THE WORLD OF WINE

The World of Wine A history in a Glass

EDITED By

QIANWEN ZHANG

WORLD OF WINE GLOBALTHE WINE HISTORY QIANWEN ZHANG

Copyright Š 2014 ELD b.v.

All rights reserved. Published in the United States

by The Chronicle Books, a division of Random House, Inc, San Francisco.

Published simultaneously in the United State by Thames & Hudson Ltd., San Francisco.

The Chronicle Books Press and the M design are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc. Library of California College of the Arts Cataloging-in-Publication Data Qianwen Zhang.

I wonder / Qianwen Zhang.- 1st ed. p.cm Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 978-1-58093-296-7 (hardcover) Bantjes, Marian - Written works. I Title.

NC999.6.C2B36 2014 700.92 - dc22 2014014118 Printed in United States 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 First American Edition www.chroniclebooks.com

THE WORLD OF WINE

Contents Introduction

10

Chapter 1

Wine

18

Chapter 2

Different Types

of

Wine

32

Chapter 3

Different Types

of

Glasses

42

Part I WINE basics for

B eginners

Part II wine history Chapter 4

History

Chapter 5

California’s Wine H istory

69

Chapter 6

Wine

81

Chapter 7

Spacial Wine

in

of

Wine

China in

Asian

55

89

Bibliography

98

Index

100

INTRODUCTION

Introduction Wine Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented

so far discovered having occurred c. 6000 BC in Georgia.It had reached the Balkans by c. 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in the ancient Greece and Rome.

grapes or other fruits. The natural chemical balance

From its earliest appearance in written records,

of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of

wine has also played an important role in religion.

sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients.

Red wine was closely associated with blood by the

Yeast consumes the sugars in the grapes and converts

ancient Egyptians, who, according to Plutarch,

them into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Different

avoided its free consumption as late as the 7th-

varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce

century BC Saite dynasty, “thinking it to be the

different styles of wine.

blood of those who had once battled against the

The well-known variations result from the very

gods”. The Greek cult and mysteries of Dionysus,

complex interactions between the biochemical

carried on by the Romans in their Bacchanalia, were

development of the fruit, reactions involved in

the origins of western theater. Judaism incorporates

fermentation, terroir and subsequent appellation,

it in the Kiddush and Christianity in its Eucharist,

along with human intervention in the overall

while alcohol consumption was forbidden in Islam.

process. The final product may contain tens of

8

back thousands of years, with the earliest production

thousands of chemical compounds in amounts

History

varying from a few percent to a few parts per billion.

Archaeological evidence has established the earliest-

Wines made from produce besides grapes are

known production of wine from fermenting grapes

usually named after the product from which they

during the late Neolithic or early Chalcolithic in

are produced (for example, rice wine, pomegranate

the Caucasus and the northern edge of the Middle

wine, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are

East. An extensive gene-mapping project in 2006

generically called fruit wine. The term “wine” can

analyzed the heritage of more than 110 modern

also refer to starch-fermented or fortified beverages

grape cultivars, narrowing their origin to a region

having higher alcohol content, such as barley wine,

of Georgia.This matches the earliest discovered sites

huangjiu, or sake. Wine has a rich history dating

containing shards of wine-stained pottery, dated to

introduction

c. 6000 BC in Georgia, and c. 5000 BC in Iran.The

outward from a base of city-states along the

jars at the northwestern Iranian site already showed

Lebanese and Israeli coast. The wines of Byblos

treatment with preservative turpentine pine resin,

were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom

the flavoring of modern retsina.By c. 4500 BC, wine

and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence

production had spread to Grecian Macedonia, the

includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC

site of the first recovered crushed grapes, and an

discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine

entire winery was discovered in 2011 inside the

was still intact.As the first great traders in wine

Areni-1 cave in Armenia, dated to c. 4100 BC.

(cherem), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates the

from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by

were

a seal of pinewood and resin, again

mixed with rice to produce

similar to retsina. Literary references

mixed fermented beverages in

to wine are abundant in Homer (8th

China in the early years of the

century BC, but possibly relating

seventh millennium BC. Pottery

earlier compositions), Alkman (7th

jars from the Neolithic site of

century BC), and others. In ancient

Jiahu, Henan, contained traces

Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras

of tartaric acid and other organic

were found in the tomb of King

compounds commonly found

Tutankhamun bearing the name

possibility

that

grapes

in wine. However, other fruits

“Kha’y”, a royal chief vintner. Five

indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot

of these amphoras were designated as originating

be ruled out.If these beverages, which seem to be the

from the king’s personal estate, with the sixth from

precursors of rice wine, included grapes rather than

the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine

other fruits, they would have been any of the several

have also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in

dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than

modern-day China, dating from the second and the

Vitis vinifera, which was introduced there some

first millennia BC.

6,000 years later in history.

The first known mention of grape-based wines

The spread of wine culture westwards was

in India is from the late 4th-century BC writings

most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread

of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor

9

introduction

production or consumption of wine, during its Golden Age, alchemists such as Geber pioneered wine’s distillation for medicinal and industrial Chandragupta Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya

purposes such as the production of perfume.

condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling

The Turkish Uyghurs were even responsible for

the emperor and his court’s frequent indulgence

reïntroducing viticulture to China from the Tang

of a style of wine known as madhu. The ancient

dynasty onwards.

Romans planted vineyards near garrison towns so

Wine production and consumption increased,

wine could be produced locally rather than shipped

burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part

over long distances. Some of these areas are now

of European expansion. Despite the devastating

world renowned for wine production. The Romans

1887 phylloxera lice infestation, modern science and

discovered that burning sulfur candles inside

technology adapted and industrial wine production

empty wine vessels keeps them fresh and free from

and wine consumption now occur throughout the

a vinegar smell. In medieval Europe, the Roman

world. It was not until the Renaissance, writes Mr.

Catholic Church supported wine because the clergy

Lukacs (who, when not researching wine, is an

required it for the Mass. Monks in France made wine

English professor at Loyola University Maryland in

for years, aging it in caves.An old English recipe that

Baltimore), that familiar notions of discrimination

survived in various forms until the 19th century calls

came to be. Only then did wine connoisseurs, a

for refining white wine from bastard—bad or the

minute group to be sure, begin to associate particular

tainted bastardo wine.

styles and qualities in wine with specific places, an

The altered consciousness produced by wine has

early idea of terroir. And only then did astute wine

been considered religious since its origin. The Greeks

drinkers begin to perceive that some wines could

worshipped Dionysus and Bacchus and the Romans

be appreciated intellectually and emotionally rather

carried on his cult. Consumption of ritual wine was

than just physically, and that the best wines conveyed

part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as

a sense of balance, length and depth.

part of the eucharist commemorating Jesus’s Last Supper, became even more essential to the Christian Church. Although Islam nominally forbade the

10

29

I | Wine Basics

30

chapter

1

Wine

for

B eginners

This section is designed to help you kick-start your ongoing exploration of wine. Through these simple and smart guidelines, you’ll discover your own palate.

wine basics

foremost, you need to be methodical and focused.

Find your own approach and consistently follow

Getting Started with Wine Tasting

analyzed in this way, of course. But if you really want

Learning to taste wine is no different than learning to

to learn about wine, a certain amount of dedication

really appreciate music or art in that the pleasure you

is required. Whenever you have a glass of wine in

receive is proportionate to the effort you make. The

your hand, make it a habit to take some minutes

more you fine-tune your sensory abilities, the better

to stop all conversation, shut out all distraction

you’re able to understand and enjoy the nuances and

and focus your attention on the wine’s appearance,

details that great wines express. The time and effort

scents, flavors and finish.

invested in palate training is very rewarding—and a whole lot of fun.

How to Taste Wine

16

it. Not every single glass or bottle of wine must be

You can run through this mental checklist in a minute or less, and it will quickly help you to plot out the compass points of your palate. Of course, sipping a chilled rosé from a paper cup at a garden

The ability to sniff out and untangle the subtle

party doesn’t require the same effort as diving into a

threads that weave into complex wine aromas is

well-aged Bordeaux served from a Riedel Sommelier

essential for tasting. Try holding your nose while

Series glass. But those are the extreme ends of the

you swallow a mouthful of wine; you will find that

spectrum. Just about everything you are likely to

most of the flavor is muted. Your nose is the key to

encounter falls somewhere in between. You have

your palate. Once you learn how to give wine a good

probably heard from both friends and experts many

sniff, you’ll begin to develop the ability to isolate

times that any wine you like is a good wine. This is

flavors—to notice the way they unfold and interact

true if simply enjoying wine is your goal. You don’t

and, to some degree, assign language to describe

have to do more than take a sip, give it a swallow

them. This is exactly what wine professionals those

and let your inner geek decide “yes” or “no.” The

who make, sell, buy, and write about wine are able

end. It’s true that figuring out what you like is an

to do. For any wine enthusiast, it’s the pay-off for all

important component of wine tasting, but it’s not

the effort. While there is no one right or wrong way

the only component. Quickly passing judgment

to learn how to taste, some “rules” do apply. First and

about a wine is not the same as truly understanding

wine for beginners

and evaluating it. If you’re tasting properly, you

to the most important red wine grapes. Almost

will be able to identify the main flavor and scent

all the off-characters we will encounter in wine

components in every wine you try; you will know

can be classified as flaws when they appear in low

the basic characteristics for all of the most important

concentrations. When they are present in even lower

varietal grapes, and beyond that, for the blended

concentrations (usually not much higher than their

wines from the world’s best wine-producing regions.

threshold) some of them even add complexity to a

You will also be able to quickly point out specific

wine, and may be considered positive attributes.

flaws in bad wines.

Exploring Wine Regions

Finding Wine Flaws

Wine is made in virtually every country in the world.

Rest assured, there are some truly bad wines out

These countries are often referred to as “Old World”

there, and not all of them are inexpensive. Some

or “New World.” “Old World” consists of regions

flaws are the result of bad winemaking, while others

with long histories of wine production, such as

are caused by bad corks or poor storage. If you are

Europe and parts of the Mediterranean. Some of the

ordering a bottle of wine in a restaurant, you want

most well-known “Old World” wine regions include

to be certain that the wine you receive tastes the

France, Italy and Germany, and these regions focus

way it was intended to taste. You can’t always rely on

greatly on terroir—the unique characteristics of

servers in restaurants to notice and replace a wine

the soil and climate, which give their wine a sense

that is corked. You are ultimately the one who will

of place. “New World” (as the name suggestions)

be asked to approve the bottle. Being able to sniff out

is used to describe newer wine-producing regions,

common faults, such as a damp, musty smell from a

such as U.S., Australia and Chile. These regions tend

tainted cork called TCA, will certainly make it easier

to have hotter climates and generally use different

for you to send a wine back.

labeling methods; they tend to use grapes rather

A wine beginner might know the basic

than region on labels for recognition.

differences between a red and a white, it’s important to learn all the wine types and varietals. You can explore everything from Chardonnay to Viognier and Cabernet Sauvignon to Zinfandel in our guide

17

wine basics

Most Popular Regions and Grapes

18

wine for beginners

19

wine basics

label. Their placement may vary slightly but if you know what you’re looking for, they’ll be easier to

Reading a Wine Label

obvious or in small text at the top or the bottom of

At first glance, a wine label can be confusing to

the label (such as many French wine label examples).

those just getting started. Luckily, New World wine

This is who made the wine. It’s important to note that

producers have made it easier on wine beginners by

some American wine labels that only have a Wine

listing the grape(s) directly on the label. Old World

Name (such as Apothic Red) are branded wines from

regions have typically relied on the wine consumer

larger wine companies. Apothic Red is a branded

to be familiar enough with the region to know, for

wine by E&J Gallo–the producer.

example, that Red Burgundy is Pinot Noir.

