MITI 11 by Miti Magazine

• Trees for electricity poles • Harvesting water from our roads • The olive tree: A symbol of peace and prosperity • Teaching children to care for the environment • Tinderet small-holders make a difference Ksh 250 Ush 7,000 I s s u e N o.1 1 J u l y - Se p t e m b er 2 0 1 1

It is legal to trade in charcoal Just get a licence from KFS and plant trees

The price of destruction

Deforestation has contributed to the current water and food shortages in Kenya

A blessing or a curse?

Although a source of livelihood for dryland populations, goats destroy the vegetation

Drawing up a business plan

Investing in trees in Africa

Nairobi hosts an international gathering to discuss landscape restoration

Plantation forestry requires proper planning

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18 2

Editorial Tree lovers are all one big family

News and letters

Readers’ views

Drawing up a business plan

Plantation forestry is a serious enterprise that requires proper planning

Looking for funding for forestry projects?

Here are some contacts

Empowering the people

K-Rep Development Agency has developed a credit scheme for tree nurseries

populations, goats are a threat to vegetation

Catching them young

The Healthy Learning Programme teaches children to care for the environment

The price of destruction

Deforestation has contributed significantly to the current water and food shortages in Kenya

Looking over the fence

SPGS team visits Tanzania’s Sao Hill Industries

Trees for our survival

The importance of forests is recognised as world marks Day of Biological Diversity

Investing in trees in Africa

Nairobi hosts an international gathering of technicians and financiers to discuss landscape restoration

Growing fruit trees in ASAL Jessours allow for maximum use of scarce water

Up and still rising

The construction industry records rapid growth, posing opportunities and challenges

Standing up to the ravages of time

A multimillion-shilling wood treatment industry ensures wooden poles remain serviceable for long

Water, water on our roads

Calling on small-holders

As tea factories switch to firewood from furnace oil, the sector offers massive opportunities for tree growers

Litres of the precious commodity go to waste whenever it rains

Extending an olive branch

Let’s look at another tree of the Bible that is a symbol of peace, happiness, prosperity and glory

It is legal to trade in charcoal

However, the yearly planting rate of trees must exceed the yearly production of the energy source

Making a difference

Tinderet farmers grow trees for firewood in a bid to alleviate poverty and improve the environment

An alternative to crops

The mukau tree offers dryland farmers other means of earning income

A blessing or a curse?

Although a source of livelihood for dryland

Mukau: A Kenyan dryla with a brig ht future nds tree Yatta farm er makes farming big businesstree Interview with George May Ugandan farm er, anja

On the cover: Mt Kenya is the most important water tower of Kenya, in terms of water supply to the nation. It is estimated that 40 per cent of the country’s water supply originates from the mountain’s forests. The forests surrounding the mountain are managed by either Kenya Forest Service (KFS) or Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), and are subject to management plans. (Photo KFS)

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2011

Editorial

Tree lovers are all one big family

iti is a tree business magazine. As such, we highly respect all, big and small, who have the courage to embrace the trade of producing seedlings, those who plant and maintain them and ultimately harvest and process this unique living material. We equally respect all who make a living out of trees through research, consultancy, management or anything else related to the industry. It is a serious enterprise with many facets and many challenges, especially when one talks about planting trees in arid and semi arid lands (ASAL). There is something very beautiful about this venture. People involved in trees are part of a large fraternity. They help and support each other. They visit each other’s projects. They recommend and learn from others that do better than they do. Above all, they are all passionate about trees and people. However, plantation forestry is a serious enterprise that requires proper planning and funds as Enock Kanyanya and Jan Vandenabeele explain in this issue. Moreover, funding is an issue at the community level, but Walter Tinega of K-Rep Development Agency offers some solutions. Linus Wekesa writes about the opportunities and challenges of the timber market for the construction industry while David Gatumo highlights the main market for treated poles in Kenya. Joshua Cheboiwo explains why tea factories have switched to firewood from furnace oil as Anthony Ochino dives into the legality of charcoal production and trading. Fridah Mugo has a big heart for Tinderet farmers who grow trees for firewood in a bid to alleviate poverty and improve their lives. Jackson Mulatya lives up one more time to his reputation as an expert on mukau. Are goats a blessing or a curse, asks Oliver Wasonga. His article visits the controversial debate about rearing goats in drylands. Also interesting is an article by Wanjiru Ciira on how the Healthy Learning Programme is teaching children to take care of the environment. Benedict Omondi opens our eyes to how deforestation has contributed to the current water and food shortages. Thaddeus Businge and others from the Uganda-based Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) visited Tanzania’s Sao Hill Industries. Read of their experience. Jan Vandenabeele writes about a major international gathering of technicians and financiers to discuss landscape restoration. In addition, he and Erik Nissen-Petersen write another article in our series on small and cost-effective ways to obtain water in drylands. For Herman Verlodt, it is perfectly possible to grow fruit trees in ASAL, and finally, Francis Gachathi, in our series about trees of the Bible, looks at the history of the olive tree. Enjoy without restrictions but be aware that reading Miti magazine is addictive! Jean-Paul Deprins.

Published by:

Chairman of the Editorial Board:

Managing Editor – Uganda

TQML LTD P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com

Rino Solberg

Julie Solberg

Editorial Committee

Ugandan Contact

Joshua Cheboiwo, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira

Joshua Ondyer

Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 752 896 205 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com

Editor-in-chief Jean-Paul Deprins

Contributing Editor Mundia Muchiri

Designer Daniel Ngugi

Managing Editor – Kenya Wanjiru Ciira

Technical Editor Jan Vandenabeele

Miti July-September 2011

Builders should read this article I came across Miti magazine issue No 9 by chance and was amazed by the quality of articles it carried. I did not know such a high quality and informative magazine exists in Kenya. As a maker of furniture and fittings in the construction industry, I found the article on wood drying very informative. The writer provided very comprehensive information on why timber needs drying. She even gave the advantages and disadvantages of different dying methods. Well done, Ms Oduor. Every Kenyan in the furniture and building industry should read the article. My only complaint about the article was the photographs. They were small and not as illustrative as they could have been. The publishers and contributors of articles to Miti magazine need to address this issue. Joshua Mubea Nairobi

A fascinating write-up I found the article “Sand dams or silt traps?” (Miti issue No 10) fascinating. It was an eye-opener as Erik Nissen-Petersen came up with concrete examples of money that has been wasted on so-called sand dams, only for them to be filled up with silt and loam and rendered useless for water extraction. The writer analyses the shortcomings of the Kimuu Sand Dam and gives specific recommendations on what should be done to make sure sand dams continue working, years after they are built. This is indeed fascinating information. Thank you Miti for such an article. James Kioko Makueni

The views expressed in Miti magazine are the writers’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of Better Globe or TQML. WRITE TO US We welcome feedback on any article you have read in Miti magazine, or on any issue on tree planting, afforestation and related matters. Please include your name, address and telephone number. Letters may be edited for clarity or space. We also invite you to send us any interesting photos you might have. Please send your contributions to: The Editor Miti magazine P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya. Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com OR Miti magazine P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda. Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com

www.betterglobeforestry.com Miti Magazine-Africa’s Tree Business Magazine

Miti is available at the following outlets in Nairobi: • Text Book Centre, Sarit Centre • All Times Village Market, Westgate and Galleria • Virdi Pharmacy, Kasuku Centre, Kileleshwa • Karen Provision Stores • Chandarana Supermarket Yaya Centre, ABC Place and Lavington

Thank you for your comments Mr Mubea. We share your concern about the quality of photographs and are addressing the matter. Editor

Kenya Forest Service approves South Kinangop forest management plan Kenya Forest Service (KFS) has approved a forest management plan of the Aberdare Kiburu Community Forest Association (AKCOFA). KFS Director David Mbugua noted that this is part of the systematic implementation of the Forests Act 2005, which requires that forests should be managed through organised structures, integrated into existing institutions. He added that this was one way of ensuring that the community was actively participating in forest management and drawing benefits from the same. The Forest Act, 2005, Section 35 (1) stipulates that every state, local authority and provisional forest shall be managed in accordance with a management plan. Noting that the preparation of a 10-year Aberdare Forest Reserve Management Plan (2010 – 2019) is finalised, it was necessary to develop an operational management plan for each forest station that addresses the aspirations and wishes of all stakeholders. This arrangement has been termed as Participatory Forest Management (PFM).

The South Kinangop Forest Reserve is part of the larger Aberdare Forest ecosystem, which is one of Kenya’s water towers and is a critical water catchment for Lake Naivasha, Ewaso Nyiro North, Tana and Athi rivers. Lake Naivasha and other domestic water supply facilities like dams are currently facing severe threat as their water levels continue to drop drastically due to increased human activities in the wider catchment and in part due to climate change. The overall management goal for the South Kinangop forest is “To enhance and promote sustainable establishment, management, conservation and utilization of South Kinangop forest resources through participation of the local community and other stakeholders for Environmental and Socioeconomic development and improvement of their livelihoods.” The development of this plan was facilitated by KFS through the support of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Lake Naivasha Landscape MFS, Linking Futures Programme and Green Zones Development Support Project

(GZDSP) in recognition of the threats facing the Lake Naivasha ecosystem and its important contribution to the national economy. WWF supports Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) approaches in watershed management. This plan is modelled on the format provided in the Forest Act 2005, and it comes at a time when two other very important laws, the National Environment Management and Coordination Act (1999) and the Water Act (2002), all relating to participatory natural resource management in Kenya, are in force. Mohamed Awer, Country Director of WWF Kenya Country Office, said he hoped the adoption and operation of this plan would provide opportunities for communities to improve their livelihoods and position themselves for new opportunities such as the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD), Carbon Enhancement and Nature Challenge Initiatives. Information provided by the Corporate Communication Office, KFS

Miti July-September 2011

Women from a forest adjacent community collect firewood. This activity is always included in management plans of Community Forest Associations. (Photo KFS)

Drawing up a business plan Plantation forestry is a serious enterprise that requires proper planning By Enock Kanyanya and Jan Vandenabeele

ust like any other business, a forestry business requires a business plan. The plan varies according to the type of forestry an individual farmer or community is involved in. Currently in Kenya, the most common forestry plans are community-based forest management plans. Very few individual farmers have developed business plans, perhaps because financial institutions have not been funding afforestation programmes in Kenya. The other common plans are ecosystem-based forest management plans that are prepared for key ecosystems under the management of Kenya Forest Service (KFS) or/ and Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS). This article focuses mostly on business plans for tree plantations, although communitybased forest business plans are also considered, and both have many elements in common. The size of plantation requiring a business plan is variable, from some hundreds of hectares to tens of thousands. The exercise is not worth the effort for woodlots and small plantations.

Maps A forestry business plan comprises a management plan, overlaid with a financial plan. The management plan explains the resource technically, and shows everything on a map. Maps are important in forestry; in fact, they are a cornerstone of sound management.

Miti July-September 2011

Maps can be on different scales, and a semidetailed map of 1:10,000 is an excellent tool for forest management plans. Topographic sheets exist on the scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000, both of which are too big to work with, although very useful. They are inexpensive and can be obtained from the Survey of Kenya, under the Ministry of Lands, or even from KFS. A photocopy machine can reproduce magnified copies of such maps. Armed with a Global Positioning System (GPS), its software and a laptop computer, a competent forest engineer can produce maps on a scale of 1:10,000 at an affordable price. This scale is ideal for forest management plans. Institutions like KFS and the Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing (DRSRS) in the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources have GIS1 software like Arc-View that can do the same, including the printing, but at higher cost. If the soil is heterogeneous, the management plan can contain a detailed soil map, to develop site classes. These are growth classes, defined by the maximum height a given tree species can attain. The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) has scientists experienced in soil mapping. On a more modest approach, the map can include sample soil analysis and fertiliser advice. The maps can also show contour lines 1 Geographical Information System

if required, or topographical features like rivers, wetlands and rocky hills that are important in the management of the land. In our days, the value of biodiversity is recognised and forest plantations over a big area usually contain a portion of land managed for conservation purposes only, to break the monotony of monocultures. On the map, plantation blocks are demarcated, named and described. Each block is defined in area (ha), species composition (or vegetation type in case of natural forest), and for each year during the lifetime of the business plan, the operations are described.

Growth models and operations tables For every year, the cost of each silvicultural and maintenance operation is applied to the respective acreages. Hence, costs depend on the type of intervention, and the intervention is defined by the tree species. That means that the growth characteristics of the tree species have to be reasonably well known, so that yield (expressed in Mean Annual Increment in cubic metres per hectare per year, in stem diameter and commercial height) can be anticipated; and so that operations such as weeding, pruning and thinning can be planned properly. Fortunately, for the tree species grown commercially in East Africa, this information exists, although not always to the precision levels used in

Europe, America or South Africa.Thus, another cornerstone of plantation management plans are tables that state the successive operations to be executed for each major species. Let us give an example of Melia volkensii, the East African dryland mahogany. This is not a yield table, but a rough simulation of estimated growth, combined with operations on a yearly basis. We shall call it a stand management table. Preferably, the time horizon of a forestry business plan is limited to a single rotation of the crop, e.g. 20 years for M. volkensii and pines, or less for eucalypts. It is obvious that the end of the rotation has to provide substantial benefits as this is the main harvesting period, generating a profit high enough to re-invest in replanting all felled areas. If not, the whole undertaking is void. Volumes or units of produce are easily quantified per block and per year, and become available for marketing.

Management table for a stand of one hectare of Melia volkensii in arid lands Year

Item

Remarks

Clearing and ripping

By bulldozer, ripping down to 70-80cm, and tractor

Pitting

30x30x30cm, 400 pits

Planting

400 seedlings + 10% beating up (5x5m planting distance)

Soil conditioner

At 50g/seedling, including fertiliser

Maintenance

Ploughing, thrice, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

Chemical weeding

In the tree line, total width 3.75m, with glyphosate

Irrigation

5 litres per tree every 2 weeks, when required

1st pruning

Up to 1m, at 4 months (secateur and by hand)

2nd pruning

At 6 months (pruning saw, secateur)

3rd pruning

At 8 months (pruning saw, secateur)

Maintenance

Ploughing, thrice, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

Chemical weeding

In the tree line, total width 3.75m, with glyphosate

4th pruning

With ladder, selectively removing branches

5th pruning

With ladder, selectively removing branches

6th pruning

With ladder, selectively removing branches

Financial cost

Maintenance

Ploughing, thrice, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

The costs cannot be factored without defining the exact nature of each work, and the daily task rates that correspond to it. A professional and experienced forester is needed for this job, to calculate the labour force required, in both numbers and salaries. However, inputs are not just labour, but also machinery, equipment and tools. Tractors and their implements are heavy investments, and often a hire purchase agreement is worked out with a bank to spread the cost over several years and keep the cash flow within affordable limits. Government incentives like tax breaks would be welcome, as well as the implementation of the Conservation and Management Fund as prescribed by the Kenyan Forest Act of 2005. At least machinery like tractors is exempt from VAT (16 per cent in Kenya). A business plan needs to show clearly the costs and income involved, year after year. Such an exercise will do wonders for clearing the minds of managers, investors or other stakeholders, and help them to crystallise their thoughts about the business and set clear priorities. When this stage is reached, woolly talk about conservation of nature will recede and give place to hardheaded decisions like which market to target and the choice of tree species. In forestry operations, income only comes after some years. In the case of eucalypt plantations, for instance, income comes after seven years for pole production if good quality seedlings are used. In the case of pines, income will come after eight to 10 years from thinnings. So, where does money come from before these years? From an alternative source, whether an activity complementary to afforestation, like

Chemical weeding

In the tree line, total width 3.75m, with glyphosate

7th pruning

Up to 5m

Maintenance

Ploughing, thrice, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

Chemical weeding

In the tree line, total width 3.75m, with glyphosate

5-7

Maintenance

Ploughing, once a year, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

1st thinning

1/4 or 100 trees minus 10% mortality, DBH 25cm, 5m clean bole

Volume/ha (m )

15.45

8-19

Maintenance

Ploughing, once a year, 1.25m wide, 20-40cm deep

Felling

300 trees minus 5% mortality, DBH 45cm, 5m clean bole

Volume/ha (m3)

158.57

TOTAL VOLUME/HA

174.02

MAI (m /ha/y)

8.70

intercropping with a suitable food species, or fattening livestock between the saplings; or from other professional incomes, loans, or from investors. For each year, the source of financing must be clear. This is the difficult part; and the shorter the period requiring financing, the better. This explains the popularity of eucalypts, which are very early yielders of a variety of products. Once this period is bridged, a yearly income is available, abiding strictly to the prescriptions of the management plan in terms of exploitation and harvesting. Banks will lend if they are assured about their payback (see the articles about K-Rep and Equity pg 10). Investors will be more forthcoming if the land property is free of problems and proof of clear ownership is provided.

