MITI 2

A helping hand across the seas Adding value to wood Ensuring our survival Do trees attract rain?

NFA drives tree-planting in Uganda

Issue No. 0002 April - June 2009

A doctor with a passion for farming Benjamin Kyula’s mango farm is the envy of many

Sweet BUZZ

Bees offer a sting of success

Money grows on trees It’s a good investment

Climate change in East Africa Where are we heading?

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35

4

23 2 Editorial 4 Climate change in East Africa Where are we heading?

6 Do forests attract rain?

The reality is more complex than is usually thought 8 Planting the seed Better Globe to establish a tree plantation at Sosoma ranch 10 Things are looking up for Sosoma A partnership that is bound to change lives 11 Ensuring our survival New forest conservation measures now in

place in Kenya 13 Reserved for trees Uganda’s National Forestry Authority is driving tree planting 16 Reality or illusion?

The future of bio-fuels in Kenya 18 A helping hand across the seas The European Commission supports forestry in East Africa 20 Money grows on trees They are a competitive investment for the future 21 Plant with a great future Evaluation of Moringa oleifera in Uganda 23 Sweet buzz There is great potential in beekeeping in Kenya 25 Adding value to wood Rampel Designs produces beautiful, artistic furniture

18 28 A doctor with a passion for farming Benjamin Kyula’s mango farm is the envy of neighbours 30 Tapping the potential of ASAL KEFRI focuses on improving productivity 33 Cloning Melia for agro forestry Scientists working to overcome challenges 35 Water demand management Making effective use of every drop 38 Unexploited possibilities The status of forest resources and trade opportunities in wood products in East and Central Africa

A helping hand acro ss the seas Adding valu e to wood Ensuring our survival Do trees attract rain ?

NFA drives tree-plantin g in Uganda

Issu e No. 0002 Apri l - June 2009

A doctor w a passion forith farm

Benjamin Kyu

la’s mango

ing

farm is the

envy of ma

ny

Sweet BUZZ

Bees offer

a sting of suc

cess

Money grow s on trees

Climate chan

Where are

we heading

?

ge in East Afr ica

On the cover: Mt Kilimanjaro with its melting ice cap as seen from Kibwezi District in Kenya, with the silhouette of Chyulu hills in the background

We have started a long journey

F

irst, allow us to express our gratitude and delight for the overwhelmingly positive feedback we have received regarding the first issue of Miti. We also received lots of advice and suggestions and some of this has translated into new contributors to the magazine.

In this second issue, we wish to enlighten our readers on climate changes as experienced

in East Africa, followed of course by the controversial question ,”Do trees attract rain?”

Interested readers will have some intellectual fun with our recurrent departments on cloning and water management in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). The Kenya Forestry Service highlights its vision on modern forest conservation and the Kenya Forestry Research Institute its activities relating to dryland forestry.

The Uganda National Forestry Authority elaborates on its vision for the Central Forest Reserves and Dr Grace Nambatya Kyeyune gives us an insight into her pioneering work on the Moringa oleifera plant.

However, let us not forget that Miti is a tree business magazine aiming at creating awareness about the quasi-unlimited commercial possibilities that mother nature has given us by providing us with trees. You will therefore learn, through the experiences of one farmer, how mango trees can improve life for many. Then again, coming from a very different perspective, you will read of how one furniture shop has managed to rise above so many others through focused vision and hard work.

Who has never taken a walk and seen a beehive up on a tree? The symbiosis between beekeeping and forestry is magic. In this issue therefore, we bring a very educational article on beekeeping, undoubtedly one of the tools that can be used in the fight against poverty.

Several other articles will entertain and inform you for the next quarter. One of them is Dr Joshua K Cheboiwo’s article on trade opportunities in wood products. We particularly wish to thank H E The Ambassador of the EU, Mr Eric Van Der Linden warmly, for the time he has taken to listen to our vision, for his wise advice and for the friendly manner in which he motivated his staff to contribute to the magazine through the provision of an article for this and the next issue.

We are at the beginning of a long journey that aims to bring together all the amazing knowledge in afforestation found in Africa. The fascinating people and their unbelievable projects - some big, some small, and very often in unexpected places.

Dear readers, we need your input, your advice and your trust to collect, manage and disseminate all this information but we believe it is worth the effort. Feel free to send us an email at jpd@mitiafrica.com.

Asante sana.

Jean-Paul Deprins Miti magazine

Published by: TQML LTD ® P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 262 061 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 752 896 205 Email:uganda@mitiafrica.org

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Chairman of the Editorial Board: Rino Solberg

Contributing Editor Mundia Muchiri

Editor-in-chief Jean-Paul Deprins

Designer Daniel Ngugi

Managing Editor – Uganda Julie Solberg

Advertising and subscription Total Quality Management Limited

Technical Editor Jan Vandenabeele

COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Copy Editor Wanjiru Ciira

Miti April-June 2 009

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Climate change in East Africa Where are we heading?

By Jan Vandenabeele Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Ltd

A

s the impact of climate change becomes painfully evident in changes in weather patterns all over the world, many studies are being conducted to predict the effect of global warming over the different regions of the world. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) established by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an authoritative body that publishes regularly its assessments of the scientific, technical and socioeconomic information available on climate change. Its Fourth Assessment Report was published in 2007, and most of the data presented here are drawn from that report.

Today, few doubt that climate change is due to an increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, due to activities like burning of fossil fuel, and the largescale deforestation and destruction of vegetation that stores carbon. About half of the biomass of trees consists of carbon (trees inhale CO2 and release oxygen).

Its chemical association with oxygen as carbon dioxide (CO2) is considered the most important greenhouse gas. It occurs naturally in the atmosphere but its concentration is increasing from a pre-industrial-age level of 285 ppm (parts per million) to about 380 ppm now, and is projected to increase further towards 5001000 ppm by 2100 if no effective measures for keeping it down are taken. A reminder: greenhouse gases are those that absorb infrared radiation in the wavelengths at which the earth radiates energy to space.

What will be the impact of global warming on the climate of East Africa?

In general, moist areas will likely become moister and dry areas will become drier.

There is no escape from the warming.

Temperatures will increase, baking moisture out of the soil faster, causing dry regions on the margin to cross the line towards crisis. As almost three quarters of Kenya consist of arid and semi-arid lands, this will be seriously felt.

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Mt Kilimanjaro, having lost an estimated 80 per cent of its ice cap during the 20th century, is likely to lose it completely between 2015 and 2020.

Detailed studies involving climate data sets in 21 different global climate change projections by IPCC, project the changes in temperature shown below by 2080-99, compared to data of 1980-99.

Months

Increase in temp (oC)

Â

Minimum

Median

Maximum

Dec-Jan-Feb

2.0

3.1

4.2

Mar-Apr-May

1.7

3.2

4.5

Jun-Jul-Aug

1.6

3.4

4.7

Sep-Oct-Nov

1.9

3.1

4.3

Annual

1.8

3.2

4.3

Projected temperature changes for East Africa

However, East Africa is fortunate in that its precipitation would increase, contrary to what will most likely happen to North and southern Africa. The table below gives the percentage changes in precipitation, according to the same methodology as for the temperatures, by IPCC Clearly, these average figures will vary depending on topography and location, as is illustrated by the pictures illustrating these tables (DJF = December, January and February, JJA = June, July and August).

So, one might argue that the impact of the warming will be partly off-set by increased rainfall, but other studies predict that agricultural systems inside arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), like rain fed Months

Percentage change in precipitation Minimum

Median

Maximum

Dec-Jan-Feb

-3

13

33

Mar-Apr-May

-9

6

20

Jun-Jul-Aug

-18

4

16

Sep-Oct-Nov

-10

7

38

Annual

-3

7

25

Â

Projected changes in precipitation for East Africa

Miti April-June 2 009

A dried water-pan and earth dam in eastern Mwingi. A harbinger of things to come?

crops mixed with livestock, would undergo a 20 per cent reduction in the length of the growing period by 2050. There would be an increase in the probability of extreme warm seasons, higher minimum temperatures and fewer cold nights. By 2080, ASAL in Africa would have increased by 5 to 8 per cent (60-90m ha).

Kenya cannot tackle the impacts of global warming on its own, but will participate in international efforts like the Kyoto protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It is clear that afforestation is important, to encourage the return of carbon from the atmosphere to plants and soils. Equally important are efforts to stop deforestation, and key for agricultural activities will be a giant effort to conserve and store water. This can be done by various techniques, like encouraging efficient use of water through drip irrigation, planting of crops that consume less water or are more drought-tolerant, and by establishing all kinds of dams (earth dams, sand dams, conventional dams), to store the water when it is

available. Water harvesting through roof catchments can achieve enormous benefits at modest cost Dam construction and other water storage efforts are an expensive undertaking, and will have to be undertaken as a joint venture of both the government and the private sector. But there is no escape

Today, few doubt that climate change is due to an increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, due to activities like burning of fossil fuel, and the largescale deforestation and destruction of vegetation that stores carbon

Do forests

attract rain?

The reality is more complex than is usually thought

Image of Nthunguthu River in Sosoma, during the height of the dry season, with the river’s banks slashed away by irregular thunderstorms (like the El Niño phenomenon of 1997-98) likely to become more frequent in the future. The situation is not helped by the absence of forest.

By Jan Vandenabeele Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Ltd

D

o trees really attract rain or do they merely grow in areas where there is rain already? It is easy to confuse the two concepts, when looking at a forest shrouded in mist and comparing it with neighbouring non-forested areas, which do not show the same vapours. Make no mistake; it might be simply evaporation and transpiration of the leaves1 - in fact a release of water from the area and not an addition to it.

Trees and forests will not attract or produce rain, with two exceptions. The first exception is when the forests are really big, hundreds of thousands of square kilometres, like the Congo basin forest. Secondly, the existence of high relative humidity in the air might be captured by the canopy of a forest. This is for instance the case with montane forests in high altitudes, where clouds and mist touch the leaves, which in turn extract some moisture from them.

So, the big tropical Congo basin and the associated West African forest, (the two were once firmly connected), the Amazon and the rainforests of southeast Asia have a strong influence on precipitation. This was shown by researchers from Duke University (Durham, NC, USA) producing climate

simulations based on data from NASA and the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (2005).

The tropics receive two-thirds of the world’s rainfall, and when it rains, water changes from liquid to vapour and back again, storing and releasing heat energy in the process.

With so much rain, an incredible amount of The huge Congo rain forest is able to heat is released into the influence its own rainfall pattern and atmosphere, making is also important for regions far away from it. The forest is threatened by the tropics an extremely logging of valuable hardwoods. important source of heat redistribution. This now influences precipitation patterns and distribution on a global scale, as air pressure distribution directs normal global circulation patterns. Changes in the air pressure distribution, ultimately due to large-scale deforestation, can shift these patterns, sending storms off their typical paths and resulting in abnormal weather. However, it is important to note that the global average precipitation is not affected, only its timing and distribution. The study showed, among other things, that deforestation in Central Africa

Evaporation is a physical process, where water is converted into vapour, from surfaces like rivers, lakes, roads, the soil and a humid vegetation.

Transpiration is a biological process, where water is extracted from living tissues and transferred to the atmosphere. The combined process is called “evapotranspiration”.

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Miti April-June 2 009

would affect precipitation in the US Midwest during spring and summer when water is crucial for agricultural productivity.

This being a study, more research is needed for confirmation, but it is clear that land cover and its changes have an influence on global rainfall patterns.

Coming down from these global patterns to micro-situations, it shows that forests tend to ameliorate the local climate. Maximum temperatures are lowered and minimum raised, relative humidity is a little higher and wind velocity may be reduced on ground level. These are generally beneficial influences.

However, the public perception that forests increase rainfall, or that forests increase water flows, needs to be taken with great caution. In fact, forests lose more water than short crops like grass or wheat, through evapotranspiration. This is explained by the fact that forests are tall, with a rough aerodynamical profile catching a lot of wind, favouring high rates of evaporation of intercepted rainwater. Another reason is that forests have deep roots, which give them access to soil water even in dry conditions. In fact, a savannah vegetation – essentially grass - with its low evapotranspiration rates, high ground cover and root penetration limited to upper soil layers, might be more effective in recharging and maintaining a high water table.

In other words, vegetation-water relations are determined by site-

specific situations.

Let us see in detail what happens during a rainstorm over a forest.

During the storm, a lot of water will be intercepted by the canopy, depending on the tree species (big or small leaves) and the leaf area, from where it will either drip down or evaporate. If water drips down in big droplets from big leaves like teak (Tectona grandis), it can give rise to splash erosion and run-off, or infiltrate the ground, depending on the state of the existing ground cover. Indeed, some plantation types and management practices (logging, roads, spacing, under-storey vegetation) might favour erosion.

However, after precipitation has passed through the forest canopy, some of it will move into the soil.

There it will fill the soil capillaries, and if sufficient water has passed, it will also fill the larger, non-capillary spaces.

The water in non-capillary spaces will pass deeper through gravity into groundwater tables, or through subsurface flow into streams. The remainder is held against gravity in the soil and might evaporate or be consumed by roots and get back into the atmosphere. Dry land forests with species that totally shed their leaves, like Commiphoras or Boswelllias, or with tough leathery leaves that can close their stomata and still withstand the drought (e.g. Boscia), will reduce or largely eliminate transpiration, and through shade and reduced wind speed, diminish the evaporation.

Soil erosion in Kenyan dry lands.

Hence, vegetation can have a big influence on water consumption, but it also serves an important function in soil stabilisation. After a rainstorm, some water will run off over the land surface. This quantity will depend on the density and depth of the soil layers in the forest.

The soil depth is a given factor,

but the density is influenced by the vegetation.

As undisturbed forest vegetation develops, it builds a more favourable environment for the formation of permeable soil. Organic litter is deposited upon the land surface.

As it begins to decompose, organic decomposition products move into the upper soil, providing favourable conditions for bacteria and other plant and animal life to go to work to build soil structure. Roots penetrate throughout the topsoil layers, and provide mechanical stability and create myriads of underground channels as they die and rot. Thus, over time, the development of forest cover builds optimum conditions for the penetration and storage of water.

This infiltration capacity is crucial to the balance between runoff and water storage. On the other hand, removal of the sheltering canopy exposes litter and humus to increased oxidation, to the impact of rain, and to removal by wind. The situation starts to deteriorate and at some critical stage, surface runoffs starts to occur.

Soil compaction increases, and low infiltration rates and less water storage capacity affect the watershed.

In summary, forests on a local scale do not increase the precipitation nor attract more rain. On the other hand, large-scale deforestation of tropical forests can affect rainfall on the other side of the globe.

