The Loliondo wonder tree Nursery certification in Uganda Kakuzi puts Kenya on the world map Remembering Maxwell Kinyanjui
Subscription only only Sold by subscription I s s u e N o.1 4 Ap r il - J u ne 2 0 1 2
Taking the clones route Clonal forestry points the way to meeting the demand for high value seedlings
Bearing good fruit
Ugandan pastor cares for trees as much as he does for souls
Do not sit on knowledge Foresters urged to share information with communities
Nurturing the seed
KEFRI’s programme promotes tree planting through provision of high quality seeds
Better Globe Forestry Ltd
Making Africa greener
Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.
Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion
The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.
Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting
Our nursery at Kiambere
A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere
Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation
A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme
Preparing for planting in Kiambere
The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins
www.betterglobeforestry.com
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Editorial
Trees are the future
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Imaginative use of trees
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News
Kitengela farmer has planted grevillea to tame a harsh environment
Karura to be a place of recreation
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Putting Kenya on the world map
Kakuzi’s avocadoes take a share of Western Europe’s exotic fruit market
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After the charcoal rules, what next?
Efficient technology points the way to sustainable production
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The tree count is complete
KFS has carried out a forest inventory to quantify the national tree cover
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Good news on a dreaded tree
Prosopis (popularly known as mathenge) has many uses, and it can be commercialised
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Decorative body art
The henna tree has been used since ancient times for cosmetic purposes
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Looking for clean water
The legal requirements for construction of water projects in Kenya
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Remembering Maxwell Kinyanjui
Kenya’s Man of the Trees
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Nurturing the seed
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The right tree in the right place
KEFRI’s Tree Seed Programme promotes tree planting through provision of high quality seeds
It’s not enough to pick the correct species; you need the correct provenance as well
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Taking the clones route
Clonal forestry points the way to meeting the demand for high value seedlings
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Laying the ground for quality trees
A nursery certification system in Uganda ensures production of high worth seedlings
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A nursery built around palm trees
With its large variety of plant species, Tropical Nurseries is playing its part in greening the country
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Supplying good quality seeds
Uganda’s National Forestry Tree Seed Centre strives to meet the rising demand for seeds and seedlings
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Do not sit on information
Paul Konuche, a former Director of KEFRI, challenges foresters to work with communities
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Bearing good fruit
Ugandan pastor cares for trees as much he does for souls
40 Pictorial
Reversing land degradation Mukau: A Keny with a brigh an drylands tree t future Yatta farme r makes farming big busin tree ess Interview with George Maya Ugandan farme r, nja
The Lolion do wonde r tree Nursery certifi cation in Uganda Kakuzi puts Kenya on the world Rememberi map ng Maxw ell Kinyan jui Subsc Sold byription subscription only only
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From dust to energy
Effects of briquettes on indoor air quality and the environment
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The Loliondo wonder tree
Carissa edulis, the attractive hedge that treats a host of diseases
On the cover: A view of the nursery of Tropical Nurseries at Gedi. The company prides itself in its large assortment of palm tree species, among other plants, and has a successful landscaping component. (Photo: BGF)
Issue No.14
April -June
2012
Takin
Clonal g the clone meetingforestry points the s route seedlingsthe demand for way to high valu e
The tree t Zacchatha eus
The fig tree climbed is today, asimportant it was biblical timein s
Beari
Uganda ng good fru as muchn pastor cares for it as he doe s for soutrees ls
Do no
Forester t sit on kn with coms urged to share owledge munities information
Nurturing the seed
KEFRI’s promotes programme through provtree planting ision of high quality see ds
Editorial
Trees are the future for our planet
I
n sexual reproduction, seeds are a way of remixing genetic material and generating phenotype variability on which natural selection acts. Among its key functions we can mention dispersal to new locations and dormancy during unfavourable conditions. Of course, unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favourable conditions for life and growth. As a result, natural evolution has produced many ways for trees to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds as it must somehow “arrive” at a location favourable for germination and growth. Seed viability is the ability of an embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions while seed vigour is a measure of its quality. Germination then again is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and the environment. Environmental conditions effecting seed germination include water, oxygen, temperature and light. The theme of this issue of Miti magazine is “Seeds and Seedlings”. Seeding processes have seen human intervention in the course of time as healthy and viable seed from the right provenance is the foundation for a healthy tree planting business. This is important for small, medium and big projects. Millions of dollars are spent on the matter by local and international research institutions all around the world. Big business has been built around the different aspects of seed improvement. We carry a number of articles in this issue on the subject. We have taken great care to make this rather complex issue understandable to a wide readership as the aim of this magazine is to disseminate information in an understandable and transparent way to all tree planters. Afforestation as a business requires a long-term vision, patience and a lot of funding without rock solid guarantees other than the knowledge that what we do today in the tree business has always been done. The means and techniques have changed but the goal is the same. In many different ways, the tree business is a guarantee for a better world. It is this simple truth that we want our readers to embrace. Many different writers have contributed to this issue. They all deserve credit. We therefore wish you great pleasure in reading this issue and keep spreading the word - trees are the future for our planet. Jean-Paul Deprins
Published by: TQML LTD P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com
Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 752 896 205 Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
Chairman of the Editorial Board:
Jan Vandenabeele
Editorial Committee
Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg
Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolph Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira
Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe
Editor-in-chief
Designer
Jean-Paul Deprins
Daniel N. Kihara
Managing Editor - Kenya
COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Wanjiru Ciira
2
Technical Editor
Rino Solberg
Miti April-June 2012
Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
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News The Director of KFS, Mr David Mbugua (second left) and the Chairman of AFEW, Mr Rick Anderson, cut the tape during the official launch and handover of a series of steps and foot bridges at Karura Forest. The Chairman of Friends of Karura CFA, Prof Karanja Njoroge (left) and the Head of Conservancy for Nairobi, Ms Charity Munyasia (right) look on. Inset: One of the bridges built Forestry and Wildlife Minister Dr NoahRiver. Wekesa across Karura The releases bridges balloons to mark the twin held at KEFRI easeevents accessibility to the site by headquarters in Muguga, Kiambu County. hikers. (Photos: KFS)On his left is the chairman of the KEFRI board, Dr James Onsando and KEFRI Director Dr Ben Chikamai.
Karura to be a place of recreation By LEAKEY SONKOYO
K
arura Forest in Nairobi is being developed to become a place of recreation and relaxation, according to the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) Director, Mr David Mbugua. This is because of the forest’s unique location, being in the neighbourhood of a metropolis and also being a pristine indigenous forest. “The forest is also an important biodiversity conservation area as it is inhibited by a wide variety of endemic as well as exotic tree species,” added Mr Mbugua. The Director was speaking during the inauguration of a series of staircases and bridges built in the forest with assistance from the African Fund for Endangered Wildlife (AFEW). The staircases have been built at a steep slope leading to the Mau Mau caves, while the bridges have been put up on Karura River as a safety measure and to ease accessibility to the site by hikers. Mr Mbugua thanked AFEW, which was represented by its chairman, Mr Rick Anderson, for the kind gesture. “The caves, which are the most
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visited site in the forest, will now be accessed easily and safely,” he said. He noted that Karura was now being used as a case study of how to develop similar forests near urban areas in the rest of the country. Addressing the same event Mr Anderson said that his organisation will continue to support such conservation efforts, as they are good for the country. “AFEW is supporting a number of other projects all aimed at advancing conservation of natural resources,” he added. Prof Karanja Njoroge, the Chairman of Friends of Karura CFA, expressed his delight at the construction of the staircase and foot bridges. “This will go a long way in promoting Karura Forest as an ecotourism facility,” he said. He noted that the CFA enjoyed good relations with both KFS and all stakeholders involved in the conservation of Karura. The writer is Corporate Communication Officer at KFS Email: lsonkoyo@kenyaforestservice.org
The views expressed in Miti magazine are the writers’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of Better Globe or TQML. WRITE TO US We welcome feedback on any article you have read in Miti magazine, or on any issue on tree planting, afforestation and related matters. Please include your name, address and telephone number. Letters may be edited for clarity or space. We also invite you to send us any interesting photos you might have. Please send your contributions to: The Editor Miti magazine P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya. Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com OR Miti magazine P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda. Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
www.betterglobeforestry.com Miti Magazine-Africa’s Tree Business Magazine
Miti April-June 2012
Nurturing the seed KEFRI’s Tree Seed Programme promotes tree planting through provision of high quality seeds By WILLIAM OMONDI
T
Miti April-June 2012
Table 1: Seed collection and distribution from 1995 to 2010
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Collection
0
9
20 1
8
20 0
7
20 0
6
20 0
5
20 0
4
20 0
3
20 0
2
20 0
1
20 0
0
20 0
9
20 0
8
19 9
7
19 9
6
19 9
5
Distribution
19 9
Seeds are critical to production of seedlings. The success of government policies on afforestation depends heavily on the supply of sufficient quantity and quality seeds of the species in demand for planting programmes. Over 10 years, KEFRI increased its production capacity from 2 tonnes in 2000 to 5.6 tonnes in 2005 and 9.7 tonnes in 2010. Most of the seeds are collected from selected, established and marked sources located in protected areas, trust lands and private land. During the last 20 years, KEFRI established 14.6 ha of seed stands and 33.1 ha of seed orchards. It is from these sources that the institute collects improved seeds of high genetic quality as compared to those from natural forests. Improvement activities are a continuous process and work on additional indigenous species is in progress. KEFRI has responded to the increased national demand for seeds and seedlings by decentralising distribution to its regional centres,
The above mentioned increase in production has been accompanied by a steady rise in distribution from 1.1 tonnes to 6.8 tonnes over the same period. An analysis of the quantity of seeds of 22 priority species produced and distributed during a five-year period (2006 to 2010) in relation to the size of land planted, using the seedlings raised, reaches a theoretical 1.1 million hectares. This translates to 2.6 per cent of Kenyan land cover. This signifies the increased recognition of KEFRI as a source of high quality seeds. Table 1 shows these trends. The overall impact of this is the promotion of tree planting, hence contributing to the
agents and stockists. This exercise also involves packaging seeds in different quantities to meet the demands of different clients. To improve its seed production capacity, the institute has embraced the informal seed sector in the production and distribution of seeds. KEFRI trains the private seed sources in basic seed handling before they are registered and recognised as sources of seeds. The institute will thus focus its resources on production of seeds from superior sources, i.e. orchards and established stands, and also capitalise on species in which it has a technological advantage in terms of handling.
seed weight (ton)
Seed production and distribution
An established seed stand of Melia volkensii in Kitui (Photo:KEFRI)
19 9
he Kenya Forestry Seed Centre was established in 1985 with support from the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ). The centre has since been upgraded into a Programme within the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). It is mandated to provide certified, site appropriate, high quality tree seeds in sufficient quantities to meet the national demand; and to undertake research and policy formulation to guide tree seed production and use. KEFRI puts an emphasis on best practices throughout its seed production chain to ensure provision of high quality seeds to its clients. This involves adherence to the principles of source-identified and quality-declared seeds in accordance with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) schemes. These attributes are important in terms of site matching and information on the quality of each seed-lot. Tests for both physiological (germination) and physical (purity) quality are mandatory and are done in accordance with the International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) rules.
year
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(All Photos: KEFRI) Extraction of acacia seeds from pods.
Cold room seed store at Muguga.
achievement of Vision 2030 that requires the country to achieve 4 per cent forest cover by 2012. It is also in line with the Constitution, Article 69 Cap (1b), which requires the state to work towards achieving and maintaining a tree cover of at least 10 per cent of the Kenyan land area.
Development of seed policy and regulations KEFRI is registered as a seed merchant and is in the process of developing seed regulations to streamline its operations to be in line with both the Forestry Act (2005) and Seeds and Plant Varieties Act (2001). The institute has established a Seed Advisory Committee, which will formulate best policies and practices with respect to seed production and use in Kenya; to review emerging issues on production and related issues and to make appropriate recommendations. The policy frameworks have enhanced and promoted the production and use of high quality seeds by establishing appropriate guidelines and protocols.
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Testing for seed germination potential in the glasshouse.
Samples of seed and packages for distribution and sale.
Advancement of ex-situ conservation1 through seed storage The prevailing rate of environmental degradation does not guarantee the continued survival of some plants and habitats, making it necessary to resort to ex-situ conservation measures. In domesticating some of the national obligations to the CBD 2 and to mitigate the loss of plant diversity, seed banking is one of the most efficient and inexpensive ways of ensuring that seeds of many wild plant species are maintained alive for hundreds of years. Stored seed offers a source of planting material whenever required. The process of seed banking entails collecting representative seed samples from a species population, followed by cleaning and drying the seeds to low water content normally to 5 per cent, before hermetically packaging and storing at sub-zero temperatures. 1Ex-situ is Latin and means “not on the site�, so ex-situ conservation generally means planting seedlings from seeds collected on a particular place from a particular species, in another place. But it also can mean conservation by other means, like storing in a controlled environment (cold room). 2 Convention on Biological Diversity
The seeds are stored at the National Genebank of Kenya. Since 2000, the Kenya Forestry Seed Centre has, in collaboration with its partners in the Seeds for Life project, collected, documented, and stored seeds of 600 plant species, representing 120 families, 359 genera and 554 species indigenous to various regions of Kenya. These collections form part of Kenya’s heritage of plant genetic resources that are available for use in research, re-introduction for multiplication and specialised use.
Development and application of seed handling protocols Basic research to support production and handling of seeds is a pre-requisite, to ensure continuous provision of appropriate technologies and protocols. The focus of seed research is on storage and dormancy release. For example, not all seeds will germinate when sown, even with appropriate conditions. In nature, seed remains
Miti April-June 2012
dormant until the conditions are favourable; this is an adaptation strategy that ensures species survival. Treating (germination pre-treatment) the seed before sowing eliminates this “resting period.” Research findings have narrowed the knowledge gap, while enhancing the important role of germplasm use and conservation. Further, the results from the studies have enhanced our understanding of storage and germination behaviour of the challenging indigenous species, namely, Melia volkensii, Polyscias fulva, Moringa stenopetala, Zanthoxylum gilletii, Terminalia brownii and Osyris lanceolata, among others. Another area where research progress has been made is the determination of seed desiccation tolerance which aims at assessing seed storage potential at low temperatures and moisture content, both of which are pre-requisites for long-term seed storage. It is not possible to determine seed storage potential based on either fruit or seed morphological characteristics. Through these studies, we have been able to identify plant bearing species whose seeds are non-storable under conventional cold stores. The results of these studies have been compiled and published in the Tree Seed Handbook of Kenya and tree seed information leaflets.
Publications to support seed policy, production and use Information generated from the seed handling research and experiences has been packaged into several publications as listed below. About 4,000 copies of the Tree Seed Handbook in particular have been distributed widely to both local and international libraries, NGOs and to several academic institutions.
