The trading port in History : Cochin an Bombay (a colonial port) by Mrunal Panchal

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

To Varsha Mathurdas & JItendra Manilal

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Contents

1 Chapter One: Introduction to the study. 1.1 Abstract 1.2 Aims and Objectives 1.3 Scopes and Limitations 1.4 The Structure of the Study 1.5 Framework for Analysis /Methodology

2 Chapter Two: Trade and its Urban Expression. 2.1 Historical relationships across the Indian Ocean via “Trade” • Background • The Rise of “Sites of trade” in the Indian Ocean Littoral 2.2 The Indian ocean littoral and the shared culture of Trade. 2.2.1 East African Coastal Cities:

• • •

Lamu Mombasa Kilwa

2.2.2 The Red Sea Trading environments: • Aden, Yemen. • Mocha

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.3 The Indian west coast as “Sites of Trade” rather than “expansion” • Trade routes and ports on the west coast: an outline survey.

•

Geography of Trade within India and its Global dimensions.

•

Economical and Political background

2.3.1 Kochi (16th to 17th century)

2.4 Port city in the Era of Colonial Expansion: Case of Bombay. 3 Chapter Three: The constitution of Port Activities.

3.1 The Goods. 3.2 The Ships and the needs: Technological Aspect

Sea mode communications

Dhows to Clippers to Steamships.

3.3 The sailors, Traders and other resident population.

The Role of Littoral Society. The community Tapestry. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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4 Chapter Four: The City level Readings and Analysis: Comparative study : Cochin & Mumbai. 4.1 Form of the city. 4.1.1 Places of Storage 4.1.2 Places of Exchange 4.1.3 Physical Transportation: Via Land and Sea. 4.1.4 Places of Administration Law Banking.

4.1.5 Transient Population and Native influx.

5 Chapter Five: In Conclusion

The Port City as the Expression of Social,Political, Economic and Technological aspects and the Urban form and structure.

• Bibliography • • Illustration credits • • Acknowledgement

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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1 8

Introduction

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Abstract 1.2 Aims and Objectives 1.3 Scopes and Limitations 1.4 Structure of the Study 1.5 Framework for Analysis /Methodology The Diagram of Trade The Diagram of Colonization Placing the diagrams together on the Urban Form of City and Tracing the Articulation of “Infra structure “and “Institutions “; Hence the Urban form and Structure of a unique typology of a Trading city.

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1.1 Abstract: Architecture and Urbanism of a “Trading city” The Maritime profile of the Indian Ocean Littoral has emerged as an important area of historical investigation. Central to the maritime story; it has been rise and fall of the cities involved in the trading networks of the Indian Ocean World, which have been a conduit for change and transformation, the crucible of culture and exchange. The formation of trade and trading cities followed the footsteps of the mercantile invasions and rules on the trade route link in the Indian Ocean trade network. We can see here the cultural and economical role of the long distance trade in an age where the Technological breakthrough of the late eighteen century had changed the structure of the Asian trading cities, its societies and state systems. The research is an attempt to demonstrate that the culture of trade profoundly shaped the underlying structure of the port city ,defining the principle orientation of its urban shape ,the functional modes of its built elements (as part of the larger urban system)and the social hierarchies that dominated community life. The research attempts to look at the architecture and urbanism of trading cities with particular attention to what was the impact of changes involved in trade which intern was related to the changes in technology. This is an inquiry into the “commerce generated urban form” of trading cities. The places which have been seen as mere agglomeration of Industry, people, power and suggested as an ordered human habitation with a self Image. And hence the research attempts to look at the Infrastructure of these sites of trade and elements contributing to the distinct urban pattern compared to Inland settlements; giving its unique character as “A trading city” This mentions a major role played by “Trade” as a deeply felt sociocultural need with its distinct character and urban experience compared to Inlands.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

1.1a Chart of the Indian Ocean Chart of the Arabian Sea; from Ethiopia, the Red Sea, and Arabia, to India and Ceylon Image taken from Universalis Orbis Hydrographia. Originally published/produced in Portugal; 1573. ÂŠBritish Library.

1.1b Malaysia and East Indies Chart from the Bay of Bengal, the Malay peninsula, to the South China Sea with Sumatra, Borneo and Java Image taken from Universalis Orbis Hydrographia. Originally published/produced in Portugal; 1573. ÂŠBritish Library.

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1.2 Aim and Objectives : The research attempts to derive the basic components of trading city would require and then looking at its modification and their actual manifestation according to circumstances. This can be done by tracing the entire thread of trading networks within the city in order to understand the commerce generated urban form of each case. Simultaneously to look at how the technological changes in the modes of sea communication has a huge impact on the urban form of the Cities chosen. The study will attempt to understand how different modes of trade affected the form and structure of two trading cities in the Indian Ocean Littoral.

Hypothesis: The Loop

The hypothesis is that the technology of transport ,economic relations,political power and community structure - this entire loop and its impact on the form of trading cities.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

1.3 Scope and Limitations: •

The study attempts to look into the Trading cities on the west coast of India; but the trading networks on the east ern side are equally important but of different nature due to its location and trading systems practiced.

• As it’s an overview the study doesn’t involve a Detailed documentation of each building typology, but explained with one. • Looking at the nature of study a lot of material to sup- port the facts has been derived from the archival data, traveller’s accounts, old maps and photographs, navigation maps and interviews with the long-time sailors and merchants in the region.

1.4 Structure of the Study History in General :

- Overview explaining the Trade routes in the Indian Ocean trad ing networks and Trade routes at various times.

- Ports: sites of trade in history and how they have been different at different times under different rules, a general overview.

- Tracing the history of these sites, and coming back to present day “Sites of Exchange”. I.e. Greek Ports, Mediterranean, Chinese, Malaysian and coming right up to the present day port; this is the General history which picks up

Considering the Pattern of Trade and the character of port.

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• • • •

The key characteristics of ports, The kind of ships (Modes of Sea communications) The kind of Trade and About the cities where they located.

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The Indian ocean littoral and the shared culture of Trade Neville Chittick accounts and early documents on the cross cul tural connections. The developments of port cities along the number of vertices – Trade being the obvious one to establish relationships across the Indian Ocean Littoral.

The different ports, as linkages within the Indian Ocean World; and their importance at different point in time.

How they were also subject to the connections with the Far East and connections over the land with the European system.

The Indian west coast as “Sites of Trade” rather than “expansion” Explaining the difference between the pattern of trade and port in the west coast and east coast; I.e. the east coast was different in terms the system followed for trade; that it went across and created kingdoms. In Comparison If we Look at south Indian ports, I.e. the Kanchi- puram and Pallavas they went across till Cambodia and made kingdoms what is called “the Great India civilization” ;so they consolidated the power over the whole sea on the east side. Where in the west coast they were seafarers but not the military rulers,like the Arabs were. Hence this side considered more as “Sites of Trade” rather than “expansion of a kingdom.”

The thread followed by arrival of Portuguese and British into the similar kind of role, of having military might over the Indian Ocean,while the trading activities still remain in the hands of Indian financiers by enlarge.

Choice of Case study and “Rationale” for choosing the case studies: The case studies have been chosen in order to understand the changes involved in the modes of sea communication from past to present,hence the impact of these changes on the Social and Urban fabric of the cities. In order to deal with such complex layers of city fabric,the technological change has been used as a tool to latch on to the research .

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Basic Documentation about the Case studies: Documentation at city level case by case basis. About Mumbai and Cochin: Brief History of the city The city structure noticed The Community Tapestry Mapping institutions within • The Urban spaces • Institutions • Key Buildings in the entire thread of the Trade in each case.

The entire thread of the exchange of goods, elements involved; hence Importance of each link explained.

Kochi:

•

Godowns,

•

Places where money transaction takes place,

•

Physical transportation (via land and sea)

•

Aspin wall (the European mode of Adminis- tration within Indian context.)

•

The Merchant Houses,

•

Facilities for Transient community.

• New building typology emerging in the same context.

Mumbai:

•

The Railways

•

Fortification

•

The Dockyards

• Tracing the land and sea mode transportation pattern

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•

And New building typology emerging.

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The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

• Physical transport (via Land and Sea)

Mattanchery

STEAMSHIPS

• Transient Population

• Resident Population

Facilities for

• Administration

(Clippers)

Mumbai

• Banking

SAILBOATS

• Law

• Exchange

(The layers in the making of the Urban form In case of both the cases.)

Form of the “City ”

Geography of Trade within India with respect to the Indian Ocean

• Storage

Economical and Political Background

Fort Kochi

Impact on Port Facilities

Places of

Impact on Kind and quantity of Goods

DHOWS

vessels

Kind of sailing

The Ships and the needs

An Overview of seafaring methods: The sailing Vessels An insight into the infrastructure of the Port • Ships • Speed • Potential • Need from ports The overview of technology that was adapted at various times to facilitate the sea communications. From Dhows to Clippers to Steamships, and each ones potential as per its technological aspects.

Illustration for the Ship type and explanation about what kinds of Port facilities it would require.

Numbers in peak season; how many ships would be docked in at once.

The Sailors ,The traders and other residents

What is the contribution of the littoral society in order to give a distinct character to a trading city‘s social fabric and Urban form? What is the “littoral society” and what does it consist of?? More dealt with the social, economical, religious aspect of the sailors, the traders (who are the transient community) and the other local resident population.

The sites of trade as an extension of “Littoral Society and Space.” What is Littoral society?? • The whole idea of littoral society is a real space both physically and as an experiential entity. Besides the major issues of location –societies located on the shore of the sea, on the coast. •

There is more complex issue of shared practices and cultures; which exhibiting characteristics that are an amalgam of maritime and territorial influences.

Consists of major migrant population; reason being pursuit of Trade than the Religious persecution.

•

• Sometimes coupled with the desire to live in cooler less arid region close to water.

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The Chart explaining the Loop The Generators of a Trading city’s Urban Form. • The Goods • The Mode of sea faring /Kind of vessels • The Mercantile community /Littoral society

1.1c The chart of the Loop : the Goods ,The sailing vessels and the Mercantile community and other factors affecting the Urban Form of Trading city.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

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Reflecting in Social, commercial and religious, other facilities at ports. The amalgam of the transient (traders) population with the local population; i.e. the transient community coming and living with the Local Population is a general phenomenon for the Trading cities, like seen in Kochi, Mumbai, Goa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar. Entire loop of these populations and the role of each in the social fabric of the city. The Sailors The Traders (on station population so they need a set of social infrastructure)

• • • • •

Residential Neighbourhood Burial grounds, Religious Institutions, Schools and Other facilities etc.

To start with look at the general scenario; the needs for a port to cater to all these kinds of people and then talking about the given case: Kochi and Mumbai.

The Mercantile community.

The Goods:

As per the sites of Trade

: Goods Specialized or General

Nature of Goods exchanged : Large volume- low value or small volume–expen sive goods. The risks involved : Whether it is perishable?? What its shelf life /storage life of goods??

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Based on this, one would say what sort of different warehousing facilities would require for various kinds of goods and different risks involved.

These sites would have the ships-the modes of sea communication, the trading methods, the technology involved in sea com munications, and Goods, which are interrelated and out of this entire loop one gets a particular urban pattern of a trading city.

In order to understand the pattern, it’s required to understand the core of port activities and then connecting it to the rest of the urban context,in order to trace the hierarchical urban divisions within the city on the sea coast.

1.5 Framework for Analysis / Methodology

Data collected on maps, drawings, as regard to the three basic components mentioned (the ships and sea faring methods, the traders and the Goods) of port city when they were at its peak. After this the documents will be consist at the city level...In order to Understand how these trading activities have shaped the urban fabric of these sites of Trade ,over a period in time.

I.e. mapping the Institutions and linking it to the urban fabric,in order to trace the urban divisions due to trading activities within the city. • Urban spaces • Port Facilities • Important buildings • Typical Merchant houses and Its Residential neighbourhood • And new building typology emerging within the same context.

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2a The Red Sea in the early modern Western Indian Ocean Source :The Merchant houses of Mocha ,Nancy Um

2 22

Trade and Its Urban Expression In an Indian Ocean Port.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Chapter Two: Trade and its Urban Expression.

2.1 Historical relationships across the Indian Ocean via “Trade” • Background • The Rise of the “Sites of trade” in the Indian Ocean Littoral 2.2 The Indian ocean littoral and the shared culture of Trade. 2.2.1 East African Coastal Cities:

• • •

Lamu Mombasa Kilwa

2.2.2 The Red Sea Trading environments: • Aden, Yemen. • Mocha

2.3 The Indian west coast as “Sites of Trade” rather than “expansion”

• Trade routes and ports on the west coast: an outline survey.

•

Geography of Trade within India and its Global dimensions.

•

Economical and Political background

2.4 Port city in the Era of Colonial Expansion:

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2.3.1 Kochi (16th to 17th century)

Case of Bombay.

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The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.1 Historical relationships across the Indian Ocean via “Trade” • Background • The Rise of the “Sites of trade” in the Indian Ocean Littoral

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2.1H1 The Eurasian Trade route map during 14th Century. Source : Living with memories,Parsee dwelling in early settlements of Gujarat by Snehal Nagarsheth & Pallavi Chillerig.

2.1H2 The routes and location of The Peryplus of the Erythrean Sea. Source : The Peryplus of the Erythrean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean by a merchant of the first century ; translated from the Greek and annotated by Wilfred H. Schoff.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

• Background Historical cultural and commercial contacts across the Indian Ocean. Trade by land or by sea, represents a society’s capability of producing and marketing its surplus in return for a range of commodities, which in turn assumes a range of cultural meanings. The importance of trade therefore both as a rational economic activity of exchange and as serving a deeply felt cultural need ,constitutes a “compelling agent of growth and development “.and more significantly of technology that facilitated physical movement of men and material.

2.1.a the area of the Indian Ocean and trans-continental trade 618-1750.

If we take a reasonable amount of load for a man to transport on feet as 25kg, It may be said that the same energy expended is sufficient to move roughly 250kg on wheels on a road, 2,500 kg on water. These figures bring home forcefully the economic advantage of sea communications, once men are capable of constructing vessels adequate to transport cargo with a degree of safety and reliability.

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Given Such Sea going vessels, the oceans and seas unite, rather than divide, the peoples of the world. It is as profitable to think in terms of oceans as in terms of continents when we consider cultural spheres of influence.1 The huge basin of the Indian Ocean is outstandingly suitable for such sea communications .The climatic regime of alternating monsoons is particularly suited to regular and reliable sailing voyages, as its comparative lack of storms over most of the area. This has resulted in its constituting what is arguable the largest cultural continuum in the world during the first millennium and a half A.D. In most of the parts of the basin, at least the coasts had a greater community of culture with each other and with the islands than they ever had with the land masses of which they form the littorals. And besides the intermingling of cultural elements, there was much mixing of peoples, as is dramatically presented in the Indian Ocean “Trading cities”. The ports accessible to ocean-going vessels were thus effectively the only route for the transport of goods, and also the transmission of cultural influences, leaving aside the effect of the largescale movements of peoples which we know took place in the interior of the continent.

2.1.b “The Periplus Maris Erythraei (or ‘Voyage around the Erythraean Sea’ [note: the modern Red Sea]) is an anonymous work from around the middle of the first century CE written by a Greek speaking Egyptian merchant.” The document describes “the maritime trade-routes following the north-south axis from Egypt down the coast of East Africa as far as modern day Tanzania” and “the routes of the east-west axis running from Egypt, around the Arabian Peninsula and past the Persian Gulf on the west coast of India.”

Chittick,Neville “East Africa and the orient:Ports and trade before the arrival of the

Portuguese” ©UNESCO 1980.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

• The Rise of “Sites of Trade” in the Indian Ocean Littoral As principle sites of exchange, the port cities in the Indian ocean world are connected, both spatially and structurally, across vast stretched of seas and into the hinterlands, and in the process has triggered most significant movements of Ideas, objects and people to produce a cosmopolitan nature of urban culture that was simultaneously Individual and universal. These sites of trade have been seen more than a mere agglomeration of people, industry and power and suggested instead that it was an ordered human habitation with a “ self Image”.2

The Indian Ocean Currents Contact between the parts of the Indian Ocean littoral was made particularly easy by the monsoon winds, which in most cases blow steadily, from southwest to northeast from April to September,and then reverse to blow from north east to south west from October to March.(Fig. 2.1.d) Even before it was discovered, more than 2000 years ago,that this reversal of the winds could be used to facilitate direct travel across the Indian Ocean, a coastal trade existed between western Asia and western India. Hebrew texts of the first millennium BC mention the port of Ophirperheps Sopara on the west coast of India near Bombay, described as market for gold, spices, precious stones, ivory, apes and peacocks. In Babylon during the 7th century and 6th century BC Indian teak and cedar were used in building. After the fall of Babylon to the Persians Indian goods continued to reach the west partly through the activities of southern Arabian Merchants, and it was from them that the Greek and Roman discovered the use of the Indian Ocean trade routes. In 25 -21 BC the Emperor Augustus received two embassies from India, which were almost certainly trade missions.3 2 Subramian,Lakshmi.Ports Towns Cities : A Historical Tour of the Indian Littoral. Marg Publication, 2008 3 Lewcock, Ronald. “Architectural connections between Africa and the Indian Ocean Littoral”, AARP,1987 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.1.c The Monsoon winds facilitating the trade in the Indian Ocean.

A coastal settlement of Roman merchants of the 1st and 2nd cent. AD has been excavated at Arikamedu. Near Pondicherry, on the eastern side of southern India and other Roman trading settlements have been identified on the west coast of Ceylon.

2.1.d Monsoon wind patterns during Novem- 2.1.e According to Mortimer Wheeler, Arikamedu was a Tamil fishing village which ber - February and April â&#x20AC;&#x201C;September in the was formerly a major Chola port dedicated to bead making and trading with Roman Indian Ocean traders.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Recent Historical research cites evidences collected by the geographer Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD, to confirm that the Indian merchants were then trading regularly with the Far East. Also a work of a century earlier Pliny’s “Natural History”,is interpreted as containing a reference to Indonesian outriggers trading with the east coast of Africa. Regular voyages between China and Indonesia were being undertaken by the 5th century AD. A Major Indonesian kingdom was in Sumatra and Srivijaya, where the port of Palembang was the main entrepot in Southeast Asia allowing merchants from the Indian Ocean to exchange goods with those from China. Its importance is established by the Arabs and Chinese records spanning four centuries, although its own inscriptions are limited almost entirely to the second half of the 7th century AD. Arabs traded to Indonesia and China for centuries before the first Muslim tombstones appeared in Southeast Asia in the 11th century AD, by the 13th century two small Muslim trading kingdoms existed ,in Northern Sumatra ,Samudra and Perlak. By the end of the 14th century the Samudra had become a very important entrepot; selling pepper cultivated in its hinterlands and providing a port in which Indonesian middleman could meet ships loaded with goods from The Indian Ocean.

2.1f Trade networks within Southeast Asia.

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In the early 15th century Samudra gave way to Malacca on the west coast of Malaya, the rulers of which accepted Islam in order to attract Muslim traders from the west and from Indonesia to their port. The Muslim state of Acheh, which succeeded Pasai in the 16th century’s a leading maritime kingdom in Northern Sumatra, looked west across the Indian Ocean for an alliance with the Ottoman Turks to expel the Portuguese. The letter made only the a temporary impact on most of the Muslim kingdoms, and Muslim Indonesian trade with the middle east, and from there to Europe, was greater at the end of the 16th century AD than ever before. Thus trade being a sole reason for the cross-cultural relationships in the Indian Ocean Littoral, which is still at its explanatory stage in research.

2.1g the Peryplus of the Erythrean Sea.

Navigation in the Indian Ocean world The Arabs pioneered navigation in the Indian Ocean, and they were the dominant element throughout the history, as far as sailing ships in the western part of the basin are concerned they were until the present. As per the Sumerian records, timber was being imported from India and Megan (Oman),and a reference to head shipwrights of Megan indicates that ships were being owned and crewed by the Arab traders of Oman. It is probably, the Greeks and Persians gained their knowledge of navigation from the Arabs; Persians didn’t undertake long distance voyages until 15th century BC; and the Greeks not till the Hellenistic times.4 A word,lastly as per Neville Chittick on the modes of sea transport to and from different sites of trade in the Indian Ocean-”mainly the trade would seem to have been in the hands of the Arabs of the Gulf and of the South Arabia ,and at certain periods ,probably to a lesser extent, of the Persians and Indians.” 4 Chittick ,Neville “East Africa and the orient:Ports and trade before the arrival of the Portuguese” ©UNESCO 1980.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Many such accounts also suggest the importance of sites of trade functioned by Arabs in Persian Gulf and its importance as itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s been mentioned in the map below(fig.2.1h)which shows the coastal town of Siraf connected with Shiraz, of a greater importance as a trading town. The trade in the South Asia was mostly directed towards the Persian Gulf and Oman. Goods destined for further east were transshipped here, and those destined for China and the Far East probably again in the coast of western India.

2.1h A section of Ibn awqalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s map of Fars: at the top is the Persian Gulf showing the three Islands of Awal (Bahrain), Harik (Kharik) and Laft; on the left lies the coastal town, Siraf, connected diagonally with mainland Shiraz (after Ibn awqal 1992: 48)

2.1i Map showing Arabia and its Neighbours in the Indian Ocean World.

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India: The west coast India has kaleidoscopic history shaped by trade, invasion and resultant foreign rule. This has lead to the amalgam that we as people, as culture and as a country, are today. Trade though has always been the Raison Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ĂŞtre for the influx of the colonial forces in India, These harbored trade posts moved on to become imperial ambitions, resulting in the establishments of forts with a town within the consolidated white stronghold. The Fort area in Diu and Daman, Fort in Bombay, Fort Aguada in Goa and Fort Kochi, and many more in the Indian Ocean thus became the lure for migrants far and wide in search of their share of fortune. As we can see here has resulted in the spontaneous and unplanned growth outside the fort walls by the local and migrant population. This spontaneous growth is what gave rise to the other half of the colonial metropolis- its native quarter, which can be found in, North Bombay and Mattancherry. The relations between the two fiercely consciously diverse cultural Identities maintained a constant tension, which kept the ongoing of life in equilibrium. Trade can arguable be the sole reason for such forces.