Vegetation consumes water in varying amounts, and forests tend to consume a lot more than crops or grassland, and the presence or absence of forest will have a tremendous effect on stabilising soil and regulating streams. This, perhaps, explains why people in general think forests attract rain, while the reality is far more complex and different

A rainstorm developing over Lake Kiambere, April 2008

Miti April-June 2009

7

Jean-Paul Deprins, Managing Director of Better Globe Forestry Ltd, standing on Katumba rock at the eastern edge of Sosoma, overlooking the flat plains of the ranch.

Planting the seed Better Globe Forestry takes the first steps in establishing a tree plantation at Sosoma ranch

By Jan Vandenabeele, Executive Director Better Globe Forestry Ltd

S

osoma ranch is located in the southeast corner of Mwingi District, bordering Tana River District on its eastern side. The ranch is roughly 230km east-northeast from Nairobi, along the Garissa highway (see map, with the black arrow indicating the position of the ranch).

The ranch occupies 60,705ha and was allocated by the Ministry of Lands to the Sosoma Cooperative Ranching Society (SCRS) in 1991, for 45 years.

Administratively, the ranch is situated in the Mwingi divisions of Nguni, Ngomeni and Nuu. The recent splintting of Mwingi District means that the northern part of the ranch is in the newly created Kyuso Division.

The population density of the neighbouring area is very low, with seven inhabitants per sq km for Ngomeni division, and 12 people per sq km for Nguni division (population census 1999). The population density is the same, or even lower, towards the east.

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Ecology The land is flat, consisting of a plain with isolated hills. At 645m above sea level, Katumba rock is the highest point in the ranch. It marks the boundary between Mwingi and Tana River districts, and the eastern boundary of Sosoma ranch. The rock is easy to reach, as there is a motorable road from the Garissa highway towards its top, where guards are stationed to protect a booster station.

Small slopes of less than 5 per cent offer micro-relief . The plain goes slightly down from west to southeast: from 600 to 420m above sea level.

Sosoma ranch is at the transition of two main geological systems. The western part falls within the basement rock system while the eastern part is within the sedimentary rocks system.

The ranch also straddles two climatic systems. The western part falls within the interior, while the eastern part falls within the coastal rainfall patterns.

The climate is arid in the west, to

very arid in the east; with a bimodal rainfall pattern. Long rains occur between March and May, and short rains from October to December.

The average yearly rainfall is between 300 - 500mm, decreasing from west to east. Occasionally, the area experiences heavy rainfall.

However, November is the only month with reliable rainfall of 90 - 115mm in 60 per cent of all years.

Start of operations Better Globe Forestry (BGF) will establish extensive plantations of both Melia volkensii (mukau) for timber and Acacia senegal for gum arabic in this environment. As planting will take place all year round, water is a big priority.

BGF starts the planting of this extensive area in 2009 with a pilot project, having the objective of planting 250ha (200ha of mukau and 50ha of Acacia senegal) before the end of the year. This will allow BGF

Miti April-June 2 009

to fine-tune operational, technical and managerial methods as further negotiations with the landowner take place, to come to a full lease agreement.

BGF is currently operating on the basis of an MOU while the landowner takes the required administrative steps to fulfil all government requirements.

BGF assists with these procedures, of which a land survey is a major part. The survey will clearly define boundaries with beacons on the ground and produce a site plan, which is the basis for obtaining formal land ownership. Only then can BGF and the Sosoma Ranching society sign an official lease agreement and proceed with the plantations at a faster pace.

Simultaneously and in the limited framework of the pilot project, a survey for identifying suitable sites for dam construction has taken place, as well as a geological survey for drilling boreholes. Specialists of the Water Department of Mwingi District did the surveys. The specialists identified six possible dam sites and three sites for drilling a borehole. The dam sites are on small watercourses inside the ranch, and the proposed dams would have a water storage capacity of 24,000 to 30,000 cubic metres, depending on the site.

However, availability of water will depend on the rains, and watering of plantations this year is factored as originating from a borehole. Drilling is

!

!

a risky venture, as the availability and quality of water will only be known after drilling is complete.

In fact, many boreholes in similar ecological conditions have produced undrinkable salty water that cannot even be used for irrigation. It is also important that daily water flows be sufficiently high, e.g. over 30 cubic metres. If technically feasible –that is, from less than 120m deep - the pumping will be through solar energy, of which there is plenty in Sosoma.

An environmental impact assessment on the pilot intervention is being drafted to submit to the National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), which has to give its approval for such undertakings. In this respect, consultations take place with the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), to ascertain that the plantations will not interfere with the movement of game, particularly elephants, which use the ranch on their treks between a cluster of national parks and reserves to the north of the ranch, to Tsavo East National Park to its south.

In fact, KWS is our main neighbour in this remote area, facing some of the same problems that BGF has to tackle, including maintaining good relations with the population of the area where pastoralists sometimes intrude into protected areas in search of grazing ground for their livestock.

Regular meetings are taking place with the heads of departments (forest, water, environment, livestock, land, etc) of Mwingi District, to coordinate our movements and avoid making mistakes.

Preparations for drilling for water and for the establishment of a tree nursery at in an

advanced stage with the first block of plantations planned for May. Particular importance is placed on procurement of good seeds of mukau, as we had some painful lessons in the past regarding availability and quality. This time we count on the cooperation of the Kenya Forest Service in Kitui District, where some excellent mother trees (this is forestry language for seed trees) have been identified.

BGF is coordinating with the Kenya

Two different provenances of Melia volkensii (mukau) fruits. On the right: good and mature, on the left: green and not sufficiently mature, with negative consequences for germination (BGF nursery in Kiambere).

Forest Research Institute (KEFRI) regarding research into suitable provenances of Acacia senegal, for production of first quality gum arabic.

Working closely with the local authorities ensures that the neighbouring population is aware of the nature of our intervention. The people are invited to public meetings, known as “barazas”, where the district officers and chiefs address them concerning our activities and they can ask questions. The local population awaits the beginning of fieldwork with great excitement, as job opportunities in the area are almost non-existent.

BGF will need a continuous workforce of about 50, increasing towards 60 - 80 by the end of the year.

Simultaneously, in line with the philosophy of Better Globe, “Making money doing good”, one school has already been identified in the buffer zone surrounding Sosoma Ranch, for refurbishment through ChildAfrica

Location of Sosoma ranch

Miti April-June 2009

9

head of cattle, indicating that the ranch is seriously underutilised.

A number of proposals to ensure the land is properly utilised have been put forward. These have included tree-planting, bee keeping and charcoal production, all spearheaded by KEFRI, and all of which failed to take off as large-scale undertakings.

However, KEFRI made a pioneering research study into the use of various unconventional, but very common tree species on the ranch, for charcoal. 1 Further studies in the Ukambani region (1999-2003), stimulated by the Belgian Technical Cooperation, the Forest Department of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Kenya-Belgium Study and Consultancy Fund, somehow bore the seed of a future major forestry intervention in the ranch.

Kilimanjaro Agricultural Cooperative Society came up with an irrigated Cotton Production Project, which was fully embraced by the shareholders of the society. However, the Kilimanjaro cooperative members vanished after facing the harsh realities of the environment.

That did not dampen the spirit of the leaders of SRCS and they continued to search for a partner to invest in the ranch. Thus in May 2008, Better Globe Forestry Ltd signed a memorandum of understanding with SRCS, to undertake a project of planting Melia volkensii (mukau) and Acacia senegal (kilaa) trees. So far, this project is advancing very well and every precaution has been taken to ensure it is a success.

This project is expected to change the entire landscape in the area for, apart from growing trees and creating jobs, factories will be built and a greater socio-economic impact will be felt.

SRCS Ltd has come a long way from a run-down society to this viable proposition, in which members are bound to reap substantial benefits from their investments. This is thanks to the involvement of the government in all levels of this project and the personal support of Vice President Hon Stephen Kalonzo Musyoka, who single-handedly ensured that SCRS was granted a letter of allotment in 1991. We look forward to his untiring effort and support as we venture into this investment. Indeed our very own survival as a society now depends on the survival of our trees and related products.

All in all, Sosoma Ranch has a bright future based on tree planting and the accompanying water exploration, which is going on now and which will tie up with wealth and employment creation as advocated in the Government Recovery Strategy, 2003

Sosoma Things are looking up for

The partnership with Better Globe Forestry Ltd is bound to change lives

By E M Musyoka Chairman, Sosoma Ranching Cooperative Society Ltd (SRCS)

The Sosoma Project Technical Committee

S

osoma Ranching Cooperative Society Ltd (SRCS) was the brainchild of some elders in Ngomeni and Nguni locations of the then Nguni Division of Kitui District. They came together in 1975 and decided that the area in which their ancestors used to graze cattle and which belonged to the state, should be transformed into a ranching cooperative society. The group of elders was led by one Muthangya Mwendwa, who on the formation of the society became its first chairperson.

The society was registered on August 30, 1976 through the District Cooperative Office of Kitui. Subsequent documents of the society were transferred to Mwingi, when Mwingi was gazetted as a district in 1994.

Today, Sosoma ranch lies in three administrative divisions, namely Nguni, Nuu and Ngomeni of Mwingi and Kyuso districts respectively. The ranch has an allotted area of 60,705ha and is fully owned by SRCS Ltd with a membership of 769 as at March 31, 2008.

The ranch was granted a leasehold of 45 years starting in 1991. Initially the ranch was intended for raising cattle and goats. With an estimated carrying capacity of 10ha per unit of livestock, it would have been possible to accommodate 6,000 animals. However, when members made their contribution, they raised a mere 88 head of cattle, which was far below what was required to make the venture viable.

This number has dwindled over the years to less than 20

KEFRI, 2003. Study on feasibility of charcoal production out of Commiphora species. Compiled by Oduor N and Githiomi J. Kenya Forest Research Institute, Belgian Technical Cooperation, Kenya. Not published.

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Miti April-June 2009

Ensuring our

survival

New forest conservation measures now in place

By Leakey Sonkoyo, Corporate Communication Department of the Kenya Forestry Service

A

ccording to estimates, Kenya’s forest cover is less than two per cent of the total land area. The forest cover was slightly more than three per cent at independence in the early 1960s. The situation can be described as progressing, or in this case, regressing from worse to worst.

In fact, we should have made progress, considering the demand for forestry products and the importance of forests in the order of life.

This state of affairs led to the passing of the Forest Act 2005 by Kenya’s parliament. The legislation was meant to put in place measures to not only salvage the sorry state of forests in the country, but also ensure that this most vital resource is conserved for current and future generations. The reasons for the continued depletion of forests included inadequate laws, lack of community involvement in forest management and application of stale methods in forest management that could not cope and in most cases hindered positive development in the forestry sector.

The new Act, like never before, sought to address these shortcomings by, most importantly, allowing participatory forest management and creating a body corporate – the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) with a much bigger mandate and “teeth” to manage the country’s forests. For example, Cap 4 of the Forest Act 2005 allows forest

Miti April-June 2009

communities or communities living adjacent to forests to form groups, otherwise known as Community Forest Associations (CFAs), to assist KFS in the management of the particular forest and in turn draw some benefits from the forest in an agreed way.

In accordance to the new legislation, KFS has demarcated the

country into 10 Forest Conservancy Areas (FCAs) or Conservancies for ease of management at a devolved level. The conservancies are Central Highlands, Coast, Eastern, Ewaso North, Nairobi, North Eastern, North Rift, Nyanza, South Rift and Western.

Each of the conservancies is run by a ten-member Forest Conservation

11

Committee (FCC) with representation of a crosssection of important stakeholders. The committee chairperson and the secretary (who is also the head of the conservancy), are appointed by the KFS Board of Management.

Another four – one each from the provincial administration, NEMA, ministry of Agriculture and the wood industry - are nominated by their respective agencies while the other four are elected by the various CFAs in the conservancy.

Central Highlands Conservancy Committee: (left to right) Gerald Ngatia, David Kuria (representing the youth), Emilio For balanced Mugo (coordinator of all conservancies), Peris Githura (representing women) and Josphat Njogu. community representation, at least forestry requires the participation and have been advertised, adds Mr two of the four CFA nominees must be Kibuka. “It is expected that by March, commitment of all stakeholders to a youth and women’s representative. succeed. In our current situation, we all conservancies will be having fully Upon the completion of the FCC cannot afford to fail because if we do – functional FCCs,” says Mr Kibuka. formation exercise, all members will well, we know what will happen.

The FCCs have their work cut be appointed formally by the KFS The estimated forest cover in the out for them considering that they Board to serve for three years. respective conservancies as at the have the responsibility of managing Some of the functions of the FCC formation of the FCCs for the areas over 1.7 million hectares of gazetted include management of the forestry is as follows. Unfortunately, it is not forests in the country. In addition to resource at the regional level and complete for three conservancies, as their duties as spelt out in the Act, informing and advising the KFS Board they are also supposed to oversee the a national forest inventory is ongoing, on specific issues affecting particular management of Local Authority as Conservancies with their estimated aress of forest cover conservancies and zones (districts). well as private forests. Involvement The FCCs also have the responsibility # Conservancy Area (ha) of forestry stakeholders is a 1 Eastern 233,124.0 of recommending the gazetting of break from the way forests have 2 Nairobi 7,556.2 forests, among other functions, as traditionally been managed in the 3 Central Highlands 330,902.0 spelt out in the Act. country.

4 Coast 508,012.5 The process of forming FCCs, 5 North Rift 287,585.3 Lessons from other countries 6 Western 20,453.3 which is being spearheaded by the where PFM is practised are 7 South Rift 330,479.0 Finnish-sponsored Miti Mingi Maisha encouraging and it is expected Forest cover for Ewaso North, North Eastern and Nyanza are still to be Bora project, is at an advanced stage. that it will work in Kenya too. This confirmed Already, seven conservancies have is further strengthened by the fact nominated their CFA representatives, that some form of PFM, though not while the remaining three are due as elaborate, was practised in Kenya and will be completed by April this to complete their nominations by before and during the early years of year. The estimates do not include March 2009, according to the head independence, with positive results. forests under the jurisdiction of Local of Participatory Forest Management However, as with all other Authorities, private companies or (PFM), Erastus Kibuka. programmes, the latest move by the individuals The positions of the chairpersons government to restore the country’s of FCCs and heads of conservancies 12

Miti April-June 2009

Reserved for trees The National Forestry Authority is driving tree planting in Uganda Young pine plantation in Plantation Forest Reserve in Uganda

By Moses W. Watasa, Public Relations Manager, National Forestry Authority

U

ganda’s National Forestry Authority (NFA) was established by the National Forestry and Treeplanting Act, 2003, and launched in 2004 to manage Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) and provide quality forestry-related services in Uganda. This was after restructuring the Forest Department, which had managed public and private forests since the colonial era.