The Kenya Forestry Seed Centre is located at Muguga, in Kiambu County, off Naivasha Road. The contact address is: P O Box 20412 - 00200 Nairobi Tel 066-32891/2/3 Email: seed@kefri.org The writer is the National Coordinator, Tree Seed Programme, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: williamomondi2004@yahoo.co.uk
Publications on Kenya’s seed policy 1. National Seed Policy 2010 – Ministry of Agriculture 2. The State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in Kenya – FAO Report, 2009 3. Seed Production and Research Strategy – 2011; KEFRI 4. Seed collection and handling; a Reference Manual – KEFRI 2011 5. Tree Seed Source Re-classification Manual: 2009, ICRAF /KEFRI 6. Tree Seed Quality Guide 2009, ICRAF/KEFRI 7. Promoting tree planting through provision of high quality seeds: Information leaflet; KEFRI 2011 8. Seed Catalogue; KEFRI 2010 9. Evolution of provision of Tree Seed in extension programmes. RELMA Technical note; 1994 10. Tree Seed Handbook of Kenya 2nd Edition 2007 11. Tree Seed Information Leaflets 12. Forest Seed Zones of Kenya
The right tree in the right place It’s not enough to pick the correct species; you need the correct provenance as well By BERNARD KAMONDO, MICHAEL OKEYO AND BERNARD KIGWA
I
f you want to plant a tree for timber in the semi arid areas of Kenya, mukau (Melia volkensii) is the correct choice. In the highlands where rainfall is high, Meru oak (Vitex fischeri) is the tree for you. However, besides choosing the right species, it is also important to choose the correct area from which to collect the seed to be used to raise the seedlings. This is done by matching the ecological conditions of the areas in which the seed trees are growing with the ecological conditions of the planting site. Why is this important? A population of trees in a given species within a given locality interact with the environment and over time accumulate a genetic composition that enables that particular population to survive and thrive in that particular location. The genetic information accumulated is passed to successive generations through seeds. Over a long period, a certain genetic uniformity emerges that is associated or is unique to a particular location. Indigenous tree species with wide distribution over Kenya will inherently have such segregation in their populations scattered in different parts of the country. This differentiation has its basis in the fact that Kenya varies a lot ecologically from one place to another principally due to differing altitudes and corresponding rainfall. A population of trees with genetic uniformity closely tied to a given locality is referred to as a provenance. In tree planting, foresters will, besides considering the right species to plant, also give attention to the right provenance, a process called provenance matching. Provenance matching is used in tree seed distribution to ensure that tree seedlings of a given species are planted in areas where the genetic information the seedlings contain will be of highest value in enhancing survival and ensuring optimum growth of the planted trees. How is this done effectively? An area of relative ecological uniformity is demarcated. Such an area is used as a seed zone as tree seeds collected from such an area have a reasonably uniform genetic composition. When seeds are collected and used in the same seed zone, there is no risk of poor performance of planted trees arising from provenance mismatch. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has demarcated Kenya into 23 forest seed zones. Besides describing the ecological conditions of each
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A stand of mukau (Melia volkensii) that is non-uniform, seemingly indicating a lack of provenancesite matching. (Photo: KEFRI)
A uniform Melia volkensii stand in BGF’s Kiambere plantations. The seeds were collected from selected trees in its neighbourhood. (Photo: BGF)
Miti April-June 2012
forest seed zone, KEFRI has also mapped the zones to ease the use of the seed zones in provenance matching. Seed zones that are numerically close have their ecological conditions varying less than those numerically further apart. In an ideal situation, seeds collected in one zone (source seed zone) should be used in the same zone (destination seed zone). However, in reality, cases arise where seed is moved from one zone to another due to unavailability of seeds from the destination seed zone. The greater the distance between the source seed zone and the destination seed zone, the higher the risk that trees established could fail due to lack of proper adaptation. A seed supplier should therefore make professional judgement on limiting the movement of seeds from one zone to another. In the formal tree seed supply system operated by KEFRI through the Kenya Forestry Seed Centre, tree seed customers are requested to disclose the intended planting site/location conditions in terms of mean annual rainfall, mean annual temperature ranges, and altitude. This assists in providing not only the correct species, but also the correct provenance. Provenance matching should be practised by all who supply indigenous tree seed or/and seedlings. It is also an important issue to consider for those planting such trees. Mukau and Meru oak, mentioned earlier, are sources of good timber. In Kenya, mukau occurs
in seed zones 17 to 22 while Meru oak’s occurrence is restricted to seed zones 4 and 5. In planting mukau, disregarding the seed zones exposes tree growers to the risk of mismatching the source seed zone with the destination seed zone due
to the many seed zones from which one can collect seeds. For Meru oak, there is a risk of moving the seed far beyond its right ecological conditions due to its limited seed zones. The writers are KEFRI researchers. Muk au with : A Keny an a brig ht fu drylands Yatta ture tree fa farm rmer m ing bi ak g bu es tree Interv sines s Georg iew with e May Ugand an anja farm er,
Ug an Jatr da’s sh op rin h kin Su cce a und gw ss er e
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Mu wit kau: A ha bri Kenya Yatt gh n farm a farm t futu dryla nd re ing er m s tr Inte big ee a bu kes tr Ge rview sin org ess ee e M with aya Uga nja nda n fa rm er,
Inte tla ful Ranc es tr att Ugan g hand acr nd tr s oss the sea Sa dan farm h set for ee plantin Ma rview ee gro ack Mukau: A Kenyan drylands tree Adding wit take kin s ndal g win ers di value to h -off gd w wood scov with a bright future ryla KFS D g in M Harve ood: A Ensuring er gr usef nd ire our surviv sting een cto akue sp gold al water ul para ni rod Yatta farmer makes tree r Do trees site uct in dr attract rain ive ylan farming big business ? NFA driv ds es tree-p lanting in Interview with Ugandan farmer, Uganda
George Mayanja
Issue No. 0001 January-March 2009 Issu e No. 000 2 Apr il - JunIsesu e 200N9o.
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MITI is targeted at all who want to share information on how important afforestation is for present and future generations MITI gives information on controversial tree issues, the historical use of trees, water management and related issues management, tissue culture and related issues MITI, the forum for sharing information on the business of growing trees
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Visit www.betterglobeforestry.com for the on-line version of the magazine
Miti April-June 2012
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TBPT also works with other tree species. These are hedges of clonal indigenous species, for research on clonal multiplication. (Photo: BGF)
Taking the clones route Clonal forestry points the way to meeting the demand for high value seedlings By BENSON KANYI
E
ucalyptus is a preferred source of raw material for the manufacture of paper, furniture, for charcoal, firewood, construction of houses, honey and production of essential oils. In Africa, South Africa has taken the lead in exporting wood products from sustainable commercial forestry. Kenya is keenly following in South Africa’s footsteps, since commercial forestry is the only way to preserve resources such as the water towers1 and other natural forests. It is important to focus on the positive benefits of growing eucalyptus trees such as generation of wealth, employment opportunities and raw material production, among others. As much as environmental impacts can be observed, the benefits of growing the tree are much greater so long as it is done sustainably and in an eco1 Mt Kenya, Mt Elgon, the Aberdares, the Mau complex and the Cherangani hills.
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efficient manner. Clonal forestry of eucalyptus started in Kenya in 2000. Clonal plantations of Eucalyptus grandis or E. grandis hybrids provided significant gains in forest productivity, uniformity and wood quality. The fast-growing clones were initially propagated by using macro-cuttings from stumps of harvested commercial plantations. In the early 1990s, clonal gardens were established and managed in a very specific way, with the aim of producing higher amounts of macro-cuttings from smaller areas. At the time, selection of clones with superior rooting ability became very important and current breeding programmes consider this an eliminatory selection criterion. The best performers root 60 to 70 per cent using traditional macro-cutting technology. This system has been intensively improved in the last ten years and so far is the most widely used for tropical eucalypt species. With this system, rooting rates of over 90 per cent can be achieved easily.
The next clonal paradigm to increase efficiency of clonal propagation for tropical eucalyptus in East Africa will be mini clonal gardens that could be located inside nursery sheds. Besides, as mini-cuttings remain juvenile, rooting ability is better and the plant production cycle shorter. The Tree Biotechnology Programme Trust (TBPT) is set to roll out the first of the mini-cutting technology in East Africa. The technology will utilise efficient and low-cost micro-propagation systems.
Other species for the future Pine hybrids Through CAMCORE2, which is a global network of tree breeders, TBPT has introduced pine hybrids. These are under field testing in partnership with 2 Central America and Mexico Coniferous Resources Cooperative, an organisation formed in 1980 in the Department of Forestry & Environmental Resources of North Carolina State University, USA. It is partly funded by the private sector and known as the International Tree Conservation & Domestication Programme.
Miti April-June 2012
A view of the nursery of the Tree Biotechnology Programme in Karura, Nairobi. Tens of thousands of eucalypt clones placed on heightened seedling beds to provide aerial root pruning. (Photo: BGF)
the Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI). The pine hybrids under field testing are: - Pinus caribaea x Pinus oocarpa; Pinus elliotii x Pinus caribaea; Pinus elliotii x Pinus taeda; Pinus elliotii x Pinus tecunumanii (HE); Pinus patula x Pinus elliotii; Pinus patula x Pinus greggii (south); Pinus patula x Pinus oocarpa; Pinus patula x Pinus tecunumanii (HE); Pinus patula x Pinus tecunumanii (LE); Pinus tecunumanii (HE) x Pinus oocarpa; and Pinus tecunumanii (LE) x Pinus caribaea. It is hoped that many more farmers will benefit as the new hybrids are expected to perform well in many agro-climatic zones. Currently in Kenya, only Pinus patula is exclusively grown for commercial purposes. However, farmers have been pushing the species in regions unsuitable for it, leading to undesirable growth characteristics such as fox-tailing of the apex or excessive branching. Melia volkensii Melia volkensii is an indigenous tree growing in semi arid areas of Kenya like Kitui, Machakos, Samburu, Taita and Voi. It is an agro-forestry tree with multiple uses such as fencing posts, timber and firewood, while the flowers encourage bees. The tree is resistant to termites, thus making it a favourable candidate for semi arid areas. Due to these qualities, the tree is in great demand in semi-arid areas. Propagation of Melia volkensii from seed is difficult as the seed is highly recalcitrant, making
Miti April-June 2012
Inside the TBPT greenhouse. Fresh cuttings are kept on high relative air moisture in a warm environment. Strict hygiene standards are observed to avoid death of young seedlings. The greenhouse floor is covered with gravel, and there is no mud. (Photo:BGF)
propagation through cuttings the most viable option. TBPT has initiated propagation through cuttings and work has started to optimise production for mass propagation. TBPT has over the last 10 years distributed quality tree seedlings to tree growers across the country and across Kenya’s borders with over 25,000,000 seedlings planted. This translates to 40,000 acres (16,000ha) under new commercial forestry, with the attendant job creation and wealth distribution in rural settings.
With this, many farmers have embraced and adapted emerging innovations in growing stocks such as the clonal hybrids. They have for instance embraced the use of aqua-gels for water retention in marginal areas, use of biodegradable plant pots instead of plastics, and intensive silvicultural practices to enhance growth and quality of grown trees. The writer is the Programme Manager, Tree Biotechnology Programme Trust Email:bkanyi@tree-biotech.com
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Inspection of the rooting system of a Pinus caribaea var Hondurensis seedling by staff of the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) (Photo: SPGS)
Laying the ground for quality trees A nursery certification system in Uganda ensures production of high worth seedlings By DIANA AHEBWE
T
he nursery certification programme is an initiative by the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS), in conjunction with the Uganda Timber Growers Association (UTGA) in response to demand from private nursery operators. SPGS is a donor funded project of partnership between the European Union, the Government of Uganda and the Government of Norway supporting commercial forestry in Uganda; while UTGA is a private members’ organisation. Private nursery operators and tree growers had problems accessing good quality seedlings so they requested SPGS to provide commercial tree nursery certification. This kicked off in late 2010 and since then, 42 nurseries in different parts of Uganda have been certified.
Criteria for certification of commercial tree nurseries A tree nursery operator interested in having his/
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her nursery audited makes a formal application to SPGS. If the nursery meets the minimum standards, it is awarded a certificate. A nursery is considered commercial if it has the capacity to raise at least 100,000 high quality seedlings in a season. The programme caters for large and small private commercial tree nursery operators. Some big forest companies do import seed directly from foreign seed suppliers while individuals or companies under the SPGS/UTGA certification scheme must prove the origin of the seed source/clone to SPGS/UTGA before it is accepted. This includes seeds from the National Forest Authority’s National Tree Seed Centre as well as seeds imported by UTGA or SPGS. Examples of tree species and their approved origin include Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis (improved seeds from Australia or Brazil), Eucalyptus grandis (from Fort Portal), Maesopsis eminii (from Masaka), Terminalia superb (from Nandagi or Jinja) and Pinus patula (from Echuuya or Kabale).
Use of good quality seedlings is the foundation for fast growing and high yielding plantations, which give the tree farmer a good profit on investment in the shortest time possible (SPGS Tree Planting Guidelines for Uganda). Other requirements for the nursery to be certified include accessibility, proper record-keeping and proper hygiene. Advance booking is required for SPGS support to growers, and the nursery should be within a radius of 100km from tree growing clusters. (SPGS has established areas in which plantations are concentrated, which they call “clusters”. They are distributed all over Uganda.) Indeed, the shorter the distance over which seedlings have to be transported, the cheaper it is, and the less disturbed the seedlings will be. The temptation to stack seedlings horizontally in the back of a pick-up to save on transport costs is punished by higher mortality in the field. There are different levels of approval, in the
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form of stars. Indeed, a nursery can be rated up to 5 stars. Nurseries are monitored constantly and a top-notch 5-star nursery can be downgraded if the quality is perceived to decline. The certification programme makes use of a simple but effective checklist which was developed through an interactive process with the private forestry sector stakeholders. The checklist is also used as a self-teaching tool for nursery operators. It covers a range of issues from location (the closer to the plantations the better), techniques applied, using improved seed, exhibiting high standards of professional ethics, taking good care of workers and the environment and also the economic viability of the venture. At the end of the process, a Correction Action Report is written, highlighting the nonconformances and observations made which have to be acted upon if the nursery is to improve on its rating. However, all hope is not lost as nurseries that do not meet the standards are reassessed at the next visit or round of audits. During the actual audits at the nursery, the auditors use interviews, demonstrations, observations and destructive sampling of the seedlings to check on quality. Certificates are valid for only 12 months but can be withdrawn any time within this period if standards are compromised. This means the auditors can make random visits at any time of the year to check on compliance with the standards.
