Lives & Landscapes Magazine - Spring 2019 Issue

LIVES

a publication of Montana State University Extension Spring 2019

Participation in youth sports has numerous benefits and a few risks. p. 2 Researching and selecting the right crop for the site makes growing healthy and delicious fruit feasible in Montana. p. 8

LIVES landscapes

Did you know...

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Mandie Reed Sara Adlington Adam Sigler Susan Anderegg Millie Veltkamp Jodie DeLay Josie Evenson Mat Walter Jesse Fulbright Wendy Wedum Emily Meccage Roubie Younkin

...that Montana 4-H is the youth development program of Montana State University Extension? 4-H is the largest, out-of-school youth development program in the state, reaching nearly 20,000 youth in all 56 counties and 7 reservations each year. Afterschool, camp and club activities follow researchbased curricula that encourage handson learning experiences and building knowledge and life skills that contribute to lifelong success.

LINE EDITOR Sara Adlington MANAGING EDITOR Jodie DeLay ART MSU Extension Communications Cover photo Ariah Carrier CONTRIBUTING WRITERS Toby Day Tamara Parrott Katrin Finch Lee Schmelzer Frank Greenhill Marissa Topp Michelle Grocke Mat Walter Emily Meccage Kevin Wanner Kyle Mehrens Wendy Wedum Katrina Mendrey Roubie Younkin Dara Palmer

Citizenship is a priority for the 4-H program. Youth learn civic engagement by interacting with community leaders and elected officials, participating in service learning and international programs and serving in leadership roles in their club, schools and communities. During January of this year, many 4-Hers from across the state visited Helena and hosted legislators

COMMENTS ABOUT LIVES & LANDSCAPES? E-mail us at: ExtensionMagazine@montana.edu

and other officials at the Montanans for 4-H legislative Breakfast. Many of these youth also participated in the MT 4-H Citizenship Seminar, hosted a panel with Montana’s governor, secretary of state, and congressmen. It was an incredible opportunity for the youth and these Montana leaders to listen to and learn from one another.

It is fitting, as the 66th session of the Montana legislature winds down, to take a minute to thank all of these leaders who take time from their personal lives to serve our state as elected officials.

Montana 4-H grows true leaders.

Whether at the club, school, community, county, state or national level, thank you for stepping up!

Cody Stone is the Executive Director of MSU Extension and has worked in Extension for over 20 years, primarily in leadership and youth development programs.

THANK YOU TO THE FOLLOWING REVIEWERS Nori Pearce Sara Adlington Matthew Peterson Katelyn Andersen Tracy Ross Neal Andrews Brianna Routh Jesse Fulbright Emily Standley Marsha Goetting Amber Swindler Kari Lewis Mat Walter Patrick Mangan Shannon Moreaux Craig Woolard Dara Palmer Copyright © 2019 by Montana State University.

All rights reserved.

a publication of Montana State University Extension Spring 2019 Vol. 2 No. 2

featured contributor

Excerpts from this magazine may be reprinted with permission from the Managing Editor. Please provide appropriate credit to Montana State University Extension and supply copies of printed materials to the editor.

Opinions expressed herein are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the university administration. Montana State University Extension is an ADA/EO/AA/Veteran’s Preference Employer and Provider of Educational Outreach.

Common chemical and trade names are used in this publication for clarity of the reader. Inclusion of a common chemical or trade name does not imply endorsement of that particular product or brand of herbicide and exclusion does not imply non-approval.

Wendy Wedum

Wendy Wedum is the Family and Consumer Sciences Extension Agent in Pondera County, in Conrad, MT. A native of Choteau, she has worked with Extension for almost 17 years, in both Pondera and Cascade Counties, offering learning experiences to improve life, health and finances in both home and community. She has authored MontGuides on canning and making jams and jellies, worked on community development in Belt, MT, and she also has an extensive background in forestry.

contents on the cover

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Recreational Sports for Adolescents

Participation in youth sports has numerous benefits and a few risks.

Home Food Safety Savvy

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Simple actions help to keep Montanans safe from foodborne illnesses.

Dementia Information and Caregiver Support

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Nearly 20,000 Montana residents are affected by dementia. Their loved ones provide 55 million hours of unpaid care annually.

Taking Root in Montana

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Doing advance research and selecting the right crop for the site makes growing healthy and delicious fruit in Montana feasible.

Measuring soil moisture contributes to predicting drought impacts

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Collaborative research is underway to develop tools to help Montanans make critical drought-related decisions.

Permeable Pavers

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Permeable pavers mimic the natural environment's collection, storage, and infiltration of stormwater.

Featured Montanan: Reta Rae Weisgram

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For 53 years, Weisgram has volunteered for Montana 4-H at the local, state and international levels.

Featured Pest: Alfalfa Weevil, Hypera postica

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Scouting every year, and sometimes multiple times per year, is important for adequate control of alfalfa weevil populations.

18 New Online Tool for Tracking Wheat Prices & Basis

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18 Spring Vehicle Inspections and Repairs 19 What is a Coggins Test and why is it needed?

20 Master Gardener Q&A 21 Ask Steward

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Lives & Landscapes is published quarterly by Montana State University Extension, and content is available online at msuextension.org. To receive a free online subscription, or purchase a print subscription, visit: msuextension.org/ magazine.

Have an idea for a story or a question for Ask Steward or our Master Gardeners? Email: ExtensionMagazine@montana.edu or contact the managing editor at 406.994.2502.

LIVES

landscapes Spring 2019

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Recreational Sports for Adolescents: The Pros, Cons, and What to Look For

Recreational sports can create lifelong physical activity routines, help build confidence, and much more…but how much is too much?

Participation in youth recreational sports has numerous physical, developmental, and physiological benefits. It can set kids up for a healthy lifestyle as it keeps them active and moving while decreasing sedentary and screen time. This is important today, as the number of obese children in America has more than tripled since the 1970s, with 1 in 5 children, ages 6 – 19 years, being affected (CDC, 2018).

Excess weight puts children at higher risk of physical ailments, as well as psychological consequences such as depression and low self-esteem. To help combat this trend, the recently updated physical activity guidelines recommend that children and adolescents, ages 6 to 17 years, do at least one hour of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily (HHS 2018). In 2016, only 28% of adolescents in Montana met this target (CDC, 2018).

Participation in sports can be a great way for kids to meet physical activity guidelines, which ultimately reduces risk of becoming overweight and/or obese, increases cardiovascular fitness, helps facilitate healthy growth of bones and muscles, improves coordination and balance, and helps with sleep regulation (Merkel, 2013). There are also mental health benefits, as youth in sports often exhibit greater confidence, decreased stress and improved cognition. Sports participation provides an avenue for kids to learn important life skills including sportsmanship, perseverance, patience, and respect, and can encourage them to stay away from high-risk activities such as smoking and taking illicit drugs.

Benefits of team vs. individual sports

Team sports may help increase: §§ Cooperation § Sharing §§ Teamwork § Communication Individual sports may help increase: §§ Independence § Self-reliance §§ Mental strength § Self-motivation

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Team and individual sports can provide distinct benefits. Individual sports can be helpful for children with sensory and socialization disorders because they help develop self-esteem, focus and social skills.

A healthy recreational sports environment is critical to ensuring that kids reap benefits, rather than risk falling victim to some negative consequences that may also occur.

Potential Negative Impacts

Physical

The risk of sports injuries is a present and growing concern. Coaches may be untrained in strength and conditioning principles, emergency management of injuries, and/or basic first aid, all of which can result in an increased rate and severity of injury (Merkel, 2013). Additionally, since adolescents’ skeletal systems are still growing, broken bones are more common and require longer periods of rest to heal fully. A recent development is the push for exclusive specialization in one sport, year-round, which eliminates the ability for young athletes to cross train with other sports and reduces rest and recovery time.