The market Ultimately, the whole investment has to be paid back by the produce it generates. Most commonly and conventionally, we are talking about fuel wood (see the article on tea factories on page 16), charcoal (see the article on new charcoal rules on page 18), logs for timber (see the article on the construction industry on page 12), and poles (see the article on pole treatment plants on page 14). New kinds of income are payment for environmental services (PES, see Miti issue 10) or for carbon sequestration and forest conservation (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation â&#x20AC;&#x201C; REDD and REDD+). A market analysis of the intended product(s) is required, giving details about customers, transport costs, pricing issues, competition, sales and promotions. It is crucial that the plan demonstrates that the business will be a success.

Miti July-September 2011

This section can also include a description of the advertising methods and public relations strategy. Every business has risks associated to it. As such, the business plan should end with a risk assessment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; spelling out the risks and how they will be handled.

Afforestation with patula pine (Pinus patula) in Rift Valley. (Photo KFS)

Social benefits Based on daily work rates and the whole of operations, it is possible to calculate the size of the work force. It is best to recruit workers from the immediate neighbourhood of the plantation, so that they see a real benefit in the occupation of land at their doorsteps. Apart from the direct injection of money into the countryside through salaries, it is useful to include communityfriendly investments in areas such as education or health. Obviously, small-scale plantations cannot afford this, but it is crucial for bigger projects to undertake this. It is important to include information on the team that will execute the plan, to create confidence and put human faces on the operation.

A forest management plan has provision for operations in each plantation block. Interventions for casuarina (left) will be quite different from operations concerning eucalyptus (right). (Photo KFS)

Community-based forest management plans Apart from the benefits a well-made business plan generates, community-based forest management plans provide an opportunity to secure the rights of the local people to access, manage and benefit from forests, resulting in reduced deforestation and illegal logging. Community-based forest management plans have been used to increase a communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s role in forest management with the hope of lifting forest-adjacent communities out of poverty. If forest-adjacent communities are involved in the management of the forest, forest health and vitality improves and the communities end up protecting endangered biodiversity. As the local communities become equal managers in forest management and use the forest for food, fuel and medicines, they will protect the forest. This has helped increase incomes for the community, has reduced pressure on the forest, and water sources have flowed again. Reliable access to forest resources means

forest-adjacent communities can increase their income and engage in developing sustainable enterprises. An example of possible new options of benefits that the community can tap into is the current international efforts to develop mechanisms to reduce forest degradation to enhance forest carbon stocks in developing countries (REDD+).

This kind of table allows one to calculate the costs of running the operation on a yearly basis. An Excel spreadsheet is ideal for working this out. Operation

Year 1

Year 2

Year 3

Planting

Year 4

Year 5

Year 6

etc

TOTAL (Ksh)

The obstacles facing community-based forest management preparations in Kenya is the complex guidelines and legal framework, which make approval of a management plan take as long as two to three years. The process is also very costly so that none of the approved plans is without external national and international financial as well as technical assistance. There is need to revise the guidelines to ensure that the process is not unnecessarily costly and is made simple enough to be developed by the community itself, though some professional help will always be required.

Weeding Pruning Etc Felling TOTAL (Ksh)

Miti July-September 2011

Enock Kanyanya is a Forestry and Environmental Management Specialist â&#x20AC;&#x201C; USAID/Kenya Email:ewkanyanya@yahoo.com Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Ltd Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

Better Globe Forestry Ltd

Making Africa greener

Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.

Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion

The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things:  Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders,  Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting  Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives,  Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s),  Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.

Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting

Our nursery at Kiambere

A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere

Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation

A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme

Preparing for planting in Kiambere

The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins

www.betterglobeforestry.com

Miti July-September 2011

Looking for funding for forestry projects? Here are some contacts

A small eucalypt woodlot in Kitui district. This kind of intervention can attract donor funding, especially when coupled with water harvesting and food security. (Photo BGF)

By Enock Kanyanya

eveloping forestry business plans is gaining momentum in Kenya. This is especially so after the Forest Act 2005 made it a requirement that all forests in the country should be managed according to an approved management plan. Companies and individual farmers investing in trees are increasingly using business plans to raise funds. Kenya has also witnessed an upsurge of community-based efforts to address natural resources management governance issues, especially with new laws that allow devolved governance of natural resources. Following are some natural resources funding organisations operating in Kenya: 1. The UNDP GEF Small Grants Program funds projects that support or promote the conservation and sustainable use and management of biodiversity, reducing the impact of global climate change, land degradation, persistent organic pollutants and international waters in various parts of Kenya. The programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national coordinator is Nancy Chege. She can be reached on telephone number (254-20) 7624473, email <nancy.chege@undp.org> and fax number (254-20) 621076. 2. The Community Development Trust Fund (CDTF) was established in 1996 through a financing agreement between the Government

Miti July-September 2011

of Kenya and the European Union (EU). The fund has two components â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Community Environmental Facility (CEF) and the Community Development Initiative (CDI). CDTF has a budget of approximately Ksh 2 billion for formulation and implementation of projects in rural and periurban areas. The CEF component assists communities to design suitable projects, provide training and guidance in project management and governance. It engages government, non-state actors and quasi-government institutions in the implementation of environmental initiatives in environmentally important areas like the five water towers (Aberdares, Cherangani Hills, Mau Forest, Mt Elgon and Mt Kenya). It also supports projects in other areas with forests, swamps, lakes, coastal, marine important wildlife areas, river basins and drylands. To be eligible for these grants, organisations must be registered in Kenya and operate under a relevant legislation. For instance, community based organisations must be registered with the Ministry of Gender, Sports, Culture and Social Services; water resource users associations must be registered as per the Water Act 2002; community forest associations registered by the Registrar of Societies; cooperative societies incorporated under the Ministry of Cooperatives; and trusts and group ranches incorporated under the Ministry of Lands. The organisation must also be non-profit and

involved in the conceptualisation of the project. CDTF has specially designed Concept Application Forms that applicants must use to apply for grants. The completed concept forms are submitted at various regional offices established nationally. Contact: CDTF, Josem Trust House, Bunyala/ Masaba Road, P O Box 62199 - 00200 Nairobi, telephone 020-2727799/888, fax 020-2721382. Website: <www.cdtfkenya.org> 3. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) provides support to qualified civil society organisations to: advance accountable governance in Kenya, cultivate a new cadre of leadership, build a constituency for improved biodiversity and natural resources management, and promote conflict transformation in Kenya through an associate award with Pact Inc. (an international NGO) and Pact Kenya (a Kenyan NGO) to implement the Kenyan Civil Society Strengthening Program (KCSSP). USAID normally releases an Annual Programme Statement (APS) to seek for qualified Kenyan organisations working in Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s civil society sector, to support implementation of KCSSP. The Grants Manager of KCSSP is Samuel Njakai. He is based at Umeme Plaza, Old Naivasha Road, Dagoretti Corner, P.O. Box 76390 - 00508, Nairobi. Tel (254) (20) 3878271/3/4.

Empowering the people K-Rep Development Agency has developed a credit scheme for tree nurseries By Walter Tinega

n 2007, in a bid to encourage the development of commercial tree nurseries, K-Rep Development Agency (KDA) set up the Tree Nursery Operators project. The main aim was to establish a commercially viable credit facility for tree nursery entrepreneurs trained in tree nursery management by the Tree Biotechnology Programme (see Miti issue No 8, p22-23). The project also aims at stimulating production, distribution and utilisation of locally available nursery materials to enhance commercialisation in establishing low cost nursery units across the country. The idea behind this “credit initiative” was to create an opportunity for tree nursery operators to access affordable credit with favourable terms to enable them invest in this sector. This was necessary because many mainstream banking institutions have shied away from financing tree nurseries due to the vagaries of the weather associated with the venture. The Kilimo Trust (a subsidiary of the Gatsby Trust) provided funding to KDA to develop and pilot test an appropriate credit product for tree nursery entrepreneurs interested in improving the quality production of fast maturing seedlings. KDA offers two categories of loans - for clonal nurseries and for traditional nurseries. The clonal nurseries receive bigger loans due to the technology involved that includes clonal hedges, production and rooting of cuttings, tunnels and use of fungicides. The loans are only disbursed to tree entrepreneurs who have undergone specialised training by the Tree Biotechnology Programme.

Seedling production of kei apple (Dovyalis caffra), a fencing species, in a commercial private nursery. The seedlings are densely spaced with more than 10 units per pot, and go for about Ksh 20 - 25 per pot. (Photo KDA)

Sabina Chepkwony from Eldoret in her small commercial nursery with Calliandra calothyrsus, a fodder species for dairy cattle planted in an agroforestry layout. (Photo KDA)

Loan sizes (Ksh) Type of nursery

Clonal

Traditional

1st loan

100,000-200,000

1,000-20,000

2nd loan

100,000-300,000

1,000-35,000

3rd loan

100,000-400,000

The following lending conditions apply: Four months grace period Interest rate of 12 per cent per annum. Loan interest is applicable during the grace period After the grace period, the borrowers are expected to repay the loans monthly Maximum repayment period is two years for clonal nurseries and one year for traditional nurseries.

To qualify for a loan to set up a clonal nursery, applicants must meet the following: Be trained in clonal technology Have a minimum land holding of one acre Be Kenyan citizens above 18 years of age and of sane mind Have formal education above ‘O’ level or equivalent Be ready to abide by KDA’s loan policy and regulation Have sufficient supply of water Have a running business or be employed to leverage the loan capital.

For traditional nurseries, applicants must: Have a running viable tree nursery Have properly kept records, showing sales for the last six months Have sufficient supply of water Be ready to abide by KDA’s loan policy and regulation Be part of a group with between five and 15 members Have a passion for trees.

Miti July-September 2011

Achievements KDA developed its packages according to the above, and this resulted in the production of 14.1 million seedlings as per a survey carried out in July 2010, at the end of Year 3 of the project. By December 2010, KDA had disbursed Ksh 13 million to 79 nursery entrepreneurs and mobilised savings amounting to Ksh 1.3 million as loan security fund. This is an impressive performance and KDA has proved that credit to tree nurseries is viable.

nurseries and tree farming as a first investment, they are enabled to earn money while improving their environment. With those funds, they can make other investments in their families and for their future. Hence, they can create a local economy. KDA focuses on creating lasting livelihoods and envisions empowering communities to invest in themselves and take control of their lives. The tree nursery credit scheme is meant to facilitate this change and to improve the environment so that communities enjoy a better and sustainable life.

Summary of achievements

Challenges

Item/activity Money disbursed

Ksh 13m

Seedlings produced

14,174,600

Seedlings sold: Of which eucalypt clones Of which other species *

5,960,800 4,046,400 1,914,400

Employment created (direct and indirect)

1,017

Amount raised from sales (average @10 Ksh)

Ksh 59,608,000

Clonal seedlings price range

Ksh 8 – 15

Repayment rate

78 per cent

Defaulting rate

17 per cent

*Other species include Grevillea, Cypress, E. saligna, ornamentals etc.

The credit facility has offered a lifeline to various rural communities in the country. In creating income-generating opportunities at home, the project has reduced rural-urban migration where people often end up living in the slums, working in low-paid jobs. Financing of tree nurseries offers people an opportunity to turn their shambas into an investment. The main target market were buyers for the clonal seedlings, with the different clones matching various ecological zones. Distribution of nurseries Province

Clients

North Eastern

Eastern

Western

Nyanza

Coast

Nairobi

Rift Valley

Central

TOTAL

100

KDA does not believe in charity, but in economic development with social returns.The organisation’s aim within the initiative is to facilitate the tree nursery operators and their communities to seize and create business opportunities. Through tree

Miti July-September 2011

Funding to this sector is a challenge and hard to come by as players and the community view tree planting as a conservation exercise carried out by the Ministry of Forestry without direct economic benefits to individuals. They do not view it as a robust social and economic activity. Many financial institutions have shied away from financing environmental activities and this has stunted the growth of the sector. To ensure fast growth and high yield of trees, it is crucial that only high-quality seedlings are produced from genetically superior material. This will in turn enhance quick forest cover for the country to attain robust economic development as envisioned in the master plan of Vision 2030. So far, the main bottlenecks have been: The eucalyptus controversy with negative

publicity affecting the seedling market; Prolonged drought during the dry seasons, with entrepreneurs delaying loan repayment, only recovering when the rainy season induces a boom in seedling selling; Many prospective customers do not take the initiative positively because of the risks related to tree nursery activities; Monitoring the loans is difficult because the clients are spread nation-wide.

