A More Self-Reliant European Foreign Affairs and Security Agenda

EU-CHINA COMPREHENSIVE AGREEMENT ON INVESTMENT (CAI) A prime example of Europe’s initiative in pursuing economic independence is the EU-

China Comprehensive Agreement on Investment (CAI). Disenchanted with Trump’s protectionist economic policies and tariffs, the EU sought to develop “strategic autonomy,” practicing engagement rather than confrontation with China.187 As Germany held the EU presidency in

the latter half of 2020, Merkel was able to push the goal of improved investment strategies in

the automotive industry which would benefit German companies, including Volkswagen and Daimler.188 The EU-China investment deal was struck at the end of 2020 and has yet to be

ratified. Nonetheless, it preemptively denies Biden a chance to form a multilateral front against the economic giant, possibly driving a further wedge between the U.S. and Europe. However,

many in the EU remain displeased with China’s questionable human rights record and wonder

how much the EU should sacrifice its humanitarian values for an advantageous economic agreement. Accepting such a trade-off would demonstrate the EU’s confidence in working with China without the support of the U.S.

The pandemic has forced several countries to pay closer attention to domestic spending

and pre-existing economic ties, leading to an acceleration of the China-EU deal aimed at

improving investments and mitigating fallout. The implications of the coronavirus pandemic

and lockdowns will continue to have negative implications on the global economy, yet most

European countries took advantage of low interest rates and EU budget rule suspensions to

mitigate damage done to national economies. As the EU is typically averse to protectionism,

the economic repercussions of the pandemic have spurred uncommon governmental financial support and the politicization of corporate decisions.189

As the EU and individual European countries maneuver themselves towards greater

economic independence, Europe is also looking to solidify its unique, yet powerful role in

the international system. While the EU is known for its regulatory and normative powers, the effectiveness of its foreign and security policies is less clear. Bracing itself against rising

aggression to the east and continuing to navigate delicate relationships to the south east and in

the Maghreb, the EU will need to focus on developing an independent and effective foreign

affairs and security agenda.

SECURITY Europe faces several internal and external security threats, yet most European countries

seek to fulfill their security agendas independently, outside of the EU’s purview. Russian aggression remains one of the most salient issues for greater European security and stability, as

well as (related) cyber-attacks that directly and instantaneously target European institutions.190

Within the EU, there is new focus on corruption and cyber security, strategies that are central to Russia’s growing influence and potential to undermine reform in countries along its western border. Some leaders within the EU, particularly France’s President Macron, with tentative

agreement from Germany and Luxembourg, have pushed for further international cooperation in

the form of a European army that would defend against putative enemies such as China, Russia,

and possibly even the U.S., as a response to Trump’s hostile stances towards NATO.191

Some members of the EU have articulated who important it would be, should a security

crisis arise, that those involved demonstrate timely reactions and autonomy, ensuring an effective

safety net should the U.S. be occupied by its own set of domestic issues.192 In turn, the U.S. may

find it beneficial to have more independent allied security forces to advance its own interests in the region, and at less expense. This thinking is evident in the repeated calls by recent U.S.

leadership, primarily Trump, for increased defense spending by NATO member states to reach

to the required 2% GDP.193 In line with all these motivations, the EU has committed to an goal

of increased security independence, which has only recently been doubted as gaps in funding

caused by Brexit and the coronavirus pandemic become more evident.194 Indeed, this security

independence is necessary, as indirect methods of subverting EU authority by Russia and

others make it difficult for the U.S. to get involved. The EU is already creating and expanding organizations to establish greater security within Europe, including PESCO (Permanent Structured Cooperation), the European Defense Fund, and the European Peace Facility. 195

However, these attempts at increasing security are, according to the European Council on

Foreign Relations, “underfunded relative even to their original, fairly modest, ambitions.”196

Both Europe and the U.S. can and will benefit from mutual foreign policy and security goals. Biden’s inauguration ushers diplomacy to the forefront of American efforts to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons.197 According to NATO, the U.S. and other allies have

engaged with Russia regarding its development in missile systems for years, but Russia shows

“no willingness and took no steps to comply with its international obligations, leading to the

demise of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty” during Trump’s tenure.198

In the early stages of his presidency, Biden has demonstrated a willingness to negotiate with Russia, renewing the New START treaty, which limits possession of nuclear weapons in both

countries.199

Despite Biden’s moves to recommit to a meaningful U.S. security presence in Europe, European leaders are cognizant of the fact that, even during the Obama administration,

Americans hoped Europe would tackle their immediate security challenges themselves. European

and American leaders alike will inevitably have to work together to tackle the most severe threats

to European security, but Europeans are more aware than ever that they must defend themselves

first before calling on American assistance.

FOREIGN POLICY Negotiating the EU’s relationship with the wider world continues to be conducted

primarily at the national level; member states by and large manage their own independent

relationships with other countries and organizations. A poll by the European Council on Foreign

Relations reflected that “large numbers of EU citizens want an EU that has [the power to reclaim sovereignty from outside players] and that can control its external borders, promote more resilient supply chains, and act decisively on climate change.”200 According to researchers

Mark Leonard and Jeremy Shapiro, “such autonomy should not be confused with retreat into isolationism or protectionism. Europe’s openness and the resulting interdependence are the very

essence of the European integration project.”201 By enhancing member relations and coherence in

the foreign policy realm, the EU may become less dependent on non-EU partners, the U.S. being

chief among them.