This can lead to overuse issues and increased risk of early burnout.

Psychological

Over-invested parents and coaches may set unrealistic performance goals and encourage youth to participate beyond interest and readiness (when motor skills match the requirements of the sport).

High levels of performance pressure can cause anxiety and burnout, and place strain on athlete and parent/coach relationships. For adolescents, it can also foster a delusion that performance is tied to their own self-worth and/or others’ happiness.

On the other hand, an inflated valuation of sports and athleticism can instill young athletes with an exaggerated sense of self when they perform well. When left unaddressed, this can hinder the development of values such as modesty and humility (Eime et al., 2013).

CLIPART.COM

Positive Impacts of Sport Participation

by Michelle Grocke MSU Extension Health and Wellness Specialist

Causes and Symptoms of Burnout

Causes §§ Not enough rest §§ Too much pressure §§ The sense that self-worth is tied to performance Symptoms §§ Physical fatigue §§ Difficulty focusing §§ Frequent illnesses, chronic injuries §§ Loss of fun and meaning §§ Performance/behavioral problems Financial

Considering the cost of uniforms, equipment, league fees, and travel expenses, recreational sports can cause a financial burden. Many families sacrifice savings, vacations, and a healthy family structure to support a child’s sport endeavors. Although parents may think excellence in sports will later pay for college expenses, the reality is that most athletes will not receive enough financial support to cover the cost of today’s tuition. Often, the financial investment early in a child’s sports career exceeds the value of future sports scholarships (Hyman, 2012).

References

Center for Disease Control. 2018. Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Childhood Obesity Facts.

HELP CREATE A POSITIVE RECREATIONAL SPORTS EXPERIENCE §§ Remember the primary goal is that kids have fun: Sports satisfaction surveys reveal that ‘having fun’ is the primary reason kids enjoy organized sports, while parents’ perception of why children like to play is to ‘win’ (Merkel 2013). Keep ‘fun’ and the goals of activity and a positive experience at the forefront of sports discussion with kids. §§ Avoid letting kids think your happiness is tied to their performance: You never want a child to think they let someone down by not playing their best.

Be careful with the language you use – saying ‘we won’ after a child’s game or match may cause them a heightened amount of stress and anxiety. §§ Try a mix of team and individual sports: Since both have unique benefits, provide a child the opportunity to try both. Diversifying will also decrease the likelihood of overuse and injury and increase the child’s skill set as different sports have different physical demands and skill requirements. §§ Help reduce the likelihood of injury: Parents and community members can help facilitate injury reduction by ensuring the appropriate fit and use of equipment, enforcing safety rules in practice and competition, adjusting for environmental conditions (i.e. postponing a competition in extreme heat), and ensuring that coaches are trained in basic first aid and CPR. §§ Research organizations that promote a positive youth sports environment, such as: –– The Aspen Institute Project Play: https://www.aspenprojectplay.org/ –– Women’s Sports Foundation: https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/ –– STOP sports injuries: http://www.stopsportsinjuries.org/ –– HEADS UP to Youth Sports: https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/youthsports/ index.html

Eime, et al. 2013. A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents. International journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity 10:1: 98.

Hyman M. 2012. The Most Expensive Game in Town.

The Rising Cost of Youth Sports and the Toll on Today’s Families. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

MILLIE VELTKAMP

Merkel, Donna L. 2013. Youth sport: positive and negative impact on young athletes. Open access journal of sports medicine 4: 151.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

2018. Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  LIVES

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HOME FOOD SAFETY SAVVY Small Actions‌Big Impacts

Despite the scary rates of foodborne illnesses in home-prepared food, there are some simple steps that Montanans can take to keep their food and families safe. Some of these food safety tips might seem routine. If they are not, start using one or more of these food safety tips at home and share them with others.

1. Change the dish cloth daily. Dish towels or cloths are commonly used to clean up around the kitchen: scrub the dishes in the sink, wipe up drippings from raw and cooked meats and clean the stove. In a study of 100 dish cloths from

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home kitchens, 45% of the cloths or sponges had bacteria on them related to foodborne illness (Borrusso and Quinlan, 2017). To avoid spreading germs when cleaning food preparation areas, use a clean dish towel or cloth daily; or use a single use paper towel.

2. Wash hands. Hand washing is a practice we learn at a young age. It is important to remember how often hands should be washed. The simple answer is all the time. When hand washing, the CDC recommends scrubbing hands with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds (sing the A-B-Cs as a timer), making sure to wash frequently missed areas in between fingers, fingernails and the back of hands. To reduce the spread of germs, it is important to wash hands after nearly every task in the kitchen, including unpacking groceries, handling raw meats, and taking out the trash. Use hand sanitizer only when there are no other options. Hand sanitizers do not get rid of all types of germs and are not as effective when hands are dirty.

3. Keep surfaces clean. When preparing food, it is important to start with a clean kitchen. To clean kitchen surfaces, use soap and water to remove any stuck-on food and a sanitizer to reduce bacteria to a safe level. Always use a clean dish cloth when making a meal to prevent crosscontamination. Wash and sanitize utensils and cutting boards with hot soapy water to reduce unseen germs. When preparing produce, rinse

BIGSTOCK.COM

People find little time to pay attention to food safety, but it is important to learn good habits in the kitchen and in food preparation hygiene. Our food travels a long journey before it gets to our kitchen table and we rely on everybody to do their part in keeping our food safe – including people who prepare food at home. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently reported that 5.7 million or 12 percent of foodborne illnesses each year result from foods prepared in the home.

Foodborne illness often comes from unseen bacteria, viruses, parasites, or toxins and the home is a prime stop for germs to grow and spread. The number of bacteria contributing to foodborne illness can grow rapidly. For example, beginning with 200 bacteria on a dish cloth, each bacteria cell can divide every 15 minutes, and within three hours there will be more than 50,000 bacteria on the dish cloth.

By Katrin Finch MSU Extension Agent in Cascade County

fruits and vegetables under running water and separate thawing meats from other foods. Never use the same plate or cutting board for both raw and cooked meats, poultry, and seafood.

BIGSTOCK.COM

4. Store food properly. Storing food correctly is one way to prevent spoilage and foodborne illness. One big concern with food storage is temperature because germs grow on food between 40ºF and 140ºF (USDA, 2017).

Refrigerate all perishable foods within two hours. To cool down hot foods more quickly, put in shallow containers in the fridge or freezer.

Check that the refrigerator is at least 40ºF or colder, and the freezer is at 0ºF. Label container with the date the food should be thrown out and the name of the food. Most leftovers need to be eaten or frozen within 3-4 days.

6. Check food temperatures. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides the research for proper cooking and cooling temperatures to make sure the food we eat is safe from germs. When cooking, use a food thermometer to check the temperature of food, especially meat, poultry, seafood, and leftovers.

Clean and sanitize the thermometer between each use. When testing the temperature of food, test in the thickest part of the product, avoiding bones and test the temperature in two or three places. By following these steps and meeting the USDA temperature guidelines, food will be cooked to a safe and proper temperature.

WENDY WEDUM

Improving food safety habits can be a big step towards safer and healthier foods. Check out fightbac.org for “The Story of Your Dinner” and more information about food safety practices to use at home. The tips shared here are easy and effective ways to make food safer at home. If you are not sure if something is safe, contact the local Montana State University Extension agent to answer food safety questions. Finally, when in doubt, throw it out!

