Miti 18 by Miti Magazine

Evaluating mukau wood Using inexpensive methods to locate water Comments on the Draft Forest Bill Tree species for drylands

Subscription only only Sold by subscription I s s u e N o.1 8 Ap r il - J u ne 2 0 1 3

Creating jobs in the countryside

Rosoga Investments utilises tree leftovers and by-products

Saving the Rwenzori Rescuing the Mountains of the Moon water tower for poverty reduction

A desert tree for all needs

The date palm provides food, medicine and construction materials

Understanding Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s drylands

Rainfall volumes, distribution and potential in very arid, arid and semi-arid lands

Better Globe Forestry Ltd

Making Africa greener

Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.

Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion

The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.

Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting

Our nursery at Kiambere

A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere

Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation

A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme

Preparing for planting in Kiambere

The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins

www.betterglobeforestry.com

36 Issue No. 18 April - June 2013

Editorial

PELIS is not working, claims Fomawa

Drylands present unique challenges

Report of a fact-finding trip to Koibatek by Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa)

PELIS is not a commercial venture

KFS’s rejoinder to comments on the fact-finding trip by Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) By Anthony Musyoka

Plant the right species for the right site

... and work with a management plan, advises Ugandan tree-grower By Diana Ahebwe

Let’s plant together

The Tupande Pamoja initiative seeks to build partnerships to rehabilitate forests By David Kuria

Saving the Rwenzori

Rescuing the Mountains of the Moon water tower will lead to sustainable development By Gerald Eilu

Creating jobs in the countryside

In addition to treating poles, Rosoga Investments has adopted an integrated approach to complete utilisation of tree left-overs By Jan Vandenabeele

Linking forests to food security At the policy level, FAO works to improve livelihoods and reduce illegal extraction of forest resources By Wanjiru Ciira

News

KFS receives fire-fighting equipment

Understanding Kenya’s drylands

Rainfall volumes, distribution and potential in very arid, arid and semi-arid lands By Alex Oduor, Kipruto Cherogony, Maimbo Malesu and Orodi Odhiambo

The promise of drylands

The mukau tree presents a good investment opportunity but challenges need to be addressed By Miyuki Iiyama, Geoffrey Ndegwa and Ramni Jamnadass

Evaluating mukau wood Looking at the properties of Melia volkensii, compared to mahogany, teak and mvule By Nellie Oduor

The right tree for the right zone

The most suitable indigenous trees to plant in arid and semi arid lands of Kenya Compiled by the Miti team

Northern Kenya water towers under threat

Climate change and human activity are destroying these hills By Joseph Maina

Wasting a valuable resource

Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) are unhappy with KFS’s management of forests in the country By Fomawa

Water within reach

Forests belong to us all

KFS defends the involvement of community forest associations in forest management By Patrick Kariuki

Rural households can use vegetation and other inexpensive methods to locate water By Erik Nissen-Petersen

A desert tree for all needs

CFAs hinder efficient forest management, claims Fomawa

The date palm is food, medicine, provides construction materials, various tools and even furniture By Francis Gachathi

Comments made by Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa), in October 2012

Forests are governed by rules

KFS responds to Fomawa’s concerns By Simiyu Wasike

On the cover: A common sight in drylands: A woman collects water from the Garsen-Malindi road after a rain shower. Unfortunately, this for her is the easiest and cheapest way to get water for drinking and household use. Tap water is a long way off, but there is potential for utilising rainfall, as the lead article on page 5 shows. (Photo: BGF)

Mukau: A Kenyan drylands tree with a bright future Yatta farmer makes tree farming big business Interview with Ugandan farmer, George Mayanja

Evaluating mukau wood Using inexpensi ve methods to locate water Comments on the Draft Forest Bill Tree species for drylands Subscript Sold by subscriptio ion only n only

Issue No.18 April - June 2013

Creating jobs the country in

side Rosoga Invest tree leftovers ments utilises and by-product s

Saving the Rwe nzori

Rescuing the Mountains of the Moon water poverty reduc tower for tion

A desert

The date palmtree for all needs and constructioprovides food, medicine n materials

Underst din g Kenya’s an drylands

Rainfall volum es, distribution in very arid, arid and semi-aridand potential lands

Editorial

Drylands present unique challenges

rylands are defined as areas with low amounts of water in the soil. These include arid lands, where the rate of evapotranspiration exceeds the rate of precipitation; and semiarid lands where precipitation is so low that water is the major limiting factor in plant growth. Approximately 50 per cent of global land area is drylands. Drylands are complex, evolving structures whose characteristics and dynamic properties depend on many interrelated links between climate, soil and vegetation. Dryland farming is uniquely dependent on natural rainfall, which can leave the ground vulnerable, particularly if poor farming techniques are used. The key elements of successful dryland farming are capturing and conservation of moisture, effective use of available moisture, soil conservation and control of input costs. It all starts with understanding drylands. In this issue, Alex Oduor, Kipruto Cherogony, Maimbo Malesu and Orodi Odhiambo take a close look at rainfall volumes, distribution and potential in the very arid, arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya. Miyuki Iiyama, Geoffrey Ndegwa and Ramni Jamnadass conclude that the mukau tree presents a good investment opportunity despite some challenges; while Nellie Oduor compares the properties of mukau timber to those of mahogany, teak and mvule. Survival as a dryland farmer requires careful husbandry of the moisture available for the crop and aggressive management of expenses to minimise losses in difficult years. The Miti team brings you the most suitable indigenous trees to plant in the ASAL regions. Joseph Maina explains how climate change and destructive human activity have taken a toll on the northern Kenya water towers. For his part, Gerard Eilu did a great job in describing how rescuing the Rwenzori water tower will lead to sustainable development and poverty reduction. Management of forests can be controversial as is illustrated by a lively debate between the Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) and Kenya Forest Service (KFS). Enjoy the magazine. Jean-Paul Deprins

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Editorial Committee

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Miti April - June 2013

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News

The views expressed in Miti magazine are the writers’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of Better Globe or TQML. WRITE TO US We welcome feedback on any article you have read in Miti magazine, or on any issue on tree planting, afforestation and related matters. Please include your name, address and telephone number. Letters may be edited for clarity or space. We also invite you to send us any interesting photos you might have. Please send your contributions to:

Fire fighters display various items that are used to clear and put out forest fires. (Photo: KFS)

KFS receives fire-fighting equipment

he Kenya Forest Service (KFS) in March 2013 received a boost to scale up forest protection and forest fire-fighting. The Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife, in collaboration with KFS, has purchased fire-fighting equipment and vehicles worth Ksh 100 million. Forests have often suffered destruction, especially during political unrest as witnessed in the post-poll chaos of 2007/08. The fire-fighting equipment will be used to put out fires in all forests countrywide. The KFS Senior Deputy Director, Field Operations, Emilio Mugo and the KFS Commandant, Col John Kimani, officiated at an event at the KFS Headquarters, Karura, where the fire-fighting equipment was

displayed then dispatched to various forest stations. The stations include Mau, Londiani and Nyeri. “We have trained people on the use of the equipment, hence in case of a fire anywhere, we will always be on high alert,” said Mr Mugo. He added that the Service has partnered with international agencies, for example, the United States Forest Services, in outsourcing the fire-fighting equipment, which is considered to be the latest. He also reiterated that since KFS is a national agency, the equipment will be used to put out fires everywhere, not only in forests. Speaking at the same event, Col Kimani urged those entrusted with the equipment to take good care of it since it is very valuable.

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KFS Senior Deputy Director Field Operations, Emilio Mugo, address journalists after displaying the fire-fighting equipment. To his left is the KFS Commandant Col. John Kimani and standing behind him is the KFS Chief Corporate Communications Officer, Charles Ngunjiri. (Photo: KFS)

Miti April - June 2013

Understanding Kenya’s drylands Rainfall volumes, distribution and potential in very arid, arid and semi-arid lands

A seasonal river in Mui, Kitui County, after a December downpour.. If the rain water is not captured and stored, it will all disappear. Within a few days, there will be no sign of rain. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

BY ALEX ODUOR, KIPRUTO CHEROGONY, MAIMBO MALESU and ORODI ODHIAMBO

he general conception is that about 83 per cent of Kenya’s surface area is arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). However, this is a misrepresentation because the 83 per cent of Kenya consists not only of the ASAL, but also very arid (VA) lands. Rather than only talking about ASAL therefore, we should be talking about VA-ASAL i.e. very arid, arid and semi-arid lands. Out of the 83 per cent of the VA-ASAL, the ASAL only occupy 37 per cent, while the very arid lands – which have hitherto been unrecognised - occupy a whopping 46 per cent. (Figure 1 and Table 2). With regard to the physical parameters, the VA-ASAL experience high temperatures and evapotranspiration compared to other climatic zones in Kenya. Temperature is a crucial physical attribute that influences the rate of evaporation and transpiration1. The average minimum annual temperature reduces as one moves from the very arid towards the semi-humid climatic zones. This means that, given the same altitude, it gets colder at night in drier areas because of more outward radiation and less vegetation. The maximum annual average temperature remains the same for all climatic zones in the VA-ASAL. Evaporation is a physical process, i.e. water changes from its liquid form into vapour (drying water puddles on the street after rain); while transpiration is a biological process, i.e. water loss by plants through the stomata of the leaves. The two processes are combined in the word “evapotranspiration”.

Miti April - June 2013

Figure 1: Agro-climatic zone map of Kenya’s drylands, including very arid lands. (Map: ICRAF)

Together with rainfall (P), these two factors are important in describing the climatic zone, using the rainfall to evapotranspiration ratio, otherwise known as the climate ratio (P/PET2). When potential evapotranspiration is greater than annual rainfall, then the P/PET is less than one and vice versa. 2

PET: Potential Evapotranspiration

The P/PET ratios are useful in classifying climatic zones as depicted in Table 1. They are also important indices which depict conditions or thresholds for rain-fed regeneration, irrigation, moisture supplementation of crops or vegetation of economic significance. Table 1: A guide for climate zones in respect to P/PET ranges P/PET

< 0.4

0.4 - 0.8

0.8 - 1.2

>1.2

Climate zone

Arid

Semi-arid

Sub-humid

Humid

Table 2 shows the climatic parameters for Kenya’s VA-ASAL zones. However, there is a clear distinction in the rainfall ranges, with the very arid areas receiving the lowest amount, i.e. between 150 and 350mm per annum, and thus a rainfall to evapotranspiration ratio or P/PET of 0.06 - 0.17. This provides very low potential for plant growth, leaving mainly desert shrubs to survive. The arid areas on the other hand, receive between 300 and 550mm per annum with a P/PET ratio of 0.13 and 0.29. The potential for plant growth is low, with bushland and scrubland as the dominant vegetation. Finally, the semi-arid areas receive 450 to 900mm of rainfall annually with a P/PET ratio of 0.20 and 0.71.

307,700,000,000 m3 or 307.7 billion m3. The calculation of this rainfall potential (expressed in volumes of water) was done using GIS 3 by summing the product of area (km2) and depth of rainfall (mm) for each pixel4. Looking at the total volumes of water falling in these counties, larger counties receive more rainfall compared to smaller ones. Marsabit, Turkana and Tana River counties (in that order), receive the highest amount of rainfall. Figure 3 gives an overview of this situation, showing that a dry county like Marsabit receives 9 per cent of all rainfall in Kenya’s VA-ASAL. Table 4 gives the same information in absolute figures. However, this does not say anything about the distribution of rainfall over the counties. A detailed analysis of rainfall falling within a given county gives a clearer picture as some areas receive much more rainfall compared to others. Table 3: Rainfall potential in selected dryland counties County

Area (km2)

Rainfall potential (km3)

Kwale

8,466

7.43

Kilifi

11,996

9.87

Tana River

39,272

22.1

Lamu

6,389

11.53

Taita Taveta

17,482

12.19

Garissa

46,091

18.64

Wajir

58,464

19.74

Mandera

26,897

8.64

Marsabit

72,260

27.62

Isiolo

25,924

10.27

Meru

7,065

8.29

Tharaka

2,694

2.51

Embu

2,871

2.85

Kitui

31,205

22.08

Machakos

6,327

4.92

Makueni

8,141

6.05

Rainwater potential in selected VA-ASAL counties in Kenya The selected counties depicted in Figure 3 that largely represent the VAASAL, receive a total of 307.7 km3 of rainwater, which is equivalent to

Kiambu

3,381

3.76

Turkana

68,718

24.89

West Pokot

9,139

7.28

Figure 2: Percent of Kenya’s total land area represented by varied climatic zones

Samburu

21,380

11.67

Elgeyo Marakwet

3,041

3.37

Baringo

11,040

8.68

Laikipia

9,600

6.92

Nakuru

7,546

7.11

Narok

18,058

17.4

Kajiado

22,197

13.88

Siaya

2,496

3.43

Migori

3,639

4.77

Table 2: Climate of Kenya’s drylands Temperature range

19.6 - 30

14 - 30

12.9 - 30

Rainfall (mm)

150 - 350

300 - 550

450 - 900

600 - 1100

Evapotranspiration (mm)

2100 - 2500

1900 - 2400

1650 - 2300

1550 - 2200

P/PET

0.06 - 0.17

0.13 - 0.29

0.2 - 0.55

Climatic zone

Very arid

Arid

Arid to Semi-Arid

Land area covered

in Kenya (%)

0.27 - 0.71

Figure 4 attempts to understand the amount of rainfall received per unit area. The scenario is now totally different. The counties that receive the highest amount of rainfall per unit area are Lamu, Siaya and Migori (in Geographical Information System (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analysee, manage, and present all types of geographical data. 4 In digital imaging, a pixel is a physical point in a raster image, or the smallest addressable element in a display device, so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the screen (Wikipedia). 3

Miti April - June 2013

Water supply from a seasonal river in Nuu, East Mwingi District, Eastern Province. Note the dead tree stumps on the river bank, evidence of erosion and a widening riverbed. (Photo: BGF)

There is need therefore for further analysis to ascertain how best to exploit the potential of rainwater and its distribution in Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s VA-ASAL counties. That is a question of with scientific, technical, socio-economic cultural and ethical challenges. When focusing on different types of infrastructure to use the run-off and infiltration dynamics of water, the possibilities widen, and cover a range of options: Groundwater management infrastructure. This includes improved springs, shallow wells and boreholes, with relevant extraction mechanisms which may be operated manually, or fuel, wind or solar powered; Surface reservoir infrastructure such as ponds, pans, dams and retention ditches; Underground reservoir infrastructure such as sausage tanks, spherical or hemispherical tanks and sand dams; Macro catchments bunding infrastructure such as the trapezoidal bunds (dykes) stone bunds etc; Micro catchments infrastructure such as negarims, oduorims, semi-circular bunds, zai pits, and others. All these are water harvesting methods that stop soil erosion. Earth dams and deepened water pans in particular represent a cheap and convenient method of water capture and storage. Indeed, as has been convincingly shown in the graphs above, large areas represent large catchment areas, feeding potentially big storage reservoirs. An important intervention is the protection of riverine vegetation, and tree vegetation in general, as this is a most cost-efficient way to use rainwater. Regarding use, human consumption evidently comes first, followed by livestock and agriculture. In terms of efficient use, drip irrigation scores highest, followed by overhead (sprinklers) and flooding, the last being rather wasteful. Alex Oduor is Programme Officer, ICRAF Water Management Unit Email: A.Oduor@cgiar.org Kipruto Cherogony is Programme Officer, ICRAF Water Management Unit Email: kcherogony@gmail.com that order). In the case of Lamu, it shows that, on average, each square metre of land receives 1.8mm of rainfall per year, while for Marsabit it is less than 0.4mm. Some conclusions Practically, the question of whether and how this

Miti April - June 2013

rainfall is available per given county depends on a number of factors. These include the nature of the rainfall partition, i.e. evapotranspiration, runoff or infiltration (groundwater recharge); its point of use (in-situ or ex-situ5), the time of use and the type of use. 5

Maimbo Malesu is Programme Coordinator, ICRAF Water Management Unit Email: M.Malesu@cgiar.org Orodi Odhiambo is Lecturer, University of Nairobi Email: orodiodhiambo@gmail.com

In-situ: on site, ex-situ: from outside the site

Mukau (Melia volkensii) trees intercropped with maize, in Mutomo District, Kitui County. The trees look healthy, but the maize on the other hand… (Photo: Geoffrey Ndegwa)

The promise of drylands The mukau tree presents a good investment opportunity but challenges need to be addressed BY MIYUKI IIYAMA, GEOFFREY NDEGWA AND RAMNI JAMNADASS

n Kenya, drylands have been the major supplier of charcoal to urban areas for many years. Continuous crop failures due to cyclic drought have led to fewer income earning options, leaving charcoal-making as the main livelihood strategy for dryland residents. Dryland species include hardwoods like Acacia tortilis and different species of Commiphora, a softwood. For fuel, hardwoods are favoured due to perceived high quality. In fact, charcoal from Acacia tortilis and other hardwoods fetches higher prices in urban areas. Livestock also prefer the same trees for browsing during the dry seasons. Rampant tree “mining” has led to endangering these hardwoods, as these species do not generate easily, leaving the landscape with shrubs of softwood species. The livelihoods of dryland populations are threatened by the degeneration of useful tree species, leading to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, including the provision of wood products and fodder and the control of soil erosion and microclimates. Mutomo District in Kitui County, bordering Tsavo East National Park, is a typical dryland area. The district has erratic and unreliable rainfall and high evaporation. The rainfall ranges from 200 – 450mm per annum. Due to recurrent droughts, farmers hardly remember the last time

they had good harvests. In recent years, they have just been observing maize stalks drying up on fields before bearing grain. The area is known as one of the charcoal hot spots. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) and Kenya Forest Service (KFS) have put in place measures to promote reforestation in the area, while controlling deforestation. The two institutions encourage sustainable charcoal production, a challenging venture in view of the harsh conditions for tree survival and growth.