2.1j The Indian Ocean .The seven Seas of Classical and Medieval Islam. Source: Classic Ships of Islam-From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean (Handbuch Der Orientalistik) by Dionisius A. Agius,2008

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

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2.2a 1502 Alberto Cantino World Map . ÂŠBiblioteca Estense, Modena (Italy)

Pattern of Trade and Character of a trading city.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2 The Indian ocean littoral and the shared culture of Trade.

•

Migration, Diaspora, urban space and Cross cultural connections:

Cross cultural influences in architecture and urbanism of the trading cities.

2.2.1 East African Coastal Cities:

• • •

Lamu Mombasa Kilwa

2.2.2 The Red Sea Trading environments: • Aden, Yemen. • Mocha

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The first part of this chapter (2.2.1) delves into tracing the global processes by, demonstrating cross cultural interactions of East African Coastal cities (Swahili Coast) with the Indian subcontinent and the Arabian Peninsula. While the second part of the chapter (2.2.2) argues beyond looking at the visual similarities and migratory crafts, people and technology, but looking at how visual objects and built spaces mediates the experience and practices of the trade and its contribution to the urbanism of the Port city, by tracing the trading environments in the Yemen in Red Sea.

â&#x20AC;˘Cross cultural connections in Architecture and Urbanism of the trading cities in the Indian Ocean Littoral:

Trading cities have always been nodes of migration, concentrating ideas, economic and material goods, migration and exile. Connected to world wide networks, port cities have been points of arrival and of departure for numbers of migrants, many of them remaining as expatriate communities of traders or merchants, who in turn fostered the development of these cities by their transnational connections and has left their mark on the urban fabric. The sites of trade not only exchanged men and material but also culture that transhipped among these trading cities in the Indian Ocean world. This part explains how the trading cities being a conveyor belt of men and material, in the process has always exchanged the crafts, building techniques and hence architectural style and urbanism across the vast stretches of the sea. Hence it has been a reason why there has been a lot of similarities seen not only in the visual urban culture, but also in the architectural styles and craftsmanship and technologies from two very different parts of the Indian Ocean world, and evidently It has been seen in the architectural style of some of the littoral spaces of the Gujarat peninsula and east African coast, and the Arabian peninsula.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.1 East African Coastal Cities:

• • •

Lamu Mombasa Kilwa

2.2.1 Ottoman Map of Africa showing connections between the Gulf Of Aden and The East African Coast. Source : Center for Islamic and Middle Eastern studies,California state university San Bernardino.

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2.2.1a Map showing the East African coast and the Indian west coast in the Indian Ocean.

2.2.1b The Lamu archipelago and other trading ports on the east African coast

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

External contacts :Sailing on the Monsoons The Periplus of the Earythrean Sea describes the East African coast and mentions that the people of Muza, which is present day a small town some 40 miles north of Mocha on the Red sea, held hegemony over the coast and sent there many large ships with Arab captains and agents. They dwelt and intermarried with the local inhabitants and spoke their language, which created a mercantile community called “Swahili”. This is majorly considered as the littoral society on the east African coast. The merchants in the port cities acted as middlemen between foreign traders and inland Africans. They prospered because of the profits of their sales. From India were imported grain sugar, ghee and cloth; goods exported were ivory, rhinoceros horn (which was thought to have magical properties) and tortoise shell and coconut oil. Although no pre-Islamic sites have been found on the east African coast,much of the description related in the Periplus must have remained true in early Islamic times. The monsoon winds facilitated navigation, the coastal traders lived mainly in defensive sites, islands, or peninsulas. Trade continued with both the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent, as is evidenced in Al- Mas-udi who visited the coast in 916; “The sailors of Oman go on the sea of Zanj as far as Sofala merchants of Siraf are also in the habit of sailing on the sea. The land of Sofala produced gold, ivory tusks and they go generally to Oman and from there sent to China and India.”

2.2.1c the 6th - 8th centuries CE, and again in the 14th century, East Africa was a player in Indian Ocean trade that included the Arab states of the Red Sea/Persian Gulf, India, Southeast Asia, and China. In the 8th century, the center of Islam moved to Baghdad, integrating the Persian Gulf (and with it, East Africa) into pre-existing trade patterns. Shi’ite refugees from the predominantly Sunni empire fled to and settled in coastal Africa, intermarrying with indig2.2.1d Manda on the northern Kenyan coast. enous people.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Excavations on Manda on the Northern Kenyan coast have shown that iron was being worked in the 10th century,which were exported to the India for the manufacture of the famous swords made there. There are also a number of Hindustani words found in Swahili, such as “Jahaz”, the deep-sea dhow.(Fig.2.2.1f)These ships often traded directly with India and Zanj is reflected in several references in the chronicles, setting out with the prevailing monsoon they often made the passage 2000miles in three to four weeks, steering for state of Cambay in western Gujarat or making a landfall at one of the great trading port further south ,Calicut or Cochin.(Fig. 2.2.1e)

2.2.1e Trade of Cambay 10th to 14th century with the East African coast. Source : M.S. University ,Baroda Press.

2.2.1f “Jahaz”- the deep sea Dhow on Kenyan Coast.

In East Africa, Indians may have controlled a good deal of economic life, but the expansion of Islam apparently ensured strong links with Arabia. Neither Indian nor Arab explored the great continent from the coast except in the interest of commerce; they kept to the port towns.1 1

Keswani,D.G. “ Indian cultural and commercial influences in the Indian Ocean from Africa to South East Asia” ©UNESCO 1980.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

According to Prof .Ronald Lewcock on ‘Architectural connections between Africa and parts of the Indian Ocean littoral’, “linked by the common interest of trade, the people from the region experienced a quite remarkable prosperity from the 12th century until the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the 15th century, with only brief period of economic decline. And the prosperity of the coast leads to the creation of rich and sophisticated architecture, which was uniform throughout the region”. And due to their more frequent mercantile interactions with the Arabian Peninsula and Indian Subcontinent, there have been evidently seen close parallels in the architectural style, house forms -organization principles and architectural elements of important institutions like Mosques and Royal Palaces, warehouse, and merchant houses on the East African coast.

2.2.1G The dhow anchorage in Mombasa in 1960. source : National Maritime Museum, London.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Swahili- as a maritime civilization: The settlement Pattern on the coast The East African littoral society is known as “Swahili” means “shore folk,” those who for many centuries have formed a society of middlemen in the long distance commerce between Africa and the northern and eastern littorals of the Indian Ocean. The earliest coastal communities practiced iron working, and were mainly subsistence farmers and river fishers, who supplemented their economy with hunting, keeping livestock, fishing in the ocean, and trading with outsiders. Between 500 and 800 A.D. they shifted to a sea-based trading economy and began to migrate south by ship. In the following centuries, trade in goods from the African interior, such as gold, ivory, and slaves stimulated the development of market towns such as Mogadishu, Shanga, Kilwa, Lamu and Mombasa.1(Fig. 2.2.1a) The very first ports developed on the East African coast, as known from the Periplus and Ptolemy, were on the present Somali coast and at Rhapta, the most likely site for which is in the delta of Rufiji River. According to James Kirkman on ‘The early history of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Ocean’, the traces of first Islamic settlements were found on the coast of Somalia, northern Kenya and on the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar. These sites show evidences of having been a colony (or factory, in the 18th century) of immigrants; these and other settlements are probably to be associated with the tradition of migration from the Persian Gulf (Shiraz and al Hasa near Bahrain). By the 12th century the main port had come to be Mogadishu, which indeed remained of the first rank subsequently trade developed to the substantial proportions during this time with the lands of Sofala region following the discovery that gold was to be obtained from there, but probably also with the Comoro Islands and Madagascar.(Fig.2.2.1g)

2.2.1g The Swahili coast and the Indian Ocean 1500 -1750.

After Mogadishu there arose the need for entrepot well south of equator, with given circumstances; the difficulty of voyaging to those southern parts and be back within one year.(Navigation far to the south where the town of Sofala was to come into being virtually impossible because of the difficulty of returning against the Mozambique current.) Thus Mafia and soon after Kilwa became of greater importance equal to Mogadishu.

Kirkman,James “ The early History of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Ocean” Art and Architecture Research Paper ,1987.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Separated by miles of land and water the Swahili developed selfsufficient and independent settlements along the coast. The Swahili settlement is a joint product of trade and Islam modified by the environment, the first provided wealth, and the second incentive for permanent settlements reflected in the requirements of Islamic canon law that the Friday noon prayer should be held at a permanently settled location.2

• The Settlements: Kilwa kisiwani Island ,Tanzania.

Looking at the settlement pattern; many of the towns were protected from the mainlanders by their situation on islands, but they were generally built against the seashore facing the anchorage or sometimes behind mangrove swamps, which protected them from external attacks. The settlements were centered in most cases on the nucleus of a mosque, adjoining which was usually an open space reserved for graves. Around this the stone or wattle and daub houses were grouped often in an apparently unplanned arrangement at first. The growth of these Littoral settlements on the East African coast and interaction between the Indigenous People on the coast and Arabs, Persians, Indians, Europeans represents a significant cultural and economic phase in the history of the region which finds it’s most outstanding expression in the architectural language and town planning. 3 The same expression has been evidently seen in the architectural style and urban pattern of the once thriving trading ports Like Lamu Kenya, Kilwa Kisiwani and Sogno mnara Tanzania, and Mombasa. Songo Mnara Island, Tanzania is one of the more prominent Swahili stone towns, nestled in the Kilwa archipelago on the southern coast of Tanzania. (Fig.2.2.1j) Songo Mnara was a central participant in Indian Ocean commerce during the 15th and 16th 2.2.1h Map of Bay Mavuji, Kilwa Archipelago centuries AD. Kilwa kisiwani region Tanzania. 2 3 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Ghaidan,Usam “ Lamu A study in conservation” East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi 1976 Chittick, Neville” Kilwa: an Islamic trading city on the East African coast” British Institute in Eastern Africa, memoir nr. 5, Nairobi 1974

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2.2.1i The settlement at the fringe of water, Kilwa Kisiwani Island,Tanzania.

2.2.1j The ruins of Songo Mnara -a Swahili city in Kilwa Archipelago.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

The islands of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara bear exceptional testimony to the expansion of Swahili coastal culture, the lslamisation of East Africa and the extraordinarily extensive and prosperous Indian Ocean trade from the medieval period up to the modern era. The ruins of Songo Mnara, at the northern end of the island, consist of the remains of five mosques, a palace complex, and some thirty-three domestic dwellings constructed of coral stones and wood within enclosing walls.(Fig.2.2.1j) Looking at the urban pattern it shows a strong underlying structure based on the fictions of the trading environments within the city, which can be seen in the ruins of the trading institutions facilitating the trade and its amalgam with the social and religious Institutions in the urban structure, which also creates a urban hierarchy-from Institutions pertaining to trade operations to the residential and small market streets. Similarly the urban pattern of trading town Lamu is formed by dwellings grouped into neighborhoods, each with its own mosque, and a sea front of mainly trading activities. And other social, religious and commercial institutions also distributed along the sea front.(Fig2.2.1l) Lamu- old town is characterized by narrow streets and magnificent stone buildings with impressive curved doors, influenced by unique fusion of Swahili, Arabic, Persian, Indian and European building styles.4

2.2.1k Streets of Lamu,Kenya. 4 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Ghaidan,Usam â&#x20AC;&#x153; Lamu A study in conservationâ&#x20AC;? East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi 1976

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The buildings on the seafront with their arcades and open verandas provide a unified visual impression of the town when approaching it from the sea. This apparently has a great influence from Indian west coast. According to Usam Ghaidanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s findings on Lamu,the vernacular buildings are internally decorated with painted ceilings, large niches (madaka), small niches (zidaka), and pieces of Chinese porcelain. The buildings are well preserved and carry a long history that represents the development of Swahili building technology, based on coral, lime and mangrove poles. The architecture and urban structure of Lamu graphically demonstrate the cultural influences that have come together over 700 hundred years from Europe, Arabia, and India, utilizing traditional Swahili techniques that produced a distinct culture. The property is characterized by its unique Swahili architecture that is defined by spatial organization and narrow winding streets.5 This labyrinth street pattern has its origins in Arab traditions of land distribution and urban development. It is also defined by clusters of dwellings divided into a number of small wards (mitaa) each being a group of buildings where a number of closely related lineages live.

2.2.1l Fort of Lamu,Kenya Source :Zamani Project

2.2.1m Urban fabric of in Lamu Kenya. 5

Ghaidan,Usam â&#x20AC;&#x153; Lamu A study in conservationâ&#x20AC;? East African Literature Bureau, 1976

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

The promenade is used for leisure activities; and for processions during religious celebrations and the offshore waters along the Promenade provides convenient mooring space for boats.

2.2.1n (Above)The Promenade and detail of roofscape (Below)Lamu Fort and town square in Lamu,Kenya.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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The Promenade and roofscape In Lamu,Kenya

2.2.1o (Above)The Promenade and roofscape (Below) Urban Fabric of Lamu - A Swahili town on the coast.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.1p (Above)The present Civic buildings fore court and customs Area in Lamu ,Kenya (Below) Proposed redevelopment sketch for the central area of the town between townsquare and Promenade. (Usam Ghaidan,1972)

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Under Omani protection the coastal commerce slowly regained its momentum, leading to a further development of Lamu and the construction, by skilled craftsmen and slave labor, of town houses and mosques using coral stone and mangrove timber (Boriti poles).Hence most of the Swahili stone houses are single storeyed.6 (Fig2.2.1q)

2.2.1q(Above) Swahili coral stone House (Below) Detailed survey of building typology in Lamu.

The urban pattern demonstrates amalgam of various trades, importation of crafts and businesses, which were clustered together and thus, dominated the appearance of different quarters of the town. 6 Lewcock, Ronald. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Architectural connections between Africa and the Indian Ocean Littoralâ&#x20AC;?, AARP,1987

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

According to Prof. Ronald Lewcock,the difference in wealth, and the resultant competition for control of the trade led to rivalries among the city states along the coast for a long time Kilwa remained the most important and most prosperous settlement on the coast. However, by 1490, its prosperity had begun to decline and was slowly giving way to Mombasaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. Mombasaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategic position on the Swahili Coast and fine harbours were key factors in its emergence as a prosperous citystate.(Fig.2.2.1r)These same attributes drew the attention of rival powers in the struggle to control the lucrative Indian Ocean trade network, particularly during the 16th and 17th centuries.

2.2.1r Map of Mombasa Town 1971

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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It was end of the 15th century when the settlements on the Island became more clearly defined, first through the construction of mosques, giving an Indication of a growing population and increasing prosperity. And second is through the maps and location description made by the Portuguese officials. Most of the sources show very clearly that the current old town of Mombasa is based on and incorporates the majority of the historic Mombasa – covering the religious, social and commercial Institutions and the settlements around these Important Institutions within the Old town Fabric.1

2.2.1s Mombasa Island Map 1969 1

Varkey ,Kurula and Klaus Roesch “Pilot study for conservation and revitalization of old town Mombasa” University of Nairobi,1981

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

As it’s been seen in the urban pattern of Swahili coastal town, Mombasa also remained a product of trade and Islam modified by the environment and hence the settlement grew around these important institutions; mosque being one of them. The settlement connected to the mosque was known as “Mvita”, after Shehe Mvita that suggested “founder of the place.”

2.2.1t Plan of Mombasa from Bocarro and Rezende Livro do estado de India,1636

The Mvita settlement continued to be occupied, increased in size and part of it evidently became the core of Swahili town or the “town of the Moors”, as the Portuguese referred to it.2

2.2.1u (Above )Plan of Mombasa and fort Jesus by Jose Lopez de sa ,1728. (Below)The promenade of Mombasa old town.

2 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Boxer C.R.& Carlos De Azevedo “Fort Jesus And The Portuguese In Mombasa 1593 1729” London Hollis and Carter (1960)

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Old Town Mombasa and The Urban development During the series of developments and changes made due to the Invaders, traders from faraway places, there has been a seen distinct characteristic in the urban pattern of the city state. According to The major developments made on the foreshore by the Portuguese in order to make a façade as a ruling authority after defeating Omani traders, this gradually started forming settlements which has been considered as the mix of Swahili and the “mvita” (settlement around the mosque). There have been a serious of settlements seemed to have started and expanded between the Swahili settlement and the Gavana (the walled town north of the Fort.) A notable increase in the number of mosques during the time of Mazrui, which gained strength and influenced a larger area on the east African coast. Since the mosques are always surrounded by the community; the urban spaces of Mombasa supposedly had been established within today’s Old town by keeping the only exception the Swahili settlement on the western side of the island, which marked the territory by establishing the Kilindini Mosque in the 17th cent. This later due to fire in 1837 merged with the Mombasa town defining a boundary of the old town.3 After 1837 the Mazrui rulers lost their control over Mombasa to the new Busaidi dynasty of Oman and Sultan Sayyid Said. During this time the economic situation of the town improved which lead to a lot of new developments ,a major influence of the Kenya and Uganda railways project which started in 1896,one year after Kenya became a British Protectorate.4 As part of new developments and the location features Mombasa had of deep water harbor near the former Kilindini settlement site was chosen for development of new Port facilities, and the starting point for railways construction. This had to be reworked during 1903; the harbor was rebuilt with Iron piles and coral rock, replacing the previous wooden structure for the Trade operations. While the Kalindini harbor was developing, the old port maintained a high volume of traffic ,because it was still is vary suitable for large dhows and small coastal ships .which has been evidently seen as the presence of 100 steamers from Indian Ports ,with 6000 passengers and 12,500 tons of cargo

3 4

Kirkman , James “Men and Monuments of the East African coast” Lutterworth Press,London 1964 Berg ,Fred James “Mombasa under Basuidi Sultanate: The city and its hinterland in

the 19th century ” University of Wisconsin,1971

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Due to this heavy traffic there was a huge development evidently seen in the Infrastructure of port facilities, followed by two deep water berths in 1922, and more in 1929. Only then did full scale construction of port and storage facilities at Kalindini commence, with over 1000 workers being employed, for the port facilities alone.5 According to , this was the time of fast growth Mombasa had seen, this lead to the migration of new craft and people to the city, which well reflected in the architectural language and urban structure of the city. The distinct pattern of the old town has survived many changes and still is functioning as a basic structure for a sound community.

2.2.1v The zones of Historical development ,due to fast growth of Mombasa.

5 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Grey ,Sir John Milner â&#x20AC;&#x153;The British in Mombasa 1824-1826â&#x20AC;? Mcmillan London, 1957

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Thriving trade brings a large number of new arrivals, and the locals as well as the incomers adapted to the ubiquitous presence of the two societies. Thus in the process the sites of trade has triggered significant movements of ideas, objects and people with their religion in order to produce a cosmopolitan culture. The Mosques The amalgam of two important societies marked a significant presence of Islam on the east African coast, which can be evidently seen with the number of buildings mosques, tombs and houses (Garlake 1966) at Kilwa ,Tanzania(chittick 1975); Gedi and Ungwana ,Kenya (Kirkman James 1954); Mogadishu, Somalia (Garlake 1966,Kirkaman James 1964). Due to the mercantile interactions with the Arabian Peninsula and Indian west coast, there have been close parallels which can be traced in the architectural style and plan organization of the mosques and other important buildings of the Coastal region. Mosques on the East African coast take the form of covered halls approached by small courts, which mainly serve the function of providing places for ablution. The halls are entirely surrounded by walls and approached through cleared arch doorways, which are usually in the sidewalls at right angles to the quibla wall.1 A notable characteristic of the mosque is that their longest dimension is not parallel to the quibla wall, as one would expect, from the precedent of most of the courtyard mosques of the Islamic world, but at right angles to the quibla wall.(Fig b.)The smaller mosques have further unusual feature that there is a central row of columns in line with Mihrab. An example of the latter is the mosque of Kizimkazi, on Zanzibar.

a. The mosque of Kazimkizi in Zanzibar. 1 Lewcock, Ronald. “Architectural connections between Africa and the Indian Ocean Littoral”, AARP,1987

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

b. Plan and Sections of the Great mosque at Kilwa . Source :Kilwa Al- Muluk by Stephane Pradines School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Such a type of architecture seems to have been established on the coast in many areas before the introduction of the new style in the late 13th century, which has been noted by Neville Chittick (1975). The mosques of the early period are characterized by their relatively small size, thick walls and, usually of roughly coursed coral ashlar, polygonal pillars of wood or masonry, creating two or at most three aisles. Like the large houses in the region the mosques are also covered with flat roofs made of short cross beams carrying a thick layer of crushed coral rock and lime.2 (Fig c.)

c. Shela -Plan and Section of Friday Mosque. 2 Lewcock, Ronald. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Architectural connections between Africa and the Indian Ocean Littoralâ&#x20AC;?, AARP,1987

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

The end of 12th century and most of the 13th century (Chitticks period ll) marked a great increase in wealth along the coast. This coincides with the rapid rise of Mogadishu; the most important trade hub of the coast. Mogadishu was the first stage of the journey south from Aden to the gold bearing area, which Sofala was the port. Both the mosques and the building techniques of this period suggest the importation of new style influences in architecture. At the end of the 13th century there is a clear change in the architectural style, which now takes many characteristics of fashionable styles of the period in the Persian Gulf and India.3 The style is evident in the huge extension made to the Mosque at Kilwa(Fig b.) and in the construction of the palace and royal warehouse of Husuni Kubwa on the Kilwa Kisiwani Island.(Fig d.)

d.The royal warehouse of Husuni Kubwa,KIlwa Island. 3 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Kirkman,James â&#x20AC;&#x153; The early History of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Oceanâ&#x20AC;? Art and Architecture Research Paper ,1987.

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e. The Royal warehouse : Husuni Kubwa attempts to convey the unique elegance of the architecture ,the complexity and variety of domes and ordered progression of private and public courts.