References

5. Be aware of those at risk. Is there an elderly family member, young child or someone with a compromised immune system in the household? These individuals are at higher risk for foodborne illnesses. It is important to take extra food safety precautions with these household members because they may not have the antibodies to fight off germs that commonly cause foodborne illnesses.

Borrusso, P. A., & Quinlan, J. J. (2017). Prevalence of pathogens and indicator organisms in home kitchens and correlation with unsafe food handling practices and conditions. Journal of Food Protection, 80(4), 590597. doi:http://dx.doi.org.proxybz.lib.montana. edu/10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-16-354

COOKING REQUIREMENTS Minimum Internal Temperatures

Poultry: 165ºF (74ºC) for 15 seconds

Whole cuts of meats and roasts: 145ºF (63ºC) for 4 minutes

Seafood: 145ºF (63ºC) for 15 seconds

Ground meat: 155ºF (68ºC) for 15 seconds

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018. www.cdc.gov National Restaurant Association. (2017). ServSafe Manager. Chicago, IL: National Restaurant Association Solutions, LLC. United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. (2017). Danger Zone (40ºF - 140ºF). Retrieved from: https:// www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/foodsafety-education/get-answers/food-safety-factsheets/safe-food-handling/danger-zone. 

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Cooked plant foods: 135ºF (63ºC) for 15 seconds

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Dementia Information and Caregiver Support Dementia is a progressive, irreversible disease of the brain affecting millions of Americans. The disease destroys brain function, which over time leads to a decrease in purposeful abilities.

Of all the causes of death, dementia is one disease that cannot yet be cured, prevented or treated effectively. Although most people develop symptoms of dementia after age 65, some individuals may experience signs of dementia in their 30s. Those afflicted with early onset dementia experience a greater initial loss of cognitive abilities such as deficits in attention, visual information interpretation and language. The rate of decline for early onset dementia is faster than in those individuals with later onset dementia.

Dementia is an umbrella term that includes many cognitive loss conditions which decrease and destroy brain function over time.

Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia. Caused by damage to the nerves in the brain and their eventual death, it has an expected progression of 8-12 years.

Vascular Dementia (multi-infarct) is caused by damage to the blood supply to the nerves in the brain and is spotty and unpredictable.

Lewy Body Dementia (LBD) results in movement problems, including falls and stiffness. LBD is characterized by visual hallucinations, nightmares and fluctuations in day-to-day functionality.

Frontal-Temporal Dementia effects include rapid changes in feelings and behaviors, difficulty with word finding and problem behaviors including poor impulse control (Heather McKay, 2018).

Different forms of dementia bring different symptoms and behaviors. However, there are some universal traits. One is that the brain begins to shrink and stop working, which affects everyone’s lives. The most common universal characteristics include:

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§§ Memory loss, initially the most recent memories, but eventually all §§ Diminished language skills; often some basic skills remain §§ Dementia steals the ability to understand what others mean and say §§ Reasoning and logic are lost §§ The familiar begins to seem odd and frightening §§ Impulse control is diminished, as are emotional and mood control.

Risk Factors for Dementia

Age: 65 and older is most common, early onset can occur in the 30s, 40s and 50s.

APOE-e4 gene: Individuals with this gene are three times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s dementia.

Family History: Those with parents or siblings with dementia are more likely to develop the disease than those who do not.

Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI): Individuals with MCI are more likely to progress to dementia than those without MCI. Traumatic brain injury: Brain injury increases the risk of developing dementia.

Cardiovascular disease: Brain health is closely related to heart health. Care should be taken to avoid cardiovascular risks such as smoking, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol and inactivity.

Limited Education: Researchers believe that more years of education builds a cognitive reserve that help individuals better compensate for changes in the brain that may result in dementia.

Lack of Social and Cognitive Engagement: Remaining socially and mentally active may support brain health and reduce the risk of dementia.

Nationally, dementia is the sixth leading cause of death. While deaths from heart disease have

by Roubie Younkin MSU Extension Agent in Valley County

RYHAL ROWLAND

decreased 11 percent between 2000 and 2015, deaths from dementia have increased 123 percent.

Nearly six million Americans live with dementia, a number that is projected to rise to nearly 14 million in the next 30 years.

Currently, over 16 million Americans are providing unpaid care for those affected by dementia, devoting an estimated 18.4 billion hours of care valued at over $323 billion (Alzheimer’s Association, 2016).

In Montana, nearly 20,000 residents are affected by dementia and this number is expected to increase to 27,000 by 2025. In one year, Montana’s 50,000 caregivers invest 55 million hours of unpaid care for their loved ones affected by dementia. Everyone will be affected by dementia at some point in their lives either directly or indirectly (Montana Chapter, Alzheimer’s Association).

Distance creates sparse resources for caregivers and patients in some areas of Montana. Because caregivers play such an important role in the lives of those living with dementia, it is important to provide resources when possible. Providing care for patients can be all-encompassing and affect every aspect of a caregiver’s life. Many demands are placed on caregivers. They face tests of resiliency, problem solving, patience and stamina, and maintaining emotional and physical health is a challenge. Finding support and maintaining a high level of self-care can help caregivers in a stressful and emotional journey.

Developing a personal support plan is recommended for those in a caregiving role. An effective plan may include some or all of these steps:

1. Ask for and accept help 2. Focus on what you can provide, remove guilt for what you can’t 3. Set realistic, SMART goals (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and timely) 4. Update caregiving skills 5. Join a support group 6. Make use of available resources 7. Plan for self-care 8. Watch for signs of caregiver stress A free packet of information with Montana-specific information called “Legal and Financial Steps and Resources for Caregivers and Others Concerned About Memory Loss” is available from MSU Extension. Included in the packet are MontGuides (fact sheets) about financial powers of attorney, wills, letter of last instruction, Medicaid and longterm care costs, providers orders for life-sustaining treatment, and more. The Montana Alzheimer’s Association has also provided three brochures and information about their 24/7 phone help line. An explanation about the Montana Caregiver Act is included courtesy of Montana AARP. For a copy of the packet, contact khayes@montana.edu, call 406-994-3511, or visit www.msuextension.org/ alzheimer to order.

There are many opportunities to find a deeper sense of reward in a caregiving role. It takes an individual with unique skills to manage the daily tasks. As the disease progresses and the patient seems less appreciative, caregiving can become what seems like a thankless task. Perceived in the right frame of mind however, the caregiving journey can include lifeaffirming rewards in addition to the challenges faced.

10 signs of caregiver stress If you experience any of these signs of stress on a regular basis, make time to talk to your doctor: 1. Denial

5. Depression

8. Irritability

2. Anger at the person

6. Sleeplessness

9. Lack of concentration

3. Social withdrawal

7. Exhaustion

10. Health problems

4. Anxiety about the future

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TAKING ROOT IN MONTANA

Small fruit orchards & vineyards are successfully growing

“Montana’s climate can be pretty unforgiving, but if growers follow simple rules for establishment and select the right fruit, for the right site, there are some great options that are unique, healthy and delicious,” said Zach Miller, PhD, Superintendent at the MSU Western Agricultural Research Center (WARC) in Corvallis, MT, where much of Montana’s fruit-growing research is conducted.

Mark Rehder, owner of Geyser Farms, outside of Livingston, agrees that successful growers understand these principles. “It’s a ‘what grows here’ approach to farming. I grow currants because they’re short, stocky and can withstand wind.” Rehder grows one acre of mostly black and some red currants to make kombucha, a value-added drink sold locally.

His success comes from choosing the right plant and doing his research before establishing a crop. “I always approach skilled growers when I get to a new species to discuss success and failures,” said Rehder.