Mukau promise? In recent years, Melia volkensii, locally known as mukau, has emerged as one of the most promising tree species, not only to restore forests but to save livelihoods in Kenyan drylands. Melia is a drought-tolerant tree native to East Africa’s semiarid lands that fall in the rainfall range of 300 - 800mm a year and that are dominated by Acacia-Commiphora vegetation. The mukau tree is not only adapted to harsh dryland climates but is also easy to establish and manage with minimum costs for resource-constrained local farmers. In addition, mukau timber is highly valued for furniture and construction with a vast ready market both locally and nationally. The tree thus presents a good investment

opportunity with added benefits of climate change adaptation and mitigation for the region. Among other advantages, the mukau: Is drought-tolerant; Termite resistant; Requires relatively few establishment and management costs compared to other agricultural enterprises; Pollarded leaves are used as fodder for livestock; Coppiced branches are used as firewood Is ready to be harvested as poles from five years, optimal as timber from 10 years; Can be well intercropped with legumes like cowpeas, green grams and beans which can be planted at 4x4m spacing, up to the 8th year with good harvest. However, it is not economical to intercrop with maize, whose productivity reduces drastically with the age of the tree stand. The diameter at breast height (DBH) of the mukau tree at the time of harvesting is about 40cm. When the tree attains the height of 4m farmers are advised to cut off the head to allow radial expansion. According to Mr Mbuko, a KFS officer in Mutomo District, a 10-year-old tree can be processed into one sawn log which produces 10 pieces. The current price of mukau timber is

Miti April - June 2013

Table 1: Comparison of net present values (NPV) per acre of mukau woodlot and major crops in Mutomo

A plantation of Melia trees on a Kitui County farm, estimated age 3-4 years, quite well maintained, and established with some expert knowledge. The trees display some diversity, due to the genetic stock. (Photo: Geoffrey Ndegwa)

Figure 1: Cumulative Net Benefits 900000 800000 700000 600000

MELIA

NPV @20% (US$/acre)

Mukau

112,789

1,327

Green grams

69,092

813

Beans

56,682

667

Cowpeas

27,838

328

Maize

32,701

385

If all the trees survive and are managed well, the net present value of investing in an acre of mukau woodlot stands at Ksh 112,789 or US$ 1,327 with the internal rate of return of 42 per cent. This is 1.6 to 4 times higher than the net present values of growing major crops every year which have the high probability of failure (Table 1/Figure 1). Further, green grams, beans and cowpeas are easily intercropped into the mukau woodlot to ensure food security. This investment can enhance the resilience against climate change for the dryland livelihoods, while it can moderate the micro-climates and soils at the landscape level.

BEAN

500000 Ksh/acre

NPV @20% (Ksh /acre)

400000 300000

GREENGRAM

Opportunities and challenges

COW PEAS

Given the economic opportunities presented by mukau, many farmers across Kenyan drylands, from Kibwezi in Eastern Province to Voi in Coast Province, are eager to plant more mukau on their farms, with some farmers planting on more than 25 acres (10 hectares). Mr Mbuko himself has planted 2,000 stems on his farm - selling 300 stems each year while planting more every year. For him, planting trees is “like investing in my own pension fund for retirement.” Of course, every venture has challenges. While materials are locally available, identifying good mukau seed trees is not always easy and requires serious effort. Without proper mulching during the establishment phase, the survival rate for trees can be as low as 50 per cent in the dryland conditions, thus farmers need to be sensitised and well trained. While good as firewood, mukau branches are considered too soft for charcoal, thus some technology options such as charring and briquetting need to be explored for full utilisation. Furthermore, a variety of multi-purpose, droughttolerant species should be identified to promote diversity in dryland forest regeneration efforts.

MAIZE 200000 100000 0 1

-100000

about Ksh 50 per foot, thus a tree that produces ten 6-ft pieces would fetch Ksh 3,000. Farmers can make additional income from firewood, with an ox-cart selling at Ksh 300; off-cuts at Ksh 50 each; and sawdust at Ksh 50 per bag. In case of a woodlot, the tree requires protection from goats since they browse on it. However, when mukau is planted in agroforestry systems, the trees benefit from the protection already provided for the other crops, hence no extra protection is required.

Economics In Mutomo District, KFS has trained farmers to establish mukau nurseries. Although some farmers do not have title deeds to their land, still, due to relatively low population density, farmers have large tracts of land which can be used for establishment of mukau woodlots, with few opportunity costs. Take the case of a farmer who establishes a one-acre mukau woodlot, with the following assumption: Plants 250 trees at a spacing of 4 x 4m.

Miti April - June 2013

year

Procures seeds from natural mukau trees, and raises seedlings with no external costs. For the first year, five workers are required for five days per week for a full month to establish the woodlot and live fence; and for the 10th year, the same labour to harvest the mature trees. In year 2 to 9, five workers are required for a week to prune trees, three times a year. For the first year, no wood products are harvested, but from year 2 to 9, the harvest of biomass for branches and fodder increases gradually. For example - the equivalent of 0.05 ox-cart for year 2; 0.3 ox-cart equivalent for year 5, and 0.7 ox-cart equivalent for year 9 per tree, valued at Ksh 300 per cart. In year 10, mature trees are harvested and sold at Ksh 3,000 per tree along with 1 oxcart equivalent biomass per tree at Ksh 300. The net present value is calculated by discounting the total net benefits for 10 years at 20 per cent.

Miyuki Iiyama and Ramni Jamnadass are scientists at ICRAF Email: M.Iiyama@CGIAR.ORG Geoffrey Ndegwa is a PhD candidate CNRDCUAS/ University of Passau, Germany Email: gefmaina@yahoo.com

Mukau wood, with “flames”. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Mahogany from DR Congo. (Photo: KEFRI)

Evaluating mukau wood Looking at the properties of Melia volkensii, compared to mahogany, teak and mvule BY NELLIE ODUOR

elia volkensii is an indigenous tree species in the plant family Meliaceae. Its common names include mukau (Kamba / Mbeere / Embu / Meru), mpenda bure (Swahili), kirumbutu (Taita) and boba (Somali). Melia grows naturally in the semiarid zones of Ethiopia, Somalia, Tanzania and Kenya. The species is common in deciduous bushland in association with Acacia-Commiphora vegetation in agro-ecological Zones IV - V (arid and semi-arid). In Kenya, the species grows mostly in Mbeere, Tharaka, Mutomo, Kitui, Mwingi, Makueni and Taita Taveta. In these areas, the tree is managed as remnants of natural stands, woodlots, scattered trees on cropland and homestead compounds. The tree grows to a height of 15 metres, has a rounded crown and low hanging branches. It has grey and fairly smooth bark. The leaves are compound with many leaflets. The flowers are white in dense panicles. The fruits are green ovals, about 4cm long, which turn yellow when ripe. The timber is pale reddish-brown, resembling mahogany, and is highly valued for a variety of uses. It is suitable for furniture/joinery and interior panelling. Melia has been exploited heavily over the

last decade, owing to a shortage of alternative hardwood species. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has led the way in developing propagation, establishment and management techniques for Melia since the 1990s. Through on-station and on-farm research, several techniques of establishing and managing the tree have been realised. As a result, tree growers are now striving to grow Melia as a plantation species. Comparison with other well known species In Table 1, we compare Melia to mahogany (Khaya species), teak (Tectona grandis) and mvule (Milicia excelsa), all well-known species. Density Density is defined as a tree’s mass per unit volume measured at particular moisture content. Melia is a moderately heavy species with an average density of 620 kg/m3. This compares well with the three species mentioned above and all are classified as moderately heavy (densities ranging between 580 and 810 kg/m3). Heartwood and sapwood colour The predominant colour of the heartwood and sapwood of Melia after drying is pale-red and pale brown respectively. The colour of Melia timber is very close to that of mahogany.

Texture and grain Texture describes the relative size of vessels in the wood. It affects the resistance of the timber to abrasion, and to some extent, the quality of the machined and polished surface finish. The texture of Melia is coarse which means it has large and widely spaced vessels, which are visible to the naked eye. Melia’s texture is the same as that of mahogany, teak and mvule. The grain is the alignment of cells relative to the axis of the tree or the longitudinal edge of an individual piece of sawn timber. The grain of Melia is straight; so is that of mahogany and teak timber. Mechanical properties The mechanical properties of wood are an expression of its behaviour under applied forces. Melia timber has superior mechanical wood properties and is comparable with mahogany, teak and mvule (Table 2). Bending strength (modulus of rapture - MOR) This shows the highest stresses in the outermost fibres of the wood when the beam breaks under a load. The bending strength of Melia is relatively high, and thus it is classified as a strong timber. The other three species are equally strong as they range from moderately strong (mahogany) to very strong (teak and mvule).

Table 1: Some physical properties of mukau (Melia volkensii), mahogany (Khaya spp), teak (Tectona grandis) and mvule (Milicia excelsa) Property

Melia

Mahogany

Teak

Mvule

Average density (kg/m3)-[air dry]

620 (Moderately heavy)

685 (Moderately heavy)

650 (Moderately heavy)

675 (Moderately heavy)

Heartwood and sapwood colour

Pale brown sapwood to pale red heartwood

Pale brown sapwood to pinkish brown to deep red heartwood

Light golden with dark markings

Yellow-white sapwood to yellow to deep golden-brown heartwood

Texture and grain

Coarse textured with straight grains

Coarse textured with straight or interlocked grains

Uneven coarse textured with straight grains

Coarse textured with interlocked and wavy grains

Table 2: Some mechanical properties of mukau (Melia volkensii), mahogany (Khaya spp), teak (Tectona grandis) and mvule (Milicia excelsa) Melia

Mahogany

Teak

Mvule

74 – 96

50 – 110

81 – 196

75 – 156

5.8 – 9.2

7.8 – 10.3

7.6 – 17.5

8.3 – 13.0

42 – 56

24 – 53

34 - 70

42 – 65

Shear strength (parallel to grain) [N/mm ]

14 – 18

8 – 14

5 - 16

5 - 14

Hardness [N/mm2]

3.5 – 5.1

3.4 – 5.7

3.8 – 4.8

4.8 – 6.1

Property Bending strength (MOR) [N/mm ] 2

Bending stiffness (MOE) [KN/mm2] Crushing strength [N/mm ] 2

KN = Kilo Newton N = Newton: a unit to measure force applied per area.

Miti April - June 2013

Table 3: Some seasoning and wood working properties of mukau (Melia volkensii), mahogany (Khaya spp), teak (Tectona grandis) and mvule (Milicia excelsa) Property

Mukau

Mahogany

Teak

Mvule

Shrinkage rates

Low

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Movement in service

Small once the wood is dry

Fairly stable once dry

Stable with low movement values

Small once the wood is dry

Machining

Easy to saw and work

Easy to work

Easy to saw and work

Saws easily

Seasoning/drying characteristics

Seasons well without degrade

Seasons well

Seasons well without degrade

Seasons well with little degrade of minor end checks

Durable and extremely termite and decay resistant

Moderately durable but susceptible to termites and pinhole borers

Durable - decay and termite resistant. Moderately resistant to marine borers and powder post beetles.

Heartwood is durable and resistant to decay but not immune to termites. Sapwood is susceptible to attack by beetles-borers

• Furniture /joinery • Panelling • Framing • Floor parquets • Poles

• Furniture /joinery • Ship and boat-building • Veneer /panelling • Floor parquets • Framing

Durability

Uses

Bending stiffness (modulus of elasticity - MOE) This expresses the linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic range of a material, providing an indication of stiffness. It is important in determining the reflection of a beam under load. The bending stiffness of Melia is generally low compared to the three other species, meaning it is not suited to heavy engineering work. Crushing strength This is the maximum compressive strength of the specimen, parallel to the grain and is important for columns and chair legs. The crushing strength for Melia is high, at the range of 42 – 56 N/mm2. Shear strength (parallel to the grain) This is the measure of the resistance of the timber to shearing/splitting/tearing. The shear strength for Melia is high at a range of between 14 – 18 N/mm2. Hardness This represents the resistance of the wood to wear and abrasion, which is a useful property in assessing the suitability of a timber for flooring. Melia has a range of 3.5 – 5.1 N/mm2 and is thus rated as a soft to moderately hard timber. The moderate hardness makes the species suitable, just like mahogany and mvule, for making floor parquets.

• Ship and boat-building • Veneer • Furniture • Carvings • Exterior construction

Seasoning The seasoning (drying) rate with which a timber can be dried is determined by kiln settings or ambient climatic conditions and board thickness. The rate at which a particular timber species dries is principally determined by its density, anatomical characteristics and the degree to which drying can be accomplished to 12 per cent moisture content, with acceptable levels of degrade if present. Melia was found to dry well without degrade. Wood-working properties Machining is the ease or difficulty with which a timber can be machined. Melia is generally easy to machine and work with. It gives good finishing (the general quality of a finished surface) and takes polish well. The grain orientation gives this species an eye-catching feature, which can be exploited for woodcarvings and furnituremaking. This property of Melia is also generally noted in the other species it is compared with. Melia timber has low shrinkage rates and movement in service is small (Table 3). This aspect makes the species suitable for flooring and furniture. The rates of shrinkage of mahogany, teak and mvule are moderate to low and these species too, are fairly stable in service.

Table 4: Comparison of Kenyan prices of the four species discussed Species

Cost (Ksh/board foot)

Cost (Euro/m3)

Location

Mukau Mahogany Teak Mvule

130-150 150 200 180

500-578 578 770 693

Kibwezi, Kitui, Mwingi Nairobi (from DRC) Nairobi Nairobi (from DRC)

(A board foot is one foot by 1 foot by one inch, or 0.002360 m3. One euro is equivalent to Ksh 110). Note: The export price of Khaya ivorensis (African mahogany) timber from Ghana, kiln dried, FOB is 643 Euro/m3 (ITTO Vol 17, No 4, 16-28 Feb 2013).

Miti April - June 2013

• Veneer /panelling • Furniture /joinery • Floor parquets • Boat-building • Framing

Natural durability Natural durability refers explicitly to the resistance of the timber to fungal degradation and insect attack. The principal factor conferring resistance to biological attack is the presence of extractives in the heartwood. Generally, Melia timber is classified as durable and extremely termite and decay resistant (15-25 years) when in contact with the ground in the tropics. This makes the species suitable for external use. Conclusions KEFRI’s Timber Bulletin (No. 1) entitled “Strength Groups of Kenyan Grown Major Commercial Timbers” has grouped 49 species into four strength groups – S1 to S4 in order of decreasing strength properties (very strong, strong, moderate and weak). These four categories reflect the common uses of timber in Kenya, i.e., heavy engineering, general structural construction (housing), furniture manufacturing and light construction. Based on the MOR and MOE values, Melia can be grouped S3 to S2 (moderate to strong). This means the timber from this species can be used in general construction and for furniture. It has also been noted that Melia has small movement in service, making it very stable while in use. Its low rates of shrinkage also make it suitable for construction and flooring. Its decay and termite resistance qualities make this species suitable for general construction such as housing. Melia timber compares favourably with mahogany, teak and mvule; the colour of Melia is very close to that of mahogany; the grain of Melia is straight just like that of mahogany and teak timber. The uses of Melia are generally similar to those of the three species it has been compared with. The writer is a Senior Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Karura Regional Research Centre. Email: nelliecoduor@yahoo.com

The right tree for the right zone The most suitable indigenous trees to plant in arid and semi arid lands of Kenya

n this issue, we give the right indigenous trees to plant in drylands. Miti compiled the guide from information provided by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Seed Centre1 with additional information from other literature2. The KEFRI guide identifies 22 forest seed zones. These are defined

Brun H., Albrecht J. and Kamondo B.M. 1993. The Forest Seed Zones of Kenya (Forest Ecological Zones). GTZ Forestry Seed Centre Muguga. Nairobi. Kenya.

according to altitude, rainfall and temperature, and vegetation type. As availability of water is the most decisive factor for tree growth, the seed zones have been ranged according to humidity. Altitude is often related to rainfall, and is also very important. Soil characteristics have not been considered in the definition of the seed zones. Tree-growers should consider this, depending on the species. The list of indigenous names is not exhaustive. Trees for seed zones 12 to 16 will be covered in the next issue of Miti.

Najma Dharani, Field guide to Acacias of East Africa, Struik Publishers, South Africa, 2006. Beentje, H, Kenya trees, shrubs and lianas, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya, 1994. Maundu P and Bo Tengnäs B (eds). Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya, 2005.Technical handbook no 35.Nairobi, Kenya, World Agroforestry Centre.