Future focus KDA focuses on strengthening its credit scheme project to build an anchor point to avail credit to tree nursery entrepreneurs who otherwise do not have any muscle to secure loans from mainstream financial institutions. In the near future, KDA would like to focus on developing a self-sustaining credit scheme for this sector to reduce dependency on donor funding and increase the forest sector’s contribution to the GDP. Currently, K-Rep is refining the loan product to suit the public and hopes to up-scale the project to reach as many nursery entrepreneurs as possible. For any enquiries about the project, contact kda@k-rep.co.ke or wtinega@k-rep.co.ke

From a banker’s perspective Trees are a good, long-term investment. With the 1999 ban on timber harvesting in government forests still in place, trees from farms are increasingly filling the supply gap. However, farm forestry does not meet the demand for timber fully, and Kenya is still wood-starved. As a result, the country has become a net importer of the product, mainly from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) for hardwoods (mahogany, mvule), Tanzania and even Malawi for softwoods (pine and cypress). Against this backdrop, it makes economic sense to invest in trees. However, how possible is it to get funding for tree growing? And how do financial institutions view investment in trees? According to Esther Muiruri, General Manager Marketing – Agri Business at Equity Bank, an investment in trees is viable, as long as it makes economic sense to a client and is market-driven. “As a bank, we provide financial interventions in many sectors,” says Ms Muiruri. “So long as a client demonstrates the viability of a tree-planting venture and an ability to re-pay the loan, we would be happy to assist.” As trees mature over a long

time, a farmer has to look for ways of repaying the loan while waiting to harvest the trees. Conceding that investing in tree growing is a relatively new venture in Kenya, Ms Muiruri says Kenyans need sensitising on this. Recalling the recent scare about growing of eucalyptus trees that hit farmers in central Kenya, she says that farmers need more information on the tree species to grow in different areas, how to care for them and what to expect. If this does not happen, farmers will incur loses and get discouraged from investing in trees. What about risks? “Every investment carries an element of risk, but also the potential for generating income,” says Ms Muiruri. The main risks that stalk investment in trees are fire and disease, which can wipe out a mature crop of trees. Farmers also need to protect tree seedlings from goats and other browsers that can eat seedlings to the ground. Depending on the area, a tree investor may also need to protect trees from squatters who may cut trees for firewood, or who may settle in what they consider unoccupied land. - Wanjiru Ciira

Up and still rising The construction industry records rapid growth, offering opportunities and challenges By Linus Wekesa

ike the proverbial cat, the Kenyan economy can be said to have nine lives. While most economies, especially in the developed world, have been reeling under the weight of depression, the local economy has recorded encouraging growth. The construction industry has displayed the most visible evidence of rapid growth, with a notable increase in the number of buildings constructed. This could be a deliberate attempt to meet infrastructural demands for the burgeoning population, especially in urban areas, against a background of improved macro-economic performance and governance. At the same time, the increased demand on housing has been attributed to explosive population growth and a rising middle class. Statistics from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics presented in the Statistical Abstract (2010) show that the number of new buildings constructed in major urban centres has increased by about 150 per cent over the past seven years from only 1,178 units completed in 2003 to a mammoth 2,936 units completed in 2009 (Figure 1). The slack in the number of units completed only occurred in 2008 and this could be due to the post-election violence that occurred at the time. In 2009, construction came only second to tourism in terms of growth. By mid 2010, construction was the fastest growing sector and contributed 11.0 per cent of gross domestic

The Trussed Rafters Development Unit (TRDU) in Ngong Forest, that makes prefabricated roof trusses. Truss rafters are gaining in popularity in the construction industry because of savings in timber. (Photo KFS)

product. The growth in the construction industry has led to an increase in, among other areas, the demand for timber in the country. In construction, wood is used as either round or sawn timber. Round timber is generally considered stronger than sawn timber of the same section area, since the fibres in round timber are intact. Sawn timber would comprise the building boards that include plywood and various types of boards, as well as block boards and lamin boards. Other building materials are woodwool slabs and shingles. Timber is used in virtually all components

Figure 1: Number of new buildings completed in major towns in Kenya from 2003 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2009

of a house from the floor to the roof, whether it is in conventional building or prefabrication construction. It is estimated that timber contributes about 10 per cent of the total cost of a house. Thus, substantial quantities of timber are utilised in the increasing number of houses being erected. Estimates by the Kenya Forests Working Group show that timber demand stands at 38 million cubic meters annually. This domestic demand for timber from the construction industry has outweighed the existing forestry resources in the country. The shortfalls in timber are made from imports from other countries in the region, whereby Kenya spends more than Ksh 3 billion (US$ 37.5 million) annually importing timber. Since the imposition of a logging ban by the government in March 2000, most supplies have been sourced from farms in the country and imports from Tanzania, Malawi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and even Angolaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cabinda area. However, the supplies from farms and Tanzania have dwindled, forcing the country to source its timber from the equatorial rainforest. Getting hardwoods like mahogany is not difficult because the long-haul trucks going to the DRC and Uganda usually come back with the wood. However, the demand for soft wood is on

Miti July-September 2011

Block board made in Kenya. It finds ready applications in housing construction, e.g. for in-built cupboards. (Photo KFS)

the rise, making their prices to surpass the revered hardwoods. One foot of 8” by 2” softwood timber sells at Ksh 140 while the same size of mahogany is Ksh 130 and glue gum, another hardwood, is Ksh 90. Although the logging ban resulted in the loss of jobs by thousands of Kenyans working in sawmills, the demand for timber has presented new business opportunities, resulting in the escalation of timber yards, especially in urban centres. For example, Nairobi has witnessed an increase in the number of timber yards, especially in Eastlands and the outskirts like Ongata Rongai and Mlolongo. This is offering an impetus to the entrepreneurship development spirit in the housing and construction industries, with concomitant increases in job opportunities for the Kenyan masses. The key beneficiaries are the timber yard merchants, workers and transporters.

Despite the entrepreneurial opportunities and the fact that investment in timber by micro-entrepreneurs is quite profitable, owning kilns and other facilities for timber processing is rare. In fact, timber importation is a heavy investment venture, excluding such micro-entrepreneurs in the direct importing process of timber. A single timber consignment can cost a trader up to Ksh 1 million to bring in. Raising such capital is a big challenge to micro-entrepreneurs, leaving it for big timber companies like Timsales. In some cases, small-scale entrepreneurs have been putting their resources together to import timber. There is therefore a need for special strategies to encourage micro-entrepreneurs to take up the vast timber business opportunities arising from the construction boom in the country. The writer is a socio-economist at KEFRI Karura Forest Products Research Centre Email: weknus@yahoo.com

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Standing up to the ravages of time A multimillion-shilling wood treatment industry ensures wooden poles remain serviceable for long By David Gatumo

he wood preservation industry in Kenya has been in existence since colonial times. It can be traced to the defunct East African Posts & Telecommunications Corporation, which installed a used pole treatment plant in the early 1950s and set up base in Gilgil town. The plant is currently under Gilgil Telecoms Industry (GTI). In 1962, the East African Tannin Extracts Co (EATEC) established a treatment plant and Wananchi Saw Millers of Nyeri followed suit in the 1970s. However, it is widely understood that the old GTI and EATEC plants were acquired from the defunct East African Power & Lighting Company, which decided to divest from treatment of poles and concentrate on their core business of generation, transmission and distribution of power. The power distribution sector has traditionally provided the biggest market for poles in Kenya, followed by the telecommunication sector. However, in the late 1990s, the pole industry witnessed a sluggish growth occasioned by the introduction of mobile telephony in the country. The Kenya Power & Lighting Company had also shifted its buying, following a presidential ban on

The first pole preservation plant (now under GTI in Gilgil. (Photo David Gatumo)

logging and started importing the bulk of poles from South Africa and later Finland, Tanzania, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Argentina. However, infrastructure development in the last decade

Name of treatment plant

Location

Number of treatment cylinders

Installed capacity (m続) timber/ day

Mode of treatment

TTI

Eldoret

98.8

Creosote/ CCA

Tipsywood Preservation

Eldoret

60.8

CCA

Timsales

Elburgon

114

Creosote/CCA

Comply Industries

Nakuru

CCA

Cabro East Africa

Kariandusi

152

CCA

GTI

Gilgil

CCA

Muringa Holdings

Kinale

60.8

CCA

Keystone

Eldoret

28.5

CCA

Makuyu Plant

Makuyu

45.6

CCA

Miti Industries

Meru

45.6

CCA

Rosoga Investments

Molo

91.2

CCA

Kakuzi

Maragua

22.8

CCA

834.1

Total

has seen tremendous growth in the industry. The wood pole industry involves two modes of treatment, namely, the oil based creosote and the water-borne preservatives, predominantly chromated copper arsenate (CCA) oxide. Investment in creosote is relatively high and there has been no growth in this technology for the last 20 years. However, CCA treatment has seen an increase from two treatment plants at the turn of the 20th century to the current 12 with two more plants under installation (see table). The current installed capacity for all treatment plants in the country is 834.1m続 of wood, which is equivalent to 580,800 wood poles annually. However, the distribution is wanting in that the majority of plants are concentrated in Central and North Rift, thereby denying tree growers in other areas a competitive market. The main market for treated timber in Kenya is power distribution poles, with Kenya Power & Lighting Company currently consuming about 300,000 while Rural Development Authority (REA) uses about 100,000 poles. The Kenya Wildlife Service consumes the bulk of fencing posts with

Miti July-September 2011

Newly installed Makuyu CCA pole treatment plant. (Photo David Gatumo)

Typical layout of a Creosote treatment plant. (Photo David Gatumo)

the farming fraternity using up the rest. Treatment of timber using CCA has undergone a number of changes since its introduction in the country about 30 years ago. At the beginning, the preservative would be supplied in powder form for mixing with water. However, due to safety and health concerns, this was later changed to a paste. Both the powder and the paste were salt formulations, which were later modified to the current CCA oxide liquor. However, CCA has been banned in most European countries and this trend is expected to catch up with Kenya within the next five years. Major concerns have however been raised regarding the efficacy of the new generation water borne preservatives, namely the copper based non-chrome and non-arsenic wood preservatives like ACQ1. The industry has been facing quality challenges since the country does not have facilities to test the chemical retentions of treated wood and the chemical balance of the active ingredients. KPLC, the main customer for poles, has insisted that all CCA treatment plants install a spectrometric analyser for this purpose. This has seen Oxford Instruments of Britain team up with British East African Technologies (BEAT EA) to install state of the art spectrometric analysers in a number of local pole treatment plants. Other technological advancements being witnessed in the industry include installation of drying kilns to accelerate the seasoning process. A shortage of raw materials, notably poles and CCA preservative, is one of the major challenges facing the industry. The shortage of CCA preservative is attributed to a monopoly of supply since only one manufacturer is authorised to supply the product into the country. This has caused erratic supply to the main consumers, who have turned to importation of wood poles to bridge the gap. The multimillion-dollar pole industry in Kenya contributes immensely to the Kenya Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal of poverty alleviation through a supply chain of wealth creation. While the treatment process and supply to the main customer is the preserve of the business fraternity, small-scale tree growers benefit as they are paid up to Ksh 3,000 per standing tree of between 8 and 10 years. As the quality of wooden poles improves and their service life is enhanced, it is expected that demand will rise in a sustainable manner, eventually facing off competition from concrete poles, which are more expensive, bulky to handle but have a longer service life than wooden poles. The writer is a Senior Wood Scientist with the Kenya Power & Lighting Company (KPLC) Ltd Email: DGatumo@KPLC.co.ke

Spectrometric analyser. (Photo David Gatumo)

Miti July-September 2011

1 Note of the Technical Editor: ACQ stands for Alkaline Copper Quaternary, a preservative made of copper, a fungicide and a quaternary ammonium compound (an insecticide).

Eucalypt plantations intimately integrated into a tea estate. It is far cheaper for tea factories to cure tea through fuel wood than to buy furnace oil. The shrubs in the foreground are Hakea salicifolia used as windbreaks or hedges. (Photo KFS)

Calling on small-holders As tea factories switch to firewood from furnace oil, the tea sector offers massive opportunities for tree growers By Joshua Cheboiwo

he tea sector is a major agricultural activity in Kenya and contributes to both the gross domestic product (GDP) and foreign exchange. The sector consists of smallholders affiliated to the Kenya Tea Development Agency (KTDA) with 65 factories (constituting 60 per cent of the Kenyan tea output) and the large-scale segment affiliated to the Kenya Tea Growers Association (KTGA) with 29 factories (accounting for 40 per cent). The KTGA affiliated factories led the way in switching from furnace oil to firewood after becoming aware of the cost-saving potential of the move. The saving per kilogram of processed tea is estimated at Ksh 9, using 2010 prices. KTDA factories started the conversion from furnace oil to firewood in 2000 and currently almost all the factories use firewood. Firewood use has triple benefits, for it increases profitability of the factories by cutting costs, saves foreign exchange and increases incomes to tea growers

that supply firewood to affiliate factories. In addition, the tea sector uses tree products in two forms - firewood and timber, mostly for making pallets for packaging tea. The large tea estates are generally self-sufficient in firewood and timber for most have sufficient land under trees, compared to smallholder-affiliated factories (KTDA) that have no land for such purposes. Hence, the smallholder factories purchase all firewood and timber from the market. And therein lies the opportunity for smallholders.

The tea sectorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demand for firewood and implications on the forestry sector The total firewood demand in tea processing depends on several factors including the total tea crop production, the boiler efficiency, quality of firewood and energy conservation measures in the processing systems. The quality of wood concerning calorific value will have an effect on

Table 1: Some facts on the Kenyan tea industry Cost of processing (Ksh/kg)

Firewood: 5

Furnace oil: 14

Savings: 9

Sector

KTDA

KTGA

TOTAL

No of factories

Output in 2010 (kg)

238,800,000

159,200,000

398,000,000

60%

40%

100%

2.149 billion

1.433 billion

3.582 billion

Savings opportunity (Ksh)

the quantity of the firewood used because low calorific or wet wood will produce less energy per unit weight as compared to high-density and dry wood. In 2010, Kenya produced a total of 398 million kg of black tea. Long-term experience from the tea sector shows that 250 kg of processed tea requires an equivalent of one m3 of stacked firewood1, translating into 0.7 m3 of solid wood. The current factory gate price of stacked wood is Ksh 1,500/m3, or Ksh 2,140/m3 of solid wood. The firewood demand in the tea sector is estimated at 1,114,400 m3 of solid wood or 1,592,000 steres, corresponding to an estimated value of Ksh 2.4 billion (see table 2). The KTDA factories are located mostly in central Kenya and the Rift Valley highlands. The commonly used firewood is from eucalyptus species mainly E.grandis and E.saligna. At the current level of management on farms, the estimated mean annual increment is about 30 m3 per hectare and a rotation age of 10 years is considered reasonable. The total annual area to be clearfelled is about 2,290 hectares. To sustain the demand for firewood by KTDA affiliated factories would require a total of 22,290 hectares of forest plantations to be developed in 1 Note of the technical editor: One m3 of stacked wood is called one stere (1m x 1m x 1m). One stere is about 0.70 m3 of solid wood.

Miti July-September 2011

Conclusions

Table 2: Potential consumption of wood by the tea industry, in volume (m3) and value (Ksh) Firewood

Factors

KTDA

KTGA

TOTAL

1. Firewood demand (steres)

250 kg/stere

955,200

636,800

1,592,000

Firewood demand (m3)

1:1.43 (0.7)

668,640

445,760

1,114,400

Firewood value (Ksh)

2,140

1,430,889,600

953,926,400

2,384,816,000

Land required (ha/year)

300m3/ha

2,229

1,486

3,715

Total land demand (ha)

10 yr rotation

22,290

14,860

37,150

2. Timber pallets Tea production (kg)

238,800,000

159,200,000

398,000,000

No. of pallets (rounded)

1:1300kg

183,700

122,460

306,160

Timber volume (m3)

0.0497m3/pallet

9,130

6,080

15,210

Timber value (Ksh)

25,000 Ksh/m3

228,250,000

152,000,000

380,250,000

Land required (ha/year)

600m3/ha

Total land demand (ha)

25 yr rotation

375

250

625

3. Timber for farm structures (Ksh)

Same as for pallets

228,250,000

152,000,000

380,250,000

Total timber demand (Ksh)

456,500,000

304,000,000

760,500,000

Total wood demand (Ksh)

1,887,389,600

1,257,926,400

3,145,316,000

the country, with an equivalent annual output value of Ksh 1.4 billion.