Benefits of the certification programme The certification process is meant to improve standards because every commercial nursery would like to be certified. The reason is simple and very powerful - SPGS will not accept a tree grower for its grant scheme if the seedlings are not bought in a certified nursery. Thus, certified nurseries want to retain the status, while those that have not made the grade strive to reach there. To maintain the standards, spot checks on certified nurseries are done and some nurseries are promoted according to their performance while for others, certificates are withdrawn following suspension (Issue 32, SPGS News). During certification, technical advice for correction is given to those that do not reach the minimum standards and this has led to great improvement since 2010 when only 24 nurseries were certified, to the current 42 certified nurseries. The complete list of certified nurseries for 2012 can be viewed on SPGS’ website (www.sawlog.ug). Certification of nurseries has boosted commercial forestry in Uganda through production of good quality seedlings, in the right quantities and at the right time. At the same time, certification promotes customer confidence in the nurseries and thus increases sales for the nursery operators. In addition, since certification lasts for only a year, certified nurseries have to maintain high standards to retain their status. This in turn ensures quality seedling production. Certification of nurseries has also helped commercial tree planters in identifying the best
nurseries in their area from which they can obtain good quality seedlings. Besides, the rule was passed for all contracted clients to obtain their seedlings from the certified nurseries which has improved the quality of planting materials and also contributed to the success of commercial forestry in Uganda (SPGS News: Issue 32). There is a high demand for seedlings as more people venture into commercial forestry, therefore nursery owners and operators are working tirelessly to reach the standards for certification. Nursery management has improved greatly through practical training courses organised by SPGS periodically for operators or supervisors, to equip them with skills and knowledge for operating commercial nurseries. These courses have yielded good results. To ensure quality and monitor feedback, SPGS introduced a nursery complaint file to gather complaints of clients and tree growers about the seedling quality from certified nurseries.
Limitations The major limitation faced by nursery managers is the limited supply of quality seeds and the high cost of imported seeds. However, as the saying goes, “Good seed doesn’t cost, it pays”. Quality seeds can more than double the yield of a plantation, and hence, the income for the investor. The proposed polythene ban by the government (SPGS News: Issue 26) is also looming. Another challenge facing nursery managers is the limited seed production capacity, which is unable to meet the huge demand. The big companies produce for their own planting and not for sale. To put this into perspective; at the end of 2009, SPGS estimated a demand of 120 million seedlings for the next four years, versus a supply of 50 million – a big shortfall.
Future plans
SPGS staff fill in the inspection forms in the process of nursery certification. (Photo: SPGS)
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At the moment, the nursery certification scheme deals with private nurseries and is not involved in certification of government nurseries. However, there are plans to form an association of nursery operators, a process being handled by UTGA with technical advice from SPGS. It is believed such an association would be important long after the SPGS project has ended. Still, there is a need for greater technical support for a larger number of nursery operators to enable them to grow enough seedlings to meet the huge demand as commercial forestry takes off in Uganda. The writer is the Country Representative (Uganda) for Miti magazine Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
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A nursery built around palm trees With its large variety of plant species, Tropical Nurseries is playing its part in greening the country By JAN VANDENABEELE
Stunning landscaping with skilful use of ferns, palm trees and cycads, at the Gedi nursery. (Photo: BGF)
Coconut husks waiting to be milled into coconut fibre, for use in polybags in the nursery. (Photo: BGF)
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“K
enya is a horticultural paradise,” says Simon Walsh, co-owner of Tropical Nurseries, a landscaping company that produces most of its own seedlings. However, Tropical Nurseries is not shy of procuring plants from roadside nurseries if need be, because it is difficult to have such a wide selection all in one nursery and Kenya’s roadside nurseries are brilliant. Kenya’s tropical coastal area is hot and relatively moist, and Nairobi does not have frost like Johannesburg or Florida, and receives enough rains to support a large variety of Palm trees, ready for sale, neatly arranged in rows at Tropical Nurseries’ Gedi nursery. Good quality planting material commands a premium price. (Photo: BGF)
... And more palm trees (the golden palm, Dypsis lutescens). There really is a serious market out there. (Photo: BGF)
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species. You can copy from anywhere, with plants matching site. In brief, Kenya offers the best a gardener could wish for. Tropical Nurseries was started in 1981 in Malindi by Simon’s mother, Evelyn Walsh, as an extension of her hobby, gardening. The business has since expanded to include a 25-acre nursery in Gedi and afterwards, another in Langata, Nairobi. Tropical Nurseries contains a large variety of plant species; succulents, ground covering plants, flowering species, shrubs, indigenous and exotic trees, and above all, palms. Mr Walsh describes palms as the core species of their nursery and gardening business. Out of a single golden palm (Dypsis lutescens) in their Malindi garden, over a million trees would have been propagated over the years, all by seeds. Indeed, over a period of 30 years that makes a credible average of about 3,300 individual plants per year. It is nevertheless an astonishing number. Many of these palms have been sold at the coast, but Mr Walsh says some 20 palm species are commonly planted all over Kenya. They include the golden palm(Dypsis lutescens), the stately royal palm (Roystonea regia) the national tree of Cuba, the Lucubensis (Dypsis pembana), the fishtail palm (Caryota mitis and other fishtail palms), miniature date palm (Phoenix roebelenii) and more. Out of 3,000 palm species worldwide, Tropical Nurseries has some 50 species for wholesale. A blend of palm trees, combined with cycads (Encephalartos hildebrandtii) and ferns, makes for a wonderful sight at the Gedi nursery. The palms do not come cheap, and are priced according to size, and the years they have spent in the nursery. Big palms are packed carefully to avoid breaking the leaves and branches. They are wrapped in old shade-netting and one by one deposited on a bed of wood shavings when put in the back of a lorry. This attention to detail is characteristic of the company. In their nurseries and gardens, the soil of planted areas is fully covered and mulched with wood shavings or broken volcanic stones, to avoid evaporation and stimulate soil life. Composting is not done; as a rule, Tropical Nurseries employs organic matter directly for mulching. At Tropical Nurseries, there is no trace of what Mr Walsh calls “that dreadful mushroom shape” - badly pruned bushes so often seen in Nairobi gardens. The other hallmark of the average Nairobi gardener, burning of organic matter (leaves, twigs) and sweeping the soil to have it “clean” and in the process having it burned out of its life by the sun, is nowhere to be found.
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Packing of palm trees. This is how it starts. (Photo: BGF)
Loading. Note the use of wood shavings to provide a soft bed for the palm trees and avoid any damage. Prime quality demands prime care, but commands prime prices. (Photo: BGF)
Clever use of a canopy of teak (Tectona grandis) and other trees in the nursery in Gedi provides enough shade and protection against winds so that a shade-netted roof can be avoided. The Gedi nursery environment - hot, moist and shaded - is a good habitat for snakes, but killing them is forbidden. This surely goes against the grain of Kenyan practice, but true enough; most snakes are harmless and in fact are good predators of mice and rats that can be very damaging. The landscaping of Tropical Nurseries is also built around other tree species like Cordia africana (beautiful when in flower), Olea europaea ssp africana (the indigenous olive tree), Olea capensis, Calodendrum capense (the cape chestnut with its purple flowers) and Ficus spp, Vitex kenensis (the fast-growing meru oak). Others are Juniperus procera (the indigenous
pencil cedar), not to be confused with Cupressus sempervirens ‘stricta’ (the Italian cypress, which is rare to find in Kenyan nurseries), Albizia spp, Trichilia emetica, Millettia dura, Brachylaena huillensis (the silver oak or muhuhu), all species of acacia, and many more. In their limited gardens, many new developments in Nairobi avoid trees because of falling leaves and the birds the trees attract. This is a pity. In countries like Australia, a certain minimum percentage of land under development must be green. Tropical Nurseries markets itself by word of mouth. A visit to the beautiful annex gardens next to the nurseries also serves as a good marketing tool. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
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Supplying good quality seeds Uganda’s National Tree Seed Centre strives to meet the rising demand for seeds and seedlings By DIANA AHEBWE
T
he Tree Seed Centre of the National Forestry Authority (NFA) started in 1992 as the Uganda Tree Seed Project of the then Ministry of Environment Protection under the Forestry Department. The project was started with funding from the Government of Uganda, the United Nations Sudano Sahelian Organisation (UNSO), the Government of the Kingdom of Norway and technical support from the Netherlands Government. The project, which later evolved into the National Tree Seed Centre (NTSC), changed management from the Forestry Department to NFA in April 2004 following the gazetting of the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act 2003. The latter vested the management of the Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) and all their activities under the NFA. The NTSC is administered by the Plantation Directorate of NFA. This is a group of technical people in different areas of specialisation such as tree improvement, seed quality analysts, sales and procurement, etc. NTSC has modern facilities for seed collection, processing, testing, storage and distribution to meet a significant proportion of the country’s seed demand. The Seed Centre has identified, described and certified seed sources of selected priority tree species, which are used as basic materials for the provision of good quality seed. NTSC has 12 regional tree nurseries in Kabaale, Mbarara, Masaka, Jinja, Mbale, Soroti, Gulu, Arua, Masindi, Nakasongola, Kyenjojo and Mubende. This is an initiative of NTSC to bring services closer to the people while ensuring that quality is not compromised. In research, NTSC collaborates with institutions such as the National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NAFFORI) and educational institutions like Makerere University and Nyabyeya Forestry College. The latter send their students for internship and to do research using NTSC facilities and expertise. NTSC also works with communities, nongovernment organisations (NGOs) such as VECO East Africa (Uganda) Programme and World Vision Uganda – with which MOUs have been signed
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A nursery with pine seedlings at NTSC. (Photo: NTSC)
Seeds kept in polythene bags, inside a storage room of NTSC. (Photo: NTSC)
– as well as bilateral and multilateral agencies and individual farmers. NTSC offers tailored practical training and advisory services in seed and tree nursery management, commercial forest establishment and management and fruit tree propagation through grafting, seed storage and testing.
Seed collection NTSC handles over 90 species of seeds and seedlings, categorised as agroforestry, timber, ornamental and fruit trees. Up to 10 tonnes of high quality seed is collected, processed, tested, packed, stored and distributed annually to a wide range of clients in the country and within the region. Seeds
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are collected from natural forests and plantations in CFRs but others are sourced from privately owned land. Seed collection at NTSC is done from registered seed sources in CFRs or private forests on farms under collaborative arrangement with private seed suppliers. There are three types of seed sources from which seeds are collected and these are: 1. Seed orchards where trees are planted for seed production purposes right from the onset. They are intensively managed, applying all the silvicultural operations such as weeding, thinning and pruning. Forked and diseased trees are thinned out and plus-trees are maintained for seed production. 2. Identified selected seed stands where already established plantations are selected for seed production, based on standard criteria for plustree selection. The trees that do not meet the criteria are rogued1. 3. Natural stands where seeds of indigenous species are collected from selected tree species that are marked and coded. GPS data on their locations have been collected and stored for reference. Such species include Milicia excelsa (muvule), Khaya anthotheca (African mahogany), Maesopsis eminii (musizi), Prunus africana (red stinkwood), Olea welwitschii (Elgon teak) and Cordia africana, among others. Collection methods of seeds are divided into two categories: centralised collection, which is mostly done on timber species where close supervision is done by the technical team from NTSC; and decentralised collection, where seeds, mostly of agroforestry species such as Calliandra spp and Sesbania sesban, are obtained from private tree seed suppliers. Spot-checks are made on these private farms to ensure quality. The common collection technique used is professional tree climbing. Using its well trained and experienced seed collection crew, NTSC closely supervises seed collected and tests it to ensure quality. After the collection, seeds are sorted, extracted, cleaned, dried, tested and stored according to the viability of different species. The seeds are tested for viability, moisture content, germination potential and seed count. Testing is also done for clients at a cost.
Criteria for selection of seed stand for seed collection The selected stand should be at least 100 metres away from a stand of similar species. If the stand is too close to another of similar species, a pollination barrier of a different species is used, to prevent inbreeding. NTSC does not undertake breeding but the organisation works closely with NAFFORRI in research and also implementation of the results 1 Meaning they are cut.
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Cones of pine trees being dried before seed extraction. (Photo: NTSC)
Extraction of neem seeds (Azadirachta indica). (Photo: NTSC)
obtained from the tree breeding. The stand should be disease-free and fast-growing. In addition, it should not be a boundary.
rainfall and soils. Due to varying climatic, altitudinal and edaphic factors, tree species are adapted to grow in different silvicultural zones. For example, Pinus patula is well adapted to highland areas, Pinus oocarpa to medium to low altitude, while Pinus caribaea is adapted to low altitude areas. NTSC establishes and manages seed sources as a public good programme, but also promotes species and provenance trials in collaboration with NAFORRI. This helps to determine the best tree species and provenances most adopted to the different agroecological zones and planting sites in Uganda. NTSC provides information to clients who wish to purchase seeds and seedlings so that the right species are planted at the right sites; a process called site matching.
Sales and procurement of seeds and seedlings Timber species like pines and eucalypts constitute up to 50 per cent of the sales, indigenous species make up 30 per cent, while fruit trees and ornamentals make up 20 per cent. NTSC manages a commercial tree nursery where seedlings of desired trees and fruits are raised. Up to 5 million seedlings in 42 species are raised per year. The commonest species raised include, but are not limited to, pine, eucalyptus, Maesopsis eminii (musizi), terminalia, araucaria, neem, medicinal and ornamental species and fruits. NTSC provides before and after-sales services on species selection, site matching and tree planting and management practices. It is believed that NTSC has the lowest prices for the quality of plants it offers, whereby a kilogram of Pinus caribaea (imported from Brazil) is sold at Ush 2,500,000 and that of eucalyptus at Ush 100,000. The price for seedlings differs; eucalyptus sells at Ush 120 and pine at Ush 350. Clients are advised to make bulk orders (above 50kg) of imported seeds such as pine, at least six months in advance and to allow at least three months for locally collected seeds. For seedlings, four months’ notice for bulk orders (above 100,000) is recommended.
Silvicultural zoning of Uganda According to NTSC, Uganda has been divided into nine silvicultural zones. These are: the cold and wet region; cold and dry; cool and moist; cool and wet; warm and wet; hot and wet; hot and dry; very hot and wet; very hot and very dry. These were classifications based on topography, altitude,
Challenges NTSC faces the challenge of protecting seed sources, some of which are located in public and privately owned land. The centre also faces funding constraints especially for non-commercial activities such as seed source establishment and maintenance, which is a public good programme. NTSC is meant to maintain high quality planting material for the good of the Ugandan public. There is also a high demand for seedlings from Uganda’s growing commercial forestry sector.