There was a renewal of prosperity along the coast in the first half of 15th century. The great mosque at Kilwa was repaired and the whole of its roof seems to have been reconstructed, with domes and barrel vaults (Fig f.), while the small domed mosque the Jangwani mosque, and possibly other domed and vaulted constructions in the palace and the house of the mosque were built at this time.4

f. East façade of the mosque, Kilwa, note central dome with octagonal pillar flanked by barrel vaults on each side. 4

Kirkman,James “ The early History of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Ocean” Art and Architecture Research Paper ,1987.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Possible origins for the Mosque plan and form The design of East African mosques has close parallels with the designs of the early mosques in South Arabia. They have the same longitudinal prayer halls with small courtyards used mainly to house open air ablutions ,narrow spans and flat roofs; in particular ,a characteristic feature of many of them in the presence of a central row of piers in line with the Mihrab.5 According to Prof.Lewcock,on “Architectural connections”, in view of the close relationship between Aden and the East African ports in the 12th and 13th century, it’s hardly surprising that the South Arabian form was adopted there, nor that its resisted change during subsequent periods when external influences were altering other characteristics of the architectural styles along the coast. The style characterized by the alterations to the Great Mosque at Kilwa in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries is markedly Indian. The immediate and near contemporary parallels to the developments on the East African coast in dome and vaulting design and architectural decoration may be seen in the Indian mosques of the 14th century ,notably those built in the “imperial style” by the Tughluqs, such as “Nizammudin ‘s khana” in Delhi c.1320 and Tughluq’s tomb of approximately the same date.6 The Shish Gumbad in Delhi, 15th century, the Alata Masjid in Jaunpur, 1470, all have as crowning friezes rows of square panels, like those which are characteristics of the East African architectural styles. A marked feature of the African Mosques is that their arches are not true arches with radiating voussoirs, the type which had been built for many centuries before the date throughout most of the Islamic world, following principles inherited from the Saisanians and Romans, but are corbelled arches meeting at the top without central voussoirs.(R.de V Allan.AARP 3 1973)

Lewcock, Ronald. “Architectural connections between Africa and the Indian Ocean

Littoral”, AARP,1987 5 Serjeant R.B.& Lewcock, Ronald. “Saan’a” ,London,1975 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Influences in Swahili House plan and Palaces.

The typical house plan in East Africa shows a spatial progression from the narrow street through a large-scale doorway into a private courtyard and thence into covered space which becomes increasingly private and small in scale as one penetrates in depth. Doorways were generally formally designed, with wised pointed arches commonly of corbelled ogee type set in recessed rectangular fields.(P.S.Garlake,1966) They were frequently flanked by small rectangular niches for lamps at the stringing points of the arches. The lamp niches were sometimes. As per James Kirkman,under Omani protection the coastal commerce slowly regained its momentum, leading to a further development trading cities and the construction, by skilled craftsmen and slave labor, of town houses and mosques using coral stone and mangrove timber logs which are called “Boriti poles”.1 (Fig a.) An increasing number of Indian workers and craftsmen scattered in the many parts of the coast during the beginning of the 13th century.(N.Chittick,1966) Due to this the traditional building style, building construction skills from Indian subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula was imported and greatly influenced the architectural language and the organization pattern of built form.

As per Ghaidan’s findings, about conservation study on Lamu, Kenya; In the Swahili neighborhood most walls consisted of low grade coral rubble, and thus the height was limited to one storey. Hence houses were initially of single storey. And the upper floors were apparently later additions to them. The flat roofs do not appear to have been used, as no masonry steps led up to them although there might have been timber ladders. The shape of the rooms was usually defined by the limited span of the mangrove beams supporting the roof (rarely more than 3 meters).(Fig b.) g. Doorway of a Swahili house in Zanzibar. Source :AARP Prof.Ronald Lewcock Aug1987.

The system of planning therefore resolved itself into the building up of accommodation by placing long narrow units parallel to each other. 1 Kirkman,James “ The early History of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Ocean” Art and Architecture Research Paper ,1987.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

a. Plan of a Swahili House in Lamu ,Kenya Source :Lamu watrefront revitalization ,Unesco world Heritage.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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b.Plan of a Swahili stone house in Zanzibar.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Looking at another such instance of organization pattern of a merchant’s house, at Gedi the earliest type of house plan was characterized by a long narrow court with the main room fronting onto one long side, with private quarters behind it, consisting of a long parallel room with three small rooms opening off it (bedroom, kitchen, store ).The lavatory was off one side of the main front room. Later the Gedi plan was changed by dividing the middle private room into two rooms, presumably for the owner’s two wives. The further addition of a domestic court facilitated cooking, and a final improvement was the enlargement of the front courtyard to a wide rectangle, which could be suitable for commercial purpose.3 The front court is clearly an early feature in the East African coastal style, as it died out of use before the 18th century. In the older cities the front court of the houses usually had sunken areas in the centre,with the raised walkways around three sides of them, which were high enough to provide seats in the open air.(Garlake, 1966)

Palaces The palaces were essentially proliferations of dwelling units of the same type as the house described above, following a practice which can be traced back to early Islam in Syria and Iraq.3 The East African house type is indeed essentially the Umayyad and Abbasid Bayt. There was usually a fine entrance portal to the palace, with flanking seats and the first sunken reception court acted as an audience area. The rulers’ quarters were no longer than those of the better houses. Other suites and of rooms, resembling houses and related to their own courtyards, surrounded the audience court and the ruler’s quarters and were interconnected with them through private passages.Other features that were added to the Great Palace of Husuni Kubwa were terraces swimming pool and a vast warehouse court. (Fig f. pg 62) 3 2 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Garlake, Peter S. “The Kingdoms of Africa:The making of the past” Elsevier-Phaidon, 1978 Garlake, Peter S. “The Early Islamic Architecture of The East African Coast.”Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 96-97.

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Possible sources of the plans and forms of the Houses The East African house form is of great antiquity can be seen by comparing it with the plans of the central flanking apartments of the palace of Ukhaidir, near Baghdad c.774 and with the plans of the side apartments of the palace of Jausaq al- Kharqani, at Samarrac.836.4 Houses in Persia,the Arabian Gulf and many parts of the Indian subcontinent preserve this form in many variations, some of which virtually parallel the East African example. According to P.S. Garlake,In the house form the administrative center had been transformed from a large-scale palace like Ukhaidir into a rich and vibrant industrial and commercial Institution. As might be expected, from its close connection with the East African coast, Muscat and the territories in Arabia preserved houses which are almost identical with those of the 18th century type on the East African coast.(Garlake1966) The Muscat examples preserve the essential plan form, but without the characteristic wall pilasters, and the frieze of square panels. Houses in Gujarat and the coastal areas further south are not generally so close in plan form to those of the African coast; on the other hand, the characteristic organization of the surface molding and decoration which is found on the East African houses can be closely paralleled in India, the only exception being that circular Chinese bowls are not used in inset decorations on Indian walls.5 In particular the later manifestation of decorations, which developed in Lamu as a series of niches are rectangular panels across the wall surfaces is very close to facades of houses and mosques in the area of Southern Gujarat (Fig. c.), In Cambay Broach and Surat. A series of niched recesses on the interior walls of the house sometimes occurring in several tiers is characteristic of the southern Gujarat region, as it is of the last east African coastal style at Lamu. Doors “The doors are of wood, well carved, with excellent joinery” (Duarte Barbosa, c. 1500, Description of Kilwa and Mombasa) One of the two basic types of ornamental door found in the old town of the coast is acknowledged by the inhabitants to be Indian in origin. The small number of examples surviving in Mombasa and Mozambique are flanked by Indian sculptured bands and high niches for lamps in stone, and are crowned with fine carved stone a. A Doorway of a House in Cambay,Gujarat. cornices. 5 4

Garlake, Peter S. “The Kingdoms of Africa: The making of the past” Elsevier-Phaidon, 1978 Kirkman,James “ The early History of the spread of Islam in the western Indian Ocean” Art and Architecture Research Paper ,1987.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Assumptions have been made by historians that small sub doors follow the typical Indian west coast pattern and hence all the elements Including the wooden doors ,may have been imported from Cochin and Cambay.(Fig a&b.)The other type of door is more common throughout the region.It has an elaborately carved frame with a high wooden plate incorporated in to the frame at the lintel, which is also decoratively carved. The deepest carving is reserved for the elaborate central cover strip of the doors, which is made from a massive block of wood. The occurrence of doors of the East Africa type in the Indian Ocean Littoral b. A carved doorway in Lamu.

Doors of the East African type are quite common in the old towns of the Oman coast.The example illustrated here(Fig on the left)is one of a number still remaining in the old city of Muscat. These are very similar types of door frame decorations are to be seen in the Arabian Gulf. This shows possibilities of importing East African workmanship into Muscat. It has been noticed by architectural historians that early texts describe elaborate doors with projecting brass bosses spreading throughout Afghanistan to the Punjab in India in the first half of the 12th century. Conclusion The evidence for the cross-cultural architecture is still fragmentary, but there are very strong hints appearing of certain essential unities in the culture of the Indian Ocean Littoral. Within these overall unities, however definite regional patterns appear. Those of East Africa were probably colonial offshoots of the Southern Arabian culture at first, infused with influences coming from Arabian Gulf up to the 13th century. The evidence for the former lies in the persistence of a type of mosque plan which was common in southern Arabia in early Islamic times; for the later in the persistence of an early form of house plan which was characteristic of Abbasid Iraq and the Arabian Gulf.

c. Traditional Swahili house; characteristic carved niches wall with decoration. Source :AARP Prof.Ronald Lewcock Aug.1987.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

In the 13th century the East African coast seem to have begun to receive a strong injection from the culture of western India, from which emerged the architectural style which became fixed as most characteristic for the decoration of buildings for many centuries. After a brief and somewhat transient period of Portuguese influence on the culture of the coast, the hegemony of Oman and Muscat reintroduced the links between the African coast and the Arabian Gulf; but by this time the coastal towns were either in decline or firmly fixed in patterns, which the later Islamic styles could barely affect.

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2.2.2 Grazioso Benincasa. Biblioteca Universitaria, Bolonia. The first map is Benincasa map (1482), one of the maps studied by Columbus when he set sail for the Indies.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.2 The Red Sea Trading environments: • Aden, Yemen. • Mocha

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Trade and Built environment Although the maritime trade has been long considered an important aspect of the Trading city’s economy and history, art and architectural historians has touched only upon the effects of pre modern maritime commerce. The studies done in the field laid the groundwork for understanding the tight material links between trading cultures mainly through the identification of objects of foreign manufacture, the work of migratory crafts people and the transmission of visual influence. Yet it is the architectural records that hold the key to accounting for the cultural dimensions of commercial interactions during this moment of intense global contact on the Arabian Peninsula and in the Indian Ocean Littoral. Ruth Barne’s examination of the use of Indian textile patterns in the decoration of the sixteenth century “Amirriyaa Madrasa” and Mosque in the Yemeni city of Rada serves as an example of the primary ways in which art and architecture have been located alongside Yemen’s trade History.1 Barne’s incisively demonstrated how the portable designs of everyday imported cloth from South Asia moved into the realm of monumental architectural painting in the Tahirid Period. This confirmed a relationship in which certain features of Indian trade objects that had been transferred to the Arabian Peninsula eventually made their way into the local lexicon of royal architectural motifs. The body of work on Yemeni trade which her study revolves around the notion that commercial cross cultural exchange may be most effectively gauged by considering art and architecture at the point of its manufacture and by following relationships that are readily discernable to the eyes.

2.2.2a The Western Yemen in the Red Sea. 1

Barnes, Ruth “Indian Block-Printed Textiles in Egypt” The Newberry Collection in the Ashmolean Museum. Oxford,Clarendon Press 1997

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.2b The Red sea Source :The Merchant Houses of Mocha ,Nancy Um.

2.2.2b1Map of Aden in The Red Sea . Source :National Archieves ,The Neatherlands

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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The Trading environments in Yemeni Port 2.2.2c The encampment of the caravan of pilgrims from the Maghrib (North Africa) from the Anis al-Hujjaj copied by Safi ibn Vali India, possibly Gujarat, c1677–80 Ink, watercolor and gold on paper, 23 folios with 20 illustrations, Persian text in nasta‘liq

2.2.2d View of the port of Surat, oriented to the south,and the ships carrying pilgrims’ from the Anis al-Hujjaj copied by Safi ibn Vali India, possibly Gujarat, c1677–80 Ink, watercolor and gold on paper, 23 folios with 20 illustrations, Persian text in nasta’liq Source : Naseer D Kalili collection Of The Arts of Islam

2.2.2e the Red Sea port in the early modern western Indian Ocean Source: The Merchant houses of Mocha ,Nancy Um

2.2.2e

According to Michel Tuchscherer’s finding on ‘Trade and port cities in the Red sea’, “In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, port in Yemen. Especially in Mocha’s port welcomed a wide range of ships from trade routes originating below the Jidda gap.” Every year the first ship from India was awaited with great anticipation, because this marked the beginning of trade season. Long distance vessels such as large dhows with two or three masts called “Ghurabs”, along with galleys, brigantine and barks from the Indian subcontinents constituted the most significant portion of the international trade of Mocha in Yemen. A veritable pipeline of maritime traffic ran from the Red sea to Gujarat on the west coast of India, particularly between Mocha and Surat. (Fig 2.2.2d) Together these cities functioned as twin ports along a maritime highway. Although vessels arrived from the other Indian ports such as Cambay in Gujarat ,Diu and Porbandar on the Kathiawar Peninsula, Karwar in Karnataka , Kannur ,Kozhikode ,and Kochi on the Malabar Coast, Pondicherry on the Coromandel coast and Hugli in Bengal. Mocha’s trade depended on the constant flow of goods and merchants along the Mocha-Surat Route.(Fig 2.2.2e) Some vessels that travelled this route may be defined as royal ships, the Mughal emperors and other members of the Royal family sent ships from Surat to the Red sea laden with cargo and carrying pilgrims destined for Mecca via Jeddah. These ships stopped at Mocha mainly to replenish supplies and unload goods before continuing to the Hijaz. Thus the trade activities overlapped with pilgrimage activity.1

2.2.2c

2.2.2d

Das Ashin (ed. M.N.Pearson)“Gujarati Merchants and the Red Sea trade” Honolulu,University of Hawaii Press, 1979

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Following the natural calendar of the monsoon winds, ships from India began to arrive as early as January and continued to appear throughout the spring. They sailed eastward in August leaving Mocha’s harbor relatively empty by constituted the key Indian Manufactured commodity of the Port. Made in the production centers of Gujarat, the Coromandel Coast, and Bengal, the textiles represented a multitude of varieties, styles and qualities, a range reflecting the huge market for Indian cloth in Yemen and other parts of Middle East. The vast majority consisted of cotton calicoes and chintzes .Varieties included salampore, a kind of chintz, usually white, that was originally made in the Coromandel Coast; a light muslin cloth made in Bengal that had great appeal throughout the Middle East; and canvas for sails and other utility purposes.2 An Indian textile known as Guinea cloth, made for the African market travelled through the Mocha, eventually ending up as far away as the West Indies to clothe slaves on Caribbean plantations. Spices from India and Southeast Asia included cloves, pepper, cardamom, mace, turmeric, ginger and nutmeg. The vessels that carried the eastern goods to Mocha and other Yemeni ports returned to the Indian Coast carrying loads of bullion and cases of specie shipped from Mediterranean for re minting into Mughal coins in India. During the 17th and 18th century, Coffee was shipped from Mocha to Surat mainly on European boats. In contrast with Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf vessels, the rest of the Mocha’s ships can be characterized broadly as local Red sea traffic that travelled up, down and across the waterway. The longitudinal traffic consisted mainly of small Red Sea “jalbas” That travelled between Jeddah and the Yemeni Ports al Luhayya , Al Hudayda ,Aden and Mocha. Connections to the western Indian world ,The Persian gulf and other lower Red sea ports were correspondingly intensified ,leading to a situation in which two distinct poles Qasimi Sann’a to the north and Mughal Surat to the east -defined Mocha’s livelihood, trade ,and governance. At the port city of Mocha the Qasimi sphere of administration and authority converged with the commercial maritime world below the Jeddah gap, which stretched towards India and away from Cairo and the Mediterranean.

2.2.2f Pilgrim Boats at Jiddah.1930.

The trade in Mocha and Aden, this trans regional traffic was dominated by coffee, which was directed north towards Cairo via Jeddah from all the three Yemeni Ports. There was also a good deal of traffic between Mocha, Massawa and Zayla on the western shores of the Red sea and Gulf of Aden, routes by which products from the African interiors entered the Indian Ocean.(Nancy,Um The Yemeni coffee network,2009) 2

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Um,Nancy “The Merchant Houses of Mocha-The Yemeni trade network”University of Washington Press 2009.

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The littoral society: Merchants and Local ship-owners As per Nancy Um’s accounts about the “Littoral society in Yemen”, the sources indicate that the walled city of Mocha was modest in dimensions and in the size of its population. At the city’s shore, the extent of the walled area reached only a mile from north to south, and the semicircular wall that wrapped around the city to the east measured only one mile in length. Although there were a number of extramural residential quarters, the city’s main houses sat inside the wall. Many of them were fully inhabited only during the high trade season, for the population fluctuated as merchants, sailors, pilgrims and seafarers came and went. Additionally, any political instability in the area invited a surge in the local population as soldiers from the Imam’s Army arrived for temporary residence.

The Urban form and orientation of Port of Mocha The harbor of Mocha took shape of a crescent with a shoreline stretching from south to north and two arms of land jutting from either end into the Red Sea.(Fig 2.2.2g) As ships entered the sheltered harbor, multi storied ,whitewashed buildings appeared along the shore ,punctuated by towering minarets rising high above the skyline .many visitors mentioned ,however ,that the city ‘s archi2.2.2g Plan de la Ville de tectural landscape was more impressive from the water than from Moka,Reproduced from Jacques Bellin. within the city itself, where modest houses with conical thatched The city was shaped like a sickle with roofs surrounded decrepit buildings in ruin.1

its northern and southern tips extending into the water ,each crowned with a fort .The fort known as Qalat al Tayyar,on the northern tounge of land,mirrored Qalat Abd al Rauf,at the othe end. Together they formed a unified line of defence against enemies who sailed into the curved harbor.

The monumentality of the shoreline vista deceived the first time visitor to Mocha because the most Imposing structures bordered the waterside, like a facade to the city ,obscuring the interior with its humble ,low mud and thatch settlements and brick structures in disrepair. If we take a glance at the community fabric of the Mocha, being a port town it has been of multi ethnic groups of mercantile communities and traders from far away trading centres associated with Mocha in Red Sea. Most of the Mocha’s notable residences during the last seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were not native to the city. Governors, city scribes, money exchangers, religious scholars and the major merchants and “Nakhudhas” were African, Indian, Persian and Arab, the last from the other cities on the Arabian Peninsula. Within the Indian trading community were a number of subgroups, such as the Gujarati Muslims merchants, some of those were Bohras, and the Hindu and Jain Baniyas . 1

Eric Macro,”Topography of Mocha” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Archaeopress 1980

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Also Muslim Lotia - Merchants, from the Kathiawar peninsula in India, constituted other subgroup. Armenian merchants are mentioned occasionally in the records but appear not to have constituted a significant block of merchants in the city. Also English, Dutch, French, Austrian and Swedish merchants represented Europe. Large communities of Jews and Somalis also lived in two residential quarters to the south of the city. The cross section of Mocha’s Muslim population reveals a great deal of sectarian diversity, Including Sunnis, Zaydis, Boharas, shias and religious multiplicity encompassing Hindus, Christians and Jews.2 Urban form Available sources like historical maps, textual sources, aerial photographs extant evidence from Mocha, and the memories of current residents, allows a reconstruction of the city’ urban form from 18th century. The map allows exploring dynamics of Mocha with a focus on the layout of its major built elements and an analysis of its orientation. The breakdown of Mocha’s urban shape assumes that geographic, political, and economic systems played important roles, as per Tuchscherer. The port city served as a shared location where systems overlapped and required spatial and tangible translation for those who crossed from one to another. According to Anthony King’s findings the urban systems,are the one which emphasizes the symbiotic relationship between material and spatial aspects of cities, their built environments, and architectural form and the social economic and cultural systems of which they are a part. Both political worlds and economic systems defined Mocha’s city life and its urban form, through tangible, visible, built markers. This relationship of part to whole was complex and fixed in time.

2.2.2h Reconstruction of Mocha in late 17th and 18th centuries. 2 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Smith,Machintosh Tim, “City of Divine and Earthly Joys: The Description of Ṣanʻāʼ” American Institute for Yemeni Studies, 2001

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2.2.2l he Suq Zabid ,Yemen,18th century.

The southeastern part of the wall enclosed the marketplace. This market place consisted of two parts, a market for nonperishable commodities such as textiles, tools, pottery and spices and other market specialized for perishable goods.

2.2.2i A stall in the Suq ,Mocha ,Photographed by Hermann Burchardt.1909.

The market for non perishables took a built form comparable to that of the well preserved “Tihami Market” of Zabid, as mentioned by Nancy Um on “Trading structures in Mocha”. Also many references suggest a wide ranging public character for this south eastern area which included numerous coffee shops. Steps away from this commercial area are important religious structures such as al Shadhili’s tomb (Fig 2.2.2j) dominated the intramural city’s northern portion. In the 17th and 18th century the religious structure named for al Shadili, along with the Great Mosque ,or al Jami made up a religious sector in the eastern part of the city.

2.2.2j Tomb of al Shadhili,Mocha 2000.

2.2.2k The Great Mosque of Mocha ,Photographed by Hermann Burchardt,1909.

Preceding the development of the port in the 16th century, the commercial sector and the religious precinct to its north functioned tightly as a unified public core with residential neighborhoods surrounding it. In the late 17th and 18th centuries this inland core persisted, although it lost its integrity as a village and was turned transformed by many Ottoman monumental additions, the 17th century wall and its corresponding gates, the central roadway that cut through the city, and the shoreline development. Through the 19th century however this key area, the original heart of the city, still functioned as the local retail market and sanctified core of Mocha.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

The shoreline strip in Mocha In case of this thriving international port in 18th century ,the seaside point of the axis was marked by the official structures that administered the wholesale overseas trade of the city and the merchant’s houses ,in stone and white washed brick which added to the everyday functional operations of the long distance trade, The Easter quadrant of town, with its multiple mosques, tombs and cemetery, served as a well trafficked public retail region and religious precinct that catered to the needs of the local community. Public, religious and official institutions at each end defined the length and the extent of the city’s east west axis and roadway, stretching along the shore in the west and clustered at the inland point of convergence in the east, rather than being gathered at the centre of the city. This organization was not planned but resulted as a function of the city’s development over time and changing urban character.1

2.2.2m View of Mocha from the north ,showing circular thatched houses (ushshas),19th century.

2.2.2n Artist’s rendering of the south quarter of Mocha ,19th century.The Mosque of al Sandal stands in the center. 1 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Um,Nancy “The Merchant Houses of Mocha-The Yemeni trade network”University of Washington Press 2009.