Timber requirements The tea sector uses pallets to pack tea for transportation from the factories to the auctions in Mombasa and for export. The quantity of timber required for making pallets is estimated to be

10,973 m3 and similar amounts are needed for construction and maintenance of farm structures. At a rotation of 25 years and an estimated mean annual increment of 24 m3, the quantity of timber could be sustainably sourced from 1,250 hectares of plantations with annual estimated value of over Ksh 760 million.

The tea industry has the potential market for wood grown on the farms in two forms - sawn timber and firewood. The total potential market for the two products is worth about Ksh 3.1 billion per year. However, the large-scale tea farms/companies are self-sufficient in terms of firewood, unlike KTDA factories. Thus, the potential demand that smallholder tree growers can penetrate is valued at Ksh 1.9 billion. In this era of rising fuel prices, this figure is likely to be conservative. The KTDA firewood market can be served well through a reliable source of firewood based on sustainable production. The KTDA factories can form the basic unit to organise production, processing and marketing of commercially produced firewood from farms located in the areas where the factories are located. The same can be extended to sawn timber from the farms. The plantations managed by the public sector have in the past supplied most of the industrial wood requirements and this has overshadowed the development of appropriate production, processing and marketing systems for farm-based production. To meet the future demand of wood requirement in a sustainable way, a review of the technical packages for production, processing and marketing of wood grown on the farms is required. The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Londiani Regional Research Centre. Email: jkchemangare@yahoo.com

It is legal to trade in charcoal

Charcoal for sale along Garissa road in Mwingi East district. As can be seen, this area is not food secure. (Photo BGF)

However, the yearly planting rate of trees must exceed the yearly production of the energy source By Anthony Ochino

harcoal is the energy source of choice among low-income urban dwellers. They find charcoal affordable, compared to other energy sources that are beyond their reach. The wide use of this renewable energy source and the perpetual increase in its consumption for domestic energy has made the current demand far outstrip supply in Kenya. While most charcoal consumers are found in urban centres, the majority of charcoal producers are poor rural farmers practising subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods. The majority of these charcoal producers are unable to transport and market the produce to areas where the commodity is in demand. They therefore depend on brokers who exploit every available opportunity to buy cheaply from producers, transport the charcoal to urban markets where they sell it at competitive prices. In the process, they make a good profit, but they also take the risks involved with transportation.

Charcoal producer associations The recently gazetted Forest (Charcoal) regulations of 2009 may bring to an end one of the greatest ironies of the charcoal trade in Kenya - that it has been considered illegal to produce charcoal whereas buying and using charcoal is legal. No one is ever arrested for buying and using charcoal. An attempt to regularise the charcoal industry through practical application of the Forest (Charcoal) rules is meant to empower charcoal producers to take control of their small investments of producing, transporting and marketing charcoal and in so doing, become the

net beneficiaries for their hard work. According to the rules, individuals or groups of commercial charcoal producers in every forest conservancy shall form charcoal producer associations. The associations will serve to reduce licensing bureaucracy and make licensing more affordable. The Kenya Forest Service (KFS) is the competent authority responsible for issuing licences for production and transportation of charcoal. It is mandatory that each association, once formed, shall keep a record of its members, officials and their current addresses. It shall also have a list of places from where the association operates, a record of association activities relating to charcoal production and transportation as well as the technology in use for charcoal production. A registered Community Forest Association (CFA) is eligible to engage in charcoal production, provided that its constitution so allows and upon fulfilment of requirements as outlined above. A registered charcoal producers association will facilitate production of charcoal and ensure that its members implement the reforestation and conservation plans in areas where harvesting of charcoal production raw materials are sourced. In addition, the association will assist KFS in enforcing the provisions of the Forest Act relating to sustainable charcoal production, transportation and marketing. To obtain a licence for commercial charcoal

production and transportation entails making an application to the Forest Conservation Committee (FCC) of the local conservancy and providing other support documents and information as required by the FCC. These include a registration certificate of the charcoal producer association, place or places where charcoal will be produced, designated charcoal collection points, consent from the land owner where charcoal is to be produced, tree species to be used, including the number and estimated volume, type of technology to be used and a recommendation from the local area environmental committee. The applicant will also have to attach a reforestation or conservation plan for the area where trees will be managed for charcoal production. A licence issued under these regulations is not transferrable and a person who wishes to produce charcoal on his land for his own consumption shall not require a licence. However, anyone who wishes to produce charcoal for commercial purposes on his or her own land shall be required to obtain a licence. As for the charcoal movement permit, no person is allowed to move charcoal or charcoal products from one place to another without a valid charcoal movement permit issued by KFS. While applying for a charcoal movement permit, a certificate of origin for the charcoal, duly signed by the relevant association or person from whom the charcoal is obtained, i.e. the source of

Miti July-September 2011

A stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; meeting in Kitui town about the new charcoal regulations. People are very interested, but initially suspicious and confused about the intentions of the government, after all these years of stigmatising the charcoal trade. (Photo KFS)

charcoal or valid receipt from a charcoal vendor, should be attached. And just like the charcoal producer licence, a charcoal movement permit is not transferrable and KFS shall issue both documents upon payment of the prescribed fees. Any person who may be aggrieved by a decision of the KFS to deny a charcoal producer licence may appeal, within 30 days of communication of such refusal, to the National Environment Tribunal established under EMCA 1999.

Community reaction to the charcoal rules There are mixed reactions from both community groups and individual charcoal dealers about these new regulations. In the ASAL zones of Kitui, Mbeere and Tharaka, some community groups have already formed and registered charcoal producer associations. Through the support of local NGOs, such community groups have constructed efficient charcoal producing kilns from locally accessible bricks. Community members from these groups have expressed satisfaction and optimism about the unfolding picture, seeing a lot of promise in these rules. However, other community groups within the same ASAL zones are sceptical about their future operations, even after undergoing capacity building on the Forest (Charcoal) rules. The groups still see the long arm of the local administration and the police at roadblocks as obstacles. Most community groups expressing interest in sustainable production and marketing of charcoal currently lack the necessary resources and require adequate preparation to meet the challenges of the regularised charcoal production and marketing. The biggest challenge lies in the guaranteed supply of trees for sustainable charcoal production.

Miti July-September 2011

Although the charcoal rules are explicit about the need for commercial charcoal producers to provide evidence of actively participating in reforestation by providing a reforestation and conservation plan in areas where trees are managed for charcoal production, this is not a simple task to achieve. For sustainability of this industry, the yearly planting rate must exceed the yearly production of charcoal. In the fragile ASAL zones where production of charcoal is quite high, trees cut for charcoal production are never replaced nor given due attention to enhance regeneration. Establishment of charcoal plantations is feasible in both the high potential and ASAL zones, with the selection of the right tree species that are fast growing, high yielding and are of short rotation. Supporting community groups to draw up reforestation and management plans for charcoal production is crucial for sustainability of charcoal production. This will make a positive contribution towards changing the face of the charcoal industry and community livelihood standards in the long term. However, one would ask at what opportunity cost, considering the current state of their socio/economic status. One school of thought has it that rural community households can be encouraged to incorporate planting of selected wood fuel trees with food crops in their shambas, along soil conservation structures to serve a dual purpose of controlling surface runoffs and enhancing food crop production. This way, the people would be practising the alley cropping method of agroforestry and derive the benefits of the fast growing woody vegetation, especially nitrogen fixing leguminous trees, that can be systematically harvested and conserved to feed the charcoal kilns with raw materials. The private sector has the potential of

applying the Forest (Charcoal) rules for maximum gain. Individual farmers or investors can contract small-scale farmers to supply wood fuel from established wood lots for commercial charcoal production. This scenario may be compared to the wood fuel procurement and supply system currently practiced by the tea processing companies. Nowadays, tea companies have even established their own wood fuel plantations specifically for curing tea. The charcoal producer would do the same to acquire a year-round supply of wellseasoned wood fuel for charcoal production using modern techniques of high-recovery conversion.

Sustainability of the charcoal industry Issuing of charcoal producer licences to charcoal producer associations may not be enough to sustain the trade in charcoal. Some investigations need to be conducted to devise the desired technical guidance and support that the applicants need to make the regulation of charcoal production, transportation and marketing more responsive to the needs of producers. The following areas need attention: Capacity building on the legal aspect of charcoal production, transportation and marketing Improved techniques of efficient production of charcoal Methods of establishing reliable sources of wood fuel, sustainable harvesting, reforestation and conservation of the material base Value addition, price standardisation and production of by-products. Gazetting of the Forest (Charcoal) rules is a recent event that needs to be properly internalised before implementation of its provisions. In certain conservancies, charcoal movement permits are being issued on request while it is prohibited to transport charcoal in areas especially known to have previously been the epicentres of illegal charcoal production. Currently, charcoal production is associated with serious environmental degradation. Revision of this landscape is however possible if licensing of commercial producers will be pegged strictly on production of a reforestation or conservation plan for the area where trees will be managed for charcoal production. This may entail confirmation on the ground of an existing material base for charcoal production and the enforcement of the provisions of these rules in a transparent manner. The author is a conservator of forests Email: aochino@gmail.com

Making a difference Tinderet farmers grow trees for firewood in a bid to alleviate poverty and improve the environment By Fridah Mugo

enyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Lake Victoria basin region is endowed with large productive land and other natural resources. However, national poverty surveys consistently rank the counties around the lake among the poorest in Kenya. Determined to make a difference in this region, the Kamelil Tree Nursery Self-Help Group in Tinderet District in North Rift Valley, with support from Thuiya Enterprises Ltd, in September 2002 set up a reforestation programme to supply fuel wood to Homalime Company Ltd, in Koru, Nyanza, under a semicontract arrangement. The project was initiated for 352 small-scale farmers to grow Eucalyptus grandis for firewood. At an altitude of 1300-2500 masl, the ecological environment is conducive to the growing of the

species. The key players in this initiative are the tree growers, fuel wood consumers, traders and transporters who provide the market for firewood, the Christian Agricultural and Related Professionals Association (CARPA), which provides technical backing and resource mobilisation for the groups. The Kenya Forest Service and the ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development provide extension services. Since initiation, the project has received a total of about US $56,000 from different financiers. This has resulted so far in the growing of 180 ha of eucalypts, at 2500/ha or a spacing of 2x2m. Complementary to the tree growing, there is a bee-keeping component and active growing of pulses. With the policies and regulations required

for sustainable growing of trees for firewood in place, the next task was to develop the market linkages. The main source of market information has been CARPA. The market for fuel wood is large and some hospitality institutions have already requested for contract supply when full production commences. Generally, commercial firewood is transported on ox-carts, bicycles, pick- ups and lorries to the market. At the start of the initiative, Thuiya Enterprises Ltd funded the wood production on contractual basis. Two risks emerged. One was the fact that there was no way to enforce the contract, as there is no legislation to facilitate the enforcement; and the second was that there was no way of keeping off competitors. There was the risk of one private company investing and another just coming in to buy ready wood.

Kamelil Tree Nursery Self Help Group members at the nursery site

Miti July-September 2011

Therefore, a better arrangement was created, where farmers produce on their own and sell to whoever gives them a better price. However, there is still need for the market actors to come together and agree on mutually beneficial arrangements.

Kamelil Tree Nursery seedbed with well germinated Eucalyptus grandis

Project set-up Year 1: Sensitisation of a Community Based Organisation (CBO) on marketing opportunities for fuel wood, with farmers/members recruited on a voluntary basis to allocate a minimum of 0.5 acres (0.2ha) of their land to plant 500 eucalypts. The trees are intercropped with beans, cowpeas or other nitrogen-fixing pulses to provide income in the short time (three months). Seedlings are sold by the CBO nursery at Ksh 7 a piece, and the farmers get a loan for this (e.g. Ksh 7,000 for 1,000 trees or two acres). This is repaid by the pulse production, though the farmer keeps enough seeds aside for sowing the following year. In 2010, market price of pulses was Ksh 50 per kg. The yield is estimated at 675 kg/ha/year, going on for two years before canopy closure. Year 2: More farmers are recruited to participate in the scheme, receiving from the CBO part of the seed produced in year one, and the tree planting continues. Year 3: The farmers are trained on honey production and after paying a cash deposit of Ksh 500, given one beehive (value Ksh 5,000) on loan for every 500 trees (0.5 acre) planted. The potential harvest is factored at 6-10kg per hive for four harvests per year. The market price of honey is Ksh 250/kg, so potentially, the farmer can earn Ksh 6,000 - 10,000 per year. Year 6: The first harvest of fuel wood takes place, at an estimated yield of 100 tonnes/acre or 250 tonnes/ha. At a density of 700kg/tonne, this translates to a growth of 60m3/ha/y1. This is high but not impossible, depending on the seedling quality and the care given to the plot establishment. The market value factored for the 100 tonnes is Ksh 100,000, meaning the price per stere2 is about Ksh 5003. This is one third of the factory gate price of Ksh 1,500 offered by tea factories, so in fact this is a very conservative estimate. Year 7: The clear-felled eucalypt stand resprouts as coppice, and is managed in function 1 100T/acre ~ 250T/ha at 700kg/m3 makes 357 m3/ ha, at a 6 years rotation this is 357/6 ~ 60m3/ha/yr 2 One stere is one cubic metre of stacked wood. On average one stere = 0.7 m3 of solid wood, the rest being air. 3 100T = 100,000kg at the same density of 700kg/ m3 makes 143 m3, at a conversion of 0.7 this makes 200 steres. This is 100,000Ksh/200 steres = 500 Ksh/stere.

Miti July-September 2011

Members work at the nursery site.

of fuel wood production, meaning 2-3 shoots are retained per stump. As the root systems are already established, the rotation age will be less than six years.