President Biden has consistently reiterated his promise to prioritize multilateralism and work with the European Union. One of his top priorities is revitalizing European transatlantic

relations that were eroded by President Trump. Western European nations, particularly Germany, suffered the most under Trump’s policies and are looking forward to an improvement with a

lifelong transatlanticist now in office.202 As Vice President under Obama, Biden has already established strong, long-lasting relations with European leaders and plans to be more involved

in international treaties and institutions by rejoining the Paris Agreement and reengaging with

the World Health Organization (WHO).203 Furthermore, due to Biden’s strong commitment to promoting democratic values and norms, his foreign policy will likely be unforgiving in relations

with undemocratic regimes and dictators; he hopes to work with Europe to reverse the recent

autocratic gains made by China and Russia.

The foundation of the EU-U.S. relationship is largely concerned and interconnected

with trade policy and security.204 However, European countries recognize Biden will need to prioritize domestic affairs before he can turn to relations with Europe. Many European officials acknowledge, almost resignedly, that though Biden’s rhetoric may differ from Trump’s, he is still likely to continue some aspects of his predecessor’s “America first” campaign, giving priority to mending political divisions in the United States. Therefore, despite the leadership change, it may

be some time before the U.S. is able to reestablish its former ties and relations with European

countries. Those nations must now decide, whether individually or as a union, which matters

they can consult and work with the U.S. upon and which they may more effectively address

independently.

Conclusion

Based on a detailed analysis of their responses to the 2020 U.S. election, European nations now view the United States with greater skepticism. The lead-up to and the aftermath of

the presidential election has led to a decrease in European confidence in American democracy. In particular, the Europe Union can be expected to assert its own identity and assume a more

prominent leading role in global affairs, especially in the realm of climate change, regardless of

the foreign policy goals pursued by the United States. While European countries will most likely welcome assistance from the United States, their leaders recognize that they must continue to

work towards independent strategies and policies for tackling European problems and assume a

greater autonomous leadership role, as the European community no longer views the U.S. as a

reliable long-term ally.

There is reason to be optimistic about the transatlantic relationship, however. President

Biden has pledged to take a more active role in international affairs, and his recent move to rejoin the Paris Agreement signals his intention to follow through on his campaign rhetoric. His

commitment to climate activism and his condemnation of authoritarianism signals a realignment

of American and European views, which should lead to an at least partial warming of relations.

Moving forward, the extent to which these policy priorities and approaches remain in-step,

especially given the unpredictability of polarized politics in both the U.S. and Europe, must

be closely monitored. In this way, Biden’s plea for unity and an economic rebound may have significant transatlantic implications in reversing some of the damage done by President Trump. While relations between the U.S. and Europe have suffered, the prospect of a more reliable international American presence may be enough to begin to repair the transatlantic relationship.

Endnotes

Though the focus of the individual reports was at each assistant’s discretion, nearly

all researchers discussed the political, social, and economic ramifications of the U.S. election found in their research through a range of sources, including media outlets, publications, official statements, and interviews

1 Riccardo Alcaro, “The Fraying Transatlantic Order and Europe’s Struggle in a Multipolar World,” in America’s Allies and the Decline of U.S. Hegemony, eds. Justin Massie and Jonathan Paquin (London: Routledge, 2020), 143-60. 2 Richard W. Mansbach and James M. McCormick, eds., Foreign Policy Issues for America: The Trump Years (New York: Routledge, 2019). 3 Robert Costa and Philip Rucker, “Trump Questions Need for NATO, Outlines Noninterventionist Foreign Policy,” Washington Post, March 21, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/03/21/donaldtrump-reveals-foreign-policy-team-in-meeting-with-the-washington-post/. 4 Ana Swanson, “Trump Administration Escalates Tensions With Europe as Crisis Looms,” New York Times, March 12, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/12/business/economy/trump-european-union-trade.html. 5 Justin Massie and Johnathan Paquin, eds., America’s Allies and the Decline of U.S. Hegemony (New York: Routledge, 2020). 6 Thomas Wright, A Post-American Europe and the Future of U.S. Strategy (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, December 2017), https://www.brookings.edu/research/a-post-american-europe-and-the-future-of-u-s-strategy/. 7 Stanley Hoffmann, “France, the United States, & Iraq,” The Nation, June 29, 2015, https://www.thenation.com/ article/archive/france-united-states-iraq/. 8 Pew Research Center, America’s Image in the World: Findings from the Pew Global Attitudes Project (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, March 14, 2007), https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2007/03/14/americas-image-inthe-world-findings-from-the-pew-global-attitudes-project/. 9 Ibid. 10 Robert Kagan, “The World America Made-and Trump Wants to Unmake,” POLITICO Magazine, September 28, 2018, http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2018/09/28/donald-trump-unga-liberal-world-order-220738. 11 Amanda Macias and Nate Rattner, “Here’s What Each NATO Country Contributes Financially to the World’s Strongest Military Alliance,” CNBC, December 4, 2019, https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/03/each-nato-countrys-financial-contribution-to-the-military-alliance.html. 12 European Union Objectives can be found in full here: https://europarlamentti.info/en/values-and-objectives/objectives/#:~:text=The%20European%20Union’s%20main%20objective,that%20these%20objectives%20are%20 achieved. 13 It is important to note that while the United States and the EU represent the two largest economies in the world according to nominal GDP, with China coming in third with $14.3 trillion, the United States and the EU become the second and third largest economies in the world, respectively, when accounting for purchasing power parity. See Kimberly Amadeo, “Largest Economies in the World,” The Balance, last modified December 10, 2020, https://www. thebalance.com/world-s-largest-economy-3306044; see also, Prableen Bajpai, “The 5 Largest Economies in the World and Their Growth in 2020,” Nasdaq (blog), January 22, 2020, https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/the-5-largesteconomies-in-the-world-and-their-growth-in-2020-2020-01-22. 14 Gary D Espinas, “Ukraine’s Defense Engagement with the United States,” Journal of International Affairs 63, no. 2 (2010): 53-63. 15 “Read the Transcript of Trump’s Call with the Ukraine President,” ABC News, September 25, 2019, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/read-transcript-trumps-call-ukraine-president/story?id=65849015. 16 Alyona Getmanchuk, “Whatever His Name. 6 Things Which Will Remain Unchanged for Ukraine after the U.S. Presidential Election,” New Europe Center (blog), November 4, 2020, http://neweurope.org.ua/en/analytics/bezpryv-yazky-do-prizvyshha-6-rechej-dlya-ukrayiny-yaki-ne-zalezhatymut-id-rezultativ-vyboriv-u-ssha/.