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The city square, the Governor’s house, the custom house and the Wikala, a caravanserai, on the shore constituted the nucleus of an area of development that stretched along the seaside, separate from the established interior.(Smith,Machintosh Tim,2001) It has been assumed that the Ottomans founded administrative facilities in the city by the mid 16th century is supported by a coin minted in the port of Mocha abd, dated 970/1562-63. By the end of the 16th century the port was functioning with all necessary facilities of a major harbor, as is confirmed by Arabic source detailing the rise of Mocha and Aden’s associated decline as the central port at the mouth of the Red sea. Mocha‘s urban shape must be viewed in relation to the processes by which it was formed. Indeed the map is meaningless without the consideration of the unique urban development that brought about its shape. One must remember the beginnings of the small seaside village that sprouted around the “Zawiya” of a famous Sufi saint and its later dimension as a major international port.2 These two distinct shaping elements led to a spatial bifurcation of the city and its marketplace, but both parts were used and instrumentalized by the Qasimi administrators, the city’s merchants and its residents in the 17th and 18th centuries. Trading spaces within the city of Mocha Due to the import and export trade was the major business of the city, One might expect that the structures in here that travelling merchants used for their business negotiations, lodging and storage were numerous and heavily trafficked during the peak season of trade. But 18th century Mocha calls into the question the dominant paradigms for conceiving of spaces of trade in the Arab world. Its commercial practice collapsed a rigid understanding of form and function, and the needs of its flourishing trade blurred the boundaries between public and private spaces as traditionally cast. The suq, the qayasariyya and The Urban Khan and the Merchant Houses.

2.2.2o Street view of Samsarat al Nahhas ,Sana’a

The retail “Suq” consists of street level stretches of stores that can be opened individually and cater to the general public. (Fig 2.2.2o) The “Qaysariyya” is a freestanding structure or an area within market, without any lodging facilities, dedicated to the production and sale of specialized merchandise for the retail sphere. The “Urban Khan” is a structure for wholesale, bulk trade, intended for the use of the merchant community, with lodging and storage facilities. The three types of buildings meet in a spatially unified market center that addresses the multiple needs of commercial communities and their clients. 2

Eric Macro,”Topography of Mocha” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Archaeopress 1980

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.2p Roof level view of Samsarat al Nahhas ,Sana’a .

Out of these three kinds of the commercial structures, the khan is of primary interest here because it was the most important type of building in the Arab world that played a role in large scale international trade. The “khan” exclusively governed the volume of bulk exchange, so the number of khan in a given city serves as an absolute indicator of its large scale commercial activity. Located in the heart of Sana’a, the khan known as Samsarat-al-Nahhas provides a good example of the layout and organization of an urban khan. (Fig 2.2.2p) The sources from the first half of the 18th century consistently describe trade activities, commercial meetings and lodging for merchants and storage of commodities as taking place in the houses and residential complexes of merchants and traders of Mocha. Also one account describes the house that served as the residential trading establishment of the French Compagnie des Indes in Mocha as a “dukkan” which refers to a small retail shop.(Fig 2.2.2p) This label suggests a dual commercial and residential nature for the merchant’s house, a functional duality otherwise unobserved in Yemeni highland cities. The major commercial negotiations and meetings conducted at the merchant houses, thus the domestic localization of the trade encompassed the upper stratum of the overseas merchant class.

2.2.2q House in Mocha .Photographer by Auguste Bartholdi

Even more to the dual commercial and residential nature of the merchant houses,the European companies in Mocha never built any kind of dedicated structures as they did in other thriving trade centers.3 They simply followed the mode of conducting trade in the city as modeled by the dominant merchant class in the city. 3

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Um,Nancy “The Merchant Houses of Mocha-The Yemeni trade network”University of Washington Press 2009.

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Echoing in its functions the plan of the general Yemeni tower house, the ground floor of the Mocha merchant’s house served not as living space but as warehouse, easily accessible for the transfer of goods and a safe place for storage.(Fig 2.2.2s) All such houses had more than one entrance to the ground floor space, which was subdivided into distinct areas that could separate from one another. Household animals were kept on the ground floor, the second floor above the ground level served as a major living space of the house, used by the family for routine activities. Each house had a living space on the roof that often served as an outdoor bedroom on hot summer nights.(Lewcock ,Ronald “The Old city of Sana’a” 1986) Historically the designs of Arab houses had to integrate family privacy and gender segregation, both considered as major concerns. In case of Mocha the need of the trade complicated with these domestic considerations. Much writing about gender segregation in the Arab house has focused on fixed divisions within the domestic space, following the assumption that separate men’s and women’s quarters provided the most convenient built response to the issue of family privacy. As per Prof.Lewcock’s findings, Mocha’s domestic architecture however was closely related to its functional counterparts extending all the way down to the African Swahili coast and across the Arabian Sea. This functional correspondence between structurally distinct examples of houses suggested that in the spatial logic that characterized the Mocha trade network, travelling merchants expected to conduct negotiations in their house rather in public structures, but they held no exceptions about the way these houses needed to be organized.

2.2.2s The Yemeni tower house in Sanna .The Old city of Sanna by Prof. Ronald Lewcock

2.2.2r Ground floor & Second floor plan of Bayt al -Mahfadi. A well known merchant house in Mocha,Yemen

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.2t Ground floor plan of Mehta House in Gogha ,Gujarat ,India. 2.2.2t1 Ground Floor Plan of Bayt Al Wadud,Al Luhayya ,a Port in Red sea . 2.2.2t2 Ground Floor Plan of the house of t t1 t2 Umar Effendi,Sawakin ,Sudan.

Here we can see that the focus was on replicating a mode of commercial practice rather than imitating the physical receptacles of these practices. By examining the routines and patterns of trade, one can trace the extent of this shared understanding along the trade routes leading to and emanating from Mocha. In conclusion the Art and architecture historians have traced the circulation of visual motifs in exchange networks surrounding the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. The underlying assumption is that the eye plays an important role in confirming the saturation of cultural contact, whether by identifying shared decorative motifs or by recognizing the duplication of architectural organization in floor plans. One must probe beyond the replication of visual or built idioms in order to ask how architecture mediates the experiences and the practices of trade. In Mocha and Aden commercial needs and economic impulses played important roles in determining the functional uses of public and private structures and their relationships to one another. The space of the city and its buildings played an important instrumental role in negotiating the experience of trade and long distance travel for merchants who came not just from overseas but also from inlands of Yemen. Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Urban shape and spatial organization ,stemming from its past as a lowland town organized around a saintâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tomb and its position as a major Ottoman port ,allowed for a transition from the world of the interior into the world of the maritime ,and from the sea to mountains.

2.2.2u A merchant house in Mocha .

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

As mentioned by Nancy Um, these urban structures and landmarks served as mediating built elements and spatial tools of translation. The shape of the city and the architectural properties of its buildings allowed for a commercial engagement that assumed cultural, geographical and linguistic multiplicity and provided guests from afar with recognizable modes of handling trade transactions in an urban space that was one familiar and foreign.

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Conclusion The trading cities have remained a product of trade and religion modified by the environment. Looking at the tradition, the way trade always has been conducted at these places, reflects on the set of parameters in the urban structure and urban divisions of these trading centers. It has always been seen based on its geographical conditions and favorable conditions of harbour to conduct trade operations. As the port cities have been considered open gateways for influence of culture and migration of transient communities, traders and merchants, there has always been seen the cosmopolitan nature of society in the city fabric, specially the traders and Merchant communities like Khojas, Menons, Gujaratis those who dominated the Indian Ocean trade . At the same time it reflects in its urban divisions with the economic hierarchy, and a set of infrastructure of social, commercial and religious institutions. These all aspects contribute to the urban landscape and urban experience of the port city. This has resulted in its constituting what is arguable the largest cultural continuum in the Indian Ocean world, In most of the parts of the basin, the coasts has a greater community of culture with each other and with the islands than they ever had with the land masses of which they form the littorals. The fact can be seen even in the Architecture and organization pattern of important religious and commercial institutions-trading structures;such as “urban Khans” and “souqs” and other important buildings. There are lot of similarities in the orientation of these clusters of Institutions in order to demonstrate that the culture of trade profoundly shaped the underlying structure of the port cities,defining the principle orientation of its urban shape.(Fig 2.2.2v)

2.2.2v Plan of Al- Moka, by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin (Left) Antique map of Surat, India by C. Niebuhr, 1776 (Right) Source:Le petit atlas maritime,Paris 1764

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.2.2w Bellinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s navigational map of the Gulf of Cambay,a copperplate engraving from 1761.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.3a Engraving by pieter Schenk(1715)of Kochi ,Kerala. Source :The British Library.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

2.3 The Indian west coast as “Sites of Trade”rather than “expansion” • Trade routes and ports on the west coast: an outline survey.

•

Geography of Trade within India and its Global dimensions.

• Economical and Political background 2.3.1 Kochi (16th and 17th Century)

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Trade routes and ports on the west coast: An Outline Survey

The Arabian Sea with its seasonal reversal in wind systems is highly conducive to trading enterprise conducted through sailing vessels, unlike the hostile conditions prevalent in the Bay of Bengal. The hydrographical conditions would mould the rise and fall of trading settlements, places of anchorage and ports along the coastline from Gujarat to Konkan and to Malabar in down south. If we look at the nature of trade being practiced on the west coast (in the Indian Ocean Trade network) and the east coast, it has been of a great difference. Hence the characters of these trading cities on both the sides are of very much different nature. Before the European invasion took place in order to pursue trade on the west coast, there was a sort of decentralization of political power noticed. There were the kingdoms of trade in the Indian Ocean littoral â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Omani Arabs, various rulers on the Indian west coast and sultans of the Indonesia (Melaka).All these patrons of trade from different places formed a system with dispersed centers of trading ports. And so there was a decentralization of power, hence dispersed /decentralized system of economic power also prevailed in the Indian Ocean. For example, the financiers and traders from Kutch, some were from Uddupi Area ,Kerala, some of them sultanates and East African coast ,so like this the various economic groups were also dispersed and In the ecology of trade. And in order to seek protection for the mercantile interactions the Military and political power was also dispersed and not concentrated. As we can see here there was a sort of ecology among all these patrons of trade, all of these would be a certain degree of competition but at the same time there will be a certain agreement of sphere of employs. Like this the Mutual understanding of conducting trade and similarly for the financial backup for all these sites of trade. Hence as a result of this practise there will be a system which continuously dynamically balancing out entire trading network in the Indian Ocean, which always facilitated the mercantile communities from various spheres within the network, to conduct trade, and as there was always dispersed political power there was never an emphasis to portray facade of power.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

In this case the sites of trade always avoided the practice of expanding the territory, or establishing kingdoms in order to balance the long established system of trade in the Indian Ocean. This also reflects on the urban form and structure of the trading cities on the coast. Due to the decentralization if we look at the city form it doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t signify singularity. Hence we can see here this made a kind of loser and less pronounced symbolic differentiation in case of Port cities along the west coast, for example Kochi Kerala, Cambay Gujarat , Gogha Kathiawar region except the beach heads like Bombay, Karachi-which later on became the spearheads of economic penetration and political expansion during the colonial era.

2.3b Map of India 1700 -1792.

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East coast expanding the territory: In case of the Coromandel Coast the ecology of trade differed from the west coast in the Indian Ocean, based on its practice of conducting trade, where in most cases the Indian East coast went across and created large kingdoms. In comparison to Malabar Coast, if we look at one of the South Indian ports, like Kanchipuram was administered by Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara rulers and the British before Independence from the 3rd to 9th century AD. Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas who ruled over the territory extending from the river Krishna in the north to the river Kaveri in the south. The Pallavas fortified the city with ramparts, moats, and other facilities to protect the city against attacks, with wide and well laid out roads and fine temples. There was a great maritime power with contacts to far-off China, Siam, Fiji, through their chief port Mamallapuram.1 Thus they went across till Cambodia and made kingdom; which was called “The great Indian civilization” - a territory of trade on which other spheres are not allowed to encroach. So like this it was mere “expansion of Kingdoms” with singular ruling authority in case of the East coast of India. While in case of West coast ,the thread followed even by arrival of the Portuguese and the British into the similar kind of role as merchants /traders ;of having military might over the Indian Ocean while the trading activities were still in the hands of Indian Financiers referred as “Nakhuddhas “ by enlarge. And the practice with the mutual consent among these trade kingdoms in the Indian Ocean world.

2.3c Willem Blaeu. “India quae Orientalis dicitur, et Insulae Adiacentes.” Amsterdam: W. & J. Blaeu, 1640-43. Source :The National Archives ,The Neatherlands. 1 Thaper,Romila “The Penguin History Of Early India: From The Origins To AD 1300 1st Edition” 2004

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The Geography of trade within India and its Global dimensions After looking at the ecology of trade on both the sides (East and West Coast) of India, there was a heavy range of commodities, which attracted European merchants towards the west coast of India, out of which the trade in Asian commodities like cotton textiles have concentrated most of their attention on exports from India to Europe. While cotton being a most important commodity to exchange with the foreign markets and grown in abundance, the increasing demand of raw cotton from the Deccan and Northern India affected the growth of India’s export oriented economy.2 The Indian raw cotton proved to be cheaper despite the addition of freights, preparations and transportation charges. Initially the Interest of the British merchants was merely to establish trade hub in India, where later their ambition of the European states and the competition between the powers in Europe required them to have a greater political dominance and to create an entire “civilization statement”. Which lead to bringing in the Royal charter in 1600 and colonization of the Indian states under the British rule. As the British in India were looking eastwards as well as westwards as they sought to expand and diversify their commercial activities.

2.3d Map showing the land routes and maritime connections between the Europe and the Western India in 15th century. Source :Jacques W. Redway.The Redway School History (New York:Silver, Burdett and Company, 1911) 2 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

King, Anthony D. “Colonial urban development: culture, social power, and environment” Routledge & Paul, 1976

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2.3e Trade of Cambay ,10th-14th century. Source :M.S. University Press,Vadodara.

2.3f Location of Mumbai in the Indian subcontinent and the Indian Ocean and Port connections along the west coast. “Bombay (Southern section)” by JG Bartholomew, Imperial Gazetteer of India. New edition, published under the authority of His Majesty’s Secretary of State for India in Council. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907-1909. Scale: 1:6,000,000. 1 in. To 94.6 miles.

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The requirements of colonization demanded many urban functions; pre eminent among these was the need for a port, to allow the export of colonial wares and to import goods from Europe or from non European territory in the “country trade” as it was referred in India. In order to make the transportation of these large volumes of the coal, cotton, oil seeds, spices, grain and other primary goods , the technology developed and based on perishable and non perishable nature of goods the use of steamships employed to make the transportation of commodities faster. As in Britain transporting coal was one of the main incentives behind the Initial drive for railways construction in India, the pressure also created in order to make the connections with the hinterlands in order to make the extraction of surplus efficiently, which gave rise to the development of Railways in India.3 And thus of course colonial strategies and policies gave rise to many important trading cities. Unlike preceding invading powers that came by land and built inland kingdoms, the British came by sea and established themselves on the maritime fringes of indigenous empires.4 Beach heads like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Karachi were used as spearheads of economic penetration and political expansion, growing in the process of major port cities. Also the trade naturally entailed the various services associated with it, for example finance and insurance and governance .As the colonies became established, governmental centers and garrisons became necessary and these in turn could only increase the density of urban life as numerous suppliers, retailers and craftsmen arrived to service such institutions; making the thriving trading cities as mere places of agglomeration of people.

2.3f1 A sketch showing geography of trade within India and urban division seen in Indian Port city. 4 3 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Dick Coolmann, “Bombay :from fishing village to a colonial port city(1662-1947)” Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1985 Thorner,Daniel“Investment in Empire: British Railway and Steam Shipping Enterprise in India, 1825-1849”,Ayer co.Pub.1950

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2.3g Value of cotton Imported and exported from West coast ,India. Source : Investment in Empire: British Railway and Steam Shipping Enterprise in India, 1825-1849 Daniel Thorner.(1950)

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2.3h Evolution of Indian trade networks. The main map shows the routes since Mughal times, Inset A shows the major prehistorical cultural currents, B: pre-Mauryan routes, C: Mauryan routes, D: routes c. 1st century CE, and E: the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Zâ&#x20AC;? shaped region of developed roads.

2.3i Map of Indian Railways in 1868 Source: Tahir Andrabi,Railways and market Integration in British India,Department of Economics, Pomona College, Claremont,2006

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2.3j Extent of the Great Indian peninsular Railways network in1870.

The principal economic benefit of the GIPR was the opening up of the interior to external trade. The two lines up the Western Ghats were fully open by 1865 in time for cotton from the Deccan to be exported from Bombay to Manchester thus filling the trade gap created by the American Civil War.

Inferences can be drawn from the given fact that, the external contacts of Indian west coast has been the gateway through which political and cultural influences from the West made their way into the Indian mainland and through which hinterlands of economic and social interchange were created. The colonial policies within India, and intervention of technology like Railways and sailing vessels of advanced technology shaped a distinct geography of trade, making the trade network within India more effective than ever. According to Ashin Das Gupta, on â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Indian Merchant and the Trade in the Indian Ocean during 18th Centuryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, the expansion of trade enabled the British break out from the folds of the India structure of overseas trade and it transformed the commerce in the Indian ocean Littoral during the late 18th century. The British did this by linking the Europe trade with the Indian Ocean trade network so much that the distinction between the two trades begins to break down.

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Economical and Political background

The economic and political aspect of trading cities, that existed within urban systems simultaneously and played an important role shaping the urban form of these cities. The political status of those people on the “sites of trade” in the Indian Ocean was never of rulers, when the British came with the mere character of traders under the protection of the native powers, but the idea of conducting the global trade and at the age when technology were pointed towards, they later on changed their interests, establishing the political dominion. This we can see in the colonial ports like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. While in case of “sites of trade”(in the Indian Ocean) that never ventured in expanding territory followed the similar existing political situation, as its seen in case of Kochi where upon arrival of Portuguese they maintained their status as traders, following the King Zamorin as the ruling authority. The regulations due to politics created a certain economic hierarchy in the urban fabric of the trading cities. The entire infrastructure that demonstrated a set of principles governed by the rulers / political elements in order to make the city work as a machine and depending on the economy of the place leading to the political dominance. Then the city can be looked at as the function of “economic need” and the other was to give symbolic value in order to make facade of power in the global market. On the other hand before European invasion took place and there were none urban settlements on the fringe of water which made a symbolic statement for political power 5, hence the British created Bombay which was not at all there but they created Bombay as a trading hub; in order to show the singular statement of their colonization dominance which they required in order to fight the French in Canada or to fight the Dutch in south India at that time, which merely an attempt to create a façade in global scenario. Also when talking of the political and economic power existing in these places the idea of symbolization can be seen in relation with political power while the idea of technology is more in relation with the economic power of the trading cities. In case of Bombay it can be said that the idea of symbolization in relation to the political power and in case of Kochi can be the idea of technology in relation with economic power. Another way to look at it is if the one has technology to carry large volumes of goods it can carry more goods and if the ships are faster than that can carry different nature of goods, non-perishable, small volumes and expensive goods-the commodities and technology of transfer, which can be favorable for economy of the city state. 5 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Dick Coolmann, “Bombay :from fishing village to a colonial port city(1662-1947)” Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 1985

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So this would require a complete different infrastructure for trade operations of the port, warehousing facilities, finance and banking and other linkages in the hierarchy, and hence there is no need for a city state. Only if one wants to symbolically state that this is the sphere of power of a particular rule; then only there will be symbolization of power which can be seen in case of most of the cities in the colonial era. So this in contrast with Kochi, which is an interaction of the state rule and so many trading kingdoms from different places in Indian Ocean world and all of them hosted at this one place which doesn’t state the domination, but maintains a balanced practice of trade in the Indian Ocean. In that case the city states that it’s not a takeover. Also it diverts the focus to the symbolism –the political expression on the technology. The state would have as much as military power and economic power only because of the technology which they have established. Even though the patrons of technology are the merchants, the state symbolically protects the functions of technology. As discussed earlier about the royal charter, this was given to the East India Company, which is in a way provision to protect the technology of trade conducted in India. This was an example of protection provided in order to protect technology by the political power. Hence this is the best example where we can say that how native economic and political systems are intertwined in the urban systems of trading cities. And the simultaneous change in magnitude of political events /actions and magnitude of technology had a huge impact on the trading city’s urban form, urban systems and architecture.

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2.3.1a The true picture of the low lands of the Malabar Coast (Malabar) Photographer : Jan Thim. Schipper, H.G. Faarant Source :The National Archives ,The Netherlands

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2.3.1 Kochi

(16th To 17th Cetury)

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2.3.1b The true picture of the low lands of the Malabar Coast (Malabar) Source :the National Archives of the Netherlands. Photographer : Jan Thim. Schipper, H.G. Faarant

2.3.1c Cochin Harbour ,Malabar coast. South India and the mud banks of Malabar. By Sir Robert Bristow Source : Regional Archives ,Kochi .

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2.3.1d Sight on the City Coutchin and part of Island Baipien. Source :The National Archives ,The Netherlands.

2.3.1e Fort Cochin on Malabar coast. Source :The National Archives ,The Netherlands.

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Kochi: Mercantile invasion and Urban form

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Brief History to the city Introduction to Kochi Harbour The time line :1341- 1960. Area of Study

Fort Kochi Mattancherry Wellingdon Island

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Trading methods and Thread of trade in Kochi

Traces of linkages in the chain of Trade operations. Change noticed from Mattancherry to Wellingdon. (From small scale to large scale operations) • Form of the city •Places of storage : Godowns Mattancherry •Places of exchange: Aspinwall as one of the foreign Mode. Auction Hall and J. Thomas and co. •Physical Transportation: via Land and sea. Canal network and Commercial places. •Places of Administration/Law/Banking •Facilities for :Transient Population Resident (Native) Population.

2.3.1f Port of Cochin.

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2.3.1g Dauphin Map (Harley world Map) Indian The Malabar coast and Bay of Bengal extending till Malay peninsula and the South China Sea. Illustrator :Dieppe School ,France 1547.