Improvement of livelihoods Human capital All the farmers participating in the project have acquired new knowledge on how to plant and manage eucalyptus trees. The women have also acquired energy conservation knowledge and technologies, which are contributing to conservation of over 50 per cent of their household energy. The farmers as a community

have been harvesting about 270 tonnes of legume grain (135 tonnes per year for two years), which has been used directly as food or sold for income. This is a major achievement considering that before the project, the land was used only for grazing. After the initiative, besides producing wood and the legumes, the land is still used for grazing after the first two years of cropping. The additional technologies of bee keeping, dairy goat farming and poultry keeping are adding more knowledge and skills to the community, reducing their vulnerability. As long as there is a market for the products and the returns to the

individual actors are fair, the knowledge and skills gained can allow sustainable production. The participatory on-farm research experience by community members will remain within the community as a resource and other communities will gain from both the documented research outcomes through document dissemination and study tours. Natural capital The tree-planting project has enormous effects on the natural capital, the major one being the increase in forest cover. So far, 180 ha have already been planted. Besides increasing the household assets, it also allows access to more resources. The land is more valuable now compared to when it was bare or just covered with thickets and the trees can be used as collateral for other investments. The value of some of the degraded land that has been planted with trees has also gone up. With more trees and more wood, access to fuel wood by households has increased especially given that the small twigs that are not marketable commercially are used by households. It can also be observed that the trees have an impact on the microclimate of the area. This is more conspicuous during the dry season. Already there is a change in the aesthetics of the area. Although quantitative data are not available, increased forest cover also increases the carbon sink capacity of the area. Social capital The community participating in the project is becoming more cohesive as members interact and build trust with each other and other people from outside their area. For example, the farmers who grow trees have a sense of self worth. The project has linked the group to strong vertical networks like the Homalime company, Embassy of Finland, CARPA, Kenya Forest Service and other potential supporters. All the member groups have registered with the Ministry of Social Services and the leaders are acquiring leadership skills. Physical capital Although the physical capital attained from the initiative is not much, what is available is a good starting point and is likely to expand enormously. The community has bought a one-acre piece of land and constructed an office on it, which they use as a community resource centre. The group has a tree nursery site on their group land with a capacity to produce over one million seedlings per year. Financial capital The key actors in the market chain are getting and will continue to get income from firewood

The tree nursery has a capacity to produce over one million seedlings per year

and grain legumes. For example, at harvest, the small-scale farmers expect to get a gross income of about US $ 1250 (Ksh 100,000) from one ha of firewood after six years. Extrapolated to the total 180 ha planted so far, this makes a total of US $ 225,000. Additional money is also earned from honey and pulses.

SUSTAINABILITY The market focus and the integrated design mean this is a self-sustaining project. Farmers are expected to earn an income from the pulses for the first and second year. During the third to the sixth year, they are expected to earn from honey, harvested from the beehives they get on loan for every 500 trees planted. This provides an interim income for the farmers as the trees continue to grow. The farmer repays the CBO for the beehive with 2 kg (US $ 6) of honey from every harvest (US $ 24 per year) for three years. The money resulting from the reimbursements is used as a revolving fund for buying beehives for new farmers. In this project, the youth benefit from raising tree seedlings, the women from trading in efficient wood stoves, fireless cookers and beans, while the men are mainly involved in tree planting and management. Women also get firewood for their households from the self-pruning eucalypts.

Conclusions Tree growing for firewood in Tinderet Division has a lot of potential to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor, as there is a big local market for fuel

wood. The initiative does not require high capital investments and can easily be integrated with other enterprises to ensure permanent access to food, income and other benefits. When operational, this initiative will maximise its potential in supporting rural livelihoods especially when contractual business arrangements are adopted. This will assure the producers of regular and predictable income and the contractors of a steady product supply. Since it is a business enterprise, and the cost of every activity is considered, sustainability is assured as long as there is a market and fair returns.

References Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Keefe, P., Raskin, P., and B. Steve (1984). Energy and development in Kenya: opportunities and constraints. Beijer Institute and the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Stockholm and Uppsala. Republic of Kenya. (1994). 1994-2001 National Development Plan. Government Printers. Nairobi, Kenya. Republic of Kenya. (2002). Study on Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Energy demand, supply and policy strategy for households, small-scale industries, and service establishments. Final report, Ministry of Energy, Nairobi, Kenya. The writer is a lecturer â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Environment Planning and Management, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Nairobi. Email: fridahmugo@yahoo.com

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An alternative to crops Mukau offers dryland farmers other means of earning income By Jackson Mulatya

elia volkensii, commonly known as mukau (Kamba) occurs naturally in the semi-arid zone of Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia and Tanzania at altitudes between 350 and 1700 metres. The species occurs in areas with mean annual rainfall of 300 - 800 mm. It grows on most soils - sandy, clay and shallow stony - but preferably sandy soils with good drainage. M. volkensii is highly preferred in the drylands because of its high value timber, which is durable and termite resistant. The timber, used for construction and in the furniture industry, is only comparable to camphor and mahogany. Mukau is also preferred as dryland fodder, for woodcarving and for use as a pesticide. The species grows fast to saw logs with a rotation of 10 - 15 years depending on rainfall and after cutting, it coppices readily. In some parts of Eastern Kenya, it is left on farms and currently farmers are planting it within their cropland. Where the crowns pose shading effects on crops, Mukau is pruned to reduce shading and provide clear boles. On farm conditions, M. volkensii has leaves throughout the season and fruiting is experienced throughout the year. Thus, flowering and fruiting do not follow a seasonal pattern and one could find different stages of fruit maturity on the same tree. Fruits normally ripen 12 - 13 months after flowering. Animals that feed on the fruits disperse the seeds. When the seeds are mature, the fruits change colour from green to yellowish-green and the pulp becomes soft. Apart from seedlings, Melia can also be propagated through root and stem cuttings and tissue culture.

A bed frame made of mukau wood in a rural furniture workshop (Nuu, in Mwingi East). Mukau is highly valued for the quality of its timber, for various reasons including its resistance to termites. (Photo BGF)

Detail of chair, manufactured from mukau wood in a rural workshop. Timber quality is deficient as almost all good trees have disappeared and small diameter logs with various defects are now being sourced.

Table 6: Merchants retail timber prices of products in the markets in Kitui in 2006. Exchange rate 1US dollar = Ksh 82; 2008 Prices (Ksh)

Prices (Ksh)

(One unit)

At markets

Town

Door frames Melia volkensii

500

1,650

Benefits of Melia

Cupressus lusitanica 350

1,000

Where seedlings are not available, transplanting natural regeneration and young saplings is done on farms and most trees have been established through these two methods. Thus, combined natural regeneration and sapling transplant has contributed to more than 90 per cent of the plant types on farms. Melia requires little moisture to establish and grows fast even during the dry season, thus reaching rotation age in less than 15 years, while other exotic species require at least 20 years. The majority of farmers manage Melia through both thinning and coppicing. Once pruned and where close thinned, Melia volkensii does not pose serious competition to the intercropped on farms. Some farmers even

Pinus patula

280

900

Melia volkensii

4,500

9000

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Item

Beds

Species

Cupressus lusitanica 4,000

7,500

Pinus patula

3,500

6,500

2,000

3,000

Cupressus lusitanica 1,200

2,000

Pinus patula

1,000

1,500

Melia volkensii

Coffee table Melia volkensii

Timber (4â&#x20AC;?x2â&#x20AC;?) per foot

Cupressus lusitanica 30 Pinus patula

report that Melia trees improve crop yields due to litter fall. Melia volkensii has been reported to have multiple benefits such as valuable and durable timber that is in high demand, firewood, dry season fodder, beehives, honey, pesticides and improved soil fertility and seeds. Melia volkensii timber products in the local markets are at least twice as costly as those of the exotic species such as Pinus patula, Eucalyptus, Grevillea and Cupressus lusitanica.

Conclusion From an extension point of view, the expansion of Melia volkensii on farms and commercial plantation is feasible and stakeholders are encouraged to plant this fast growing species. Factors that encourage farmers to plant trees - such as good returns in a relatively short time, strong demand for the product, high value timber and ability to produce a range of products continuously - are met easily with Melia volkensii. Thus, keeping trees on farms spreads farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; income failure risks. Instead of selling food crops to earn income for such needs as school fees, bride price, weddings, etc, farmers could be encouraged to plant more trees on their fallow land to meet these needs. The writer is the Corporate Relations Manager, Kenya Forestry Research Institute Email: jackmulatya@yahoo.com

A mixed herd of cattle and goats on their way back from drinking at Tana River in Kiambere. A quick nibble at some succulent shoots - fortunately it is not our mukau trees. (Photo BGF)

A blessing or a curse?

Although a source of livelihood for dryland populations, goats are a threat to vegetation

enya has a goat population of approximately 28 million, 75 per cent of them found in the drylands. Goats are a source of livelihood for over six million people, most of them pastoralists. By Oliver Wasonga Goats comprise part of the mixedspecies herds kept by pastoralists for arid areas where sheep and cattle are not as well various reasons. First, goats have higher fecundity than the large herbivores. The gestation adapted. Thirdly, goats are valued economically period of a goat is 145 - 155 days, compared to as efficient converters of low-quality forages into 280 - 285 days for cattle. Goats are capable of quality meat, milk and skin products for income giving birth to twins and sometimes triplets. The generation as well as household use. Goats are twinning rate of the East African goats is 30 per also important for meeting social and cultural cent and triplets occur at the frequency of 2 per obligations by pastoralist households. Moreover, goat meat is a delicacy for the rural as well as cent. Secondly, goats are hardy and good feed urban populace in Kenya. converters. Their ability to conserve body water, their limited subcutaneous fat cover and their Destructive nature of goats hairy coats are good survival traits under a wide Using their mobile upper lips and very prehensile variety of climatic conditions. Goats are non- tongues, goats are able to graze on very short selective browsers with foraging preferences grass and browse foliage not normally eaten encompassing a wider spectrum of plants than by other domestic livestock. Although goats are those of other small ruminants. Goats have known to eat almost anything, they prefer to evolved a narrower muzzle compared to other browse on the tips of woody shrubs, trees and livestock species and this allows them to nibble leafy plants. Browse plants constitute 92 per cent the nutritious young shoots and leaves of prickly of dry seasonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goat fodder in northern Kenya. bushes and to strip the bark of trees. In this way, Because they are inclined to browse from the goats are able to survive better in arid and semi- top of a plant downwards, goats are effective in

controlling many undesirable plants but can also be a big hindrance to tree planting and protection in the drylands. Goats eliminate saplings and small trees. At the same time, goats strip leaves off the branches of larger trees, eat the tender twigs, inflorescence, fruits, barks and even the roots, effectively killing the trees. Some of the most common and important browse species are those from the family Leguminosae, sub-family Mimosoideae. These include most acacia species such as Acacia tortilis, which is a source of protein-rich pods (sakaram). Other important browse species include Grewia species, Balanites aegyptiaca; Boscia angustifolia; and B. coriaceae. The last three are important browse plants in more arid areas (agro-ecological zones VI and VII).

How much do goats consume? Given an average browseable forage productivity of drylands as 0.5 tons/ha/year (33 per cent of total browse productivity) and about 46.6ha (80 per cent of total land surface) as the size of drylands in Kenya, browse productivity is estimated at about 23.3 tons of dry matter, per year. Let us take the average weight of an East African goat to be 25kg and assume it consumes forage equivalent to 4 per cent of its live body

Miti July-September 2011

weight per day. Working with a modest figure of 20 million goats (75 per cent of the total goat population) in the Kenyan drylands, then the forage demand of goats in the drylands is estimated at 7.3million tons of dry matter/ha/ year, or 31 per cent of the total browseable forage productivity. This indicates that it is not the forage demand of goats, but rather the feeding habits that target the vulnerable growing tips of trees, that make them destructive. This is exacerbated by the slow growth and limited regenerative capacity of most indigenous browse species in harsh ASAL conditions. As is happening more and more frequently, a succession of dry years results in minor natural regeneration – almost no germination of seeds and hence very few new seedlings, a delicacy for hungry goats. Another factor that contributes to destruction of browse species is the small grazing circumference of goats that restricts them to areas around settlements and water points, thereby resulting in overgrazing, causing localised degradation.

Goats are very hardy and adapted to drylands, but even they need to drink. However, they tolerate a certain degree of salinity in the water. It is even said it gives their meat a better taste… (Photo BGF)

How can seedlings be protected from browsing goats? In most pastoral areas, trees are largely considered as free and abundant resources from nature, and livestock access to forage is given priority over protection of trees. It therefore requires a lot of sensitisation among the herders to convince them to plant trees and protect tree seedlings from goats. Apart from the conventional methods, chief among them fencing, there are a number of out-planting techniques that make use of local materials to protect tree seedlings. The teepee method (which involves tying branches together tightly around the seedling to form a protective “tent”) can be used to protect individual trees. If wire or sacks are not readily available, thorny branches can be woven in between the teepee’s sticks, starting at the base and weaving around up to the top. In addition, farmers have sprinkled hot pepper, curdled milk and livestock urine on seedlings to deter browsing animals. By the end of the second rainy season, trees are usually tall and strong and animals can only cause minimal damage. Constructing a fence around a tree nursery. An effective and inexpensive fence to keep away goats can be built by cutting thorn bushes and stacking them around a tree nursery. Convincing farmers to control their animals before a tree planting project starts. This can be done if they know that the trees will later be a renewable source of food for their animals.

Miti July-September 2011

Goats feeding on the tender twigs of Balanites aegyptiaca. (Photo Oliver Wasonga)

Goats on top of Acacia tortilis (Photo Oliver Wasonga)

Using the “bare-stem” transplanting method to help the seedlings survive the browsing by animals. Use big seedlings and strip them of all but the top leaves. This approach ensures that seedlings have almost no leaves until the grass turns green and therefore goats and other browsers are unlikely to be attracted to them. However, this slows down the growth of the seedlings. There are three underlying reasons for using this technique: (i) Since the seedlings will have almost no leaves until the grass turns green, goats and other animals are less likely to be attracted to them.

(ii) The seedlings can better survive because the root system is already quite well developed and the leaf surface is smaller so less evaporation occurs. (iii) When the leaves start to re-appear, the seedling is tall enough so that the lower branches can be grazed and the upper leaves will allow the tree to grow and finally enable it to establish itself. It is however true that all these methods impose an additional cost on the tree planter, that has to be borne by the goat owner, a fact ideally and automatically accomplished if the tree planter and the goat owner are the same person. Let us end this article by answering a question often raised - Is Prosopis juliflora harmful to goats? The pods of Prosopis juliflora contain a sweet, dry yellow pulp and protein-rich (34-39 per cent) seeds. However, when pods are fed as an exclusive diet for long periods, livestock can become malnourished and show ill-thrift symptoms. Therefore, it is preferable that livestock consuming Prosopis pods should also have access to other feeds to balance their diet.1 The writer is a lecturer in the Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology, University of Nairobi Email: oliverwasonga@uonbi.ac.ke or oliverwasonga@ gmail.com 1 Note of the technical editor: Pastoralists sometimes claim that browsing Prosopis has a damaging effect on the teeth of goats. A study by KEFRI in Baringo did not find evidence for this. Neither are the claims substantiated that the thorns of Prosopis are toxic and prone to provoke infection in goats.