Seed zone

Climate

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Mean annual temp (oC)

Mean max temp(oC)

Mean min temp (oC)

Absolute min temp (oC)

Altitude (m)

Vegetation type

Semi-humid to semi-arid Warm to very hot

600 - 1100

22 - 30

28 - 36

16 - 24

8 - 16

0 - 1200

Dry woodland and bushland (Lower Midlands, Lowlands)

Species

Acacia brevispica (mwarara, furgorri, mukuswi, osiri, kaptarun, igirigiri, mwikunya). A low shrub – less than 7m. Pods are good fodder for goats, camels and cattle. Also medicinal. Acacia elatior (river acacia, munina, bura, chepruyaliet, muunga, esanyanait). Large (7 to 40m) fast-growing riparian tree. For timber, fodder, medicinal. Acacia gerrardii (muthi, chepitet, akurukuru, chesams). A flat-topped acacia, fast growing with high groundwater. For timber, fuel, poles. Acacia mellifera (kikwata, muthiia, muthingira, iti, ngorotet). A very thorny bush, good for hedges, bee forage, tough durable poles, fuel. Acacia nilotica (mgunga, mtetewe, musemei, chepitet, ol-kiloriti, chalabdo, munga). A medium-sized fast-growing umbrella tree. For medicine, fuel, dye, tanning, tea, poles. Acacia polyacantha (falcon’s claw acacia, mkengewa, kivovoa, ogongo, kumukokwe). A big (18m) fast-growing acacia with durable wood, easily recognisable through its flowers (white spikes) and black curved thorns. Acacia senegal (gum arabic acacia, kikwata, mtengewa, kikole, kumung’ang’a, kiluor, adad). For fuel, poles, gum, fodder, medicine. Acacia seyal (white thorn, iddado, mweya, mugaa, mugurit, okulu, olerai, murigat). A medium-sized acacia producing edible gum. Other uses - tea from bark, medicine, fodder, dye. Acacia tortilis (umbrella thorn, dadach, muaa, daddach, sesya, mgunga, abaa, otiep). For fodder, fuel (excellent charcoal), timber, poles, posts, fibre, medicine. Adansonia digitata (baobab, mbuyu, muamba, yak, mlamba, muguna kirindi). A well-known and underestimated tree. Can live up to 3,000 years. Very healthy fruit pulp, seeds and leaves; for medicine and fodder. Berchemia discolor (bird cherry, mkulu, muthwana, kisanawa, deen, muchukwo). Small tree (less than 18m) or bush. Edible fruits, very hard wood used as poles, construction, charcoal, fodder for goats and camels. Cassia abbreviata (long-pod cassia, kyathandathe, msoka, domaderi, mbaraka, msoko). Small (less than 10m) deciduous tree. Medicinal use, poles, ornamental (yellow flowers). Combretum molle (rokess, kiama, murema, kemeliet, ol-mororoi, kemelet). Small, slow-growing tree, producing excellent charcoal and bee forage, poles, timber, medicinal.

Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood, African ebony, mpingo, mwengo). Small tree (less than 11m). Excellent hardwood, very valuable timber, good for carving and instrument-making. Rare due to overexploitation. Slow growing, quite drought-resistant. Delonix elata (muange, olderkesi, laichimi, labi, ekurichanait, mwarange). One of the largest trees in arid lands. Attractive white/yellow flowers. For timber, furniture, poles, utensils, food, medicine, fodder. Erythrina abyssinica (red-hot poker tree, mbamba ngoma, muvuti, muhuti, kumurembe, karkar). Slow-growing; for timber, tools, ornamental, medicine. Kigelia africana (sausage tree, mwengea, mobwoka, oldarpoi, muratina, bukuraal, mukisha). Slow-growing small tree. Large sausage-shaped fruits. Used in fermentation of traditional beer, charcoal, medicinal, ornamental and ceremonial. Melia volkensii (mukau, bamba, kirumbutu, mkowe). Fast-growing deciduous tree - up to 15m. Valuable timber (pruning required), commercial dryland species, medicinal, agro-forestry. Newtonia hildebrandtii (mukame, mbwaga zembe, mirole, elmugi, mgunga). Large tree (25m), hard red wood for carvings, excellent charcoal and fuel wood, riverine species. Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree, mswaki, mswak, asiokonon, sokotu, adhee, esokon, kizingumoto). An evergreen bush, very drought resistant, slow-growing. Leaves and fruits important fodder for camels and goats, fruits edible, bark contains an antibiotic that keeps the mouth clean and prevents tooth decay. Tamarindus indica (tamarind, mkwadju, kithumula, kumukhuwa, lemaiyua, mkwachu, muthithi, epeduru). A very hardy fruit tree, slow-growing, easy to establish, edible fruit pulp. Important in local trade. Termina lia prunioides (purple-pod terminalia, mwangati-punda, mwanga, hareri, mutula, hafeer, etait). Thorny tree, up to 15m. Also grows on saline soils, hard and durable wood (house building), resistant to borers (dhowkeels), medicinal. Terminalia spinosa (terminalia, mwanga, mutula, mwangati, hafeer, mukorobo). Straight-growing with horizontal branching, hard timber resistant to termites. For construction poles, boat-building, medicinal. Not browsed by goats. Zanthoxylum chalybeum (knobwood, mjafari, mudhungu, roko, oloisuki, songowo, mukenea, kokian). Small, thorny tree with large knobs on bole, excellent charcoal, timber, poles, carvings, medicinal.

Miti April - June 2013

Seed zone

Climate

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Mean annual temp (oC)

Mean max temp(oC)

Mean min temp (oC)

Absolute min temp (oC)

Altitude (m)

Semi-arid Fairly cool to cool temperate

450 - 900

14 - 18

20 - 24

8 - 12

0–4

1850 - 2450 Bushland (Lower Highlands)

Species

Acacia mellifera (kikwata, muthiia, muthingira, iti, ngorotet). A very thorny bush. Good for hedges, bee forage, tough durable poles, fuel. Acacia senegal (gum arabic acacia, kikwata, mtengewa, kikole, kumung’ang’a, kiluor, adad). For fuel, poles, gum, fodder and medicine. Acacia seyal (white thorn, iddado, mweya, mugaa, mugurit, okulu, olerai, murigat). A medium-sized acacia producing edible gum.Tea from bark. Also medicine, fodder and dye. Acacia tortilis (umbrella thorn, dadach, muaa, daddach, sesya, mgunga, abaa, otiep). For fodder, fuel (excellent for charcoal), timber, poles, posts, fibre, and medicine.

Acacia xanthophloea (fever tree, Naivasha thorn, kimwea, olerai, murera, ochymnyaliliet). Suitable for places with high groundwater level and black cotton soil. Fast-growing; for timber, poles, fuel, fodder and edible gum. Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, baddan, mkonga, mulului, kullan, eroronyit). A very hardy tree, small to medium sized, slow-growing, very important for ASAL. For fodder, fuel, termite resistant timber, poles, edible fruits, vegetable oil, medicinal. Diospyros abyssinica (Abyssinian diospiros, lusui, mdaa-mwitu, muiruthi, cheptuiyet, ochol). A big, slow-growing tree, coppices, producing hard and tough wood; almost termite-resistant. Faidherbia albida (apple ring acacia, mujehe, olasiti, seretuet, larai, iti, edurukoit) A tall tree. Has leaves in the dry season and loses them during wet season. Fixes nitrogen, making it a very useful agro-forestry tree. For charcoal, timber, poles, fodder, edible pods.

Semi-arid Warm temperate to fairly warm

450 - 900

4-8

Species

Acacia brevispica (mwarara, furgorri, mukuswi, osiri, kaptarun, igirigiri, mwikunya). A low shrub (less than 7m), very widespread in thickets. Pods are good fodder for goats, camels and cattle. Also medicinal. Acacia gerrardii (muthi, chepitet, akurukuru, chesams). A flattopped acacia, fast-growing with high groundwater, timber, fuel, poles Acacia mellifera (kikwata, muthiia, muthingira, iti, ngorotet). A very thorny bush, good for hedges (pruning), bee forage, tough durable poles, fuel. Acacia nilotica (mgunga, mtetewe, musemei, chepitet, ol-kiloriti, chalabdo, munga). A medium-sized umbrella tree, fast growing, multiple uses (medicine, fuel, dye, tanning, tea, poles). Acacia seyal (white thorn, iddado, mweya, mugaa, mugurit, okulu, olerai, murigat). A medium-sized acacia producing edible gum and many other products (tea from bark, medicine, fodder, dye). Acacia xanthophloea (fever tree, Naivasha thorn, kimwea, olerai, murera, ochymnyaliliet). In places with high groundwater level, black cotton areas, fast-growing, timber, poles, fuel, fodder, edible gum. Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, baddan, mkonga, mulului, kullan, eroronyit). A very hardy tree, small to medium sized, slow growing, very important for ASAL. Fodder, fuel, termite-resistant timber, poles, edible fruits, vegetable oil, medicinal. Berchemia discolor (bird cherry, mkulu, muthwana, kisanawa, deen,muchukwo). Small tree (<18m) or bush, edible fruits locally sold, very hard wood used as poles, construction, charcoal, fodder for goats and camels.

Borassus aethiopum (right) and Hyphaene compressa (doum palm). (Photo: BGF)

Miti April - June 2013

18 - 22

24 - 28

12 - 16

Vegetation type

1200 - 1850 Bushland (Upper Midlands)

Cassipourea malosana (pillar wood, muthaguta, muthaithi, muangaita, martit). A tall tree with very hard wood. For timber, but attacked by borers. Croton megalocarpus (musine, muthulu, mukinduri, masineitet, mukigara, ortuet). Large, spreading tree. For timber and firewood. Seeds contain good quality oil. Juniperus procera (pencil cedar, mukuu, mutarakwa). For timber, termite resistant, fairly fast-growing. Melia volkensii (mukau, bamba, kirumbutu, mkowe). Fast-growing deciduous tree, up to 15m. Valuable for timber. A commercial dryland species, medicinal. For agro-forestry. Newtonia hildebrandtii (mukame, mbwaga zembe, mirole, elmugi, mgunga). Large tree (25m). Hard, red wood for carvings, excellent charcoal and fuel wood; riverine species. Olea europaea (wild olive, muthata, mutamaiyu, emitiot, kumunyubuti, kang’o, emidit). Slow-growing but very valuable, heavy wood. In its Mediterranean subspecies, it is the commercial olive tree. For oil and olives. Podocarpus falcatus (podo, benet, muthengera, saptet, pirripirriet). With smaller leaves, and can stand drier areas than P. latifolius. Produces general utility yellow softwood. Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree, mswaki, mswak, asiokonon, sokotu, adhee, esokon, kizingumoto). An evergreen bush, drought-resistant, slowgrowing. Leaves and fruits are important fodder for camels and goats. Fruits edible, bark contains an antibiotic that keeps the mouth clean and prevents tooth decay.

Tamarindus indica (tamarind tree). (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Seed zone

Climate

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Mean annual temp (oC)

Mean max temp(oC)

Mean min temp (oC)

Absolute min temp (oC)

Altitude (m)

Vegetation type

Semi-arid Warm to very hot

450 - 900

22 - 30

28 - 36

16 - 24

8 - 16

0 - 1600

Bushland (Lower Midlands, Lowlands)

Species

Acacia brevispica (mwarara, furgorri, mukuswi, osiri, kaptarun, igirigiri, mwikunya). A low shrub (less than 7m). Pods are good fodder for goats, camels and cattle. Also medicinal. Acacia gerrardii (muthi, chepitet, akurukuru, chesams). A flattopped acacia, fast-growing with high groundwater. For timber, fuel and poles. Acacia mellifera (kikwata, muthiia, muthingira, iti, ngorotet). A thorny bush, good for hedges, bee forage, tough, durable poles, fuel. Acacia nilotica (mgunga, mtetewe, musemei, chepitet, ol-kiloriti, chalabdo, munga). A medium-sized umbrella tree, fast-growing. Multiple uses (medicine, fuel, dye, tanning, tea, poles). Acacia senegal (gum arabic acacia, kikwata, mtengewa, kikole, kumung’ang’a, kiluor, adad). For fuel, poles, gum, fodder, medicine. Acacia seyal (white thorn, iddado, mweya, mugaa, mugurit, okulu, olerai, murigat). A medium-sized, acacia producing edible gum, tea from bark, medicine, fodder, dye. Acacia tortilis (umbrella thorn, dadach, muaa, daddach, sesya, mgunga, abaa, otiep). For fodder, makes excellent charcoal, timber, poles, posts, fibre, and medicine. Acacia xanthophloea (fever tree, Naivasha thorn, kimwea, olerai, murera, ochymnyaliliet). For places with high groundwater and black cotton soil. Fast-growing, for timber, poles, fuel, fodder, edible gum. Adansonia digitata (baobab, mbuyu, muamba, yak, mlamba, muguna kirindi). Well-known and underestimated tree, lives for up to 3,000 years. Fruit pulp, seeds and leaves good for health. Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, baddan, mkonga, mulului, kullan, eroronyit). A very hardy tree, small to medium sized, slowgrowing, very important for ASAL. For fodder, fuel, termite resistant timber, poles, edible fruits, vegetable oil, medicinal. Berchemia discolor (bird cherry, mkulu, muthwana, kisanawa, deen,muchukwo). Small tree ( less than18m) or bush. Edible fruits locally sold. Very hard wood used as poles, construction and charcoal. Fodder for goats and camels. Cassia abbreviata (long-pod cassia, kyathandathe, msoka, domaderi, mbaraka, msoko). Small deciduous tree (less than 10m). Favoured for medicinal use, especially by the Kamba people. For poles and ornamental (yellow flowers). Cordia africana (mukumari, muvutu, muringa, mukobokobo, muzigio, samut). Moderately fast-growing tree. Multiple uses including timber, ornamental with white flowers. Commiphora africana (mbambara, musishwi, kitungu, oselalei, katagh, hammes sagara, ekadeli). Deciduous (comes in leaf just before the rains) spiny shrub or small tree (less than10m), bark peeling. Produces hard gummy resin (edible), leaves important fodder for camels and goats; medicinal. Croton megalocarpus (musine, muthulu, mukinduri, masineitet, mukigara, ortuet). Large, spreading tree, uses include timber and firewood. Seeds contain good quality oil.

Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood, African ebony, mpingo, mwengo). Small tree (less than 11m). Excellent hardwood, very valuable timber, good for carving and instrument-making. Rare due to overexploitation. Slow-growing, quite drought-resistant. Delonix elata (muange, olderkesi, laichimi, labi, ekurichanait, mwarange). One of the largest trees in arid lands. Attractive white/yellow flowers. For timber, furniture, poles, utensils, food, medicine and fodder. Dobera glabra (msega, mkuha, gashir, mukupha, serri, garas, edapal). Small, evergreen tree (less than 13m), slow-growing. Very hardy, fruit and seeds edible. Important food source during famine. Soft wood for various uses. Fodder for camels and goats. Faidherbia albida (apple ring acacia, mujehe, olasiti, seretuet, larai, iti, edurukoit). Tall tree, has leaves in dry season and loses them during wet season. Fixes nitrogen, making it a very useful agro-forestry tree. For charcoal, timber, poles, fodder. Edible pods. Melia volkensii (mukau, bamba, kirumbutu, mkowe). Fast-growing deciduous tree up to 15m. Valuable timber (pruning required), commercial dryland species, medicinal, agro-forestry. Newtonia hildebrandtii (mukame, mbwaga zembe, mirole, elmugi, mgunga). Large tree (25m), hard red wood for carvings, excellent charcoal and fuelwood, riverine species. Terminalia brownii (muuku, manera, haririgo,mbarao, mururuku, koloswo). Fairly fast-growing, good coppicing, hard durable timber, poles, good charcoal, medicinal. Terminalia spinosa (terminalia, mwanga, mutula, mwangati, hafeer, mukorobo). Straight-growing with horizontal branching. Hard timber resistant to termites. For construction poles, boat-building (dhows), medicinal, not browsed by goats. For hedges. Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree, mswaki, mswak, asiokonon, sokotu, adhee, esokon, kizingumoto). An evergreen bush, very drought-resistant, slow-growing. Leaves and fruits important fodder for camels and goats. Fruits edible, bark contains an antibiotic that keeps the mouth clean and prevents tooth decay.

300 – 550

4 – 16

Arid Warm temperate to very hot Species

18 - 30

24 - 36

12 - 24

Acacia brevispica (mwarara, furgorri, mukuswi, osiri, kaptarun, igirigiri, mwikunya). A low shrub tree ( less than 7m), very widespread in thickets. Pods are good fodder for goats, camels and cattle. Medicinal. Acacia mellifera (kikwata, muthiia, muthingira, iti, ngorotet). A very thorny bush, good for hedges, bee forage, tough durable poles, fuel. Acacia nilotica (mgunga, mtetewe, musemei, chepitet, ol-kiloriti, chalabdo, munga). A medium-sized umbrella tree, fast-growing, medicinal, for fuel, dye, tanning, tea and poles. Acacia senegal (gum arabic acacia, kikwata, mtengewa, kikole, kumung’ang’a, kiluor, adad). For fuel, poles, gum, fodder and medicine.

At the coast Acacia zanzibarica (coastal whistling thorn, mpiga-mruru, waachu, fulai). Shrub or small tree ( less than 7m), with yellowish bark. Often in areas with high groundwater table and heavy soils, can stand water-logging for some weeks. For fuel, poles, fencing poles, branches for constructing bomas. Afzelia quanzensis (afzelia, mahogany bean, mbambakofi, mwamba, mgombakomfe). A large spreading tree, with much appreciated timber, termite resistant (a favourite of Lamu wood-workers, but now protected). Tamarindus indica (tamarind, mkwadju, kithumula, kumukhuwa, lemaiyua, mkwachu, muthithi, epeduru). A very hardy fruit tree, slow-growing, easy to establish, edible fruit pulp with important local trade.