This strategy is shared by other successful growers, including Rich Torquemada, a grape grower in Stevensville who sells Marquette grapes to local wineries. “I spent time mentoring with Andy Sponseller at Tenspoon Winery in Missoula, and have found interacting with other growers at the

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Montana Grape and Winery Association Conference to be tremendously helpful,” said Torquemada.

Currants and grapes aren’t the only Montana-grown fruit to withstand challenging growing conditions.

Haskaps and Saskatoons are cold-hardy berries which are popular in Canada, Korea, Russia and Japan for their high levels of antioxidants and flavor.

They grow well in Montana and other Northern regions, and are cultivated for flavor and size as an alternative to blueberries on soils with higher pH, like many Montana soils.

Since 2011, Corey and Noelle Meier have been experimenting with various varieties of haskap and Saskatoon berries. “We jumped into planting before we were really ready, which resulted in failure,” cautioned Noelle Meier. Deer ate many unprotected plants and what was left succumbed to weeds, ground squirrels, and poor water management. “We can’t claim to be experts in how to grow haskaps and Saskatoons, but feel pretty confident that we know many ways to fail,” she said.

Like many fruit growers, the Meiers have learned from mistakes. With a continued passion for coldhardy berries, proper deer fence, a well-designed irrigation system and increased knowledge to manage weeds and rodents, the Meiers plan to expand their two-acre orchard near Twin Bridges to 11 acres by 2025. “It’s a rare thing to find something that’s good for us, that also tastes good,” said Meier, who describes haskaps as “a cross between a blueberry and a blackberry with the tang of a huckleberry.”

KATRINA MENDREY

Wind. Drought. Frost. Deer. Rocks. Montana’s rugged growing conditions make it hard to imagine growing fruit like grapes, currants and cherries among the state’s snow-capped mountains and windswept fields. But from Missoula to Miles City, Montana farms are successfully growing fruits for both the fresh and value-added markets.

by Katrina Mendrey Orchard Program Manager, Western Agriculture Research Center

“By growing two acres per year, its affordable financially, and lets us plant the newest and best cultivars,” said Meier of the decision. Their current favorites are ‘Smokey’ and ‘Northline’ Saskatoons and ‘Aurora’ haskaps, with ‘Tundra’ as a pollinator.

MATTHEW LARUBBIO

Selecting the right cultivars can be as important as selecting the right fruit. Michael Billingsley experimented with more than 50 cider apple varieties on his 10-acre Stevensville orchard to determine what would make the best hard cider. “There wasn’t a lot of information when I planted the orchard in 2012,” said Billingsley. “I’ve had to whittle it down through trial and error, and a lot of error.” He has a few favorites, like ‘Hewe’s Virginia Crab,’ ‘Wickson’ and ‘Frequin Rouge,’ but has determined several he just won’t grow again, like ‘Harry Masters Jersey’ and ‘Sommerset Redstreak,’ due to fire blight, which is a major pathogen of apples and particularly of cider varieties.

WARC works with fruit growers to learn from their experience and develop projects to assist growers in the future. “We listen to growers’ needs and lessons learned to develop research and resources that will help them be productive and profitable going forward,” said Miller.

Since 2014, Miller, with support from a growing staff and new faculty member Rachel Leisso, has been researching fruit species and cultivars for production in Montana. Cultivar research trials include nearly 70 varieties of small fruits: aronia, red and black currants, haskaps, dwarf sour cherries, cider apples and coldhardy grapes. The purpose of evaluating selected cultivars is to determine which will yield the highest quality fruits for fresh markets and value-added products like wine, cider, juices and preserves.

In addition to helping growers select cultivars, WARC is also conducting research on managing and harvesting crops for maximum yield and profit. “We know there are fruits coldhardy enough to withstand Montana’s winters,” said Miller.

“But we have other barriers to larger scale production like labor.

We are addressing these challenges by helping growers select management systems that are feasible and profitable.”

For more information on WARC’s research programs, visit agresearch.montana.edu/warc/. For resources for growing fruit in Montana visit MSU Extension Publications (store. msuextension.org/Departments/Publications/AG-Yard-andGarden/Fruits.aspx) or the WARC website. 

CONSIDERATIONS FOR GROWING FRUIT IN MONTANA Climates are varied and success requires matching the type of fruit with the local climate.

KNOW THE ZONE. A plant’s ability to withstand cold winter temperatures is rated using USDA Cold Hardiness Zones. The lower the zone number, the colder the average minimum winter temperature and the more cold-hardy plants are required. Montana includes Zones 3-6, with much of the state in Zone 4. Go to https:// planthardiness.ars.usda.gov to verify your hardiness zone and only select plants which are cold-hardy in that zone. Haskaps can be rated as low as Zone 2. Most other fruits require Zone 3-5.

SUNLIGHT. Most fruits need 6-8 hours of sunlight to develop and ripen.

GROWING SEASON. Some fruits, like grapes, require long, warm summers that only regularly occur in a few areas of Montana. Fruits can be vulnerable to frosts, especially during bloom. If lows in the 20s occur while apples are blooming, the crop will be lost, but berries like haskap/ Saskatoon can withstand lows in the teens WATER. Mature berries need approximately 8- 10 gallons of water per week. Tree fruit need about 10-60 gallons of water per week depending on size and soil conditions.

SOIL. Soil pH is important for nutrient availability and is ideally in the range of 6.0-7.0 for most fruits.

WIND. High winds can be hard on all plants, trees in particular. In a windy area, consider stockier shrubs instead of fruit trees. If selecting a fruit tree, choose a standard rootstock which is better anchored, or at a minimum, stake trees on dwarfing rootstocks to provide additional support.

CULTIVAR. Talk to local growers, the county Extension agent or visit WARC’s website to learn about cultivars best suited for Montana growers. Once viable options are identified for the location, consider which you like to eat and what to do with the fruit.

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Measuring soil moisture contributes to predicting drought impacts

Stillwater County was hit hard. At the beginning of the drought, the Stillwater County Drought Advisory Board was asked what could be done to help. Their response was disaster declarations which mainly considered rainfall, streamflow, and storage, but did not accurately reflect drought conditions because effective soil moisture was not being measured. This input led to the installation of soil moisture sensors to provide information to help make better drought disaster determinations. Stillwater County joined other drought-stricken counties in 2002, and the Montana Counties Soil Climate Network (MCSCN) was formed. Over 60 stations were installed across the state and data made accessible. However, this effort was not sustainable due to lack of a statewide system for maintenance and support. Most of the stations are now defunct or inoperable.

A new local program was initiated by Stillwater County MSU Extension with support of the MSU Extension Climate Science team. Ten stations with improved, updated technology, measuring current weather conditions, as well as soil moisture and temperature at four depths, have been installed in Stillwater and four surrounding counties. These were made possible by collaborations with county commissioners, Extension agents, conservation 10

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districts, local landowners, a Western Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (WSARE) Grant and the Montana Mesonet.

While perseverance at the local level has been important, the project would not have been possible or sustainable without the Montana Mesonet.

Stillwater County was excited to join the recently formed Montana Mesonet, a cooperative, statewide soil moisture and meteorological information network, coordinated by the Montana Climate Office (http://climate.umt.edu/mesonet/default.php ) that originated with the Montana Research and Economic Development Initiative. The Mesonet has formed partnerships with the Institute on Ecosystems, Bureau of Land Management, Montana Department of Agriculture, MSU Extension, MSU Agricultural Experiment Stations, Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology, Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conservation, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and other watershed groups.

These partnerships will ensure the sustainability and expansion of the 56 monitoring stations currently installed across the state.