The welcome committee at Matonyok Primary School. Note the one-year-old Grevillea robusta saplings on the left hand side of the road to the school. (Photo BGF)

Catching them young The Healthy Learning Programme teaches children to care for the environment By Wanjiru Ciira

atonyok Primary School in Nairekia Cooperation and Technical Assistance (VVOB) improved school meals to the curriculum. Launched in 2008, Healthy Learning Enkare, Narok, looks like an oasis. Healthy Learning Programme that links school It stands on 6.5 acres of lush green initiatives such as water management, school encourages school communities to grow food vegetation, the latter created by gardens, livestock rearing, tree planting and and practise agroforestry and water conservation. Through these initiatives, the the pupils and teachers of the school. programme hopes to boost nutrition The treed school compound provides among schoolchildren and their a marked contrast to the surrounding communities and conserve the countryside, which is characterised by environment, while primarily aiming large expanses of bare land, opened up to equip pupils with life skills, and for wheat growing, and degraded shrub enable them to earn a living after land. school. On the day the Miti team visited, As of 2010, nearly 17,000 pupils the pupils and teachers caught sight of were engaged in Healthy Learning in the visitors from afar and organised a 30 schools in eight arid and semi-arid welcome party. The whole school broke districts in Kenya, with the number into song and walked as a group to continually rising through increased meet the visitors. The Miti team had no school enrolment. alternative but to get out of the car and The Healthy Learning programme walk with the school the 100 metres or encourages schools to set up projects so to the main school building. like bee-keeping, vegetable gardens Matonyok Primary School is one of and fruit tree orchards to supplement the schools selected for the Ministry of school meals. It also encourages Health and the Flemish Association for A roof water catchment of Nturumenti Primary School, also in Narok, schools to plant trees to improve their Development enrolled in the same Healthy Learning Programme. (Photo BGF)

Miti July-September 2011

environment, provide shade and even ultimately, generate income. Matonyok Primary school has installed roof catchments with several water storage tanks, with a total capacity of 45,000ltr. This water helps the school a great deal through the dry season. The school has taken to tree planting with a passion. The project kicked off on March 13, 2010 and so far, the school has planted grevillea, eucalyptus, whispering pine (casuarina), Acacia melanoxylon (an Australian hardwood) and some indigenous acacias. The trees are spread throughout the school, serving as windbreaks and keeping the area cool. In addition, the school plans to start a tree nursery and would like to sell seedlings to the community. “The community has seen the importance of trees,” says Sein Joyce Maseenke, the school’s head teacher. One of the strategies the school uses to promote tree planting is to assign a tree to every teacher and every pupil. This creates healthy competition between the pupils. “They all strive to have the best tree,” says Moipei Nteka, the teacher in charge of the environment. The pupils water the trees using the bottle dripping method, which is efficient and conserves water in this dry area. Matonyok is one of the schools that receives Miti magazine regularly. “We find Miti magazine useful for the tips on caring for trees,” says Mrs Maseenke. And on advice from the Miti team, the school will now plant Acacia xanthophloea, in view of the fact that formerly, the whole place was a charcoal producing area now lacking good charcoal trees. Some 30 or so kilometres away in Mosiro zone, Ongata Naado, is Nturumenti Primary School, another school that not only plants trees but also uses Miti magazine for educational purposes. According to Ernest Tobiko, the school’s head teacher, the teachers use Miti magazine to identify different tree species. “We especially find the photographs useful because we can show the children what the trees look like when they mature.” The school became a serious tree-planter in 2008. They planted eucalypts, casuarina and grevillea “because they are fast-growing,” explains Mr Tobiko. Just like Matonyok, the teachers at Nturumenti Primary School allocate trees to pupils to care for. “This way, the children take pride in caring for the trees, competing among themselves,” says Mr Tobiko. The children water, weed and provide mulch for the trees. Nturumenti Primary School has set aside 30 acres at the back of the school buildings as a woodlot. While this is admirable, the rest of the school is without tree cover – there is no

Miti July-September 2011

Sein Joyce Maseenke, the school’s head teacher, next to a sign showing their commitment to tree planting. (Photo BGF)

The school’s teachers and some members of its parents committee showing their trophy for “Best Environmental School of the Suswa Zone” received in 2011. (Photo BGF)

shade or windbreak. When Miti pointed this out to Mr Tobiko, he agreed to correct the situation, promising that at their next visit, the Miti team would have the choice of picking out a site under a tree, to have a picnic. Just like Matonyok, the Miti team advised Nturumenti Primary School to plant indigenous acacias. The Healthy Learning programme is certainly changing the face of education in arid and semi-arid areas. The programme stimulates collaboration between schools, other ministries (such as health, water, agriculture and livestock)

and non-governmental organisations. The Ministry of Education, Healthy Learning team, World Food Programme and UNICEF regularly exchange experiences, learn from each other and this leads to adopting more appropriate approaches. The Healthy Learning Programme could be termed as education for life, which involves the whole community. It is certainly changing lives. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com

Indigenous forest in Kenya in a mosaic landscape. (Photo KFS)

The fruit of destruction

Deforestation has contributed significantly to the current water and food shortages in Kenya By Benedict Omondi

enya is water scarce and highly vulnerable to climate change, which causes severe social and economic stress. The natural endowment of fresh water, less than 650m3/capita/year, is below the recommended 1000m3/capita /year. This is less than a quarter of that in Tanzania and Uganda. Water availability is highly sensitive to climate, whose variability influences settlement patterns and economic activities in the agriculture, energy, urban, rural, forestry, industry, mining, livestock and environment sectors. For a country that is water scarce, Kenya has destroyed forests with abandon. The impact of this destruction is currently being felt in that rainfall has become unpredictable, leading to reduced water in the main rivers and lakes. Scarcity of water in urban centres has become the order of the day while agriculture has been adversely affected, thus increasing food insecurity. The countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sources of hydropower have been reduced, causing frequent power rationing and use of expensive diesel generators to fill the gap. There is increased sediment in dams, arising from absence of forest cover, and this in turn leads to degradation of water quality. The natural forest cover (closed canopy cover) of only 2 - 3 per cent of its land surface plays an important role in the provision of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water resources. All major rivers originate from the upper catchment of the montane forests, which maintain their base flow. Base flow is the flow that occurs in rivers between rainfall seasons, originating from water that is stored in the ground. There are five main water ecosystems, namely Mt Kenya, Aberdares, Mau Complex, Mt Elgon and Cherangani forests. However, several other forests serve as water catchment areas of national importance.

Figure 1: Status of forests in Kenya: gazetted areas

Natural forests regulate river flow, reduce flooding, store water and recharge ground water, reduce soil erosion and siltation, purify water, promote biodiversity, regulate microclimate and act as carbon sinks. Through these services, forests support key economic sectors in the country such as

power generation, tourism, supply of timber and nontimber products, support agriculture (cash crops such as tea, sugar, rice, subsistence crops and livestock) and water supply. However, these forest ecosystems are threatened by excisions for agriculture and settlement,

Miti July-September 2011

A permanent stream in Marmanet gazetted Forest (N of Nyahururu, in Rift Valley). The picture taken at the height of the dry season in the month of August 2009. Without the forest, the stream would be dry. (Photo KFS)

encroachment for grazing, charcoal burning, poaching, illegal logging and forest fire, among other activities.

The hydrological cycle and the role of forests The hydrological cycle is a constant movement of water above, on and below the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. It replenishes ground water supplies. It begins as water vaporises into the atmosphere when the sun heats vegetation, soil, lakes, rivers, snowfields and oceans through evapotranspiration. As the water vapour rises, it condenses to form clouds that return water to the land through precipitation that could be in the form of rain, snow or hail. Precipitation falls on the earth and either percolates into the soil or flows across the ground. Usually it does both. When it percolates into the soil, it called infiltration; when it flows across the ground, it is called surface runoff. The amount of precipitation that infiltrates, versus the amount that flows across the surface, varies depending on factors such as the amount of water already in the soil, soil composition, vegetation cover and degree of slope. The vegetation cover (forest canopy) plays an important role in capturing water that eventually infiltrates into the ground by means of:Interception, which occurs when it rains in forests and water temporarily lodges on leaves, branches and trunks of trees. A portion of water falls to the ground at a lower rate than that of rainfall and infiltrates into the soil to form groundwater. Capturing of mist by the forest also supplies additional water to the earth. As mist moves through forests, its moisture is captured by tree trunks, branches and leaves. It then condensed into water which then drips or flows to the ground

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where it infiltrates into the soil to form groundwater. It is estimated that this increases the water intercepted from rainfall by approximately 20 per cent. Part of the water available from Marsabit forest is attributed to this process. Rainfall generation within its immediate biosphere. When bare and sparsely vegetated earth next to a forest heats up because of solar radiation, it causes upward air currents that suck moist air out of forests and moves it up. This air condenses as it moves up and falls back in the form of rain. Part of the rain falling on Mt Kenya is considered to originate from this process. Destruction of forests prevents these processes from occurring and significantly reduces the volume of water that infiltrates into the ground to form ground water, thus reducing the base flow. This increases the frequency and severity of drought. The five large blocks of forests form the upper catchments for all main rivers. The water from these forest blocks is utilised as below:

Mt Kenya Forest Ecosystem The Mt Kenya ecosystem consists of 199,558 ha. It is the source of Tana River (Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s longest river), which is the main source of the current hydropower generation in Kenya at Masinga, Kamburu, Gitaru, Kindaruma and Kiambere dams. These dams produce about 70 per cent of the hydropower generated in the country. Masinga Dam acts as a reservoir for the downstream dams. During severe drought, power generation (40 MW) is suspended at the dam to regulate flow in the lower dams. The Tana also supports agricultural development along its basin. The numerous streams and springs that support commercial and subsistence farming on the lower slopes of Mt Kenya owe their flow to the Mount Kenya catchment area.

The Ewaso Ngiro North River is mainly used for farming. This forest alone is estimated to supply more than 40 per cent of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water needs. Fortunately, this forest ecosystem is relatively secure from all forms of encroachment and destruction.

Aberdares Forest Ecosystem The Aberdares Range forest consists of 103,315 ha and forms the upper catchment of Tana, Athi, Ewaso Ngiro North and Malewa rivers. It is also the main catchment for Sasumua and Ndakaini dams, which provide over 80 per cent of the water used in Nairobi, whose population is estimated at 4.5 million people. The forest is relatively secure from adverse effects of forest encroachment and destruction.

Mau Forest Complex The Mau Forest Complex forms the largest closedcanopy forest ecosystem in Kenya, as large as Mt Kenya and the Aberdares combined. It covers an area of over 403,000 ha. The 22 forest blocks that constitute the Mau Forest Complex include 12 blocks in the southern part. These are Eburru, Eastern Mau, Londiani, Maasai Mau, Mau Narok, Molo, Ol Pusinmoru, Transmara, Southern Mau, South West Mau, Western Mau and West Molo. The northern blocks of the complex includes Chemorogok, Kilombe Hills, Lembus, Maji Mazure, Mektei, Mt Londiani, Nabkoi, Northern Tinderet, Timboroa and Tinderet. The complex also includes Maasai Mau forest, a trust land managed by the Narok County Council. The Mau complex is strategic in terms of water catchment and energy generation. Its forests form the upper catchment of 12 main rivers that drain into five major lakes. These rivers also support urban and domestic water use. These include:

Mara River, which drains into Lake Victoria through Tanzania and supports the Mara â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Serengeti ecosystem and associated tourist attractions. These include the great migration of wildebeest, which was in 2007 declared one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Ewaso Nyiro River, which drains into Lake Natron in Tanzania and is critical as the main breeding site for the lesser flamingos in the Rift Valley. Sondu, Nyando, Yala and Nzoia rivers, which drain into Lake Victoria and the Nile River Basin. Kerio River, which drains into Lake Turkana, a water body shared by Ethiopia and Kenya and is a lifeline for the lower northern drylands. River Molo, which drains into Lake Baringo. Rivers Njoro, Nderit, Makalia and Naishi, which drain into Lake Nakuru National Park, famous for flamingos. This is also the most visited park in the country, earning 15 per cent of the total tourism revenue. Lake Nakuru is currently threatened with extinction because of less discharge from the above-mentioned rivers.

Mt Elgon Forest Ecosystem Mt Elgon ecosystem consists of an area of 73,000 ha and is the source of Kuywa and Kimilili rivers, which are tributaries of River Nzoia. It is also the source of Malakisi River, which drains into Lake Kyoga in Uganda. These rivers provide water for domestic use, industrial and small-scale irrigation. Pan Paper Mills in Webuye and the Nzoia and Mumias sugar companies depend on these rivers.

Cherangani Forest Ecosystem The Cherangani forest complex is an area of 120,000 ha comprising 16 forest blocks located in the Trans Nzoia, West Pokot, Marakwet and Keiyo districts. The Cherangani Hills are the source of the Nzoia River system and Moiben, which discharge their water into Lake Victoria. Kenya provides about 45 per cent of the surface water inflows to Lake Victoria, hence to the Upper Nile. Moiben River is the source of water for Eldoret town at Chebara dam. The other rivers are Kerio, Muruny and Wei Wei, which discharge their waters into Lake Turkana, the largest desert lake in the world. Turkwel River draws its water from this ecosystem and discharges it into Turkwel Gorge dam for hydropower generation. The dam has a capacity for producing 106 MW of electricity.

Hydrologic effects of deforestation The loss of vegetation can have a number of hydrological effects. These include decreased canopy interception of rainfall that enhances infiltration of rainwater into the ground; decreased evapotranspiration; decreased soil infiltration because of changes in soil structure; and increased velocity of

Illegal settlements wrecking havoc on the Mau Forest Complex. However, this picture dates from March 2008 and this evolution has since been stopped. (Photo KFS)

runoff after removal of surface litter and roughness. The other effect could be an increase of surface runoff that in turn affects stream flow because of a reduced water retention period. When a forest is replaced with crops and grasses, or simply with bare soil, then heavy downpours cause flash floods. Research in other parts of the world indicates that the surface run-off can increase by 15 - 30 per cent thus reducing recharge to groundwater. After deforestation, rivers dry up completely or the water levels reduce dramatically. Deforestation causes increased sediment load in rivers as witnessed in the rivers originating from Mt Kenya. Studies by various government agencies on Rivers Tana and Ewaso Ngiro comparing the current situation and conditions before 1970 indicate that sediment yield in these rivers is 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 times greater than it was before 1970. If catchment degradation and deforestation continue, the frequency and severity of drought will increase. In addition, even in the absence of drought, the volumes of water available will be insufficient for agricultural and domestic use. There are other hydrological effects. The high density of settlement usually has a significant effect on groundwater abstraction; surface runoff is intercepted in pans; and areas (such as paths and around houses) become heavily compacted. However, areas with crops retain good infiltration characteristics with good crop husbandry. Some irrigation schemes have been established in areas cleared of forest in the Mau Ranges. Therefore, the widespread reduction of river water levels after forest clearance could also be attributed to diversion of water in addition to vegetation clearance. Thus, for instance, the lowered water table in the Njoro catchment and decrease in the flows of the Njoro River feeding Lake Nakuru is most likely a result of the increased use of surface and ground water in the region, in addition to the clearance of forests. Apart from the removal of trees, dense settlement in the upper catchment of Lake Baringo

and the establishment of irrigation areas have also contributed into turning former permanent rivers flowing into the lake into intermittent streams.