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Brief History of the city

The Malabar Coast

Kerala is a narrow strip of coastal land is situated in the south west portion of Indian Peninsula. It stretches from below Mangalore in the north up to Kanyakumari in the south, covering a distance of approximately five hundred and twenty kilometers in width; it is separated from the rest of the southern peninsula by the forested Nilgiri hills of the Western Ghats. The land gently undulates from its majestic heights down to the coastal plains whose edges are lapped by the waters of the Arabian Sea. The Coast is bordered by golden sandy beaches generously dotted by coconut palm groves. The carpeted green plains of the paddy fields are nourished by the rich alluvial soil and the coastal climate of intense heat and heavy rainfall.

2.3.1g1The Malabar Coast, as seen by Jacques Nicolas Bellin, 1740

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The South west and North east monsoons are generously water the land supplementing the criss crossing rivers, the important of which are Periyar, the Pammbha and the Bharatpuzha.

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2.3.1h Map of South India Publisher :Meurs,Weduwe van Jacob van Drawn by :Nieuhof,Johan Koninklijke Bibliotheek

Kochi: “The Enchantress of the Arabian Sea” The word Kochi is derived from the Tamil word “Kaci” which means “Harbour”. This reflects on how the authors of the names were more sensitive towards the geographical facts. Though it has been of a great curiosity what caused this great system of streams and lagoons and sand spits, was it only the slow process of time or a gigantic struggle was being fought out by natural forces? It was no less than this, where shall we place Kochi? From the east, that is the mainland, came the silt bearing streams; down from the north came what as referred in the past the flood arm or over flow of the Periyar River; up from the out came the discharge from the vast reservoir of the Vembanad region. From the sea came the long ground swell of the monsoons and the wind weaves form south west and northwest; all thee struggling, pushing each other in strong endeavor to work out a system. Gradually masses of sand were deposited, stayed awhile, pushed aside, streams widened and deepened spits of land from North and South joined parted, joined again and parted again below water then above water. Thus the outward fringes of sand spits began to develop a littoral habit.

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2.3.1i Map of Kodungallur Taluk ,Cochin State .Published Under the direction of Mr. J. Thompson,Superintendant Cochin Survey.

A possible temporary opening at Alleppey closed itself. The forces began to unite and concentrate at Cochin until probably with a combination of high tides and heavy rains, with a long and strong push, out to sea went the beginnings of the famous Cochin. The Harbor lies about two thirds of the way up from Alleppey to the Periyar river. Near the mouth of the river there is the ancient town called Cranganur (known as Muziris or Muchiri), which has been assumed that this was the river port before Cochin had formed itself in the shape we know today. And due to the floods in the river Periyar the port operations shifted to Cochin. Cochin is one of the Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s important cities and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s located where the Vembanand Lake meets the sea, its strategic importance as an Indian Port has increased since independence. Cochin is Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main industrial city and the presence of Navy and the ship building yard add to its Importance. The Wellingdon Island found between the mainland of Ernakulam and the strip of land containing Fort Cochin and Mattancherry, is core of naval activities and shipping commerce in this region, in earlier times these activities were concentrated in Fort Cochin and Mattancherry, which now has expanded to the Wellingdon Island. The colourful history of Fort Cochin and Mattancherry under the Portuguese ,the Dutch and the English ,due to its strategic importance as a trading port and the strong historical and physical evidences that survive as a part of living environment.

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Introduction to Kochi Harbour

Presented here are the excerpts from an article written for “WASP “the journal, 16th March 1963 by Sir Robert C.Bristow

The port of Kochi is a wonderful natural harbor on the Malabar Coast of India, and is the only one of any considerable size between Bombay 580 miles to the north and Colombo 307 miles to the south. Early in 1500 Kochi became one of the first European settlements in India and in 1663,it passed onto the hands of the Dutch, from those of to the Portuguese and in 1791 it was surrendered to the British. The fertile hills and villages of Malabar –where endlessly the coconut groves fringe the Sea; there farther inland, grow all the fruits and spices; ginger and pepper, tea, coffee, rubber and much besides. There again Innumerable canals lazily find their way to wide lagoons, bringing down the boat-loads of produce. And there at last the lagoons connect to the sea through the vast backwaters of Kochi, where big ships come and go, and the oldest settlement in India which has now become its finest trading town in the Indian Ocean.

2.3.1j Cochin harbour Map ,surveyed by T.T .Hand Oct 1913 . Source :Regional Archives ,Kochi

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2.3.1k A view of Cochin Harbour,1850-1897 University of Southern California. Libraries

About the settlers on this coast, there can be conjecture. Primitive burial cairns in which are found bones, stones and other implements pottery and beads, are to be met with here and there and the people who have made their sepulcher in these cairns may have been the earliest this race was subjugated and harassed by the succeeding waves of immigrants or invaders. The next batches of immigrants were probably Brahmins, which are supposed to be the ancestors of the Namboodiries of Malabar. With regard to the political history as far as is known, Kerala at first formed part of the biggest kingdoms of Chera. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Vanchiâ&#x20AC;?- a place near Cranganur, has been considered as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Chera. As per historians accounts,the Phoenicians were the first to visit Kerala for trade purposes and they came by the way of Persian Gulf. And later the Jews followed the same route during the reign of Solomon. After the Jews came the Syrians followed by the Egyptians. The trade of the Romans with Kerala was on a more extensive scale than that of their predecessors, and was kept up for over two centuries. The modern history of Kochi is nothing but the story of rivalry among the Europeans powers for the mastery of the west coast and the favorable conditions the harbour of Kochi offered for trade operations.

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2.3.1l Map of Cochin , Signed :Hans Gorge Taarant 1696. Colored drawing National Archief ,Netherlands.

Fort Kochi and Mattancherry Fort and Mattancherry are contiguous areas that developed and grew mainly because of the convenience they offered as trading ports. The waterfront along the Fort Kochi and Matancherry predominantly consists of a long line of piers running south to northland servicing the warehouse fronting the Bazaar road. Along the northern end of this line of piers are found the famous Chinese fishing nets in the Fort Kochi area which render the area uniquely imaginable .In keeping the quiet residential character of Fort Kochi, the sea front to the north and west are also calm recreational area.

2.3.1m Chinese Fishing nets in Kochi Photographed by the Author

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The Time line:1341-1960.

1341: Opening of the outlet from the backwaters to the Arabian Sea. 1500: Arrival of the Admiral Cabral at Cochin. 1502: Vasco Da gama Arrived at Cochin.

2.3.1n Kannamali Church,as per locals built by Portuguese.

1503: First Portuguese Fort(Manual Kota) was built. 1514: Jews from Cranganore migrate to Sanda Cochin. 1516: St. Francisâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Church was reconstructed.

2.3.1o St.Francis Church,where Vasco Da Gama was buried

1522: Konkanis from Goa arrive in Kerala. 1542: St. Francis xavier preached in Cochin and stayed at the San Antonio monastery. 1555: Mattancherry palace was built.

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2.3.1p Mattancherry Palace at the end of Palace road in Mattancherry

1568: white Jews’ synagogue was built. 1570: Shanta Mahalaxmi Temple was built in Matttancherry. 1599: Tirumala Devasvom temple was built in Mattancherry.

2.3.1qTirumala Devasvom temple ,marking the centre of the Island.

1663: The conquest of Cochin by the Dutch. Portuguese Fort reduced to one third of the size.

2.3.1r City of Cochin in 1665 “The stadt Couchijn” Map in rebellion Couchin / Cochin, India Photographer:Vingboons, John Source: National Archives , The Netherlands.

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1668: Dutch Fort was built.

2.3.1s Map of Cochin. Source: National Archives, The Netherlands.

1749: Balghatty Palace was built.

2.3.1t Photograph taken about 1900 by the Government photographer, Zacharias Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Cruz of the Bolghatty Palace in the erstwhile Cochin State. The former residence of the Political Agents of the British regime. The view has been taken from the tennis court of a substantial residence, the Bolghatty Palace, built by the Dutch in the 18th century

1795: Surrender of the Dutch to the British. 1826: Blowing up of Dutch Fort. 1840: Cochin ruler shifts to Ernakulam. 1841: The Raja of Cochin granted land to the Gujarati traders to build their own Godowns ,along the backwaters.

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2.3.1t Photograph of Gujarati owners sheth N.P. Narielwala with family members,local workers and traders,the photograph taken in the courtyard of a ginger Godown in Mattancherry.

1869: Opening of the Suez Canal turned Cochin into a coaling station.

2.3.1u Canal opens ... A fleet of ships entering the Suez Canal at its inauguration on November 17, 1869. The 106-mile long and connects the Mediterranean at Port Said with the Red Sea.. Source: University of Southern California.

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2.3.1v Port Said on the Mediterranean Sea, cf. Map of the Suez Canal. Source :University of Southern California. Libraries

1870: P.W.D. established in Cochin . 1881: chief engineer of Madras harbour suggested that Cochin be made into a first class and finest harbour. 1889: the great fire destroyed all business establishments along the backwater and lead to the building of â&#x20AC;&#x153;puccaâ&#x20AC;?establishments 1913: commencement of dredging operations at the bay. 1919: Appointment of a full-time harbour engineer by the Gov ernment of Madras. 1920: Sir Robert C.Bristow was appointed harbour engineer in chief,First stage works completed.

2.3.1w Master Plan for Wellingdon Island by Sir ,Robert Bristow,1920. Source :Regional Archives ,Kochi

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1924: Completion of dry dock. 1926: Arrival of dredger “Lord Wellingdon” 1935: First Bibby Liner entered the harbour. 1936: Cochin was declared a major port. 1937: “Cochin Express” began to run from Cochin harbour Ter minus to Madras. 1939: Official commencement of wharf facilities,Construction of aero dome ,Godowns ,Offices etc. 1940: Major rail and road connections established.

2.3.1x the existing Linkages via roadways and Railways in Cochin.

1960: Advent of lorry transport leading to the ultimate downfall of water transport.

2.3.1y Photograph of Mattancherry Bazaar road showing lorry traffic. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Area Of Study

One of the most insistent explanations for the existence of the city has been trade.

Market theories of one sort or another have buttressed discussions of urban origins, from Pirenne’s fraubourg to Kristaller’s central palace theory and Jane Jacob’s more recent The Economic Cities.

We should therefore expect that where merchants are es tablished in the city, where business is conducted, will be critical assignment.

Indeed there‘s ample proof in history, that the merchant’s quarter had privileged standing in the Urban structure .ex cellent allotment of land and often substantial accommo dation. Which can also be seen in Fort Kochi and Mat tancherry being one of the important trading city on the Malabar coast.

2.3.1 a1 The Commercial spine in Mattancherry ,Kochi

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2.3.1 a2 Harbour in Cotschi with peculiar fishing instruments.1850 Source : University of Southern California. Libraries

It has always been discussed in the middle ages about trading cities, where the merchants are given the prime lots around a square, before the rest of the urban land was assigned to the settlers of the city, Merchant Houses were well heeled, often grand and as a whole range of business related building like Guild halls ,warehouses and markets, Exchange houses - All these survive to prove that even before the modern period those who occupied the city in order to make the and sell goods were capable of a monumental celebration.1 And hence due to this a certain kind of economic and functional hierarchy also reflects in the urban structure, which generates a series of parameters to look at the trade and its urban expression of these trading cities. These parameters add to its material culture and urban experience of the trading city. The Generators of trading city’s Urban form •

Sheltered Harbour

• Movement from harbour to the warehousing and further processing •

The supporting trade infrastructure

1 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

The supporting governance infrastructure The supporting residential infrastructure. Mercantile Community infrastructure.

Kostof,Spiro, “The city Shaped : Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History, Thames and Hudson 1999.

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The similar economic and functional hierarchy has been maintained in the urban structure of Fort Kochi and Mattancherry. There has been a five distinct typology of urban patterns found within the city fabric of the trading city. Each involving a certain typology of built form based on its function.

1. Industrial Infrastructure. 2. Native settlers 3. European settlers 4. Governance /Law /Banking Structure 5. Port operations Itself.

2.3.1 a3 The urban hierarchy In Mattancherry.

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Trading methods and Thread of trade in Kochi

Linkages Involved in the entire thread of trading Activi- ties from Mattancherry to wellingdon Island.

Favorable climate, time tested techniques, and a constant market had made Kerala a flourishing agricultural state. This applied to a number of other South-east Asian regions as well. Europeans who were explorers and took calculated risks such as travel, where the major source of trade for these regions. Trade methodologies followed by farmers were simple; agricultural produce from individual farmers came to local merchants, who would take in all the goods. From here they went to the state head market from where goods were sold off to the European traders.

2.3.1 a4 A Sketch showing thread of trade from Mattancherry Godowns to the edge of Wellingdon Island in Kochi.

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Based on the nature of the goods, they required different preparations and storage facilities at different stages of trade operations .At the individual farm level, farmers used their barns. When the goods came to the bazaar, it called for larger storage facilities it was here that the germination of the Godown and other trading structure came about. And over a period in time as the volume of goods increased gave rise to an entire infrastructure based on the needs of goods, the warehousing and transportation facilities. Depending on the nature of goods whether perishable nonperishable - large volume and less expensive-small volume and expensive goods, these sites had adopted a mode of sea communication. In case of Kochi it used to be the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Dhowsâ&#x20AC;? for carrying large volume of goods. The movement of goods from the hinterlands took place through the canal system, they had to cross the land and come to the harbor, where along the backwaters -each of the Godowns had their patch of land from where the goods were loaded-unloaded on to the small boats, which was then transported to the European ships docked in the deep waters of Lake Vembanad. Based on the quantity of goods the technology of transportation also changed -bigger ships started coming into the harbor for which required deep water anchorage and other facilities for port operations The transformation from the small scale trade being conducted at the Mattancherry godowns, took place to Wellingdon Island with a new trade infrastructure as per the change in technology of trade. This reflects on the urban structure of the city. Thus the trade in the city involved many functions hence based on the trade operations and its stages, gave rise to the number of stages of trade operations and hence trading structures and urban Institutions and Urban spaces. Similarly hierarchy can be seen for people involved in the trade from different specialized groups. This created a distinct urban pattern of the trading city, with a certain economic hierarchy within urban division.

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Due to the natural formation of the sheltered harbour the wooden ships (Dhows) used to dock close to the rear part of the godowns in Bazaar Road and Calvethy Road in Mattancherry. Wooden ships use to dock at Mattancherry and the goods use to be stored in the godowns; and then taken to the further processing preparation of goods within these godowns. Later when the Mattancherry Halt and South Terminus was built to facilitate the movement of Material via railways and the scale of port operations became bigger, larger vessels started coming in the harbour ,which required deeper water, hence there required a set of Infrastructure for the bigger Sailing vessels ,the warehousing facilities for large volume of goods. This gave rise to emergence of Wellingdon Island in 1920, where Infrastructure could put together with ease. Thus we can see in present times there is a huge shift in the pattern of trade within the city -from small scale trade operations to the large scale infrastructure on the Wellingdon Island.

The pepper house

Calvethy Canal

Vrindavan Guest House

Godowns on Calvethy roa

2.3.1 t2 The Institutions at the fringe of backwater, calvethy road and Bazaar road and (Below) The Jetty of Ginger godown on Bazaar road.

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2.3.1 t1 Cochin Harbour ,Malabar coast , South India and the mud banks of Malabar. By Sir Robert bristow Source : Regional Archives ,Kochi .

Boat jetty

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2.3.1 t3 A Port town north of Kochi -Canal in Ponani,with a number of Kettu valam loaded with goods. Source :University of Southern California libraries.

2.3.1 t4 Photograph taken about 1900 by the Government Photographer Zacharia Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;cruz of a view of the Nadayar Kayal or lake . Source : University of Southern California libraries.

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Form of the city This part of the chapter deals with the different branches involved in the trade operations within the trading port. This gives an overview to the urban spaces and urban Institutions within the urban hierarchy of the city.

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Places of Storage :

The Godowns in Jew Town, Mattnchery and Calvethy Road, Fort Kochi are of very integral part of cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban form. The Godown built form is found uniquely in this area dealt with certain goods and a certain kind of trade. The calm waters of Vembanad with the huge sea sailing vessels made quite an unusual sight. Depending on the scale of trade, this also helped in conducting the trade operations without the need of any larger infrastructure of port. Thus most of the godowns have come about along the eastern edge of the island facing the lake.

2.3.1 f1 The commercial Spine of Mattancherry from calvethy Road to Jew town.

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The godowns in Mattancherry are believed to be built by the migrant native population, who came to the shores of Kochi for trade and these were mainly Gujarati Merchants.1 Those who set up the godown cum temporary residential built forms. Not wanting to employ other people to oversee goods, the merchants built the godowns and the upper portion of godown used as “Temporary residences”. The land that the Godowns sit on is speculated to be reclaimed land. This land was given to the merchants by the Raja of Cochin in 1841to built the Godowns. The water transport facilitating indigenous and international trade gave rise to the bazaar economy in Mattancherry. At one time it became the financial capital of Kerala, the densely packed streets flanked on both the sides by offices and Godowns created an urban landscape that is uniquely found here. The vibrancy of trade and traffic along the backwaters; its ups and downs can be felt in the air around the bazaar road. It was these bazaars that retail trading and local customer needs were met. Thus these economic centres left as an important mark on the morphology of the area.

2.3.1 f2 Bazaar Road in mattancherry. 1 Joshi M.G.(Ed.Pratima Asher) “A sketch of Madras Presiddency” Malabar Samachar 1999

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The godowns in Fort Kochi and Mattancherry, islands off mainland Ernakulam. These godowns were primarily used for storage and trade of spices. These trades cum residential establishments are along the fringes of the islands forming the stratum that separates the water from the land. Though conversely the functions in the godowns are bridging factor between the land and water. These establishments are of two types,based on the nature of goods being stored and processed in them. Legend 1. Shop Front 2. Courtyard (Drying Area) 3. Storage Area 4. Office 5. Residential Area 6. Jetty

1. Ginger Godown at Calvethy Road,Fort Kochi. 2. Pulses Godown at Bazaar Road,Mattancherry. 3. Tea Godown at Bazaar Road,Mattancherry. â&#x20AC;˘

Ginger Godown Calvethy Road Fort Kochi.

2.3.1 f3 Ground Floor (Left) and First Floor (Right) Plan of the Ginger godown on Calvethy Road. Fort Kochi.

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Godowns which stored agricultural produce such as ginger, pepper etc. had a large functional courtyard as drying was part of the process. This godown is at Calvethy road at Fort Kochi, currently only a part of the godown is being used as a ginger storing godown, where preparation and packaging is also being taken care of. The plan organization(Fig 2.3.1 f3)demonstrates the different functions of the godown like where goods are being storage ,prepared and packed and loading unloading takes place.

2.3.1 f4 Street elevations and the storage area of the ginger godown.

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2.3.1 f5 Courtyard as drying area of the Ginger godown.

2.3.1 f6 drying of Ginger during non monsoon season.

2.3.1 f7 The Hierarchy of spaces through the central corridor(Left) and the site context relationship.(Right) School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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• Pulses Godown Bazaar Road, Mattancherry. The godowns which stored agricultural produce such as pulses rise,and tea didn’t have drying as a part of the storing process. These produce didn’t need drying,and hence the built form in such godowns do not have courtyards. The courtyard in such godowns are just space making elements. The pulses godown is on Bazaar Road at Mattancherry ,It was used to store food grains and as they don’t require drying ,the courtyard is small.

Legend 1. Shop Front 2. Office 3. Packaging 4. Storage 5. Residential Area 6. Balcony 7. Jetty 2.3.1 f8 Ground and First Floor plan of the Pulses godown.

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The shop front area stands at the edge of the street side of the godowns on the ground level. The negotiations for the goods traded are done here. This part is considered the most public area of the godown.It forms a corridor on the street edge and directs movement into the godown by funneling through the main entrance. This helps regulating the movement of goods and also double up the security measure.

2.3.1 f9 Section of Pulses godown and Facade Detail. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.3.1 f10 Circulation part in Pulses Godown.

The Storage area is the unquestionable heart of the godowns. It occupies large volume of goods such as rice, tea and pulses. And storage being of utmost importance, the storage areas occupies a position of zenith in the hierarchy of spaces in the built form. The position of doors are placed so that to make movement of goods easier. The goods can be funneled in to the godown and when prepared after process can be sent out to the jetty area from where the boats would take them to the larger ships docked in deep waters of Vembanad Lake.

2.3.1 f 11 Courtyard in the pulses godown as space making element.

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The placement of openings are placed in a way that the cross ventilation can be reduced. The humidity and temperature inside the storage area are thus maintained which help prevent quick deterioration of goods stored in the godown. In the hierarchy of spaces office are is the second most public area. This part is the most important area of the trade as monetary transactions take place here. The unique aspect about these places depending on the scale all the stages of trade operation like law, banking etc. was being taken care of at such places. Hence itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s been considered that without any advanced infrastructure the trade operations were being taken care of at these Godowns.

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2.3.1 f12 Section and Elevation of Pulses Godown.

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â&#x20AC;˘ Tea Godown Bazaar Road, Mattancherry. This Godown is on Bazaar road at Mattancherry .It was used to store tea. But the usage pattern has changed in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time than what it used to be in the past. It no longer uses the jetty, as no goods are sent on boats after the huge shift of tea storing started happening on Wellingdon Island. Now this godown has taken up the function of tea tasting within its premises and occasionally for tea auctions.

2.3.1 f13 Plan of tea Godown

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•

Pepper House Calvethy Road, Fort Kochi.

Pepper House is a waterfront heritage property located on the Kalvathi Road in between Fort Kochi and Bazaar Road. The building consists of two historic ‘godowns’; one facing the street and one overlooking the waterfront. These large, two-story buildings with Dutch style clay roofs are separated by a large courtyard which would have once been used for storing goods waiting to be loaded onto ships in the harbour.

2.3.1 f14 A covered area for boat repairs adjacent to pepper house .

2.3.1 f15 Pepper house,Calvethy road.

2.3.1 f16 Courtyard of Pepper House on Calvethy road.

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Â â&#x20AC;˘

Places of Exchange :

Aspin wall (European Mode of Administration) The Places of exchange in case of Mattanchery use to be normally within the Godows. Mostly the upper floor which has over a period of time has gone under change used as places of exchange for the foreign merchants.