During the next few years, the Montana Climate Office will be developing user-guided applications and web-interface tools that use soil moisture and weather information to help farmers, ranchers, and other resource managers make critical decisions.

In fact, Montana’s first early drought warning tool that integrates sensor outputs and site-specific soil moisture measurements was released in November 2018 (http://climate.umt.edu/mesonet/). This monitoring system will provide reliable information on remaining reserves of plant-available water, enabling resource managers to adapt management strategies. Knowing early that plant-available water is approaching critical minimum values, ranchers could make early arrangements to purchase hay or move or sell cattle early, when prices are more favorable. Further, government agencies can gain a clearer picture of drought effects in the state to target relief efforts more effectively and refine maps to determine drought status. Any efficiency increase from more accurate weather and soil moisture information can translate into several million dollars in statewide savings each year.

Today it is much more widely-accepted that cumulative rainfall data alone is a poor predictor

KEVIN HYDE, MT CLIMATE OFFICE, MT MESONET COORDINATOR

Hurricanes, tornadoes and floods can be sudden and violent, causing a massive amount of damage. Drought, although less dramatic, is longer lasting, causes even more damage and has similar costs over a long period. Montana suffered a long drought from 1997 to 2006. The effects of this drought and more recent shorter duration droughts have had an enormous impact on the state of Montana, its farmers and ranchers, and the overall economy.

by Lee Schmelzer MSU Extension Agent in Stillwater County

of drought impact and that short-term soil moisture deficits can occur in years of average or above average rainfall. This has led to the following research on practical uses of soil moisture data.

Measuring soil moisture using satellites is being researched. Microwave observations from NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission (SMAP) provides statewide remotely-sensed soil moisture information.

The technology works on the principle that moisture in the soil changes how much incident microwave energy is reflected from Earth’s surface. Lucas Jones at University of Montana and SMAP detected the development of extreme soil moisture deficits and vegetation impacts during the 2017 Flash Drought, proving the system’s ability to provide early warning of emerging drought. Actual measurements from Montana Mesonet stations help ground the accuracy of the satellite system measurements.

Precision agriculture monitoring technologies including harvest yield and protein sensors, coupled with other remote sensing and geographic information, allow assessment of crop performance relative to fertilizer chemical and moisture inputs across all parts of a field. In addition, this information can be used to develop field-specific yield and protein predictive models. These models can help determine what inputs should be applied to the field when weather information is added as the primary variable. Soil moisture relates most closely to crop performance, hence the need for Mesonet soilmoisture measurements in the field where the other measurements are made and crop predictive models are developed. This research can be found at https:// sites.google.com/site/ofpeframework/home.

Soil water-holding capacity interacts with cropping system management and weather patterns to determine rates of deep percolation through cultivated soils. In annual cultivation systems, deep percolation transports minerals like nitrate out of the root zone, resulting in losses of soil fertility resources while simultaneously compromising groundwater quality. Current modeling efforts quantify the interaction of weather, management and soils to determine deep percolation and leaching rates in a context that can inform management decisions to increase agricultural sustainability. These modeling efforts rely on soil moisture for calibration and are potentially broadly applicable in locations where soil moisture data is available. More information can be found at http://waterquality.montana.edu/ As these and other tools continue to be developed, feedback is sought. Please contact MSU Extension in Stillwater County (http://stillwater.msuextension. org/) with questions or to help test these tools to make sure they are useful to farmers, ranchers and those who manage the land. 

Montana Mesonet

INTERACTIVE MAP OF MONTANA MESONET SHOWING SOIL WATER CONTENT AT 20".

AVAILABLE AT: HTTP://CLIMATE.UMT.EDU/MESONET

Forest species occurrence and productivity are determined on the majority of northern Rockies sites by water balance (a function of precipitation, site water storage capacity, and evaporative demand).

Water balance is essential for developing appropriate forest management practices that maintain positive soil moisture, and for predicting stand and forest risks related to water deficits, such as insect outbreaks, severe wildfire impacts, forest productivity and carbon sequestration. More information can be found at http://forestry.msuextension.org/ KEVIN HYDE, MT CLIMATE OFFICE, MT MESONET COORDINATOR

LIVES

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Permeable Pavers contrast to asphalt and concrete surfaces that shed water. Individuals can use permeable pavers in various residential and commercial applications, including driveways, patios, sidewalks, and parking areas.

S

tormwater runoff is a result of rain and snowmelt occurring on impervious surfaces such as roads, rooftops, driveways, and parking lots. In urban environments stormwater runoff often picks up trash, fertilizers, metals, sediment, and other pollutants on the ground. After flowing over impervious surfaces, stormwater typically enters street inlets and travels through a network of underground pipes before flowing into adjacent rivers and lakes. This water is often untreated and filled with pollutants that harm surface waters (above).

In the last 15 years, local, state, and federal agencies have significantly increased attention, public education, and regulations applied towards stormwater because of its growing threat to surface waters as development footprints increase nationwide.

These actions are spurring the innovation of new tools to reduce runoff and remove contaminants from stormwater. One example is the emerging use of permeable paver systems, which offer a variety of aesthetic, water quality, and flood reduction benefits.

Permeable paver systems are an engineered stormwater management system comprised of interlocking concrete blocks placed on top of an aggregate sub-base that acts as an underground water storage reservoir. Their primary benefit is that they collect, store, and facilitate infiltration of stormwater, which mimics the natural environment and is a stark

Permeable paver systems have numerous environmental, aesthetic, economic, and public safety benefits when designed and constructed by professionals. Environmentally, they mimic natural runoff processes, reduce discharges of polluted stormwater to surface waters, eliminate the need for toxic sealants and deicing salts, and facilitate groundwater recharge. Aesthetically, the variety of paver colors and shapes provides diverse options for designing attractive alternatives to traditional pavement. Economically, they have a 30-year or more lifespan (think Roman roads), reduce the need for expensive underground infrastructure (pipes, inlets, and utility holes), and increase buildable area. Finally, from a public safety standpoint, they eliminate wintertime melt and re-freezing hazards, comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act, and mitigate property flooding.

Three primary elements make up a permeable paver system: the underlying soil, an aggregate layer, and concrete blocks. Individuals considering the use of permeable pavers must carefully consider these and other site conditions to ensure a successful project.

First, a thorough understanding of the underlying soil structure and its infiltration capability is necessary. Soils with high infiltration rates, such as sand and gravels, are ideal because they can facilitate infiltration of high volumes of water. Slowly draining soils with low infiltration rates, such as silts and clays, are challenging and necessitate additional design considerations such as an underdrain system to prevent system overflows. Second, permeable paver systems require a customized aggregate profile designed by a professional engineer. Aggregate depths and types vary depending on the systems’ planned use (e.g., patio vs. driveway), drainage area, underlying

An Innovative Stormwater Manage 12

a publication of Montana State University Extension

by Kyle Mehrens and Frank Greenhill City of Bozeman Stormwater Division

COURTESY CITY OF BOZEMAN

soils, and targeted storage volume. Finally, permeable paver systems require a concrete block. Concrete blocks are typically much stronger than standard patio pavers and require interlocking side-tabs that bind the finished surface together. The concrete block should have beveled edges to facilitate shoveling and snow plowing.

Installation processes for permeable pavers vary depending on project-specific considerations. Contractors who possess a concrete paver installer certification should be used to avoid construction-related issues that could drive up costs and impact system function. Construction means and methods are the responsibility of individual installers, but generally include the following sequence: (1) removal of topsoil to clear the project area, (2) removal of soil for the aggregate area (3) construction of a solidified perimeter to establish the project boundary, (4) placement of a porous geotextile fabric that eliminates underlying soil transfer into the aggregate layer, (5) installation and compaction of aggregate to create the storage reservoir, and (6) setting of permeable pavers to finish the surface. Once installed, annual maintenance is critical for preserving desired storage volumes and infiltration rates.