20

spot. Producer or Name The producer name is either

Region The region indicates from where the

Old World Wines might read like this: Chateau

grapes were sourced to produce the wine. A wine

Moulin de Grenet 2009 Lussac St. Emilion New

from a larger (read: more vague) region is typically a

World wines might read like this: Cakebread 2006

value wine whereas a wine from a specific vineyard

Merlot, Napa Valley. The French wine lists “Saint-

site often indicates a higher quality regional

Emilion,” assuming the consumer realizes that

designation (i.e. “California” vs. “Santa Rita Hills”

wines from Saint-Emilion are mostly Merlot. The

AVA). If a wine is from a specific vineyard site, that

wine from Napa, California, on the other hand, lists

site will be indicated in quotations (i.e. “Les Suchots”)

both the region and the grape variety. As you study

or located right below the region designation (ie

more about wine, you’ll become more and more

Vosne Romanee Les Suchots). Generally, as you

accustomed to all the wine varietals and the Old

narrow the source to a specific site, the quality level

World regions that produce them.

becomes more refined and the price increases.

Old World wine producers are slowly realizing

Variety or Appellation The variety refers to

that in order to compete on the global market, they

what grape or grapes are used in making the wine

need to make it easy on the consumer. But as much

Merlot for example, or CMS Blend (Cab, Merlot,

as times may change, a deep understanding of how

Syrah). Many blends will not reveal the constituent

to read a wine label will always be a useful skill.

grapes nor the percentage that each makes of the

There are a few important components of a wine

whole. If there is no varietal given.

wine for beginners

Buying Wine

wine, it’s time to drink it! For starters, make sure

We live in an age in which sourcing wine has never

that your wine is being served at its absolute best. To

been easier. Looking for a wine from Crete? The

do that, pay attention to these three tenets of wine

wine shop in your town will likely carry it, and if not,

service: Glassware, temperature and preservation.

you can easily find a wine retailer online. It’s in the hands of the consumer to shop for the best deal or

Glassware Each wine has something unique to

for the most elusive, rare bottle, which can often be

offer your senses. Most wine glasses are specifically

shipped to your doorstep.

shaped to accentuate those defining characteristics,

Savvy shoppers will stay on top of ever changing

directing wine to key areas of the tongue and nose,

wine shipping laws based on interstate policies.

where they can be fully enjoyed. While wine can be

Some states cannot have wine shipped to them,

savored in any glass, a glass designed for a specific

while others have more relaxed laws. Before you

wine type helps you to better experience its nuances.

can start investing in a full collection, you’ll need to

Outfit your house with a nice set of stems you will

discover your palate by embracing opportunities to

reap the rewards.

taste and determine what you like. When dining out with friends or at a party, be open minded! A rich

Temperature All wine is stored at the same

Cabernet Sauvignon might woo you initially, but you

temperature, regardless of its color. But reds and

may also take a liking to exotic Rieslings depending

whites are consumed at quite different temperatures.

on your mood. There is no better way to discover

Too often people drink white wines too cold and red

wine than by tasting everything. We have plenty of

wines too warm, limiting how much you can enjoy

tools that will help: Best Buy Cheat Sheet, Making

the wine. A white that’s too cold will be flavorless and

the Purchase and Bargain-Friendly Bordeaux will all

a red that’s too warm is often flabby and alcoholic.

help guide you on your path to wine bliss.

Here is a key to ideal wine service temperatures: While this is a helpful guide, not everyone has

Wine Serving Tips

a thermometer on hand. A good rule of thumb is

Now that you have taken the time to learn how to

to note that white wines should be chilled before

taste wine, the regions and grapes of the world,

drinking and red wines should be have time to

reading a wine label and the essentials for buying

rise in temperature. Ideally, whites should be

21

wine basics

between refrigerator temperature (40°F) and storage temperature (55°F) and reds should be somewhere between storage temperature and room temperature, which is often as high as 70°F. If your wine is in a temperature-controlled unit, at 53-57°F, pop your bottles of white wine into the refrigerator half an hour prior to service and take your reds out of storage half an hour prior to service. This allows time for your whites to chill and your reds to warm up. If you have yet to invest in a wine storage refrigerator and your wines are kept at room temperature or in the refrigerator, you’ll do the opposite. Put your reds in the refrigerator for half an hour and take your whites out of the refrigerator for half an hour. Dessert wines, sparkling wines and rosés are best enjoyed at a cooler temperature than whites. Refrigerator temperature will do the trick.

Preservation When you have leftover wine in the bottle, preservation is key. As wine comes into contact with air, it quickly spoils. To slow down the deterioration process, use a quick vacuum pump to suck out the excess air. The less air in the bottle, the longer the wine’s lifespan.

22

wine for beginners

Wine Insurance

A wine collection insured at $250,000 would cost roughly $1,250 a year to insure. Policies generally don’t have a deductible, says Foley. It’s a small price to pay to protect those precious bottles.

Due to its organic nature, wine can deteriorate and turn sour. And if a bottle shatters on the floor,

Tips for Insuring Your Wine

hundreds or thousands of dollars could be reduced

Ring Your Agent “The first step (to insuring your

to a puddle. A standard homeowners insurance

wine) is to talk with your insurance agent and learn

policy doesn’t completely protect the investment of

about the different types of coverage available,” says

a wine collection. “It may offer coverage for theft,

Foley. If your agent doesn’t offer wine insurance,

fire or if wine bottles break, depending on the cause

seek out an independent agent with expertise in

of the breakage, but a home policy does not cover

wine-collection.

a loss caused by extreme temperatures, dampness

Ask Detailed Questions The number one mistake

and dryness or losses that are the result of a power

made when purchasing wine insurance is not

outage,” says Jennifer Foley, account manager at

asking about the extent of the coverage. “If you have

Assurance Agency, an insurance brokerage group

several thousand dollars of wine in storage, you want

in Chicago.Wondering if your wine is adequately

to make sure your policy provides coverage on a

insured? The answer depends on how much financial

worldwide basis, including warehouses and storage

risk you’re willing to take.

facilities as well as wine in your home,” says Ray

If you have $3,000–$5,000 in wine, but only want to be on the hook for up to $1,000 should your

Condon, president of Aon Risk Solutions, a private risk-management practice.

collection be harmed, you need specific coverage.

Condon also suggests asking if wine in transit

Wine in “high-risk zones” like an earthquake or

is covered to protect future bottles you may have

flood area, an area prone to extreme temperatures

shipped to you and if there is label-damage or bottle

or bottles stored in warehouses or other storage

breakage coverage. “Think of the entire bottle, not

facilities should also be insured. Coverage is

just the contents,” he says. This is very nice skill to

relatively affordable. While rates vary by insurer, on

insuring your wine and save it.

average you’ll spend 50 cents per $100 of coverage.

23

wine basics

tion, keep in mind that your insurance will need to be adjusted accordingly. Periodic reviews are To know how much coverage is necessary, you need

essential. “The exact timing of the review depends

to know what your wine collection is worth. Get

on the amount of activity in your collection, but let

a wine-appraisal specialist to get you an estimate

your agent know whenever there’s been a significant

before selecting a policy plan.

change in the value of your collection,” says Foley.

An accurate inventory with an up-to-date value

Wine is big business. Your wine collection is

helps you and your agent understand your insurance

growing and probably so is its value. But wine’s

needs and helps you manage your collection in the

value can only increase if it’s protected and properly

event that bottles get damaged. “People often learn

stored. Something as seemingly harmless as storing

that they were un- or underinsured the hard way,

bottles in a certain position can completely destroy

after their wine has been destroyed by a fire, flood,

the wine’s taste and investment value. Because wine

theft, breakage, etc.” says Condon.

is so delicate, it pays to listen to the experts on how to care for a wine collection.

Evaluate your storage space You may require

Whether your collection includes DRC Ro-

additional coverage to insure the storage area. Talk

manée-Conti, ChâteauLafite-Rothschilds or bottles

to your agent about the specialized environmental

from your favorite wine club, here are some vital

control system you installed, or other elements

wine care tips from Don Soss, private wealth execu-

you’ve added to your home to protect and store your

tive at Fireman’s Fund Insurance Company.

wine. Foley says that a homeowner insurance policy may need to be reviewed and revised to properly cover these investments.

Shop around Before you sign on a policy’s dotted line, Condon suggests shopping around to make sure you’re getting the best coverage for the best price. Get three quotes before deciding. When you buy, sell, trade or drink a bottle from your collec-

24

wine for beginners

The Guide to Wine for Beginners Wine is more than just a drink; it’s a lifestyle, a survey into history, a gastronomic adventure, a study in farming and a way to explore different cultures.

But with so many different angles to approach wine, how do you get started?

Fortunately, there are only a few basic techniques to learn as well as some common wine knowledge.

With a little practice you will be over the hump of being a rudimentary wine ‘dabbler’ to becoming an upstanding wino, capable of ordering wine like a pro.

The wine for beginners infographic has the answers to your questions. Learn what the different for the wine styles, wine glasses and tips on tasting like a wine connoisseur.

25

wine basics

Sauvignon and Merlot are nearly always bottled in a masculine high-shoulder bottle. These facts can help

Wine Styles With over 1300 types of wine out there it’s better to

is not listed.

start with just the basics. Discover the most popular

Calories in Wine

high quality wine varieties – from Albariño to

Even though alcoholic beverages aren’t required to

Zinfandel. In the Wine for Beginners Chart , you’ll

list calories, that doesn’t mean they are calorie-free!

find them arranged by color.

Learn the calories of wine by style including com-

Wine Glasses Which glass do you use for Pinot Noir, Cabernet

mon wines like Pinot Gris, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon and Moscato.

Sauvignon and Chardonnay? You can discover every

Wine and Food Pairing

type of wine glass out there or just start off with a

We’ve illustrated wine and food pairings before, but

basic set.

the method above will inspire wine pairing with

Secrets to Reading Wine Labels On US wine labels ‘Reserve’ doesn’t officially mean anything, but there are a few tips you can learn. For instance, the alcohol level says a lot about the style of wine and the vintage tells you a lot about the quality.

Common Bottle Shapes It doesn’t matter what type of bottle you use (unless it’s for sparkling), however there are some standards in the business. Did you know that Pinot Noir, Syrah and Grenache are almost always bottled in a more feminine style low-shoulder bottle? Also, Cabernet

26

you identify what’s inside the bottle when the variety

common dishes you might enjoy at home.

chapter

2

Different Types

of

Wine

Do you know all of the different types of wine? This infographic organizes almost 200 types of wine by taste and style. Take advantage of this chart as a great way to discover new types of wine.

wine basics

Types of Wine

dessert wine, but many dry-style fortified wines exist such as dry Sherry.

Five Main Styles of Wine

Level of Sweetness

All wines can be organized into five fundamental

Within the five main styles of wine are different

groups. Within each group there are hundreds

levels of sweetness. This is a winemaking style as

of different grape varieties and also the different

most wines can be produced from Dry to Sweet.

between winemaking styles.

Dry A dry wine is produced when all of the grape Red Wine Still wine made with black grapes. These

sugars are fermented into alcohol. Some dry wines

can range from light to dark and bone-dry to sweet.

may have a touch of RS to add body but not sweetness.

White Wine A still wine produced from green and

Sweet A sweet wine leaves a lot of the sugars in a

sometimes black grapes. Flavors span from rich and

wine unfermented. Sweet wines are typically lower

creamy to light and zesty.

alcohol if they are not fortified. (ex Moscato d’Asti 5.5% ABV)

Rosé Wine Still wine from black grapes produced by removing the skins before they deeply color the

Learning Wine by Flavor

wine. Also formed by blending red and white wine

There are thousands of different varietals, regions

together. Both dry and sweet styles of rosé are very

and types of wine. Because of the diversity it’s easier

common type of wine.

to start classifying wine by the way it tastes. Wine sommeliers identify wines through primary fruit

Sparkling Wine A style of winemaking involving

flavors. You can too! Learn how to taste wine like

a secondary fermetation causing bubbles. Sparkling

a pro to identify the basic characteristics of wine.

wine can be red, white or rosé .