0 - 1850

Bush and scrubland (Upper, Lower Midlands, Lowlands)

Faidherbia albida (apple ring acacia, mujehe, olasiti, seretuet, larai, iti, edurukoit). Tall tree, has leaves in dry season and loses them during wet season. Fixes nitrogen, making it a very useful agro-forestry tree. For charcoal, timber, poles, fodder. Edible pods. Kigelia africana (sausage tree, mwengea, mobwoka, oldarpoi, muratina, bukuraal, mukisha). Slow-growing small tree, large sausage-shaped fruits used in fermentation of traditional beer, charcoal, medicinal, ornamental and ceremonial. Melia volkensii (mukau, bamba, kirumbutu, mkowe). Fast-growing deciduous tree - up to 15m. Valuable timber (pruning required), commercial dryland species, medicinal, agro-forestry.

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Seed zone

Climate

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

Mean annual temp (oC)

Mean max temp(oC)

Mean min temp (oC)

Absolute min temp (oC)

Altitude (m)

Vegetation type

21 Cont.

Arid Warm temperate to very hot

300 – 550

18 - 30

24 - 36

12 - 24

4 – 16

0 - 1850

Bush and scrubland (Upper, Lower Midlands, Lowlands)

Species

Acacia seyal (white thorn, iddado, mweya, mugaa, mugurit, okulu, olerai, murigat). A medium-sized acacia producing edible gum, tea from bark, medicine, fodder, dye). Adansonia digitata (baobab, mbuyu, muamba, yak, mlamba, muguna kirindi). Well-known and under-estimated tree, long living (3,000 years). Fruit pulp, seeds and leaves have health benefits, for medicine and fodder. Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, baddan, mkonga, mulului, kullan, eroronyit). A very hardy tree, small to medium-sized, slow-growing, very important for ASAL. For fodder and fuel, termite-resistant timber, poles, edible fruits, vegetable oil, medicinal. Boscia coriacea (mnafisi, enkapalases, gitangira, mukukube, dagayar, eedung, qalanqal). Evergreen shrub or small tree (less than 6m), slow- growing, important dry-season fodder and shade tree, edible fruit. For furniture, utensils, arrowheads, medicinal and veterinary use. Commiphora spp. Important genus in this zone, producing resins. Species are deciduous, have papery and peeling bark. Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood, African ebony, mpingo, mwengo). Small tree (less than 11m), excellent hardwood, very valuable timber, good for carving and musical instrument. Rare due to over-exploitation. Slow-growing, quite drought-resistant. Delonix elata (muange, olderkesi, laichimi, labi, ekurichanait, mwarange). One of the largest trees in arid lands, attractive white/ yellow flowers, timber, furniture, poles, utensils, food, medicine, fodder. Dobera glabra (msega, mkuha, gashir, mukupha, serri, garas, edapal). Small, evergreen tree (less than 13m), slow-growing, very hardy. Fruit and seeds edible - important food during famine. Soft wood, fodder for camels and goats.

Tamarindus indica (tamarind, mkwadju, kithumula, kumukhuwa, lemaiyua, mkwachu, muthithi, epeduru). Very hardy fruit tree, slow-growing, easy to establish, edible fruit pulp with important local trade. Newtonia hildebrandtii (mukame, mbwaga zembe, mirole, elmugi, mgunga). Large tree (25m), hard red wood for carvings, excellent charcoal and fuelwood, riverine species Terminalia brownii (muuku, manera, haririgo,mbarao, mururuku, koloswo). Fairly fast-growing, good coppicing, hard durable timber, poles, good charcoal, medicinal. Terminalia prunioides (purple-pod terminalia, mwangati-punda, mwanga, hareri, mutula, hafeer, etait). Thorny tree up to 15m, also on saline soils. Hard and durable wood for house-building, resistant to borers (dhow-keels), medicinal. Terminalia spinosa (terminalia, mwanga, mutula, mwangati, hafeer, mukorobo). Straight-growing with horizontal branching, hard timber resistant to termites, construction poles, boat-building, medicinal, not browsed by goats. Zanthoxylum chalybeum (knobwood, mjafari, mudhungu, roko, oloisuki, songowo, mukenea, kokian). Small thorny tree with large knobs on bole, produces excellent charcoal, timber, poles, carvings and medicinal. Ziziphus mauritiana (jujube, mkunazi, tilomwo, ilerendei, ekalale, gup). Much branched spiny shrub or tree (less than 15m), fast-growing, tough wood suitable for house and boat building. For timber, poles, edible fruit (dried and eaten like dates), medicinal. Breeding of large, fruit varieties in India and Middle East. Ziziphus mucronata (buffalo thorn, mkunazi, kitolosuu, mugugune, lang’o, torokwo, ederendei, humur gob). Thorny shrub or tree (less than 15m), relatively fast-growing, edible fruit, tough wood, tea from the bark, fodder for camels and goats, medicinal. Important for dry areas.

Very arid Hot to very hot

150 – 350

10 - 16

Species

Acacia brevispica (mwarara, furgorri, mukuswi, osiri, kaptarun, igirigiri, mwikunya). A low shrub tree (less than 7m), very widespread in thickets. Pods are good fodder for goats, camels and cattle, medicinal. Acacia nilotica (mgunga, mtetewe, musemei, chepitet, ol-kiloriti, chalabdo, munga). A medium-sized umbrella tree, fast-growing, multiple uses (medicine, fuel, dye, tanning, tea, poles). Acacia senegal (gum arabic acacia, kikwata, mtengewa, kikole, kumung’ang’a, kiluor, adad). Fuel, poles, gum, fodder, medicine. Adansonia digitata (baobab, mbuyu, muamba, yak, mlamba, muguna kirindi). Well-known and under-estimated tree, long living (3,000 years). Fruit pulp, seeds and leaves have health benefits, for medicine and fodder. Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, baddan, mkonga, mulului, kullan, eroronyit) A very hardy tree, small to medium sized, slow-growing, very important for ASAL. Fodder, fuel, termite resistant timber, poles, edible fruits, vegetable oil, medicinal. Boscia coriacea (mnafisi, enkapalases, gitangira, mukukube, dagayar, eedung, qalanqal). Evergreen shrub or small tree (less than 6m), slowgrowing, important dry-season fodder and shade tree, edible fruit, furnitures, utensils, arrowheads, medicinal and veterinary use. Commiphora spp. Important genus in this zone, in presence and economic (producing resins). Species are deciduous, have papery and peeling bark. Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood, African ebony, mpingo, mwengo). Small tree (less than 11m), excellent hardwood, very valuable timber, good for carving and making musical instruments. Rare due to over-exploitation. Slow-growing, quite drought-resistant.

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24 - 30

30 - 36

18 - 24

0 - 900

Desert scrub (Lowlands)

Dobera glabra (msega, mkuha, gashir, mukupha, serri, garas, edapal). Small, evergreen tree (less than 13m), slow-growing, very hardy. Fruit and seeds edible - important food during famine. Soft wood with various uses, fodder for camels and goats. Melia volkensii (mukau, bamba, kirumbutu, mkowe). Fast-growing deciduous tree up to 15m. Valuable timber (pruning required), commercial dryland species, medicinal, agroforestry. Salvadora persica (toothbrush tree, mswaki, mswak, asiokonon, sokotu, adhee, esokon, kizingumoto). An evergreen bush, very drought-resistant, slow-growing, leaves and fruits important fodder for camels and goats. Fruits edible, bark contains an antibiotic that keeps the mouth clean and prevents tooth decay. Tamarindus indica (tamarind, mkwadju, kithumula, kumukhuwa, lemaiyua, mkwachu, muthithi, epeduru). Very hardy fruit tree, slow-growing, easy to establish, edible fruit pulp with important local trade. Terminalia brownii (muuku, manera, haririgo,mbarao, mururuku, koloswo). Fairly fast-growing, good coppicing, hard durable timber, poles, good charcoal, medicinal. Terminalia prunioides (purple-pod terminalia, mwangati-punda, mwanga, hareri, mutula, hafeer, etait). Thorny tree up to 15m, also on saline soils, hard hard and durable wood (house-building), resistant to borers (dhow-keels), medicinal. Terminalia spinosa (terminalia, mwanga, mutula, mwangati, hafeer, mukorobo). Straight-growing with horizontal branching, hard timber, resistant to termites, construction poles, boat building (dhows), medicinal, not browsed by goats (hedges).

Map of Marsabit with different hills mentioned in the text. The blue mass is Lake Turkana.

Northern Kenya water towers under threat

Climate change and destructive human activity have taken a toll on the hills that offer a lifeline in the northern ASAL BY JOSEPH MAINA

ost Kenyans only know of the five famous â&#x20AC;&#x153;Water Towersâ&#x20AC;? found in high potential areas. These are Mt Kenya, the Mau Complex, Cherangani Hills, Mt Elgon and the Aberdares. However, the northern arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) depend on some astonishing natural features (hills) for their water requirements during the dry season. Among these hills are Mt Marsabit (15,000 hectares), Mt Kulal (45,000 hectares) and Huri Hills. Other hills that are important to the northern people include the Matthews Forest Reserves (97,400 hectares), Mt Nyiru (45,500 hectares) and Ndoto mountains (93,000 hectares) in Samburu County. These hills are characterised by montane forest vegetation type, due to their high altitude. Mt Marsabit is 1,707 metres above sea level, Mt Kulal is 2,285, Mt Nyiru stands at 2,752 metres above sea level, while the Matthews range (referred to as Ldoinyo Lenkiyio in the Google map) and Ndoto Hills are 2,688 metres above

sea level. The hills receive orographic rainfall (meaning, it is influenced by topography) and mist condensation that results in hidden precipitation. It is believed that this hidden precipitation contributes to significant ground water recharge and a means of sustaining perennial springs on mountainous areas in arid and semi-arid lands. Mt Marsabit and Mt Kulal experience mist formation throughout the year, more or less like Limuru or Timboroa, due to condensation from south-easterly winds, as the winds are forced up the slopes of the hills.

Case study of Marsabit forest Threats to the Marsabit forest ecosystem include human and livestock population pressure and global warming. It is estimated that every year, over 100 hectares of Mt Marsabit forest are converted to farm land. For instance, 5,860 hectares of Marsabit forest were lost between 1973 and 2005. There was overgrazing, especially during the prolonged drought when 50,000 head of cattle entered

Marsabit forest for watering. Firewood extraction by the high number of people who migrated to Marsabit town also led to loss of forest land. Deforestation of Marsabit forest is triggered by frequent conflicts among different ethnic groups and by the many non-governmental organisations (NGOs) that offer relief handouts. These activities lead to migration to Marsabit town. The current population of Marsabit town is estimated at 30,000 people requiring 7,850 tonnes of firewood every year - that is, 4,300 households needing 5 kilograms per day. The forest can no longer provide this. The population currently relies on fuel wood sourced from rangelands and charcoal from Sololo in Moyale District. The forest is the predominant source of water for ground recharge and surface run-off. Water from the forest sustains some 50,000 people and several hundred thousand head of livestock.

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Bakuri weir inside Marsabit forest. The weir serves Marsabit town. (Photo: KFS)

Marsabit forest has six boreholes and one weir that serve the community. The boreholes discharge is as follows: Water source Bakuri dam Kubikalo borehole Jaldesa borehole Dirib Gombo (St Paul) Kumbi Bagaza borehole Dirib Gombo 2 borehole Komboi borehole Total

Supply (m3/hr) 4.4 6.7 8.0 6.0 3.0 10.0 15.0 53.1

(Source: Ministry of Water Marsabit)

Other, undocumented, water sources within Marsabit forest used by communities include Karantina, Boji, Filiba, Sagante, Ilcuta and Hula Hula springs. The total discharge from the above water sources, excluding undocumented springs, is about 1,200m3 a day. The population requires about 6,000m3 of water a day for human and livestock use. However, the forest can no longer discharge the required quantities due to long-term climate shifts and destructive human activities. A number of streams no longer have water, even in the wet season, while Lake Paradise, a crater lake inside the forest which sustains diverse wildlife, has been drying up during prolonged drought. Over-extraction of the ground water through boreholes and weirs within the lowland and change in forest structure have contributed to dropping of the water table. Badasa Dam along Bajji stream, currently under construction to address the water demand for Marsabit town, may turn out to be a white elephant as it will solely depend on runoff from the forest, which is only adequate every five years or so, following enough rains.

Remedial measures

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The remedial measures to address these threats should be geared towards sustainable use of natural resources while at the same time optimising ecological service functions, particularly water, grazing and energy provision. These should include: Initiating elaborate afforestation programmes within the farmlands to produce adequate wood biomass for construction and energy demands for the expanding Marsabit town; Development of a water resources master plan for each hill that will include extraction and piping for livestock outside the forest area; Developing and harnessing renewable wind energy within Marsabit hills to cater for increasing demand; Public education and conflict resolution to address inter-ethnic conflicts that trigger urban migration;

Initiating alternative livelihood programmes, like gum and resin harvesting and appropriate farm husbandry practices, in areas near the water towers, to break over-reliance on livestock; Formation and sensitisation of communitybased natural resources management associations (CFA, CPA, DEMC)1 on their role in participatory resource management; Coordination of the many NGOs operating in these areas to address sustainable development issues, rather than offering relief. The writer is Forest Coordinator, Marsabit County Email: josephmatu85@yahoo.com

Community Forest Associations, Charcoal Producing Associations, District Environmental Management Committees.

South West Mau Forest, a gazetted forest area. (Photo KFWG)

FOMAWA RAISES CONCERNS

KFS is wasting a valuable resource Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) are unhappy with management of forests in the country ARTICLE SENT BY JACOB MWANDUKA

riends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa), which is based at Rongai, west of Nakuru, has been asked by the Kenya Forest Working Group (KFWG) to comment on the Draft Forest Bill. The comments are given below. Fomawa has been involved in commercial forestry around Koibatek and further afield around the Mau, since 2001. Fomawa’s chairman, Richard Muir, has been in permanent crops, mainly tea and forestry, since 1960. He previously worked with James Finlay, of which he was Executive Chairman for 11 years. Today, he has commercial tree plantations on his land, and his primary objective has always been to make money. Fomawa has commercial forest projects in 170 schools and with countless farmers. The standards achieved are generally excellent. Fomawa’s experience does not extend to the Aberdares, Mt Kenya, and other “plantation” areas; nor does it relate to small forests such as Ngare Ndare which may well be candidates for some kind of community forest association (CFA) management.

OUR THOUGHTS OF A GENERAL NATURE The government’s commercial plantations within the custody of the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) are in a poor state. It is said that out of 140,000 hectares designated as plantations, some 40,000 hectares, almost 30 per cent, are not planted. Currently, the rate of felling is greater than the rate of replanting so the proportion that is fallow must be rising. If the felling cycle is 25 years then you would expect around 5,600 hectares (4 per cent) to be felled each year, and for the area felled to be replanted within 12 months of felling. Thus it would be reasonable to have 4 per cent unplanted at any one time, but not 30 per cent. The establishment and involvement of CFAs appears to be a corner-stone of policy. We believe that the whole concept is a big mistake that will not result in the establishment and maintenance of high quality plantations. A note on a visit to the Koibatek CFA which took place at the end of January 2013 is published on page 22 of this magazine. It is incomplete as we have not been able to get some data we need. But the message is clear.

Below are a few other comments on specific clauses of the draft bill, not in order of importance:

47. Forests on private land

The government should not be involved with forests on private land. There is talk of incentives. The only incentive we recommend is that income from the sale of the trees on private land be tax-exempt. When that was introduced in the United Kingdom, planting increased dramatically. No taxes are paid now because no one is selling more than small quantities of firewood and some poles; but why not make the situation clear? No other investment takes a minimum of ten years for poles, and 25 years for timber, to mature. Abolish ALL the cumbersome and costly regulations concerning felling and transporting that a tree-grower has to observe. Let the Chief give the go-ahead to felling; and that same go-ahead can be used when transporting to show where the trees/timber came from. Currently, anyone transporting tree “products” carries a pocketful of small currency

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notes to distribute at the countless road blocks one encounters. Growers find this easier and cheaper than conforming to the inappropriate laws. The permits should be abolished; and the road blocks removed.

65. Forest Fees

We do not understand what these are for. If an organisation takes a concession then the terms will be laid down in the agreement. If someone buys a stand of timber in an auction, then it becomes his on payment of the agreed sum. There should be no reference to stumpage fees which suggests that the government establishes fees per tree.

79. Permanent Forest Sink Initiative

If this means carbon credits then it is a good idea. BUT it must be simple and workable and give the grower a cash payment each year.

On concessions On page 20 of this magazine, we publish a paper we wrote in late 2012, which is still relevant. Concessions are a good idea but the whole process is made so difficult that one concludes the government does not want to give concessions. The idea that the person wanting the concession has to discuss what he intends to do with a CFA, and get the agreement of that CFA, BEFORE he can go ahead, is simply not realistic.