Yearly maintenance activities include vacuuming the interlocking joints and fall cleanup to remove leaf debris.

Proper design, installation, and maintenance of permeable paver systems are critical to realize their water quality and flood reduction benefits. They are an excellent option for individuals looking to make their properties more aesthetically appealing and environmentally friendly. Although installations of permeable pavers are not yet widespread in Montana, they are becoming increasingly popular in urban centers throughout the state. For example, three years ago no projects existed in the City of Bozeman, but today there are six installed projects within the city and many more are planned. When adopted on a widespread scale, these systems will result in a more sustainable and healthy future for Montana’s water resources.

Additional information related to the design, construction, and maintenance of permeable pavers is available at www.bozeman.net/ government/stormwater. 

ement Multi-Tool LIVES

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Featured Montanan

RETA RAE WEISGRAM

53 years of adventures with Montana 4-H and Extension

"I have a degree in Extension; I just don’t have a piece of paper to hang on the wall."

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It started with a neighbor girl’s question, “Would Duane like to come to a 4-H club meeting? I’m giving a demonstration on how to peel a banana.” This one question launched a 53-years-and-counting career of leadership development with Montana State University.

Weisgram is a model for volunteers interested in becoming active in any organization. She notes that, “a lot of people are willing, even though they might not know about it. Whether or not a person will volunteer depends on if they are asked. You never know what will happen until you ask.”

Duane, who was 10 years old at the time, is the eldest of four children in Reta Rae and Don Weisgram’s family. The other children, David, Shana and Owana, also followed suit and joined the 4-H program, each completing 10 years. Shana transformed her experiences and became an Extension agent in Oregon. The Weisgram family over the years hosted 27 summer exchange students from five countries at their sheep ranch north of Conrad.

Over time, she willingly volunteered because of the support she received from the local Extension agent and MSU staff in Bozeman. She also recognized the value of mentors who provided guidance, support and leadership, which began with the two 4-H club leaders who trained her to take over the Meadowlarkers 4-H Club three years after Duane enrolled in 4-H.

Along the way, Reta Rae found herself becoming the 4-H club leader, on the County 4-H Council, followed by the District Leadership before she landed on the Montana 4-H Leader’s Council, director of the Labo International Student Exchange Program (Labo is a family-based Japanese youth organization), and as one of the first representatives on the Montana Extension Advisory Council. She has served in leadership roles as club leader, secretary, vicepresident and president.

a publication of Montana State University Extension

Anything she heard about she wanted to try because, “I wanted to help the youth be better kids.” She knew if they had someone to help them, they would be successful, and eventually give back to their own communities.

In her involvement over the years, there have been many firsts. The first time Weisgram helped Duane fill out 4-H record books, her husband Don came home to find them in tears. Reta Rae said, “We have to hire a lawyer because we can’t fill this book out.”

Don assured her they wouldn’t need a lawyer and lent a hand to help get the books done. Daughters Shana

by Wendy Wedum MSU Extension Agent in Pondera County

and Owana were exchange students to Thailand and Japan, respectively. Reta Rae chaperoned the Japan trip for an exchange experience of her own.

As the District Two President, she was part of the volunteer team that hosted the first Western Region Leadership Forum in Helena. Delegates attending from Hawaii brought lei’s and learned for the first time what happens to flowers when they freeze. The Hawaiians took the frostbitten lei’s back home to show their colleagues.

WENDY WEDUM

Other experiences included getting flown around Montana to meet with families hosting Labo exchange students. It was decided she should fly to towns in Western Montana to give guidance and expectations to more than 20 host families rather than have them all drive to Bozeman. Families would pick her up at the closest airport and host her for the training. On these trips, she flew in a Cessna, and was required to represent the 4-H office in the most professional way possible. Therefore, her outfit included a green skirt, white blouse, and shoes with heels to look the part of a 4-H representative, and be easily recognizable (even the state 4-H office at the time required dresses and dress shoes for state meetings in Bozeman). However, flying into towns like Ekalaka or Anaconda, in full business attire, prompted a response the first time out. The pilot looked over and asked, “are you really wearing that on the flight?” The Labo program hired a person after the startup year, but Weisgram’s air travel was a great time saver for those first host families.

“In general, volunteers are the heart and lifeblood of Montana 4-H, and Reta Rae Weisgram is no exception. The impact that volunteers like her have had on the Montana 4-H program is immeasurable,” said Meghan Phillipi,” MSU Extension 4-H Associate Specialist for Volunteerism. “I have no doubt there are countless 4-H alumni and volunteers who could report the positive impact Reta Rae had on them over her 53 years as a 4-H volunteer.”

Weisgram shared some of her lessons learned in her years with 4-H: §§ Volunteering opens doors - step through. §§ Use resources - many people will help mentor and guide. §§ Benefits of volunteering - share expertise so that others may learn, be a caring adult in the life of a child, and gain practical skills in communication and leadership. §§ Sow new ideas and experiences to reap the rewards that benefit a child’s development and lead to successful adults.

Weisgram is quick to acknowledge the role of family in the service work she’s done, saying “if it wasn’t for my husband, I wouldn’t have been able to do these things. In order for someone to be a good volunteer, the other spouse has to be willing to stay home and allow you to be gone.” It is because of her husband Don’s support, the job he had and his belief in the 4-H program that she could volunteer.

In addition to her extensive work in Extension, Weisgram has also paid it forward as a Brownie and Girl Scout leader, a den mother for Cub Scouts and in the community, serving the boards for Pondera Medical Center, Pondera Medical Center Health Foundation and the Marias Fair Advisory Board.

Who knew an adventure that began with her son learning how to peel a banana would lead to local, regional, state and international opportunities - all because of one question!  RIGHT: A strong volunteer like Reta Rae Weisgram says her “back-up” man and husband Don is the main source of her success.

OPPOSITE: Just as she knit people together as a volunteer, Reta Rae also teaches the fine art of knitting to four groups in Conrad and Shelby in her off time. Here she helps 4-H member Cadhla Norris master a new stitch for another blue ribbon project.

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Featured Pest

ALFALFA WEEVIL

A

in Montana

lfalfa was first cultivated in southwestern Asia more than 2,000 years ago and its use spread throughout Europe. Its productivity and nutritive value as livestock feed has earned alfalfa the nickname "queen of forages." Alfalfa was first introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors, and by the late 1800s it was grown to some extent in Montana and other U.S. states. Alfalfa and alfalfa mixes now account for more than half of all forage crop production in the U.S. In 2015, a total of 17.8 million acres of alfalfa was harvested nationally, producing 59 million tons of hay valued at about 20 billion dollars (USDA NASS, 2017).

Alfalfa weevil larvae develop through four sizes, termed instar stages 1 (smallest) to 4 (largest).

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Insects are very diverse and many have adapted to feeding on a wide variety of plants, including crops, making them an important group of economic pest.

It was only a matter of time before the alfalfa weevil followed alfalfa from its native range in Eurasia and North Africa. The alfalfa weevil (Hypera postica) was introduced into North America at least three times, and each introduction is recognized as a distinct strain: eastern, western and Egyptian (Bundy et al. 2005; Hsiao 1996). The western strain was first reported near Salt Lake City in 1904, followed by the Egyptian strain in 1939 near Yuma, Arizona, and the eastern strain in 1952 in Maryland. The alfalfa weevil has now spread throughout the continental U.S. and parts of Mexico and Canada, where it remains the major economic pest of alfalfa.