These two techniques will build your wine memory.

Once your tasting conditions are as close to neutral

Fortified Wine A style of winemaking involving fortifying wine with spirits. This wine is Typically a

30

as possible, your next step is to examine the wine.

different types of wine

How The Infographic Works Wines are separated by style, primary flavor and sometimes even an additional grouping of High Tannin, Round or Spicy. Here are definitions of all these terms: High Tannin Wines with high tannin feel like they dry out your mouth. The sensation is similar to licking a popsicle stick or putting a wet tea bag in your mouth.

Round Round wines tend to have less tannin and balanced acidity on the finish. People often describe the sensation as ‘Smooth’ or ‘Lush’ when using the wine descriptions.

Spicy Spicy wines tend to have higher acidity or higher alcohol. Imagine the tartness of cranberry juice versus the smoothness of peach juice. Some other grapes can be expected to carry herbal or grassy scents. Sauvignon blanc is often strongly grassy, while cabernet sauvignon can be scented with herbs and hints of vegetation. Rhône reds often show delightful scents of Provençal herbs. Most people prefer that any herbal aromas are delicate.

31

wine basics

White Wine Chardonnay

Pinot Gris is made from grapes that generally produce different styles of wine depending on where the grapes are grown and how they’re handled in the

Chardonnay is a very versatile wine grape: its flavor

cellar. In the Alsace region of France, and in places

and aromas are easily influenced by where it’s grown

like Oregon and New Zealand, Pinot Gris typically

and how it’s made. Fruit flavors range from apple

makes rich wines marked by a bit of spice. The

and lime in cooler climates to tropical fruits in

Italian style (Pinot Grigio) tends to be fresh, crisp

warmer places. When barreled in oak, it takes on a

and refreshing. Sample either style with seafood and

richness characterized by honey and butter flavors.

pasta dishes, vegetarian food and poultry.

When barreled in stainless steel, it often retains more mineral flavors and comes across as fresher

Sauvignon Blanc

on the palate. Chardonnay excels in Burgundy,

Sauvignon Blanc is a fresh, crisp, aromatic wine

France. Cool coastal areas of California also produce

with grapefruit and grassy flavors. This wine is the

excellent Chardonnay. Chardonnay is a favorite with

star of the Loire region of France. It also shines in

seafood. Minerally versions, like those from Chablis,

the Bordeaux region, where it is often blended with

France, pair particularly well with oysters.

the Semillon. In the New World, New Zealand has

Riesling Riesling is a crisp, clean wine with green apple, pear

emerged as a prime spot for Sauvignon Blanc. Sauvignon Blanc is a food-friendly wine that goes well with many seafood, poultry and vegetable dishes.

and lime flavors. The best offer pleasing mineral

Stay tuned for more articles about wine and

qualities as well. With age, Riesling takes on honey

food, including regional food and wine pairings

flavors and attractive oily aromas. Riesling grows

from around the world.

well in Germany, the Alsace region of France, the Finger Lakes region of New York, and parts of Australia and Washington State.

36

Pinot Gris

different types of wine

Red Wine

Pinot Noir a notoriously difficult grape to grow, made its mark initially in Burgundy, France. The grape continues to

Merlot

deliver single-varietal wines that are among the best in the world. Pinot Noirs are delicate wines that taste

Merlot is a soft, supple wine with nice fruit flavors

of red fruits like cherries, raspberries and strawber-

of plums and blackberries and occasionally mint,

ries. With age, flavors and aromas become more

chocolate and eucalyptus flavors and aromas.

complex, developing earthy notes like mushrooms

Typically, it is ready to drink earlier than Cabernet

and decaying leaves. Burgundy in particular is not-

Sauvignon, which sometimes needs a few years for

ed for developing these earthy flavors. In the New

its astringent tannins to mellow. Outside of Europe,

World, tasty Pinot Noir is being made in Oregon,

New World Merlot shines in places like California,

New Zealand, and some of the cooler appellations of

Chile and Washington State.

California. Pinot Noir is a versatile food wine, great

Cabernet Sauvignon

with poultry, salmon, meat and vegetable dishes.

Cabernet Sauvignon is more assertive than Merlot,

Shiraz

with more tannin and greater aging potential. It can

Shiraz Australian versions are typically big, bold and

have flavors of blackberries, plums, black currants,

spicy with jammy fruit and aromas of leather and

and cassis. Aged in oak, Cabernet Sauvignon can

black fruit. Syrah is at home in the Rhone region of

take on flavors of vanilla, cedar, chocolate, and

France, where the grape makes spicy, rich, darkly

coffee. Beyond Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon does

delicious wines that increase in complexity as they

well in Napa, California, where it produces smooth,

age. Syrah also makes delicious wines in Australia,

ripe wines. Washington State, Chile and Australia

where it is marketed as Shiraz. Syrah also excels

are also making excellent Cabernet. Merlot and

in Washington State, where it often displays an

Cabernet Sauvignon are very nice with meat dishes

attractive acid balance, and in California, where the

like beef and lamb.

styles vary significantly. Syrah is a very versatile wine that pairs well with a wide variety of foods. It’s terrific with grilled meats.

37

wine basics

Other Reds

Sparkling Wine Sparkling wine adds a hint of luxury to every good wine, through a fizzy/bubbly the texture.

Sangiovese Sangiovese is the wine grape that makes Chianti, a tremendous food wine with flavors

Champagne The most luxurious drink of all

and aromas of cherries and rose petals.

is Champagne, a well-known produce of France.

Champagne is savored in moments of celebration.

Nebbiolo Nebbiolo is the grape variety that makes Barolo and Barbaresco, the noble (and pricey) red

Cava The Spanish have their delicious version of

wines of the Piedmont region of Italy. With age,

Sparkling wine, known as Cava, mostly coming as

flavor notes of plums and cherries are enhanced by

Brut and Semi-Sec, and as white and rosé.

flavors of smoke, tar and roses.

Malbec Malbec is a star in Argentina, where it produces inky wines with an attractive smoke and leather quality. It also stands out in Cahors in southern France.

Tempranillo Tempranillo is a famous grape of Spain, where it is used in wines of the Rioja and Ribera del Duero regions.

Gamay Gamay makes the fresh and fruity, raspberry flavored wines of the Beaujolais region of the burgundy.

Zinfandel Zinfandel has found its home in California, it produces big, fruity, often spicy red wines.

38

different types of wine

Fortified Wine

with alcohol to ensure that it would last on long ocean voyages, but now it is made that way because of its popularity in foreign markets.

Fortified wine is a wine that has been blended with a liquor. The liquor most often used for this Brandy

Vermouth Vermouth or US

which is essentially just distilled wine. This gives

fortified wine flavored with various botanicals. The

fortified wines a distinct flavor and a higher alcohol

modern versions of the beverage were first produced

content than normal wine – usually at least %15.

in the mid to late 18th century in Turin, Italy.

Port Port wine is a Portuguese fortified wine

Bum Wine Flavored fortified wines are inexpensive

produced exclusively in the Douro Valley in northern

fortified wines that typically have an alcohol content

provinces of Portugal.

between 13% and 20% alcohol by volume.

is an aromatized

Sherry Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes that are grown near the town of Jerez de la Frontera in Andalusia, Spain. Sherry is produced in a variety of dry styles made primarily from the Palomino grape, ranging from light versions similar to white table wines.

Madiera Madeira is produced in a variety of styles ranging from dry wines which can be consumed on their own as an aperitif, to sweet wines more usually consumed with dessert.

Marsala Marsala, the wine produced for export is universally a fortified wine similar to Port, Madeira and Sherry. Originally, Marsala wine was fortified

39

wine basics

Dessert Wine

foot. Botrytis cinerea can occur on fruits, vegetables and flowers –imagine a moldy strawberry. However with wine, it’s considered a good thing. Wines such

These are sweet wines and as the name suggests, they

as Sauternes from Bordeaux; Tokaji Aszu from

are generally served with dessert. A rule of thumb

Hungary, and Spätlese level German Riesling all are

for choosing a wine is that it must be sweeter than

made from ‘Noble Rot’ grapes.

the dessert being eaten.

Ice Wine

Winemakers have struggled long and hard to battle mold in their vineyards and cellars. There is Powdery Mildew, a mold that affects vineyards.

Ice wine (or icewine; German Eiswein) is a type of

Cork Taint is caused by airborne funghi that come in

dessert wine produced from grapes that have been

contact with chlorophenol compounds. And finally

frozen while still on the vine. The sugars and other

Black Mold, a relatively harmless but ugly funghi

dissolved solids do not freeze, but the water does,

that inhabits dank cellars throughout Europe. Noble

allowing a more concentrated grape must to be

rot tends to happen in the portions.

pressed from the frozen grapes, resulting in a smaller amount of more concentrated, very sweet wine.

Raisin Wine Grapes for ice wine, still frozen on the vine

Straw wine, or raisin wine, is a wine made from grapes that have been dried to concentrate their juice. The result is similar to that of the ice wine process, but suitable for warmer climates.

Noble Rot Wine ‘Noble Rot’ (aka Botrytis cinerea) is a type of Ascomycota within the Funghi kingdom. Other ascomycetes include the antibiotic penicillin, Stilton blue cheese and the fungus responsible for athelete’s

40

‘Noble Rot’ on some Oraniensteiner grapes in British Columbia at Stoneboat

wine for beginners

41

chapter

3

Different Types

of

Glasses

Today, flat glass comes in many highly specialised forms intended for different products and the applications. Flat glass produced by way of the float process is often further processed (see next) to give it certain qualities or specificities.

wine basics

Types of Wine Glasses

bowls of wine glasses are also designed to allow an amount of surface area appropriate to the wine - red wine glasses will have a larger amount of surface area

Whether sweet or dry, white or red, robust or light,

for the wine to allow it to breathe, while white wine

wine requires very specific serving procedures in

glasses will have a smaller amount of surface area.

order to reach its full flavor potential. In addition

Champagne glasses will have a very small amount

to proper serving temperatures, each type of

of surface area for the wine so that it retains its

wine requires a specific style of glass for service.

carbonation.

Understanding the different types of wine glasses and what makes them ideal for one type of wine over

The Rim Imperative to achieving the full experi-

another is essential to getting the most out of your

ence from your wines. The thinner the rim, the less

wine history collection.

the glass distracts from the wine as you sip; a good

Parts of a Wine Glass The Foot Allows your glass to stand upright.

wine glass will have a “cut” rim that is smooth to the touch and does not inhibit the wine as it flows out of the glass. Less expensive glassware may have rims that are rolled or bumpy – while still functional, and

The Stem Allows you to hold your wine glass

very much practical for everyday use, these wine

without the heat from your hands warming your

glasses may distract from the wine itself.

wine, and without creating smudges on the bowl which will distract from the visual enjoyment of

The Color The best wine glasses are crystal clear to

your wine.

allow the beauty and subtleties of the wine to show through. Colored glasses and those with decorative

The Bowl Serves a myriad of purposes; here you’ll

accents may offer a beautiful appearance, however, if

find the most variation between glasses. The bowls

showing off your wines, clear glasses are the way to

of all wine glasses will be tapered upward with a

go. This color is a representation of the average color.

slightly narrower opening at the top than at the

of bordeaux wine.

bottom. This shape helps to capture and distribute the wine’s aroma toward your mouth and nose. The

44

different type for glasses

Crystal vs. Glass: How to Choose Wine glasses are typically made out of glass or crystal – but what’s the difference? All crystal is glass, but not all glass is crystal. In general, it is the lead content of glass that is the main determinant in the classification of something as either glass or crystal.

The presence of lead softens the glass in crystal, therefore making it more easily cut and engraved. It also increases the weight of the glass and causes the glass to diffract light; traditional glass on the other hand is generally lighter in weight than crystal, and light will not diffract through it.

In traditional lead glassware, the lead has a tendency to leach out of the crystal. To combat this, today’s crystal glassware is typically unleaded.