Conclusion We have been promoting a better and more productive way forward for commercial forestry for about 10 years. We have had many meetings and discussions with those in authority. Our ideas have been ignored. Gazetted forests continue to be managed under inappropriate guidelines and most replanting is of such a poor standard that it would be unacceptable in any commercial organisation. (Some of the planting done by Timsales is an exception to this.) Unless there is a radical change in thinking and policy, the current gloomy picture of the government’s plantations will persist, and will probably get worse. New thinking should embrace the following: No CFAs should be involved in commercial forestry. Concessions for growing trees should be given to those who know how to do it. Welcome expert treegrowers; do not frighten them away. All stands of mature trees should be auctioned. Anyone should be eligible to buy; not just saw-millers. When KFS was born out of the Forestry Department, it was said that a commercial and business orientated attitude would be adopted. There have been few signs of this. Many farmers have invested in tree plantations. It is a long-term investment. But their position would improve if ALL the forestry in the country was run with the aim of being productive and making money. The lead for that can only come from the government, which at the moment is squandering a potentially valuable resource. If our proposals were implemented, progress would be made for the benefit of all Kenyans. In the meantime, the demand for all tree related products will continue to rise, while the supply will diminish. Prices will increase in the market, which will add to inflation. Jacob Mwanduka is the Chief Executive, Fomawa

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KFS RESPONDS

Forests belong to us all KFS defends the involvement of community forest associations in forest management BY PATRICK KARIUKI We would like to respond to the issues raised by FONAWA on the Draft Forest Bill.

Plantation The total plantation under the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) as at 2013 is 135,000 hectares. The annual allowable cut, which can also be referred to as sustainable cut, is 4,000 hectares and is thereby matched by planting the unplanted areas. For example, last year KFS was able to plant a total of 8,000 hectares with a backlog of 12,000 hectares of which 10,000 is to be planted during this long rainy season (March-April). Clear-felled areas have been reduced and more emphasis is now put on thinning.

Involvement of community forest associations (CFAs) The new forestry dispensation puts it very clearly that communities and the public in general must be actively engaged in the conservation of forests. This is out of the realisation that forests are not really state property. They are our property as citizens. This is because they affect us at a personal level when they are degraded, and again benefit us on a personal level when they are managed sustainedly. CFAs are involved in plantation establishment and they are paid for their work through a joint account. CFAs are also allocated shambas under PELIS (plantation establishment and livelihood improvement scheme). They are involved in pruning of the plantation. Lately, KFS has decided to enter into a contract with CFAs to undertake pruning and noncommercial thinning.

Forests on private land Forests will remain forests despite being private or public. The government does not control private forest; it only comes in when the forest is poorly managed.

Incentives Incentives are benefits that the community gets by rendering services to forest conservation. Incentives act as a motivation to the community members to protect forests.

Permanent forest sink initiative (PFSI) This is meant to promote the establishment of permanent forest on previously un-forested land. It has nothing to do with carbon credits.

Commercial forestry Trees cannot be auctioned to just anyone. It is only done to saw-millers and other companies that have invested heavily in equipment so that they can get a good return on their investment. If these trees are auctioned to just anyone, they might end up in the wrong market and being used for the wrong purpose. Again, forestry requires some expertise. CFAs, on the other hand, need to be involved in commercial forestry because they are already in forest activities; they also have the expertise on forest matters.

Felling of trees It is the legal duty of KFS officials on the ground to issue licences for felling of trees. The Chief does not have the legal authority to do so. Once an individual receives a licence to fell trees, issues of transportation are not a problem since the licence indicates where trees/timber is from.

Concessions The process of awarding forest concession is stated clearly in the Forest Act 2009. Nevertheless, there is a court injunction stopping KFS from proceeding with concessions. The writer is the Deputy Director, Forest Extension Services, KFS Email: pmkariuki@kenyaforestservice.org

CFAs hinder efficient forest management, claims Fomawa THE FOLLOWING COMMENTS WERE MADE BY FRIENDS OF MAU WATERSHED (FOMAWA), IN OCTOBER 2012

e have read the paper “Development of a Concession Management Framework” prepared for the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife, and the Support to Forest Sector Reform in Kenya (MMMB) Programme by Gary Robinson. We consider the proposals and ideas so complex and inappropriate that no progress will be made towards getting the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) to act in a more business-like manner, nor is it likely that anyone will take concessions to plant trees. Perhaps some of the ideas have arisen from the demands of the Act. But if the requirements of the Act are inappropriate, then the Act needs to be amended so that common sense prevails.

Caught in the act! A treecutter found harvesting trees illegally at Wire Forest, Kasipul, Homa Bay County. He ran off, leaving behind his tools and shoes. (Photo KFWG)

Accountability and public participation We specifically refer to Annex 3 of the Working Group Reports where the facilitator was Michael Gachanja, the reporter Job Kareithi and the members Zipporah Toroitich, Daniel Nyamai, Esa Haapasalo, Clement Kariuki and Marko Lehto. Under A) the following statement is made; “For effective transparency, accountability and public participation, capacity building of communities and other institutions is crucial.” We are of the opinion that if an organisation is well run then there is never any comment about transparency and accountability. It is only when management fails to do what is expected that these things come to the fore.

Practical action When considering replanting up to date and maximising income from the sale of mature stands of timber, then any ideas about public participation and capacity building of communities is irrelevant and will just get in the way of progress.

What needs to be done Mature timber Stands should be auctioned subject to a reserve price based on market rates. Blocks should be advertised for sale with full details to include location, area, species, number of trees, an assessment of the cubic volume, access, availability

of water, labour and anything else of relevance. Anyone should be eligible to bid – that is, bidders should not have to be saw-millers. It is likely that in future, companies specialising in felling and extraction will develop. Such companies, with all the necessary equipment, would be well set up to bid. They could then sell the trees on a delivered basis to the mills. It is unrealistic to expect a saw-miller to plant or fell trees. Their business is milling. By the same token, one who manages plantations should not be required to have a mill. Such a person does not need to get a licence to fell, or to have an environmental impact assessment (EIA) done. The income from the sale of the trees should be tax-exempt. Those interested in bidding should be invited to the block which they would then inspect. It is important that KFS markets its products professionally and sells at the best price. Immature timber Stands of timber that are not ready to be felled should be retained by the KFS and should not be auctioned. Tenancies Tenancies should be created after the completion of felling. A forest management licence (FML) in effect means a tenancy or the right to manage and develop

a particular area for commercial plantations. (a) KFS must make it a priority to find tenants to plant and manage the areas which are not stocked and which apparently amount to some 40,000 hectares. Recently, KFS invited “Expressions of Interest” from anyone wishing to become a tenant. We believe that no tenancies have been granted yet. Finlays and the Kenya Tea Development Authority (KTDA) have expressed an interest. (b) KFS must do all it can to make it easy for tenancies to be taken up. The prospective tenant must prove that he has the cash and the expertise. (c) Other points; The purpose of KFS should be to establish commercial plantations to the best standards. There should be no requirement for five-year plans. There should be no requirement to involve CFAs, or any other outsiders. CFAs will simply get in the way if the tenant has to obtain their approval to his proposals. There is no need for discussions with forest adjacent communities. CFAs will not have any interest or share in the value of the trees that have been grown. No taxes or fees of any kind should be paid; but see below (“Income for KFS”). No environmental impact assessment (EIA)

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Forests are governed by rules KFS responds to FOMAWA’s concerns COMMENTS BY SIMIYU WASIKE • Only saw-millers are allowed to bid for trees. The reason is that they invest heavily in machinery for good recovery. KFS cannot allow everyone to bid, since most people do not have the capacity to produce good returns. KFS only allows people or companies that have invested heavily in equipment. Forests are governed by rules and if too many people are allowed into forests, then the rules might end up not being adhered to. A massive tree-planting event organised by KFS in January 2010, to restore Mau forest. (Photo KFS)

should be required. The period for a tenancy should be 25 years; 20 years is too short. Income for KFS It is suggested tenants pay an annual rent. This could be based on the going rate for agricultural land, currently about Ksh 15,000 per hectare per year. We suggest half this amount, i.e. Ksh 7,500 per hectare per year. There should be no other payments during the lease. However, 10 per cent of the assessed value of the final crop (not thinnings) should go to KFS.

Conclusion KFS is not managing its assets properly. This needs to be recognised and action taken. As such, everything possible must be done to put in place policies that enable stands of mature timber to be sold to the highest bidder; and to ensure that stands once felled are planted without delay. In addition, areas that are now fallow should be leased out using a simple basis of an annual rent plus some share in the end value. There should be no complicated management plans. There should be no involvement of CFAs unless the tenant wants it. Tenants should start off small. For example, 50 hectares might be enough for a tenant to get experience in the first year. KFS should make the whole operation easy for the bidder in the case of standing timber, and for prospective tenants who should not have to get into competitive bidding. It will be difficult enough to find suitable tenants. Tenants should not pay taxes of any kind. The private farmer who invests in forestry is interested in what KFS is doing, and because his contribution to the supply of timber, poles, and other products will become increasingly important, it is vital that he feels that the policies that apply to him are helpful rather than a hindrance and a burden. Most important, the rules relating to felling and transporting should be abolished, and all income exempt from tax. It is seven years since the Forest Act was passed. Over that period not enough progress has been made in getting KFS to be productive and businesslike. Unless there is a determined effort to put aside all the inappropriate ideas about the involvement of CFAs, forest adjacent communities, and so on, then it is probable that the situation will not have improved in another seven years; and the country’s position regarding all tree related products will be even more desperate than it is today. Fomawa, October 2012 www.fomawa.org

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• Saw-millers are not KFS partners. They just get material from our forests. A few saw-millers take up social responsibility roles voluntarily. Therefore it is not a requirement that saw-millers be partners with KFS. • Tenancies: It is a priority to find tenants to plant and manage forest areas that are not stocked. These areas amount to some 15,000 hectares, not 40,000 hectares. • CFAs: The Forest Act states that KFS must involve stakeholders and communities living adjacent to forests in forest activities which include pruning, planting, protection of the forests and thinning. Communities living adjacent to forests are affected by the forests the most, so they must be involved in forest management. • No environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required. • Taxes and movement permits: Taxes should generally be abolished. Movement permits, on the other hand, bring some good returns to KFS annually. But in the real sense, these movement permits are not necessary. • Productivity and businesslike activities: Since the Forest Act was passed, KFS has made a lot of progress in this area. For example, the revenue collected in 2008 amounted to Ksh 200 million, while that collected in 2012 was Ksh 1.3 billion. Therefore we at KFS can report that we have recorded major improvements. • Licences are compulsory. These licences have financial and technical components. For example, on the financial side, the licence demands that the person felling trees should be in a position to buy the same trees. If not, then the person should not be issued with the licence. • Replanting: After felling of trees, replanting cannot be done immediately. You have to leave the area for two to three years so that the soil can regain its fertility. Planting begins after the third year. The PELIS programme is brought in during the two to three-year break to help in regaining the fertility of the soils. The writer is the Deputy Director, Plantation and Enterprise, at KFS Email: bwasike@kenyaforestservice.org wasike.simiyu@yahoo.com

Members of Shamaneck CFA in Laikipia dig holes for planting tree seedlings. KFS involves CFAs in rehabilitating forests. (Photo KFWG)

PELIS is not working, claims Fomawa Report of a fact-finding trip to Koibatek by Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa), on January 29, 2013. Fomawa members were accompanied by John Koech, Secretary of the Koibatek CFA.

interest in the well-being of the forest. 2. Each member paid the CFA a registration fee of Ksh 300. As such, the CFA should have Ksh 1.2 million from this source. The secretary did not know how this money has been spent.

Background The Koibatek Forest, under the care of the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) occupies some 8,872 hectares. It is designated as follows - grassland 408 hectares, rough bush 3,256 hectares, bamboo 2,515 hectares and commercial plantations 2,693 hectares.

3. Each year, each member occupies one-tenth of a hectare and pays Ksh 50 to the CFA and Ksh 125 to KFS. The payment to KFS is presumably rent. It amounts to Ksh 1,250 per hectare. Considering that the going rate for good agricultural land is around Ksh 15,000 per hectare, members are paying 12 times less the going rate.

1. The Koibatek Community Forest Association (CFA) was established in 2007 and now has 4,000 members. Many of these do not live near the forest, but come from several kilometres away, some as far as Molo and elsewhere. Thus, they cannot be said to be forest adjacent communities. They want to grow crops for their families and have no

4. By this payment the tenant has the right to plant food crops for one year; (renewable for another one, or possibly, two years) and should, in theory, plant trees, pine or cypress at a spacing of 3 by 3 metres, which makes 110 trees for each one tenth of a hectare. It is

far from clear as to who has the responsibility to supply the trees. A few of the tenants have small nurseries which have provided the seedlings for their own plots. There is a tree nursery at Kivunja (the turn-off from the main road to Molo). Some of those running the nursery are members of the CFA but this is not an official CFA nursery with any obligation to provide seedlings free. Indeed, they sell seedlings at Ksh 10. Most of the plots we saw had not been planted with trees. Where trees had been planted, the growth and survival was generally poor. While the tenant may be happy at renting land at one-twelfth the going rate, and in most cases will have reasonable food crops, the objective of establishing a viable plantation along with the crops has failed. 5. The 4,000 members of the CFA are cultivating crops and supposedly, planting trees on 400

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hectares. Some 500 new members will be registered in 2013. They will pay the Ksh 300 registration fee, Ksh 50 to the CFA and Ksh 125 to KFS. The existing 4,000 members will be able to stay where they are because none of the trees are sufficiently big to prevent crops being grown. They will pay Ksh 50 to the CFA and Ksh 125 to KFS. Thus in 2013, Koibatek CFA will have income of Ksh 175,000 and KFS on income of Ksh 562,500. However, unless there is some drastic change in the way things are run, then the 450 hectares on which the CFA should have planted trees will have no plantations worth the name. 6. Mr Koech, the secretary of the CFA told us there is a master plan that covers the areas to be felled each year, which then should be replanted. He could not produce this master plan and we have been unable to get it from the Koibatek office of KFS. However, large areas were felled in 2012, and stands are currently being felled while there has been no replanting of any value. Therefore, the area not planted will have increased. 7. We visited areas that had been replanted by Comply over the years 2004 to 2010, although we have no official confirmation of the precise period. Some of the planted pine trees have done well, and are at an acceptable standard; but most of the cypress trees are in a very poor state. Many are covered with creepers and the population is less than 50 per cent. Mr Koech said the CFA was prepared to manage these stands but had not been asked to do so; nor do they have funds for that. Many of these poor stands are beyond redemption, even if a determined effort was to be made to remove scrub and creepers. But such management would be of some benefit. 8. It is not clear how stands of mature trees are being sold. But if they are being auctioned to all interested parties, and sold to the highest bidder, then there should be some substantial income. The income should be many times more than the cost of replanting, providing adequate funds to manage and protect Koibatek. In other words, KFS would have sufficient funds for replanting and there would be no need to fall back on the CFA.

Conclusion When the idea of CFAs was originally proposed, and the concept of PELIS (Plantation Establishment, Livelihood Improvement) was mooted, we predicted that it would not succeed because:

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(a) It is inappropriate to remove the responsibility for commercial forestry from the government and place it on the shoulders of CFAs whose members, at least in the case of Koibatek, have no interest in looking after the forest, and (b) Even if the CFAs were to take their duties seriously, there is such a muddle as to the division of responsibilities between the CFAs and KFS that disaster is more or less likely. So, at least in the case of Koibatek, the CFA has failed.