Identification of weevils is an important first step in management, followed by appropriate scouting.

a publication of Montana State University Extension

Weevils are small beetles typically less than ¼ inch long with an oblong shape and large snout. Alfalfa weevils are light to dark brown with a dark brown stripe running down the middle of their back. The larvae are tiny when they first hatch and grow to a maximum length of about 0.25-0.4 inches long.

Their appearance is yellow to pale green when small, and green with a distinctive thin white line down the center of the back when larger, and a black head.

Adult weevils overwinter in debris in the field and the surrounding area. As temperatures warm in spring, the adults feed on available plant material before becoming sexually mature. As daytime temperatures begin to exceed 50°F, egg laying begins and continues to increase during warmer spring days. Females lay batches of 1-45 eggs within the stem of the alfalfa plant, with an average of 6-10 per cluster. Mating and egg laying continue until summer temperatures become hot and unfavorable for the adults.

After hatching, larvae develop through four stages or instars. The tiny first and second instars feed inside the developing leaf buds and can be more difficult to find, while the larger third and fourth instars that cause most of the damage feed openly on the leaves. The feeding appears as a “shot-hole” pattern as the leaves expand. Older larvae feed openly on the leaves, producing a skeletonized appearance which causes both yield and quality loss.

At about the time of first cutting, the fourth instars peak and begin to form cocoons in the leaf litter where they develop to the next generation of adult

by Kevin Wanner, MSU Extension Cropland Entomology Specialist and Emily Meccage, Extension Forage Specialist

WHITNEY CRANSHAW, COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY, BUGWOOD.ORG

weevils. These new adults typically enter a summer dormancy period to survive the hot temperatures and then become active again in the fall. Feeding by adult weevils does not cause economic damage. Consistent warm weather in the spring can synchronize population development while prolonged cool spring and summer temperatures can spread it throughout the season.

Once a field appears frosted, the damage has been done, meaning scouting the fields needs to begin earlier, when second instars are present and feeding in the folded leaves. Larvae can be sampled using a bucket or a sweep net. Ten sweeps using a standard 38 cm diameter net are taken at three to five sites in each field and the total number of weevil larvae counted. An average of 20 larvae per sweep meets the economic threshold for treatment, or the point when enough yield or quality has been lost to warrant control measures.

KEVIN WANNER

An alternative method is termed shake-bucket sampling. Ten stems from three to five different sites are collected and the larvae dislodged by shaking in a bucket. An average of 1.5 – 2 larvae per stem meets the economic threshold and a control option should be chosen. The shake-bucket method captures more first instar larvae compared to sweep netting and is less variable, particularly among inexperienced samplers. Avoid field edges and try to sample from each quadrant to get an average that represents the whole field. If the numbers of larvae begin to go up quickly, sample more frequently and prepare to take action if numbers exceed the threshold.

If scouting determines that the economic threshold has been met, the two main management tactics are early harvest and insecticide application. Harvesting early salvages yield before larger larvae mature and complete the majority of defoliation damage. Some larger larvae can survive the first harvest and the regrowth needs to be monitored for damage. The regrowth may require an insecticide treatment after the baled hay is removed if eight or more larvae per square foot are found under the windrows.

Detailed management guidelines and insecticide treatments are listed on the High Plains IPM Guide, but products containing pyrethroid class active ingredients are commonly used. While effective, these broad-spectrum contact insecticides have welldocumented negative effects to beneficial insects and can result in the development of secondary pest populations, particularly aphids. Other management recommendations include mixtures of grass and alfalfa, and grazing with livestock, but these require more research to determine their effectiveness.

At least eight different parasitoid species that parasitize and kill alfalfa weevils were collected from the native range in Eurasia and successfully established in the U.S. Three species of ichneumonid wasp, Bathyplectes curculionis, B. anurus and B. stenostigma are most commonly found parasitizing weevils in the western region.

Collectively these beneficial enemies have reduced the frequency of outbreak populations but generally provide only partial control of the alfalfa weevil, and their relative importance can vary with geographic location.

It is important to ensure proper pest identification before control measures are initiated. Make sure to reach the economic threshold, and follow appropriate protocols for weevil control so as to decrease the negative impact on other beneficial insect populations. Scouting every year, and sometimes multiple times per year, is important for adequate control of alfalfa weevil populations in Montana. 

LIVES

Alfalfa weevil larvae can be monitored using a sweep net. An average of 20 or more larvae per sweep exceeds the economic threshold meaning treatments should be applied to reduce damage and increase yields.

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KARI LEWIS

NEW ONLINE TOOL FOR TRACKING WHEAT PRICES AND BASIS: MSUEXTENSION.ORG/BASIS

by Mat Walter, MSU Extension Agent in Teton County The MSU Extension EconTools website has interactive tools to aid in farm management decisions. A new resource, the Montana Wheat Basis Database, has just been added.

What is basis? Wheat basis is the difference between the local price of wheat at a specific grain delivery location and the futures contract price. The difference in price can be the result of several factors, including but not limited to the costs of transportation, local market dynamics, and quality differentiation. Basis is used by producers and grain merchants as one of the primary tools to gauge current market conditions relative to longer run averages, as well as to compare local market conditions to one another.

The website msuextension.org/basis maintains historical basis information for six regional markets in Montana as well as local (spot) and futures market prices for hard red winter and dark northern spring wheat at varying protein levels. The website provides tools for comparing daily basis across wheat classes, protein levels, and locations over a 10-year time period. These data are publicly available from the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service and Quandl.com and the website automatically downloads new price information daily.

Written guides interpret the different variables tracked by the website, as well as provide information on how to put together useful charts and graphs. Data can also be downloaded as Excel spreadsheets.

Check out the EconTools website at msuextension.org/econtools for more similar resources. Other EconTools include price tracking for cattle, hay, and grains, calculators to assist in determining economically-optimal fertilizer application rates, and grazing lease fees for each county. 

SPRING VEHICLE INSPECTIONS AND REPAIRS Heading into spring, it’s a good idea to assess winter wear and tear on a vehicle. Take a few moments to think about damage that could have occurred: §§ When the windshield wipers turned on they were frozen down to the windshield, making the wiper blade tear, and now there’s streaking across the windshield. §§ Remember applying the brakes when it was really icy and the car slid and finally stopped sliding when the tire hit the curb? Since then there has been a wobble-feeling in the seat. §§ Having to drive and bump the vehicle over and in between ice ridges and potholes. §§ When the vehicle engine block heater was plugged in and someone drove off without unplugging it, ripping the block heater out.

During winter, minor damage can happen that can take a toll on a vehicle. It is important to notice changes in the way a vehicle runs or drives after such events. Get wobbles, noises and maintenance items checked out with a multi-point inspection during a vehicle service. Tell the service technician if you hit a curb or a big pothole. A thorough inspection can help identify broken parts or the need for a wheel alignment before they create bigger problems. Inspections can include a detailed visual check or measurements, done at the local dealer, repair shop, or your favorite place to get an oil change. 

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a publication of Montana State University Extension

BIGSTOCK.COM

by Marissa Topp, Eagle Country Ford in Sidney, MT

Tamara Parrott, DVM and Emily Meccage, Extension Forage Specialist

Heading to a horse clinic or show, and on the list of required documentation, you notice that one of the required documents is proof of a negative Coggins test.

What is a Coggins test and why is it needed?