17 Joseph R. Biden, “Why America Must Lead Again,” Foreign Affairs, November 30, 2020, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-01-23/why-america-must-lead-again. 18 Anna Myroniuk, “Biden will support Ukraine against Russia, but demand corruption Fight,” Kyiv Post, November 10, 2020, https://www.kyivpost.com/ukraine-politics/biden-will-support-ukraine-against-russia-but-demand-corruption-fight.html. 19 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations With Poland,” January 21, 2021, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relationswith-poland/. 20 Jamie Dettmer. “Why Biden Win Would Pose Problem for Central Europe’s Populist Leaders,” Voice of America, October 1, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/europe/why-biden-win-would-pose-problem-central-europes-populistleaders. 21 Joanna Plucinska. “Poland Warns EU Countries against Rapprochement with Russia,” Reuters, August 8, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-poland-russia-ukraine/poland-warns-eu-countries-against-rapprochement-withrussia-idUSKCN1UY1JP. 22 Michael Crowley, “Poland’s Right-Wing President Meets With Trump and Gets a Pre-Election Boost,” New York Times, June 24, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/24/us/politics/trump-andrzej-duda-poland.html. 23 Aleks Szczerbiak, “Why Is Poland’s Law and Justice Party Still so Popular?”, European Politics and Policy-London School of Economics (blog), October 1, 2019, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/europpblog/2019/10/01/why-is-polandslaw-and-justice-party-still-so-popular/. 24 Monika Scislowska, “Poland’s Top Court Rules out Abortions Due to Fetal Defects.” Associated Press, October 23, 2020, https://apnews.com/article/international-news-poland-abortion-europe-birth-defects-9258358858a72911663cd1d276a8fbd2. 25 Dominik Tolksdorf, “While Conflict with the EU Is Likely to Continue, Poland’s Government Banks on Close Relations with the White House,” Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (blog), May 12, 2020, https://us.boell.org/en/2020/05/12/ while-conflict-eu-likely-continue-polands-government-banks-close-relations-white-house. 26“Hungary’s Viktor Orban Says He Is Rooting for Trump Victory,” Associated Press, September 11, 2020, https:// apnews.com/article/viktor-orban-united-states-hungary-virus-outbreak-europe-f3c4aed15c8cbf81c9200453e70e83ae. 27 Gabriela Baczynska and John Chalmers. “Hungary’s Orban Convinced Trump Will Win U.S. Election, Has No Plan B,” Reuters, September 25, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-hungary-orban-trump-interview/hungarysorban-convinced-trump-will-win-u-s-election-has-no-plan-b-idUSKCN26G29M. 28 Adam Payne, “Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban Endorses Trump and Denounces the ‘Moral Imperialism’ of the Democrats,” Business Insider, September 21, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/viktor-orban-endorses-trump-denounces-moral-imperialism-of-democrats-2020-9. 29 “Hungarian Press Roundup: Prospects of U.S.-Hungarian Relations,” Hungary Today, November 12, 2020, https:// hungarytoday.hu/press-roundup-biden-president-us-election-relation-hungary/. 30 “With Donald Trump out, EU Nationalists Are down a U.S. Ally,” Deutsche Welle, November 10, 2020, https:// www.dw.com/en/with-donald-trump-out-eu-nationalists-are-down-a-us-ally/a-55559084. 31 Bogdan Góralczyk, “Gambling with the Trump Card.” Visegrad Insight, November 19, 2020, https://visegradinsight.eu/viktor-orban-gambling-with-the-trump-card. 32 Economic performance data for Portugal can be found here: https://www.worlddata.info/europe/portugal/economy. php#:~:text=Worldwide%20gross%20domestic%20product%20in,23.252%20US%20Dollar%20per%20capita.&text=Inflation%,20in%20Portugal%20was%20in,same%20was%20year%20at%201.63%25. 33 Lívi Franco, assistant professor and senior researcher at the Institute for Political Studies at the Catholic University of Portugal and associate researcher at the pan-European think-tank, European Center for Foreign Relations (ECFR), interview conducted via zoom by Emilia Castelao, December 21, 2020. 34 Melissa Huan, “Perspectives on the U.S. Election: a View from Portugal.” Atlas Lisboa, November 2, 2020, https://www.atlaslisboa.com/perspectives-on-the-u-s-election-a-view-from-portugal/. 35 Julie Ray, “Biden Inherits a Battered U.S. Image Abroad,” Gallup, December 17, 2020, https://news.gallup.com/ poll/327629/biden-inherits-battered-image-abroad.aspx. 36 André Azevedo Alves, reader, Economics, Political Economy, and Public Policy at St. Mary’s University Twickenham London, interview conducted via zoom by Emilia Castelao, December 21, 2020. 37 Richard Wike, et. al., “Detailed Tables: Confidence in U.S. Presidents, U.S. Favorability,” Pew Research Center Global Attitudes Project, October 1, 2018, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2018/10/01/appendix-a-detailed-tables-u-s-image/.