Unleaded crystal uses barium carbonate and zinc and titanium oxides to replace the traditional lead oxide that’s often found in crystal glassware. These glasses feature similar properties as lead crystal, such as temperature control and the ability to accentuate the aroma and flavors of wine. They also feature a similar refractive index to lead crystal, but are lighter in weight.Although the highest quality crystal glasses are thought to provide a better wine tasting experience, the high cost of these glasses often prevents many from purchasing them. They are also very fragile, so you will experience a higher replacement cost than with thicker plain glass.

45

wine basics

Red Wine Red wines are made from “black� (red-colored) grapes fermented with the skin included. The skin is what imparts the red color to the wine. Red wines typically have a more robust flavor, and pair well with food that is similarly robust, such as red meats (beef, lamb), hearty pasta dishes, etc. They are usually drunk at or just below room temperature.

Red Wine Glasses Red wines are best served in large wine glasses, like these red wine glasses. The bowls of these glasses will be fuller and rounder with a larger opening than other wine glasses of similar capacities in order to allow you to dip your nose into the glass to detect aroma. This bowl style is also imperative because the complex aromas and flavors of red wine demand a glass with a larger surface area to ensure that the wine comes in contact with more air.A specific type of red wine glass, the Bordeaux glass, is taller than traditional red wine glasses, yet the bowl is not quite as large. It is designed for full bodied, heavier red wines such as Cabernets and Merlots.

46

different type for glasses

White Wine

Anchor Hocking Stolzle 377-00-02 Revolution Classic 13 oz. White Wine Glass – 6 / Box. White wines are from either “black” (red-colored) or “white” (green-colored) grapes, fermented without the skin, and are often combined with citrus and spicy flavors. White wines are usually drunk cold, with lighter foods such as poultry and fish.

White Wine Glasses A white wine glass’ bowl will be more U shaped and upright than that of a red wine glass, allowing the aromas to be released while also maintaining a cooler temperature. The white wine glass style that’s best for younger whites has a slightly larger opening directing the wine to the tip and sides of the tongue to taste its sweetness. The glass for more mature white wines will be straighter and taller to dispense the wine to the back and sides of the tongue to taste this white wine bolder flavors.

47

wine basics

Sparkling Wine

Sparkling wine, or champagne, adds a hint of luxury, through a fizzy/bubbly texture. The “sparkles� in sparkling wine are bubbles of carbon dioxide, which is a natural byproduct of fermentation process.

Sparkling Wine Glasses A sparkling wine glass (or champagne flute) will be upright and narrower than most wine glasses to retain the carbonation and capture the flavor in the beverage of the wine.

48

different type for glasses

Rose Wine

Rose wines are pink or blush-colored. The pink color comes from the fact that the grape skin is included for just the first few hours of the fermentation process, or sometimes due to the wine being a mixture of red and white wines. Most rose wines are medium-sweet, especially in the US, but some of the best European roses can be very dry.

Rose Wine Glasses Two types of wine glasses are widely accepted for use with rose wines – stemmed glasses with a short bowl and a slight taper, and those with a short bowl and a slightly flared lip. Since these wines are fairly similar in fermentation process as white wines,there are the use of a white wine glass is also considered acceptable for these types of wine if a rose wine glass is not available.

49

wine basics

Dessert Wine

Dessert wines are sweet wines and as the name suggests, they are generally served with dessert.

Since there are many dessert wine types, a rule of thumb for choosing a wine is that it must be sweeter than the dessert being eaten.

Dessert Wine Glasses Dessert wine glass is also known called as aperitif glass. The dessert wine glasses are used to enjoy the rich bouquet and sweet flavor of the dessert wines.

Dessert wine glasses are designed with special rim that isdessert wine glass angle at 14 degrees. This makes the glass suitable to drink the wine easily and also to experience the wine aroma.

The standard size of the glass is 120 ml this is done to make the wine to dispense to the back and also to prevent the overwhelming of the wine sweetness to the drinkers. The dessert wine glass is made smaller to wine directly to the back of the mouth.

50

different type for glasses

Fortified Wines

Fortified wine is a wine that has been blended with a liquor. The liquor most often used for this is Brandy which is essentially just distilled wine. This gives fortified wines a distinct flavor and a higher alcohol content than normal wine – at least 15% ABV.

Fortified Wine Glasses A fortified wine glass should be smaller to direct the wine to the back of the mouth so the sweetness doesn’t overwhelm. Dessert wines generally have a higher alcohol content, making small dessert wine glasses perfect for a smaller serving. The same rule of thumb applies to sherry and cordial glasses.

51

wine basics

Specialty Wine Glasses

All Purpose Wine Glasses If a single glass type is all that your circumstances permit, an all purpose wine glass is the way to go.

Although the experience may not be the same as when you use the proper glass type for the application, these glasses offer a similar function at a lower cost and increased efficiency. The bowl shape is in between that of red and white wine glasses, making it acceptable for use with both types of wine.

52

different type for glasses

Stemless Wine Glasses Offering the same shapes and styles of bowls as traditional stemmed wine glassware, stemless wine glasses deliver function with modern style and a limited risk of breakage. Wines may be warmed faster than with stemmed glasses, but the stemless design of these pieces exudes a contemporary appearance that’s all the rage and definitely worth the risk. Additionally, since the delicate stems are no longer present in these glasses, less care ought to be required to maintain them.

Stemless wine glasses are a required vessel in all wine lover’s cabinets. When refinement is less important than simplicity, a stemless wine glass is a great solution. If you’re hosting a party with a lot of guests, stemless wine glasses can go directly in the dishwasher without the worry of stem breakage.

53

29

II | Wine History

30

chapter

4

History

of

Wine

Today wine-making is a global industry, with most of the countries of the world producing wine. Machines that can harvest huge areas by day or night have increased production, and modern viticultural science has ensured that the resulting product meets uniform standards, though sometimes at the expense of quality and flavor.

wine history

History of wine

production or consumption of wine, during its Golden Age, alchemists such as Geber pioneered wine’s distillation for medicinal and industrial

The history of wine spans thousands of years and is

purposes such as the production of perfume.

closely intertwined with the history of agriculture

The Turkish Uyghurs were even responsible for

and Western civilization. The first evidence of its

reĂŻntroducing viticulture to China from the Tang

cultivation is in China circa 7000 bce, then more

dynasty onwards.

widespread evidence is found soon thereafter in the

Wine production and consumption increased,

Near East, the grapevine and the alcoholic beverage

burgeoning from the 15th century onwards as part

produced from fermenting its juice were important to

of European expansion. Despite the devastating

Mesopotamia, Israel, and Egypt and essential aspects

1887 phylloxera lice infestation, modern science and

of Phoenician, Greek, and Roman civilization. Many

technology adapted and industrial wine production

of the major wine-producing regions of Western

and wine consumption now occur throughout all

Europe and the Mediterranean were first established

over the world. Archeological evidence suggests

during antiquity as great plantations. Winemaking

that grape cultivation and wine making began in

technology improved considerably during the time

Mesopotamia and areas surrounding the Caspian

of the Roman Empire: many grape varieties and

Sea sometime between 6000 and 4000 BCE. The

cultivation techniques were known; the design of the

drink was savored by royalty and priests, while

wine press advanced; and barrels were developed for

commoners drank beer, mead, and ale. The ancient

storing and shipping wine.

Egyptians, the first culture known to document the

The altered consciousness produced by wine has

process of wine making, preserved descriptions of

been considered religious since its origin. The Greeks

harvesting grapes and drinking wine on clay tablets,

worshipped Dionysus and Bacchus and the Romans

which have been discovered within the burial

carried on his cult. Consumption of ritual wine was

chambers of the social elite. Many Wine made its

part of Jewish practice since Biblical times and, as

way to Greece, where it permeated all aspects of

part of the eucharist commemorating Jesus’s Last

society: literature, mythology, medicine, leisure, and

Supper, became even more essential to the Christian

the religion.

Church. Although Islam nominally forbade the

58

Wine for Beginners

59

wine history

Prehistory of wine

to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines. Commenting on

The origins of wine predate written records, and

the importance of the find, McGovern said, “The fact

modern archaeology is still uncertain about the

that winemaking was already so well developed in

details of the first cultivation of wild grapevines.

4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes

Wild grapes grow in Georgia, the northern Levant,

back much earlier.”

coastal and southeastern Turkey, northern Iran, and

Domesticated grapes were abundant in the

Armenia. The fermenting of strains of this wild Vitis

Near East from the beginning of the early Bronze

vinifera subsp. sylvestris would have become easier

Age, starting in 3200 BC. There is also increasingly

following the development of pottery during the

abundant evidence for winemaking in Sumer and

later Neolithic, c. 11,000 BC. However, this history

Egypt in the 3rd millennium BC.

of the earliest evidence so far discovered dates from millennia afterwards.

60

Legends of Discovery

Patrick McGovern argued that the domestication

There are many etiological myths told about the first

of the wine grape and winemaking may have

cultivation of the grapevine and fermentation of

originated in what is now Georgia in the Caucasus and

wine. The Biblical Book of Genesis first mentions the

spread south from there.The earliest archaeological

production of wine following the Great Flood, when

evidence of wine production yet found has been at

Noah drunkenly exposes himself to his sons. The

sites in Georgia (c. 6000 BC)and Iran (c. 5000 BC).

resulting Curse of Ham was originally intended as a

The Iranian jars contained a form of retsina, using

justification for the Hebrew conquest of Canaan but

turpentine pine resin to more effectively seal and

was later adapted to explain black skin and African

preserve the wine. Production spread to other sites

slavery. Greek mythology placed the childhood

in Greater Iran and Grecian Macedonia by 4500 BC.

of Dionysus and his discovery of viticulture at

The Greek site is notable for the recovery at the site

the fictional and variably located Mount Nysa

of the remnants of crushed grapes.

but had him teach the practice to the peoples of

The oldest-known winery was discovered in the

central Anatolia. Because of this, he was rewarded

“Areni-1” cave in Vayots Dzor, Armenia. Dated

to become a god of wine. In Persian legend, King

wine history

distinct wines, probably all produced in the Delta, constituted a canonical set of provisions for the afterlife. Wine in ancient Egypt was predominantly Jamshid banished a lady of his harem, causing her

red. Due to its resemblance to blood, much

to become despondent and contemplate suicide.

superstition surrounded wine-drinking in Egyptian

Going to the king’s warehouse, the woman sought

culture. Shedeh, the most precious drink in ancient

out a jar marked “poison” containing the remnants

Egypt, is now known to have been a red wine and not

of the grapes that had spoiled and were now deemed

fermented from pomegranates as previously thought

undrinkable. After drinking the fermented wine, she

as well.

found her spirits lifted. She took her discovery to

Plutarch’s Moralia relates that, prior to Psamme-

the king, who became so enamored of his new drink

tichus,[disambiguation needed the pharaohs did not

that he not only accepted the woman back but also

drink wine nor offer it to the gods “thinking it to be

decreed that all grapes grown in Persepolis would be

the blood of those who had once battled against the

devoted to the winemaking of history.

gods and from whom, when they had fallen and had

Ancient Egypt

reason why drunkenness “drives men out of their

ceremonial life. A thriving royal winemaking

senses and crazes them, inasmuch as they are then

industry was established in the Nile Delta following

filled with the blood of their forbears”.

the introduction of grape cultivation from the Levant

Residue from five clay amphoras in Tutankha-

to Egypt c. 3000 BC. The industry was most likely the

mun’s tomb, however, have been shown to be that of

result of trade between Egypt and Canaan during

white wine, so it was at least available to the Egyp-

the early Bronze Age, commencing from at least the

tians through trade if not produced domestically.