2.3.1 e1 Interior part of Aspin wall,after Fort area this was used occasionally for auctions

Aspinwall House is a large sea-facing heritage property. Aspinwall was originally the business premises of Aspinwall & Company Ltd; established in 1867 by English trader John H. Aspinwall. Under the guidance of Aspinwall the Company traded in coconut oil, pepper, timber, lemon grass oil, ginger, turmeric, spices, and hides and later in coir, coffee, tea and rubber. Also once considered as an active place for administering the trade in the city. The large compound contains office buildings, a residential bungalow and a number of warehouses and smaller outer-lying structures.

2.3.1 e2 Aspinwall - A sea-facing heritage property between Fort Kochi and Calvethy Road.

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The most important area of the trade as monetary transactions used to take place either at premises of Godowns or at the offices of the Gujarati merchants. (Fig 2.3.1 e3) These places for exchange cum residential establishments are very rarely found in Kochi now; but in the earlier times It uses to be in front of the Godowns. The first floors are often used as residence for the traders, in order to maintain privacy; by keeping away from the daily movement of people and commodities. Thus tracing the different stages involved in the trade operations gives an insight; how the urban divisions have occurred at various level of urbanization of the city considering different layers(Fig 2.3.1 e4) - from the Godowns at the waterfront to the Offices as administration and to market streets to cosmopolitan residential core of the city.

2.3.1 e3 The office of Sheth Narielwals In Kochi . Source : Malabar Pradesh ni ruprekha ,Pratima Asher.

2.3.1 e4 The landuse map of Fort Kochi . Source : A Monograph on Fort Kochi and Mattancherry,INTACH. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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•

Places of Physical Transport :

The city structure demonstrates the different layers explaining the evolution and the Infra structural developments within the city due to trade related activities.(Fig 2.3.1 pt5/pt6) There are three different layers suggested to study the structure of the city, which explains the distribution of commercial and industrial Institutions within the city. • Through its water channels • The rail networks within the city in order to demonstrates the shift of the trading structures from small to big (From Mattancherry to Wellingdon island ) • And distribution of public spaces.

2.3.1 pt1 Map of city level Land use Cochin and various layers of urban fabric (Right)

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2.3.1 pt2 Commercial,Industrial and road network.

2.3.1 pt3 Water ,Green and Public Institutions.

2.3.1 pt4 Canal System in Kochi facilitating Trade and Open Green.

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2.3.1 pt5 (Top) Ernakulam Boat jetty circa 1950. Source :University of Southern California. Libraries

2.3.1 pt6 (Left)A Canal In Kochi Source:University of Southern California. Libraries

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â&#x20AC;˘ Places for Administration/Law/Banking : The mode of administration and banking has gone under a lot of changes, as the huge shift in the pattern of trade within the city. Most of these place the auctions hall and banking and law institutions were established in Fort Kochi area, which has now been shifted to Wellingdon Island with a completely different Infrastructure. Presented images here gives a glimpse of the activities and the built form involved in the trade activities within the city.

2.3.1 l1 Auction Hall for Tea Trade Association in Fort Kochi Source : J.Thomas and Co. Cochin . 2.3.1 l2 J. Thomas Office in Fort Kochi ,which was used as Dutch Armory In 1964. J.Thomas is a leading tea company in south India.

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• Facilities for the Littoral Society: 1. Transient population 2. Resident population

Hosting Foreign Merchants: There is a difference between retail and wholesale trade and Nature of spaces where both conducted. Special goods like spices and wines and luxury items of various sorts came from overseas through the agency of merchants who travelled across the country along protected routes. The exchange took place outside the walls, before the city gates; or in specially designated areas within, where the foreigners who managed long distant trade found a home away from home. To the extent that this long distant trade is geared to port towns rather than the high road. In such waterfront environments, town’s urban space is assigned disproportionately in favour of merchants.

In the middle ages, urban territorial was exceedingly important to foreign groups. These were called “Nations “and what they needed was places in which

To worship

To warehouse the goods

And arbitrate their own disputes so as not to be bound by local authorities -Which meant Consulates.

For the necessary interaction of merchants and bankers ,a place of exchange was often provided

The Loggia Dei mercantile community of Italian cities like Bologna and Siena sometimes fronted on a little square; At Bruges it was the Beurseplaats, on which stood Inns and Consulates.

- Kostof,Spiro on Urban division “The City Assembled: The Elements Of Ur

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ban Form Through History” ,1999.

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The Mercantile foreign community in case of Kochi ;its foreign merchants who settled in the Mattanchery making their home away from home in order to pursue trade. This has given a distinct image to the urban experience of the city. At Kochi, in the pursuit of trade the traders and artisans from various places were often invited to the city, offering all the religious and communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freedom of worship and management of their own caste affairs. Hence these mercantile communities often managed to have a social infrastructure in the city. The Influx resulted into the important Institutions within the city. Majority of such important institutions in Kochi are mere result of amalgam of trade and religion.(Fig 2.3.1 ls4/ls7)

2.3.1 ls1 The Tamil Agraharam in Fort Kochi area.

In order to insulate the local citizens from unfamiliar customs and habits separate districts for foreign merchants were intended. But In case of Mattanchery the social profile is a microcosm of intensive mix. In here communities in their various shades and hues live in Mattanchery in distinct settlement pattern with their own places of worship, often retaining their linguistics identities and still preserving cultural links with their specific places of origin.

2.3.1 ls2 The mapping of various communities in Fort Kochi and Mattanchery . INTACH Report on Fort Kochi and Mattanchery.

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2.3.1 ls3 The Gujarati Merchant in Kochi

2.3.1 ls4 Nauka Press;a press established by Gujarati Merchant Guild in Mattancherry

2.3.1 ls5 Gujarati School near Jain temple In Mattancherry.

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Places of worship: The presence of series of Institutions such as Jews Synagogue, Gujarati settlements and Institutions in Kochi; indicates the foothold of the foreign community In Mattanchery, which has settled here; majorly the reason could be pursuit of trade than the religious persecution.

2.3.1 ls6 white Jews of Cochin Source :Malabar Pradesh ni rooprekha.

2.3.1 ls7 The Kadavumbagam (Black Jew) Synagogue, Mattancherry. Source :Shri Mulraj Ved .

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2.3.1 ls8 Jewish Synagogue,Jew Town ,Mattancherry . School of Architecture,Ahmedabad.RSP Drawings (1989)

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The mode and pattern of trade in case of Kochi; had created a huge impact on the differentiation made to the community formation within the urban form. Also the separation between European and Indian quarters expressed and perpetuated a spatial coexistence of two economies at work. Indeed this was with a set of infrastructure for the various communities like kojas, khonas, Kutchi Bhatiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s etc as the mercantile communities, baniyas and the financiers. So here also there is a unified system made of sub domains that linked together via trade using the skills of these communities had, and giving a unique image of the city. In Kochi the mercantile community and the civic structures has given a unique urban landscape to the city.

2.3.1 ls9 Gujarati chawl In Mattancherry Vil- 2.3.1 ls10 Black Jew synagogue in Jew Town. lage . Source :A Monograph on Fort Kochi and Mattancherry ,INTACH. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Conclusion

Kochi being a site of trade in the Indian Ocean trade network, always facilitated trade operations, and also it became a host for the merchants and traders from faraway places. The underplaying structure In Kochi because of trade has created a series of urban division, which reflects in the urban hierarchy at the city level. Each sub - domain within the city has a distinct pattern-which as a whole read as one unified system established in the city with respect to the Indian Ocean trading network and the hinterlands off the Island. The Urban systems are mere linkages living together within the city. The street pattern of Mattancherry and Jew town reflects the scale of trade within the city, where the godowns use to suffice the need for conduct of trade without having any advanced Infrastructure for trade operations. However the political power in case of Kochi didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t overpower the economic power Kochi had long established. One reason could be the mutual understanding of conducting trade within the Indian Ocean sphere, which had a balanced ecology of trade, without any singular political significance of the place. Hence Kochi as sites of trade always welcomed the merchants from distant places to conduct the trade. Due to which there were simultaneous presence of traders -like Portuguese, Dutch and then the British, and so the urban form never signified â&#x20AC;&#x153;singularityâ&#x20AC;? in order to create a political dominance. Which made kind of loser and less pronounced symbolic differentiation, which can be seen in the urban pattern of Kochi, unlike the colonial ports in India did.

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2.4 Port city in the Era of

Colonial Expansion: Case of Bombay.

2.4a Pedro and Reinel and Lopo Homem 1519 chart of the Indian Ocean In Atlas Miller .Portalan chart. Source: British Library

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2.4b Bombay Harbour, surveyed By Commander L.S. Dawson. Source : Kochi Regional Archives .

BOMBAY : 17th Century to Present day School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.4 Port city in the Era of Colonial Expansion: Case of Bombay. Brief History of The city Of Bombay Urban Form and Structure. The diagram of Port: case of Bombay. Thread of trade Urban Hierarchy Due to Trade A. The Governance /Administration Fort as seat of Governance B. Extension of trading operations The eastern shore : Port operations. C. Northern part of Industrial Bombay. D. Residential Facilities for Mercantile community European Settlers Native settlers E. The Harbor Railways line ,and Roadways Findings

2.4c The panoramic view (which continues on plate two) depicts the dockyard and fort areas, including the Pier Head Battery on the left. Chaul, the seaport of Konkan, can be seen on the right, with the island of Karanja on the left.

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Brief History of The city Of Bombay

As sites of exchange, the port cities are characterized by the movement and fluid boundaries .Nothing that they link together with their respective hinterlands and forelands in dynamic unions giving birth to urban communities of a very special character and atmosphere. By the middle years of the 18th century, Bombay emerged as an important entrepot, where wide range of commodities and services were traded, with many communities involved in their procurement and distribution.1 Networks of exchange and linkages developed with different parts of India and with countries around the world. In the myriad acts of exchange and financial transactions, people and cultures met and interacted, and were influenced with Ideas cultural norms, religious beliefs, fashion and trading practices of the other.

By the beginning of the 19th century, Bombay was the leading port on the west coast, a position it continued to enjoy in the years to follow. Survival of the face of competition required not merely entrepreneurial skills and financial acumen but also an acceptance of the other, an openness to change, a culture of tolerance. Bombay like other port cities became the gateway for the exchange of ideas, techniques, practices and skills. All these attributes went into the making of a vibrant economy and a cosmopolitan culture. It is this cosmopolitanism which reflects on the urban structure and the Architecture of the city -as layers of time. At independence it had emerged as a dominant metropolis. Of course the colonial policies and strategies had much to do with its spectacular rise of this former fishing village. This part of the chapter focus on the social, economic and political development of Bombay city during colonial era .In dealing with the increase in mercantile interactions and trade, attention will be paid to the functional aspects and spatial divisions of this port town. The main focus Bombay as a colonial city will improve the understanding of social and commercial aspect of the city intertwined in the urban structure and urban form of the port town. 1 Dossal Marriam, “Imperial Designs and Indian Realities: The Planning of Bombay City, 1845-1875” Oxford University Press, 1997 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.4d Plan of 18th century Bombay . Source :Marine Museum,Nhava.

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Bombay: From a Koli fishermenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s settlement to a

Colonial Port town.

The time line The Genesis of settlement: 1650s to 1850s The first settlers on the archipelago of seven islets were the Koli fishermen, who inhabited the hamlets of Colaba, mazagaon and worli. 1508: The Portuguese land on the island and inhabit the island of Salsette. 1654: Bombayâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s excellent harbor and natural isolation from land attacks had stressed the necessity of purchasing the isles from Portuguese. The Royal Charter. 1661: The matrimonial and a military alliance were concluded between the Portuguese and The British and the island was gifted to the British as a marriage dowry. 1665: After a prolonged dispute the British finally succeeded in taking over the islands. 1668: Sir George Oxen den took charge as first governor of Bombay, who aimed at encouraging trade in all possible directions, encouraging people of all class to the island and rendering Bombay proof against all attacks. 1668: Bombay based on the primary functions of trade and com merce and to accomplish these objectives, the company directors dispatched a band of soldiers to Bombay in this year and ordered the construction of a custom house, warehouses and a quay.

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Appointed a chaplain and requested a judge advocate to be sent from England. The aim behind all these activities was not conquest but the establishment and promotion of trade, with hope of eventually setting up British controlled manufacture. The company also managed adminis tration and governance.

Prerequisite to establish the trade networks was to crate a connection with Hinterlands, which could only be possible by the local Indian merchants. Consequently, incentives to settle in the town (the settlement around castle) were not restricted by the Europeans; clearly both the company and Indian merchants were to have stake in the future of the town.

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2.4e Evolution of Fort Precinct and urban structure of Bombay

2.4f The Archipelago of seven Islands

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The distribution of wards

Original Landuse pattern

Map of town in 1890.

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1672-75: Gerald Aungier, the President of the East India Company ,had a significant impact on the development of the city as trading centre.

Aungier laid out a town plan in the vicinity of Bombay castle and established The Mint, opened a printing press.

Aungier also encouraged the migration of mercantile com munities by assuring their religious freedom.

The volume of trade grew beyond coconut and coir to include many other products such as Salt,Betel nut,Rice,Ivory,Broad clothe,Lead,Sword blades.

And thus Anguier left Bombay islands more strongly forti fied and better governed by the development of trade network and primed for commercial and maritime expan sion. 1686: The shift of EIC headquarters from Surat to Bombay and hence governance and its maritime and trading activities also shifted to Bombay. 1716: Arrival of Governor Charles Boone, who had created the Bombay fort by executing Aungier’s proposal plan of a walled town. He further enlarged the old dockyard in the Fort ,established a marine force and encouraged the construction of several buildings including St.Thomas‘s church. 1728: The EIC started strengthening the harbour and building ships of war at Bombay ,to protect their merchants from continuing attacks by their commercial rivals. 1735: Bombay’s ultimate transformation into one of the busiest sea port in Asia,with a Parsi foreman who was invited to build ships and modernize the Bombay shipyard. Under the same Parsi foreman’s guidance construction commenced for the upper ,middle and lower Old Bombay. 1739: The strengthening of the wall ,the area designated as “Fort”.The E_W lines of what was then Churchgate Street ,which divided the fort into two parts ;clearly demarcating the boundaries of Natives and European area.

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2.4g Bombay city level readings Mid 20th century

2.4g1 A sketch showing the evolution of dockyard facilities within Fort Precinct as trade increased in the city

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At this stage Bombay displayed a typical pre industrial spatial pattern with the concentration of many important commercial and administrative functions and elite residences near the center and a broad residential segrega tion along the racial and ethnic lines.

1767: By this time the size of dockyards was enlarged to pro vide for the growing maritime activities, since Bombay had extended the trade network to Persian and Arabian Gulfs, Africa and Malacca, China. 1770: Cotton ruled as the most princely commodity at Bombay, when as a result of severe famine cotton fields were up rooted and planted with grain and a demand grew in China for Indian cotton.

In time Bombay became the sole export outlet for cotton grown in the Deccan ,Gujarat and the central provinces.

1780: Another commodity that played a significant part of Bombay’s commerce was opium. The EIC began export ing opium to China. The Poppy was cultivated in Bihar and Malwa and was transported to Bombay via road via Nasik or via Boat via Tankaria Bundar. 1782: Hornby ‘s tenure witnessed a significant milestone – A distinct change in the company’s policy and priorities from of trade to conquest took place.“Native town “referred to as “Black town”

2.4h Port Infrastructure of Bombay and the Fort precinct

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2.4i The Native town in Bombay

And a protracted war culminated in the signing of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Treaty of Salbai â&#x20AC;&#x153;with Mrathas, according to which the company in return of Bassein(present day Vasai)and certain territories in Gujarat, acquired Salsette, Elephanta ,Karanja and Hog Islands-thus strategically securing the harbour with these surrounding islands serving a defense batteries.(Fig.2.4j)

2.4j Bombay Harbour, surveyed By Commander L.S. Dawson. Source : Kochi Regional Archives.

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Thus the treaty became a turning point where the company of Bombay, which gradually prioritized its policy from trade and administration to conquest and imperialism. And further strengthened its position by instituting Boards for Marine, Military, Civic, Revenue and Trade affairs.

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1803: A huge fire breaks out in the northern part of the Fort area resulting in large-scale damage of the bazaar including goods and property. Hence the Indian community affected was encouraged to resettle in the area north of the Fort, beyond the Esplanade, This led to the formation of the of the “Native town” referred to as “Black town” 1869: Suez Canal is opened and Bombay supersedes the Cal cutta - as leading British Port and trading center. Bombay emerges as the “Gateway to India“as far as overseas communication with the west concerned. The period between 1850 -1890 saw a large number of reclamation schemes carried out in the city, most of the reclamation on the eastern shoreline were for the exten sion of docks and supporting facilities. 1870-1890: The growth of civic consciousness led to the set ting up of number of development agencies such as the Bombay Municipal corporation and Port Trust. The primary concern for these bodies was the develop ment of infrastructure;to cater to the growing needs of Bombay. 1873: Regular Local and suburban train service was started. This completely changed the nature of movement and growth of the island and facilitated growth of settlements in previously unreachable suburban areas. A tram line and Bus service was also established during this time for local transport within the city.

2.4k Emerging structure of Native town,in the northern part of the Fort .

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2.4l The Eastern shoreline and facilities for trade operations

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Urban Form and Structure

The Diagram of Port :Case of Bombay

Bombay is a thriving centre of trade along the coast, which has been the gateway, through which the western influences made their way into Indian mainland and through which new hinterlands of economic and social interchange were created. The commerce within the city is the sole element which creates “an image of the trading city”. The gradual evolution of the Bombay port town based on forces generated by the land and commerce, which has lead to the generations of a unique system of trade within Local and Global market. There are various generators; which make the system work - the commodities, the mercantile community involved in the trade and the technology involved in order to materialize the exchange of commodities – the sailing vessels. Bombay has been chosen due to its mode of trade and the pattern seen in the mercantile interactions. Looking at the tremendous potential of natural harbor conditions which are favorable for trade operations, and the commodities produced from hinterlands, Bombay became a gateway to western influences. The Increase in trade demanded a better technology for sailing and carriage of goods - than what was already established in the Indian Ocean Littoral (wooden Dhows).Hence The British Introduced to the Steam ships and large sailing vessels, which could carry large volumes, making the trade with the other parts of the country as well other continents faster. This lead to better larger infrastructure in the city, which gave rise to the expansion of the dockyards on the eastern shore, major reclamation project that, took place in order to make the deep water anchorage points.

2.4l the general diagram of trade and urban division due to trade within trading city.

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In order to make trade from and to Indian the British always required indigenous people those who could make trade and that s how the migration from Gujarat and other places around Bombay took place, giving the religious and social freedom in their expression.

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Tracing the entire thread of trade within the city â&#x20AC;&#x201C;as a whole it has come up with a distinct urban patternâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;with urban divisions of its own distinct texture and type, those division are knitted together to form a unified system in the urban structure. This Unified structure of the city created the sub domains which involves A. Fort precinct: The seat of governance: This takes care of administering the trade B. Sheltered Harbor and Docks: This takes care of port operations. C. The Industrial part of the city: Scattered network of entities involved in preparation of goods. D. Residential facilities for the mercantile community: By giving freedom to their social and religious expression. E. The physical transportations within the city by road, railways and waterways: harbor railways These are the five typologies found with its distinct urban grain, knitted together so close that itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s difficult to separate them. In a way is of parasitic nature that one depending on another in this unified system of the trading city. And the amalgam of the system with the existing law and order of politics creates chaos which is sometimes dissolved within each other. The amalgam of these two systems, leads to articulation of trading institutions and a structure for the Infrastructure. These different quarters coming together ultimately resulted in the growth of a rich and varied built form with their tremendous variation of traditions and newer building typology.

2.4 m The Image showing the Amalgam of political power and the thread of trade and articulation of trading Institutions -as part of the Infrastructure.

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Thread of trade :

This part talks about the emergence of the city from the eastern shore and as one explores the linkages-the sub domains with its distinct characteristics creates a urban hierarchy within the fabric noticed from Eastern shore to the Western side with a series of institutions involved with trade operations. In case of Bombay it being a station administering the British trade on the coast required to deal with local and global trade ,which not only took care of the specialized commodities but it captured larger areas on the north and western India producing general commodities like Sugar, cotton etc in abundance. The large volume of goods required a method of transporting goods in a rapid and efficient manner and advance technology for warehousing. Along with these advanced technology it required thoughtful port engineering at city level on the eastern shore which was not governed by the merchants of the city but by the government. Its sequences of trade operations, making the city as highly organized space, due to which the mode of trade and scale reflected on the street pattern. Being of extractive nature of the colonial port, the railways were integrated well with the city structure in order to link the hinterlands with the port operations on the eastern shore. Thus together the docks and railways laid the basis of a commercial and in time industrial infrastructure,with a series of urban systems involved in It.

2.4 n Thread of trade within the city. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Urban Systems and Hierarchy Due to Trade

There has been five distinct typology of urban patterns found within the city fabric of Bombay.

A. The Governance /Administration Fort as seat of Governance

B. Extension of trading operations The eastern shore : Port operations. C. Northern part of Industrial Bombay. D. Residential Facilities for Mercantile Community European Settlers Native settlers E.The Harbor Railways line ,and Roadways

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A. The Governance /Administration Fort precinct as an attempt to establish a centre for “trade and commerce”

By the 1840, Bombay island covered and area of 18 sq miles. The European quarter or Fort located in the southern part of the Island was protected by ramparts or town walls which extended from the Apollo Bandar in south to the Bazaar gate in the North. Proposed as early as 1685 by Governor Aungier, they were constructed during the governorship of Charles Boone and were ready by 1725. From its inception, Bombay like other British colonial towns had been divided into the “Fort “ or white town or European quarter and the black town .The two were physically separated by an Esplanade or open Maidan .the separation of the two was integral to the very structure of the town and reflected a dual organization and sensibility in various spheres . Above all the two quarters represented spatially a highly unequal division of power, of dominant relationship that existed between the colonizers and colonized.1 The seat of Governance was located in the Fort: in Bombay castle and the Secretariat. The fort complex also contained other institutions of Political and economic control ;namely ,the arsenals ,The Mint, old government docks, which served British interests not only in India ,but also in distant countries such as China ,East Africa and Red sea Ports.

2.4 a Fort Precinct and old Government docks with other Important buildings. 1 Dossal ,Marriam,“Imperial Designs and Indian Realities: The Planning of Bombay City, 1845-1875” Oxford University Press, 1997 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.4 a1 Map and Ariel view of Lutyensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; projected Imperial Delhi 1910- 1920.