Opportunities NTSC has applied to join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Forest Seed and Plant Scheme and has established over 500 hectares of seed stands from which high quality seeds of mostly Pinus caribaea (F5 improvement level) are collected for internal use and for export. The writer is the Country Representative (Uganda), Miti magazine Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
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Do not sit on information
A provenance trial of Pinus spp in Masaita, close to Londiani (Rift Valley) planted in 1962. To appreciate the growth of the trees, look at the man standing at the base. The big ones might be Pinus tecunumanii or P. oocarpa, Central-American species, certainly promising for this climate. (Photo: BGF)
Paul Konuche, a former Director of KEFRI, challenges foresters to work with communities By WANJIRU CIIRA AND JAN VANDENABEELE
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he Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) should spend 80 per cent of its research and technology development budget on dissemination of information, says Dr Paul Konuche, a former Director of the organisation. Now retired from formal employment, Dr Konuche says as he passes time in the community, he realises just how much farmers lack information. “KEFRI researchers need to go on the ground, establish demonstration plots, work with Kenya Forest Service and community forest associations to disseminate information,” he says. Dr Konuche adds that currently in Kenya, there are almost 3,000 community forest associations. “Disseminating information through these would certainly have an impact on communities,” he says. The silviculturist, who was among the first crop of indigenous Kenyans to train at Makerere University as foresters, graduated with an honours Bachelor of Science degree in forestry in 1973. That was under a Norwegian Agency for International Development (NORAD) programme and Dr Konuche was simply selected as a beneficiary on completion of his A-level studies at Kangaru High School in Embu. From Makerere, he straightaway joined the Forest Department under the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources as an assistant silviculturist, based in Turbo. His main task was to introduce and test a wide range of species and their provenances to determine their suitability for growing at Turbo for use at the pulping plant in Webuye. He also developed various tree planting and tending methods. After working for two years, Dr Konuche enrolled for a master’s degree with Sokoine Campus, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, under a staff development programme, again funded by NORAD. In 1979 he was posted to Muguga Research Station as Silviculturist. The East African Community had collapsed two
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years earlier, leading to the winding up of the East African Agricultural and Forestry Research Organisation (EAAFRO). In 1981, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) was established and forestry research was transferred from the Forest Department to the new institute. However, in 1986 KEFRI was created as an independent institute, under the Science and Technology Act (Chapter 250). At the Muguga Research Station, Dr Konuche was in charge of silvicultural research all over Kenya, and travelled widely within the country. He was promoted to Senior Research Officer in 1981 and in 1983 was seconded to the Kerio Valley Development Authority (KVDA) as a Forest Specialist. The Bomet-born forester worked at integrating trees in irrigation schemes, water catchment conservation and promoting tree planting in KVDA areas. After five years at KVDA, that is, in 1988, Dr Konuche went back to forestry research where he became the Deputy Director. In 1994
he graduated from the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, as a PhD holder in forestry, specialising in ecophysiology with particular reference to regeneration of indigenous forests. In 1995 he became Director of KEFRI, a post he held for 14 years, until 2009. Even in retirement, Dr Konuche has kept in touch with his profession. He manages a forest and tea plantation on his farm, which is less than a kilometre from South Nandi Forest Reserve. He is the Chairman of the North Rift Forest Conservation Committee, an advisory organ of the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). The committee advises the KFS board of directors on forestry conservation and management issues covering the North Rift Conservancy. So how did Dr Konuche get into forestry? His interest goes back to his school days in Kericho High School. “I was in Form 3 in 1966 when I planted half-an-acre of eucalyptus in my parents’ home in Bomet,” he says, adding that the trees are still there today.
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A KEFRI seed orchard of Eucalyptus grandis. Looking at the form of the trees, this is clearly the product of good breeding. (Photo: KEFRI)
Dr Paul Konuche. (Photo: BGF)
Evolution of forestry research in East Africa Going back to history, Dr Konuche recounts how the colonial powers introduced exotic tree species to East Africa. “When the Europeans came to East Africa, they found slow-growing indigenous species,� he says. These trees could not meet the timber needs of the colonial administration, so the colonialists introduced fast-growing exotic species. Thus, between 1910 and the 1920s, the colonial administration introduced pines, eucalyptus, cypress and some acacias into Kenya. A Forest Department was set up in 1902, and a Forest Conservator appointed in 1907. In 1927 a plantation programme was started using the introduced exotics (pines only became feasible after introduction of mycorrhiza in nurseries), and indigenous forests began to be replaced. In the 1930s, a silviculturist was posted to Londiani, to develop silvicultural techniques for tending plantations. The use of the shamba system started during this period. After World War II (1939-45) regeneration efforts of indigenous forests took place in Uganda, with enrichment planting in the 1950s. Dr Konuche notes that the German colonisers in Tanzania (then Tanganyika) seemed to pay more attention to indigenous species. By 1948, all three East African countries (Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika) had a research unit in their forest departments. EAAFRO was established in 1948 to address the regional research agenda in agriculture and forestry. In forestry, the research organisation was mainly involved in four areas of work - tree breeding, forest entomology, forest pathology and
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catchment hydrology. The tree breeding was justified because sizeable plantations were being established, sometimes from one single seed source, hence diversification was required. New seed provenances were imported and local selection of superior trees started, resulting in the establishment of seed orchards of Pinus patula, Pinus radiata and Cupressus lusitanica. EAAFRO employed several researchers in the field of tree breeding, forest entomology and forest pathology. As the indigenous forests were being replaced with exotic softwood tree species, concerns arose in the early 1950s that this might affect the water flow from the catchments. Therefore, in the mid 1950s, studies were conducted in Kericho, South Kinangop (Kimakia Forest Station) and in Mbeya, Tanzania. The objective of these studies was to determine if replacement of natural forests with softwood plantations would affect water flow. Results after six and 22 years showed that after clearing the indigenous vegetation, an initial increase in run-off was discerned, but after four to five years of plantation growth, no decrease in water yield was detected. The same conclusion was reached regarding the results of the establishment of tea plantations. The end of 1961 and the beginning of 1962 saw exceptionally heavy rains in East Africa, which led to the outbreak of a needle blight disease (Dothistroma pinii) on Pinus radiata: As a result, further planting of P. radiata was discouraged. With only P. patula and C. lusitanica remaining as plantation species, new pines and other species were introduced starting in the mid-1960s. The aim was to diversify plantation species. The species introduced included P.
kesiya, P. oocarpa, P. caribaea, P. montezumae, C. lindleyi, Araucaria species, and others. Dr Konuche stayed in Turbo for six years. He worked in the Turbo Pulpwood Afforestation Scheme supported by the World Bank. The project established large-scale pulpwood plantations and his role was to carry out silvicultural research on species and provenance trials, planting, spacing and weeding. In addition to pine species, as early as 1927, various eucalypt species were planted at Kimakia Forest Station. A stand of Eucalyptus regnans (mountain ash from Australia), planted at the time, today holds the biggest trees of Kenya. Other species included E. saligna, E. grandis (the two species hybridised), E. globulus (was attacked by beetles and dropped from the plantation programme), E. tereticornis, E. camaldulensis, E. maculata, E. microcorys and others. More provenance trials of eucalypt species, introducing new seed sources from Australia, were done in the 1980s. From the early 1970s to the mid 80s, research emphasis shifted to arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). Africa at the time went through a dry weather spell, with severe famine raging in Ethiopia. Drought tolerant trees were introduced through ASAL programmes, with support from various donors. Among the many species introduced were Senna siamea, Tamarindus indica, Acacia albida, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. tereticornis and Prosopis (popularly known as mathenge in Kenya). Part of the prosopis problem originated at that time. The decade also saw increased interest in agroforestry, with the establishment, in Nairobi,
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of the International Council for Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF) in 1978. Social forestry also received more emphasis through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)supported project at KEFRI. In the early 1980s, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) supported introduction of superior Eucalyptus grandis varieties from Australia, and trials were established not only in Kenya, but also in Zimbabwe. The venture was a resounding success. From 1986 to 1992, individual selection of E. grandis trees resulted in an increase in annual height growth from 3 to 4.5 metres. The improved E. grandis has become popular and is now planted widely in tea-growing areas such as Kericho and Nandi. By the mid 1980s, political pressure pushed for more recognition for indigenous tree species. Research started to understand the regeneration requirements of Brachylaena huillensis, Olea capensis, Cordia africana and Vitex keniensis (Meru oak). Results showed that most species in our indigenous forests demand light and are not suitable for enrichment planting. Demonstration plots covering about 20 hectares of different species including Prunus africana and Podocarpus were planted in Muguga. Dr Konuche strongly recommends a visit to these plots. Agroforestry research continued in the same period, with different crop-tree mixtures. Species like Calliandra and Leucaena were introduced, together with new germplasm of Grevillea robusta, itself as a species known since 1902. Some of the work resulted in labour-intensive technologies, which farmers were reluctant to take up. After the Rio Summit (the UN Conference on Environment and Development) in 1992, research took a new shift, towards biodiversity, later adding climate change. In forestry, the latter is best addressed through programmes aimed at sustainable forest management and intensified on-farm tree planting.
Present research concerns Issues that loom large today include poverty in Kenya. Tree planting is fine, but where do you find space on small farms? One option is to go further in agroforestry, but a better answer is to create employment in rural areas, through cottage industries, using wood, bamboo and non-timber forest products. However, a real problem there is marketing of the products. Farmers usually lose out to brokers. Water, already in short supply, will become a major issue in future. Currently, there is much focus on the conservation of the five water
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The Forest Products Research Centre of KEFRI, at Karura. This centre plays a very useful role in developing technical guidelines that can lead to creation of cottage industries for smallholders. These new offices were constructed during Dr Konuche’s tenure as director of KEFRI. (Photo: BGF)
A stream running in a catchment area of Marmanet forest, Laikipia. Research confirmed that man-made plantations can be as effective as natural forests in retaining run-off. Note that the water is clear, not brown.
towers1. However, more attention is needed to conserve many water catchments in farmlands especially in high potential areas. Dr Konuche sees research funding priorities in the following order: (i) trees on farms, (ii) natural forests, (iii) plantations. At the time of this interview, a forest fire had been raging for days on Mt Kenya Forest. Acknowledging that forest fires are usual during the dry season, Dr Konuche nonetheless blamed the government ban on bamboo harvesting for
the difficulty in putting out the fire. “Bamboo dies after about 25 years and therefore there is a lot of dry bamboo in the forest,” he said. “This burns easily and is hard to extinguish and is a loss of a valuable resource that should have been harvested.” Wanjiru Ciira is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
1 Mt Kenya, Mt Elgon, the Aberdares, the Mau complex and the Cherangani hills.
Miti April-June 2012
Eucalypt poles for fencing and construction, produced on Togolo Mixed Farm. (Photo: BGF)
Elijah Kirumira (right), logistics and sales manager of Eseria Forest Company Ltd, but also pastor of a small flock. (Photo: BGF)
Bearing good fruit Elijah Kirumira cares for trees as much as he tends to souls By JAN VANDENABEELE
E
lijah Kirumira, son of Lubwama Katula and grandson of Ezekiel Kasule, nicknamed “Katula” (the tough man), is the logistics and sales manager of the Eseria Forest Company Ltd. The company runs Tongolo Mixed Farm, a 300-acre property some 30km north west of Kampala, Uganda. Mr Kirumira is also a pastor of a branch of a pentecostal church, Arena of Life, to a flock of 50 people, a calling that came naturally to him, as he wants to help his community and serve the Lord. The farm is in Busuja Village, in Wakiso district, along the road from Kampala to Hoima, in a lush hilly landscape. This is not far from Lake Victoria, and traces of the original rainforest can still be seen. Altitude is around 1200masl, and annual rainfall certainly more than 1200mm. The farm is put to mixed use, with a great portion of it dedicated to maize-growing and cattle-grazing. However, there are a number of tree plantation blocks, planted with Pinus caribaea Hondurensis, and various species of eucalypt, notably, E. grandis. Growth of all species is excellent, even of indigenous species like Markhamia lutea (local name musambia). Growing musambia is a good bet, as its wood is resistant to termites, and it re-sprouts like eucalypts. We saw some two and five-year-old sprouts, on a five-year-old stump, which would sell respectively for Ush 2,000
-3,000 and Ush 40,000.1 Training of the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) is evident. Mr Kirumira has been trained by SPGS on plantation establishment, pruning and thinning and the use of superior pine seeds. However, subsidised planting is missing, and the techniques still have to be brought up to SPGS standards. Another block is eucalypts, planted in 2003 and cut last year. The wood was used for fencing poles, building poles and timber. The latter is produced using a framed chainsaw, allowing for straight cuts. The sawyer charges Ush 1,500 per piece, but at a ten-fold (Ush 15,000) sales price for timber 3x2”, and 10 - 15 pieces per log, this is quite manageable. Four acres of clear cut produced Ush 15 million (equivalent to Ksh 375,000/ha, at the rate of Ksh 47,000/year). This is certainly good revenue. Mr Kirumira mentions that the price of land there is Ush 8 to 10 million per acre. The original owner of the land was his grandfather, although the property has expanded substantially since then. The grandfather was a local chief in the Kabaka regime (Muteeza I). The grandfather died in 1990 at the venerable age of 98 years, truly confirming his nickname of Katula. Part of the revenue from the sale of wood will go to creating the Katula Foundation in honour of the old man, and fund a school.
It is interesting to notice that the original motive for tree planting, a decision taken by Elijah’s uncle, was to stop encroachment, clearly not a new menace in Uganda. And so it goes on, with more eucalypt blocks. For example, there are 25 acres planted in Bundeke in 2004, over 20 metres high; or another 40-acre block in Bulondo, planted in 2006, of equally impressive growth and quite straight poles. Nothing is wasted, and a lorry of firewood goes for Ush 400,000 (Ksh 14,000). The proximity to Kampala, a huge consumer market, is certainly stimulating. The wood business is thriving; it seems to be well run. Improvements are always possible, everywhere, and in this case the use of improved eucalypt seed, or clones, would substantially improve yields and produce include more transmission class poles. In addition, construction of charcoal kilns and large-scale charcoal production would make a good business still more profitable. Neighbouring hillsides are being bought by investors to be put under trees, a telling sign … Mr Kirumira can be reached on +256 (0)777 357 847, +256 (0)712 952 435 and +256 (0)772 355 634. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
1 One Kenyan shilling equals 25 Ugandan shillings
Miti April-June 2012
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From dust to energy Effects of briquettes on indoor air quality and the environment By MARY NJENGA, NANCY KARANJA, JACOB KITHINJI, MIYUKI IIYAMA AND RAMNI JAMNADASS This article is a continuation of the previous articles on briquette production and implications on livelihoods; and production methods and resultant quality published in issues 12 and 13 of this magazine. The current article describes the implications of briquette on human health and the environment. lobally, about 2.4 billion people use solid biomass fuels as a source of energy for cooking and heating (Kaygusuz, 2011). Charcoal is the principal fuel for the poor in Kenya (Karekezi, 2002) and provides energy for 82 per cent of urban and 34 per cent of rural households. To meet Kenya’s annual charcoal demand, about 22 million cubic metres of wood is carbonised, resulting in deforestation of both rangeland and forests. The poor, who are the majority users of charcoal, cannot afford electricity and/ or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking because these energy sources are costly and require expensive cooking appliances (Mugo et al. 2007).To meet their energy needs, the urban poor make briquettes from charcoal dust and sawdust (Njenga et al., 2011) for household use and for sale to generate income. Making briquettes requires compressing organic biomass material such as charcoal dust, sawdust and other wood residues or agricultural by-products into a uniform solid unit (Sotanndeet al., 2010a; Rousseta et al., 2011) either with or without the addition of a binder. The types and sources of raw materials and binders influence the quality of fuel briquettes (Njenga et al., 2011). As such, it is important to characterise the indoor air pollution from burning briquettes. For example, carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) are the major pollutants released from incomplete combustion of solid fuels used by households (Doggalia et al., 2010). These pollutants contribute to over 1.6 million annual deaths globally, of which 400,000 occur in sub-Saharan Africa (Bailis et al., 2005). Hence, knowledge on environmentally acceptable briquettes would help in mitigating risks associated with use of wood fuel and related materials. The urban poor use fuel briquettes instead of charcoal. As such, briquettes contribute to saving trees and recycling of organic waste especially in
G
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Mary Njenga measuring indoor air concentrations of CO, CO2 and PM2.5 at Chiromo campus.
urban areas, as 50 per cent of briquette-making takes place in urban residential areas, with Nairobi hosting half of the briquette enterprises.