After NFA’s mandate was restricted to managing CFRs, the organisation adopted a specific mission, i.e.: “To manage Central Forest Reserves on a sustainable basis and to supply high quality forestry-related products and services to Government, communities and the private sector”.

CFRs are public forests belonging to the central government of Uganda and represent 15 per cent of the country’s forest cover. Seventy-five per cent of the forest estate in Uganda is owned either by districts or by private planters and is managed by District Forestry Services. The other 15 per cent of the forest cover is under national parks and falls under the jurisdiction of Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA). Currently, NFA manages 506 CFRs in Uganda, spread out in all regions of the country (see map).

There are two types of CFRs in Uganda – natural forests and plantation forests. Natural forests or tropical high forests are the forests that grew naturally due to the unique enabling conditions in areas with water bodies, in river belts in valleys, etc. Plantation forest reserves, on the other hand, were planted, mainly during the colonial era, Miti April-June 2009

following the gazetting of certain areas for development of forest plantations.

Plantation forest reserves are primarily meant for production of timber and wood produce while natural forests are mainly for conservation to ensure an enabling environment for an array of ecosystems.

Operational framework NFA is a statutory body headed by an executive director and falls under the Ministry of Water and Environment. The Minister for Water and Environment appoints the board of directors of NFA, which in turn appoints the executive director, directors and staff.

NFA has four directorates. These are natural forests, plantations, finance and administration and corporate affairs, each headed by a director. Because most of NFA’s operations are field-based, the directorates of Natural Forests and Plantations have the largest numbers of staff, who oversee conservation and planting operations.

The directorates of Corporate Affairs and Finance and Administration are largely headquarter based and lean (with about 75 staff members), offering support services to the core Natural Forests and Plantations directorates (with about 365 staff members).

NFA staff in the field are the “foot soldiers” that, with support from the head office, ensure that forest reserves are shielded from prohibited activities like unauthorised timber extraction and charcoal burning.

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NFA’s tree-planting activities Beyond conserving, NFA plants trees according to forest management plans, to ensure that the country is sufficiently forested and ecologically stable now and in the future. While NFA undertakes most of the planting in plantation forest reserves, there is limited planting in natural forests, particularly in the areas that have been degraded by human activity.

In plantation forest reserves, continuous planting according to the forest management plans ensures that there are mature trees for sustainable present and future supplies of timber over time. In natural forests, NFA undertakes limited planting in degraded patches to aid the natural regeneration.

Since 2004, NFA has planted over 50,000 hectares of trees. A significant volume of such plantations was established with support from the European Union under the Forest Resources Management and Conservation Programme (FRMCP) that wound up in December 2008.

Through the issuance of regulated planting licences in forest reserves, NFA has attracted the private sector to plant another 80,000 hectares of trees. The prospects are

14

promising, following the launch by NFA and World Vision Uganda of a tree-planting drive in which corporate bodies are coming on board to plant within and outside forest reserves.

The harvesting strategy When NFA was created, it was also given a target of being financially self-sustaining by the fourth year of operation, i.e. 2008. For this reason, NFA operates in a businesslike manner. The organisation sells a range of forestry products, including timber and mature tree logs, to generate revenue for sustaining plantation development activities over time.

Harvesting guidelines provide for an annual allowable cut (AAC) in line with the management plans, with mechanisms that guard against over-harvesting to ensure sustainable present and future supplies of forestry produce.

Challenges to conservation Apart from periodic resource shortfalls, the main challenge to tree planting in CFRs is encroachment and the related illegal activity like illicit timber logging, sand mining, farming and charcoal burning. There are over 300,000 encroachers in forest reserves in Uganda. This not

Miti January-March 2009

Major Central Forest Reserves of Uganda

only drains NFA’s budget through surveillance but also encumbers tree planting with encroachers clearing some planted trees for settlement, fuel wood and farming.

There are also cases of local traders who indulge in unauthorised extraction of forest produce and often turn hostile and attack NFA field staff. In January 2009, illegal timber loggers murdered two NFA officers in Jubiya forest along the shores of Lake Victoria.

The way forward NFA is working with the government of Uganda to address encroachment on forest reserves and the related illegal felling of trees. The government has promised to undertake Miti January-March 2009

an orderly eviction of encroachers, starting with forest reserves of the highest ecological value.

NFA is mobilising resources to step up patrols around CFRs and for equipment to secure field staff. NFA has recommended to the government the need for legislation that encourages Ugandans to plant trees to ease the mounting pressure on forest reserves for timber products.

NFA has also recommended that subsidies to the private sector for the establishment of commercial timber plantations be broadened. On its part, NFA will continue offering quality tree seeds, seedling and technical backstopping to spur tree planting in Uganda

15

Reality or illusion?

The future of bio-fuels in Kenya

By David Newman he current state of bio-fuels development in Kenya reminds me of Plato’s “Allegory of the Cave.” The story describes a group of people who have been shackled at the bottom of a cave since childbirth, facing a wall upon which the shadows from the activity of the real world outside of the cave are reflected. Unaware of the outside world, these poor souls mistake the shadows for reality. Once liberated from the cave, they at first fearfully apprehend the reality as artificial and alien. Only with time do they acclimate and eventually choose reality over illusion.

The nascent stage of bio-fuel development in Kenya, especially with its almost singular focus on Jatropha curcas, has yet to emerge from the cave of hype-induced illusion. Opportunists have presented

T

farmers, investors and policymakers with misleading information on the potential of this crop to yield shortterm benefits to Kenya. They have promoted what essentially is a semiwild tree as a plantation-ready crop that will yield fantastic quantities of oilseeds even in the most arid and forbidding lands. Relying on specious information taken from unverified websites and publications, these organisations have profited through the sale of seeds and other planting material at exorbitant prices.

However, the reality of low or nonexistent yields, uncontrolled pests and diseases, and other agronomic challenges has become readily apparent throughout Kenya and beyond. Farmers, many of whom have little margin for error in supporting themselves off their small plots of land, have committed hard earned resources to a crop which has yet to provide

much, if any, income. People have begun to realise that the reality of growing Jatropha is far from the hype.

We have been led to believe that the distorted reflections on the wall of the cave are accurate portrayals of reality.

Evidence of poorly performing Jatropha plantations is abundant throughout Kenya. In the semi-arid Eastern Province, smallholder farmers have struggled for over two years to get their trees to grow. Despite heroic efforts and significant investments of time and resources, many plantations remain filled with row upon row of stunted shrubs. In somewhat more arable regions like Shimba Hills just inland from Kenya’s southern coast, farmers have had marginally more success, with some trees starting to bear fruit, albeit with much lower yields than originally projected.

While some well-maintained plantations of over two years are

Healthy Jatropha, two years old, at Shimba Hills in Kenya’s South Coast

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Miti April-June 2009

starting to bear fruit, the overall requirements. This project, supported picture remains grim, especially

by World Vision, will determine whether because little is known about how bio-fuel crops can provide income much of the variability between to poor farmers, which will in turn farms is the result of the quality of enhance food security in vulnerable seed germplasm and management areas. Partners in the trials include the practices, and how much is due to Kenya Agricultural Research Institute poor agronomic conditions.

(KARI), Kenya Forestry Research Institute The current investment costs, (KERI), the International Centre for combined with the existing yields Research in Agro Forestry (CRAFT), and from currently available planting two private companies, Better Globe material and management practices, Forestry and Energy Africa. indicate that Jatropha may not be A third area of research and an economically viable crop for the development involves the use of immediate future. This is not to say other, potentially more viable biothat Jatropha lacks all promise and fuel crops, such as castor (Ricinus should be abandoned, but rather communis) and croton (Croton that more research is needed before megalocarpus). Both species are it can responsibly be promoted as a indigenous to East Africa and are cash crop for vulnerable smallholder already growing in the wild and in farmers. farms throughout Kenya. Castor is a My company, Endelevu Energy, and perennial shrub that grows in semiits partners in government and the arid areas and will yield oilseeds within private sector, are moving forward on six to nine months of planting. Castor a series of projects intended to answer some fundamental questions about Jatropha and other potential biofuel crops, and to develop strategies for improving performance.

The first step is a comprehensive Seeds of Croton megalocarpus national survey of Jatropha and other crops – funded by German Technical oil is not only a potentially viable bioCooperation (GTZ), a bilateral foreign fuel feedstock, but is also valued for its assistance branch of the German many industrial uses, such as in paints, government – to map out where varnishes and aviation hydraulics.

Jatropha is grown in Kenya and Croton is a large tree that is commonly to collect detailed agronomic and planted in farms to provide wind and economic data on its performance shade, as well as for firewood and and cost. The survey will provide construction materials. It produces baseline data from which further an oilseed that can be collected from developments can be assessed. the ground. Croton is an ideal tree for The second step is an agronomic reforesting denuded parts of Kenya, as research trial that will test different the seeds provide perpetual economic provenances of Jatropha in various incentive to keep trees standing until agro-ecological zones in Kenya, as well they form a mature forest. This is as basic silvicultural practices such as essential for protecting watersheds spacing, pruning, fertilisation and water and maintaining healthy ecosystems Miti April-June 2009

that support Kenya’s people and wildlife.

Sustainable models of production and processing of bio-fuel crops, from the farm to the fuel tank, are essential to developing the industry. This is why Endelevu Energy is supporting cooperatives that are growing and processing oilseeds by guaranteeing a market for their produce.

We are also developing and acquiring the technology to help our clients utilise bio-fuels in Kenya more efficiently. One example is the manufacture of a flex-fuel generator that can run on both straight vegetable oil and diesel, thus eliminating the need for costly and complex biodiesel refining.

The potential for bio-fuels in places like Kenya is enormous.

Kenya is essentially an agrarian society, dependent on imported petroleum and in need of economic development projects that suit the skills and needs of the population.

However, to harness this potential, we must abandon the cave of misinformation for the bright light of scientific analysis and sound planning

David Newman is an environmental lawyer (American University Law School) with over 12 years’ experience in environmental and energy law and policy. He founded and currently operates Endelevu Energy, a Nairobi-based biofuels consultancy that is regarded as a leading expert in the field in East Africa. He is also a member of the Kenya Biodiesel Committee, appointed by the Kenya Ministry of Energy, and currently sits on a steering committee with the Kenya Energy Regulatory Commission, drafting proposed biodiesel regulations and policies.

Before, Mr Newman practised environmental law in the United States with the Natural Resources Defense Council, a leading environmental NGO.

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A helping hand across the seas The European Commission supports forestry in East Africa

Young flourishing seedlings on a recently rehabilitated site in the Dondori Forest Reserve, near Nakuru town. The site was rehabilitated through community efforts. Some crops are visible in the background. This is one of the catchment areas for lakes Nakuru and Elementaita. The area is under the non-residential cultivation scheme on a pilot basis.

Dondori project community members and the project implementation committee (PIC) members share project development ideas with the community environment facility (CEF) manager at a recently set up commercial community tree nursery near Kariandusi company in Naivasha. The members of the community are the primary beneficiaries of the project.

Diatomite Mining

By Daniel Plas, Head of Social & Enviroment Section, Delegation of European Commission to the Republic of Kenya

N

atural forests in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, are experiencing serious degradation. As the population rises, people encroach on forests for settlement. Major threats to forests include charcoal production, timber harvesting and conversion to agriculture. The resultant degradation ultimately serves neither national nor local interests. Such degradation and loss of forests continue because decision-makers do not appreciate the true value of these resources, and because the interests and rights of the stakeholders with respect to these resources and associated benefits are not sufficiently recognised.

Response by the Governments The Governments of the three countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) have however recognised the importance of actively involving local communities in the management of

18

the forests for their livelihood. Forest sector policy reform in East Africa has been led by Tanzania. The Forest Act of 2000 has created a radically new framework for forest management through its emphasis on Joint Forest Management (JFM) and CommunityBased Forest Management (CBFM).

JFM is the “involvement of local communities or NGOs in the management and conservation of forests and forest lands with appropriate user rights as incentives.”

This is intended for centrally managed forest reserves, which include most of the high biodiversity forests.

CBFM goes a step further, whereby full authority over management of forest resources is devolved to local communities and is intended for forest and woodlands that lie outside forest reserves.

Kenya and Uganda have passed similar policies with new forest Acts and policies that have been in effect since 2003, which give communities

legal rights to manage and benefit from forest lands.

Issues Even with a favourable policy environment, there remain major constraints to achieving effective, equitable and sustainable forest management.

The legal and policy framework is largely in place in all three countries, but key details such as specific arrangements for benefit sharing still need to be defined through the formulation of detailed regulations.

On the “supply side”, there is lack of capacity of government agencies and other service providers to facilitate the necessary processes at community level. On the “demand side”, there is lack of capacity of rural communities to take full advantage of new forest policies. Communities often lack expertise in technical aspects and the skills and confidence to negotiate with government. For example,

Miti April-June 2009

many communities in Tanzania who negotiated JFM arrangements are now finding that the benefits do not provide adequate compensation for the duties they perform. JFM is failing in some areas.

The European Commission environmental policy One instrument of the European Commission’s development cooperation policy is the so-called budget line programmes, whereby funding is mostly done through a call for proposals. NGOs from Europe and developing countries are invited to submit proposals1 in a specific area of development cooperation. Each proposal is evaluated on its merits and the best are funded. To support environmental initiatives in developing countries, the EC implemented the budget line “Environment in Developing Countries” during the 2000 to 2006 period, with a budget of 249 million euro. This budget had a general environment component and a component targeted to forestry.2

The European Commission intervention in EA forestry through NGOs Under Environment in Developing Countries budget line, the EC in 2005 approved a proposal submitted by CARE Denmark to work towards solving the problems identified above. This resulted in a 3.5 million euro regional project implemented by CARE. The EC finances 2.8 million euro while CARE finances the rest. The project For more information on ongoing or past call for proposals, visit the website of Europe Aid at: https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/europeaid/

1

online-services/index.cfm?do=publi.welcome In 2007 the European Commission adopted a the programme for the environment and sustainable management of natural resources, including energy for the period 2007-2010, which provides a multi-annual framework for commitment of € 450 million over the four years. This programme also includes a forestry component.

The most recent call for proposals under this programme closed on 21February 2009.

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Miti April-June 2009

Strengthening and Empowering Civil Society for Participatory Forest Management in East Africa (EMPAFORM) - started in April 2005 and will end in mid-2009.