What can be done? (a) Abolish the CFA as a registered organisation. (b) Rent the land to individuals at a reasonable rate. Perhaps Ksh 6,000 per hectare per year. (c) KFS to supply the seedlings to each tenant and supervise the planting. The seedlings can come from KFS’s own nurseries, or be bought. They must be of the highest quality. (d) Each tenant should be monitored, and, if after the food crops have been harvested the survival rate for tree seedlings is below 70 per cent, then the tenancy should be terminated and a new tenant found. If the survival rate is above that figure and the growth is good then, for each healthy tree there should be a credit of Ksh 15 against that year’s rent; or to be

paid as cash at the end of the tenancy. (e) The area to be planted each year should be sufficient to reduce the backlog in replanting. Tenants who prove they can do the job should not be restricted to one tenth of a hectare. (f) The tenants should have no interest in the forest after they have stopped growing crops. The management of the trees planted by the tenants should be the responsibility of KFS once the tenants have left, and should belong to KFS. Of course there are organisations such as the tea companies that have the skills and the money to plant, and to manage the trees until they are sold, with the income going to them. This is the so-called concessioning system. But the whole process of granting concessions is far too complicated, and the minimum areas too large, so that it has to be concluded that the government does not want to lease to private investors for the long term. Unless there is a change of heart, then the gap between what is available from commercial plantations, both government and private, will continue to widen, and the people of Kenya, who deserve better, will suffer. It is hoped that the counties will establish better policies. www.fomawa.org

PELIS is not a commercial venture Rejoinder to the fact-finding trip by Friends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) COMMENTS BY ANTHONY MUSYOKA

oibatek Forest lies within Baringo County in Koibatek District. Most parts are situated in Esageri Division of Baringo County and it shares boundaries with Rongai and Elburgon divisions in Nakuru and Molo Division. The membership of the Koibatek CFA is derived from the forest adjacent communities which constitute 19 villages surrounding the four main forest blocks, namely, Jogoo, Kibunja, Sachangwan and Tabort. The CFA is committed to the wellbeing of Koibatek Forest and that is why it was founded. This has been demonstrated through the CFAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in policing, protection, reforestation and engagement in other income generating activities. The CFA is a registered association that has its own constitution and is responsible for the management of its financial affairs as per its constitution. The contributions the CFA effects on its membership are for its management and operational responsibilities and any other activities the CFA deems fit. The management committee is accountable to the CFA in the management of its resources, which are not in any way related to the activities of the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). The management of PELIS is guided by set rules and regulations. It is not meant to be a commercial venture but one that improves the livelihoods of forest adjacent communities as well as enhancing their participation in the establishment of plantations. The programme is also envisaged to enhance food security within the communities. The area under PELIS is determined by the planting programmes being carried out in the station at any given time. The size of plots allocated to individuals ranges from Âź acre to Â˝ acre and the charges are Ksh 500 per acre per year as stipulated in the Forest Service General Order (annual revision of royalties). Payment is proportionate to the size of plot given and is NOT commercial rates for renting land. The apportionment into small units is meant

to ensure that many members of the CFA benefit and monitoring of individual plots is easily carried out. Furthermore, the management and the CFA have an undertaking to ensure seedling survival rates are to the required standard. The period of cultivation runs for three

consecutive years and is subject to farmers adhering to the set rules and regulations. At the expiry of this period, farmers are moved to other sub compartments to give way for the planted seedlings to grow without interruption. Establishment of plantation areas is guided by

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From the Forest Department into the Kenya Forest Service. The transformation is not yet complete, but solid progress is being made. (Photo KFWG)

the existing technical orders. Spacing differs from species to species depending on the targeted end product - whether firewood, poles, sawn wood and or pulp wood. This eventually determines the number of seedlings to be planted within each plot. All planting activities are supervised and managed by the Station Forester. There are nurseries under the management of the CFA and a central nursery managed by KFS. The Koibatek CFA has been funded by NECOFA (Network for Eco Farming in Africa) to start nurseries for generating income. Since the onset of the PELIS programme, there has been need for CFAs to assist in reforestation activities through seedling production, planting and tending to the planted crop. This is done under the supervision of the Forester. In cases where KFS has obtained seedlings from the CFA, they have been paid for fully. KFS manages its own nurseries purely for production of seedlings which are planted within the PELIS areas. The KFS forest station establishes plantations through a partnership programme in collaboration with Comply and Timsales companies. So far, more than 1,000 hectares have been established with good survival and are doing very well. I wish to commend the efforts of these partners in ensuring that the existing backlogs/clear-felled areas are addressed. The Koibatek CFA was not established to take control of the management of plantation stands as it does not have the capacity or the capability to carry out such a role. Members of the CFA have been brought on board to assist in specific activities pertaining to plantation management, that is, planting, weeding, pruning and clearing of creepers under the supervision of the Forester. The management of plantation areas is the

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responsibility of the KFS Station Forester. The CFA has other avenues of sourcing revenue and that is not under the jurisdiction of KFS as long as it does not contravene its financial regulations. PELIS areas are not allocated on a permanent basis and the Station Forester has the prerogative to close PELIS areas that are not performing well. There is no provision that individuals will continue cultivation in the same plot indefinitely. There is no master plan for the Koibatek Station. The station is developing a plantation management plan which is being funded by Miti Mingi Maisha Bora (MMMB) programme. In the absence of the above, the station has been using felling plans to regulate the clear felling of plantation areas. This plan clearly indicates the areas to be cut, the volumes to be realised and the expected revenues. This consequently opens up areas to be planted in the following year. It is misleading to indicate that there are no planted areas whereas the extent of young plantations is clearly evident in the field. Disposal of mature stands is done in accordance with the Public Procurement and Disposal Act of 2005. Forest materials are NOT sold to all interested parties but to pre-qualified saw-millers within the Koibatek zone. This is done through a competitive tendering process in which all saw-millers participate. Revenues collected from the sale of forest materials are then forwarded to KFS headquarters for further adjudication.

Conclusions 1. The responsibility for industrial forestry development rests with KFS and has not been relinquished to the CFA. The CFA plays

a complementary role. 2. There is no confusion in terms of responsibilities, as the functions of the CFA are spelt out clearly. These do not in any way interfere or compromise the functions of KFS. 3. The charges payable for forest products and services, like shamba rent, are guided by the Forest Service General Order (FSGO), which sets annual royalties. 4. PELIS is not a commercial venture but a scheme meant to improve the livelihoods of forest adjacent communities. 5. Seedlings for plantation establishment are raised in KFS nurseries and no CFA has been contracted to raise seedlings on behalf of KFS. The backlog in the station is manageable and there is a schedule on how to clear it. 6. Koibatek CFA is currently developing a Participatory Forest Management Plan (PFMP) funded by NECOFA and this is an indication of their commitment to sustainable management of forest resources within Koibatek Forest Station. The performance of the CFA has been commendable, participatory and has not given any contrary indication not to copartner with the station management. 7. Concessioning is a management tool which is in its introductory phase but yet to be commissioned. The writer is County Forest Coordinator, Baringo County Email:zmkoibatek@kenyaforestservice.org

Plant the right species for the right site ... and work with a management plan, advises Ugandan tree-grower Diana Ahebwe, the Miti magazine Country Representative for Uganda, spoke to tree-grower Council Dickson (CD) Langoya. Below are excerpts from the interview: Please tell us about yourself I am a 50-year-old forester by profession a holder of a BSc degree in Forestry from Makerere University, Uganda, and an MSc in Rural Environmental Management from Aberdeen University, Scotland. I worked with the Forestry Department for 16 years and later joined National Forestry Authority (NFA) on secondment by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (of the UN) for two years. During my time at NFA, I initiated and promoted participatory approaches in forest management. I also initiated most of the ecotourism projects around the Central Forest Reserves. These are still growing and supporting communities around the forests. I later worked as a Watershed Management Advisor of the Farm Income Enhancement and Forest Conservation Project (FIEFOC), funded by the African Development Bank. The FIEFOC project aimed at improving watershed management and restoration of degraded forest environment in 56 districts of Uganda. I am now a retired civil servant and a consultant in forestry and climate change-related projects, even as I manage my private businesses. What motivated you to turn to tree-growing? My father was a forester, among the first people in the government to plant trees, so he used to encourage me to join the forestry business. The money I made motivated me to join the business as I realised I could make a good profit. I calculated how much I would earn after injecting a certain amount of money into the tree business and trust me, if you do the calculations, you will be motivated to begin immediately. My calculated discounted internal rate of return (IRR) stood at 17 per cent.

Council Dickson Langoya (2nd left, facing the camera) next to Dennis Kavuuma (left, facing camera), the General Manager of Ugandan Timber Growers Association (UTGA) inside Mr Langoyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s teak plantation, during a clientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; meeting of SPGS. (Photo: Miti magazine)

With my conservation background, I started the tree-planting business in 2006 after getting a lease of 49 years from the government on land in Opok Central Forest Reserve (CFR) located in Lapainat West Parish, Koro Sub-county, Gulu District. The CFR is about 12 kilometres east of Gulu and is easily accessible throughout the year. I have realised that even though I went into commercial forestry as a business, I have regenerated the degraded environment within the Central Forest Reserve because the place where I planted hosted an IDP (Internally Displaced People) camp. The CFR was degraded by citizens during the war but now it has turned into a forest. How did you begin commercial tree-planting? First I leased 130 hectares from the government. I drew out a management plan, which has contributed a lot to my success. I spelt out what I wanted to do in 20 years - in other words, I

made a strategic plan and set off with business in 2006. How old are your trees, what species and why the particular species? I have teak (Tectona grandis), which is six years old, pine (Pinus caribaea), which ranges between one and five years, Araucaria cunninghamia (four to five years old) and six-month-old clonal eucalyptus. I planted teak as an experiment, to find out if it could grow well in northern Uganda because I had seen it grow well in similar conditions during my work at the National Forestry Authority. To my surprise, the plantation turned out to be impressive because of good management. Teak requires good management during the first five years but its timber pays much more than others because its market is external. I planted pine because of the high demand for timber in the country and after recommendation

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by SPGS (Sawlog Production Grant Scheme). Currently, Uganda needs 200,000 hectares to meet the domestic demand for timber, and yet only 60,000 hectares are available. Araucaria is one of the best species for timber and it was also more of an experiment. Later I planted eucalyptus clones because of their fast growth and quick returns. How are the species spread? I have five hectares of teak, two and a half hectares of eucalyptus clones and 122½ hectares of Pinus caribaea, making it 130 hectares in total. What are the ecological details of your planting area? The planting area has sandy loam soils with some patches of lateritic soils. It receives 1,5001,800mm of rainfall annually with a long dry spell stretching from December to March. The temperatures are 17-32 degrees Celsius.

Mr Langoya’s four-year-old pine plantation (Pinus caribaea var Hondurensis), in Gulu, northern Uganda. (Photo: Miti magazine)

Where do you get seedlings from? I get my seedlings from the JC Forestry Enterprise Nursery, in which I have shares, because I trust the source of seed and the quality of seedlings. The nursery is also certified by SPGS and UTGA (Uganda Timber Growers Association).

What challenges have you encountered and how have you overcome them? I have not encountered many challenges; maybe one case of encroachment which I solved with the communities around because we work hand in hand. I also experienced a fire during the long drought in 2012 but luckily enough, all my trees recovered. This was because of proper weeding, so there was limited fuel to burn. I have a good relationship with the community around because they have a community plantation close to mine. We work together in terms of overall planning of forestry activities within the CFR, fire management or encroachment for a common goal.

How many people have you employed and what do they do? It is hard to know the exact number because most of them are temporary but the number of employees ranges between 10 and 25 depending on the season and the work that is available. I have a permanent security forest guard and a plantation manager. What is your planting regime? In Uganda, we have two rainy seasons in a year so I make sure I plant during the first rainy season. I started by planting five hectares in 2006, then 25 hectares in 2007, another 25 hectares in 2008, then 15 hectares in 2009, and then 30 hectares in 2010 and finally, 30 hectares in 2011. What are your future plans? What do you plan to do with mature trees? Any plans to increase the acreage or to process? I have planted on all the land leased to me by NFA so now I am just managing what I have. I hope to convert my trees into timber depending on whether it will be more profitable than selling the standing trees. On the other hand, if the company in which I have shares decides to go into sawmilling, then I can sell my trees to it at the market price.

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A five-year-old teak plantation (Tectona grandis) in Gulu, northern Uganda. (Photo: Miti magazine)

What has made you successful in commercial forestry? Being a professional forester with good handson experience. First, I understand the cost of not being successful. I also understand the secret behind planning, making a cash flow and implementation of the strategic plan. In addition, I have been supported by UTGA and SPGS with technical advice and some financial support. I also have a good record-keeping culture. I have the details of all the activities that I have carried out and how much money I have spent, which helps me plan for the future.

What advice do you give to investors, especially those who have just started or yet to start? Have a management plan and understand the cash flow. You should have sufficient funds to sustain your project especially in the initial establishment. The plantation should be well managed at least up to year five. I advise investors to choose the right species for the right site (sitespecies matching). Above all, “bite what you can chew.” Every big investment has a beginning, so it’s better to manage a small project well than working on a big one ineffectively. Do you have anything else to add? I would urge the government to waive taxation on tree-growers, especially when they are ready to sell their standing trees because we are basically cleaning the environment on behalf of the government. When a value is added to the

Let’s plant together The Tupande Pamoja initiative seeks to build partnerships to rehabilitate forests BY DAVID KURIA

About Tupande Pamoja The wanton destruction of our forests paints a grim picture for current and future generations if no urgent actions are taken. Thankfully, a new crop of conservation practitioners and innovators has come up and there is hope for Kenyans. In response to the massive destruction of forests witnessed in the country, Kenya Forests Working Group, Nature Kenya and East Africa Wildlife Society (EAWLS), with some seed money from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), have established a forest rehabilitation facility dubbed Tupande Pamoja (Swahili for “let’s plant together”). The facility aims at promoting responsible consumer behaviour through treeplanting. The initiative encourages building of treeplanting partnerships between private entities and local communities, especially within the five water towers in the country, namely, Mt Kenya, the Aberdare Range, the Mau Complex, Mt Elgon and the Cherangani Hills. The forests around the water towers have been highly depleted over time, and urgent conservation measures are needed to save them from further destruction. The idea of Tupande Pamoja is to get the public and private sectors involved to help pay for forest regeneration. For example, a hotel or a bank may contribute, respectively, the price of one night or one dollar for every account opened, to plant seedlings. There is no doubt that Kenya is currently facing one of the worst environmental problems of forest depletion. Every Kenyan needs to take responsibility and help the country become greener to save current and future generations.

How does it work? Tupande Pamoja is run by a coordinator who reports to a steering committee whose membership is drawn from the four partners. Through Tupande Pamoja, the private entity can choose whether to adopt a forest or part of a forest, or to contribute directly to the forest rehabilitation fund.

The writer addresses members of the Kenya Defence Forces before a tree planting event. (Photos: Tuko Pamoja)

Tupande Pamoja will help to: • Identify a forest area to rehabilitate (the sponsor can suggest); • Identify a committed community group that will plant responsibly and take care of the seedlings once planted; • Organise tree-planting events for staff of the sponsoring organisation (optional); • Establish and monitor agreements between the sponsoring organisations and the local communities committed to plant and care for the tree seedlings.

Why is Tupande Pamoja different from others? The aftercare activities of Tupande Pamoja distinguish the organisation from the traditional practices of planting of trees. Tupande Pamoja applies maintenance practices to ensure the seedlings survive and grow into mature and healthy trees. Tupande Pamoja has put in place a monitoring system to make sure that proper care is taken of the planted seedlings. The organisation encourages local participation and ownership of the process, while promoting indigenous species that do well locally. Tupande Pamoja encourages planting of trees in open spaces within Kenya’s forests especially the “crying” water towers.

Community groups The responses to the Tupande Pamoja initiative have been encouraging. Through the networks of its partners, Tupande Pamoja has identified

a number of community groups to assist in tree planting. Most of these are community forest associations (CFAs) and site support groups operating in areas where Kenya Forest Working Group and Nature Kenya work. Currently, Tupande Pamoja has community groups/partners in Aberdares (Kereita and Uplands forests), Mt Kenya (Home Forest), and Mau (Menengai, Baraget and Olenguruone forests).

Partnership with the private sector In its early stages, Tupande Pamoja was able to solicit for funds from key players, among them CFC Stanbic, NIC Bank, Koala Information and Advice Centre, APA Insurance, Communication Option and Braeburn School. Recently, African Point and Unilever Kenya Limited have also supported the initiative. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) also supported EAWLS through Tupande Pamoja to plant trees in Mau Forest. It is important to note that most of the support was one-time donations. It is only NIC Bank that has supported the facility twice, although no formal commitment for long-term engagement has been made. In total, more than Ksh 4 million has been raised from these sponsors.

Tree-planting events The facility has so far organised several treeplanting events across the country. Most of the participants have been local schools, universities, the Kenya Defence Forces, companies and community groups. These efforts have seen Tupande Pamoja plant more than 500,000 trees in the last three years.

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Community members and Kenya Defence Forces plant trees at Kereita Forest in the southern Aberdares. (Photos: Tupande Pamoja)

Challenges and lessons learned A key challenge to the operation of Tupande Pamoja remains the prolonged dry spell. Communities are spending a lot of time replacing withered seedlings. This situation is causing frustration among some communities. And with scarce rains, most donors/sponsors are reluctant to support the facility. Most of them link treeplanting to the long rains. There have also been cases of browsing of the young seedlings by domestic and wild animals in some of the forests. There is little commitment by some stations to protect the planted seedlings. Further, most of the sponsors are not willing to enter into long-term partnerships. They prefer one-time donations. Occasionally, there have been moments of frustration. Some private entities have asked for customised proposals or memoranda of understanding (MoUs) only to eventually end up not funding them, nor committing themselves.

The initiative encourages building of tree-planting partnerships between private entities and local communities, especially within the five water towers in the country, namely, Mt Kenya, the Aberdare Range, the Mau Complex, Mt Elgon and the Cherangani Hills.

Most of the donors support purchase of seedlings at market value. Some are only interested in the marketing and promotional value of the event and are not willing to commit funds for monitoring the seedlings or supporting sustainability of Tupande Pamoja. The existence of many tree-planting initiatives in the country has resulted in fatigue among sponsors and in competition between the implementers. Further, some of Tupande Pamoja’s partners have a tree-planting component and sometimes they seem to be competing with the facility itself. Due to limited funds, actual monitoring of growth and performance of the planted seedlings is very weak, especially for sites far from Nairobi. The writer is the founder and a member of Kijabe Environment Volunteers (KENVO). Email:davekenvo@hotmail.com

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Figure 1.The highway from Fort Portal to Kasese, the main town at the base of the Rwenzori Mountains. The lower slopes of the mountain are visible in the background. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

Saving the Rwenzori

Rescuing the Mountains of the Moon water tower will lead to sustainable development and poverty reduction BY GERALD EILU

power stations and irrigation schemes, and contribute to the domestic water supply for over 1 million people. The mountain is a source of the Mubuku, Lamia and Mpanga rivers that supply water to Kasese, Fort Portal and neighbouring areas. It also supports fishery on Lake George, Lake Edward and Lake Albert.

he Rwenzori Mountains are the highest in Uganda, rising from about 1,600 to 5,109 metres above sea level. The mountains are the third highest in Africa after Mt Kilimanjaro and Mt Kenya. The Rwenzori Mountains lie astride the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), close to Kasese town. On the Ugandan side, the mountain lies within the Rwenzori Mountains National Park (RMNP) which covers 996 km2. The mountain can be accessed through the Fort Portal – Kasese highway (Fig 1).