Old Kingdom period. Winemaking scenes on tomb

62

vines to have sprung”. This was considered to be the

Wine played an important role in ancient Egyptian

27th-century BC Third Dynasty, the beginning of the

Wine (mey) has been a theme of Persian poetry for millennia.

become commingled with the earth, they believed

walls, and the offering lists that accompanied them, included wine that was definitely produced in the delta vinyards. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five

history of wine

Grape cultivation, winemaking, and commerce in ancient Egypt c. 1500 BC

63

wine history

The “Feast of the Wine” (Me-tu-wo Ne-wo) was a festival in Mycenaean Greece celebrating the “Month Phoenicia

the Roman Pliny the Elder, describe the ancient

As recipients of winemaking knowledge from areas

Greek method of using partly dehydrated gypsum

to the east, the Phoenicians were instrumental in

before fermentation and some type of lime after, in

distributing wine, wine grapes, and winemaking

order to reduce the acidity of the wine. The Greek

technology throughout the Mediterranean region

Theophrastus provides the oldest known description

through their extensive trade network. Their use of

of this aspect of Greek winemaking.

amphoras for transporting wine was widely adopted

In Homeric mythology, wine is usually served

and Phoenician-distributed grape varieties were

in “mixing bowls” rather than consumed in an

important in the development of the wine industries

undiluted state. Dionysus, the Greek god of revelry

of Rome and Greece.

and wine—frequently referred to in the works

The only Carthaginian recipe to survive the

of Homer and Aesop—was sometimes given the

Punic Wars was one by Mago for passum, a raisin

epithet Acratophorus, “giver of unmixed wine”.

wine that later became popular in Rome as well.

Homer frequently refers to the “wine-dark sea”

Ancient Greece Much of modern wine culture derives from the

64

of the New Wine”. Several ancient sources, such as

(οἶνωψ πόντος, oīnōps póntos): under the intensely blue Greek sky, the Aegean Sea as seen from aboard a boat can appear deep purple.

practices of the ancient Greeks. The vine preceded

The earliest reference to a named wine is from

both the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Many

the 7th-century BC lyrical poet Alcman, who praises

of the grapes grown in modern Greece are grown

Dénthis, a wine from the western foothills of Mount

there exclusively and are similar or identical to the

Taygetus in Messenia, as anthosmías. Chian was

varieties grown in ancient times. Indeed, the most

credited as the first red wine, although it was known

popular modern Greek wine, a strongly aromatic

to the Greeks as “black”. Coan was mixed with sea

white called retsina, is thought to be a carryover

water and famously salty; Pramnian or Lesbian wine

from the ancient practice of lining the wine jugs with

was a famous export as well. Aristotle mentions

tree resin, imparting a distinct flavor to the drink.

Lemnian wine, which was probably the same as

history of wine

the modern-day Lemnió varietal, a red wine with

Ancient China

a bouquet of oregano and thyme. If so, this makes

Classical Chinese records show no knowledge of

Lemnió the oldest known varietal still in cultivation.

Greek wine was widely known and exported throughout the Mediterranean, as amphoras with Greek styling and art have been found throughout the area. The Greeks may have even been involved in the first appearance of wine in ancient Egypt.They introduced the V. vinifera vine to and made wine in their numerous colonies in modern-day Italy, Sicily southern France, and Spain.

native production of grape wine, but archaeologists have discovered production from native “mountain grapes” like V. thunbergii and V. filifolia during the 2nd and 1st millennia BC. Even the early production of beer had largely disappeared by the time of the Han dynasty, in favor of stronger drinks fermented from millet, rice, and other grains. Although these huangjiu have frequently been translated as “wine”, they are typically 20% ABV and considered quite distinct from grape wine within China.

During the 2nd century BC, Zhang Qian’s exploration of the Western Regions reached the Hellenistic successor states of Alexander’s empire: Dayuan, Bactria, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom.

These had brought viticulture into Central Asia and trade permitted the first wine produced from V. vinifera grapes to be introduced to China.Wine was imported again when trade with the west was restored under the Tang dynasty, but it remained mostly imperial fare and it was not until the Song that its consumption spread among the gentry.Marco Polo’s 14th-century account noted the continuing preference for rice wines continuing in Yuan China.

Dionysus in a vineyard; late 6th-century BC amphora

65

wine history

Medieval period

as feedstock after advances in distillation by Muslim alchemists allowed for the production of relatively

In the Arabian peninsula before the advent of Islam,

pure ethanol, which was used in the perfume

wine was traded by Aramaic merchants, as the

industry. Wine was also for the first time distilled

climate was not well-suited to the growing of vines.

into brandy during this period.

Many other types of fermented drinks, however, were produced in the 5th and 6th centuries, including

Medieval Europe

date and honey wines.

In the Middle Ages, wine was the common drink

The Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th

of all social classes in the south, where grapes were

centuries brought many territories under Muslim

cultivated. In the north and east, where few if any

control. Alcoholic drinks were prohibited by law,

grapes were grown, beer and ale were the usual

but the production of alcohol, wine in particular,

beverages of both commoners and nobility. Wine

seems to have thrived. Wine was a subject for many

was exported to the northern regions, but because of

poets, even under Islamic rule, and many khalifas

its relatively high expense was seldom consumed by

used to drink alcoholic beverages during their social

the lower classes. Since wine was necessary, however,

and private meetings.

for the celebration of the Catholic Mass, assuring a

Egyptian Jews leased vineyards from the Fatimid

supply was crucial. The Benedictine monks became

and Mamluk governments, produced wine for

one of the largest producers of wine in France and

sacramental and medicinal use, and traded wine

Germany, followed closely by the Cistercians.

through the Eastern Mediterranean.

66

found an industrial use in the medieval Middle East

Other orders, such as the Carthusians, the

Christian monasteries in the Levant and Iraq

Templars, and the Carmelites, are also notable both

often cultivated grapevines; they then distributed

historically and in modern times as wine producers.

their vintages in taverns located on monastery

The Benedictines owned vineyards in Champagne

grounds. Zoroastrians in Persia and Central Asia

(Dom

also engaged in the production of wine. Though

Burgundy, and Bordeaux in France, and in the

not much is known about their wine trade, they did

Rheingau and Franconia in Germany. In 1435 Count

become known for their taverns. Wine in general

John IV of Katzenelnbogen, a wealthy member of the

Perignon

was

a

Benedictine

monk),

history of wine

Holy Roman high nobility near Frankfurt, was the first to plant Riesling, the most important German grape. The nearby winemaking monks made it into an industry, producing enough wine to ship all over Europe for secular use. In Portugal, a country with one of the oldest wine traditions, the first appellation system in the world was created.

A housewife of the merchant class or a servant in a noble household would have served the wine at every meal, and had a selection of reds and whites alike. Home recipes for meads from this period are still in existence, along with recipes for the spicing and masking flavors in wines, including the simple act of adding a small amount of honey. As wines were kept in barrels, they were not extensively aged, and thus drunk quite young. To offset the effects of heavy alcohol consumption, wine was frequently watered down at a ratio of four or five parts water to one of the wine.

One medieval application of wine was the use of snake-stones dissolved in wine as a remedy for snake bites, which shows an early understanding of the effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in such situations. Jofroi of Waterford, a 13th-century Dominican, wrote a catalogue of all the known wines and ales of Europe, describing them with great relish and recommending them to academics and the counsellors.

Monastic cellarer tasting wine, from Li Livres dou SantĂŠ (French manuscript, late 13th century)

67

wine history

Modern era Spread and development European grape varieties were first brought to what is now Mexico by the first Spanish conquistadors to provide the necessities of the Catholic Holy Eucharist. Planted at Spanish missions, one variety came to be known as the Mission grape and is still planted today in small amounts. Succeeding waves of immigrants imported French, Italian and German grapes, although wine from those native to the Americas (whose flavors can be distinctly different) is also produced. Mexico became the most important wine producer starting in the 16th century, to the extent that its output began to affect Spanish commercial production. In this competitive climate, the Spanish king sent an executive order to halt Mexico’s production of wines and the planting of vineyards.

68

Today, wine in the Americas is often associated with Argentina, California and Chile, all of which produce a wide variety of wines, from inexpensive jug wines to high-quality varietals and proprietary blends. Most of the wine production in the Americas is based on Old World grape varieties, and winegrowing regions there have often “adopted” grapes that have become particularly closely identified with them. California’s Zinfandel (from Croatia and Southern Italy), Argentina’s Malbec, and Chile’s Carmenère are well-known examples.

Until the latter half of the 20th century, American wine was generally viewed as inferior to that of Europe. However, with the surprisingly favorable American showing at the Paris Wine tasting of 1976, New World wine began to garner respect in the land of wine’s origins.

Developments in Europe

During the devastating phylloxera blight in

In the late 19th century, the phylloxera louse

late 19th-century Europe, it was found that native

brought widespread destruction to grapevines, wine

American vines were immune to the pest. French

production, and those whose livelihoods depended

American hybrid grapes were developed and saw

on them; far-reaching repercussions included

some use in Europe, but more important was

the loss of many indigenous varieties. Lessons

the practice of grafting European grapevines to

learned from the infestation led to the positive

American rootstocks to protect vineyards from the

transformation of Europe’s wine industry. Bad

insect. The practice continues to this day wherever

vineyards were uprooted and their land turned to

phylloxera is present.

better uses. Some of France’s best butter and cheese,

history of wine

for example, is now made from cows that graze on

and South Africa was often isolated from the world

Charentais soil, which was previously covered with

market because of apartheid. However, with the

vines. Cuvées were also standardized, important

increase in mechanization and scientific advances

in creating certain wines as they are known today;

in winemaking, these countries became known

Champagne and Bordeaux finally achieved the

for high-quality wine. A notable exception to the

grape mixes that now define them. In the Balkans,

foregoing is that the Cape Province was the largest

where phylloxera had had little impact, the local

exporter of wine to Europe in the 18th century.

varieties survived. However, the uneven transition from Ottoman occupation has meant only gradual transformation in many vineyards. It is only in recent times that local varieties have gained recognition beyond “mass-market” wines like retsina.

Australia, New Zealand and South Africa In the context of wine, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other countries without a wine tradition are considered New World producers.

Wine production began in the Cape Province of what is now South Africa in the 1680s as a business for supplying ships. Australia’s First Fleet (1788) brought cuttings of vines from South Africa, although initial plantings failed and the first successful vineyards were established in the early 19th century. Until quite late in the 20th century, the product of these countries was not well known outside their small export markets. For example, Australia exported mainly to the United Kingdom; New Zealand retained most of its wine for domestic consumption;

69

chapter

5

California’s Wine H istory Of all the wine growing regions of the United States, California has the richest history, though certainly still modest by the standards of Europe.

wine history

History

California was mostly based in Southern California.

California’s first documented imported European

California wine has a long and continuing history,

wine vines were planted in Los Angeles in 1833 by

and in the late twentieth century became recognized

Jean-Louis Vignes, the first commercial wine mak-

as producing some of the world’s finest wine. While

er in the state. William Wolfskill, another major

wine history is made in all fifty U.S. states, up to 90%

early wine maker in California, purchased his first

(by some estimates) of American wine history is

vineyard in 1838 in the Los Angeles area. By 1858

produced in the state. California would be the fourth

he owned 55,000 vines across 145 acres. Vignes and

largest producer of wine in the world if it were an

Wolfskill were the two major figures in California

independent nation.

wine making in the 1830s and 1840s. Their success

Early Years

72

Starting in the early 1830s, commercial viticulture in

attracted others and increased interest in wine cultivation in Southern California.