This project aims to promote a propoor approach to the management and conservation of natural forests in East Africa. Community based organisations (CBOs) are the primary target group. Through strengthening of these organisations, the programme will make the implementation of new forest policy demand driven and more equitable in addressing the interests and rights of poor men, women and children. Major areas of activity include access to information, advocacy, organisational strengthening, networking at local, national and regional levels and demand-driven technical assistance.

The programme’s focus on CBOs will also give the rural poor, and particularly women and other marginalised groups, a stronger voice in policy development at national level. By influencing the underlying power relationships within communities, and between communities and the State, the programme will promote good governance both within and beyond the forest sector.

An independent monitoring report in 2007 concluded that the project has developed information materials including programme brochures, leaflets, newspaper articles, posters radio and television programmes on Participatory Forest Management, forestry policies and advocacy targeted at CBOs, partners and the media.

EMPAFORM has promoted networking of CBOs through training, facilitation of formation of CBOs and national level networks.

In Kenya and Uganda, the programme has facilitated the launch of national networks of forestry based CBOs. In Tanzania, support is being provided to a national network formed before the programme. Support has also been given for the development of advocacy strategies and themes

for CBOs. Training for policy analysis, lobbying, and organisational strengthening has been done.

Regional, national and local cross visits for networking and learning on PFM and income generating activities (IGAs) have been done and are well received.

The project has delivered on most of the planned results, but achievement in the provision of direct technical assistance for enterprises development, collection of information on markets for non-timber forest products can still be improved.

The project underwent a final evaluation in early 2009 and the results

are expected in April.

Another ongoing project, financed by the Environment Tropical Forests Budgetline, is the Rafiki Mitiki: A Scattered Cooperative Teakwood Plantation, with a budget of €737,643 for the period 20072010. This project is implemented by the Archdiocese of Dar es Salaam in conjunction with TanDem, a local NGO. The overall objectives of the project are to bring farmers out of subsistence agriculture and promote ecologically sustainable development by contributing to the sustainable management of plantation forests.

This will be achieved by establishing a cooperative of at least 1,500 small farmers to plant at least 7,000 teakwood trees per year.

Moreover, on the NGO Co-Financing Budgetline, the Integrated Improved Woodfuels Services for Poverty Reduction in Tanzania has a budget of €954,098.00 for 2006-2009.

Implemented by the Dutch NGO HIVOS and the local NGO TaTEDO, this project aims to convert households, institutions and SMEs away from wood fuels (wood, charcoal) for cooking and heating because the use and production of wood fuels implies wasteful consumption of wood and high costs to the users, either in monetary form or in collection time. This will be achieved by increasing the low adoption rates of improved wood fuel technologies in the intervention areas, 19

Money grows on trees They are a very competitive investment for the future

By Rino Solberg

A

well-known saying goes something like this: “Money does not grow on trees!”

Perhaps these words have kept most of us from looking at trees as a possible and very interesting investment. Does money grow on trees after all?

The fact is, trees are emerging as one of the most exciting investment opportunities of our time. There are many and different reasons for this.

Three of the most important ones are: 1. The demand for different species of hardwood trees is increasing all over the world while the supply has been decreasing during the past 10 - 20 years. The Chinese market alone is expected to absorb huge quantities of teak, mahogany and other species for the production of furniture, floors, et cetera.

2. Several species of “cash crop trees,” (trees providing different types of cash crops from fruits, nuts, leaves, et cetera) can be used for the manufacture of a range of products, from health foods to medicines.

3. Those who invest in large tree plantations (carbon sinks) will in future be able to participate in the global trading of “carbon-credits” (CO2). This alone has the potential of turning such an investment into a very lucrative venture.

Several large tree plantations have been established by investors whose

by awareness raising, marketing, lobby and advocacy and by reinforcement of the production infrastructure.

Those who adopt the use of improved wood fuel stoves and ovens will reduce their expenditures on wood fuels by 65 per cent and reduce

ONLY motive is to profit from these “carbon-credits.” During the past decades, the forested areas of the globe have disappeared to a frightening degree. Whether we are talking about the tropics, South America, Canada, Africa or Siberia, forests have been and are being cleared for agricultural purposes, for the mining of raw materials, for timber harvesting or for settlement. In Africa, huge forest areas have been cleared for wood fuel, for the simple reason of being able to cook. This trend must be reversed because trees are the natural storehouses of carbons.

As a result of the now famous Kyoto Conference in Japan back in December 1977, the trading of CO2 credits finally commenced at the beginning of 2005. In simple terms, this means that companies around the world who want permission to evade their emission reduction obligations at home, can do so by buying up and trading carbon emission quotas and credits from other countries, projects or industries who contribute to POSITIVE emissions. Trees and tree plantations most definitely do that, therefore those with tree plantations will be able to provide huge amounts of CO2 credits for sale. It is expected that such carbon credits will become one of the hottest commodities on the international marketplace.

Combined with the two other income-producing reasons for investing in trees, this leads to the conclusion that an investment in trees can truly turn into one of the most profitable

indoor air pollution. The action will create or improve income-generating opportunities for artisans making stoves, for charcoal producers and for producers using wood fuels in their production process. The overall objective therefore is poverty reduction

investments around. This is particularly true when looking at the years ahead.

In fact, the growth of investors, individuals, companies, investment funds and pension funds, all making “green investments” in TREES, has been growing at an incredible rate over the last few years. This entire revolution is taking place before “the world at large” has discovered this positive and very profitable investment product.

In Africa, small groups of tree planters might form some kind of cooperatives in order to have larger quantities of hard wood timber, or cash crops, for the huge export market.

However, a warning might be in order here. Do not just plant trees, find out what kinds of trees have a market and then plant those. First, find a market then plant the right tree that already has a market. That is the way to make money. For smallholders however, it might be best to plant a tree that gives a cash crop, like mango. This way, money will be available at least on a yearly basis. To sell to the huge export timber market, you need big quantities The conclusion is clear: The time for investing in trees and tree plantations is now. All market indications point to an awakening among investors all over the world – any investment portfolio should include a certain percentage in trees. It could become very profitable, and the survival of our world as we know it may depend on it!

So, maybe money grows on trees after all?

and environmental conservation.

The programme operates in Arusha, Tanga, Morogoro, Kilimanjaro and Coast regions. The beneficiaries of the programme are households, institutions and small and medium enterprises (SMEs)

The views expressed in this article are purely those of the author and may not, in any circumstances, be regarded as stating the official position of the European Commission.

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Miti April-June 2009

Plant with a great Scientific evaluation of Moringa oleifera for health improvement and wealth creation in Uganda

T

he Natural Chemotherapeutic Research Laboratory (NCRL) is a national scientific research and development centre, created in 1964 as a department under Uganda’s Ministry of Health. Its mandate is to carry out applied scientific research on natural products (plants, animal parts and minerals) to justify therapeutic claims from the Ugandan biodiversity.

NCRL undertakes the development of quality natural products and services for improved health care delivery by applying indigenous and modern technologies. NCRL’s vision is to be a scientific and development centre of excellence for natural products medicine in Uganda.

NCRL is currently undertaking a study on “Scientific evaluation of Moringa oleifera (a nutritional plant of Asian origin naturalised in Uganda) for use as a nutritional supplement in the management of the burden of malaria”.

The Moringa oleifera tree belongs to the Moringaceae plant family. It is a fast growing tree that can grow to 4 - 5 metres within one year in areas receiving less than 500mm annual rainfall. It grows well on hillsides, pastureland and river basins. The leaves, flowers, roots, stem, bark and oil from the seeds have been used for centuries for medicinal purposes. The plant generally possesses valuable properties that are of great scientific interest. The leaf powder, the oil and seed have high nutritional components ranging from protein, carbohydrates, micro minerals and vitamins.

Moringa seeds have on average 42 per cent oil content, which is a lot higher than the common vegetable oil seeds like soya bean. The oil is light yellow in colour and is used for cooking, as a lubricant and a perfume in cosmetics. Moringa oil contains valuable fatty acids with approximately 75 per cent oleic acid, renowned for its immune boosting properties. The by- product of oil extraction (cake) is high in protein and can be used in water purification through the coagulative mechanism. This can be put to great use in the beverages industry.

The young and tender leaves are an excellent source of vitamins A, B and C and minerals iron (Fe), calcium (Ca),phosphorius (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K) and sulphur (S) contained in amino acids. The spent leaf extract residue can be used as an organic fertiliser or a detox to cleanse human body systems.

Moringa oleifera is widely cultivated for domestic and commercial use. There are claims that it cures all sorts of ailments ranging from allergy, malnutrition, boosting body energy, to improving yields of breast milk in both humans and animals.

Summary of established uses of Moringa oleifera in the communities.

Product

Use

Oil

Plain oil for creams and use as an additive in food.

Oil mixed with herbal extracts e.g. essential oils used for sinuses and skin ailments.

Seeds

The seeds are roasted, pounded,

Seed cake

mixed with coconut oil and applied to the problem area. Seed oil can be used for the same ailments.

Roasted seeds and oil can encourage urination and be used as a relaxant for epilepsy.

Organic fertiliser, cattle feed, de-wormer

and water clarifier.

Seed husks

Cosmetics and poultry feed.

Leaves

Crushed leaves are used to clean cooking utensils or even walls. By digging Moringa into the soil before planting, damping off (Pythium debaryanum) can be prevented among seedlings.

Wood

The wood is light and good for cooking.

The bark can be beaten into a fibre to make ropes or mats. Wood pulp can be used to make good quality paper. The tree also produces viscose resin that is used in the textile industry.

Living fence In Uganda, Moringa oleifera products are poorly processed and packaged and therefore lack substantive local and international market.

The presence of precious ingredients like essential fatty acids is an indicator that Moringa has potential for international appeal,

Clockwise from top left: Seeds of Moringa, processed end products and seed cake.

Miti April-June 2009

especially in the European market. However, the processed base (oil, leaf powder etc) is likely to face challenges of certifiable

21

quality and sustainable quantities due to

• Oil yield from dried seeds is 500 kg at

harvesting, which particular parts to

the low level of commercial farming in

25 per cent yield; and the current price

harvest, cleaning, drying and processing

Uganda.

of Tanzanian oil is US$ 5 per litre (UK

were not well identified.

Phytochemical analyses established the leaf powder to be richly endowed with

market).

• Processing capacity of a Komet

Findings and realisations

magnesium, zinc, calcium, iron, selenium

extractor (on the Ugandan market) is

(Se) and chromium (Cr) while the oil

2000 kg of seeds per day, resulting in

entrepreneurs have taken the initiative

has been found to contain linolenic and

500 kg of oil per day. Yearly capacity at

of planting and processing the plant

behenic acids, among other acids.

400 trees a day is about 120,000 trees or

The above micronutrients boost human

300 acres (for 300 working days).

health in various ways. They are crucial to Current local and international market

can have far-reaching health implications.

potential

Acids are critical in preventing all sorts of

• Use in management of skin and oral

useful in the food supplements industry.

The direct application of these results for the development of rational and effective intervention programmes based on scientific evidence is the ultimate goal of the proposed work. The public and the various communities of interest (Ministry of Health and NGOs like TASO and PWAs) are willing to address problems in response to scientific results. We expect to work closely with public health caregivers to disseminate our results,

into products; • Products are poorly processed and packaged therefore lacking both a local

body metabolic process, and their absence

allergies due to advancing age and are

• Quite a number of private

infections • As a health antioxidant oil used in foods to boost immunity • As a healthy oil used as a substitute to other vegetable oils • As a superior oil in toiletries and cosmetics • Used in the maintenance of delicate computer accessories • In formulation of medicines in the pharmaceutical industry • Used in perfumeries as a fixer for perfumes

and international market.

It is important to establish Ugandan standards of the different products that can be made out of Moringa oleifera and this initiative can be realised by the Uganda National Bureau of standards.

Standards should be set for oil, leaf powder, root powder, seed powder, etc.

Farmers need to be trained on farming and processing practices that would enable communities to achieve high standards alongside scaling up to required quantities.

Products have to be developed for the local market (NDA). A laboratory has to be designed that can carry out quality

discuss implications and develop realistic approaches that can be applied in an

Some of the identified shortcomings

analyses for the products to conform

effort to create the kind of environment

• The key ministry regarding cultivation of

to established standards (Cemiphor,

where people living with HIV can lead

such foreign plants was not part of the

Government chemists, National Bureau of

healthy lives.

initial process and as a result, planting

standards).

The Natural Chemotherapeutics Research Laboratory has embarked on working out a standard for Moringa oil in an endeavour to establish a workable prototype that can be rolled out to communities.

Yield and processing information • A normal variety of tree, growing under

material coming into the country did not have a uniform source.

• People planted different species in different localities.

Laboratories in Iran, NEC-Health World

first, before embarking on the foreign

International and Mannatech International

market.

– USA Texas)

• Coming up with bulk (leaves, root bark, quality for a specified market became a

five kg per year in four years. One acre can be planted with a minimum of 400 trees at 3 x 3 metre spacing. This would yield 2000 kg of seeds per acre per year.

22

These include Eng Osuma, Mr Camel

development of the local market

was selected.

year, reaching maximum capacity of

(e.g. oil), on condition of quality assurance. of Egypt, the Goldaru Pharmaceutical

seeds, gum, stem bark) uniform in

and a half years and yields one kg per

identified for buying processed products

• People were too impatient regarding

normal conditions with no fertilisers • The tree starts to produce seeds in one

Recently, potential investors have been

challenge.

• There was lack of guidance regarding

By Dr Grace Nambatya Kyeyune (PhD Med Chem Lough Un, UK) is the Director of Research Natural Chemotherapeutics Laboratory Ministry of Health, Kampala, Uganda.

where to plant, when to plant and how to manage the crop regarding pests.

• Time for

ard out a stand n working o d e rk a b as em t to boratory h e rolled ou e that can b Research La p cs ty ti to u e ro p p ra rkable l Chemothe ablish a wo The Natura avour to est e d n e n a a oil in for Moring s. communitie

Miti April-June 2009

A traditional log hive dangling from a tree with the Chyulu Hills National Park in the background

Sweet

The Kenya Top Bar hive

There is great potential in beekeeping in Kenya

Langstroth hives: A brood box being opened for putting a swarm. On the same stand, a complete set composed of brood box, queen excluder and super.

By Ernest Simeoni, Director of African Beekeepers Ltd

P

overty is a key problem in East Africa, with people living in absolute poverty in Kenya estimated at 53 per cent for rural areas, and 50 per cent of the urban population (GoK, 2000). The poverty line, below which people cannot afford to buy a basic basket of food, is defined at Ksh 1,239 and Ksh 2,648 a month, for rural and urban areas respectively. This is equal to â‚Ź 17 and â‚Ź 37 respectively (at 2000 exchange rates). Most of the rural poor live in ASAL (arid and semi arid lands).