2.4 a2 Marking the axis in Fort Area Bombay with the Old Government Docks .

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Thus the underlying aspiration to create a thriving trading center thus molded a cooperative tradition which endured in the following centuries. This situation of two cultures coming together, to settle a town was unique and had tangible effects on the way Bombay was eventually organized. Purpose hence the urban pattern differed in case of Mumbai, as British never envisaged the newly established trading post would develop into a sizable town, they never employ a systematic pattern of symmetrical grids and streets in Bombay,2 as they did in the name of colonization in other Indian cities like Delhi in order to make a faĂ§ade as a political dominance.

2.4 a3 Government docks and other important buildings 2 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.4 a5 Urban structure of Fort Precinct and the native town.

2.4 a4 Evolution of Fort Precinct and urban structure of Bombay .

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2.4 a6 T

Although the town itself was not laid out according to a plan, it probably exhibited a pattern of functional specialization from the beginning. The harbor area with its customhouse and warehouse (under the direct supervision of the castle) seems to have been the commercial hearth of the town. The castle, around which the town developed in a semi circular, was a combined administrative, military and commercial center. The characteristic shape of a small settlement hugging the shore suggests the need for quick and easy access to the sea, because in early period of the settlement in Fort, the British had a very little control over political affairs in hinterlands.

The Fort precinct and old government docks. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

2.4 a7 Extent of the Old Government docks on the eastern shore .

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2.4 a8 Old Government Docks and extended eastern shore of Bombay. Source : Urban Design Research Institute,Mumbai

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B. Extension of trading operations The Eastern shore : Port operations and warehousing facilities

No seaborne trade would have been possible without Bombay’s deep natural harbor, which attracted Indian and European powers to establish their control over Island. The Numerous bays that indented the island served as “Bandars” or landing places for country craft. The time line shows the gradual development that took place on the eastern shore ,in order to provide advanced technology and warehousing facilities for large volume goods. • When the British first acquired the island, the main docking site was located close to the castle making the castle as a seat of Governance. • 1686: The demands started voiced in the Bombay council for improved docking systems. • 1750: Work on the first docks, known as the “Government docks”, was begun in 1748; these were ready by 1750. • 1765: To meet the growing demand of trade, two more docks were built. The Bombay dockyard merited fulsome praise from some of its residents who referred to it as “the pride of Bombay and the astonishment of travelers.” • 1811: two more docks were built and named Duncan Docks in honor of Governor Duncan. Privately owned ships were allowed to use the dock facilities on payment of a fee. • Pressure from the shipping companies and private agency houses chafing against inadequate docking and warehousing facilities resulted in them being granted permission to construct their own docks and warehouses.

2.4 b1 Map showing the starting point of the Trading operations -old Govt. Docks in Fort Area.

School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

• The trade in Bombay quadrupled in value from Rs.5,66,000 million in 1829 -30 to over 25,000,000 million in 1850- 51,but a great deal of revenue was lost due to smuggling. • 1851: A harbor police force known as the preventive service was established.

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2.4 b2 Different layers seen on the eastern shore where trade operations has been conducted

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2.4 b3 Ceremony of admitting water to Victoria Dock by Lady Reay [Victoria Dock construction, Bombay Photographer: Taurines,1888

2.4 b4 the extent of port facilities on the eastern shore. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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• 1873: To improve the infrastructure and ensure greater coordination among the shipping companies, traders, and the Bombay Government. A Harbor Board was set up, which was later replaced by the Bombay Port Trust. • 1930: By this time Bombay’s docks extended over a distance of four miles along the islands eastern foreshore. • They included the Prince’s, Alexandria, Victoria and Sassoon Docks as well as the dockyard that catered to the vessels of the Royal Indian Marine and The British Navy, and those used for docking of ships of The Peninsular and Oriental shipping company, The British India and other steamship companies . • The Port accounted approximate 40 % of the imports into the 38 % of the exports from the country. • 1970: Advances in shipping technology and the growing presence of large container ships, oil tankers and deep-sea trawlers had made the Island’s docking facilities inadequate. • Now the large ships berth at the new container port terminal JNPT, The Sea has greater depth and can accommodate ships of greater burden.

2.4 b5 Opening of gates at Victoria Docks.

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2.4 b6 View of south wall looking eastward from S.-W. corner. Mortar mills to the right [Victoria Dock construction, Bombay].

2.4 b7 North wall Looking eastward,Victoria Dock during construction.

2.4 b8 Bombay Harbour from Apollo Bunder.--Photographer: Unknown Medium: Photographic print Date: 1855

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2.4 b9 Mortar shed [Victoria Dock construction, Bombay].

2.4 b10 Bombay Green of 1862.

2.4 b11 Scotch Church, Court-House, and entrance to the Dock-Yard [Bombay].

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C. Northern part of Industrial Bombay

The substantial public buildings which lined the Esplanade were completed by the 1890’S. and provided the city with an impressive central business district. Bombay’s transformation from a trading town into a fledgling Industrial and Manufacturing centre began quite unobtrusively in 1854,when the first chimney stack spewed black smoke onto the town’s skyline.1 The first Mill which appeared on the landscape was the Bombay Spinning &Weaving Company’s cotton mill at Tardeo in central Bombay. With the rise of cotton mills, wet docks and extensive railway network emanating from Bombay and started linking large parts of hinterlands. All this confirmed city‘s place as a leading industrial and financial centre. The northern industrial part where a number of cotton processing and manufacturing mills are scattered in the urban landscape gave another dimension to the Bombay Port in the local as well as global market. The Industrial zone and its connection with the hinterlands via railways made the trade operations even more efficient for large volumes of goods.

2.4 i1 Map showing Industrial sectors connected with Port via Railways Source :Urban Design Research Institute,Bombay. 1 Dossal,Mariam, “Theatre of Conflict, City of Hope Bombay/Mumbai, 1660 to Present Times” Oxford University Press 2010. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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2.4 r1 The Mercantile Community in Bombay Source : Sheth Romil, Revealing Bhuleshwar coevolution of building image and urban systems,School of Architecture ,Ahmedabad.

D. Residential Facilities for Mercantile community European Settlers Native settlers

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Community Tapestry in Bombay: Kalbadevi , Bhuleshwar, Native town , Pydhoni. Indigenous merchants and traders took a large share in the expansion of Bombay‘s commercial activities. In the 1660’s local trade was still very limited, but under the East India Company, an appreciable advance was made. The Company realized the need for indigenous assistance in the extension of its business operations.1 Therefore, from the beginnings, governors invited traders, bankers and artisans (such as weavers and carpenters) to come over to Bombay, offering all religious and communities freedom of worship and management of their own caste affairs. The Influx resulted into places within the city which are entirely built by migrant communities, who endowed with their traditional customs and values. Inland developments furthered the same policy. As a place of security and refuge in a particularly unsettled region Bombay attracted trade as well as population.

2.4 r Bombay Harbour and the Native town surveyed By Commander L.S. Dawson. Source : Kochi Regional Archives . 1 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

Dwivedi, Sharada & Mehrotra, Rahul, “Bombay: the cities within” Indian Bombay House,1995

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Finally the growing trade created a momentum of its own and Bombay came to exert a strong appeal to commercial entrepreneurs as well as adventurers. From the 17th century, but especially after 1818, members of merchant communities and trading castes settled in Bombay to exploit the economic opportunities; that arose under the British Raj. In the first part of 19th Century, Parsis had a wide variety of interest in inland property, mercantile firms, shipbuilding and banking and trade.2 The economic success of this small, highly urbanized minority group has become proverbial. In the 1730’s the Wadia shipbuilders came over from Bombay to lay foundation of Bombay Dockyards. While enterprising Hindu “Baniyas” and “Bhattiyas”, took more to banking and money landing. Prominent Muslim Groups like Memons, Bohras, and Khojas, who also hailed from Gujarat, were descendents of converts of local Hindu trading castes. • The oldest residents of Bombay were the Palshikar Brahmins, the Pathare Prabhus, the Bhandaris, the panchkalshis, the Agrisand the Kolis of which former four settled in and around the Bhuleshwar –Girgaum Area. The number of religious institutions play a host to a wide spectrum of a community fabric comprises of Brahmins of all types, the Avdhoots and the Jains. • Some of the earliest immigrants who came to the city in search of the greener pastures were the Kapol banias and the Bhatias, who progressively acquired land in Bhuleshwar and Kalbadevi area of Bombay. • The Bhatias originally came from Kathiawar and Kutch in Gujarat migrated to Bombay in the early 19th century and is largely credited with the developments of the textile mill Industry. They along with the Kapol banias dominated Textile ,shipping and Cotton industries. • The Kapols hailed originally from Amreli and Gohilwad districts of the princely states of Bhavnagar in Saurashtra, and known for their business acumen philanthropy, and their countless endowments in the fields of health, housing, education and religion. • Some of the most prominent landmarks within and around Bhuleshwar are kapol endowments “kapol mahajan wadi”, some of the temples, Madhav baug and mumbadevi tank. • The Maharashtra Bhoi community also lived here and inhabited all the Bhoiwadas. They were ‘Fazandaris’ tenures; a title given to them by the British that empowered the nominees to manage specific properties. 2

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• The Pathare Prabhus and Many sects of Brahmins like Gaud saraswats, the konkanasthas, and the devasthas were highly placed employees in government, Municipal, railways and mercantile services. And they are responsible for setting up many institutions in Bhuleshwar and Girgaum area. • There is a considerable amount of Jains in the surrounding areas of Pydhonie and Kalbadevi. The Christian community also had its presence in the vicinity and the cathedral of Nossa Senhora D’esperanca was situated here. The Parsis established themselves in the Princess Street, Girgaum and Kalbadevi area, with their primary place of worship in “Dadyshet Agiary” skirting Bhuleshwar. Such the primary population consists of the Banias and the Jains, dominating the rest on the community tapestry of Bombay.

2.4 r2 Madhav Baug wadi in Bhuleshwar.

2.4 r3 Urban structure of Bhuleshwar in Bombay Source :Sheth Romil, Revealing Bhuleshwar coevolution of building image and urban systems,School of Architecture ,Ahmedabad. School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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E. The Railways

The rationale for the development of railways, as is with every other public works projects, was dual. The need for political lines, or railways which would connect politically disturbed areas with military and administrative centers was nearly as great as that for gaining access to raw materials and obtaining markets for British goods. The railways were intended to provide an improved system of transport and communications by which the town could obtain increasing resources and exercise greater control over its hinterlands. Railways and shipping constituted the two outstretched arms of the sub-metropole. While one reached deeper into the hinterlands, the other linked the Bombay more effectively to Britain and the rest of the world. Though the railways, concerned development at all India level, are discussed in this part just as to know how the railways shaped the urban pattern and its connections with the urban division of the city. In 1845 another group of capitalists in England formed a Railways company, called The Great Indian Peninsula Railways. The principal economic benefit of the GIPR was the opening up of the interior to external trade. The two lines up the Western Ghats were fully open by 1865 in time for cotton from the Deccan to be exported from Bombay to Manchester thus filling the trade gap created by the American Civil War.1

The Bombay Baroda and Central Railways (BB and CIR) was the second railways company which intended to establish its headquarters in Bombay .The BB and CIR was to link Bombay to the rich cotton landmasses of Gujarat. The development of railways was expected to generate other profitable areas of investment and stimulate industrial growth. The logic of railway building required that a comprehensive plan be worked out, which would link the main producing centers and hinterlands with the port cities. Together the docks and railways laid the basis of a commercial and in time industrial infrastructure, and enabled Bombay city in the subsequent years to cope with the increasing political and economic demands made on it. 2.4 e1 Extent of Great Indian Peninsula Railway network in 1870. 1

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2.4 e2 Extent of Railways in Bombay. Source :Daniel Thorner,”Investment in empire: British railway and steam shipping enterprise in India, 1825-1849”,1977 School Of Architecture,CEPT University ,Ahmedabad

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Conclusion

It has to be conceded, however that a case history of Bombay Illustrates the developmental implication of the imperial connections. Bombay developed from the trading outpost on the western shore to one of the main centers of imperial rule in British India; that as a new centre of economic activity attracted large numbers of migrant population, those who gave the urban fabric its peculiar composition ,Immigrants from Gujarat dominating trade and industry and Maharashtrian providing the necessary labor in docks ,railways and textile mills; and that the settlement pattern spatially reflected the new economic hierarchy imposed by colonial order. We can see here that Bombay largely confirms to theories that propose colonial cities as parasitical in nature and extractive. It was created by the European Interests and meant to serve these. It served as a commercial entre pot in the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Asian trade, as a strategic base for political and military penetration of the Interior, and especially since the 19th century as the gateway through which raw cotton and other products left the country and British textile manufactures were distributed into India. And due to the large scale of trade in the city â&#x20AC;&#x201C;the unified system of trade, which in the urban structure is linked at the same time, seems scattered along with the skilled mercantile communities involved; hence in case of Bombay it is difficult to define the boundary of the trading city.

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2.4 e4 The Bombay Yacht Club, February 1891. Taken from “The Apollo Bunder”, Bombay

2.4 e3 The fort Bombay Harbour face 1863

2.4 e5 Sailors’ Home [Bombay].--Photographer: Unknown Medium: Photographic print Date: 1870

2.4 e6 A 1934 aerial view showing in the background the dock warehouses and liners at Alaxandria Docks ,Victoria terminus and offices of GIP can be seen in the center.

2.4 e7 Fort & Cotton Market, Bombay.--Photographer: Unknown Medium: Photographic print Date: 1860

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“Technology as a Tool “ for Economic Power.

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Chapter Three: The constitution of Port Activities. 3.1 The Goods. 3.2 The Ships and the needs: Technological Aspect Sea mode communication Dhows to Clippers to Steamships. 3.3 The sailors, Traders and other resident population.

The Role of Littoral Society. The community Tapestry.

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This chapter gives an overview of the three basic components which makes a trading city work. Goods The sailing vessels The Mercantile community.

3.1 Goods The Goods /commodities play an important role as it being a smallest of the unit of this entire system of trade, which generates entire infrastructure that is based on the nature of the goods. It can either be as per the sites producing particular goods, like whether itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s general or specialized goods from a particular region or a specialized commodity from some region. The nature of goods decides what kind of infrastructure the goods would require and with that what kind of risks are involved, that leads to the Infrastructure hence pattern of trade. As per the sites of Trade : Goods Specialized or General Nature of Goods exchanged: Large volume- low value or small volumeâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;expensive goods The risks involved : Whether is it perishable?? What its shelf life /storage life of goods??

Based on these parameters, one would say what sort of different warehousing would require for different types of goods and different risks involved. These sites of trade would have the ship the modes of sea communication ), the trading methods, the technology involved in sea communications, and Goods, which are interrelated and out of this loop one gets a particular pattern of a trading city. In order to understand the pattern, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s required to understand the core part of Port city and then connecting it to the rest of the urban context to trace the pattern of the urban fabric of cities on the sea coast.

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3.2 The Ships and the needs: Technological aspect The study of seafaring methods: The sailing Vessels

• • • •

Ships Speed Potential Need from ports

The overview of technology that was adapted at various times to facilitate the sea communications for trade operations. It’s required to consider that from Dhows to Clippers to Steamships, and each ones potential as per its technological aspects. The Ship type and kind of Port facilities and infrastructure required should also be taken into consideration. Numbers in peak season; how many ships would be docked in at once gives the intensity of trade being conducted at the port also these numbers gives a clear Idea about the scale of the activities within the city. The next part gives an overview to the technology of sailing that existed in the Indian Ocean and the seas that were connected to the Indian Ocean trade system in the history and present times.

3.2a Malabar Motor Steamer ,The sailing vessel which is much after the wooden dhows and after industrial revolution introduced in order to make large volume transport of goods.

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Name : Beaver Length: 30.7 m (100.8’) Beam: 6.1 m (20’) Draft: 2.56 m (8.4’) Tonnage: 190 t Hull: wood – English and African oak Armament: 4 brass cannons Power source: twin side lever engines rated at 35 hp each that drove two 13’ (3.9 m) diameter paddle wheels. Brigantine rigged sails. Built: Black wall, England, 1835

Wrecking Steamer, side elevation, half cross section, 22.5” x 51.5” Length on deck :128’-0” Beam :25’-0” Depth for Hold :10’-0”. Source : Delaware Public Archives

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Four Mast Schooner Length :210’-0” Beam (Extreme):40’-0” Depth of Hold :21’-0”

Cattle Steamer Length :150’-0” width:30’-0” Depth for hold :9’-0”

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Schooner - side and deck views, 28” x 66” Sand Dredge - Hull & Joiner Work, deck view, side elevation, cross section, 36” x 48” Length :87’-0” Beam:30’-0” Depth for hold:9’-6” source : Delaware Public Archives

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Unidentified cargo ship Used for Business, Labor & Commerce Half cross section, 35.5” x 70” source :Delaware Public Archives

The technology of transport and such sea going vessels with reliability and safety made sailing voyages possible, giving such sea going vessels; the oceans unite the different culture and people of the world. This gave rise to the trade expeditions and hence the expansion of territories. The technology of transport dealing with the movement of goods it plays an important role in shaping the urban structure of trading cities and their Littoral spaces. In case of the huge basin of Indian Ocean -as it’s suitable for such sea communication, due to its comparative lack of storms over most of the area, which has created a certain ecology of trade which was efficient with the wooden dhows-for transporting large volume goods. This was later on with the European invasion altered with the steamships which could carry large volume of goods in a faster and efficient manner. This not only left to this changing mode of transport, but the infrastructure that was needed for the port cities, and hence based on the mode and the technology adopted the Image of the city changed.

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3.3 The Mercantile community :

The sailors, Traders and other resident population. This part gives and general overview of what is the contribution of the littoral society in order to give a distinct character to a trading city‘s social fabric and Urban form? And what does the littoral society consists of ? What does the “littoral society” consist of?? More dealt with the social, economical, religious aspect of the sailors, the traders (who are the transient community) and the other local resident population at the sea shore. These are the communities on and off shore ,of which the skills are utilized in order to make trade operations possible.

What is Littoral society??

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The whole idea of littoral society is a real space both physically and as an experiential entity. Besides the major issues of location –societies located on the shore of the sea, on the coast.

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There is more complex issue of shared practices and cultures; which exhibiting characteristics that are an amalgam of maritime and territorial influences.

•

Consists of majorly migrant population; reason being pursuit of Trade than the Religious persecution.

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Sometimes coupled with the desire to live in cooler less arid region close to water.

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In the constitution of Port city, the littoral society plays an important role. In order to make the city work as a highly organized space, there are series of sub domains. One of them which can be seen in the coastal settlement is the community formation of the mercantile society and its set of infrastructure along with social and religious Institutions. In the pursuit of trade the traders and artisans, craftspeople from various places are often invited to the cities by the state rule, offering all the religious and communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s freedom of worship and management of their own caste affairs. The Influx would create a realm of important civic structures within the city, which are entirely built and maintained by the migrant community, who endowed their traditional customs and values. There can been seen the differentiation in the most privileged community and the others in the urban structure. The European community in both the cities, we are concerned with; demonstrates this differentiation. Sometimes it can be based on economic value, like for service providers and service receivers, which can be evidently seen in Fort area of Bombay. In the process, not only the oral traditions and their culture migrates to a foreign land but ,technology of building construction and techniques also migrates, which creates a different architectural style. This can be evidently seen in the architectural qualities of trading structures within the city such as Godowns, the motifs depicting mythological traditional Kerala architecture. It can be seen the demographic nature seen in the urban form of the two cities, where the different domains created by different communities and when these patches coming together creates a certain typology of urban pattern. Thus the mercantile community and its social religious institutions, contributes a lot to the urban landscape of the trading city.

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Chapter Four: The City level Readings and Analysis: Cochin & Mumbai. 4.1 Form of the city. 4.1.1 Places of Storage 4.1.2 Places of Exchange 4.1.3 Physical Transportation: Via Land and Sea. 4.1.4 Places of Administration Law Banking.

4.1.5 Transient Population and Native Influx.

Findings and Discussion for a comparative study of Kochi

â&#x20AC;?A site of trade facilitating the Merchants in the Indian Ocean Trade network. Bombay : As a port in the era of colonization. And scale and unification of symbolism in order to create a facade of power.

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In order to understand the urban structure of the city this chapter would concentrate on;

A. The Port activities The infrastructure due to the goods ,the sailing vessels,by the patrons of the technology;The trad ers. B. The Governance Fort Area :as seat of Governance Law,Banking and Administration C. The Important Urban Institutions at the water edge : as a Symbol Where there are important Institutions devel oped by the traders. D. The Mercantile community :Residential Facilities by ethnic groups along with Social /religious institutions. Places within the city which are entirely built by migrant communities, who endowed with their traditional customs and values. Which includes a set of social and religious Institutions with the urban structure.

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This part of the chapter looks at the differences and parallels in the Urban form and structure of the two trading cities. In the process the study gives a parameter to look at the urbanism of these distinct typology of Urban form and Structure.

In both the cases there are few things which are found similar the urban experience the and the vibrant atmosphere of market places. While the scale of trade also plays a major role in order to give an image to the city. If we talk about the Kochi : in the Indian Ocean ,the entire loop of goods,sailing vessels and the mercantile community and the facilities provided by the city to them gives a form of the city. The goods produced in Kochi were of low volume and high cost ,like spices,and other goods. Which used the long established system in the Indian Ocean in order to conduct trade. The dhows where used to make goods transactions with distant places,which required a completely different Infrastructure the marshy land and no or lesser wharf area,as the volume of goods would also be small. Thus it can be seen in Mattanchery that without the need of an advance port Infrastructure, The trade was being conducted very well. The entire spine of commerce in Mattancherry from calvethy road to Bazar road and further Jew town ,the street pattern suggests that the scale of trade would have been of smaller that compared to present situation. While in case Bombay as the scale of trade and commodities change it reflects in the image of the city and its urban experience. Indeed its true that due to trade the city gets organized and city - becomes a very order place -with sub domains which are linkages live together and knitted together. Cotton being the primary commodity to exchange with the western worlds-Bombay employed a certain method of trade ,which over a period in time had effects of the political events that took place in India. Due to the interest of The British,in order to establish a hub for commerce and later changing the nature of rulers from of traders ,to create political dominance,gave rise to the duality in nature of the city. Now if we see the Urban structure of the both the trading cities one thing is its geographic location and the natural sheltered harbour gives an advantage of conducting trade. Both the cities have the all the docking facilities on the eastern shore. Now due to the trading operations we can see a hierarchy the vertical stripes north to south.