IMPORTANCE OF THE MOUNTAIN The mountains are very important “water towers” and very fragile ecosystems. Along most of its 210-km boundary, the RMNP borders farm land (Fig 2), mainly comprising subsistence farmers. The Rwenzori is thus an important area for sustainable development and poverty reduction. There is a high demand for land and resources from the park by communities bordering it and even those beyond its immediate boundary.

Figure 2. Farmland bordering the Rwenzori Mountains National Park. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

Moreover, there is a human-wildlife conflict that alienates the local community from the park. Water catchment The mountains provide an important water catchment for Uganda. The rivers originating from the mountain provide water for hydro-

Forest resources and tourism revenue The Rwenzori Mountain is important as a source of tourism revenue. It also provides various resources used by the local people, like Prunus africana (red stinkwood) tree used to treat prostate cancer (Fig 4. A and B). A study on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in one part of the park recorded up to 77 plant species used by the local people. Among these, 22 were for medicinal purposes; 16 for firewood; 13 for construction, joinery and furniture; 12 for craftwork; 10 for edible fruits and vegetables; and 27 for other purposes. Forest foods Mushrooms, vine spinach (basellaalba) and aframomum fruit (known in western Uganda as

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Figure 4A: A herbalist collecting medicinal plants from the Rwenzori Mountains National Park. 4B: A Prunus africana tree debarked for medicine. (Photos: Gerald Eilu)

amatehe) are obtained from the montane forest, while the forest slopes provide honey. These are important resources for rural communities. Employment The local communities derive income from tourism activities through community based initiatives such as the Rwenzori Mountaineering Services (RMS). This supports mountaineering in the area by providing porters, accommodation (Fig 5) and mountain climbing gear for hire. The local people extract construction materials (Fig 6), mainly bamboo, building poles, bamboo leaf sheaths for roofing, and ropes from the Rwenzori Mountains. Cultural sites The communities living around the Rwenzoris - the Bakonzo and the Bamba - have sites (Fig 7) within the forest where they perform cultural rituals and rites to appease the gods and bring good fortune. The Rwenzori Mountain is a UNESCO World Heritage site and an important bird area (IBA) for Uganda. It is a unique tourism destination with attractions such as the snow peaks, beautiful scenery, as well as rare plants and animals. Globally important flora such as the giant lobelias (Fig 8) and giant senecios (dendrosenecios) are found in the Afro alpine zone over 3,500 metres above sea level. There are also other species of global conservation significance such as the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and elephant (Loxodonta africana). Research and education The Rwenzori Mountain is an important research and education site. Schools use the area to study physical geography, largely because of its geological history, bio-geographical context

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and altitudinal range. Researchers interested in climate change have found the mountain one of the most interesting sites to study because of the receding glaciers and snow.

THREATS TO THE MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEM Receding glaciers and snow Due to global warming, particularly the rising air temperature, snow levels on Rwenzori Mountain National Park are receding at an alarming rate. This will affect regional hydrology, with the consequences likely to be felt most in the high altitude ecosystems. The changes may also affect underground water systems which in turn will impact on the gravity flow water schemes. These changes will have far-reaching effects on the surrounding communities. Atmospheric pollution The level of long range atmospheric pollutants in the Rwenzori Mountain is high, just as that in other high mountains. If mining by Kilembe Mines Limited resumes, the ecosystem structure and functions such as biodiversity of the RMNP are likely to be affected. Increased carbon dioxide and other atmospheric changes may be the cause of changing forest dynamics, productivity and composition. Declining species diversity Currently, the park management monitors the various species in the park. Trade in wild animals is a poorly known threat in the region. Certainly there are species, such as chameleons, that are traded elsewhere in Africa. There are indications that such trade might be increasing, definitely causing declines in species diversity.

Figure 5. A community-owned campsite in the Kazingo area of Rwenzori Mountains National Park. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

Uncontrolled resource extraction Because of poverty, the communities neighbouring the park engage in illegal activities including poaching, pit sawing, slash and burn agriculture, charcoal-burning and harvesting of bamboo for construction. The latter activity could degrade the affected vegetation types. Conflicts The creation of the RMNP in 1992 resulted in a reduction of the area available for settlement and economic activities. Some communities bordering the park are hostile to the park management. Some have developed an especially negative attitude towards the park due to wildlifehuman conflict as well as the restricted access to resources inside the park. There is need to strengthen community-based interventions to address the issue. Climate change Climate change is likely to raise temperatures and change rainfall patterns. Changing cloud patterns too will have a significant impact on climate and hydrology. It is unclear what actions managers can take to mitigate the impacts of such changes. Climate change may be associated with many other changes in ecosystems. For example, plant phenology patterns and the lifecycles of pollinators may be modified or even critically disrupted. Fires Recently, wild fires have destroyed some parts of the forest. The causes are unclear, but it is likely that the fires are lit by hunters and honey harvesters. It is crucial to strengthen surveillance, particularly during the dry season.

Figure 6.Construction materials used by the local people are obtained from Rwenzori Mountains National Park. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

Invasive alien species Other threats include exotic plants like Lantana camara (”The Curse of India”) and Senna siamea (cassia tree) that occur in the neighbourhood of the park but have not been recorded in the interior. Habitat loss and encroachment The population densities around the RMNP are high, with mostly poor farmers who put the land under intense cultivation. The park has a “hard” edge (Fig 9) and most areas have been cleared by the growing human population that demands land for cultivation. Mining and pollution of water bodies Mining of copper, cobalt and possibly, kaolin, could pose a threat to the fragile Rwenzori ecosystem. The mining of sand on the river banks and cultivation of river banks aggravate soil erosion, while washing of cars pollutes the water courses. Other threats Other human-induced activities that pose a threat to the park include: • Pollution of the fragile mountain ecosystem along the central circuit, arising from poor standards of hygiene and waste disposal, and • Destruction of bogs due to the lack of or poor state of boardwalks used for tourism. Tourism activities are legal, but the heavy traffic of porters puts immense pressure on the trails and boardwalks. The impact on biodiversity is not clear at the moment, but should be evaluated. There have also been some cases of landslides that have caused enormous losses. The situation is not as bad as that on Mt Elgon in eastern Uganda, but there is no guarantee it will remain this way if restoration efforts are not strengthened.

EFFORTS TO SAVE THE RWENZORI MOUNTAIN ECOSYSTEM The Ugandan Wildlife Authority (UWA), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) are among organisations and individuals involved in efforts to save the Rwenzori Mountains. Some of these efforts are: Controlled access to selected resources WWF has supported UWA’s efforts to legitimise and regulate resource harvesting by communities. Resource inventories were carried out to determine the off-takes of permitted resources such as bamboo and medicinal plants. The local people are aware of the illegal harvesters, some of whom sell the resources within and outside the respective villages. Thus, enlisting the local people as custodians of the resources can both ensure a more equitable distribution of resource use benefits and curb the illegal and often destructive exploitation. Ecological monitoring An Ecological Monitoring Programme has also been set up by WWF and UWA with technical support from the Uganda Ethnobotany/Ethnoecology Network (UGANEB). Another initiative is the Global Network of Afro-alpine Vegetation monitoring plots (GLORIA) that involves the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Although it is evident, for example, that the glaciers are receding, the rates of recession need to be monitored for data to guide climate change adaptation programmes. Protection of the water catchment WWF and other organisations are supporting efforts

to plant trees on the deforested lower slopes of the Rwenzori Mountains. These efforts are important for promoting the water catchment values of the Rwenzori Mountains National Park. On-farm tree planting is also promoted to provide fuel wood, construction poles and other tree resources. Community conservation education The knowledge, attitudes and practices of communities adjacent to the park can have an impact on the park’s values and how these are perceived. Conservation education is vital for promoting attitude change towards conservation. Development of tourism infrastructure There are several initiatives to improve the infrastructure within and around the Rwenzori Mountains National Park. UWA has invested in maintaining the trails and repairing bridges, among other improvements. Partners such as the Rwenzori Mountaineering Services have maintained the accommodation facilities. Several lodges and hotels are being developed on the periphery of the park, which should improve tourism activities and generate revenue. Research Some research activities are being conducted in the Rwenzori area. Between 2007 and 2012, the AFROALP II Project, funded by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) carried out a project titled Afro-alpine ‘sky islands’: genetic versus taxonomic biodiversity, climate change, and conservation. In addition, through the MacArthur Foundation, studies have been carried out by Makerere University on species of restricted range and changes in vegetation belts in relation to climate change. Other organisations such as WCS and the Mountain

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Figure 7. A cultural site where offerings are made. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

Figure 8.The bog on Mt. Rwenzori with giant Lobelias (Lobelia deckenii). (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

There should be concerted efforts to promote collaboration and share experiences. The good initiatives around the Rwenzori Mountains could, for example, be replicated in other mountain ecosystems in Uganda, East Africa and elsewhere. Ultimately, the survival and sustenance of Africaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mountains will depend on commitment from governments, regional partnerships, support from development partners and innovative strategies to ensure that the ecosystem services and products provided by the mountains are paid for.

Resource Centre in Makerere University have carried out other studies. There is still room to strengthen these efforts, particularly by having the Rwenzori Mountain management authorities allocate some resources to research. Revenue and benefit-sharing UWA has introduced a revenue and benefit-sharing programme for the frontline communities, with a view of improving the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acceptance of the park. This programme is at the moment largely dependent on gate collections, but could be expanded to include other revenues generated by the park. Law enforcement Whereas there are community conservation initiatives by UWA, inevitably, the law enforcement activities are an important component of management of the Rwenzori Mountains National Park. The responsible personnel should be properly equipped and trained to ensure good coverage of the park beyond the footpaths used regularly.

Figure 9. Cultivation around the Rwenzori Mountains National Park is right up to boundary pillars, sometimes encroaching on the forest. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

effort to share experiences between managers of protected mountain sites in East Africa.

The writer is Associate Professor at the Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, Kampala Email: gerald.eilu@gmail.com

CONCLUSION The importance of the Rwenzori Mountains to the local and international community, particularly as a water catchment, cannot be overemphasised. The fragile mountain ecosystem is however faced by several threats. The good news is that various initiatives have been put in place by the park management and development partners to address the challenges and promote the integrity of the ecosystem. Currently, however, there is little

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A charcoal briquette, made from pine sawdust; produced using Chinese technology and quite marketable. (Photo: BGF)

Value adding. TNG from pine timber. (Photo: BGF)

Creating jobs in the countryside In addition to treating poles, Rosoga Investments has adopted an integrated approach to complete utilisation of tree leftovers and by-products BY JAN VANDENABEELE

ome 50 kilometres after Nakuru, along the Nakuru-Eldoret road in Kenya’s Rift Valley Province, close to the Eldoret-Kericho junction, lies Rosoga Investments Ltd. The company has a 10-acre yard, with ample space for stocking both treated and untreated poles and timber logs, timber and other processed products. The yard and its processing installations was commissioned in 2009, and has a pole treatment plant, a sawmill, a charcoal production plant, a tree nursery, a furniture unit and supporting facilities like a mechanical workshop and the office. The centre of operations is the pole treatment plant, around which the other activities grew, in an integrated approach to complete utilisation of leftovers and by-products, and to have business in case of a slow-down on treated pole sales.

The pole treatment plant Rosoga sources 85 per cent of its poles from small-holders and the rest from Finlays in Kericho. The trade with Finlays is interesting. Rosoga give firewood to Finlays in exchange for poles. “We told them they do not need to use the poles for firewood. We can provide the firewood,” says Moses Serem, the Operations Manager,

Rosoga Investments Limited. The two companies worked out an exchange rate by volume. Finlays requires its firewood split into pieces exactly 6 inches wide and 1.2 metres long, and delivered to its estate. Rosoga has to foot the transport cost. The species Rosoga currently deals in are Eucalyptus saligna and E. grandis. This is set to change as farmers have realised they can make more money from South African clones – Grandis-Camaldulensis (GC). The clones offer the advantage of straightness, fast growth and homogeneity. The South African clones are expected to come into production within the next seven years. The supply system is straightforward. Rosoga buys poles from agents and provides transport from collection points, spread throughout Nakuru and Nandi counties, to the plant. The agent is paid after inspection of the poles at the plant. On average, some 10 per cent of the poles fall below the agreed standard, for which the agent is paid a lower price. The sub-standard poles are converted into firewood, fencing poles and offcuts. Rosoga used to deal with farmers directly, but stopped this after the company’s buyers abused the system. Rosoga also tried an out-growers

approach, but stopped after being cheated by farmers selling the poles to other buyers. “This however does not rule out the possibility of establishing our own plantations in future,” says Michael Kandie, the company’s Managing Director. Rosoga grades the poles in the presence of the agents, and explains why the poles are not to the required standard. The company applies stringent quality control measures to fulfil the requirements of the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KP&LC) and the Rural Electrification Authority. The two parastatals buy mainly 10, 11 and 12-metre long poles, and occasionally, 14 metres. The latter length is rare, and KP&LC is increasingly using concrete poles for this length. At the moment however, the demand for poles exceeds supply. “The demand is enormous”, says Mr Kandie. Farmers have responded by increased planting. “We see market saturation within the next five years,” adds Mr Kandie. In the pole yard, Rosoga uses tri-wheelers from Bell, South Africa, to stack and move the poles. The treatment cylinder is big, and the plant is clean and orderly. Rosoga has been issued with the Diamond Mark of Quality from the Kenya Bureau of Standards.

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Rosoga’s views on forestry practices The entrepreneur behind Rosoga and plantation management Investments Ltd According to Michael Kandie and Moses Serem, the establishment of KFS was definitely an improvement on the former Forest Department. Not only did corruption reduce considerably, but decentralisation became possible. “We can now make payments for timber at the local KFS office, not to Nairobi any more, and this money is used for replanting the acreage felled,” says Mr Kandie. Rosoga and other sawmillers pay Ksh 30,000 as a subsidy to KFS for every hectare of plantation felled. That is on top of the price for the logs.This money is used to pay casuals, while the seedlings come from a KFS nursery. Sawmills are now stakeholders in plantations management. However, Mr Kandie is not enthusiastic about communities managing gazetted forests. “That’s the work of KFS,” he says. According to him, community forest associations are still very much in the formative stage, pre-occupied with their own power struggles.

A mobile band-saw, well suited for large-diameter logs. The thin saw blade ensures optimal conversion into timber, with little waste. (Photo: BGF)

The sawmill Together with other sawmillers, Rosoga regularly buys plantation blocks of pine and cypress from the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). The company is fully equipped with tractors and winches to execute its own logging operations. The logs are processed through 3-band saws, a mobile band saw (Timberking), and a frame saw; at a rate of 120 logs per day1 or about 90 cubic metres. The capacity is however twice as high, with frequent electricity shortages - both rationing and break-downs a main challenge. The current recovery rate is 45 per cent, excluding off-cuts. This gives rise to mountains of sawdust that are processed into charcoal. The sawdust goes through a drier, and is then fed into a briquetting machine, which heats up to 250oC while pressurising the loose sawdust. Due to the high temperature, the lignin in the sawdust plasticizes and forms a brown coat around a sausage-like form that comes out of the machine. The form keeps the sawdust together, and so it goes into a kiln. There is a high demand for the charcoal, 1 At an average log size of 6m length and diameter of 40cm, this works to about 0.75m3 for one log.