Types and sources of raw materials for briquette-making A diagnostic study was conducted using a semistructured questionnaire to document types, amounts and sources of raw materials, binders and production methods used in briquettemaking. To identify and locate briquette producing groups, an existing database on selfhelps groups involved in waste management in Nairobi was used (Njenga et al., 2010). A women’s group that is producing fuel briquettes in Naro Moru was identified with the help of PACT Kenya, an NGO based in Kenya. The study revealed that the main raw materials used are charcoal dust bonded with paper or soil and sawdust bonded with gum arabic (Table 1). While charcoal dust forms the major component for making briquettes in Nairobi, sawdust was the main raw material used in Naro Moru. This is because Naro Moru is located near Mt Kenya Forests, where sawmilling is a major economic activity. The study found that the raw materials
and binders used affected the heating value of briquettes, as discussed in issue 13 of this magazine. Briquettes provide good quality, affordable cooking fuel. The heating value of briquettes produced by community self-help groups in Nairobi and its environs ranges from 13kJ/g to 21kJ/g compared to 14kJ/g of firewood and 25kJ/g of charcoal. The following two sections illustrate the effects of raw materials and binders on indoor air concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), fine particulate matter (PM2.5) 1 and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Do briquettes burn cleaner than wood charcoal? Concentration of CO, PM 2.5 and CO2 were measured from the burning briquettes and wood charcoal with an amount of fuel that filled the small-sized energy-saving cook stove called Kenya Ceramic Jiko (KCJ) (Table 2). Measurements on indoor air concentration of CO, PM 2.5 and CO2 were taken throughout the burning period of each type of briquette at Chiromo campus, University of Nairobi, in a kitchen simulating cooking conditions (Table 2). 1 PM 2.5 means fine Particulate Matter, smaller than 2.5 micrometer, with one micrometer = 0.001mm
Miti April-June 2012
Carbon monoxide
Table 1: Types and sources of raw materials and binders
Raw materials and briquette typeT 1
CD+paper1
CD+paper2
Source of raw material3
Source of binder
CD stalls at Uthiru4
Newspapers vendors
CD stalls Kahawa Soweto
Schools
CD+paper3
CD stalls at Kangemi
Schools
CD+carton
Dumping sites at Maringo
Dumping sites at Maringo
CD+soil1
CD stalls at Kayole
Roadsides
CD+soil2
CD stalls in Kibera
Riverbanks
Sawdust+GA2
Timber/wood mills in Naro Moru town
Dry lands; as a residue during grading for sale
CD=Charcoal dust 2 GA=Gum Arabic 3 Kibera, Kahawa Soweto and Kangemi are informal settlements, while Uthiru, Maringo and Kayole are low income areas. 4 CD stalls = Charcoal dust retail stalls TBriquette types selected for quality assessment 1
Table 2: Type of fuel, amounts and burning period
Type of fuel briquettes
Amout of fuel burned
Time taken to burn completely
CD+paper1
650
210
CD+carton
565
150
Charcoal dust + soil2
750
240
Sawdust+ GA
450
60
Wood charcoal
640
150
Table 3: Indoor air concentrations of CO2from burning briquettes
Type of fuel
Burning period (Minutes)
CO2 in ppm excluding background of 349*
CD+Paper1
210
90.3
CD+carton
210
83.4
CD+Soil2
240
82.2
Sawdust+GA Wood charcoal
115.8
60 150
173
*An average of six measurements at Chiromo campus, University of Nairobi
Carbon monoxide (ppm)
120
CD+Paper1
100
CD+Soil2
80 Sawdust+GA 60 CD+Carton 40 Wood Charcoal 20 Critical level for 1 Hr 5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 185 195 205 215 225
0
Critical level for 8 Hrs
Time (minutes)
Figure 1: Indoor air concentration of carbon monoxide during burning of briquettes and charcoal Figure 1: Indoor air concentration of carbon monoxide during burning of briquettes and charcoal
PM2.5 in Sawdust+GA (mg/m3)
PM2.5 in other types of fuel (mg/m3)
Higher0.45 CO emissions occured during the first hour of burning briquette2.25 as well as for the charcoal. CD+Paper1 CO poisoning reduces the carrying capacity of oxygen by blood, causing headaches. In acute cases, 0.4 2.2 it can cause sudden death. 0.35 CD+Soil2 2.15 0.3 Fine particulate matter
CD+Carton Particulate and 0.25 matter is an air pollutant that affects human health, causing cardiovascular 2.1 respiratory 0.2 diseases and may also play an important role in climate change. Wood Charcoal Some 0.15 types of particulate matter may heat the atmosphere, while other2.05 particles may have a cooling 0.1 effect. Particulate matter containing black carbon is created by incomplete combustion of Critical value (PM 2 (Ramanathan fossil 0.05 fuels or biomass and may have a warming effect on the atmosphere 2.5)and Carmichael, 2008). 0 1.95 Sawdust+GA 5 20 35 50 65 80 95 110 125 140 155 170 185 200 215 Briquettes made from charcoal dust bonded with paper or carton had the lowest fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations while those from sawdust bonded with gum arabica had the highest Figure 2. Particulate matter concentration from burning briquettes and charcoal. (Values have been tranformed by natural Log). (Figure 2). The high (PM2.5) in sawdust could be associated to volatile matter which was also Figure 2. Particulate matter concentration from burning briquettes and charcoal. (Values have observed by Kituyi et al.(2001). Miti April-June 2012Log.). been tranformed by natural Indoor air concentration of PM2.5 during the four-hour burning period of briquette typeCD+soil2 3
3
Briquettes emitted less CO than charcoal and the briquette made from charcoal dust and bonded with soil (CD+soil2) produced the lowest CO. The CO from this type of briquette was lower than the critical limit of 30 ppm allowed for human exposure for one hour and 13 ppm allowed for eight hours (US EPA, 2002). (Figure 1). Higher CO emissions occured during the first hour of burning briquette as well as for the charcoal. CO poisoning reduces the carrying capacity of oxygen by blood, causing headaches. In acute cases, it can cause sudden death.
Fine particulate matter Particulate matter is an air pollutant that affects human health, causing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and may also play an important role in climate change. Some types of particulate matter may heat the atmosphere, while other particles may have a cooling effect. Particulate matter containing black carbon is created by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels or biomass and may have a warming effect on the atmosphere (Ramanathan and Carmichael, 2008). Briquettes made from charcoal dust bonded with paper or carton had the lowest fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations while those from sawdust bonded with gum arabica had the highest (Figure 2). The high PM2.5 in sawdust could be associated to volatile matter which was also observed by Kituyi et al.(2001). Indoor air concentration of PM2.5 during the four-hour burning period of briquette type CD+soil2 was below the critical limit of 0.025mg/m3 (25Âľg/m3) allowed for 24 hours by World Health Organisation (WHO) 2005 guidelines. Based on these findings, soil and paper are better binders compared to carton boxes, and should be used for production of briquettes using charcoal dust.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Briquettes had lower indoor air concentrations of CO2 than wood charcoal (Table3.). It is commonly assumed that biomass fuel cycles based on renewable harvesting of wood or agricultural wastes are greenhouse gas (GHG) neutral. This is because the combusted carbon in the form of CO2 is taken up by regrowing vegetation (Smith et al., 2000). Thus, the twofifths or more of the world’s households relying on such fuels are generally not thought to play a significant role in GHG emissions, except where the wood or other biomass they use is not replanted after harvest (Smith et al., 2000). As illustrated in this study, biomass fuel converts substantial fuel carbon to products of incomplete combustion and their global warming potential (GWP) per meal should be of interest. Of
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concern too is health risks as studies link CO2 to human death and cases of respiratory diseases and asthma (Stanford University, 2008).
Role of briquettes in conservation of trees and recycling of tree by-products When Kenyans use briquettes instead of charcoal, they save trees. This is important at a time when the country is struggling to move from less than two per cent of forest cover to the recommended 10 per cent. Saving trees has multiple benefits such as management of water catchment areas, mitigating climate change as trees serve as carbon dioxide sinks, and conservation of biodiversity. For example, 101 tonnes of CD+paper briquettes or 110 tonnes of CD+soil briquettes would be produced from the estimated 88 tonnes of charcoal dust produced daily in Nairobi. If unrecovered, charcoal dust poses a disposal problem. It is either dumped in open drains, polluting and clogging up the system; or burned, causing air pollution especially in informal settlements in urban areas. In addition, cooking with briquettes saves household water as pots have no soot and hence require no scrubbing. Women especially appreciate this, given the challenges of accessing clean water in informal settlements. Briquette technology has the potential to contribute to recovery of the 230,000 tonnes of sawdust produced by sawmills annually in the country. In the absence of a recycling system, most of it is burned. Using charcoal dust and sawdust to make briquettes extends the value chain of trees. Community self-help groups generate up to US$ 1,771 (appr Ksh 145,200) per month during the dry season and up to US$ 2,240 (appr Ksh 183,600) during the wet season through the sale of briquettes. Use of briquettes saves about 50 per cent of household income used on cooking fuel (Njenga et al., 2011).
Conclusions and recommendations Fuel briquettes are a good source of cooking fuel and contribute to recovery of charcoal dust and sawdust. The technology contributes to conservation of trees, water catchment areas, biodiversity and saving of household water. Because charcoal dust is the main raw material, there is need to link this technology to growing trees for bio-energy. Raw materials and binders affect the emission characteristics of briquettes. Binders dilute the concentration of carbon, resulting into low emissions. Soil has the most positive influence.
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After cooking with briquettes
After cooking with charcoal
After cooking with kerosene
For health reasons, burning of biomass energy should be carried out in well ventilated rooms, using efficient cook stoves. It is also advisable to light the cook stoves outside the house and wait for some time, so as to reduce human exposure to indoor air pollution. Research, development and policy initiatives on briquettes and charcoal should include costeffective emission reduction strategies such as more efficient cook stoves and production of quality briquettes.There is need for further research on the potential of other organic wastes in production of quality briquettes and contribution to public health and environmental management.
This article presents findings of a doctoral study by the University of Nairobi and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) on fuel briquetting technologies using sawdust and charcoal dust. The authors acknowledge the financial support by International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Mary Njenga is a doctoral research fellow at the Department of Land Resource Management and Agricultural Technology (LARMAT) University of Nairobi, Kenya and ICRAF. Ramni Jamnadass and Miyuki Iiyama are scientists at ICRAF, while Nancy Karanja is a Professor of Soil Ecology, Faculty of Agriculture and Jacob Kithinji is a Lecturer, Department of Chemistry at the University of Nairobi. Contact for correspondence:m.njenga@cgiar.org
Miti April-June 2012
The Loliondo wonder tree Carissa edulis, the attractive hedge that treats a host of diseases By JAN VANDENABEELE
C
arissa edulis is a spiny shrub, climber or small tree not higher than five metres, with straight woody spines up to 5.5cm, often in pairs. It is called mtanda-mboo in Swahili, mukawa in Kikamba and Kikuyu and olamuriaki in Maasai. The plant contains a milky latex, typical of the family it belongs to (Apocynaceae), but it is not poisonous. On the contrary it produces sweet, edible berries, about one centimetre in size, firstly red then turning purple-black when ripe. The berries can be processed into jam. The flowers are an attractive pink-white, in terminal heads, with a fragrant smell. The leaves grow opposite, with a sharp tip. This plant is not difficult to recognise. It often grows on forest edges in dry, rocky areas that receive between 500 and 1800mm of rainfall, from the coast up to 2500masl. It does well on black cotton soils near valley bottoms and in seasonally flooded areas. This is one of the undervalued indigenous East African species. However, it is widespread in Africa, from Senegal to Somalia, to Botswana, Mozambique and South Africa; even occurring from Arabia to India. The plant is among the most important sources of traditional medicine. For general health and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhoea, syphilis, Herpes simplex and other viral infections, and for rheumatism, a root concoction is mixed with meat soup, which turns milky with a characteristic nice taste1. The root decoction is also used as a painkiller and to treat malaria, while the fruits are used in the treatment of dysentery2. Carissa edulis is good fodder for goats and cattle. It grows frequently in the drier parts of Nairobi National Park where it is much browsed by wildlife. It flowers in February to May. The plant makes an eye-catching and impenetrable live fence, and would be a welcome sight to replace the ubiquitous kei apple (Dovyalis caffra, keiyaba). As with all hedges, it has to be trimmed correctly. 1 Muruga Gachathi, 2007. Kikuyu botanical dictionary. A guide to plant names, uses and cultural values. 2 Najma Dharani, 2005. Field guide to common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa.
Miti April-June 2012
Carissa edulis as a shrub. (Photo: KEFRI)
Berries of C. edulis - tasty and sweet when mature, turning purple-black. (Photo: KEFRI)
Flowers of Carissa edulis - fragrant and attractive. (Photo: BGF)
According to one source3, fresh seeds (28,000 - 30,000/kg) germinate well, and can be sown in pots, or even directly on site, without special treatment. Carissa edulis is the miracle tree from Loliondo in Ngorongoro district, Tanzania, which
is said to cure all diseases, including incurable ones such as AIDS. This may not be true, but it certainly can treat some ugly illnesses. So, you can grow your hedge and eat it. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
3 Patrick Maundu and Bo Tengnaes, 2005. Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya. World Agroforestry Centre.
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Rows of grevillea demarcating plots for production of vegetables. The trees play an important role as windbreaks and create a favourable microclimate in a windy and dry environment. Note the drip-lines, lying on black cotton soil. (Photo: BGF)
Imaginative use of trees
Kitengela farmer has planted grevillea to tame a harsh environment By WANJIRU CIIRA AND JAN VANDENABEELE
I
n a corner of Kitengela township in Kajiado County, Isinya District, a 9.6-acre piece of land stands out. It is the only farm in the vicinity with trees. It is like an oasis in a desert, and it looks good. The land belongs to Clement Muchiri Wambugu and his wife Martha. On buying the piece of land in 2003, Mr Wambugu did not at first know what to do with it. The area looked desolate and was (and still is) extremely windy. “I thought of planting some trees to act as a windbreak,” says Mr Wambugu. So he planted 1,400 seedlings of grevillea (Grevillea robusta), even as he contemplated what to do next. The lay-out is good. The trees act partly as a perimeter windbreak, planted in double rows lining a central alley and three lines marking rectangular plots; neatly dividing the property into 16 blocks of 1500m2 (0.4 of an acre), while leaving the north west area for infrastructure. This lay-out offers the possibility of growing different vegetables on rotation, leaving some of the blocks fallow after harvest. The Wambugus grow tomatoes, capsicum, broccoli, spinach, lettuce, beans and maize, and green grams during the rainy season. Mean annual rainfall for this area ranges between 500 and 800mm, evaporation is around 2000mm, altitude is approximately 1590masl, and the soils are black cotton (heavy clay). The winds indeed blow hard, adding to the desiccation. Protection is clearly needed, and in Mr Wambugu’s
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Mr Wambugu’s farm in Kitengela, a developing urban area. On his property, all rectangular plots are shaped by rows of grevillea. The perimeter protection is sometimes patchy and can be improved by planting indigenous acacias. (Google maps).