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• • • •

Port related activities Trade based -law banking etc . Governance And recreational activities

Now the sub domains create one layer, another is of the political events of the city and its impact while the third one is the goods moving within the city and hence the development of roadways and railways. Hence in case of Bombay there is a series which railways will be able to connect, so more you go to northern part its industrial and more you go south toward the sea it becomes residential and Important Institutions. And it becomes port connected. But in case of Kochi the hinterland was more defused ,and it dint have an efficient network of railways to bring in goods hence there must have been small boats which carried goods to get them to the Mattancherry godown to store before the goods dispatched for the western shore. So like this there must have been connection where in Kochi which is linking island to inland. But still there wasn’t much of a differentiation between the most privileged position and more routine position along the transportation systems as we can see in case of Bombay. In a way all these parameters affect the urban structure of the trading city. And at the same time resultant of the simultaneous change in magnitude of political actions (as it can be seen in Bombay) and magnitude of technology.

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4.1a Kingdoms of trade in the Indian Ocean

This part of the chapter looks at the city level readings and the urban systems , that made the city work or sustain as a unified system of trade within the trading city. And in order to understand the trade operations and its urban expression of these two cities, there are several criteria which need an explanation at city level. 1. Location of the Port 2. Form of the city 3. Building typology which served the facilities for trading operations within the city. The Location: Kochi: As a “Site of Trade” in the Indian Ocean World. In case of Kochi the nature of the city is as explained in the earlier part is a “site of trade”, which cater to the merchants and traders from various kingdoms within the Indian Ocean littoral at the time which is considered here before the European invasion took place. The kingdoms of trade include the Merchants from the Malabar coast, Kutchi Bhatias, Sultanates from the southeast Asia, Swahili from East coast of Africa and the Arab traders from the Red sea and Persian gulf. 204

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4.1b

Bombay: As a Port in the Era of colonization. Bombay is located at a strategic point in the Indian Ocean where British Empire trade network is connecting the south East Asia, Pacific trade routes and Indian Ocean -Atlantic trade routes. The commodities attracted the British to the west coast included cotton, sugar tea and other commodities. Hence the Hinterlands on the west coast, those produced the goods are responsible for the extractive and parasitical nature of the colonial city-Bombay.

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Also Kochi was strategically located at a point where it could conveniently facilitate the Kingdoms of trade in the Indian Ocean, and more important its connection with the Hinterlands in order to extract the piece goods and spices and rubber, which were produced in abundance. 2. Form of the city. Based on the trade operations in both the cities, it required a set of infrastructure, so to say a unified, well organized system which could facilitate these trade operations within the city. Depending on the scale and pattern of trade, both the cities had a different Infrastructure laid, making the city as highly organized space. This created different urban experience based on the evolution of the facilities provided and its ownership, whether the facilities provided by the traders community or any other Governing authority. This has played an important role the way these operations shaped these two cities.

4.1c Map showing Kochi and Environs

One of the crucial factors has been the movement of large volumes of goods within the city. The entire transaction from the hinterlands to the port was facilitated by railways and roadways. But the technology that affected the urban form the most has been the mode of seafaring in both the cases. The sailing vessels that made the sea communication possible globally and locally had a huge impact on the urban structure. 1. Land transportation and Structure of the city. 2. The Sub Domains -Scales of Activities.

4.1e The wooden Dhow used for the movement of goods in the Indian Ocean world.

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The Railways were built to connect large hinterlands, producing raw material for British Industries of cotton, sugar, coal, tea and other important commodities. Also the port was located at the point where it was easy to establish a connection between North and Western India, which was apparently producing cotton-the global commodity and other goods in abundance. Hence it can be said that Bombay was a port of global importance managing British Industries on the west coast of India. Due to thriving British trade and the large scale movement of commodities and its consequent need for government control and finance and banking, large labour forces for services and trade operations were needed, and all these factors have shaped a unique typology of urban pattern, which consists of sub domains within the city as a part of a unified system of trade. 4.1d Map showing Bombay and Environs Map showing Mumbai and Environs

4.1f The steamship as faster mode of sea communication

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1. Land transportation and Structure of the city: This part deals with the movement of goods within the city and technology adopted based on that the articulation of the institutions within the city. Favorable climate, time tested techniques, and a constant market had made Kerala a flourishing agricultural state. This applied to a number of other Souths -East Asian regions as well. In case of Kochi the Commodities use to transport via roadways to the Mattancherry godowns , while the large volume of goods coming in and going out in Dhows were docked in the deep waters of Vembanad lake. And due to the natural formation of the sheltered harbour the wooden ships called “Kettuvallam”used to dock close to the rear part of the Godowns in Bazaar Road and Calvethy Road in Mattancherry. The technology of seafaring and used for trade purpose could sustain here without any advanced facilities for port, but the kind of goods and the sailing vessels had their own requirement in order to facilitate the warehousing facilities. The Dhows,which were of size 41.148 meters X 12.192 meter X 7.924 8 meters and the goods carrying capacity was 250-500 tones. According to the technology involved in the trade operations the facilities were provided. The entire infrastructure was governed by mercantile community, and the port construction was in a piece meal formation. Hence in Mattancherry as the trade grew the merchants would provide facilities as required; like wharves attached to the Godowns for loading and unloading of goods. Here we can see that the trade was being conducted without any advanced facilities for port. But the nature in which facilities were built up had its impact of the urban form of Kochi. As the port construction was of piece meal formation, there is not any unification of sub domains can be. And Kochi being the “site of trade” in the Indian Ocean World, The city facilitated all the kingdoms within the Indian Ocean. Hence the presence of many rulers from different parts of the word simultaneously; the city never signifies singularity of any one power or ruling authority.

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In case of Bombay cotton being the prime commodity of exchange with the western world, the entire city laid out in order to integrate the extent of railways within the city and its hinterlands in order to extract the goods efficiently. Also railways played important role with the favorable point in the Indian Ocean to connect the northwestern part of India- the part which produced cotton, sugar and other piece goods in abundance, at the time when cotton -claimed to be the global commodity. The large movement of commodities required larger Infrastructure for port facilities, which was laid out by the government unlike in case of Kochi; hence the unified system within the city structure shows the unification of the sub domains in case of Bombay. Also having known the advantage of the hinterlands producing cotton in bulk and its large volumes required a method of transporting goods in rapid and efficient manner. Which could not be fulfilled with â&#x20AC;&#x153;Dhowsâ&#x20AC;?, this gave rise to the steam engines and the steam boats in the Indian Ocean network, to make the movement of goods faster. With the advance technology of sea faring, came the risks involved with them and other facilities for sailing vessels and as the entire infrastructure on the eastern shore established and maintained by the government, in order to make not only economical but also political dominance in global market. And hence it was the thoughtful port engineering for the large scale exchange which prevailed all over the city. Due to the large scale of trade in the city â&#x20AC;&#x201C;the unified system of trade, which in the urban structure is linked at the same time, is scattered; hence difficult to define the boundary of the trading city.

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Port construction in case of Kochi. 210

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2. The Sub Domains-Scales of Activities: As a part of Unified System of trade within the city.

1.Port and warehousing facilities.

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2.Finance and Banking facilities .

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3.Government and other Important Buildings

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4.Residential facilities for European settlers and Native Population.

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3. Building typology which served the facilities for trading operations within the city.

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The Godowns in Mattancherry. In case of Kochi the various stages of the port operations were accommodated within the Godowns in Mattancherry village. The plan organization demonstrates the multipurpose use of these spaces along with storage facilities ,such as residential,offices and shop fronts. The architectural language is evidently resultant of mode of trade. The storage areas are in the lower level to facilitate the easy transport of goods. While the upper floors used for office purpose and its been considered as a temporary residence for the merchants before settling in Mattancherry. The storage area occupies the largest volume in the Godown. Placement of openings opposite to each other is avoided mainly to reduce the cross ventilation. The Humidity and temperature inside the storage areas are thus maintained which help prevent quick deterioration of goods stored here. The presence of courtyard is the focal point in the space making of the Godowns in Mattancherry. The courtyard mainly used for the drying and preparing the goods during the non monsoon season. The office are of second most public area. It occupies the ground floor and first floor on the street side part of the built form. The functions of the offices at the ground floor dealt with day to day affairs related to trade,while the offices on the upper floor are used by the merchant heads ,who oversee the different stages of trade operations. Also it holds of greater importance as the monetary transactions take place here. The shop front of the Godowns are the most public area. The negotiations for the goods traded are done at the shop fronts .Some of the Godowns depending on the goods ,retail buying and selling of goods is also conducted here.

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The Trading structures in colonial Bombay The warehouses and other trading structures within the city,are of different nature than Kochi. Where the Godowns in Mattancherry ,the plan organization demonstrates the multipurpose use of spaces.. On the other hand the warehouses in Bombay are only to accommodate the storage of goods,hence the plan of the cotton warehouses ,has more emphasis on the storage area and adequate circulation for the movement of goods required for large scale trade. The trade operations in the city has sub domains based on the functions. Hence the difference is evident as the major stages of trade in the Mattancherry are being conducted around the realm of godowns in mattancherry ,Bombay had these stages scattered all over the city and well integrated with the railways. As it can be seen in the Cotton warehouses and the grain market -the repetition of the similar module emphasizing on the scale of activity at city level.

4.1g Cotton stores, Bombay.-Date: 1855 Photographer: Johnson and Henderson Source :The British Library.

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Chapter Five: In Conclusion

The Port City as the Expression of Social, Political, Economic and Technological aspects and the urban form and structure.

The trade in the Indian Ocean World and its urban expression on the two cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s urban structure, we are concerned here, are more or less a resultant of the following five aspects which played an important role in order to establish the urban systems within the city. 1. Geography of Trade 2. Technology of Transport 3. Concentration of political power 4. Community formation and Civic Structures

â&#x20AC;˘ Geography of trade: The huge basin of the Indian Ocean is outstandingly suitable for mercantile interactions with the modes that facilitate the sea communications .The climatic regime of alternating monsoons is particularly suited to regular and reliable sailing voyages, as its comparative lack of storms over most of the area. The region around the Indian Ocean produced different commodities based on the favorable climate. The extraction of these commodities and a constant need created a trading zone in the Indian Ocean World. And created a certain amount of trade limited by the kind of goods.

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The trade made possible by the use of sailing vessels in order to make exchange of these commodities, mainly using the wooden boats and dhows later on for transporting bulky goods. This remained a system of trade in the Indian Ocean for a long time until the European invasion took place. This led to establishing a civilization of trade in the Indian Ocean, making the Indian Ocean a trading zone –a cluster of trading kingdoms on the rim, which is connected globally to the trade routes of the south East Asia –pacific Ocean and Mediterranean and the east Atlantic trade route and the sub Saharan land routes. Kochi is one such example that followed the similar system of trade in the Indian Ocean, being a “site of trade” rather an element of expansion of kingdoms. Hence The simultaneous presence of the Arabs ,the Indian merchants from Cambay to Konkan and to Malabar and Sultanates from the south east Asia, and due to this the city form never signified a singularity of any one ruling authority. But it was more concentrated towards the empowerment of economy via trade. On the other hand , Bombay located at a strategic location in the Indian Ocean, where the British Empire trade network connected with the south east Asia-pacific trade routes and the Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean trade route. Later with the colonization Bombay as a colonial port opened its gate to the European market. This required an advance technology of transport for bulky goods, which gave rise to the steamships and advanced port Infrastructure of the city. And dealing with the local and global market both, the increased scale of the trade had a huge impact on the city form, which were in case of Bombay were completely a result of simultaneous magnitude of political actions and hence the magnitude of technology. This gave rise to the advanced facilities at port and technology for the transportation of commodities to the global market. Hence we can see here is depending on the geography and the commodities exchanged technology change, so it change the economy ,hence the power equation –these are the different modes in the two cities but run simultaneously in the same geographic spheres.

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â&#x20AC;˘ Technology of transport:

The movement of commodities â&#x20AC;&#x201C;is a crucial element for the urban form of the city. As itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s also depends on the kind of goods hence both shaping the infrastructure of the port. In case of Kochi due to the specialized goods such as cash crops, like coconuts, pepper and cardamom, cashew, areca nut, nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, cloves etc, it required the warehousing facilities depending on its volume and based on its nature perishable non-perishable required the sailing vessels in order to make the transport of goods. Where in Kochi the scale of trade was smaller compared to Bombay, the entire infrastructure of the port was mainly on the commercial spine of Mattancherry. And all the stages of trade operations were limited to the Godowns at Bazaar road and Calvethy road, Fort Kochi. The technology used for transport could sustain here without any advanced facilities for port. Hence the developments of these port facilities were in the piece meal formation for the port constructions. This was administered by the mercantile community. In case of Bombay it being a station administering the British trade on the coast required to deal with local and global trade ,which not only took care of the specialized commodities but it captured larger areas on the north and western India producing general commodities like Sugar, cotton etc in abundance. The large volume of goods required a method of transporting goods in a rapid and efficient manner and advance technology for warehousing. This gave rise to the new mode of trade with steam engines and the large steam ships, in the Indian Ocean. Along with these advanced technology it required thoughtful port engineering at city level on the eastern shore which was not governed by the merchants of the cities like in Kochi but by the government. Both the cases had its sequences of trade operations, making the city as highly organized space, due to which the mode of trade and scale reflected on the street pattern. In case of Kochi the movement of goods defined the closely packed built form of godowns and narrow lanes.

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While Bombay demonstrates the complex but ordered sequences through which the goods move and the wider streets suitable for the movement of large volumes and open spaces facilitating temporary storage of goods. Being of extractive nature of the colonial port, the railways were integrated well with the city structure in order to link the hinterlands with the port operations on the eastern shore and the later stages of trade in order to make the transport of commodities in a faster and efficient manner. Thus together the docks and railways laid the basis of a commercial and in time industrial infrastructure. And this enabled Bombay city in the subsequent years to cope with the increasing political and economic demands made on it. Thus in both the cases the impact of the technology played an important role to mould the city in the local and global context. And due to the mode of trade in Kochi -as a trading hub had a defined boundary compared to Bombay, where being large and complex it was scattered on the urban fabric.

â&#x20AC;˘ Concentration of Political Power :

When there is technology of trade, the trade expands; this gives rise to the economy of the city that reflects on the expansion of territory in order to operate all that money that would create a different quantum of power which would create political dominance. Thus in both the cities it can be seen that due to these simultaneous events, the moment the power equation changes the nature of architecture and urban expression has changed. In Kochi it being a site for trade for the trade Kingdoms in the Indian Ocean Littoral, and due to presence of all the merchants from these kingdoms simultaneously there is decentralization of power and hence dispersed economic power. This created ecology of trade with a certain agreement of spheres of employ. This led to a kind of looser and less profound symbolic differentiation in case of Kochi, which never signify singularly in its urban form. The sub domain in Kochi comes together as parts and creating a whole, where the sub domains have their distinct characteristic.

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In case of Bombay as the British came as traders to establish the trade hub on the west coast. There wasn’t any urban settlement on the west coast of symbolic statement. But later as they changed their intensions in order to make a political dominance in the global market. The urban pattern shows the urban domains related to functions of trade within city, making city a highly organized space with the unification of the sub domains. Hence it can be said that Kochi is seen as the function of economic need while Bombay was to give symbolic value to have the political dominance in the Global economy. And on one side the economic statement that was created related to technology by the patrons of trade in Kochi, while on the other side the symbolic statement which was there related to the scale of colonization in Bombay.

• Community Formation and civic structure:

The unified system of trade within the city demonstrated a certain urban hierarchy in the urban form of trading city. The system of trade created series of sub domain each contributing to the trade operations within the city. At Kochi,In the pursuit of trade the traders and artisans from various places were often invited to the city, offering all the religious and community’s freedom of worship and management of their own caste affairs. The Influx resulted into the important places within the city, which are entirely built and maintained by the migrant community, who endowed their traditional customs and values. And the mode and pattern of trade of these two cases had created a huge impact on the differentiation made to the community formation within the urban form. In case of Bombay the differentiation is merely on the bases of service provider and service receiver. Bombay like other British colonial town had been divided into the “Fort” or “white town” or “European quarter” and the “Indian quarter” or “black town”. The separation of the two quarter was integral to the very structure of the town and reflected a dual organization and sensibility in various spheres.

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Also the separation between European and Indian quarters expressed and perpetuated a spatial coexistence of two economies at work. While in case of Kochi, the community formation was based on the communities like kojas, khonas, Kutchi Bhatiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s etc as the mercantile communities, banias and the financiers and this was demarked because the trade was existed in the city by taking advantage of the skills these communities offered â&#x20AC;&#x201C;which was in a way due to the nature of the port which remained a sites for trade rather being a an element for political expansion of kingdoms. And in spite the presence of the European traders there wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t much of differentiation between the most privileged position and more routine position which can be seen in the urban form of the city. So here also there is a unified system made of sub domains that linked together, giving a unique image of the city. In both the cases the mercantile community and the civic structures has given a unique urban landscape to the city.

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The culture of trade profoundly shaped the underlying structure of the port city, defining the principle orientation of its urban shape, the functional modes of its built elements (as part of the larger urban system) and the social and economic hierarchies that dominated community life. The urban divisions of the trading city are the closely knitted sub domains within the city. These domains are the result of the need of migrant society to identify, belong and feel secure in an alien and filled with numerous communities, all of them of migrant origins. As the community was given freedom its social and religious expression, the migrant community followed the same pattern as they did at their homelands, like this each of the Division had its distinct patter ,while read as a whole made a typology of the trading city. Also the evolution of the city couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t not only be seen in isolation with trade and economic power of the city but it was somewhat resultant of the political events that took place, as it can be seen in case of Bombay, where the city becomes resultant of the simultaneous change in magnitude of political actions and magnitude of technological change. It also generates a set of parameters which creates a loop within the city or makes the trading city function as a machine, the important elements of the city -The Goods, the mercantile community and the Sailing vessels.

The study gives an Idea about the urban types, systems that were linked together and hence the character of the urban spaces - as a resultant of the simultaneous change in magnitude of Political events and the magnitude of technology in a trading city. And these different modes the power equation and the technological change, existing simultaneously in the same spheres; changes the nature of architecture and urban expression of the city. The cities being at the fringe of the water and a constant active part of the global processes, continues to have its relationship with the global world more than the local or of the same continent. And hence the demographic nature of the Littoral society is identical in the settlements along the shore which adds a lot to the urban landscape of these cities.

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Bibliography Published works : Accounts on the Littoral culture of Gujarat. ”Gujarat and the Sea”2011, Darshak Itihaas Nidhi, Ed. Lotika Vardarajan. Anuradha Mathur /Dilip Da Cunha,2009 SOAK: Mumbai In an Estuary.Rupa & co. Barnow Finn, The city of Merchant: Urban systems and urban architecture in post-antique and pre-industrial Europe. Boxer

C.R.& Carlos De Azevedo 1960,Fort Jesus And The Portu guese In Mombasa 1593 -1729, London Hollis and Carter.

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India in the Indian Ocean Trade, circa1500by Prof.Om Prakash,University of Delhi,India

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Illustration Credits :

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1a /1.1b

Chapter 2: Trade and Architecture

2.1a

The Indian Ocean (Seas in History),M.N Pearson. Routledge,Taylor and Francis Group,London and New York. 2003

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2.1h

Classic ships of Islam from Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean - Diominisius Agius ,2008 Brill Publication.

2.2.1a/b/c/f/g

AARP,Prof.Ronald Lewcock August .1987.

2.2.1c

www.zamani-project.org “The African Cultural Heritage and Landscape Database”, Zamani Project.

2.2.1e

MSU Press ,Baroda.

2.2.1g/h

An Islamic Trading city ,Neville Chittick 1974.

2.2.1j

Kingdoms of Africa ,Peter Garlake.

2.2.1k/l/n/o/p/q

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2.2.1r/s/t/u/v Varkey ,Kurula and Klaus Roesch, Pilot study for conservation and revitalization of old town Mombasa.

The Mosques

a/b/c/d/e/f

Kilwa Al -Muluk By Stephane Pradine.

Influences in Swahili Houses and Palaces

a/b

2.2.2g to u

Ghaidan,Usam , Lamu :A study in Conservation, East African literature bureau,1976. The Merchant houses of Mocha ,Nancy Um.

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2.3.1 a2

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2.3.1 e4

A Monograph on Fort Kochi and Mattanchery,INTACH.

2.3.1 pt1 Re-interpreting past urbanity :a case of canal system of Kochi.-Elias, Dhanya Elizabeth.

2.4a4/a5/e/f/g/i/k Revealing Bhuleshwar coevolution of building image and urban systems, Sheth Romil.

2.4 a1

Colonial Urban Development: Culture, social power and environment. Rutledge & Kegan Paul London. King, Anthony D; 1976.

2.4 a3/a6/a7 2.4 b1

Bombay: The Cities Within. India Book House Pvt.Ltd. Dwivedi Sharda / Mehrotra Rahul 1995.

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Unless credited otherwise ,photographs ,sketches and drawings are by author.

The Trading Port in History: Relationships between Modes of Seafaring; Kinds of Trading methods and Its Urban Institutions, Urban Form and Structure.

Acknowledgements Nancy Um ,National archief den haag,Amsterdam,Netherlands. Dr.Pratima Asher ,M.A,Phd;writer,Mattancherry. KJ Sohan, Ex mayor Fort Kochi. Mulraj Narandas Ved,Social worker,Mattancherry. Secretary,Indian Chamber of Commerce,Mattancherry. Regional Archives,Kochi. Cochin Gujarati Mahajan,Mattancherry Ajith Vyas ,Plural Architects,Ernakulam. Biley Elattuvalappil Menon,Architect | Urban Designer. Dr. Mariam Dossal, Professor of History at University of Mumbai. Chhaya Goswami Post-doctoral Research Fellow at University of Warwick,United Kingdom. Dr.Laxmi Subramaniam, Professor of History, Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta. Rashid Wadia,Historian,Mumbai Douglas Haynes, Professor of History ,Dartmouth College,Hanover

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Kaartcollectie Buitenland Leupe, Map of the coast of Malabar, southwest India,1665 Photographer :Vingboons, John. Source :National Archief,den haag.

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