Rural-based projects with significant cash earnings and the potential for sustainability as well as linkages to other sectors of the economy can reduce this poverty. The projects should also be within the means of disadvantaged groups.

Bee keeping and honey production is one such undertaking, as it has been practised in the region for centuries and is firmly rooted in rural areas. Different traditional methods were used with different ethnic groups using log hives, basket hives, bark hives and so on, or alternatively hunting honey in the wild. These methods were adequate in the old days since honey was mainly used for ceremonies and production of local brew. Today, however, demand for high quality honey has increased dramatically, and outweighs production, creating a deficit of locally produced quality honey.

To meet this demand, it is necessary to modernise bee keeping through technology adapted to local bees and the environment. We are talking about the use of Langstroth hives and related honey extraction equipment, as opposed to traditional log hives and the Kenya Top Bar Hive.

The traditional log hive This has been used for centuries by local people, and has the advantages of being well known, simple and inexpensive.

Its major drawback lies in the honey extraction method.

Honeycombs are destroyed to extract the honey and fire

is used to smoke the bees away from the combs during extraction, which also results in a significant percentage of bees being killed. As a result, the extracted honey is not pure but is mixed with pollen and pieces of wax, and has a smoky smell. In addition, by using rudimentary smoking apparatus, people start bush fires, destroying the vegetation on which the bees ultimately depend. However, a significant amount of wax can be produced, for which a ready market exists.

The Kenya Top Bar hive This hive is a significant improvement on the traditional one, regarding honey extraction. However, it still has major deficiencies, which affect its smooth and efficient operation.

The deficiencies are: (i) Its corrugated iron roof is not insulated, causing excessive heat, which disturbs the bees so that they easily abscond; (ii) Its general management is difficult as the floor cannot be detached and can therefore not be cleaned; (iii) The queen excluder is not very effective, resulting in honeycombs containing brood1 and pollen, thus lowering the quality of the honey; (iv) The combs are not evenly made on the bars, causing difficulties in harvesting when combs break and the bees become excessively aggressive; (v) As the combs are broken and extracted, the bees have to start comb formation all over again, meaning they cannot put this energy into honey production.

The Langstroth hive This hive type was introduced some 10 years ago in the country, and has become accepted. However, many poor imitations have entered the market, resulting in absconding 1

Miti April-June 2009

Brood is eggs laid by the queen and hatching into larvae.

23

of the colonies or/and a poor colonisation rate.

Due to its design, with a brood box separated by a queen excluder from a super, this type of hive allows for easy harvesting. The brood box is where the colony lives, while extra honey is deposited in the super for harvesting. An insulated aluminium roof covers the whole hive, and there is a detachable floor. No fire is used during harvesting, only a smoker to keep the bees at bay. Appropriate gear (bee suit, gloves, rubber boots) ensure maximum protection.

The honey processing equipment consists of a manual extractor, in which frames are placed so that centrifugal force extracts the honey without destroying the bee combs, a scraper with accessories (see picture) and buckets and jars for storage and packing. !

A rural honey extraction centre working with Langstroth technology. Note the extractor on the right, the scraping of the wax off the combs in the centre and supers on the left.

Hence, the Langstroth hive, with associated extraction equipment, will ensure a higher extraction of good quality honey. The Langstroth hive requires higher investment than the other two hive types, and appropriate training is required.

Production and yield This is a tricky question, as honey production is directly related to availability of flowers, vegetation in general and agro-ecological zones and rainfall. A high-potential area like Kakamega forest and its environs in Western Kenya can produce more than double what can be achieved 24

in arid and semi arid lands (ASAL) like Eastern Province.

Talking about ASAL with a bimodal rainfall regime, two harvests a year should be possible if rains do not fail.

In such a case, a full super should minimally produce 8-10kg of honey, twice a year.

However, honey production has been on the decline in Kenya in the past few years due to several factors.

These are: (i) The current weather changes and environmental degradation facing the region has caused an enormous decline in bee population. In turn, the colonisation rate of beehives, modern and traditional, has been extremely low which of course has a direct impact on the honey production, not to mention the negative effects on pollination. However, even with more rains, problems like overgrazing and indiscriminate tree felling, both ultimately caused by poverty, will have to be tackled, and efforts for more tree planting stimulated. This is all the more true for ASAL, where an extra effort for water supplies has to be achieved. Charcoal production and goat keeping destroy huge areas of tree vegetation in ASAL. Charcoal production involves the felling of mature trees like acacias, while goats eat and destroy new seedlings and shrubs. (ii) To achieve optimum production of high quality honey, it is vital that the equipment used for bee keeping is of a modern type, like the Langstroth type and of very high quality. Equally important, honey semi-processing equipment must be available to beekeepers so that the honey produced can be immediately extracted and supers returned to the beehives. (iii) There is not enough emphasis on the potential of beekeeping in rural areas for poverty alleviation. Proper training needs to be stepped up,

and commercial loans to farmers must be made available for startups and expansion. (iv) There is need to set up queen breeding and multiplication facilities so that beekeepers can purchase selected queens and bee stocks to start producing honey immediately instead of relying on nature to colonise hives with bees from the wild. Indeed, one of the criteria to select queens to be multiplicated should be their stability to stay in the same hive and not to abscond for a minor reason. In this way, the colonisation rate of hives will increase from the present low rate of less than 20 per cent to 60-80 per cent.

Conclusion There is a huge demand for good quality honey in Kenya but unfortunately, we do not have the capacity to satisfy our market. Right now, 80 per cent of the honey sold in Kenya comes from Tanzanian and even Sudanese log hives, from which it is extracted using antiquated methods.

This results in low quality that is disguised by using additives. Some of the honey is even falsely labelled to dupe Kenyans that it is produced in the country. Examples can be found in the major supermarket chains in the country. However, even in Tanzania, the same environmental problems are on the rise, and the same solutions apply.

World market prices of bulk honey are usually US$ 1 per kilogramme, which is lower than the local offer (US$ 2 per kilogramme), meaning that: Exporting Kenyan honey does not make economic sense at the moment; Beekeeping can be a very lucrative business; Cheap imports of honey will find their way into the Kenyan market, diminishing the market share of local producers

Miti April-June 2009

Coffee Table

Adding value to Marc Van Rampelberg, the artist, designer, furniture producer, art collector and businessman

Rampel Designs produces beautiful, artistic furniture

By Jan Vandenabeele Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Ltd ampel Designs Ltd (RDL) is a remarkable furniture workshop on Butere Road, in Nairobi’s industrial area. The outside of the workshop does not give any clue as to what is found inside, which is the manufacture of world-class furniture designed by Marc Van Rampelberg. Van Rampelberg is a Kenyan of Belgian origin, settled in the country since 1980 and married to a Kenyan woman. His educational background is languages (French, English), which he taught at the German School and at UNEP’s Language Centre when he first arrived in the country.

Van Rampelberg started making furniture as a hobby.

With the help of a schooled carpenter, the late Simon Adie, Rampelberg produced his own line of tables, chairs, beds, and other items for an exhibition at the Goethe Institute in Nairobi in 1987. This marked the beginning of a furniture designing and producing career, of late evolving into interior and architectural design.

Van Rampelberg’s furniture workshop provides employment for 50 people, with a limited number of pieces produced per year. This is a deliberate policy to allow Marc

R

Miti April-June 2009

the designer-artist to retain complete control over the quality of the product. This combination of designing and manufacturing used to be routine in the Western world until the arrival of mass production that separated the artist’s work from the production process. Now it is gone, and the world belongs to the IKEAs and similar brands. Here in Kenya it is still possible, as skilled labour and wood, the raw material, are affordable and accessible.

The single most innovative technique in use at RDL is gluing small pieces of wood together so that the head grain is visible, not the side grain as is usual. This technique is not patented and people visiting the shop can see and study it freely, but it is quite expensive and hence finds no imitators. It allows the making of sculpture-like designs, with curves like woodcarvings.

Van Rampelberg’s furniture has been the subject of numerous art reviews, while his life story has been featured in detail in a number of magazines. We do not need to repeat it here, but we show some images of his furniture here. They speak for themselves, and are masterpieces. They do not come cheap. For instance, a coffee table sells for Ksh 200,000, clearly only affordable to the well off.

Van Rampelberg estimates that 95 per cent of his 25

furniture is sold in Kenya, and the remainder abroad. The greater part of that 95 per cent, however, eventually moves out of Kenya, exported by the owners, presumably expatriates. It is interesting to note, however, that in the last five years, Kenyans have become increasingly interested in Van Rampelberg’s creations, realising that RDL represents value for money.

Marc Van Rampelberg is not interested in high-volume production.

On the contrary, he knows that the quality of his furniture is good, with a style that is totally his own, and has gained international recognition.

His work is mentioned and shown in catalogues and reference works in the company of globally renowned artists and designers. Sometimes he is mentioned alongside Le Corbusier.

He thinks however that he has already produced his best work, and that it will be difficult to do better.

He has now shifted his creativity to interior and architectural designs for private and corporate clients. He has at times ventured into public space like the design of Mercury Lounge, a bar at ABC Place in Westlands.

An art collector, Van Rampelberg has a dream of setting up a museum of contemporary art in Kenya. For a long time, he worked with the late Ruth Shaffner of Gallery Watatu. Art

runs in the Rampelberg family, as his wife is a sculptor.

One of Van Rampelberg’s concerns is the environment. Some of the wood he uses comes from the rainforest, like the Ituri forest in northeastern Congo, but he also uses beautiful hardwood species from Kenya and Tanzania. How much longer will they be around?

They take as long as 60 years to grow, and replanting does not take place, as most of them only grow in the wild with their silvi-cultural characteristics poorly known. Van Rampelberg says that wealthy people investing in proper storage of tropical hardwood timber would make a large profit in the not so distant future when either the forests will have gone or whatever remains will be out of bounds.

Van Rampelberg uses the following species in his workshop: • Mvule (Milicia excelsa): This beautiful yellowish wood grows in the Congo but also in East Africa, and attaining huge dimensions in Ituri. Once, Van Rampelberg bought a trailer load of mvule timber and asked the driver from how many trees the timber was. The driver looked at Van Rampelberg as if he was being asked a funny question, and then replied that this load was actually part of the tree. It was pit-

sawn, and Van Rampelberg then realised that every piece of timber had been carried on the head from the felling site to the road; in itself a way of exploitation with limited impact on the environment.

• Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis) is a high-value timber species from a medium sized tree (14-16m high) growing in Tanzanian and the southern African woodlands and savannas. It reaches diameters of up to 40-50cm. It was once a premium Mozambican export species. It has beautiful red wood.

• Mpingo (Dalbergia melanoxylon, also called African blackwood or African ebony). This dry land species, growing in a crooked form and previously used by carvers in Kenya and still favoured for the famous Makonde carvings in Tanzania and Mozambique, does

Felling and burning of doum palms to make way for subsistence farming at the Kenyan coast (picture taken in December 2005)

not reach big dimensions. Some years ago, its value reached US$ 10,000 for one cubic metre of pure timber as it is used in the manufacture of wind and string music instruments like clarinets and pianos. RDL imports it from Tanzania, as Kenyan supplies have vanished.

• Mkoma (Hyphaene compressa or Doum palm): It grows both in arid zones like Turkana as well as in coastal lowlands like Lamu and Kwale where it can be very prominent. This is a very hard palm wood, harder than coconut, and requires real effort and skill to work with. This is not a threatened

Miti April-June 2009

•

•

•

•

species in most of its habitat, and is even carelessly destroyed as the picture shows.

Borassus palm (Borassus aethiopum), of which a single big consignment was once acquired from Tanzania.

Cedar (Juniperus procera or pencil cedar), an East-African coniferous tree growing in highland dry forests, in the wild, and one of the few East African indigenous timber species being cultivated in plantations.

Elgon olive (Olea capensis), now impossible to get as Kenyan supplies are exhausted.

Mahogany from the Congo (maybe

Khaya sp.) used in the early days, but not any more.

With its limited output of furniture, RDL does not use a lot of wood on a yearly basis. For instance, the above-mentioned trailer of mvule was enough for a year’s supply of the species, or roughly equivalent to 30-40m3 of timber. Adding a similar volume for a couple of more species, like mkoma and mpingo, would still give a total timber consumption revolving around 120 to maximum 150m3 per year, a fairly modest figure, not at all a menace to the existence of tropical rain, coastal and dry land forest of East and Central Africa.

Realising that most of the timber price is for transport; Marc Van Rampelberg formulated a simple proposal for tropical forest conservation: “A ban on the export of raw wood between continents.”

This is in line with the policy favoured by the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO), preferring shipments of timber or other processed products, and not raw logs.

The best way to protect forests and to use them sustainably is to realise that they are worth a lot of money in terms of timber, as water catchments, as habitats for wildlife, etc, and to develop local industries that transform logs as far as possible up the value chain. Examples are sawmills that also produce parquet, furniture plants and so on. It is important to provide employment for the very people that otherwise might destroy the forest.

Apart from the sheer joy of seeing beautiful and useful products made out of wood, it is difficult to imagine a use of hardwood that gives higher added value than the production of design furniture by RDL. It is an extraordinary achievement

27

By Miti Reporter or 60-year-old Benjamin Kyula, living in a semiarid area does not deter him from meaningful farming. His medical professional background notwithstanding, taking a walk round his six acre (2.40ha) piece of land under grafted mango production, Mr Kyula projects the image of a successful and accomplished fruit farmer.

Together with his wife Joyce and son John, Mr Kyula has successfully transformed his piece of land into a model farm that is the envy of his neighbours in Kithyasyu village, Thange location of Kibwezi District. This is on the slopes of the Chyulu Hills, at the transition from red basement soils into fertile, but stony, black volcanic soils.

Mr Kyula ventured into mango farming six years ago after his earlier attempt at growing oranges proved unprofitable. He has not looked back since.

From an initial 1,500 mango trees, Mr Kyula has expanded his farm with resounding success, and the results say it all.

“From these mangoes, I have not only managed to increase my family income but also comfortably educated my children. I am planning to expand the acreage under mango trees,” Mr Kyula told Miti at his farm.

To meet the water requirements for his mangoes, Mr Kyula has sunk two shallow wells at his farm from which he draws water for irrigating his crops. One of the wells is 4.5m wide (as opposed to the traditional 1 - 1.5m) which ensures a continuous supply of ground water even during severe drought. The well is equipped with a manual pump that sucks up water from its floor, some 14 metres down.

