based on :Image:Translation_arrow.svg. Created in Adobe Illustrator CS3 Original artist: tkgd2007 • File:Tree_of_Life,_Medieval.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Tree_of_Life%2C_Medieval.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Tree_of_Life_2009_large.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Tree_of_Life_2009_large.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alan James Garner • File:Tree_of_life_bahir_Hebrew.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Tree_of_life_bahir_Hebrew.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector equivalent of File:Tree of life bahir hebrew.png based on File:Kabbalistic Tree of Life (Sephiroth).svg Original artist: User:AnonMoos • File:Tree_of_life_wk_02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Tree_of_life_wk_02.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: This is a derivative work of Morgan Leigh's "File:Tree of life wk 02.jpg" Original artist: Cronholm144 • File:Universum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Universum.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: La version en noir & blanc connue est dans Camille Flammarion (1842-1925).- L'atmosphère : météorologie populaire, Hachette, Paris, 1888, p. 163 Original artist: Heikenwaelder Hugo, Austria, Email : heikenwaelder@aon.at, www.heikenwaelder.at • File:Vajrapani_American_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/ Vajrapani_American_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Wrathful Deities Original artist: Terren • File:Venice_ast_sm.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Venice_ast_sm.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zachariel • File:Vilna_Gaon_authentic_portrait.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Vilna_Gaon_authentic_ portrait.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Yesodei Hatorah School corridor wall. Original artist: unknown, taken from a picture by Miriam Santahe(?), who was born before 1797. • File:Viscontisforzatarot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Viscontisforzatarot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Viscontisforzatarot.jpg Original artist: Bonifacio Bembo (original) • File:Warburginst.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Warburginst.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Stephen McKay • File:Washington_Masonic_print.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Washington_Masonic_print.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: eBay Original artist: Unknown artist • File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan. svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikidata-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Planemad • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) • File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally created by Smurrayinchester • File:Woman_in_the_Moon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Woman_in_the_Moon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/lylyadd.htm Original artist: John Lyly • File:Wouter_Hanegraaff_2006_Alchemy_Conference.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Wouter_ Hanegraaff_2006_Alchemy_Conference.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Chemical Heritage Foundation, Photograph by Douglas A. Lockard Original artist: Douglas A. Lockard • File:YeshivatBeitEl_entree.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/YeshivatBeitEl_entree.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Yirmiyahou at English Wikipedia • File:Zohar.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Zohar.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Zosimosapparat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Zosimosapparat.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from sv.wikipedia to Commons by natox. Original artist: The original uploader was Adragoor at Swedish Wikipedia • File:ציון_רבי_יוסף_קארו.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F_ %D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A3_%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: אריאל פלמוןAriel Palmon
27.8. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
27.8.3
Content license
â&#x20AC;¢ Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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