Conservation of forests and water towers To counteract these negative effects of degradation, the Kenya Forest Service has stipulated in its strategic plan to achieve the following: Forest boundaries are clearly marked and maintained. Local forest adjacent communities have opportunities to participate in the management of the forests through the formation of community forest associations as enshrined in the Forests Act 2005. KFS has so far registered over 300 CFAs for forest co-management. The unique biodiversity and watershed values of the forest are expressly conserved and enhanced though forest management interventions and actions as provided for in the management plans for each forest ecosystem. The use of innovative payments for environmental service mechanisms from forest ecosystem goods and services to finance adaptation to climate change, biodiversity conservation and watershed management. The forest resource condition is developed and improved through management actions emphasising the use of best practice and best available information. Environmental education, eco-tourism and other commercial opportunities are created for linking economic benefits and the wider society with management of the forest. Sufficient resources are available to support an effective and motivated forest management team, enabling them to meet the challenge of this ambitious vision. The writer is Head of Watershed Management Forest Conservation and Management Division at the Kenya Forest Service

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Looking over the fence SPGS team visits Tanzania’s Sao Hill Industries By Thaddeus Businge

n October 2010, a small Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) team (Allan, Walter and I) undertook a short reconnaissance exercise over the border to Tanzania, where we had heard of good things happening. We were interested to see what we could learn (and maybe share?) with the main private sector forest investors there. With very limited time to visit such a vast country, we could only manage to visit two very important companies, namely Sao Hill Industries Ltd (a subsidiary of Green Resources AS – a sister company of Uganda’s Busoga Forestry Company and Lango Forest Company) and Kilombero Valley Teak Company. For this article, I will concentrate on Sao Hill Industries and would like to share some of the very important lessons learnt.

from November to April. With a dry season that lasts six months, the risk of fire is high and just last year, the company lost about 2,000 ha to fire. Interestingly, this fire came just one day before the rains started. Since then, Sao Hill has invested in lookouts, water points, fire-fighting equipment and staff training.

Social responsibility

SPGS’s Walter Mapanda admiring laminated pine boards (for table tops and doors) at Green Resources Sao Hill Industries.

Timber markets Sao Hill Industries Ltd is a market-oriented company producing saw timber and transmission poles. Sao Hill buys saw logs from government plantations, which the company mills, with a recovery of between 40 and 45 per cent. The timber is then treated and sold both locally and internationally. Sao Hill Industries are currently doing their own planting and expect to have planted about 100,000 ha by 2020, expecting a yield of 2 to 3 million cubic metres of round wood a year. The transmission poles are sold to the Tanzania Electricity Supply Company (TANESCO) but there are also orders from Kenya. It is interesting to note that Sao Hill is not able to meet the demand for transmission poles, meaning there are opportunities for other planters.

Value addition The company adds value to timber by making doors, furniture (yes, from pine wood) and pallets. To minimise wastage and make use of short and small dimension timber, the company does finger jointing and gluing. The waste wood that cannot be utilised is chipped and sold to a nearby pulp mill.

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Bio-energy The company has 12 kilns based on the Katuugo model (our very own Ugandan design). Each kiln produces between 8 and 10 tonnes of charcoal, representing a recovery of about 30 per cent. The charcoal, from pines and eucalypts, is too light for domestic consumption but is sold to Mbeya cement factory, which uses it as a substitute for ordinary charcoal. Sao Hill Industries also make briquettes from sawdust and charcoal dust.

Carbon markets For once, I met someone who said they had received “carbon money”, as it is popularly called in Uganda. Sao Hill is currently managing two of its plantations in Uchindile and Mapanda (about 10,000 ha) under the voluntary carbon market system and they received about US$ 800,000 last year, having sequestered 70,000 tonnes of carbon. They are expanding on their carbon plantations.

Forest fires The two project sites we visited are located in a very dry area with one rainy season running

Social responsibility is more or less the company’s second name. Sao Hill is responsible to both its employees and the communities (villages). They provide decent housing and meals for their employees in addition to paying a decent wage as a way of motivating them. They have also built schools, health centres, donated furniture and employed many local people. The communities are also involved in tree planting with an assured market from the company.

Future plans The company has big plans of expanding their plantation areas and spreading across the region. They are already operating in Uganda, Tanzania, Sudan and Mozambique, and will soon be launching in Malawi. There are also plans of investing in a combined heat and power (CHP) plant that would generate 15MW of electricity, 12MW of which would be sold to the national grid, 1MW for own use and 2MW to be sold to the surrounding areas. From the above and much more I left out because of space limitations, our visit was fruitful. We are grateful to the Green Resources team for the wonderful hospitality and information we received. Special thanks to Olav Bjella, Mwaniki Ngibuini, Sangito Sumari and the entire GR team involved in our visit. The writer is SPGS’s Senior Plantation Officer This article was first published in the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme magazine No 30 of Dec 2010 – Feb 2011. It is reproduced by the kind permission of SPGS, the publishers.

Trees for our survival The importance of forests is recognised as world marks Day of Biological Diversity

very year, May 22 is celebrated as United Nations Day of Biological Diversity. This year, the theme of the celebration was Forests and Biodiversity, in line with the declaration of 2011 as the International Year of Forests. To mark the day, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) organised a conference in the UN compound at Gigiri where Dr Achim Steiner, the Executive Director of UNEP, gave welcome remarks and where statements from the UN Secretary General and from UNEP’s Governing Council were delivered. As always, Dr Steiner was inspiring. Among other things, he remarked that according to the latest studies, the annual economic worth produced by the Mau Forest is US$ 1.5 billion. If population projections are right, by the year 2050 Kenya will have a population of 100 million people. Nevertheless, the country is in danger of throwing away some of its treasures like the Maasai Mara ecosystem, where a clash is taking place between the ancient pastoralist way of life and the current conversion of woodlands into wheat and other fields, and charcoal production. After two short videos related to Forests and Biodiversity, a panel discussion took place, moderated by Jean-Paul Deprins, Managing Director of Better Globe Forestry Ltd and Editorin-Chief of Miti magazine. Panellists were Nobel Laureate Prof Wangari Maathai, Esau Omollo, Deputy Director of Kenya Forest Service (KFS), Dr Ravi Prabhu of UNEP and Dr Dennis Garrity, Director General of ICRAF. Prof Maathai highlighted the contrast between the “silent forests” (e.g. eucalypt plantations) and indigenous forests. However, she acknowledged the importance of eucalypts for the timber and building industry. In fact, away from the water catchment and riverine areas, she has no problems with eucalypt plantations. Her point of view on this matter is more nuanced than generally acknowledged. She made no secret of her aversion to cultivation in forest plantations, remarking that it leads to the disappearance of the plantations in favour of agricultural crops. She gave proof of this, in a slideshow. Mr Omollo noted that plantations and forests in Kenya are fragmented, with long boundaries and many interactions with livelihoods of people. He also remarked that public sector

The panel. From left to right: Ravi Prabhu, Dennis Garrity, Esau Omollo and Wangari Maathai. (Photo BGF)

Jean-Paul Deprins (left) with Prof Wangari Maathai and Dr Dennis Garrity (right). (Photo BGF)

investment in forests is non-existent. Private investment in indigenous forests is very poor, if not non-existent, while these forests have a high regeneration potential. Plantation forestry currently is neglected, and no harvesting is taking place because of the presidential ban on logging. Dr Prabhu explained REDD+ (Reducing Emissions through Deforestation and

Degradation). The “plus” extends the original REDD concept with enhancement of carbon stocks (e.g. plantation forestry). It is important to note that REDD+ reaches out to the private sector regarding establishment of tree plantations. In fact, it is an incentive (read “payment”) for doing a good job, conserving and extending the forests. The REDD concept arose because 17-19 per cent of all greenhouse gas emissions come through

Miti July-September 2011

destruction of forests. More information is available on www.reddplusdatabase.org. Globally, the estimated loss in capital flow of services resulting from one single year’s loss of forest is US$ 2-4.5 trillion. This is truly staggering, and that is the real value of forest ecosystems and the biodiversity they offer. The last speaker was Dr Garrity, who commented on an extraordinary development in the Sahel region, among others in Niger, where a large-scale regeneration of parklands is taking place. The main tree species in these parklands is Faidherbia albida (formerly known as Acacia albida), valued by farmers for its agroforestry potential. The trees shed their leaves during the rainy season, allowing light for crops under their canopy, and retain leaves during the dry season. Apart from that, the trees add nitrogen to the soil through their rooting system. The regeneration was triggered by a government decision about 20 years ago, allowing farmers to own the trees and sell the products, so they started caring for the trees. In addition, the Hausa agriculturalists negotiated with the Fulani pastoralists to leave the trees in place. As for now, tree density has risen to 200-300 trees/ha, resulting in higher crop yields, more grass and more firewood, the latter even sold over the border, in Nigeria. Dr Garrity also mentioned two more examples of landscape restoration. These are the Ngitili system in Tanzania where there has been natural regeneration of acacia and miombo woodlands, and the Tigray dryland restoration in Ethiopia. He advocated the concept of “Evergreen agriculture”, meaning a double-storey system with perennials (trees) and annual species (agricultural crops). “Evergreen agriculture” utilises minimal tillage systems. Dr Achim Steiner made the closing remarks, noting that respect for biodiversity and forests is now crucial. Indeed, for Miti magazine, this event was a revelation. Biodiversity is no longer an issue just for nature lovers, but the conservation of “earth’s living treasure” is becoming essential for the survival and well-being of the human race. The rich biodiversity of forests helps us to combat the climate crisis, alleviate poverty, support human health and continues to supply new foods to the human race. Its economic importance is enormous. — Jan Vandenabeele

Miti July-September 2011

PICTORIAL

Emergency food distribution to BGF workers in Kiambere. Times are hard now in dry areas, with a general crop failure due to drought. (Photo BGF)

Flore de Préneuf, Communications Officer from Profor (Programme for Forests), Worldbank interviews a local resident in the buffer zone of the future Sosoma plantations in Nguni, Mwingi East district. She is accompanied by Jean-Paul Deprins and Elias Musyoka (Photo: BGF)

BGF’s nursery in Kiambere. Hardening off of mukau seedlings. (Photo: Flore de Préneuf, Profor, Worldbank)

Rino Solberg Chairman Better Globe and Steward Clenaghan (private investor) at the Investment Forum held in Nairobi on 25 - 27th May 2011. The theme was Private Investment in Trees and Landscape Restoration in Africa. (Photo BGF)

Investing in trees in Africa Nairobi hosts an international gathering of technicians and financiers to discuss landscape restoration By Jan Vandenabeele

frica has attracted relatively little investment in trees compared to other continents. Why is this? The Program on Forests (PROFOR) of the World Bank, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Ecoagriculture partners and TerrAfrica joined forces to organise a three-day investment forum in Nairobi to find answers. The idea was to explore the potential for private sector investment in tree-based production, marketing and processing, thus creating opportunities for landscape restoration in key African countries. About 100 people attended, from a wide range of backgrounds. International institutions, NGOs, governments,aid organisations,private companies and private consultants were represented. The purpose of Day 1 was to provide an overview

of the issues surrounding investment in treebased technologies for landscape restoration. Peter Dewees, PROFOR Program Manager gave as introduction speech, “A short introduction to trees and landscape restoration and the potential for private investment.”

enabling conditions for investments in landscape restoration. The sessions for the day were: Opportunities and constraints for investing in forests and trees in landscapes, and Private sector perspectives

Then, two sessions took place, each followed by a panel discussion. The sessions were: Tree-based technologies for landscape restoration and for improving livelihoods in Africa, and Scaling-up landscape investment approaches in Africa: where do private market incentives converge with landscape restoration goals?

Some working groups were formed around the following themes: Tree-based technologies for landscape restoration in Africa Opportunities and constraints for investing in landscape restoration Which landscapes in Africa are suited for scaled up landscape restoration How can we reduce the barriers to investment in forest & trees in landscapes What partnerships are required to realise investment

On Day 2, participants looked at strategies to overcome investment barriers and to create

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Day 3 was set aside for drawing conclusions. The forum was definitely interesting. Many contacts were made and a lot of information was passed around. And things are moving (see the article on Biodiversity Day [pg 32] – parkland regeneration in the Sahel, acacia savannah regeneration in Tanzania, “Evergreen Agriculture” and others). Research by ICRAF over the last two decades has confirmed the value of an agro-forestry approach for increasing agricultural productivity in a sustainable way. One of the merits of this Forum was possibly raising awareness on the application of these technologies and their benefits. This would equip the donor community to push national government policy makers for implementation of the technologies. There were few private investors at the Forum. Stuart Clenaghan of Eco System Services has worked on the London Stock Exchange as a trader and he knows the financial world. He gave the following conditions to attract investors: Profits after two years, and good cash flow over 5-10 years Land tenure security, existence and respect for forest laws conducive to private sector investment The beneficiary of the investment must speak the “language” of the investor (in terms of accountancy, financially) The project to be invested in must display world standards of responsibility. Nevertheless, Mr Clenaghan believes “soft” and “hard” investment complement each other. He also believes in the positive effect of an integrated approach to attracting private sector investment. He also sees merit in independent certification so that banks are more willing to invest because it would lead to higher farm gate prices. He further pointed out that he did not believe in the carbon market. David Boyer from the Aga Khan Development Network shared some of these views, noting that many investors were interested in investing in Africa, but could not find projects at the desired scale or trusted partners. According to him, carbon credit projects often do not deliver the expected returns and result in “toxic carbon credit”. Key issues affecting private sector investment are: Land tenure and rights, Conflict and post-conflict situations and Governance.

Miti July-September 2011

Paul Mucheru, the new Advertising and Sales Executive of Miti magazine, in front of the Miti stand at the Investment Forum held at the ICRAF headquarters in Nairobi. (Photo BGF).

In conclusion, Africa is not a preferred investment destination and forestry is competing with many other investments. However, the good news is that technologies and opportunities exist for African farmers to make it on their own. In another panel discussion, it was rightly pointed out that more attention should be directed to investment in drylands as there is much land and potential there compared to medium and high-potential areas. This sounded like music to the ears of BGF, as this is exactly part of our vision and strength. However, it was also remarked that water scarcity is most likely a very constraining factor to investment. It became clear during the Forum that “hard” investors are not (yet) very attracted to Africa in matters of afforestation. On the contrary, quite some “soft” investment is available, through government aid and institutions. This kind of investment is needed to improve the environment, for example in supporting institutional reform, securing commercial rights to land and resources, financing capacity building such as extension programmes and reduce transaction costs. Novel ways of financing tree planting and conservation are being developed, like through the REDD mechanism. Again, talk about “landscape restoration” is not attractive to “hard” investors. It sounds “vague.” The paper “Tree-based and other land management technologies for landscape restoration in Africa” 1 gives a very interesting picture on a variety of possibilities. The paper 1 See “back-ground paper 1” on http://www.profor. info/profor/events/Nairobi-forum

provides information on timber and various wood products, indigenous and exotic fruit and nut trees, coffee, tea, cocoa, fertiliser trees for crops and dairy production, and proves their value with figures. However, the writers forgot to mention the trade in gum arabic and the related Acacia species, as well as resins and the related Commiphora and Boswellia species. Literally, millions of people in Sahelian Africa depend on the gum and resin trade and gum and resin trees occupy huge tracts of land. The same paper also emphasises the importance of integrated soil fertility management, conservation agriculture and rainwater harvesting. This is important for a changing African climate where dry areas most likely will get drier. At BGF, we are struggling with this reality on a daily basis, as we are planting trees in areas where for the last three years (March 2008 – June 2011) the combined rainfall has been barely 1648mm, being less than 550mm/year on average. But the tree planting works and is profitable. The mere fact that this Forum was held, and funded by the World Bank, shows that key decision makers feel that it is time for Africa to catch up. The continent has to play its role in food security, handling climate change and conserve its vital biodiversity; and as it has much to offer. It was a rare opportunity where technicians and financiers gathered as these two groups normally do not mingle. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

Growing fruit trees in ASAL Jessours allow for maximum use of scarce water By Herman Verlodt

This article is in a series about water harvesting techniques in ASAL. The previous ones were: A solution for semi-arid regions (Miti issue 6) Tabias for harvesting water in ASAL (Miti issue 7) Constructing tabias (Miti issue 8) Keeping tabias in working condition (Miti issue 9) Borrowing from the ancient world (Miti issue 10)

essours are mostly utilised in arid zones for watering plantations of fig, olive and palm trees, as well as for grapes. They are mostly built on relatively important thalwegs or riverbeds, one after another alongside the thalweg so that any water overflow is captured by the next one downsteam. Jessours can also be built on small intermittent rivers and in this case, their construction is realised by creating small tabia dikes of a mixture of stones and soil and with less protection. The dikes are thus less strong and have to be inspected after every significant rainfall. Mostly, jessours are used for watering several trees, but sometimes a jessour is occupied by one single olive tree. The following photos demonstrate the dramatic improvement in growing conditions achieved by establishing jessours in arid areas (150mm main annual rainfall).