Mr Kyula’s interest in farming started during his youthful days in Masii where he grew up. He has sharpened his skills on his farm over the years. He moved to Kibwezi from Masii 17 years ago after he bought two acres of land in the area.

He has since expanded his farm to 150 acres.

But why did Mr Kyula opt for mangoes and not other fruit trees? According to him, mangoes are more profitable than traditional food crops, which he nonetheless grows

F

A doctor with a passion for

farming

Benjamin Kyula’s mango farm is the envy of his neighbours

on a small scale to meet his family’s food requirements.

By integrating mangoes with other crops, Mr Kyula is assured of a regular income even in case of crop failure. At the time of the interview, there had been very little rain but Mr Kyula was still selling mangoes. “This integration offers a fallback position in case of crop failure,” he says.

However, mango farming has not been without challenges. Mr Kyula decries lack of a ready market; mango crop diseases and lack of the technical knowhow as the worst challenges he faces.

But not one to give up easily, Mr Kyula has had to explore new marketing channels including selling locally at the market, learning to graft the mango trees himself and selling his mangoes to exporters. He sells the mangoes in Kibwezi at Ksh 10 per mango, while selling off-season for export can fetch Ksh 15 - 20.

Mr Kyula has also benefited from his farm’s proximity to the Chyulu Hills, because the area is cool most of the year, giving less stress to his trees. The advantage of off-season mangoes is higher prices as mangoes are scarce then.

Last season, Mr Kyula made Ksh 120,000 from mangoes. About half of this amount can be counted as

profit, the remainder being costs like pesticides, labour for watering, manure, etc. He cannot tell what tonnage this represents as the harvests are loaded into his pick-up without weighing.

Nevertheless, a rough estimate would put it at about three tonnes (at Ksh 10 per mango and four mangoes per kg).

This season he expects to net about Ksh150,000, translating to about Ksh 15,000 per acre. Earnings for other crops are far below this. Even so, yields can be increased at least five-fold by more watering and the use of fertiliser.

Watering the mango trees is a challenge. “But I try to overcome this by using water from my two shallow wells,” he says. Indeed, the yield of mangoes in this semi-arid environment would be increased significantly by watering immediately after flowering. When this is done, abortion decreases, leading to more fruits per tree. In addition, the fruits grow bigger and fetch a better price.

Even though beneficial, the proximity of Mr Kyula’s farm to Chyulu National Reserve presents some challenges. Elephants from the national reserve occasionally stray into the farm and destroy crops, including the mangoes. To counter this, Mr Kyula grows pawpaws and pumpkins, which elephants prefer, thus luring the animals away from the mangoes.

Farmers in the area also plan to plant

chillies on the hedges of their farms, to repel elephants from straying into the farms.

Mr Kyula’s successful mango farming is attracting other farmers in the area.

They too are intercropping mangoes with other traditional crops to boost their income. This has led to a huge supply of mangoes, depressing the market and increasing competition for customers.

Mr Kyula now calls on the government to help create a market for the farmers by setting up a mangocanning factory in the area.

However, the farmers are not just waiting. They have come together to explore new markets for the mangoes.

Things are looking up as mango exporters are now buying the produce from farmers in the area.

To boost his income, Mr Kyula plans to venture into growing mukau (Melia volkensii) trees. The species does well in dry lands such as Kibwezi, producing high quality timber.

Although it takes long time to mature, the tree can fetch better returns than mangoes. Mr Kyula plans to put several acres under the species. “Timber prices are not fixed and keep fluctuating upwards, making Mukau a good investment,” he says. He also intends to intercrop mangoes with melons and keep animals on his farm

DID YOU KNOW?

W

ater requirements of a mature mango tree, at least

156 trees, is then 17 - 28m3 per day.

If the orchard is in a semi-arid zone,

with water pumped by a diesel pump and channelled from one tree to another,

six years old, growing and

rainfall is not sufficient. Water distribution

is another option. However, this is more

loaded with 300 - 400 fruits,

is then best done with a donkey cart,

expensive because of the cost of fuel, and

are substantial. Such a tree, with a canopy

transporting a plastic container with 600

wasteful because it consumes much more

diameter of some 4 – 5 metres, needs 110

- 800 litres. This is a labour intensive job,

water. This option is only viable for off-season

- 180 litres of water daily to avoid abortion

but the investment is worth the effort, as

production.

of fruits. Watering has to start when the tree

this treatment (together with appropriate

Drip-irrigation is another option, but it is

starts flowering, also to avoid abortion of

fertilising – also substantial), can result in 10 -

capital intensive and out of reach for small-

flowers. Water supply for a hectare of mango

12 tonnes of mangoes for one hectare.

scale farmers

trees, planted at a spacing of 8 x 8 metres or

Flooding of the area under the trees

Miti April-June 2009

29

Tapping the

potential of ASAL

KEFRI focuses on improving productivity of dryland tree species A big Prosopis juliflora tree in Baringo District, where it is very common

D

ryland forestry research aims at enhancing effective reforestation and sustainable management of forest/woodland resources in arid and semi arid lands (ASAL). It focuses on improvement of productivity of proven plantation species (e.g. Melia volkensii) to meet industrial demand and community needs.

and proteins for livestock, as well as people during dry seasons. About 50,000 tonnes of livestock feed can be realised from the species a month, with earnings of over Ksh 100 million accruing to collectors.

• Provision of shade, soil stabilisation and erosion control.

Other activities of the institute’s dryland programme are: Prosopis management and utilisation The question of what to do with Prosopis trees is now a serious concern in many parts of Kenya, as well as in dozens of other countries around the world, where it has invaded grazing and agricultural lands. Prosopis spp is an invasive species and KEFRI’s research activities are directed at how to manage it as an economic resource where it occurs.

Apart from the rehabilitation potential of the species in dryland ecosystems, Prosopis produces quality fuel wood, timber, animal feed and food for human consumption, as well as gums, honey and medicines, in very dry and harsh conditions.

In reality, Prosopis spp has the potential to provide the following needs of the populations living in ASAL: • Major source of firewood, charcoal and construction wood.

• Poles and even sawn timber can be produced across the country.

• Pods are a valuable source of carbohydrates, sugars 30

Prosopis juliflora, excellent for honey production

Currently, the government is undertaking the following research issues to address the Prosopis problem: • A national inventory on status and impact of the species on livelihoods and on the environment.

• Holding workshops on integrated management and control of Prosopis species in affected areas.

• Soliciting technical support from donors and development partners for Prosopis management.

• Linking the livestock feed industry to local people to utilise Prosopis pods as an alternative to cereals.

Miti April-June 2009

Dryland forest rehabilitation Forest degradation has become widespread over the years through human activities, land use change and unsustainable and mostly illegal exploitation.

How best then could we rehabilitate these forests to improve national forest cover within the set timeframe as contained in Vision 2030 and the millennium development goals (MDG)?

A one-year-old Melia volkensii plantation

KEFRI is responding to these challenges through both proactive and practical approaches. The proactive approach involves training the Kenya Forest Service field foresters and other stakeholders in rehabilitation methods. Secondly, the institute is packaging practical guidelines for rehabilitating natural forests. Practical approaches include the setting up of demonstration sites that are accessible to the public. These sites not only display the most appropriate approaches to rehabilitating natural forests, but also act as experimental plots. Models of rehabilitated forests are demonstrated by KEFRI at Kibwezi, Tiva in Kitui, Marigat, Lodwar and Bura.

Osiris (sandalwood) research and development The East African sandalwood, scientifically known as Osyris lanceolata is a shrub or a small tree growing to a height of six metres. The tree is known by various local names. It is called msandali in Swahili, muthithi in Kikuyu, mberegesa by the Chagga, olseyeayyesi in Maasai and kithawa by the Kamba, among others. It exists dioeciously (different male and female plants) and is indigenous to East and South African regions. The tree grows at an altitude of between 900 - 2550m above sea level. Osyris belongs to a semi-parasitic plant family (the Santalaceae) and its roots associate with those of host plants.

Sandalwood is best known for producing fragrancescented wood and essential oil used in the cosmetic and fragrance industries as well as for medicine. Other uses

Miti April-June 2009

include making of red dye and smoking milk containers.

The bark is ground into powder that is used to heal wounds, treat stomachache, tonsils, diarrhoea, ulcers, snakebite and rashes.

The demand for sandalwood has by far outstripped the supply. Sandalwood is harvested in the wild by uprooting the whole tree including its roots because the essential oil concentration is higher in the roots than the trunk.

Although the available sandalwood resource base is not yet known, much of the harvested material in Kenya is smuggled out of gazetted forests, game parks and nature reserves. This mode of exploitation seriously interferes with its natural regeneration and is not sustainable. Thus, conservation and domestication of this tree should be taken seriously.

The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has embarked on research geared to domestication and cultivation of sandalwood. Success in the propagation of sandalwood has been achieved using different methods.

Seed germination was found to be low and highly variable between individual trees and at times could take up to six months. Research at KEFRI has generated knowledge that will support propagation, cultivation and commercialisation of East African sandalwood.

It has been claimed that sandalwoods show different growth patterns on different host species. At KEFRI, successful host species include pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), Rhus natalensis and Carissa edulis.

Domestication and commercialisation of indigenous fruit trees in drylands of Kenya Many of the challenges to achieving millennium development goals (MDGs) in Third World countries like Kenya include food insecurity, poverty, malnutrition and environmental degradation. Because of fragile ecosystems, frequent droughts and famine and frequent crop failure in the drylands, people suffer diminished opportunities to economic growth.

Surprisingly, drylands have abundant natural resources including wild plants and cultivated native species with great agronomic and commercial potential. Many of these species, particularly the fruit trees, have neither been fully utilised nor promoted or researched and therefore their economic potential still remain greatly underutilised.

For these reasons, KEFRI research activities focus on the improvement of production, domestication and marketing of indigenous fruit trees in drylands. Some of the widely preferred indigenous fruits for commercial exploitation include Sclerocarya birrea (marula), Tamarindus indica (mgwaju), Adansonia digitata (baobab), Berchemia discolor and Vitex payos. Most of these fruits are known to be rich in minerals and vitamin C. For example, the vitamin C content

31

in marula fruit is several times that found in citrus fruits.

Again, nearly all the parts of A. digitata fruit are useful. The fruit pulp makes a refreshing drink, rich in vitamin B1 and C. The fruit contains 310 mg of vitamin C, compared to 57 mg in commercial fruits such as citrus. The young soft leaves can be utilised as a vegetable while the bark provides fibre for weaving.

In recent years, these tree species have attracted local and international interest because of the frequent droughts and famines that have hit the country. KEFRI and its partners have embarked on a project to domesticate and commercialise these indigenous fruit tree species. In this regard, KEFRI has identified over 100 indigenous fruit species found in the drylands of Kenya. Due to the large number of species involved, research has prioritised some species for domestication. These include Adansonia digitata, Tamarindus indica, Vitex doniana, Berchemia discolor, Lannea alata, Cordia sinensis, Boscia coriacea, Grewia tenax, Ximenia americanum, Ziziphus mauritiana, Carissa edulis, Sclerocarya birrea, Hyphaena compressa and Acacia tortilis.

KEFRI is further conducting research in propagation methods on indigenous fruits. The methods include seed germination, vegetative propagation and micropropagation. Protocol for propagating marula through tissue culture and use of mycorrhizal fungi to enhance growth has been developed.

In addition, KEFRI is conducting research on value addition for indigenous fruit trees. The potential for processing juice, jam and wine for some species has been identified.

Aloe plantation in Taita Taveta District

!

A women group in Mwingi District, trained by KEFRI scientists, processing various baobab products

subspecies of Aloe in Kenya, but 22 of these are enlisted in the 1997 red list of threatened and rare plants in the country.

A number of farmers have undertaking Aloe growing as an income venture. One such farmer is Sam Mwamunga in Tomoni, Voi, in Taita Taveta District.

!

A one-year-old Aloe vera plantation

Doum palm The doum palm or gingerbread palm, Hyphaene compressa, is a dioecious, usually branched palm of two, four, eight or sixteen heads of fan-shaped leaves. It occurs as dense, fire resistant forests of coastal arid regions from East Africa to India. While it is propagated from seeds, which take a very long time to become established, it can also be planted from suckers originating at the base.

The vegetative parts of the doum palm, trunk and leaves, just like those of other palms, are used in weaving and construction. In addition, the young, still-notunfolded leaves are used for weaving versatile mats. The sap obtained from tapping the apex of the palm has the usual multiple purposes, but its use is prohibited in some countries because of the alcoholic toddy.

The fruit pulp smells like gingerbread, hence the name of the palm. It is used in various ways in cooking, and varieties differ in their edibility. While the unripe kernel is edible, the ripe kernel is too hard to eat and is used only as a vegetable ivory. To the people of the deserts where doum palms are found, this palm is a life-sustaining blessing.

High qualify fibre for basket making is an alternative livelihood in the drylands of Kenya. The basketry industry fills a gap during the drought and supports the poorest of the poor in the pastoralist system. A household can earn, on average, Ksh 3,000 per month from such products Contacts

Aloe species have high potential to grow and produce commercial gel in drylands. Aloe can grow and produce in less than two years. KEFRI has tested different types of aloe species and identified commercial ones for the benefit of different communities. KEFRI has identified 57 species and 32

The Director Kenya Forestry Research Institute P.O. Box 20412 - 00200, Nairobi Tel: 254-20-2010651/2 Fax: 254-722-259781/2 Email: director@kefri.org Website: www.kefri.org

Miti April-June 2009

Fig 1: The first micropropagated and acclimatised melia plant in our laboratory

Cloning Melia for

Agroforestry

Scientists are working to overcome challenges

By Stefaan Werbrouck*

M

icro-propagation can be achieved by two main approaches – organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis.

Organogenesis involves the differentiation of micro-shoots, usually on a cytokinin-containing medium.

These shoots can develop from existing auxiliary buds. The shoots branch and generate new shoots that constitute the basis of a new subculture. The technique, also called “micro-cutting”, allows the production of an exponentially growing number of “full” clones. Shoots can also be induced de novo on different types of explants , such as leaves, roots, callus and stem. These shoots are termed “adventitious” shoots. Subsequently, roots are initiated on the obtained micro-shoots, on an auxin-containing medium. The roots can develop in vitro or during acclimatisation.

Miti April-June 2009

Somatic embryogenesis involves the development of embryos on somatic plant tissues. They posses a root and a shoot, just as seed embryos.

Different in-vitro media for the induction, development, maturation and germination phases are required for each plant species.

The organogenesis methods have mostly been used for micropropagation of woody plants. Microcutting guarantees the production of true-to-type planting material.