38 Jon Henly, “Minority of Europeans Think U.S. Election Will Be Free and Fair–Poll,” Guardian, October 8, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/oct/08/minority-of-europeans-think-us-election-will-be-free-and-fairpoll. 39 Gustavo Palomares Lerma, “Cómo Afectan Las Elecciones De EEUU a Europa (y a España),” El Diario, October 28, 2020, https://www.eldiario.es/internacional/elecciones-eeuu-2020/afectan-elecciones-eeuu-europa-espana_129_6325091.html. 40 Enrique Stuyck, “¿Qué Ganamos Con Biden?” El Diario Vasco, November 11, 2020, https://www.diariovasco. com/opinion/ganamos-biden-20201111001916-ntvo.html. 41 Olatz Burriuso, “Por Qué Todos (Menos Vox) Quieren Que Gane Biden,” Hoy, November 6, 2020, https://www. hoy.es/elecciones/eeuu/quieren-gane-biden-20201105212617-ntrc.html?ref=https:%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F. 42 Rubén Rozas, “España Reacciona a Las Elecciones De Estados Unidos y La Amenaza De Trump De Recurrir Al Supremo,” El Plural, November 4, 2020, https://www.elplural.com/politica/espana/espana-reacciona-elecciones-unidos-amenaza-trump-recurrir-supremo_252287102. 43 Javier Ansorena, “Tambores De Violencia En Un País Partido En Dos,” ABC, November 3, 2020, https://www.abc. es/internacional/elecciones-eeuu/abci-elecciones-eeuu-tambores-violencia-pais-partido-202010302319_noticia.html. 44 Paolo Magri, et. al., “Gli USA e Il Mondo: Il Futuro Dei Rapporti Con L’Italia.” ISPI, October 21, 2020, https:// www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/gli-usa-e-il-mondo-il-futuro-dei-rapporti-con-litalia-27921. 45 Giovanna De Maio, “Why the U.S.-Italy Relationship Matters.” Atlantic Council (blog), September 2020. https:// www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Why_the_US-Italy_Relationship_Matters.pdf. 46 Ibid. 47 John Henderson, “Think Trump will be a disaster? Just ask the Italians,” The Local It (blog), November 9, 2016, https://www.thelocal.it/20160801/think-trump-would-be-a-disaster-just-ask-the-italians. 48 Mark Donovan, “Berlusconi’s impact and legacy: political parties and the party system,” Modern Italy 20, No.1 (2015): 11-24. 49 “2020 U.S. Presidential Election (view from Europe),” YouGov, 2020, https://docs.cdn.yougov.com/bbfds33upk/ YouGov%20-%202020%20US%20presidential%20election%20view%20from%20Europe.pdf. 50 Jon Henley, Antonio Voce, and Seán Clarke, “Italian Elections 2018-Full Results.” Guardian, March 5, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/ng-interactive/2018/mar/05/italian-elections-2018-full-results-renzi-berlusconi 51 Shaun Walker and Tom Phillips, “Rightwing Populists Place Their Bets on Four More Years of Trump,” Guardian, October 18, 2020, www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/oct/18/rightwing-populists-place-their-bets-on-four-moreyears-of-trump. 52 Nicola Casarini, “Italy Oscillates on China,” Echowall, June 22, 2020, https://www.echo-wall.eu/currents-context/ italy-oscillates-china. 53 Francesco Bechis, “Se Gli Italiani Preferiscono La Cina Agli Usa (e Alla Ue),” Formiche, April 21, 2020, https:// formiche.net/2020/04/italiani-preferiscono-cina-usa-ue/. 54 Christopher White, “Pope Francis Congratulates Biden on Election Win,” National Catholic Reporter, November 12, 2020, https://www.ncronline.org/news/politics/pope-francis-congratulates-biden-election-win. 55 Steven R. Weisman, “U.S. and Vatican Restore Full Ties After 117 Years,” New York Times, January 11, 1984, https://www.nytimes.com/1984/01/11/world/us-and-vatican-restore-full-ties-after-117-years.html. 56 Paul Moses, “Vatican Diplomacy and the Iraq War,” Commonweal Magazine, January 13, 2020, https://www. commonwealmagazine.org/vatican-diplomacy-iraq-war. 57 Teresa Welsh, “Pope Francis Brokers Renewed Relations Between U.S. and Cuba,” U.S. News & World Report, December 17, 2014, https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/12/17/pope-francis-brokers-renewed-relations-between-us-and-cuba. 58 Adam Peck, “Donald Trump Is Now in a Holy War with the Pope,” New Republic, February 18, 2016, https://newrepublic.com/article/130136/donald-trump-now-holy-war-pope. 59 Tina Nguyen, “Pope Francis Calls Out Trump, Accuses Him of ‘Pro-Life’ Hypocrisy,” Vanity Fair, September 11, 2017, https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/09/pope-francis-trump-daca. 60 Claire Giangravé, “With Biden Victory, Pope Francis May Find a Natural Ally in the Second Catholic President,” America Magazine, November 9, 2020, https://www.americamagazine.org/politics-society/2020/11/09/biden-vatican-pope-francis-election. 61 Will Weissert and David Crary, “Pope Francis Congratulates Biden for Winning Presidential Election,” PBS Newshour, November 13, 2020, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/pope-francis-congratulates-biden-for-winning-presidential-election.