Miti April-June 2012
farm, this is provided by the grevilleas. The trees do not really thrive, as grevilleas normally do in high-potential areas like Central Province. However, they benefit from the irrigation for the vegetables. The water, slightly saline, is provided by a borehole, sunk in 2008. The water is used sparingly, through drip irrigation. Manure is trucked in by lorry, from Maasai cattle bomas. Pumping is powered by electricity, a big cost-saver compared to diesel. And vegetables can thrive in a dry environment, so long as drip irrigation is sufficient, as it keeps down fungal infections. Unfortunately, the irrigation does not eliminate insects, and Mr Wambugu recalls, bitterly, the loss of a complete crop due to an invasion of the American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera). Thanks to proximity to Kitengela township, the Wambugus have a ready market for their vegetables. In addition to vegetables, the Wambugus have planted fruit trees, namely, tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea) and mango (Mangifera indica). Both are still young, and it is early days yet. However, the area is too harsh for tree tomato, but mango stands a good chance of
Clement Wambugu and his wife Martha at their farm in Kitengela. (Photo: BGF)
thriving. The farm has the potential to become a showcase for Kajiado growers, but supervision is critical, and Mr Wambugu is a busy man. He has to delegate the running of the farm to a local manager who needs to take it as a full-time job.
To stop more wind blowing in, the outside perimeter could be reinforced with indigenous acacias, native to the area. Acacia polyacantha, A. kirkii, A. nilotica, A. seyal, even A. xanthophloea are all tough trees and will add beauty to the property. Mr Wambugu has tried eucalypts, but they do not do well in the area. A live fence of A. mellifera and A. senegal, mixed with Carissa edulis, would be an effective barrier against intruders and be part of a good windbreak. In view of the good water supply, establishment of a commercial tree nursery would complement the vegetable business. Mr Wambugu acknowledges he and his wife have been thinking about this. Kajiado County has a vocation for growing acacias, the best trees for charcoal production, with Kenya’s biggest market just a stone-throw away. The nursery can also produce ornamentals for beautifying the gardens of what is a fastexpanding urban area. Wanjiru Ciira is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
Rows of avocado trees. Note the casuarina windbreak on the right hand side. Kakuzi has 411 ha of avocado plantations, planted in different blocks on its estate. (Photo: BGF)
Avocado fruits maturing on the tree. This is the Hass variety, very popular in the European market. (Photo: BGF)
Putting Kenya on the world map Kakuzi’s avocadoes take a share of Western Europe’s exotic fruit market By JAN VANDENABEELE
K
akuzi Ltd, on the road to Sagana, is now easily accessible using the Thika superhighway from Nairobi. The estate is mostly visible through some neat roadside eucalypt stands that hide from view a lot of interesting activities. Kakuzi is located in Makuyu division of Muranga District. The estate comprises 14,000ha, on gently sloping land around 1400masl, and with an average annual rainfall of 1100mm. The soils are sandy-clay loams, of good permeability, not too heavy. Land use is according to suitability, with the best parts dedicated to pineapple growing, avocado and macadamia orchards; and less suitable land under grazing and forestry (see Miti issue 1, “Scaling new heights”). Some seasonal rivers running through the property are dammed for additional watering of the crops. Steve Lawrie, the general manager in charge of horticulture, carefully manages and enhances the riparian areas by encouraging endemic indigenous trees and planting suitable indigenous
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trees species. Kakuzi grows the Hass avocado variety, the most popular for the European Union (EU) export markets. Due to the temperate climate at Makuyu, there are no serious concerns of pollinations and the pollen tube stays viable for longer than it would in a hotter area. Pollination is done by bees and other insects. There are bee hives in the orchards, ensuring sufficient pollinators at flowering.
Water requirement and irrigation The avocado tree needs a sufficient supply of water, which in the case of Kakuzi translates into a monthly watering need of between 100mm to 150mm, depending of the growth phase of the avocado. Watering is done through microsprinklers distributed along the tree rows, with a maximum of two sprinklers per tree. Kakuzi has sufficient water storage dams, which are fed every rainy season by run-off. The total area under avocado is 411ha, in several blocks distributed on the estate. Most of the blocks are protected by windbreaks, mainly of
casuarinas, with different spacings. For example, the avocado spacings close to the pack-house are 4x7m and 7x7m. For successful avocado growing, irrigation or the ability to irrigate is important. From flowering through to fruit set and sizing, there should be no water stress on the trees to ensure maximum growth of good-sized quality Hass fruit. Other important measures are pest and disease control, pruning, fertilisation and weeding. All leaves and pruned branches are piled neatly under the canopy of the trees, resulting in a thickness of 5-10cm of loose organic material that protects the soil against drying, and stimulates soil life. However, Mr Lawrie wants to improve this, and consideration is been given to the purchase of a wood chipper to add wood chips (from pruned branches) to the mulch layer. On pruning, the objective is to remove, annually, roughly a quarter of the canopy or leaf area, by cutting at least one big branch, several smaller ones distributed along the crown, and preventing the tree from growing too high. This is
Miti April-June 2012
A detail of the irrigation system. A micro-sprinkler standing in a thick layer of mulch underneath the canopy of avocado trees. (Photo: BGF)
Inside the pack-house. Crates with avocado fruit being prepared for shipping. (Photo: Kakuzi)
Inside the pack-house. Crates with avocado fruit being prepared for shipping. (Photo: Kakuzi) A mobile fertilisation unit. The metal drum is connected to the irrigation system and fertiliser (boron in this case) is directly injected into the system, mixed with water and distributed through the micro-sprinklers. - (Photo: BGF)
done using Stihl extended pole pruner chainsaws HT 75. To compensate for the yearly removal of 15 - 20 tonnes of fruits per hectare, substantial fertilising is required. Fertilisation of macro elements is based on the volume of crop removed so as to ensure soil fertility is maintained. Micro elements, and in particular boron, are very important. This is monitored through leaf analysis. Boron deficiency is characterised by shot holes in the leaves and by abnormal thickening of branch nodes. Fertigation with boron is done through the micro-sprinkler system. Some plant-sucking insects cause problems and on heavy bearing trees, sunburn can
Miti April-June 2012
damage the fruits. Harvesting of Hass starts in June and continues to mid-September. Pruning is initiated in orchards as soon as they have been strip-picked. Flowering normally starts at the end of September through to end-October. The fruits set in October and November. To complement its own production, Kakuzi buys avocado fruits - through six brokers - from nine to ten farmers with more than a hectare of land under avocadoes each, and also from numerous smallholders. The smallholders grow the Fuerte variety, which matures in February and March, slightly before Hass, so that the combined production period is extended and runs from February to mid-September with a break for the long rains in between. This totals six-anda-half months, a relatively long period that places Kakuzi in a powerful marketing position to counter competition from other suppliers worldwide.
Both Hass and Fuerte have a smooth texture, and Hass has a nice, nutty flavour. The fruits are graded and packed on the estate, in a modern pack-house that includes cold storage facilities. From there the cartons go by truck in refrigerated 40ft containers to Mombasa to be sea-freighted. This journey takes 30 to 35 days, during which time the fruits are kept cool, to delay ripening. Currently, Kakuzi sells avocadoes through two agents in the EU, who in turn supply supermarket chains like Tesco in the UK and Carrefour in France. Other countries supplied with Kakuzi Hass in Europe include Italy, Spain, Germany, Holland, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries. Avocado production is an important operation for Kakuzi’s profitability. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
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The traditional method of making charcoal stacking the wood and covering it with soil. Investment cost is zero, but recovery rates are low, averaging 10 - 12%. (Photo BGF)
After the charcoal rules, what next? Efficient technology points the way to sustainable production By JOHN NGATIA MATHENGE This article is the first in a series of three, to be continued in the next two issues of Miti magazine. enyans have used charcoal for many years. However, the industry has faced many challenges with intermittent bans on production, transportation and on-andoff restrictions in use. The legislative and business environment has been extremely ambiguous with many unprofessional practices creeping into the trade. This scenario has seen the poor being exploited to produce charcoal at very low prices while middlemen, transporters and corrupt officials benefit from the proceeds of the business. Despite all this, the charcoal business is estimated to contribute over Ksh 32 billion per year into the economy, yet little is appreciated of this fact. The Kenya government, through the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and the Ministry of Energy, has made efforts to streamline the charcoal industry as manifested in the recently gazetted charcoal rules. This has however addressed only one aspect of the many facets of the challenges facing the industry.
K
30
The greater challenge remains; that is, to provide appropriate, cheap and accessible technology that neither compromises sustainability efforts nor the principles of environmental integrity. The technology must also guarantee a high or optimal recovery of the wood fuel. The charcoal industry employs over 700,000 people who in turn support close to two million dependents. This also means that 94 per cent of wood harvested goes into fuel wood use; this translates into 538,000 ha required for harvesting wood to meet this demand. There is a wood fuel deficit in the country and the demand for charcoal is not expected to reduce in the near future. It has been reported that 75 per cent of all the charcoal utilised nationally comes from the fragile drylands. It is becoming clear that efficient kilns, investing in dryland forestry and utilisation of efficient technologies will be the way forward.
Technologies Technology is part of the key that will unlock the
charcoal industry in Kenya. A few of the technologies are presented here, advantages and disadvantages pointed out, and the potentials of their use. The technologies available range from the simple traditional earth mounds for domestic production to advanced technologies with increasing potential for industrial production.
Carbonisation techniques More than 99 per cent of charcoal producers in Kenya use traditional earth mound kilns1. The production process is simple and yields low recoveries. Empirical studies carried out in Kenya and other countries have shown that the typical efficiency for earth kilns ranges from 10 – 20 per cent by mass with a mean of about 15 per cent. Factors that affect efficiency of the kiln include tree species used to produce charcoal, construction of the kiln, arrangement of wood in the kiln, moisture content of the wood used and the monitoring of the carbonisation process. This explains the wide 1 Practical Action (2009), Results of socio-economic survey on charcoal value chain, August (unpublished)
Miti April-June 2012
range of efficiency (10 - 20 per cent) obtained in traditional earth kilns. Poor carbonisation techniques result in wastage of woody biomass, low incomes for charcoal producers and high levels of pollution and emissions of green house gases (GHG). Waste of woody biomass leads to unsustainable harvesting of woodlands and forests. Since charcoal producers earn low incomes, there is no incentive to participate in sustainable management like planting of new trees and developing and implementing regeneration plans. As such, there is rapid depletion of woodlands and forests. The use of inefficient earth kilns contributes to at least 0.77-1.63kg C-CO2 (carbon as carbon dioxide equivalents) per kilogram of charcoal produced. This amount of emissions can be reduced by up to 75 per cent when improved and more efficient retort kilns are used. Fortunately, charcoal production technology, in Kenya and the world, has continued to evolve to sophisticated levels that reduce environmental pollution and maximise conversion to charcoal. Based on materials used, the technologies can be classified into the following groups of charcoal producing kilns: Earth (traditional) kilns Drum kilns Metallic kilns, and Brick kilns. Traditional kilns include the pit/earth and the Casamance kilns while drum kilns comprise the KEFRI-designed and Kinyanjui-designed kilns. Metallic kilns include the small scale Steel Metal Kiln at KEFRI and the Ring type (Galman). The brick kilns include the dome shaped kiln (Baringo, Kakuzi, Bondo), the Adam retort kiln, the industrial kilns retort and the modern environmentally sensitive kilns.
Traditional charcoal producing kilns Earth and pit kilns
This is the earliest technology applied in producing charcoal all over the world. Pieces of wood are piled in dug-out pits, lit and covered with earth. The combustion of part of the wood produces enough heat to carbonise the remaining pieces. The quality of charcoal produced depends on how dry the wood is. The drier the wood, the better the charcoal. An alternative approach is to cover heaps of wood with sod and light through openings in the cover. By closing or opening the inlets, the amount of air entering the kiln is controlled. This demands close supervision to ensure that excess air does not burn the wood into ash. Both techniques persist to this day in Kenya and most other developing countries, mainly because they are cheap, easy to construct and take a relatively short period to produce the charcoal.
Miti April-June 2012
Still the traditional method, but with sods, and carefully stacked wood on a bigger scale. (Photo BGF)
Often, the charcoal produced is of very low yields, usually between 8 – 12 per cent of the initial amount of wood used. The product is also of inconsistent quality since it is difficult to maintain uniform carbonisation, and the release of toxic substances leads to environmental pollution.
Construction and process The process requires that the ground is cleared; wood chopped into sizeable pieces and stacked on the cleared ground in such a way that every free area is filled up to limit air flow inside the kiln. The stack is then covered with green leafy material and a thick layer of soil/sod added on top. A small area of the wood stack is exposed to permit ignition and later it is sealed. The layer of soil is built up to the acceptable level, sealing every outlet that may release air, usually indicated by smoke oozing from the soil. The kiln is visited every few hours to ensure it does not collapse and to try and maintain appropriate air flow.
Advantages and challenges The kiln is easy to construct with minimal cost on materials. It can be constructed whenever the material is found, thus reducing the need and costs of transporting raw materials. Where mastery of airflow control has been perfected, recovery of up to 33 per cent have has been reported (the Marakwet Kilns - Senelwa). In most cases however, control of the carbonisation process is not always easy and often produces low grade charcoal, contaminated with soil crumbs and sometimes as low as 8 per cent recovery. The by-products are not harvested nor are they controlled, resulting in air pollution.
Traditional earth kiln concept Noting the low recovery and contamination of the final product, attempts have been made to improve the traditional methods. This has focused on effective control of air flow while at the same time reducing the level of supervision and minimising contamination.
Casamance kilns Over the years, efforts have been made to improve
traditional charcoal-making by controlling the air entering the earth kilns using chimneys made from oil drums. Like the traditional kiln, this method relies on partial combustion of the wood to provide the heat necessary to initiate carbonisation. As such, yields depend heavily on the moisture content of the wood. With good practice, Casamance kilns can yield between 12 and 16 per cent charcoal from the original weight of wood used. The improved earth kiln introduces a wire mesh or metal sheet to reduce contamination of the charcoal, and chimneys to enhance control of the carbonisation process (Oduor, et al. 2006).