The first recorded planting of a vineyard was by the

The California Gold Rush (1848–1855) had a

Jesuit Missionary Eusebio Francisco Kino at San Bru-

major effect on the geography, economy, and history

no in 1683, but since the mission at San Bruno was

of wine growing in California. The Gold Rush

abandoned about a year and a half after its founding,

brought an influx of people to Northern California,

the vineyard likely never matured or was harvested.

many of whom arrived and settled in San Francisco

In 1779, Franciscan missionaries under the direc-

This resulted in a significant increase in demand for

tion of Father Junípero Serra planted California’s

wine and spurred wine production in the area within

first sustained vineyard at Mission San Diego. Father

100 miles of San Francisco. The 1850s saw planting

Serra founded eight other missions before his death

and wine production expand in earnest in many

in 1784, these initially or eventually incorporating

parts of Northern California, including in Sutter

vineyards. Hence, he has been called the “Father of

County, Yuba County, Butte County, Trinity County,

California Wine”. The variety he planted, presumably

El Dorado County, Lake County, Napa County,

descended from earlier Mexican plantings, became

Sonoma County, Merced, and Stockton. Many of

known as the Mission grape and dominated Califor-

these are still major centers of wine cultivation and

nia wine production until about 1880.

the production.

california’s wine history

In the 1850s and 1860s, Agoston Haraszthy, a

political dissident, Krug learned the trade of the

Hungarian soldier, merchant and promoter, made

vintner as an apprentice to Haraszthy in the Sonoma

several trips to import cuttings from 165 of the

Valley. The land on which Krug founded his winery

greatest European vineyards to California. Some of

was part of his wife’s (Carolina Bale’s) dowry. Krug

this endeavor was at his personal expense and some

became an important leader of winemaking in the

through grants from the state. Considered one of the

Napa Valley. He was also a mentor for Karl Wente,

founders of the California wine industry, Haraszthy

Charles Wetmore and Jacob Beringer, all of whom

contributed his enthusiasm and optimism for the

became important vintners.

future of wine, along with considerable personal

In 1863, species of native American grapes

effort and risk. He founded Buena Vista Winery

were taken to Botanical Gardens in England.

and promoted vine planting over much of Northern

These cuttings carried a species of root louse called

California. He dug extensive caves for cellaring,

phylloxera which attacks and feeds on the vine

promoted hillside planting, fostered idea of non-

roots and leaves. Phylloxera is indigenous to North

irrigat vineyards and suggested redwood for casks

America and native vine varieties had developed

when oak supplies ran low.

resistance. European vines had no such evolutionary

As home to both Buena Vista winery, California’s

protection. By 1865, phylloxera had spread to vines

oldest commercial winery, and Gundlach Bundschu

in Provence. Over the next 20 years, it inhabited and

winery, California’s oldest family-run winery, the

decimated nearly all the vineyards of Europe. Many

Sonoma Valley is known as the birthplace of the

methods were attempted to eradicate phylloxera but

California wine industry.

all proved temporary and none economical.

Although George Yount planted a small vineyard in Napa Valley in the mid-1830s, John Patchett planted the first commercial vineyard in Napa Valley in 1854 and established the first winery there in 1858. In 1861 Charles Krug who previously had worked for Agoston Haraszthy and Patchett founded his namesake winery in St. Helena and began making his own wine. Originally a Prussian

73

wine history

and non-beverage additive purposes, production dropped 94% from 1919 to 1925.

74

Prohibition

Repeal

The destruction of the American wine industry

Even after Repeal of Prohibition, several states

would come not from phylloxera but from

stayed dry: Kansas until 1948, Oklahoma until 1957,

Prohibition in the United States. Thirty-three

and Mississippi until 1966. Seventeen states chose

states had gone dry at the outbreak of World War I.

to establish monopoly liquor stores with limited

Wartime Prohibition was enacted in 1919, followed

selections. Today 10% of the US area and 6% of the

by the Volstead National Prohibition Act and the

population remain dry.

18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920,

Anticipating Repeal, speculators and others

forbidding the “manufacture, sale, or transportation

soon flooded the legal market with quickly and

of intoxicating liquors.”

poorly made wine. Dilettantes published books

Through a loophole allowing each home

and articles warning Americans about rigid rules

to “make 200 gallons of non-intoxicating cider

that must be followed to serve the proper wine with

and fruit juice per year,” thousands of otherwise

the proper food from the proper glass at the proper

law-abiding citizens became home winemakers and

temperature. Faced with low quality products with

bootleggers. Prices for fresh grapes shot up, because

which to risk committing social blunders and while

of the increased demand and a railroad shortage of

remaining uncertain about the social acceptance of

refrigerated freight cars in which to ship them.

any alcohol, most Americans stayed away.

Growers began replanting fine wine variety

The only group of wines that sold well were the

vineyards to juice grape varieties that shipped well.

fortified dessert wines. Taxed at the lower rate of

The massive plantings produced a constant surplus

wine as opposed to distilled spirits, but with 20%

of low-quality grapes that persisted until 1971. By

alcohol, this group made the cheapest intoxicant

the time of National Repeal, effective December

available. Before 1920, table wines accounted for 3 of

5, 1933, the industry was in ruins. Although some

every 4 gallons shipped. After 1933, fortified wines

wineries managed to survive by obtaining permits

were 3 of every 4 gallons shipped. It was not until

to make wines used for medicinal, sacramental

1968 that table wines sales finally overtook fortified

california’s wine history

category. Before 1920, there were more than 2,500 commercial wineries in the United States. Less than 100 survived as winemaking operations to 1933. By 1960, that number had grown to only 271. California had 713 bonded wineries before Prohibition; it took more than half a century, until 1986, before that many were again operating.

Prohibition left a legacy of distorting the role of alcohol in American life and ruining a fledgling world-class wine industry, which took decades of work to overcome. Research at the University of California at Davis and Fresno State University greatly assisted the new breed of vintners who arrived in California in the 1960s and who were committed to producing the wine of the highest level of the international standards.

Wine Revolution AndrĂŠ Tchelistcheff is generally credited with ushering in the modern era of winemaking in California. Beaulieu Vineyards (BV) founder and owner Georges de Latour hired Tchelisticheff in 1938. He introduced several new techniques and procedures, such as aging wine in small French Oak barrels, cold fermentation, vineyard frost prevention, and malolactic fermentation.

75

wine history

did the region’s reputation. Some California wine makers began to produce quality wines but still had difficulty marketing them. Frank Schoonmaker, a

76

Brother Timothy; a member of Institute of the

prominent journalist and wine writer of the 1950s

Brothers of the Christian Schools was also very in-

and 1960s introduced the German idea of labeling

strumental in creation of the modern wine industry.

wines using varietal (Pinot noir, Chardonnay,

After an earlier career as a teacher, he transferred to

Riesling) rather than semi-generic names borrowed

the order’s Mont La Salle located on Mount Veeder

from famous European regions (Burgundy, Chablis,

in the Mayacamas Mountains west of Napa in 1935

Rhine, etc.). Robert Mondavi was one of the first to

to become the wine chemist for the order’s expand-

label the majority of his wines by varietal names and

ing wine operations. The Christian Brothers had

was tireless in promoting the practice.

grown grapes and made sacramental wine in Beni-

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, the quality of

cia, California during Prohibition, but decided to

some vintners’ wines was outstanding but few took

branch out into commercial production of wine and

notice. On May 24, 1976, a blind tasting was held in

brandy following the repeal of Prohibition. The sci-

Paris with a panel made up exclusively of French wine

ence teacher was a fast learner and soon established

experts. After comparing six California Chardonnays

Christian Brothers as one of the leading brands in

with four French Chardonnays, three of the top four

the state’s budding wine industry; Brother Timothy’s

were Californian. Six of the nine judges ranked

smiling face in advertisements and promotional ma-

Chateau Montelena the highest; Chalone Vineyard

terials became one of the most familiar images for

came in third and Spring Mountain Vineyard fourth.

wine consumers across the country.

When reds were evaluated, Stag’s Leap Wine Cellars

In 1965, Napa Valley icon Robert Mondavi

was ranked number one. This competition, now

broke away from his family’s Charles Krug estate

known as the “Judgement of Paris”, focused a great

to found his own in Oakville, California. It was the

deal of attention on wines from the Napa Valley.

first new large-scale winery to be established in

The red wines evaluated in 1976 were retasted

the valley since before prohibition. Following the

in two separate blind tastings (the French Culinary

establishment of the Mondavi estate, the number

Institute Wine Tasting of 1986 and the Wine

of wineries in the valley continued to grow, as

Spectator Wine Tasting of 1986) and also in The

wine for beginners

77

wine history

78

california’s wine history

Wine Rematch of the Century. In all retastings, a

south, the Santa Ynez valley in the central coast,

California red was chosen first, while the French

and in the Red Hills Lake County in the north. In

wines lost positions in the rankings.

the early 21st century, vintners have begun reviving

In Oz Clarke’s New encyclopedia of Wine, Mr. Clarke writes that California “was the catalyst and

heirloom grape varieties, such as Trousseau Gris and the Valdiguié.

then the locomotive for change that finally prised

The Californian wine industry has had a long

open the ancient European wineland’s rigid grip

history of employing migrant workers to tend to

on the hierarchy of quality wine and led the way in

the vineyards and assist at harvest time. Its close

proving that there are hundreds if not thousands of

proximity to Mexico has opened the possibility

places around the world where good to great wine

to some of those workers being classified as

can be made.” He observes that “until the exploits

undocumented or illegal. Karen Ross, president

of California’s modern pioneers of the 1960s and

of the California Association of Winegrowers, has

‘70’s, no-one had ever before challenged the right of

estimated that as of 2007 the number could be as

Europe’s, and in particular, France’s vineyards, to be

high as 70% of the employees in the California

regarded as the only source of the great wine in all

wine industry may be illegal. New immigration

over the world.”

regulations announced by the Department of

Fred Franzia and his Bronco Wine Company has

Homeland Security required all employers to fire

caused recent waves in the business of California

illegal workers or face paying a fine up to $10,000 for

wine marketing. The company’s low priced Charles

each infraction. In August, following a lawsuit by the

Shaw wine which is sold exclusively by Trader Joe’s

AFL-CIO union, a federal judge placed a restraining

markets along with the company’s other labels have

order on the enactment of the new regulations

attracted new entry level wine consumers to the fold

pending further review. Industry experts predict

but also has alienated many of the smaller vintners

substantial changes will come into the Californian

in the state by placing some downward pressure on

wine industry as results of the changing labor and

the pricing.

immigration laws which will result in higher prices

Newer

regions,

producing

award-winning

for all the consumers in the public market.

wines, have entered the California wine industry, including Temecula Valley wine country in the

79

80

wine for beginners

81

chapter

6

Wine

in

China

For Chinese drinks sometimes translated as “wine� but not made from fermented grapes, see huangjiu and Chinese alcoholic beverages.

wine history

If grape wine consumption was once present in Bronze Age China, however, it was replaced by consumption of a range of alcoholic beverages made Wine has a long history in China. Although long

from sorghum, millet, rice, and fruits such as lychee

overshadowed by the stronger huangjiu (sometimes

or Asian plum. It was not until the Han Dynasty that

translated as "yellow wine") and the much stronger

the ancient Chinese became reacquainted with (or

distilled spirit baijiu, wine consumption has grown

at least left a literary record of) the consumption of

dramatically since the economic reforms of the

grape wines (via Zhang Qian’s travels from 139 to

1980s and China is now numbered among the top ten

125 BCE in Central Asia), and not until the Tang

global markets for wine. Ties with French producers

Dynasty that consumption of these wines became

are especially strong and vinyards in Ningxia have

more common.

received international recognition.

84

Modern Chinese Wine

History

French wine was the first foreign wine imported

The history of Chinese grape wine has been dated

into China. In 1980, at the beginning of Chinese

back more than 4,600 years. In 1995, there is a joint

economic reform, RĂŠmy Martin ventured into China

Sino-USA archeology team including archaeologists

to set up the first joint-venture enterprise in Tianjin:

from the Archeology Research Institute of Shandong

the Dynasty Wine Ltd., which was also the second

University and American archaeologists under the

joint-venture enterprise in China. Over the years,

leadership of Professor Fang Hui investigated the

the company developed over 90 brands of alcoholic

two archaeological sites 20 km to the northeast of

beverages, and its products won numerous awards

Rizhao, and discovered the remnants of a variety

both domestically and abroad.

of alcoholic beverages including grape wine, rice

However, most of its products were exported

wine, mead, and several mixed beverages of these

abroad in the first two decades due to the low

wines. Out of more than two hundred ceramic pots

income of the local population, and it was not until

discovered at the sites, seven were specifically used

after the year 2000 when the economic boom finally

for grape wine. Remnants of all the grape seeds were

provided the domestic population with sufficient

also discovered.

disposable income to support the domestic market;

wine in china

this relatively recent occurrence coincided with the increased popularity of French wine in China.