A Coggins test is a blood test that looks for antibodies against the transmissible viral disease Equine Infectious Anemia. The test was developed over 45 years ago and is called the Coggins test after the developer, Dr. Leroy Coggins. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) is transmitted via anything that can carry infected blood from an infected horse to an unaffected horse, including from an infected mare to fetus. Clinical signs are variable, and often go unnoticed. The disease progresses through three phases: acute phase, recurrent phase, and chronic phase, where horses may not exhibit any signs of infection but can still be carriers (and transmitters) of the virus. Contracting EIA can also be fatal, and horses that are chronic EIA may experience flare ups during periods of stress or use of corticosteroids.

Horses that are infected with EIAV are infected for life. As a result, infected horses must be euthanized or separated for life from all other equids. Surveillance for this disease is very important for any equine healthcare program since there is no vaccine or cure for the disease. In some parts of the country EIA is frequently diagnosed in horse populations. EIA was diagnosed in horses in Montana as recently as 2017, reminding us of the need to remain vigilant when testing for EIA. A veterinarian is required to report positive test results to the state.

Because EIA is easily transmitted and there is no cure, it is important that horse owners, clinicians, and barn managers are diligent about testing horses on an annual basis, as well as requiring proof of negative tests for any equine event and change of ownership.

Proof of a negative Coggins test is also required for travel. Owners should add this test to their annual vaccination regimen to ensure their horses are covered for any event. In Montana, a negative Coggins test is valid for 12 months (this duration of validity varies among states). By consistent testing of most horses, the horse community and veterinarians will be able to decrease the risk and spread of EIA. An EIA information sheet is available online from MSU Equine Extension: http://animalrangeextension.montana.edu/equine/disease.html

MELISSA ASHLEY

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Master Gardener Q&A

Q

Now that the snow has melted, what should I be doing in my yard and garden to ensure I have a good season?

- Gallatin County

A

Aside from fall, spring is one of the busiest times in the yard. Good preparation and planning now ensures less work during the summer months, which means more time for fun and relaxation. Below is a yard and garden checklist of tasks to think about doing soon (late May to early June) so that the landscape will be lush and abundant in the months to come.

Woody Ornamentals:

Vegetables:

Prune lilacs and other spring flowering shrubs right after blooming Watch for cedar-apple rust on junipers

After Memorial Day usually marks the beginning of the planting season in Bozeman with the average date of the last killing frost being June 1. As a general rule, plant garden vegetables when the soil temperature at 2-4” is an average of 65°F.

Pinch candles on pine trees to maintain size and shape

Harden-off vegetable transplants started indoors

Turf grass:

Side-dress (fertilize) rhubarb and remove flower stalks as they appear

Transplant trees, shrubs and perennials

Fertilize lawn according to maintenance schedule (low, medium or high) Begin lawn irrigation (1” of water per week on average) and don’t let up if fertilizing regularly Apply broadleaf weed herbicide to lawn if necessary Begin mowing at regular intervals, cutting off only 1/3 of the blade at a time

Thin vegetables such as carrots and beets if necessary Flowers: Sow bedding plants after frost danger has passed Side-dress (fertilize) peonies Deadhead flowers as needed Plant tender bulbs

Fruit: Remove winter mulch from around strawberries Fertilize fruit trees and shrubs (be careful not to overfertilize) Fertilize raspberry bushes Hand-thin apples to two fruit per cluster

Pinch annuals to make them fuller Develop a regular schedule for maintaining the landscape and after a season or two it will become second nature. With just a few hours of hard work and diligence this spring, the yard and garden will be ready to go for summer and you can sit back, relax and enjoy the fruits (and vegetables) of your labor.

CLIPART.COM

Do you have Master Gardener questions? Send them to: extensionmagazine@montana.edu.

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a publication of Montana State University Extension

Ask Steward

Have a question for Ask Steward? Please send it to: extensionmagazine@montana.edu.

Q

Many of my trees, especially my aspen and fruit trees, have a dark gray coating growing on the trunks and branches and have had for years. Now I am seeing it on the fir and pine trees. Should I be worried?

A

- Sanders County

MIKE SCHOMAKER, COLORADO STATE FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD.ORG

The coating you are seeing is most likely a “sooty mold.” Sooty mold is the common name of one of the many types of dark fungi that grows on trees, leaving a dark, “sootylike” layer on the upper side of the trunk and branches. However, the fungi are not feeding on the tree, but rather on the dew that is left from piercing insects, like aphids and soft scale.

Aphids and soft scale insects feed on the sap of the tree and excrete a sugary, sticky substance commonly called “honeydew.” The sooty mold grows mostly on the branches and trunks, but if it worsens, it can also grow on patios, decks, sidewalks, and other trees and shrubs. Basically, it can grow wherever the honeydew lands. In the long run, and if there is enough sooty mold, the fungi can eventually inhibit the amount of light that the plant can get from the sun if it is on the leaves or needles. Most of the time trees can withstand some insects and the sooty mold is moderate. In severe cases, it is recommended to control the insect populations, rather than spray a fungicide for the sooty mold. In this case, a systemic drench of imidacloprid to the trees is recommended. With systemics, the insecticide is taken into the tree and the insects feeding on the tree, creating the honeydew, will be affected. This should clear up some of the sooty mold issue if the trees are treated yearly. However, it may take a couple of years to observe a sooty mold decrease.

Sooty mold on elm tree

What do I do when my houseplants get sick?

Toby Day, MSU Extension Horticulture Associate Specialist

It is proven that houseplants reduce stress, create a feeling of well-being, improve air quality, lower background noise, and add beauty to indoor spaces.

That is, until our houseplants get sick.

The most common houseplant problems are drafts (both hot and cold), watering issues (mostly over-watering), lack of nutrients, the wrong pot size, insects and disease. Of all the issues that can go wrong with indoor plants, diseases are probably the most misunderstood and misdiagnosed.

There are only three diseases of houseplants to worry about: rots, mildews and molds.

Root and stem rots are often caused by overwatering or improper drainage of the pot. Symptoms of root rot are wilting, leaves turning yellow or red and dropping, or an overall sickly look, even though a plant has been watered. The best way to determine if there is root or stem rot is by removing the plant from the pot and examining the root system.

Oftentimes the roots will be soft, brown or black, and have a foul smell. To correct rots, either throw out the plant and start over, or repot using new planting media and a container with better drainage, reduce the amount of watering, and let the soil dry out between watering.

The second most common houseplant disease is powdery mildew. Powdery mildew, sometimes mistaken for dust, appears as powdery white, gray or even gray/brown patches that develop on the leaves, stems and flowers of the plant. It mostly occurs in environments where there is high humidity, poor light, and poor air circulation. Powdery mildew can often be found on plants that are in bathrooms with poor lighting. To treat powdery mildew, clip off the affected leaves and flowers and move the plant to an area where there is increased light, less humidity and possibly in a room with a fan.

Finally, there are some molds that can affect houseplants. Molds can be mistaken for mildews, but the growth often turns dark gray. Molds also can accumulate on the surface of the soil. As with mildews and rots, mold can usually be eradicated by changing the environment. Remove the parts of the plant affected by the mold, reduce the frequency of watering and let the soil dry out between waterings, improve air circulation and if mold is on the soil, repot with new, clean planting media.

To learn more about houseplant care, search online “houseplant” and “extension” to see unbiased and research-based cooperative Extension websites that will answer most houseplant questions. I found Cornell University’s website http://warren.cce.cornell.edu/gardening-landscape/ houseplants to be very helpful. 

LIVES

landscapes Spring 2019

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SHARLA SACKMAN

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MSU EXTENSION’S MASTER GARDENER PROGRAM This education and volunteer service organization provides technical assistance and information in consumer horticulture to people in all Montana communities through qualified volunteers. The Montana Master Gardener program empowers individuals with sound horticultural practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment.

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