It is essential to be aware of tissue culture associated variation, termed somaclonal variation. Therefore, the use of adventitious shoots and longterm cultures, as well as high cytokinin concentrations, should be avoided.

For most woody plant species, propagation by somatic embryogenesis is still at the research phase. After all, these embryos miss the natural conditions provided by the

seed. Problems still arise regarding the induction, maturation and uniform germination of the somatic embryos.

In addition, the risk of somaclonal variation is considerable, especially when the embryos are produced in large-scale bioreactors.

Following micropropagation, in-vitro plantlets have to be acclimatised to greenhouse and field conditions. The shift from the in-vitro environment, with almost 100 per cent relative humidity, to field conditions with about 50 per cent relative humidity, is crucial for the survival of the plantlets. It is therefore essential to lower the humidity gradually.

In-vitro leaves develop under the weak light of fluorescent light tubes.

Since they do not receive direct sunlight in the greenhouses, they have to regain their full photosynthetic potential gradually, when finally exposed to field conditions. The cuticle of the in-vitro plantlets is virtually absent; therefore, they should be kept under intermittent mist or under plastic tents to avoid drying out.

When the acclimatisation is performed well, the young trees grow out as normal plants, and bear nothing to point to their in-vitro origin any more.

Melia volkensii (melia or mukau) is an indigenous multipurpose dryland tree species commonly grown in Kenya. Melia is fast growing and provides farmers with valuable termite-resistant timber, firewood and animal fodder. Therefore, the species has been overexploited.

Habitat fragmentation and loss of the species’ natural population is reported, especially in the highly settled areas (Runo et al., 2004)1.

However, despite its local importance, melia is a difficult tree to propagate. The fragile seeds shelter 1

Runo, M.S., Muluvi, G.M. and D.W. Odee (2004)

Analysis of genetic structure in Melia volkensii (Gurke.) populations using random amplified polymorphic DNA. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 3 (8), pp. 421-425

33

Clonal propagation through tissue culture offers an alternative to this classical vegetative propagation.

Our research team is optimising the cloning procedure of Melia volkensii.

We developed the micropropagation media for melia seedlings. The first problem we had to solve was how to germinate the seeds in-vitro. We improved the seed germination drastically by removing the seed coat (fig. 2). Another problem we faced was how to avoid the excessive callus formation at the base of the micro plants (fig. 1). Once this was solved, we were confronted with the irregular rooting of the micro plants. In-vitro roots are very fragile and therefore should be avoided. A better strategy is to induce roots in-vitro, followed by rooting during acclimatisation (fig. 1).

The next challenge was the invitro cloning of mature elite melia. To Fig 2 : A melia seed germinates in vitro produce plants that are physiologically similar to the seedlings, techniques (Mulatya et al. 2002)2. Besides, trees have to be developed to rejuvenate without a tap root are easily uprooted these mature plants. It is the only way to obtain full clones by the destructive power of tropical wind storms. that develop a tap root system. In this regard, somatic embryogenesis is an interesting strategy, because germinated somatic embryos grow like seedlings.

Therefore, we have attempted to induce somatic embryos on different types of explants of elite trees. Following the induction phase, the somatic embryos develop, go through a maturation phase and germinate. We hope to obtain seedling-like elite clones, which develop a deep tap root and will once thrive in the Kenyan drylands and offer prosperity to local foresters and farmers in a hardwood fruit, which is difficult to open without breaking the seeds.

Since the seeds germinate poorly, farmers pick up seedlings from the natural habitats. Thanks to their deep tap root, seedlings can easily survive the dry season in tropical drylands.

The large genetic variation in a seedling population can be a drawback for agroforestry because there is no place for inferior seedlings.

Disease resistant, elite trees with good growth characteristics can be cloned by means of softwood or root cuttings. However, the rooting percentage is rather poor. Moreover, the trees produced through vegetative propagation have superficial rooting.

Where tree roots are shallow, they occupy the same soil layers as crops and compete for water with crops, which leads to considerable yield reductions in mixed plantations

2

Mulatya J.M., Wilson J., Ong C.K., Deans J.D. and Sprent J.I. (2002) Root architecture

of provenances, seedlings and cuttings of Melia volkensii: implications for crop yield in dryland agroforestry. Agroforestry Systems 56: 65–72

*Stefaan Werbrouck (Stefaan.werbrouck@hogent.be) is professor in Horticulture and Biotechnology and runs the Laboratory of Plant Biotechnology at the University College Ghent, Association University Ghent, Belgium. In a joint effort with the Laboratory of In-vitro Biotechnology of the University Ghent, his team studies the in vitro propagation of trees. The research is sponsored by private companies and the Flemish Government (IWT).

34

Miti April-June 2009

Roof catchment for Nzeveni Health Centre, Makueni district, a semi-arid area with scarce rainfall. The tank has a capacity of 50,000 litres of water, small enough to be filled with some rain showers and big enough to supply water for 2-3 months for the running of the centre. The capacity of a tank is determined mostly by the catchment area (roof size) and the average seasonal rainfall.

Water demand management Making effective use of every drop

By Herman Verlodt

W

ater demand management consists of preserving water resources and minimising water loss for best use of the resource for human requirements and agro forestry.

In this article, we will talk about (i) water requirements, (ii) water conservation in the soil, (iii) losses in dams, channels and pipes, (iv) water demand management itself, and (v) conclusion.

Water requirements can be classified into human, animal and soil water requirements. Domestic water demand is presented in the table below, as estimated by MT Hai (1998) under different rainfall regimes: Domestic water demands under different rainfall regimes (in litres per day) User category

High

Medium

Low

Unclassified

Sanitation and ablution

75

Cooking and laundry

45

Hospitals, schools

15-35

Human

20

15

10

Dairy cattle

50

50

50

Local cattle

17

17

17

Sheep/goat

4

4

4

Soil water requirements depend on soil properties like texture, structure, fertility and chemical properties and on the needs of the crops growing on them. The texture of soils, meaning the composition in small and big sized grains, is important for moisture retention. Sands retain very small amounts of water, while clays retain high amounts

1

and do not release water easily. Loamy and mixed textural soils are most favourable for agriculture.

Soil structure is also important. Most soils in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), and especially loam, have a poor organic matter content and a fragile structure. On impact with raindrops and irrigation water, a surface crust is formed, reducing infiltration rate and increasing run-off, resulting in water loss and soil erosion.

So long as there is sufficient soil moisture, nutrients become the most limiting factor in crop yields. Sandy soils and leached acid soils (pH < 6) are poor in major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium) and oligo-elements. Calcareous soils are basic (pH > 8) and in these conditions uptake of phosphorus and oligo-elements is very poor. Low soil fertility can be improved using fertilisers and manure. Soil fertility however is declining all over Africa, and the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) estimates that on average African farmers apply only 10 per cent of the nutrients their farms require during a regular planting season.

Saline soils (high content of salt) require more water to flush out the salts (leaching), while sodic soils (high sodium content in Cation Exchange Capacity) have a high pH and low infiltration rates and require correction with calcium (gypsum).

Crop water requirements are estimated with reference to crop evapotranspiration 1 (ETo) measured or calculated by different methods (Pennman, Blaney & Criddle, Turc, Pan Evaporation etc). The pan evaporation method is simple and easy to apply. Reference crop evapotranspiration can be estimated from daily evaporation rates from a standard

For definitions of evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration, see article on “Do forests attract rain?”

Miti April-June 2009

35

class A evaporation pan. Evaporation figures are obtained every 24 hours by noting how much water (mm of height) is used to top up the 20cm mark. This figure can be corrected with a pan factor (K pan) of 0.7.

ETo = E pan x K pan (mm) The ETo gives a good estimation of the evaporative demand of the environment. To get the crop water requirement, the above figure is multiplied with a crop coefficient (Kc). A value of 0.9 is sufficient for a mature crop with a practically complete soil cover.

This estimation method can be used when other methods are not available. Information on water requirements for various tropical crops has been developed in various parts of the world, with selected examples shown in the table below.

Estimated crop water requirements for local conditions #

Crop

1

Maize

Dryland composite

75

240-430

Katumani

85

260-450

Coast

105

550-700

Wheat

110

350-530

Barley

55

180-350

2

Days *

Rainfall (mm) (400-750)

3

Millet

Foxtail

50

160-320

Bullrush

70

250-450

Finger

75

230-500

4

Sorghum

75

200-500

5

Cowpeas

60

190-400

6

Green grams

75

190-400

7

Beans

70

230-450

8

Dolichos

100

200-700

9

Pigeon peas

110

370-650

Pigeon peas bimodal

180

500-800

10

Sunflower

75

180-550

11

Simsim

90

300-600

12

Sweet potato

60

350-900

13

Cassava

180

500-1000

14

Cotton

170

550-950

15

Banana

365

900-1700

16

Mango

800-1000

17

Passion fruit

900-2000

18

Pawpaw

1000-1500

19

Citrus

800-1400

20

Coffee (Arabica)

900-1500

Coffee (Robusta)

1100-2000

21

Macadamia

750-1200

22

Sugarcane

1250-1800

23

Tobacco

400-700

* “Days” means the length of the growing period up to harvesting.

Maximising crop yields in ASAL implies (i) use of species and varieties adapted to drought, (ii) improved water conservation in the soil by reducing evaporation,

transpiration and run-off and (iii) additional watering.

Water conservation in the soil In ASAL, rainfall is characterised by high intensity showers, and in permeable sandy soils, a high percentage of this rain can be lost through drainage, out of the active rooting zone. Such soils are not adapted for annual crops with a superficial root system, unless the soil’s water retention capacity is enhanced by the incorporation of clay (a very difficult operation), or organic matter (manure or compost) or by use of artificial soil conditioners.

Manure, compost or soil conditioners can be mixed with soil at the bottom of planting holes before planting. During the first stage, when the root system is not yet developed, young trees take advantage of an improved reserve of water around the roots.

In salty soils, drainage is needed to eliminate the excess salt through excess irrigation, which in this case is not considered a water loss but only as salinity management.

In irrigated lands, a lot of water is lost through using traditional earth channels. These losses can be avoided by using waterproof channels covered in concrete, cement or plastic film, or the use of HDPE 2 gutters or plastic pipes.

Drip irrigation reduces water inputs and losses and results in higher availability of water for the crops and higher yields. This is most effective in light sandy soils, where reductions of more than 50 per cent of the water supply can result in almost 30 – 50 per cent improvements in yields, so that water use efficiency (kg of yield per m3 of water) is almost doubled or tripled.

However, the principal loss of water in soils is through evapotranspiration (evaporation by the soil and transpiration by the plants).

Evaporation of soil water is a natural phenomenon, which is accentuated by high temperatures, wind and soil texture. The saturation deficit of the air is responsible for evaporation. Different techniques to decrease the loss of soil moisture by direct evaporation from the soil are: i) Planting trees and shrubs or erecting artificial windbreaks. ii) Covering the soil with mulch (either a milky white or black plastic film, or organic like leaves and straw), which protects the soil surface from direct contact with the sunshine and air. iii) Mulching by superficial ploughing In heavy or mediumtexture soils, the technique for annual crops (cereals, legumes) consists of ploughing the soil after each rainfall to destroy the capillarity and create an artificial mulch with a superficial dry layer. This conserves the moisture in the depth and favours infiltration of the next rainfall.

In the semi-arid regions of northern Tunisia (300 400mm/year), which are not well adapted to cereals (wheat, barley), this technique or “dry farming system” is called “the 18 months ploughing”. The soil is continually 2

36

High Density Poly Ethylene

Miti April-June 2009

loss can also occur through cracks in the embankments ploughed during 18 months to create a superficial dry and in the reservoirs. Desilting can be done but is layer (mulch) and preserve the moisture in the soil. This mostly more expensive than construction of a new dam. accumulates all rains during this period for cultivation of Afforestation and water and soil conservation techniques cereals (wheat) with good yields. should be used to restore eroded watersheds, and special In superficial sandy soils, this mulch is created naturally attention should be paid to maintenance of dykes and by the rupture of the capillary films during the intense prevention of water losses. evaporative period. For this reason, soils with sand in the Channels and pipes can lose water through breakages upper layer and with loamy subsoil layers are preferred and leakages, and need to be inspected regularly, and suitable for tree plantations in ASAL. These soils maintained and repaired. Polyethylene (PE) pipes are much generally are poor in nutritive elements (NPK) and are not more resistant than PVC pipes and therefore more suitable suitable for cereals and annual crops, but are handy for for water transport. Thermal welding of PE pipes is also fruit trees. A good example are olive trees and almonds in more effective for reducing water losses than ordinary ASAL in Tunisia (Sfax, Zarzis), with 200mm annual rainfall fittings. (see photo). The key to this successful cultivation is the combination of ploughing after each (rare) rainfall, with well-spaced planting (up to 24m). The ploughing interrupts Water demand management Water demand management is very important and can the capillarity and maintains the moisture in deeper layers. influence water losses greatly. Techniques or incentives to On irrigated land, the use of sprinklers and superficial be used for regulation of water demand are summarised in flooding can lead to losses of large quantities of water by the table below: direct evaporation. Watering systems based on localised or drip irrigation and underground watering can conserve a lot of water. (Irrigation techniques will be developed in a Conclusion coming issue of â&#x20AC;&#x153;Mitiâ&#x20AC;?).

Transpiration of vegetation is related to Water loss Site with water loss Techniques/incentives temperature, as well as humidity and turbidity of Dam siltation Degraded and eroded water Reservoir desiltation, afforestation, the air. Natural or artificial windbreaks decrease catchment areas water and soil conservation works and structures the turbidity of the air and the transpiration Cracks in the dam, Embankment, reservoir Maintenance and rehabilitation. of vegetation. The transpiration of vegetation evaporation Protective films Maintenance (cultivated and weeds) is responsible for Breakages, leaks Channels, pipes Excessive drainage in soils Coarse sandy soils Organic matter and soil transferring (pumping) of water from deeper conditioners soil layers to the atmosphere. Weeds compete Excessive evaporation Cultivated soils Covering with plastic films, ploughing and elimination of with cultivated species for water and nutritive weeds, ploughing (mulching), dry farming elements.

Erosion in agro forestry Sloping lands Afforestation, ploughing along The use of chemicals and covering the soil contour lines, water & soil structures consolidated with with plastic film is efficient in preventing the plants growth of weeds and eliminates the competition Waste of water Irrigated lands - Subsidies for drip irrigation, tariffs and dissuasive prices for water with cultivated crops. Black plastic film is Drinking and industrial water - Water recycling (re-use of waste water), legislation, tariffs and preferable to white because it blocks out the light dissuasive/differential water prices and kills the weeds.