Construction and process The process is similar to that of the traditional earth kiln where the wood stack is tightly packed, covered with a thick layer of leafy green material followed by a heavy layer of soil. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has conducted experiments with smaller diameter chimneys and has achieved recoveries of between 26 and 30 per cent. (Oduor, et al. 2006). The construction follows an elaborate pattern of laying wood pieces, putting the larger ones at the centre, standing the wood upright and allowing for air flow within the lower levels of the stack. The wood is covered fully with leaves and soil. Once the stacking is complete, the wood is covered with wire mesh and a thick layer of soil. Air inlets and a chimney are placed at the bottom of the kiln.
Advantages and challenges The chimneys in the KEFRI-improved Casamance kiln enhance control of the carbonisation process. This leads to production of less defiled charcoal. However, this comes at an additional cost as both the mesh wire and chimneys cost money. Compared to traditional kilns, the process is less labour intensive. It can be constructed whenever the material is found. The kiln may not be appropriate for large-scale charcoal production. The writer is a Programme Support Officer (Natural Resources), Food and Agriculture Organisations of the United Nations Email: johnmngatia@gmail.com
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One of the numerous cypress plantations of KFS’s forest estate. The cypress stand is in the background, with a strip of eucalypts and indigenous trees separating it from the access road. (Photo: KFS)
The tree count is complete KFS has carried out a forest inventory to quantify the national tree cover By STEPHEN KAREGA
F
orest Inventory is the systematic collection, evaluation and presentation of specific information on forest areas for purposes of research, planning and management. Generally, detailed observations are made of a small part of the area and reliable techniques are applied to extrapolate data from the limited observations, to apply to the whole area of interest. Forest Inventory started in Kenya in the early 1960s when a reconnaissance inventory was funded by the Canadian Government under the Special Commonwealth Aid to Africa Programme. The inventory covered indigenous forests and was carried out in 1963-1967 by Spartan Air Services Limited in cooperation with the Forest Department. The Forest Department would later carry out an intensive preexploitation inventory in 1977.
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This map gives the location of each gazetted forest and plantation block in Kenya. An inventory of all plantations was done during the recent Natural Resources Inventory. (Map: KFS)
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A well-stocked cypress plantation (Cupressus lusitanica). Detailed stock has been taken of this plantation and tree volumes are now known. (Photo: KFS)
Methodology
Table 1: Species distribution
Cypress
Area (ha) 50,711.40
53.6
705,895.86
13.92
Pine
21,143.55
22.4
430,042.48
20.34
14.3
192,865.36
14.24
9.7
182,019.79
19.84
1,510,823.49
15.98
Species
Eucalypt
13,543.96
Other
9,174.03
TOTAL
94,572.94
Area (%)
Volume (m3)
Volume (ha)
Table 2: Plantation age distribution
Age
Area (ha)
Area (%)
Volume (m3)
Volume (ha)
0-10
25,457
26.9
879,051
34.53
11-24
21,592 14,590
22.8
128,824
5.97
15.4
32,934
34.8
120,926 382,022
11.60
1,510,823
15.98
25-30 >30 TOTAL
94,573
8.29
Table 3: Physical Distribution
Conservancy Central highlands Coast Nyanza Eastern Mau Nairobi North Rift Western TOTAL
Area (ha)
Area (%)
Volume (m3)
Volume (ha)
27,423
29.0
402,139
14.66
152 879
0.2
9,932
65.56
0.9
54,880
62.43
10.5
150,526
15.16
511,133
17.39
796
31.1 0.8
15,235
19.14
19,717
20.8
351,612
17.83
6,287
6.6
15,366 1,510,823
15.98
9,927 29,391
94,572
2.44
Table 1, 2 and 3 give an overview of the inventory results per species, age, distribution and physical location
Then in 1989, a Plantation Inventory sponsored by UNDP, with funding from the New Zealand Government, was undertaken with the following objectives: • Retrain and equip inventory and mapping sections. • Do an inventory and produce new maps of industrial forest plantations. • Build up a computer data base and software for data processing, analysis and reporting. • Become a means for preparation of long term management plans for exotic plantations. The strategy adopted was to get good stand by stand estimates for the principal forests. It is worth noting that each stand was sampled, since
Miti April-June 2012
through the Natural Resources Management (NRM) project. The goal of this inventory was to gather information on the status of Kenya Forest Service plantations based on: • Total forest plantations area • Species and age distribution • Diameter distribution • Sub-compartment areas • Stocking, volume, yield and annual allowable cut • Estimates of damaged stock and forest plantation areas which had been converted to other land uses e.g. agriculture and settlements • Preparation of detailed maps of plantation forests and total mean annual increment in Kenya’s forest plantation.
even adjacent stands of the same species varied a lot in their treatment. In 1991-1994, an Inventory of Natural Forests was undertaken by Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Project (KIFCON) funded by the Overseas Development Administration (UK). The inventory was carried out with the overall objective of promoting and supporting the conservation of biodiversity, maintenance of ecological services and sustained productivity of the indigenous closed-canopy forests of Kenya. From April 2008 to 2010, a Forest Plantation Inventory was conducted by Kenya Forest Service with the support of the World Bank
Circular sample plots of 0.04 ha or 0.02 ha with a plot radius of 11.28m and 7.98m respectively were used, depending on tree density in a systematic grid of 150m x 125m on each subcompartment. A regular grid (150m northsouth and 125m east-west) was used to obtain the number of sampling points within a subcompartment. Survey of all sub-compartments using GPS technology was done before the actual sampling to guarantee total area and shape of each sub-compartment. After re-survey, the position of the sampling points within a sub-compartment was shown on a sketch map of scale 1:10,000 using the above mentioned rectangular grid. In each sample plot, the following parameters were recorded: • Tree species; • All tree diameters at breast height (for trees 10 years old and above) and the number of trees, if the plantation is 10 years and below; • Height of dominant trees - two trees for small circles and four trees for large circles; • Pruned height; • Stem quality; • Number of stems per plot.
Overview of plantation forest inventory In the recently concluded NRM-sponsored inventory, 141,172 ha of plantation area was covered. Out of this area, 94,573 ha is stocked while 46,599 ha is un-stocked. The arrangements are at high gear to undertake wall to wall mapping and inventory of all types of forests in the country in order to quantify the national tree cover. The writer is the Head, Forest Inventory and Statistics at the Kenya Forest Service Email: smkarega@yahoo.com
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Good news on a dreaded tree Prosopis (popularly known as mathenge) has many uses, and it can be commercialised
Prosopis fuel wood cut into pieces for making charcoal. The wood is of excellent quality to make charcoal (density 0.828 g/ cm3). (Photo: KEFRI)
By SIMON CHOGE, N. CLEMENT, M. GITONGA AND J. OKUYE This article is extracted from a technical report for the KEFRI/KFS Technical Forest Management and Research Liaison Committee rosopis was introduced into Kenya in the late 1940s as a fodder and shade plant. The plant enjoyed widespread cultivation in the 1970s and 1980s and its weed problem came into the limelight for the first time during and immediately after the wet years of 1997 and 1998 (El Niùo phenomenon). The widespread complaints by pastoral communities from many places across the country triggered the first initiatives by the Government of Kenya to define status and impact of the species in the country between 1999 and 2002. This was followed by a national workshop on management of prosopis that led to the initiation of a pilot project in Baringo District (now Baringo County) aimed at developing the technologies towards management, control and utilisation of the invasions with support from FAO (2004 – 2007). Out-scaling of the developed technologies to other selected areas with similar invasion problems is now being attempted in Garissa, Tana River, Turkana and Taita Taveta counties, with encouraging results. In an effort to have an impact through reduction of further spread of invasions and
P
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to ensure active participation of the local communities in each of the target areas, the government lifted the ban on making and transportation of prosopis-based charcoal and other wood products on a pilot basis from 2007 to date. Besides getting charcoal and poles from prosopis and using the pods for livestock feed, other uses such as producing electricity have emerged and are being considered for implementation by the government. This article looks at the current status on commercialisation of prosopis resources in Kenya in terms of setting up of community structures, products being processed, traded and their corresponding benefits to the communities and to the government in the form of revenues.
Management approach for prosopis invasions in Kenya 1. Establishment of community structures It is increasingly becoming clear that the problems associated with prosopis are purely management, aggravated by the lack of technologies and proper community structures required for its effective handling, processing, marketing and utilisation as a resource. The Kenya government has therefore
embraced the concept of management and control of prosopis through utilisation. This is in line with the current thinking among many developing countries around the world where imbalances on wood supply and demand are severe. Ideally, this approach involves selective removal (thinning) of invasions using hand tools or other appropriate machinery and the processing of the resultant waste to offset the felling costs, and make profits through commercialisation of products. Treated areas are placed under active land use and regular followup activities to maintain the prosopis densities at manageable levels. In addition, ripe fruits/pods – the main source and cause of reproduction and spread of the species - are collected and processed, by milling, and used as a raw material for manufacture of livestock feeds and occasionally, human food. The pilot project in Baringo provided the first examples for involving local communities in the management and utilisation of prosopis invasions through formation of local farmers field schools (FFS). Formation of similar community based groups/associations around the country has been encouraged. The main activities of these groups revolve around prosopis management, processing and
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trading. Each group has received some initial minimum levels of facilitation through capacity building and empowerment by the government and development partners to enable them to begin the activities successfully.
2. Commercialisation activities Charcoal production Charcoal production has been the most popular, widely accepted and most profitable activity carried out by nearly all the communities in Kenya. The low initial capital outlay, use of traditional production methods, ready market and lifting of the ban on production and movement of prosopis-based charcoal have helped to make the production extremely attractive. A recent appraisal survey on the production of charcoal and other prosopis management activities in Baringo, Garissa and Tana River counties was done and the results are described below. Baringo County With the benefit of hosting the first pilot project in Kenya, Baringo residents have received the greatest sensitisation, awareness and training in comparison with other counties with similar invasions of prosopis. This is reflected in the highest level of annual outputs of prosopis charcoal in any given year, estimated at twice
the amount produced in Tana River and about ten times that from Garissa counties respectively.
but the actual amounts are estimated as being twice these figures (Ksh 4.2 and 6.4 million).
For Baringo, the production outputs have been rising gradually from 2007 with outputs of 41,090 bags, peaking in 2009 with 358,425 bags. The production reduced to 265,855 in 2010 and 128,855 in 2011. The levels of recorded annual income accruing to the participating communities associated with these outputs are significant. A minimum of Ksh 10 million or Ksh 1.5 million per month (2007 and 2012) and a maximum of Ksh 107 million or Ksh 9 million per month (2009) have been reported. However, owing to poor supervision, underreporting of quantities and leakages within the entire charcoal production chain, the actual quantities produced are estimated at twice those reported.
Garissa County The levels of charcoal outputs in Garissa County are fairly modest in comparison to Baringo and Tana River, perhaps due to the limited distribution of prosopis biomass in the county in communal areas. The last three years have shown an output of 11,710 bags in 2010, 8,911 in 2011 and 5,143 in the first two months of 2012. The recorded monthly income to communities is Ksh 501,850 in 2010, Ksh 519,808 in 2011 and Ksh 900,025 in 2012. Like the other counties, the actual outputs are twice these figures as shown on Table 1.
Tana River County Just like in Baringo, the use of prosopis in charcoal making in Tana River County began in 2007 with a total annual output of 1,797 bags, rising gradually to 2,425 bags in 2008 and a peak output of 128,051 bags in 2010. In the last three years (2010, 2011 and 2012), the recorded mean monthly income accruing to the communities in the county is between Ksh 2.1 and 3.2 million,
Table 1: Prosopis based charcoal production statistics for the three counties County
Year 2007
2008
Baringo
2009
Charcoal production (bags of 25-30kg)
2010
2011
2012
41,090
75,845
358,425
265,855
128,855
29,265
Tana River
1,797
2,425
10,200
128,051
74,824
12,160
Garissa
1,500
7,500
3,400
11,710
8,911
5,143
TOTAL
44,387
85,770
372,025
405,616
212,590
46,568
GoK revenue (Ksh) Baringo
821,800
1,516,900
7,168,500
5,317,100
2,577,100
585,300
Tana River
35,940
48,500
204,000
2,561,020
1,496,480
243,200
Garissa
30,000
150,000
68,000
234,200
178,220
102,860
TOTAL
887,740
1,715,400
7,440,500
8,112,320
4,251,800
931,360
Recorded community income (Ksh) Baringo
10,272,500
18,961,250
107,527,500
79,756,500
45,099,250
10,242,750
Tana River
449,250
606,250
3,060,000
38,415,300
26,188,400
4,256,000
Garissa
375,000
1,875,000
1,020,000
3,513,000
3,118,850
1,800,050
11,096,750
21,442,500
111,607,500
121,684,800
74,406,500
16,298,800
TOTAL
Estimated community income (Ksh) Baringo
20,545,000
37,922,500
215,055,000
159,513,000
90,198,500
20,485,500
Tana River
898,500
1,212,500
6,120,000
76,830,600
52,376,800
8,512,000
Garissa
750,000
3,750,000
2,040,000
7,026,000
6,237,700
3,600,100
22,193,500
42,885,000
223,215,000
243,369,600
148,813,000
32,597,600
TOTAL
Estimated monthly community income (Ksh) Baringo Tana River Garissa
2,935,000
3,160,208
17,921,250
13,292,750
10,022,056
10,242,750
99,833
151,563
612,000
6,402,550
6,547,100
4,256,000
187,500
535,714
340,000
1,003,714
1,039,617
1,800,050
Miti April-June 2012
Collection, processing and utilisation of prosopis pods/fruits Commercial utilisation of prosopis pods in Kenya began in early 2007 as an output of the second National Workshop on Integrated Management of Prosopis Species in Kenya. The workshop was supported by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in collaboration with KEFRI, KFS, KARI, University of Nairobi, the Ministry of Livestock Development (ALLPRO/ ADB), Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA/UK) and the Department for International Development (DFID/UK). The workshop theme was to link the livestock feeds industry to the prosopis resource in Kenya. Its objectives were to bring together representatives of the livestock feeds industry, researchers, developers, communities, local administration and other stakeholders to share local and international experience on the use of prosopis as a feed resource and generate novel initiatives to catalyse the interest of feed companies on the use of prosopis pods as a cost effective ingredient in the formulation of livestock feeds. Besides commercialisation of prosopis pods, focus was also placed on self sufficiency in local supply of feed resources by communities in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) where feed scarcity is a major constraint to livestock production during times of drought. The major output of the workshop was the appointment of a taskforce on the use of prosopis pods in Kenya hosted by ILRI and co-chaired by Sigma Feeds Company and KEFRI. In July/August 2007, the taskforce appointed pod collection agents in four districts of Turkana, Baringo, Garissa and Taita Taveta. These agents were taken through a brief induction course on field pod collection procedures, their role and their contractual duties. The course also introduced to the agents the concept of standards for prosopis pods and
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Table 2: Quantities of prosopis pods collected at various sources in Kenya in 2007
County
Quantity collected (Tonnes)
Baringo Turkana Garissa Taita Taveta Tana River Total
3.5 7.5 4.5 6.0 21.2
Prices/kg (Ksh) 4.50 3.00 3.50 3.50 4.00
its importance as well as the storage procedures required to ensure quality of pods. Facilitation of the agents to collect the prosopis pods was done by ILRI shortly after the training. By the end of November 2007, a total of 21.5 tonnes of pods had been delivered to Sigma Feeds Company for processing (Table 2). The pods were processed and mixed with other ingredients at 10 per cent level of initial inclusion on a trial basis for dairy meal and successfully circulated in the country by Sigma Feeds Company. A total of 210 tonnes of prosopis based feeds were sold out. However, funding of the activities of the taskforce was disrupted, leading to its disbanding in mid 2008. Since then, the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (through KEFRI and KFS) has successfully lobbied for continuation of the activities on the use of prosopis pods through several projects, namely, the ASALs Based Livelihoods Support Project (ALLPRO/Ministry of Livestock Development), ASARECA, NALEP and Arid Lands Resource Management Project, among others. These projects have helped to equip most of the existing groups through the purchase of pods milling equipment, training and other related capacity building activities. The objective is to make the groups self-reliant in meeting the local demand for prosopis-based livestock feeds for the various species of livestock through competitive processing and value addition. Any excess products can be sold to the commercial feed manufacturers. At the moment, most of the groups are still undergoing intensive training on machine handling, servicing and collection, storage, processing of pods and market search. The most active groups in the processing of pods are in Tana River and Garissa counties where they have made substantial progress in collecting and processing prosopis-based feeds. For example, the Watajir Group in Garissa collected seven tonnes of pods in late 2011, milled and made both feed blocks and feed flour that are now being marketed within the county. In Tana River County, one group (Biskidera Jabesa) has collected four tonnes and processed them into feed flour by mixing with maize stovers and other local agricultural residues. Generally, there is an increasing use of processed prosopis pods by many communities for feeding livestock
36
Most people do not believe prosopis can grow beyond a shrub. Here is proof to the contrary a big prosopis tree in Baringo. (Photo: KEFRI)
Milling of prosopis pods for livestock fodder. (Photo: KEFRI)
as a positive impact of the awareness and training programmes in recent years by the government and other development partners. Trading in poles and other prosopis-based products Other prosopis-based products being traded in many parts of the country include poles, firewood, sawn timber and honey production from nectar. The trade in these products is rarely captured in a formal way and therefore it is difficult to provide an estimate of the size in economic terms at the moment. However, Garissa County remains the best example where the Dadaab refugee camp has continued to provide a huge market for prosopis poles and withies for construction of huts and manyattas. The size of the trade is estimated at over Ksh 500,000 per month, and continues to rise with expansion of the camps. It is difficult to estimate the quantities of honey produced primarily from prosopis flowers due to the absence of reliable research data. Given the nearly continuous flowering of prosopis throughout the year, the proportion of the honey
attributed to the species is significant. Studies to estimate the production are recommended. 3. Potential for green energy production The rapid expansion of the Kenyan economy urgently requires more energy to power its growth from the current installed capacity of about 1,300 MW to about 2,000 MW to meet peak demand in the next four years. Private sector players are being encouraged, through policy re-orientation, to participate actively in green energy generation in Kenya. Prosopis has been identified as a potential source of biomass for electricity production in Kenya1. This arises from similar experiences in India where about five prosopis-based electricity production plants are in operation. The writers are researchers at KEFRI, KFS and MOA respectively.