Other companies, including China Great Wall Wine Co, Ltd, Suntime and Changyu, have also risen in prominence, and by 2005, 90% of grape wine produced was consumed locally.

Also, as globalization has brought China onto the international economic scene, so too has its winemaking industry come onto the international wine scene. China has a long tradition of the fermentation and distillation of Chinese wine, including all alcoholic beverages and not necessarily grape wine, but is one of the most recent participants in the globalization of wine that started years ago in Paris, when several countries such as Canada realized that they may be able to produce wines as good as most French wine.

Quite recently, Chinese grape wine has begun appearing on shelves in California and in Western Canada. While some critics have treated these wines with the same type of disregard with which Chilean and Australian wines were once treated, others have recognized a new frontier with the potential to yield some interesting finds. Others have simply taken notice that China is producing drinkable table wines comparable to wines from other countries. Among the latest developments is the production of organic wine in Inner Mongolia.

85

wine history

Market trends China (including Hong Kong) is among the top ten

Shanxi, and Ningxia. The largest producing region is Yantai-Penglai; with over 140 wineries, it produces 40% of China’s wine.

wine markets in the world, having been described

In 2008, wine merchant Berry Brothers and

as the world’s fifth and seventh-largest wine market

Rudd predicted that within 50 years the quality of

in sales, account for both domestic and imported

Chinese wine will rival that of Bordeaux.

brands. Sales in 2011 were estimated to be 1.6 billion

86

Hebei, Yibin in Sichuan, Tonghua in Jilin, Taiyuan in

bottles. The top two markets, the United States

Xinjiang Region

and France, had sales in 2011 of 4.0 and 3.9 billion

China’s Xinjiang Autonomous Region have an

bottles, respectively.

ancient history of viticulture going back to around

The Chinese wine market has experienced a

the 4th Century BC, when Greek settlers brought

20% annualized growth rate between 2006 and

the vine and more advanced irrigation techniques.

2011, and is forecast to grow by another 54% by

The area around Turfan was, and still is, particularly

2015. Currently, per-capita wine consumption in the

noted for its grape production, and production of

country is only 0.35 liters.

grape wines is mentioned in the historical record

In 2009, Sotheby’s reported that Hong Kong had

as well; Marco Polo mentioned that Carachoco (the

become the world’s largest market for fine wines

name he used for Turfan) produced fine grape wines.

at auction, surpassing previous leaders New York

The modern wine industry is largely patterned after

City, and London. As of 2012, a small number of

French methods with a concentration on varieties

large companies, such as Changyu Pioneer Wine,

like Cabernet. However, the Uighur traditional

China Great Wall Wine Co., Ltd. and the Dynasty

technique has survived especially in counties

Wine Ltd., dominate domestic production. The total

surrounding Kashgar. The Uighur home-made wine

production of wine in 2004 was 370 thousand tons,

generally called “museles” is still being brewed by

a 15% increase from the previous year. The total

households in many villages. Unlike wines west of

market grew 58% between 1996 and 2001, and 68%

Xinjiang, the brewing of museles requires crushing

between 2001 and 2006. Notable wine-producing

of local varieties of grapes by hand, then strained

regions include Beijing, Yantai, Zhangjiakou in

using the Uighur atlas silk, then boiled with amount

wine for beginners

of water equal to the juice and desired portion of sugar, until the volume of the mixture is down to the original volume of the juice, then stored in clay urns together with folk recipes varying by localities in some counties, traditional Uighur herbal medicines, and goji, mulberries, sea-buckthorn, cloves, etc. in others, and even raw and unfeathered pheasants or poussin in others. The brew usually takes more than a month to accomplish. It is then un-urned, filtered and bottled to be storred for long periods. In some villages, the ritual of communally gathering a mixture of folk museles brews in a large village urn marks the occasion following the harvest and process of grapes. Museles is now being standardized by the wine producing industry in China and marketed under the brand-name of Merceles.

Recent Success of Ningxia Wine The Ningxia province has also been in the limelight for its high quality wines. After a red wine won the Decanter trophy in May 2011, on 14 December 2011 in Beijing, in a competition tagged “Bordeaux against Ningxia�, experts from China and France tasted five wines from each region. Ningxia was the clear winner with four out of five of the top wines.

The best of all was the 2009 Chairman’s Reserve, a Cabernet Sauvignon from the Grace Vinyards.

87

wine history

Domestic consumption Products and Availability Most medium to large restaurants, regardless of

vineyards produce red wine and 20% of vineyards produce white wine, while 90% of wine consumed as of 2007 is red wine.

the fare, sell wine by the bottle, usually only red.

Method of Consumption

Generally, only high-end restaurants serve wine by

Both red and white wines are commonly served

the glass. Wine sold by the bottle is also available at

chilled. The wine may be poured into ordinary wine

large KTV establishments, and major hotels.

glasses in tiny amounts, or very small, glass baijiu

Since around 2008, many small convenience

glasses. When served at a table with more than two

stores have begun to carry a small selection of

people, similar to the style of drinking baijiu, it is

wines, with specialty wine shops emerging in cities

typically consumed during a group toast, and often

throughout the country. These specialize in both

with the entire glass being finished at once. This

foreign and domestic brands. Meanwhile, major

is particularly true when served during all of the

supermarkets have steadily increased their selection,

restaurant meals.

from several domestic brands, to a wide variety of wines from around the world. Among these are sweetened, flavoured wines. These are made of a mixture of grape wine and a sweetened, flavoured drink similar to Kool-aid. These wines have similar labels to genuine wines, have an alcohol content of approximately 6%, and are much lower in price.

Demographics and Preferences Statistics show that the main market for white wine is among females, who prefer it over beer, still the main alcoholic beverage for most males; red wine has become a symbol of the elite and rich

88

and is usually used as a table wine. In 2005, 80% of

wine in china

Nverhong, which means Daughter Wine, Girl Wine, which were prepared buried under the ground when daughters born, and when their daughters got married, these wine would be used to celebrate the wedding.

89

chapter

7

Spacial Wine

in

Asian

For Chinese drinks sometimes translated as “wine� but not made from fermented grapes, see huangjiu and Chinese alcoholic beverages.

wine history

Snake wine

Snake blood wine is prepared by slicing a snake along its belly and draining its blood directly into the drinking vessel filled with rice wine or grain alcohol.

Snake wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by

Snake bile wine is done through a similar method by

infusing whole snakes in rice wine or grain alcohol.

using the contents of the gall bladder.

The drink was first recorded to have been consumed in China during the Western Zhou dynasty and

History

considered an important curative and believed

Snakes and their tissue portions have long been

to reinvigorate a person according to Traditional

considered by followers of Traditional Chinese

Chinese medicine. It can be found in China,

medicine to be invaluable for the promotion of

Vietnam and throughout Southeast Asia. The snakes,

vitality and health. The drink was first recorded to be

preferably venomous ones, are not usually preserved

used in China during the Western Zhou dynasty (771

for their meat but to have their “essence” and snake

BC) and the medicinal use of snakes was noted in the

venom dissolved in the liquor. However, the snake

medical manual Shen nong ben cao jing compiled

venom is denatured by the ethanol; its proteins are

between 300 B.C. and 200 A.D. The detailed use of

unfolded and therefore inactive.The Huaxi street

various snake species, their body parts, and various

night market of Taipei, Taiwan, is renowned for its

preparations were greatly elaborated in the medical

snake foods and wine products.

manual Bencao Gangmu of Li Shizhen in the Ming

Varieties of Snake Wine Steeped A large venomous snake can be placed into a glass jar of rice wine, sometimes with smaller snakes and medicinal herbs and left to steep for many months. The wine is drunk as a restorative in small shots or cups.

Mixed Body fluids of snake are mixed into wine and consumed immediately in the form of a shot.

92

dynasty. Snake wine can be found in many areas of Vietnam, Southeast Asia and Southern China.

spacial sine in asian

Medicinal value Snakes are widely believed to possess medicinal qualities and the wine is often advertised to cure everything from farsightedness to hair loss, as well as to increase sexual performance. In Vietnam, snake wine (Rưᝣu rắn) is widely believed by some individuals to improve health and virility. A similar drink is made with geckos or sea horses rather than snakes.Snake wine, due to its high alcohol percentage, is drunk in short glasses traditionally.

Braver drinkers may eat certain parts of the snake or snakes such as the gall bladder, the eyeballs and stomach. It is illegal to import snake wine to many countries because the cobras and other snakes killed in the production are often endangered species.

93

wine history

the meat of pythons and pit vipers. It is likely that the more widespread use of snakes for food and The Medicinal Use of Snakes

94

medicine during the Tang period derived from the Indian culture. The Tang Dynasty period is

Among the earliest recorded use of snakes in Chinese

especially known for its willingness to accept foreign

medicine was the application of sloughed snake skin,

influences, including those from India and Arabia

described in the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (ca. 100

(in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, many animal

A.D.) It was originally applied in the treatment of

substances were used as medicine). There are at least

superficial diseases, including skin eruptions, eye

three features of snakes that capture the attention of

infections or opacities, sore throat, and hemorrhoids.

traditional healers: they have an incredible flexibility

The use of snake gallbladder is first recorded in

and speed, they shed their skin, and certain snakes

Ming Yi Bie Lu (Transactions of Famous Physicians;

are extremely poisonous when they bite.

compiled by Tao Hongjing, and written around 520

The flexibility of snakes has suggested that they

A.D.), which was an update of the Shen Nong herbal

might be helpful in the treatment of stiffness, for

with double the number of ingredients. In addition

example, arthritis. Two types of snakes, agkistrodon

to the gallbladder, the skin (fanpi) and the meat of

and zaocys, are currently used in several traditional

a pit viper (Agkistrodon halys; fanshe), were also

and patent prescriptions for arthritis, and they are

described. They were used to treat skin diseases,

sometimes soaked in alcohol to make an extract for

pain, and intestinal hemorrhage.

stiff joints. The speed with which some snakes move

Other species of snakes were also mentioned in

indicated to traditional observers that, as medicines,

the medical literature: zaocys, the non-toxic black-

their substance can move quickly around the body.

striped snake (wushaoshe) was described in Yao

Snakes are said to treat “wind” syndromes, which

Xing Ben Cao by Zhen Quan (ca. 600 A.D.), and

likewise tend to move around quickly. However,

the toxic white-patterned pit viper, agkistrodon

people are also cautioned not to consume snake wine

(A. acutus, baihuashe or qishe) was described in

when exposed to potentially pathologic wind, as the

Kai Bao Ben Cao by Mai Zhi in 973 A.D. Among

rapid movement of the snake medicine may aid the

the earliest records of using snakes for food come

initial penetration of wind. The fact that snakes shed

from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 A.D.), including

their skin has suggested that they have a regenerative

spacial sine in asian

quality for treating chronic skin problems. As a

the skin and inward to the viscera.” It was noted in

result, snake skin and whole snake are used in the

Illustrated Materia Medica that “Agkistrodon has

treatment of skin diseases.

This application is

a quicker effect in treating wind syndrome than

similar to the use of sloughed cicada skin for treating

that of other snakes.” Several records in Chinese

skin ailments. Acne, carbuncles, itching skin, and

medical books indicate that snake slough is useful

psoriasis are examples of conditions that may

for malignant sores, such as mammary abscess and

respond to snake skin. Snake skin is also considered

tumor, boils, carbuncles, and furuncles. The slough

useful in reducing clouding (nebula) of the cornea,

is usually roasted and then used both internally and

the “skin” of the eyes.