62 Nina Berglund, “Norway Heaves a Huge Sigh of Relief,” News in English, November 9, 2020, https://www.newsinenglish.no/2020/11/09/norway-heaves-a-huge-sigh-of-relief/. 63 Claire Parker, “Why It Matters When Trump Affronts Denmark, a Stalwart U.S. Ally since 1783,” Seattle Times, August 21, 2019, https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/denmark-has-been-and-important-u-s-ally/. 64 Merrick Tabor, professor of Political Science at Stockholm University, email interview conducted by Ryan Merrigan, December 16, 2020. 65 Helen Jones, “The Copenhagen Post - Danish News in English,” CPHPOST, November 6, 2020, https://cphpost. dk/?p=120106 66 Neils Bjerre-Poulsen, associate professor, Institute for American Studies at the University of Southern Denmark, Email interview conducted by Ryan Merrigan, December 15 2020. 67“What Are Norway’s Politicians Saying about the U.S. Election?,” Local, November 4, 2020. https://www.thelocal. no/20201104/what-are-norways-politicians-saying-about-the-us-election 68 Merrick Tabor, professor of Political Science at Stockholm University, email interview conducted by Ryan Merrigan. December 16, 2020. 69 U.S. Embassy in Ireland, “Policy & History,” September 15, 2017, https://ie.usembassy.gov/our-relationship/policy-history/ 70 U.S. Department of State, “US. Relations With Ireland,” July 27, 2020, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-withireland/ 71 “President Trump Meeting with Irish Prime Minister,” C-Span, March 12, 2020, https://www.c-span.org/video/?470295-1/president-trump-defends-travel-ban-europe-stop-coronavirus-spread. 72 “Irish Communities Linked to Trump & Biden Show Colours before U.S. Vote,” Euronews, November 2, 2020, https://www.euronews.com/2020/11/02/us-elections-irish-communities-linked-to-trump-and-biden-show-their-colours-ahead-of-vote. 73 Shauna Bowers, “Irish in U.S. Respond to Biden’s Election: ‘A Big Dark Cloud Is Being Removed from the Country,’” Irish Times, November 08, 2020, https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/abroad/irish-in-us-respondto-biden-s-election-a-big-dark-cloud-is-being-removed-from-the-country-1.4403758. 74 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations With the United Kingdom,” U.S., February 6, 2020, https://www.state. gov/u-s-relations-with-united-kingdom/. 75 Andrew Rawnsley, “A Joe Biden White House Will Have Little Time and Less Love for ‘Britain’s Trump.’” Guardian, October 25, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/oct/25/johnson-dangerously-closeto-one-us-president-wht-if-biden-wins. 76 Richard Wike, Janell Fetterolf, and Mara Mordecai, “U.S. Image Plummets Internationally as Most Say Country Has Handled Coronavirus Badly,” Pew Research Center Global Attitudes Project, December 10, 2020, https://www. pewresearch.org/global/2020/09/15/us-image-plummets-internationally-as-most-say-country-has-handled-coronavirus-badly/. 77 Alan McGuinness, “Boris Johnson Congratulates Joe Biden and Talks Brexit in First Phone Call with President-elect,” Sky News, November 10, 2020, https://news.sky.com/story/boris-johnson-congratulates-us-presidentelect-joe-biden-on-victory-in-phone-call-12129386. 78 Gabriela Galindo, “US President Donald Trump Tests Positive for Covid-19,” Brussels Times, October 2, 2020, www.brusselstimes.com/news/world-all-news/133843/us-president-donald-trump-tests-positive-for-covid-19. 79 Alexander De Croo (@alexanderdecroo), “Congratulations @JoeBiden with your election as 46th President of the United States,” Twitter post, November 7, 2020, https://twitter.com/alexanderdecroo/status/1325128292484050947 80 Jason Spinks, “Belgium’s Prime Minister Criticised after Congratulating Biden,” Brussels Times, November 8, 2020, http://www.brusselstimes.com/news/belgium-all-news/politics/139768/belgiums-prime-minister-faces-twitter-criticism-after-congratulating-biden-kamala-harris-democracy-open-vld-electoral-systems/. 81 Catherine E. de Vries and Isabell Hoffmann, “Together Apart: Trumpism and its effects on European Public Opinion,” Eupinions, October 28, 2020, https://eupinions.eu/de/text/together-apart 82 Simon Desplanque, assistant professor, Economic, Social, and Political Sciences, Universite Catholique de Louvain, interview conducted by Grace Rozembajgier, December 16, 2020 83 “Biden and the World: What a U.S. Presidential Transition Means,” Council on Foreign Relations, November 12, 2020, http://www.cfr.org/article/biden-and-world-what-us-presidential-transition-means. 84 “Trump Victory Not Isolated Phenomenon: Belgian Far Right,” Reuters, November 9, 2016, http://www.reuters. com/article/us-usa-election-belgium-farright/trump-victory-not-isolated-phenomenon-belgian-far-right-idUSKBN13416C.