1 Note of the Technical Editor: See an earlier article in Miti no 12 (OctDec 2011), p18-19: “Electricity from a dreaded tree�.
Miti April-June 2012
Immature fruits of the henna tree. (Photo: KEFRI)
A tree for decorative body art The henna tree has been valued since ancient times for cosmetic purposes By FRANCIS GACHATHI
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mong the important cosmetic and perfume plants of the Hebrews was the henna tree, Lawsonia inermis. Its first mention in the Bible is in the Song of Solomon 1:14 “My beloved is to me a cluster of henna blossoms in the vineyards of En-Gedi.� It is also mentioned with other sweet-smelling plants; spikenard, saffron, calamus, cinnamon, frankincense, myrrh and aloes (Song of Solomon, 4:12-14). Henna has been cultivated in the Middle East countries from ancient times. Its powdered leaves and young shoots were used to make an orange-red dye used in finely detailed body art on finger-nails, toe-nails, palms of the hands and soles of the feet of young women. Men used it to colour their beards and the manes and tails of their horses. Flowers were used to prepare a strongly fragrant oil used in scent-making and as an ointment. Egyptian mummies were swathed in cloth dyed with henna. It was grown as a hedgerow around vineyards to hold soil against wind erosion and protect the valuable crop from animals. Lawsonia inermis, which belongs to the plant family Lythraceae, is a much branched shrub or small tree that grows up to 4m high. It has short side shoots often ending into a spine. Leaves are opposite, oval, up to 5cm long and usually tinged reddish brown when young. Flowers are creamywhite, sweet-scented, in clusters of large masses. Fruits are small round reddish-yellow capsules about 6mm across with persistent style, numerous tiny seeds, splitting into four sections when mature. The plant is widely distributed from North Africa and the Middle East to West and Central Africa. It is commercially cultivated in many parts of the world as a dye, for use in perfumery and as an ointment. Use of henna in body artwork is still a popular beauty technique in parts of Asia, Africa and the Middle East. It is also widely used for tinting hair. Major henna producing countries include India, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, Libya, Egypt, Somalia, Yemen and Sudan.
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A hedge row composed of henna shrubs. (Photo: KEFRI)
In Kenya, Lawsonia inermis is common in the coastal bushland and in the semi arid areas, mostly restricted to water courses and flood plains, an indicator for high water table and useful river-bank stabiliser. Local names attributed to the henna tree include mkokoa, mhina (Swahili); mvumanyuki (Bajun); elmi (Boran); kitiliku (Kamba); elan (Somali); mugokora (Tharaka);esajait (Turkana); muasimini (Pokomo) and kaparamenion (Pokot). The plant has many local uses. Among the Swahili and Arabs, women decorate their bodies with henna during festivities such as weddings. Brides in particular make elaborate decorations. This practice is also common among the Borana and Somali of northern Kenya. Men use henna to dye beards and hair. The
orange-red dye is made by crushing dried leaves and young shoots into a fine green powder. Strong tea and lemon juice are added to make a paste for use. The dye is also used to decorate fabrics and leather. Lawsonia inermis wood is used for firewood, simple construction, spear shafts, bows and arrows. The flexible light withies are used to make beds and chairs as well as baskets and carriers for use on donkeys. It is a valuable fodder especially for goats and camels and excellent bee forage. The roots and bark are used to treat various ailments and conditions. It is often planted from cuttings for live-fencing around homes. The writer is Principal Research Officer,
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A daily occurrence in Kenya’s drylands. People gather around a borehole early in the morning from miles around to get the precious liquid. (Photo: BGF)
The poor pay more. At government boreholes the price normally is Ksh 2 for a 20-litre jerry-can of water, but at private facilities the price can go up to even Ksh 20 in times of scarcity. Nairobi dwellers with access to tap water in their houses pay far less. Prices increase progressively from Ksh 18.71 to 42.89 and more per m3. This is equivalent to respectively Ksh 0.37 and 0.86 per 20-litre). (Photo: BGF)
Looking for clean water The legal requirements for construction of water projects in Kenya By ERIK NISSEN-PETERSEN
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any Kenyans, especially in the countryside, do not have access to clean drinking water. In an attempt to help them, the government has come up with the following regulations. According to the Water Act of 2002, all types of water projects constructed, except roof catchments of rainwater, must be approved by the Ministry of Water and the Water Services Board. Community-owned water projects must be managed by a Project Committee elected by the community members. These water projects must obtain a registration certificate from the Ministry of Social Development. Private water projects do not require registration certificates. A permit for construction of a water project requires the following documents: 1. A Registration Certificate for a community group can be obtained from the Ministry of Social Development. The certificate allows a community to seek financial assistance from potential donors e.g. the CDF, the local Water Services Board, NGOs, bilateral donors or UN bodies. A registration certificate can be obtained by presenting the following documents to the Ministry of Social Development; a) The Minutes of a meeting agreeing to form a Project Committee consisting of a Chair Person, a Secretary and a Treasurer as well as a deputy for each of these three persons. Preferably, the Chair Person should be a village elder experienced in handling meetings and solving human conflicts. The Secretary is usually a teacher conversant with English and office work. The Treasurer is often a business woman respected for her handling of money and bank matters.
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b) A Land Agreement that declares the land for the water project and access road to it Public Land accessible to project members. c) A By-law for a proposed water project consisting of rules and conditions which the members have agreed upon for construction and management of their water project. A By-law can be written along the following guidelines: 1. Name of the project and where it is located - sub-location, location, postal address and mobile telephone numbers. 2. Type of water project and its capacity for supplying water. 3. Number of households to benefit from the water project. 4. Conditions for becoming a member of the project. 5. Duties of the members and committee members. 6. Elections, voting and quorum requirements. By-laws can be written by hand and stamped by the local Chief. 2. A Survey and Design Report with technical drawings, a Bill of Quantity (BoQ), which is a list of required labour and materials, and a map sketch of the site. Community owned water projects must also produce their Registration Certificate with copies of their Land Agreement and By-laws. Evaluation of potential sites for water projects should, preferably, be implemented by a Surveyor or an Engineer experienced in evaluating the most cost-efficient type of structure for a water project in a specific place. A detailed survey report should contain all the measurements taken on the site and analyses data
of water, sand and soil. These, when combined with rainfall data, catchment areas, etc. can determine the expected yield of water from the structure. Design drawings are also made of the structure by adapting standard drawings to the specific site conditions. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation requires five sets of a Survey and Design Report in A4 format with the drawings in A2 format. When the ministry, the Water Services Board, the Water Resource Management Authority and the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) have stamped, approved and signed a Survey and Design Report, one of these copies is returned to the client as the permit to construct the structure. 3. An Environmental Impact Assessment Report from NEMA in the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources is required by the Ministry of Water and the Water Services Board for both privately owned and community water projects to prevent damage to the environment. 4. A Permit from the Water Resource Management Authority is required to prevent over-exploitation of the nation’s water sources. 5. An annual fee for extraction of water from rivers, boreholes and hand-dug wells is payable to the Ministry of Water before the final permit is issued and construction work can start. During the construction works, the Ministry of Water must inspect and give written approvals for different stages of construction works such as excavations, foundations and reinforcements. This enables the ministry to issue a Completion Certificate upon successful completion of the construction works. The writer is the Managing Director, ASAL Consultants Ltd Email: nissenpeterseneric@gmail.com
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Remembering Maxwell Kinyanjui (19 June 1946 – 24 January 2012) Kenya’s Man of the Trees
AN APPRECIATION BY MARTIN DUNFORD axwell Kinyanjui Miringu was born in Mirigi, Kiambu District in 1946. As a young boy, his quest for knowledge and curiosity about the world earned him a scholarship to Thika High School. His love for his high school days, his many friends, the rigours of scholarship, his unconventional approach to life and the joy of pranks remained with him his entire life. Selected to attend college in the United States, Maxwell went to Miami University of Ohio. He returned to Kenya to study for a Diploma in Urban and Regional Planning at the University of Nairobi and then proceeded to Syracuse University where he earned a Master’s degree and his PhD in the Maxwell School of Public Administration. Returning to Kenya to teach in the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Nairobi, he began to pursue his various creative interests revolving around conserving natural resources in Kenya. Maxwell began experimenting with various designs of energy-saving cooking stoves. He designed the Kenya Ceramic Jiko and thus began the widespread local production and sale of some of the most successful energy conserving stoves in Africa. Throughout his life, Maxwell continued designing and redesigning his stoves to make them easier to use, cheaper to buy, and more efficient. As a Stoves Consultant in Africa, he provided stove design, development, field-testing, marketing, monitoring, evaluation and enterprise development services to 10 African countries. He assisted schools, hotels, individuals, and refugee camps in using more efficient stoves to save energy. Maxwell started a small manufacturing business, hiring artisans, training them and then helping them to set up their own businesses. Many of the metal and pottery workers throughout the country received their training and inspiration directly or indirectly from his designs. He refused
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to patent his designs as he felt everyone should be able to copy his products and disseminate them to people who needed them. “Imitation is the best form of flattery” was his motto. Although he was internationally recognised by the Stockholm Environment Institute as a recipient of the IDEA Award for Sustainable Innovations in Cook Stove Development, by the Green Foundation and by a multitude of NGOs, news agencies and magazines all over the world, Maxwell was in fact a very humble and unselfish person. He never wanted to take credit for his achievements, but just wanted to impart knowledge to anyone willing to listen. He was passionate about rural productivity and maintained that rural Kenyans must diversify their crops away from traditional maize and beans and embrace tree planting as a cash crop for fuel, fodder and building materials and adopt a method of permaculture on smallholdings.
This would not only benefit the environment but would also increase income substantially in rural areas. It would also, as a result, slow down urban migration, which is putting a huge strain on Kenya’s urban infrastructure. Maxwell proved to people that all kinds of trees can grow under all kinds of conditions – they just have to be planted! Maxwell was instrumental in directly planting more than a million living, thriving trees in all parts of Kenya. Maxwell formed The Woodlands 2000 Trust with The Tamarind Group to promote tree planting as a business and commercial venture and set up remarkable demonstration plots in seven different areas across the country. These plots and the work of The Woodlands 2000 Trust have inspired and promoted tree planting and conservation in all parts of Kenya, touching thousands of people with tree planting ideas, sustainable tree harvesting and charcoal making techniques, and of course, production, promotion and sales of energy-saving jikos and ovens by small-scale entrepreneurs in every corner of Kenya. As a result, many millions of trees have been planted. Maxwell will be sorely missed for his humour, patience, love of Kenya, intellectual philosophical discussions, lectures on trees and jikos and for his many, many wonderful deeds of kindness to so many people. He was one of the very best environmental ambassadors Kenya has ever had. His son Teddy and wife Rosemary and The Tamarind Group will continue his work with the Woodlands 2000 Trust and his designs and innovations will continue to be spread throughout our country. Maxwell’s spirit lives on and will inspire many forever. Rest in peace Maxwell. martin.dunford@tamarid.co.ke
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Reversing Land Degradation
A view of BGF’s Kiambere plantations. The lake in the background, and heavy presence of erosion gullies on the slope leading towards a seasonal river.
The same gullies from the previous photo, seen from space. A Google image zoomed in to an eye altitude of 1.43km gives a clear impression of the seriousness of the degradation.
A whole network of small checkdams on critical points in gullies to slow down run-off and erosion.
More structures of stones, grass and branches, to stem run-off and erosion.
... And do these structures work? Yes. Look at the amount of soil stopped by the stones and the beginning of healing of the gully.
The missing link - planting of trees to intercept falling rain, to decrease splash erosion, fix soil through root growth, and promote land healing.
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