Poisonous

animals

often

cause

paralysis

when they bite and this is due to the presence of neurotoxins. They are then used medically by oral administration (which greatly reduces the toxicity) for the treatment of convulsions (by inhibiting intense muscle contractions). Also, some forms of paralysis are “tonic” in nature, that is, due to overcontraction of muscles, and in such cases the nerve toxins can overcome paralysis. Agkistrodon (but not zaocys) is a poisonous snake used for epilepsy and paralysis.

Scorpions and millipedes (scolopendra) are used similarly. Anti-convulsive activity is also ascribed to snake skin and cicada skin.

In the Ben Cao Gang Mu (1590 A.D.) by Li Shizhen, it was said that “Agkistrodon penetrates the bone to expel the pathogenic wind and alleviate convulsion and is the essential material for wind arthralgia, convulsion, scabies and malignant scabies—because it travels everywhere, outward to

95

wine basics

96

spacial sine in asian

topically.Snake bile has long been valued as a tonic,

the official recipe for the mixture is 1 part snake bile

characterized as such by its sweet aftertaste. It is used

added to 6 parts fritillaria powder (dry, and pulverize

to make a special health drink at snake restaurants

the mixture); the dosage is just 300–600 mg at a

(which are today still found in southern China,

time, 2–3 times per day. The antitussive action of

Hong Kong, and Taiwan). The bile of a snake to be

bile from one snake tested, Hydrophis cyanocinctus,

eaten is mixed with some rice wine and consumed

is one-ninth that of codeine when assayed in mice

before the meal as an invigorating beverage and

(adult human codeine dosage for treating cough is

appetite stimulant. In the treatment of diseases,

20–30 mg). Snake bile is collected in spring and

snake bile is used for whooping cough, rheumatic

summer when the content of solids is highest. Snake

pain, high fever, infantile convulsion, hemiplegia,

gallbladder is sometimes combined with pinellia

hemorrhoids, gum bleeding, and skin infections.

or citrus to produce an antitussive and phlegm-

One of the best known remedies using snake

resolving powder for treatment of acute bronchitis.

bile is San She Dan Chuan Bei Mu, or the mixture

The bile from two snakes, Naja naja and

of three snake gallbladders plus the herb fritillaria (F.

Ophiophagus hannah show 11 bands in thin layer

thunbergii). It is made as a powder or a liquid; only

chromatography, while the bile from most other

the powder is imported to the West. The three snake

snakes show only 8 of those bands, indicating

gallbladders are usually derived from agkistrodon

unique medicinal ingredients in the cobra.

and zaocys species, but there are numerous

the snakes contain cholic acid but not deoxycholic

substitute species used in the marketplace. In fact,

acid or lithocholic acid. In the marketplace, snake

a major active component—the bile acid known as

gallbladders are sometimes substituted by those of

taurocholic acid—was analyzed in the 16 species of

geese, ducks, and chickens. These gallbladders have

snakes now traded commonly and in 8 samples of

a different form that can be easily distinguished by

snake bile and fritillaria liquids. The highest level of

those who make the effort to do so; further, the TLC

this component was in the bile from a species of Naja

profile of the bile from these substitutes is entirely

snake (a cobra), and the lowest was in zaocys; among

different from that of the snakes, and the bile from

the cough remedies, the cholic acid concentration

fowl do not produce the sweet aftertaste common to

varied from .025 to .069 mg/ml, which is nearly a

the snake bile. Snakes are also used in the treatment

three-fold range. In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia,

of cancer.

All

The small agkistrodon is a common

97

wine history

98

ingredient in modern treatments, especially for

accompanied by a suitable certificate indicating the

leukemia. A combination of Agkistrodon halys and

origins of the snakes. Further, the FDA has restricted

Natrix trigrina, in the form of a powder, is used as

import of many liquid preparations, including the

an adjunct to herbal decoctions and drugs to treat

liquid forms of snake bile.

hepatoma. Snake venom is also sometimes used

Unfortunately, the use of snake materials may be

as medicine; recent research has shown that snake

virtually eliminated in the West, because most Chi-

venom may have value in treating cardiovascular

nese suppliers are not otherwise compelled to spend

diseases. Blood pressure reducing and anticoagulant

time and effort certifying the origins of the materials.

properties have been identified, and are especially

The U.S. market for snake materials is very small. In

prevalent in the vipers.

fact, aside from Chinese doctors working in the U.S.

Most of the snakes are now raised, but the

and prescribing the materials directly, ITM has been

materials on the market place come from a variety

one of the only producers of formulas that utilize

of sources, including those collected in the wild.

snake materials. These formulas include a treat-

Agkistrodon is now derived mainly from Bungarus

ment for gallbladder disorders, for skin itching, for

multicinctus, but also B. fasciatus, Natrix annularis,

arthralgia and hypertension, and for recovery from

Enhydris chinensis and E. plubea, and Dinodon

surgery; all together, only about 60 pounds of snake

rufozonatum. Zaocys is mainly derived from Z.

and 40 pounds of snake gallbladder are needed for a

dhumnades, but also from Dinodon rufozonatum,

one year supply of these formulas. China’s total pro-

Elaphe carinata, E. rufodosata, and E. taeniura,

duction of snake for medicine is measured in tons.

Natrix annularis and N. stolata, Ptyas korros and P.

One means of helping to preserve snakes is to

mucosus. Snake bile is obtained from sources such

use the snake materials in powder form rather than

as Naja naja atra, Bungarus fasciatus, Elaphe radiata,

using them in decoctions. The powdered snake is

Ptyas korros, and Zaocys dhumnades. Because

usually recommended in dosages that are about

there are some snakes that are now endangered

1/3 to 1/6 that for decoction of the same materials,

species, and because the snakes or their isolated

probably because decoction poorly extracts some

bladders are not easily identified by officials, the

active components and damages others.

U.S. Wildlife Department has restricted import of

alcohol extraction is considered acceptable and

all snake medicinal materials unless the shipment is

allows use of small doses as well.

Cold

wine for beginners

Snake wine is a bottle of rice wine with a venomous snake inside.

99

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101

Index A

Broke 4, 64, 96, 154

Cocktails 41

Economic 84, 121

Good will 70, 77

Acceptance – 14, 30, 207

Broken 8

Cocky 68

Economics 2, 17

Gooseflesh 54

Admission – 25, 72-73

Broker 2

Code 45, 84

Education 56, 93, 117

Gorge 56

Aloneness – 17, 89

Brokerage 4, 5

Coffee 135

Effective 19, 25, 43, 135

Gossip 125

Ambition – 68, 72, 77

Brotherhood 11

Collapse 6, 50

Effectiveness 84

Grace of God 25

Amends – 77, 82-83

Brother-in-law 7

Collapsed 56

Efficient 88

Gracious 61

Anger – 60, 61, 64, 66

Build 21, 47, 63

Combating 7, 101

Arrogance – 60, 61

Building 75, 123

Combined 7, 22

F

Grasping 58

Built 56

Companions 104

Faith – 14, 15, 48, 49, 52,

Grateful 53, 128

B

Bull 156

Complete 12, 24, 52, 59

Family Relationships – 68

Good Samaritan 97

Bore 13, 151-152

Bums 106

Fear – 67-68, 115, 116

Good will 70, 77

Boring 126, 152

Burden 117, 132

D

Financial – 98, 127

Gooseflesh 54

Boss 11, 36, 136

Bury 123

Depression – 15, 67-68

Forgiveness – 70, 80

Gorge 56

Disease – 21, 23, 416

Female alcoholic 33

Gossip 125

Fences 35

Grace of God 25

Bothered 45

102

Grant 76

Bottles 5, 22, 32, 101

C

Bottom 75

Complacency – 82

E

Fettered 51

Gracious 61

Bounds 129, 152

Compassion – 108

Easy Does It – 13

Feuds 15, 78

Grant 76

Bout 23, 52

Courage – 67, 68

Envy – 68, 77

Brawl 4

Compassion – 108

Eagerness 96

G

Grateful 53, 128

Bridge 53, 56

Courage – 67, 68

Earnestness 16, 37, 58

Gratitude – 132

Gratify 144

Brief 12, 30, 31, 57

Closed 4, 27

Earth 130

Growth – 33, 63

Grave 33, 58

Bright 21, 89, 132

Closer 110

Easier 118

Golf 3

Great Fact 164

Bristle 48

Clothes 2, 58

Easy Does It 135

Good xxiv, 14, 19, 26, 48

Great Reality 55, 161

Broad 55, 75

Cock-Sureness 6

Eat 102

Good Samaritan 97

Gorge 59

Grasping 58

index

H

Marshalled 48

p

Recovery – 126, 127, 164

Twenty four hours – 16, 86

Happiness – 17, 128-129

Martyr 79

Perfection – 60, 123, 126

Reprieve, Daily – 85

Tolerance – 28, 66-67, 70

Higher Power – 12, 28, 30

Marvelous 6, 134

Prayer – 63, 66, 67, 70, 75

Resentment – 64, 552

Trouble – 35, 55, 131, 133

Honesty – 58, 64, 67, 70

Mass 54

Patience – 67-70, 82, 90

Hope - 44, 45, 73, 163

Master 98

Promises – 63, 75, 83-84

S

H.O.W. - 549

Mastered 66, 85

Patterns 22, 138

Sanity – 22-23, 84-85, 551

Humility – 12, 13, 25, 63

Material 48, 49, 51

Paul 136

Selfishness – 62

U

Materialize 84

Pause 87, 119

Self-knowledge – 7, 36

Understanding – 568

I

Material needs 98

Pay 78, 99, 129

Self-pity – 60-61

Unity – 17, 25

Identification – 17, 93

Material world 49

Peace 16, 63, 75, 84

Self-Will – 60, 62, 84

Penalty 99

Trust God – 98 Twenty four hours – 16, 86

Serenity – 63-64, 68, 553

W

Inventory – 25, 64-65, 69

N

Paradoxically 68

Service – 14-15, 77, 101

Weak – 20, 72, 115, 120

Insanity – 30, 37, 38, 57

Newcomers – 83, 93, 96

Paralyzing 18, 116

Sex – 68-69, 70, 83, 99-100

Will – 44-45, 48, 52-53, 55

Paramount 67, 90

Slips – 70, 72-73, 120, 139

Willingness – 12-13, 26

M

O

Parents 4, 18, 74, 115, 158

Slogans - 135

Whoopee – 101

Meditation – 86-87, 164

Open Mind – 12, 46-49

Parties 31, 99, 101, 146

Sponsorship – 15-18, 25

Wondered

Membership – 28

Originated

Partners 41, 80

Spiritual Living – 46, 51

Wonderful 17, 61, 100

Management 2

N

Pass 9, 87, 94, 99, 164

Spiritual principles – 42

Wonderfully 47

Manager 136, 149

New York 9, 41

Manifested 64, 130

Night 2, 3, 6, 8, 21, 41

R

T

Work xiii, 4, 14, 19, 25, 26

Mankind 11, 48

Nightclubs 101

Rationalization – 64-65

Temptation – 14-15, 85

Workouts 117

Manual 3

Nightmare 73

Recovery – 126, 127, 164

Tolerance – 28, 66-67, 70

World 2, 20, 46, 48, 51

Manuscript 133

Nil 58

Reprieve, Daily – 85

Trouble – 35, 55, 131, 133

Worldliness 16

Married 39, 69

Nominal 42

Rationalization – 64-65

Trust God – 98

Worldly 13, 50, 128

Illness – 22, 23, 30, 84-85

9

Wording 63

103

This book was designed by Qianwen Zhang on April 2,2014 in California, Unite State.

The types are Minion pro & Copperplate the paper is ProLine Pearl Photo the press in California.

The photos contained in this book are not official and are intended for school project purposes only.

The sources of this list can be found at The Phobia List: www.photolist.com and List of Photos: www. fearintofreedom.com

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