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104 John Grady, “French President Macron Calls For European ‘Strategic Autonomy,’” USNI News, February 8, 2021, https://news.usni.org/2021/02/08/french-president-macron-calls-for-european-strategic-autonomy. 105 “Diversity: America vs. France,” Stanford University Press Blog, November 8, 2016, https://stanfordpress.typepad.com/blog/2016/11/diversity-america-vs-france.html. 106 William Collins Donahue, Rev. J. Cavanaugh, C.S.C., Professor of the Humanities; director, Initiative for Global Europe, Keough School of Global Affairs University of Notre Dame interview conducted via zoom by Joey Speicher, December 9, 2020. 107 Jacob Poushter and Mara Mordecai, “Americans and Germans Differ in Their Views of Each Other and the World,” Pew Research Center Global Attitudes Project, March 9, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/03/09/americans-and-germans-differ-in-their-views-of-each-other-and-the-world/ 108 European Commission, “Press Corner,” accessed January 31, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/ detail/en/ip_20_2541. 109 Jack Ewing, Steven Lee Myers, and Ana Swanson, “China-E.U. Talks Hit Another Snag as Biden Camp Objects,” New York Times, December 23, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/23/business/china-european-union-united-states.html. 110 Emily Schultheis, “Europe’s Far Right Hasn’t Given Up on Trump Yet,” Slate Magazine, November 10, 2020, https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2020/11/europe-far-right-trump.html. 111 Amanda Sloat, “Germany’s New Centrists? The Evolution, Political Prospects, and Foreign Policy of Germany’s Green Party,” (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, October 2020), https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2020/10/FP_20201020_germanys_new_centrists_sloat.pdf.pdf. 112 Reuters Staff. “Despite Trump-Erdogan Ties, Turkey Says It Will Work with Whoever Wins U.S. Vote.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, November 6, 2020, www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-turkey/despite-trump-erdogan-tiesturkey-says-it-will-work-with-whoever-wins-u-s-vote-idUSKBN27M1QF. 113Reuters Staff. “Turkey’s Erdogan Congratulates U.S. President-Elect Biden for Election Win.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, November 10, 2020, www.reuters.com/article/usa-election-turkey-int/turkeys-erdogan-congratulates-u-s-president-elect-biden-for-election-win-idUSKBN27Q2FC. 114 “FACTBOX: Pros and Cons of Turkey’s EU Accession Bid.” Reuters, accessed April 8, 2021, https://cn.reuters. com/article/instant-article/idUSL0669052820061207. 115 Lucente, Adam. “Turkey Calls for ‘Common Sense’ amid Post-Election Unrest in U.S.” Al Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East, January 7, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/01/turkey-statement-protests-storming-us-capitol-congress-dc.html. 116 Chris Brown. “Russian State TV Pundits Mock U.S. after Election Night Fallout | CBC News.” CBCnews, November 7, 2020, www.cbc.ca/news/world/u-s-election-russia-media-reaction-1.5792588. 117 Mathew Luxmoore. “‘Trump’s Done Nothing Good For Us’: As Americans Go To The Polls, Most Russians Shrug.” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, October 31, 2020, www.rferl.org/a/us-election-russia-reaction-trumpbiden-putin/30922669.html. 118 Brown. “Russian State TV Pundits Mock U.S.” 119 Matthew Bodner, “Putin Finally Recognizes That Biden Won Presidential Election.” NBCNews, December 15, 2020, www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-finally-recognizes-biden-won-u-s-election-n1251222. 120 Isabelle Khurshudyan, “Russia Gloated over U.S. Election Disarray. Now, It Faces Biden’s Tougher Line,” The Washington Post, November 9, 2020, www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russia-biden-election/2020/11/08/4799fc50-1ebc-11eb-ad53-4c1fda49907d_story.html. 121 Vuk Vuksanovic, “Belgrade’s Biden Conundrum: How U.S.-Serbian Relations Will Shape up Post Trump” Euronews, November 23, 2020, https://services.euronews.com/2020/11/23/belgrade-s-biden-conundrum-how-us-serbian-relations-will-shape-up-post-trump-view. 122 “Ukraine and Serbia Reactions to Biden Victory,” Republic World, November 8, 2020, https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/rest-of-the-world-news/ukraine-and-serbia-reactions-to-biden-victory.html. 123 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations with Serbia - United States Department of State,” January 14, 2021, https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-serbia/#:~:text=U.S.-SERBIA%20RELATIONS&text=The%20United%20 States%20wants%20Serbia,issues,%20and%20promoting%20economic%20growth. 124 Vuksanovic, “Belgrade’s Biden Conundrum.” 125 “Kosovo Conflict,” Encyclopædia Britannica online, accessed May 20, 2020, www.britannica.com/event/Kosovo-conflict. 126 Vuksanovic, “Belgrade’s Biden Conundrum.”