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which sells at Ksh 20 per kilogram, mainly to hotels and education institutions. Weekly production is now at 10 tonnes, but the kiln is relatively small, and hardly depletes the mountain of sawdust. Rosoga employs 280 people, of whom 120 are permanent. The rest are casuals, paid on a production basis. The company is the biggest employer in the area. The employees are organised into a savings and credit cooperative society that runs a canteen, where wholesome, affordable food is served – as the Miti team can attest. As a community service, Rosoga provides free firewood to the neighbours every Saturday. The company pays school fees for two children from the neighbouring community, allows neighbours to access water, not to mention the employment opportunities the company has brought to the community. Rosoga seems well implanted in its social and ecological environment, and as such is poised for growth - an impressive achievement. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

Michael Kandie (right), the Managing Director and Moses Serem the Operations Manager, Rosoga Investments Ltd. (Photo: BGF)

Michael Kandie, the Managing Director of Rosoga Investments Ltd has come a long way. In 1996, he started a firewood business and used to supply Finlays, Homa Lime and Kipkebe Ltd. However, he saw the potential for treated poles and decided to venture into the business. Mr Kandie got 1,000 poles treated at GTI in Gilgil, and wanted to sell these to KP&LC, who were short of poles. Their single supplier could not deliver enough. However, to Mr Kandie’s disappointment, KP&LC did not buy the poles. He decided to advertise his poles in the newspaper, and managed to sell the whole lot to ABB. Mr Kandie then got into touch with Cabro East Africa (Elementaita) for treatment of more poles, but that did not work out and he decided to set up his own plant. He travelled to Germany to get a cylinder, and sourced the rest of the components (pipes, valves, automatic controls) from the UK. Installation was all done by local technicians, under his supervision, and the operations started rolling. Mr Kandie bought the charcoal processing unit from China, after looking for the best solution on the Internet. And it works. The investor did not go to university but obtained excellent grades in physics and mathematics at “A” levels. Walking around the Rosoga premises with Mr Kandie is a treat. In between explanations to the Miti team, he screens the activities with a keen eye, and singles out small things like cracks on a concrete floor, a damaged gate-holder and so on. He enquires about the state of certain machinery and rolling stock, and launches questions to employees he clearly knows well. Despite not being on site every day, Mr Kandie knows his business through and through, and is a hands-on owner. This is the kind of entrepreneur the country needs for rural development. For more information, contact Rasonga Investments, P. O. Box 3303 - 20100 Nakuru; Tel: +254 - 51 - 221 4603, Mobile: +254 722 344 449 Email: mkandie@rosogainvestments.com www.rosogainvestments.com

Dan Rugabira, the FAO Representative in Kenya. (Photo BGF)

Linking forests to food security At the policy level, FAO works to improve livelihoods and reduce illegal extraction of forest resources BY WANJIRU CIIRA

he Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) works in 198 countries all over the world. FAO’s mandate is achieving food security for all - to make sure people have regular access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives. Sustained food productivity depends on securing our natural resource base and forests play a great role in the provisions of goods and services that support food security. FAO works through national governments at policy level and engages in programme implementation of field activities indirectly through relevant government departments and other strategic partners. This is through forums, regional forestry committees and the organisation’s Committee on Forestry. FAO is also quite active in strengthening institutions working in forestry and global forest resources assessments. FAO has been involved in forestry education, has supported the Kenya Forestry College (Londiani) and assisted the formulation of curricula. The organisation has given scholarships

and supported platforms for meetings and exchange, for example, the Agroforestry Research Network for Africa (AFRENA). Globally, FAO collects information on forestry through a number of tools and every five years publishes the important “Global Forests Resources Assessment Report” in which the status of forests in the world and at country level is presented and trends analysed. Equally important is FAO’s global monitoring of forest genetic resources, and its country statistics on forestry, agriculture and fisheries. Further in Kenya in the 1990s, FAO supported a programme of forest inventories and was involved in the formulation of the Forest Act 2005. FAO worked with the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) in protection of water towers. “We are particularly concerned with offering forest adjacent communities alternative livelihoods so they do not destroy forests in search of income,” says Dan Rugabira, FAO Representative in Kenya. “This would ease pressure on forests.”

Technical support project It was with this in mind that in 2009, FAO responded to a request for technical support to equip KFS with a workable approach to sustainable livelihood development in the Mau Forest Complex. Under a technical cooperation programme (TCP), FAO mooted a sustainable livelihood development project (SLDP) to equip forest adjacent communities with the means to diversify income-generating activities. The primary beneficiaries of the project were members of community forest associations (CFAs) who participate in forest conservation and management in the areas under eight forest stations covered by the Kericho District Forest Officer in Londiani. Kenya Forest College hosted the project field office. The eight forest stations, all located within the Mau Forest Complex are: - Sorget, Londiani, Makutano, Maragat, Tendeno, Kericho, Kuresoi and Masaita. Participants to the project were provided with credit facilities under a public

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private partnership (PPP) developed with Equity Bank, where the funds were deposited. This approach has been used by other projects under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Bank supported projects in KFS. Apart from a reduction in illegal forest resources extraction, like logging, charcoal production and livestock grazing, there was an increase in tree planting. Intriguingly, most of the livelihood farmer field schools (LFFS) formed under the project consisted of two or more ethnic communities; some even consisted of five. Participants of the LFFS mentioned the improved, friendlier relationship among different ethnic groups. Such benefits were achieved not only through the improvement of livelihoods and household economy but also through group learning activities that enhanced community

Prosopis firewood being stacked to dry in Marigat, Baringo County. This can then be converted to charcoal. (Photo: KEFRI)

solidarity. PELIS Mr Rugabira believes the Plantation Enterprise and Livelihood Improved Scheme (PELIS), which is run under the direction of KFS, could work. “If well-managed, PELIS could improve livelihoods and food security. It’s an issue of governance.” he says. He however emphasises that PELIS must be seen for what it is – a contractual agreement between the forest adjacent communities and KFS. “It is not a settlement,” he says. PELIS is the revised shamba system, in which members of community forest associations (CFAs) are allowed to grow food crops on cleared forest land, as long as they tend tree seedlings, and don’t destroy them. Ideally, the communities are compelled to move on as soon as the seedlings are old enough to thrive on their own, which is after a maximum of three years.

Charcoal and firewood On charcoal and firewood, Mr Rugabira takes a realistic stance saying that these sources of fuel will continue to be used in our society for a long time. “We should aim for industrial development and production of charcoal,” he says. He adds that as a society, we should examine the charcoalproducing potential of Prosopis juliflora. FAO has been supporting the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) in research to put this species, considered invasive, to good use. Mr Rugabira is encouraged by the introduction of new charcoal regulations. These will go a long way in decriminalising the production and sale of charcoal, to the benefit of both users and producers. Mr Rugabira is passionate about promotion

Charcoal production from prosopis wood: Demonstration of an improved kiln by KEFRI in Marigat, Baringo County, in 2004. (Photo: KEFRI)

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of gums and resins as an alternative livelihood for vulnerable communities in the drylands of Kenya, especially in northern Kenya. He was actively involved in an acacia operation project covering six African countries including Kenya. The objective of the project was to contribute to sustainable development, food security and the fight against desertification through the promotion and integration of gum and resin production into rural economic activities in Africa. Dan Rugabira, a national of Rwanda, holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Forestry from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. He also holds a post-graduate Diploma in Forest Surveys and a Master of Science degree in Forestry Management from the International Institute for Aerospace Surveys and Earth Sciences (ITC), in the Netherlands. In 1980, he became a Forestry Officer for the Afforestation Pilot Project in Kibuye, Rwanda. From 1983 to 1984, he worked as Forestry Officer for the Ministry of Agriculture of Rwanda. From 1984 to 1989, he was the Head of the Forest Management Division in the same Ministry In 1989, Mr Rugabira joined FAO in Rome. From January 1998 to June 2001, he served as Country Projects Officer at the Regional Office for Africa, Ghana. In July 2001, he returned to headquarters until 2011 when he was posted to Kenya as the FAO Representative in the country. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com

Fruits of mukami. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Water within reach Rural households can use vegetation and other inexpensive methods to locate water

Wild figs growing on a mukuyu’s stem and branches. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

BY ERIK NISSEN-PETERSEN

very family living in arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) would like to find water near their homestead instead of having to trek many kilometres to fetch it. The easiest way to get the commodity is to collect rainwater from the roof and store it in a tank for use in the dry season. However, the cost of a roof and water tank capable of providing water for six dry months is too high for most rural homesteads to afford. It is more affordable and reliable to find shallow groundwater that can be extracted using a hand-dug well. The biggest challenge for this option is where to find shallow groundwater in ASAL regions. Often on market days, one finds people marketing their skills for locating shallow groundwater. For a fee paid in advance the “expert” will walk with his dowsing rods over a farmer’s land and point out where to dig to find water. A neighbour of mine spent a lot of money excavating a well down to 60 feet (20 metres) through layers of rocks after an “expert” pointed out that there was water. No water was found and the neighbour did not get a refund of the fees paid to the “expert” and to the well-digger. What should one do to avoid losing money and still find water? First of all; read the landscape and use common sense! Water is always seeping downwards whether on or under the surface of a landscape. To find shallow groundwater that can be extracted through a well, look out for the following: · Lush vegetation: On slopes of small hilltops it is only possible to find shallow ground water if there is an underground and invisible layer of rock or clayey soil that prevents rainwater in situ (in voids between particles) from seeping downhill. In such places the vegetation is lusher than the surroundings due to the trapped groundwater. · Green vegetation: Pans, ponds and earth dams often have seepage lines downstream of the dam walls. Seepage lines are identified by green vegetation growing above them. · Depressions in landscapes may also trap rainwater if the underground contains clayey soil or rocks. Such places are identified by their vegetation. · Sandy places: Seasonal water courses, such as dry riverbeds and laggas with sand are the most likely places to yield water because floodwater may be trapped in the sand and riverbanks for many months - or even years.

Trees that indicate the presence of water Figs are well-known for indicating the presence of water. Some acacias and palm species also fall into this category. Below are trees that indicate the presence of water. The list is not exhaustive. Botanical name Cyperus rotundus Vangueria tomentosa Delonix elata Grewia spp Markhamia lutea Hyphaene compressa Borassus aethiopum Ficus vasta Ficus natalensis Ficus sycomorus Kigelia africana Newtonia hildebrandtii Acacia elatior

Swahili name Muiru Mwangi Itiliku Muu Kikoko Mvumo Mombu Muumo Mkuyu Mvungunya Mganga Mgunga

Kamba name Kiindiu Kikomoa Muange Itiliku Chyoo Ilala Kyatha Mumbu Muumo Mukuyu Muatini Mukami Munina

Depth to water 3 to 7metres 5 to 10 metres 5 to 10 metres 7 to 10 metres 8 to 15 metres 9 to 15 metres 9 to 15 metres 9 to 15 metres 9 to 15 metres 9 to 15 metres 9 to 20 metres 9 to 20 metres to 20 metres

Other methods of looking for water Dowsing Gifted people can use dowsing to locate underground water sources and underground dykes.

To make dowsing rods, cut a 1-metre long brazing rod into two halves. Attach a 12cm long handle to each half.

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Dowsing rods held correctly

The two dowsing rods are held loosely, parallel, pointing downwards and swing freely (see diagram). The arms must be held tight against the sides of the body to ensure steady hands. When walking over water or galvanised iron water pipes, for some unknown reason, the dowsing rods will cross each other.

Here there is water.

Here there is no water.

Dowsing rods held wrongly

Do not hold the dowsing rods horizontally as only fraudsters do this in order to manipulate the rods with their thumbs. Probing Probing consists of hammering a long smooth iron rod of the type called R16 into the ground and pulling it up to see the depth of water, if any. Probing is most viable in sandy riverbeds but can also be used on farmland soil when it has been saturated by rainwater. For more information, see â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Water from Dry Riverbedsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in www.waterforaridland.com Geo-electrical resistivity or geo-physical sounding The electrical properties of rocks in the upper part of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust

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depend on the type of rock, its porosity, the degree of pore space saturation with water and the salinity of this pore water. The higher the porosity of the saturated rock, and the higher the salinity of this water, the lower the resistivity, and vice versa. The presence of clays and minerals reduces the resistivity of a rock. Thus, the resistivity can be studied by measuring the electric potential produced at the soil surface by applying an electric current that is passed through the soil. This is called vertical electrical sounding (VES), and the current is passed through the underground by an instrument connected with wires to two steel pegs that are hammered into the soil at some distance from the instrument. The resistance on the electric current can be read on a meter in the instrument by a trained person. Different sounding depths are obtained by stepwise moving the electrodes to greater distances, and in the end the results can be plotted in a graph where a curve depicts the different resistances of different layers of subsoil. A computer is used to plot this graph, and to obtain information on geological layering and the occurrence of ground water. However, this has to be interpreted by a hydro-geologist. Since this method requires a trained technician and an expensive instrument that can be hired from the local Ministry of Water office, it may be more expensive than most farmers can afford. And the method can fail, notably in drylands, and neither can it inform on the salinity of the groundwater. The writer is the Managing Director, ASAL Consultants Ltd. Email: nissenpetersenerik@gmail.com

A desert tree for all needs The date palm is food, medicine, provides construction materials, various tools and even furniture BY FRANCIS GACHATHI

he date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), also known as tamar or tamarah in Hebrew, is mentioned more than 40 times in the Bible, right from the very first book of Genesis all the way to Revelation. The numerous, frequent and wide-spread references to the date palm in the Holy Scriptures are a testimony to its significance in the lives of the ancient Israelites. In Biblical days, the Promised Land, the land flowing with milk and honey (Exodus 3:8), was dotted with dense groves of date palms providing excellent landmarks. “And the Lord showed Moses all the land … the Negeb (desert) and the Plain, that is, the valley of Jericho, the city of palm trees.” (Deuteronomy 34: 1-3). Naturally, the date palm - that is, the palm tree that produces dates - was found in desert oases. The specific epithet “dactylifera” is from Greek, meaning, “date-bearing”. Dates are delicious and very nutritious honey-sweet fruits with very high sugar content, which provided ready and much-needed energy to the Israelites in the desert during their flight from Egypt across the Sinai to the Promised Land. “Then they came to Elim, where there were twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees; and they encamped there by the water.” (Exodus 15:27). Date palms satisfied almost every need of the Israelites. The people ate the dates for food and used them as medication to restore health; they drank the juices straight for refreshment or fermented them into wine. The Israelites used the stem for construction; leaves were used to make temporary shelters, baskets, mats, brooms, beds, ropes, dishes, roofs, fences and various tools and items of furniture. Kernels were soaked in water and used to feed camels, sheep, goats and cows. Women made necklaces and bracelets from dried kernels. The coarse fibres were used for donkey saddles, while the unwanted parts of the palm provided fuel. The date palm was a source of everything the Israelites required and became central to their tradition and culture. It symbolised prosperity, fertility and victory. “The righteous flourish like the palm tree, and grow like cedar in Lebanon. They still bring forth fruit in old age.” (Psalms 92:12-14). The date palm’s structure was widely

A wild date palm (Phoenix reclinata), in Kiambu. It is a close relative of the cultivated date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

employed as a model for ornamentation in utensils and architecture. It was prominent in the decoration of King Solomon’s temple. Figures of palm trees were carved on the walls (1 Kings 6:29). “And on the doors of the nave were carved cherubim and palm trees, such as were carved on the walls.” (Ezekiel 41:25). The columns supporting the temples were modelled after the date palm, the tops of the columns made to look like the crown of the date palm tree.

Because of the graceful terminal crown of the date palm, it became symbolic of grace and elegance to the Jews, and the name of the tree, tamar, was often bestowed to a beautiful woman in allusion to the graceful upright carriage. It was quite a compliment to be named after the date palm! “And Judah took a wife for Er his first-born, and her name was Tamar.” (Genesis 38: 6). “Now Absalom, David’s son, had a beautiful sister,

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whose name was Tamar.” (2 Samuel 13:1). “There were born to Absalom three sons, and one daughter whose name was Tamar; she was a beautiful woman.” (2 Samuel 14:27). Even today Tamar, Tamara or Tamarah are popular as girls’ names among the Jewish people. In John 12:13, Jesus is welcomed to Jerusalem by a large crowd with branches of palm trees crying “Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord, even the King of Israel!” Christians have kept the tradition alive around the world as Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Easter, which commemorates Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem. Another Holy Land tradition retained by Christians is attending funerals while bearing palm fronds. The date palm has, for thousands of years, provided the dwellers of the hot dry deserts of the world with one of their most important foods. It is among the three palms with world-wide economic importance. The other two are the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera and the oil palm, Elaeis guineensis of West Africa, which is also indigenous to Kenya. Some the best date-growing countries are Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Israel, Egypt, Iraq, Iran and Saudi Arabia. The tree’s cultivation is restricted by its particular environmental requirements of high temperatures, low humidity, scant rain and a long, hot, completely dry period during flowering and fruit formation. It is said to do best in arid areas between 240 and 340 N. Iraq and Iran supply the bulk of the world demand for dates. The fruit is also cultivated in southern California and in Arizona State, whose capital city is Phoenix. In Kenya, date palms are grown in arid and semi-arid areas as well as the coastal region, both for ornamental and fruit production purposes. Date palms are found in Lamu, Garissa, Taveta, Isiolo, Wajir, Moyale, Turkwel River plains near Lodwar, Makindu and Kitui. The tree, known locally as mtende, is mostly propagated through suckers. The fruit is known as tende in Swahili. However, date palms rarely fruit well in Kenya and most of the dates sold in Kenya are imported. Like most palms, the date palm has an unbranched straight trunk up to 24 metres high, covered with old leaf bases and crowned with immense spreading leaves over 3 metres long, with sharply pointed leaflets. Numerous offshoots are produced at the base of the trunk. The date palm is dioecious, that is, there are separate male and female trees, although they look alike. The males produce pollen needed to fertilise female date palms flowers. One male

Miti April - June 2013

Below: Dates, the fruits of the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), and above, dates their seeds. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

tree can fertilise as many as 50 female trees but the pollen may not be ready at the best time for pollination. The date palm often requires artificial pollination to produce normally developed fruits. In addition to pollen production, male date palms are tapped and the sweet juice that exudes is drunk for refreshment. The female trees bear the fruits, called the dates, which appear in large, hanging bunches. They are about 5 x 2cm, bright yellow to reddishbrown; with one large seed that has a longitudinal furrow. The trees start bearing fruit when about six or seven years, attaining maturity at the age of 30, and will continue producing hundreds of kilograms of dates annually for over 100 years. The date palm is one of the greatest producers of

food per hectare. The tree is presumed to be native to northeastern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula and may have been cultivated for over 6,000 years especially in ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Its close relative, Phoenix reclinata, known as wild date palm, is found throughout tropical Africa and is indigenous to Kenya. Its local names include meti (Boran); oltukai (Maasai) and mkindu (Swahili). It has many uses similar to those of the date palm but the fruits are inferior. It is largely grown as ornamental. Its leaves are commonly used to make mats and baskets. The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: gachathif@yahoo.com

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