Vegetation (olive and fig trees) obtained in a jessour, bordering the natural vegetation (sparse grasses) in an area with mean annual rainfall of 150mm.

Jessour improvement by incorporating stones in the soil In the Dakar mountainous regions of Tunisia and behind water collection infrastructures, arboriculture on rainfall is well developed and constitutes one of the main agriculture resources. This exploitation encounters difficulties during dry years. Prolonged drought - that continues for several months and in exceptional cases up to one year - may cause extensive damage to the fruit tree patrimony. The damage includes: Reduced tree growth Reduced or total absence of production of fruit Appearance of diseases, weakening the trees Dying of trees when no more water is available at the roots of the tree The technique of pockets of buried stones is one of the ways used to overcome this problem. The technique leads to sustainable development of fruit tree growing on natural rainfall in mountainous regions.

Description of the technique This innovative technique relies on the installation

Continuation of the same river towards a second jessour

of three to four ranges of buried stones: at the bottom of a ditch 1 to 2m deep and 0.7m wide. The length is variable, depending on the function of the ditch; at the bottom of a pit of 1 - 1.2m deep and 1 m wide and long. The stones used should be rather flat and medium-sized, not exceeding a length of 20cm, a width of 10cm and a height of 5cm. The stones

should be strong and well-cemented rocks (limestone, dolomite, etc.). The stones can be replaced by industrial gravel. The ditch is lined by a plastic sheet at its lateral sides and the upper side. Depending on the function of the pocket, a vertical plastic pipe is placed in the middle with a T or an elbow at one or two places of the pocket. The plastic pipe pierces the plastic sheet and sticks out some 10cm above ground level. The pocket is sealed with soil and compacted. Once the pit is sealed, the inside is irrigated through the pipe, until the water fills the cavities between the stones, before further infiltration into the deep soil, situated below the pocket. The stored water will be used by the roots of the trees.

Different variants of pits with buried stones There are four types of pits with buried stones: Type 1 : pits of buried stones realised before tree planting; Type 2 : individual pits of buried stones for existing trees with a canopy of less than 5m2 ;

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Young olive tree in the new jessour with the dike in the background.

Small river as a start of the first jessour with (at the right) a deviation on the dike. Note the contrast between the grass vegetation in the jessour, and the small dry shrubs around it.

View of the second jessour and behind the dike tree vegetation (date palm) in the third jessour and trees in the background in a fourth jessour, still on the same small stream. Detail of olive and fig trees in the third jessour.

Type 3: individual pits with buried stones for existing trees with a canopy of more than 5m2; Type 4: pits with buried stones in trenches between the ranges of trees with a canopy of more than 5m2 and distanced less than or equal to 10m. These different types of pits with buried stones have shown their efficiency with respect to irrigation water economy (Chahbani, 1997), and are effective in safeguarding an asset of fruit tree plantations during consecutive dry years. The system is very similar to the withdrawal and gravity distribution of water stored in underground cisterns and it uses the same system (the gravity draining float) but is bigger. The system of water withdrawal from small hill lakes and jessours can have two drains with spherical valves, which cost less than pumps. This system allows protecting jessours during flood rains and allows the excess water to be evacuated towards pockets with buried stones.

Results with jessours Agronomic results improve significantly from the use of pockets and drainage systems. However, costs increase, and therefore, the economic results are only slightly better and return on capital on investment is lower. View of the start of a jessour with two small riverbeds (right and left).

View of the jessour vegetation behind.

Bibliography Chahbani B. (1997): Les acquis de recherche dans le domaine de la conservation et la valorisation optimale des eaux de ruissellement dans les rĂŠgions arides du centre et sud tunisien.

Detail of fig production in the jessour.

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Delimitation of the catchment of a new jessour.

The writer is a former professor of the University of Tunis, Tunisia and a researcher specialising in horticulture and irrigation techniques Email: herman.verlodt@gnet.tn or h.verlodt@yahoo.fr

A diversion channel to guide run-off from an earth road into a tree plantation (Melia volkensii), in Kibwezi. (Photo BGF) (inset): An anti-erosion ditch, type â&#x20AC;&#x153;fanya chiniâ&#x20AC;? running in the middle of the central rows, receiving the run-off. Note the bigger stem diameters of the rows close to the ditch. (Photos BGF)

Water, water on our roads Litres of the precious commodity go to waste whenever it rains By Erik Nissen-Petersen and Jan Vandenabeele

This is another article in our series on small and cost-effective ways to obtain water in drylands. We have already written on: The availability of water in drylands (Miti issue 5); Water from dry riverbeds (Miti issue 6); Shallow wells (Miti issue 7); Sub-surface dams (Miti issue 8); Weirs (Miti issue 9); Sand dams (Miti issue 10).

t might sound strange to consider roads as water catchments. However, by their very nature, having a compact and impermeable surface, roads are very good at collecting water. In addition, roads are never level, but have a slope, to allow water to flow. The

potential of collecting water from roads is easily demonstrated. As written before in this series of articles, 1 millimetre (mm) of rain falling on 1square metre (m2) of surface equals 1 litre (ltr) of water. Consider a small earth road that is 1 km long and 4 m wide. A moderate shower of 30 mm with a coefficient of 70 per cent for losses through evaporation and infiltration will provide 1,000 m x 4 m x 30 mm x 0.7 = 84,000 ltr of water. That is a huge volume and it represents substantial money. During the dry season, water in ASAL sells for Ksh 2 to Ksh 20 for a jerrycan of 20 litres. Therefore, 1 km of road can theoretically produce 4,200 jerrycans of water. If sold for Ksh 5 per jerrycan, it would fetch Ksh 21,000 from one single rain shower.

The question then becomes; how can the runoff water be captured and stored without leading to soil erosion? There are several answers, most of them easy and cheap to implement because they only require common sense and manual labour during the dry seasons when there is not much else going on in the fields. Water can be a very destructive force, as users of earth roads in rural Kenya know. Dusty road surfaces become transformed into muddy waterways with pools of water trapped onto the road. In extreme cases, the road simply disappears and becomes a riverbed, forcing motorists to drive on adjacent farmland to reach their destinations. The ideal road surface is slightly elevated in the middle and sloping towards the edges with

Miti July-September 2011

Mukau trees watered by run-off from a road. Note that the trees growing next to the ditch are twice as big as the others.

Diversion channel at a road.

A silanga ya ndovu pan.

A gully created by a diversion channel.

A charco earth dam near a road.

Mangoes interplanted with beans, with a ditch capturing run-off from a road.

A berkad ground tank near a road.

A diversion ditch to farmland

A road functioning as a riverbed.

diversion channels discharging water safely. Rural dirt roads require regular grading maintenance to discharge rainwater safely. Diversion channels cut deep gullies in people’s farmland. This disaster can be turned to advantage if the water is used for seasonal irrigation of farmland or stored. To prevent diversion channels creating gullies and erosion, their slope should be between 3 per cent (3 cm difference in height over a length of 100 cm). Run-off water can flow by gravity in diversion channels to the fields to be irrigated and the storage places. Where the land slops seriously, the recommended gradient of 3 per cent can be steeper with check dams put in place. These should be made of stones and interplanted with grass to prevent erosion. Simple methods for setting out such gradients are illustrated in “Water from roads”1.

There are several options for storing run-off water from roads for use during the dry seasons. These include borrow pits left over from work on road construction. Other options are natural depressions in the landscape and silanga ya ndovu pans scooped out by elephants long ago. Small earth dams, such as the calabashshaped charco dam and the semi-circular hillside dam can be excavated manually to supply water for long dry periods. Water can also be stored in ground tanks made of bricks, ferro-cement or basins lined with plastic sheets (dam-liners). Water harvested

from tarmac roads should not be used for drinking or for livestock because of possible contamination by tar, oil and rubber. Many farmers are resourceful and construct road bumps and infiltration channels to divert run-off water from roads into their fields. A woodlot of mukau in Kibwezi is irrigated seasonally by run-off water from a road. At the same time, a field of grafted mango trees interplanted with beans is irrigated seasonally by rainwater from a road in Kibwezi.

harvesting rainwater from roads”, by Erik NissenPetersen for Danish International Development Assistance (Danida), 2006. Published by ASAL Consultants Ltd, PO Box 739-00606 Nairobi. Freely downloadable at www.waterforaridland.com

Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director of Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

Erik Nissen-Petersen is a consultant on water in ASAL Email: asalconsultants@yahoo.com and asal@ wananchi.com

1 “A handbook for technicians and farmers on

Miti July-September 2011

Curios crafted out of olive wood. Note the beautiful line pattern in the wood. (Photo KEFRI)

Extending an olive branch Letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s look at another tree of the Bible that is a symbol of peace, happiness, prosperity and glory By Francis Gachathi

he first mention of olive (Olea europaea) in the Bible is the olive leaf that the dove from the ark returned to Noah, signalling the end of the great flood (Genesis 8:11). Since then, the olive branch became a symbol of peace. Olives and places related to them are variously mentioned in relation to important events of the Bible. Olive trees are part of the crops that God gave to Israelites in the Promised Land after their return from Egypt (Deuteronomy 6:11). The Mount of Olives near Jerusalem is associated with several events in the life of Jesus. It is here that Jesus delivered the famous Sermon on the Mount that includes the Lordâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Prayer and the beatitudes (Mathew 5-7). And it is from here that he ascended into heaven after resurrection from the tomb (Acts 1:9-12). Olive trees are hardy, drought- and fireresistant and can live for very many years. Their trunks become crooked, gnarled and often hollow as the trees age. Their leaves are narrowly oval and sharply pointed, dark-green above and silvery underneath. Flowers are small, white or cream-coloured, in branched heads. Fruits are

Cows feeding on olive leaves, Mukogodo in Laikipia district. (Photo KEFRI)

fleshy and egg-shaped, turning purple-black as they ripen. They are popular with birds and particularly pigeons. Olea europaea has six natural subspecies distributed over several tropical and warm temperate countries. The trees, occurring from

Ethiopia down to South Africa, were previously thought a distinct species, Olea africana, but are now regarded as small-fruited subspecies of Olea europaea (subspecies cuspidata), the wild olive. In Kenya, wild olives are found in montane dry forests and rocky hilltop forests in the drylands

Miti July-September 2011

The trunk of an olive tree. (Photo KEFRI)

often associated with cedar and podo. However, they are also found around Nairobi, e.g. Langata. Huge chunks of Olea forests between Nairobi and the Kikuyu Escarpment were cleared to supply fuel for the railway engines at the beginning of the last century. Local names associated with wild olive include oloirien, (Maasai), mutamaiyu (Kikuyu), muthata (Kamba) and tamaiyai (Samburu). Commercial olives, common around the Mediterranean region are Olea europaea subspecies europaea. These have large fruits with thick oily mesocarp and have been cultivated since ancient times chiefly for their oil and fruit. Wild olives have smaller fruits with a thin mesocarp and are not used to produce oil. Olive oil has long been considered sacred. It was used for the eternal light in the tabernacle, the portable sanctuary in which the Israelites carried the Ark of the Covenant of God (Leviticus 24:2). It was used in the holy anointing oil to consecrate the priests, prophets, kings and instruments of the sanctuary (Exodus 30:22-33). It was used for lighting lamps of temples and for the “eternal flame” of the original Olympic Games in Greece. The garden of Gethsemane, where Jesus and his disciples prayed on the night he was betrayed and arrested (Mark 14: 32), means “olive oil press” in Hebrew. The most common use of olive oil was, and still is, cooking. Olive wood is golden-brown with dark figuring, very heavy, hard, strong and durable. It polishes to a very beautiful finish. King Solomon chose olive wood to make doors and decorations for the most holy place of the original Temple of God (1 Kings 6:31-32). Locally, olive wood is used for small cabinetwork, carvings, fancy

Miti July-September 2011

A mature olive tree in Mukogodo, having been pollarded in the past for dry season fodder. (Photo KEFRI)

furniture, utensils and panelling. It is popular particularly with the Maasai for making clubs and walking sticks. It is the best and most valuable firewood, burning slowly and brightly with a lot of heat, little or no smoke and giving a good scent. Olive leaves have long been used in many traditional religious and social ceremonies in different cultures. In Biblical times, olive branches formed booths for feast days (Nehemiah 8:15). Winners of the original Olympics were crowned with olive wreaths to indicate victory and honour. In ancient Rome, a crown of olive leaves was hung on the door when a baby boy was born. The olive is an important ceremonial tree among the Maasai and Samburu. The Maasai burn green branches in most ceremonies for blessings, peace, good luck and prosperity. Burning olive sticks are used for smoking milk gourds for preservation, fermentation and flavouring milk. Twigs are used as toothbrushes while pieces of

olive wood are used to flavour meat soup, giving it a characteristic taste, improving digestion and appetite. A decoction from the bark is taken against stomach rumbles and intestinal worms. It is used to treat malaria and various skin diseases. Recent scientific findings have shown olive to be effective in treating high blood pressure and enhancing renal functions, among other diseases. During drought, olive trees come in handy to save livestock in the drylands. Trees are loped and leaves used to feed livestock. It is by far the most important tree species in Mukogodo, Laikipia District, saving thousands of animals in times when there is no grass, bringing peace, happiness, prosperity and glory to God. The writer is a plant taxonomist at the Kenya Forestry Research Institute Email:gachathif@yahoo.com

To subscribe, contact: Tel: + 254 20 43 43 435 + 254 722 758 745 kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com Mu with kau: A Ke a Yatta brigh nyan farm farm t futu dryla nds re ing er m tre Inter big ak e busin es tre Ge view orge wi ess e Ma th Ug yanja an dan farm er,

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Mukau: A Kenyan drylands tree with a bright future

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