127 Shawn Walker, “Donald Trump Hopes for Election Boost from Kosovo-Serbia Talks,” Guardian, September 3, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/sep/03/donald-trump-hopes-for-election-boost-from-kosovo-serbia-talks. 128 Majda Ruge, “Biden in the Balkans,” Foreign Policy, November 18, 2020, https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/11/18/ biden-in-the-balkans/ 129 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, “U.S. Relations With Albania: Bilateral Relations Fact Sheet,” November 23, 2020, http://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-albania/. 130 Erica Lanzi, “Joe or Donald? The Weight of the US Vote on the Swiss Economy.” Corriere Del Ticino, November 4, 2020, www.cdt.ch/onthespot/joe-or-donald-the-weight-of-the-us-vote-on-the-swiss-economy-MK3396691?_ sid=yCn6zz6o&refresh=true. 131 Jessica Davis Pluss, “Switzerland Anxiously Watches Tight US Election.” Swissinfo, November 7, 2020, www. swissinfo.ch/eng/switzerland-anxiously-watches-knife-edge-us-election/46139766. 132 “Swiss Media on Biden Win: ‘A Signal Far beyond American Borders’.” Swissinfo, November 8, 2020, www. swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-media-on-biden-win---a-signal-far-beyond-american-borders-/46145858. 133 Eric Posner, “America Passed the Trump Stress Test,” Project Syndicate, December 7, 2020, https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/trump-strengthened-american-democracy-by-eric-posner-2020-12?barrier=accesspaylog. 134 Matthew Smith, “Europe Wants Joe Biden to Beat Donald Trump.” YouGov, October 8, 2020, https://yougov. co.uk/topics/international/articles-reports/2020/10/08/europe-wants-joe-biden-beat-donald-trump. 135Ibid. 136 Peter, Martin, “Europeans Are Optimistic About Biden’s Presidency, Poll Finds,” Bloomberg, January 19, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-19/european-public-optimistic-about-biden-presidency-pew-poll-says. 137 Julian Borger, “International Observers Say U.S. Elections ‘Tarnished’ by Trump and Uncertainty,” Guardian, November 4, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/nov/04/international-observers-us-election-trump-trust. 138 Simon Shuster, “Populism: The Rise of This Political Trend in Europe,” Time, accessed April 9, 2021, https:// time.com/time-person-of-the-year-populism/. 139 Michael Dimock and Richard Wike, “America is exceptional in the nature of its political divide,” Pew Research Center, November 13, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/11/13/america-is-exceptional-in-the-nature-of-its-political-divide/. 140 Eric Posner, “US Democracy Has Passed Trump’s Trump’s Stress Test.” 141 Sam Levine, “Can Trump Actually Stage a Coup and Stay in Office for a Second Term?” Guardian, November 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/nov/23/can-trump-actually-stage-a-coup-and-stay-in-officefor-a-second-term. 142 Emma Anderson, “‘This Is Not America’: Europe Reacts as Trump Supporters Riot in U.S. Capital.” POLITICO, January 6, 2021, https://www.politico.eu/article/donald-trump-us-capitol-riot-europe-reacts/. 143 Melissa Eddy, “Merkel and Johnson Blame Trump for Riot, but Europe Also Expresses Hope,” New York Times, January 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/07/world/europe/merkel-macron-trump-violence-democracy. html. 144 “How Europe’s Far Right Responded to pro-Trump Capitol Riots,” Al Jazeera, January 7, 2021, https://www. aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/7/far-right-capitol-riots. 145 “Senator McConnell on Attack on the U.S. Capitol.” CSPAN, January 19, 2021, https://www.c-span.org/video/?507835-4%2Fsenator-mcconnell-attack-us-capitol 146 European Commission, “Citizen Support for Climate Action,” accessed April 9, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/ citizens/support_en. 147 European Commission, “2050 Long Term Strategy,” accessed April 9, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ strategies/2050_en. 148 European Commission, “European Climate Pact,” accessed April 9, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ eu-climate-action/pact_en. 149 European Parliament, “MEPs Set Out Blueprint for a New Industrial Strategy,” November 25, 2020, https://www. europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20201120IPR92128/meps-set-out-blueprint-for-a-new-industrial-strategy. 150 Ibid; Daniel Boffey, Kate Connolly, and Anushka Asthana, “EU to Bypass Trump Administration after Paris Climate Agreement Pullout,” Guardian, June 2, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/02/euro-