Weed destruction by ploughing or hoeing also eliminates this competition and simultaneously destroys In ASAL and even in deserts, water is present but in low the soil capillarity and prevents water evaporation from the quantities, and it is possible to use different techniques to soil. regulate water demand and avoid water losses.

In ASAL with high intensity of rainfall, notably on slopes Water demand management completes water supply and soils with a superficial crust (loamy soils), water losses management. It is therefore important to talk about through run-off can be reduced by: integrated water management (both demand and offer). (i) Ploughing following contour lines, The correct use of every drop of water is the objective in (ii) Covering the soil with vegetation, arid lands (iii) Water and soil conservation structures to avoid dam In the next issue, the water supply management will be siltation. developed in more detail Losses in dams, channels and pipes In dams, substantial water losses can occur through siltation, causing the reduction of storage capacity. Water ----------------------------

Miti April-June 2009

37

Unexploited possibilities The status of forest resources and trade opportunities in wood products in East and Central Africa

Treatment plants for poles: A yard with both transmission and fencing poles (Kakuzi Ltd).

By Joshua K. Cheboiwo Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Londiani RRC Summary

I

n most developing countries, forest resource investment and management are mostly geared to meet domestic consumption needs. External market development has not, until recently, been viewed as a priority area and product entry into regional markets was more by default than design. To take stock of forest resources and wood product trade opportunities in East and Central Africa (ECA) the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) and Tree on Farm Network (TOFNET) commissioned a baseline study in 2006 that covered five countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Ethiopia and Southern Sudan).

The study revealed that forest resource endowments in ECA differed significantly in term of size of public forests, farm forestry and woodlands.

The most traded tree products were charcoal, sawn wood, construction poles, industrial firewood, saw logs and firewood. Products from public forests dominate the lucrative industrial wood markets in countries with good forest resources. This contrasts with countries with less forests where demand for most forest products exceed accessible stock in both public and farm forests.

The outputs from smallholder farms are small and thus unlikely to attract a pool of buyers necessary to create a competitive market environment.

However, in countries with few forests, farmers were more likely to enter into commercial farm forestry to satisfy the fast changing supply and demand conditions for various tree products. Kenya was leading in wood-based industries, mostly sawmills (442), Tanzania was second with 138, then came Uganda (103), Ethiopia (45) and Rwanda. Despite Kenya being the most industrialised, the saw mills that formed the bulk of the processing plants were closed in 1999 after a moratorium on harvesting in public forests was imposed.

The most likely tree products to be traded across the study countries were construction poles, industrial firewood, transmission poles and softwood sawn timber, but the level of cross border trade was very low. Kenya and Tanzania reported to have some standards for export and import of tree products, mostly sanitary inspections. The trade between Kenya and Tanzania was highest.

38

Introduction

A

s part of the World Bank sponsored structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), East and Central Africa (ECA) countries have liberalised their markets in an effort to develop market driven land uses. The decreasing amount of land available to land owners to meet their subsistence and financial objectives has compelled them to increase on-farm productivity and marketed outputs. However, in the ECA countries, farm forestry policies and support has traditionally focused on the improvement of production activities, mostly to meet farm household needs. Such strategies did not prepare farmers to address market specification and market demand in case of surplus production because market development was not viewed as a priority area and tree product entry into markets was more by default than design.

Cross-country studies indicate that farmers in ECA countries grow more than 20 different tree species, producing various tree products. However, declining tree product outputs from public forests and increased emphasis on forest reservations for water and biodiversity conservation have led to planting of trees as an alternative supplier of roundwood to wood commodity markets.

To realise investments in tree planting, there is need for increased generation of market related information, including the prevailing prices and range of tree products in demand in different markets where tree growers can sell their tree products. Thus, access to remunerative markets by smallholder tree growers is expected to motivate tree growers to expand their land under trees and,

Miti April-June 2009

by extension, to increase the flow of environmental goods and Table1: Forest cover, roundwood production and industries in selected ECA services. The information gap on the potential opportunities countries for tree products in ECA persuaded KEFRI, in collaboration with TOFNET, to initiate a baseline study Annual output Country Forest cover (Ha) Plantations (Ha) Farm forests (Ha) in Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania, Industries (Tonnes or m3) Ethiopia and Southern Sudan to 37,523,000 m3 Kenya 48,604,000 164,000 9,540,000 442 improve the information base and Rwanda 542,900 4,343,200 m3 knowledge on the potential markets Uganda 20,465,000 35,000 8,401,000 53,676,500 m3 103 Ethiopia 44,762,164 262,162 16,000,000 7,500,000 T 45 and trade in tree products within the Tanzania 88,702,000 150,000 51,000,000 8,758,000 m3 138 ECA countries. This is attested by the Southern Sudan 33,000,000 15,796* fact that in 2007, Kenya imported tree products worth Ksh 3.6 billion mostly from Tanzania, the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main trading partner in tree - information not available * half verified so far product trade in the region.

Potential for trade in wood products

Status of forest resources in ECA: Forests and roundwood production Comparatively, Tanzania has the largest forest cover among the study countries, followed by Ethiopia, Kenya, Southern Sudan, Uganda, and Rwanda in that order (Table 1). The bulk of the forest cover consists of woodland and bushland that accounts for over 70 per cent of the total forest cover in the study countries.

In Kenya, woodland and bushland, mostly in arid and semiarid lands (ASAL), account for 77 per cent of the total forest cover but produces 30 per cent of the total output of wood products. Farms and settlements lead in accounting for 60 per cent of the annual output by volume whereas high forests and plantations account for less than 10 per cent.

In Rwanda, data available show that woodlands and parks produce over 60 per cent of the total roundwood output, with the rest from natural forests. In Uganda the bulk of forest products are harvested from woodlands and farms account for 68 per cent of the annual output.

In Tanzania, farms and settlements lead production of forest products with an estimated 7.9 million tonnes per year and forest plantations follow at 700,000 cubic metres per year.

In terms of plantation forests, Ethiopia leads with 262,162 hectares, mostly eucalypt plantations for fuel wood and pole production. Kenya, with most of its plantation depleted, was second with 164,000 hectares, Tanzania third while Southern Sudan had the least at 15, 796 hectares.

Comparative processing capacity indicate that Kenya had 442 wood based industries, mostly sawmills, Tanzania was ranked second with 138, Uganda (103) Ethiopia (45), and Rwanda did not provide information on the existing industries.

Despite Kenya being the most industrialised, most of its sawmills were closed in 1999 and currently lie idle or have been moved to neighbouring countries. The level of forestry sector industrialisation in the selected counties is still very low and there is a need for expansion and modernisation with more emphasis on efficiency and capacity to process short-rotation tree crops grown by smallholders. The industries cited above include biomass energy sectors, mostly textile 1 and tea-processing industries, transmission pole treatment plants, sawmills and wood panel and constituted wood processing industries. Power saw operators and hand sawyers are not included.

1

Kenya imports timber from both hardwood and softwood trees due to the prevailing timber shortage in the country after the moratorium on harvesting in public forests was imposed in 1999. As a result, Tanzania and Uganda have taken advantage of the vast Kenyan market opportunities in the specified products.

Rwanda needs charcoal which neighbouring countries can export. The products that are likely to be traded across the selected countries are softwood and hardwood timber, treated transmission poles and charcoal, in that order.

Trade of timber and other tree products The 1999 moratorium on tree harvesting in public forests in Kenya and the complete ban in 2002 precipitated a shortage of sawnwood for construction in the country. In response, the government zero-rated duty on imports of sawnwood to fast-tract processing of import documents to ease the supply constraint facing the construction sector.

This increased imports from neighbouring countries, thus putting the country in a pivotal position in sawnwood trade in the region. The imported sawnwood was mostly P. patula from Tanzania that entered the Kenyan markets by April 2003.

Table 2 indicates that in 2004, Kenya imported 21,199 tonnes of softwood with Tanzania contributing 76 per cent and Uganda 24 per cent of this. Similarly, in 2005 Kenya imported 27,484m3 with Tanzania accounting for 98 per cent and Uganda 2 per cent. The imports of softwood sawnwood from DR Congo and Uganda has since stopped giving credence to suspicion that softwood sawnwood imported from these countries may have been from illegally harvested from public forests in western Kenya. The imports from Tanzania since 2004 have been largely pine sawnwood that has dominated market outlets in Mombasa, Kilifi and Malindi, and later Nairobi, Machakos and Kitui, among others. Imports of Cupressus lusitanica sawnwood from Malawi

by Tanzanian merchants were reported in Mombasa in 2005 but there has been no new delivery since then.

Also in 2005, a Mombasa based company was cleared to import iroko and sapele hardwoods (resp. Chlorophora excelsa and Entandrophragma cylindricum) from the Guinean rainforest (West Africa) for production of high value Lamu design furniture (Cheboiwo, 2006).

Table 2: Tree product imports into Kenya from ECA countries in 2004 and 2005

Year 2004 2005

Species Cypress/pines

Uganda 3,935 tonnes 510m3

Tanzania 11,600 tonnes 26,974m3

DR Congo 40 tonnes -

Total 21,199 tonnes 27,484m3

Textile plants use steam, produced by firewood, for dying processes.

Miti April-June 2009

39

Source: Forest Department, Marketing Section (2006).

In 2004, Kenya imported from Tanzania, its leading exporter, 40,000 pallets and 11,200m3 of muhugu (Brachylaena huillensis), 450 tonnes of blackwood (Dalbergia melanoxylon), 100 tonnes of cedar (Juniperus procera) and 128 tonnes of charcoal.

During the same period, Kenya imported 100 tonnes of mahogany from Zambia, 250 tonnes from Uganda and 100 tonnes from DR Congo. It also imported 480 m3 of teak (Tectona grandis) from DR Congo and Sudan. However, these figures have to be taken with caution. Hardwood imports into Kenya from Central Africa are mostly done by Ugandan merchants, while Tanzanian merchants import southern African woods. These merchants falsify documents to circumvent strict exploitation controls of indigenous hardwoods or for other reasons, and the figures may not reflect the true origin of the hardwoods entering the Kenyan market.

In 2007, trade statistics show that Kenya imported 85,000m3 of softwood mostly from Tanzania and 21,000m3 of hardwood from other ECA countries worth Ksh1.8 billion (Cheboiwo, 2008). The imports that crossed legally in 2007 through the Busia border from Uganda and by extension from DR Congo and southern Sudan were 4,550m3 that comprised 330m3 mvule (Milicia excelsa) and 1,245m3 mahogany (most likely Khaya senegalensis and K. anthotheca) (Cheboiwo, 2008).

There are potential imports of hardwood into Kenya from Southern Sudan, mostly mahogany from vast savannah woodlands and teak sawnwood from plantations. Our surveys in 2008 indicate that Southern Sudan is facing a serious shortage of softwood sawnwood for its fast expanding construction industry. This has forced developers to use valuable prime hardwood sawnwood in low-value construction activities such as scaffolding and low-value furniture. Thus, there is high potential for exports of softwood sawnwood into Southern Sudan by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda among other ECA countries with large softwood plantation sectors.

Trade in treated transmission poles Kenya has been facing serious shortages of semi-processed transmission pole wood for its five treatment plants for the last seven years. Despite their high capacity in excess of 300,000 per year, the local plants can hardly meet the 97,000 pieces needed per year by the power transmission sector. Since 2001, Kenya has been importing about 20,000 pieces from South Africa annually, at a cost of about Ksh 10,500 per piece (Table 4) indicating an annual expenditure of Ksh 210 million. In 2006, Kenya ordered 47,000 pieces from a consortium of Tanzanian suppliers lead by Sao Hill, estimated at about Ksh 520 million.

Trade in transmission poles is set to expand in the region and Kenya is well positioned to take advantage of this. Its raw materials base is quickly growing through rapid expansion of short-rotation plantations mostly E. grandis by tea companies and farmers within the last five years. Though treatment plants in Kenya have expanded to eight by June 2006, there may be need for further expansion to meet the expanding supplies of poles and demand for treated poles in the regional markets.

Southern Sudan is a large emerging market for various treated poles in its accelerated infrastructure developments. These range from power distribution to construction sector materials.

The significance of trade in treated transmission poles is attested

40

to by the fact that in 2007 Kenya imported 150,000 pieces of treated poles worth Ksh 1.6 billion from various countries.

Local tree growers can take advantage of the current high demand for treated transmission poles in the power transmission sector estimated at over 100,000 pieces per year.

Taking an average farm gate price for semi-processed poles at a lower range of Ksh 1,200 and upper range at Ksh 2,500 and delivery price of treated transmission pole at Ksh 11,000, farmers and tea companies can earn between Ksh 120 - 250 million a year from the sale of semi-processed poles. Similarly, the transmission poles processing sector can earn up to Ksh 1.1 billion a year from the sale of treated transmission poles, excluding the expanding regional market.

Standards and certification requirements for the export and import trade There are few standard-related hindrances to movement of most tree products across borders in the region except for a few specialised structural products of limited interest. It was only Kenya and Tanzania that reported some standard requirements for export and import of tree products. However, the survey revealed that standards mostly observed at exit and entry points were sanitary inspections and certifications.

Conclusions Differentiated production and consumption patterns offer vast potential for trade in tree products within the ECA region.

The tree products with great potential to be traded across the countries include sawnwood, construction poles, firewood, charcoal and treated transmission poles. Kenya is a net importer of various trees products and thus strategically placed to become a regional hub for secondary processing and exporter of finished products. The ban on harvesting in public forests and diversification on market niches has opened opportunities for various tree products from the East and Central African region to flow into the Kenyan market.

Policy reforms carried out by ECA countries in the forestry sector have created opportunities for the development of efficient and competitive tree product trade in the region.

However, trade flows in volumes and values have remained low because there are still policy barriers and other bottlenecks.

Kenya stands to benefit through open trade with ECA countries as opposed to trade restriction, especially when the restriction on harvesting of its vast plantations is lifted. As part of its contribution to Vision 2030, the forestry sector should factor in forestry industrialisation and trade strategy to position the country to become the hub for high-value processing and value addition. The emerging trade is good for Kenya for it will not only ease the pressure on local tree product supplies but will also provide an opportunity to exploit the potential for vast resources in the region and to expand the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s presence in the regional trade in knock-down furniture. This is attested by recent trade statistics that show that in 2007, Kenya imported 85,000m3 of softwood (mostly from Tanzania) and 21,000m3 of hardwood and 150,000 poles worth Ksh 3.6 billion

--------------------------------------Email jkchemangare@yahoo.com or kefri-ln@africaonline.co.ke

Miti April-June 2009