pean-leaders-vow-to-keep-fighting-global-warming-despite-us-withdrawal. 151 European Commission, “EU Climate Action and the European Green Deal,” accessed April 9, 2021, https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/eu-climate-action_en 152 Eric Bradner, Betsy Klein, and Christopher Hickey, “Biden Targets Trump’s Legacy with First-Day Executive Actions.” CNN, January 20, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/20/politics/executive-actions-biden/index.html. 153 The White House, “Executive Order on Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis,” January 20, 2021. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/20/executive-order-protecting-public-health-and-environment-and-restoring-science-to-tackle-climate-crisis/. 154 Chatham House, “Impact of the U.S. Election on Global Climate Politics,” November 25, 2020, https://www. chathamhouse.org/events/all/research-event/impact-us-election-global-climate-politics. 155 Ibid. 156 Ursula von der Leyen, “The European Green Deal – Our New Growth Strategy.” European Commission, December 11, 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ac_19_6745. 157 European Commission, “The Just Transition Mechanism: Making Sure No One is Left Behind,” https://ec.europa. eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/actions-being-taken-eu/just-transition-mechanism_en. 158 Thomas Haahr and Natalie Kate Kontoulis, “Parliament Supports European Green Deal and Pushes for Even Higher Ambitions,” News: European Parliament, January 15, 2020, www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/pressroom/20200109IPR69902/parliament-supports-european-green-deal-and-pushes-for-even-higher-ambitions. 159 European Commission, “A European Green Deal: Striving to be the First Climate-neutral Continent,” https:// ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en. 160 Zack Colman, “Europe Threatens U.S. with carbon tariffs to combat climate change,” Politico, December 13, 2019, https://www.politico.com/news/2019/12/13/europe-carbon-tariff-climate-change-084892. 161 Olivia Lazard, “Climate Change and Europe’s New Geopolitical Role,” Carnegie Europe, October 27, 2020, https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/8305. 162 “La Doctrine Macron: Une Conversation Avec le Président Français,” Grand Continent, November 16, 2020, https://legrandcontinent.eu/fr/2020/11/16/macron/. 163 Richard Maher, “Europe’s Far-Right Parties Got a Boost from Trump, but Will They Govern?,” Conversation, February 19, 2017, https://theconversation.com/europes-far-right-parties-got-a-boost-from-trump-but-will-theygovern-72319; Gregor Aisch, Adam Pearce, and Bryant Rousseau, “How Far Is Europe Swinging to the Right?,” New York Times, October 23, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/05/22/world/europe/europe-rightwing-austria-hungary.html; Thomas Greven, “The Rise of Right-wing Populism in Europe and the United States: A Comparative Perspective,” Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, May 2016. 164 Chine Labbe, “Election Misinformation Isn’t an American Phenomenon - It’s Spreading across Europe,” Euronews, December 8, 2020, https://www.euronews.com/2020/12/08/election-misinformation-isn-t-an-americanphenomenon-it-s-spreading-across-europe-too-view; Joanna Kakissis, “Pro-Populist Media In Eastern Europe Promote Trump’s Baseless Voter Fraud Claims,” National Public Radio, December 4, 2020, https://www.npr. org/2020/12/04/941975495/pro-populist-media-in-eastern-europe-promote-trumps-baseless-voter-fraud-claims. 165 Yaroslav Trofimov and Drew Hinshaw, “Befriended by Trump, Populists in Europe’s East Brace for Change,” Wall Street Journal, November 11, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/befriendedby-trump-populists-in-europeseast-brace-for-change-11606156894. 166Amanda Morrow, “France’s Far Right Marine Le Pen ‘Absolutely Does Not’ Recognise Biden’s U.S. Win,” Radio France Internationale, November 11, 2020, https://www.rfi.fr/en/france/20201111-france-s-marine-le-pen-absolutely-does-not-recognise-joe-biden-election-win; Paloma Cervilla, “Espinosa de Los Monteros (Vox): ‘No Está Claro Que Trump Haya Perdido Las Elecciones,’” ABC España, December 9, 2020, https://www.abc.es/espana/abci-espinosa-monteros-no-esta-claro-trump-haya-perdido-elecciones-202012091043_noticia.html. 167 Gergely Szakacs, “Hungary’s Orban Congratulates Biden as His ‘Plan A’ for Trump Win Flops,” U.S. News and World Report, November 8, 2020, https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2020-11-08/hungarys-orbancongratulates-biden-as-his-plan-a-for-trump-win-flops; “Matteo Salvini ‘Waiting for Results’ of U.S. Election,” Il Globo, November 11, 2020, https://ilglobo.com/en/news/matteo-salvini-waiting-for-results-of-us-election-55582/. 168 Joanna Kakissis, “Pro-Populist Media In Eastern Europe Promote Trump’s Baseless Voter Fraud Claims,” National Public Radio, December 4, 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/12/04/941975495/pro-populist-media-in-eastern-europe-promote-trumps-baseless-voter-fraud-claims. 169Adam Payne, “Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban Endorses Trump and Denounces the ‘Moral Imperialism’

of the Democrats,” Business Insider, September 21, 2020, https://www.businessinsider.com/viktor-orban-endorses-trump-denounces-moral-imperialism-of-democrats-2020-9; Kakissis, “Pro-Populist Media In Eastern Europe Promote Trump’s Baseless Voter Fraud Claims.” 170 Miguel Ángel Belloso, “Por Qué Detesto a Biden,” Ok Diario, November 9, 2020, https://okdiario.com/opinion/ que-detesto-biden-6396297. 171 Steven Erlanger, “European Populists Who Looked to Trump Now Look Away,” New York Times, January 13, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/world/europe/trump-europe.html. 172 Heather Ashby, “Far-Right Extremism Is a Global Problem.” Foreign Policy, January 15, 2021,

https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/15/far-right-extremism-global-problem-worldwide-solutions/.

173 Elizabeth Dwoskin and Craig Timberg, “Misinformation Dropped Dramatically the Week After Twitter Banned Trump and Some Allies,” Washington Post, January 16, 2021,

https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/16/misinformation-trump-twitter/.

174 Lawrence Hurley, “U.S. Supreme Court Dumps Last of Trump’s Election Appeals,” Reuters, March 8, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-court-election-idUSKBN2B01LE. 175 James F. Downes, Edward Chan, Venisa Wai, and Andrew Lam, “Understanding the ‘Rise’ of the Radical Left in Europe: It’s Not Just the Economy, Stupid.” Democratic Audit, July 12, 2018, https://www.democraticaudit. com/2018/07/12/understanding-the-rise-of-the-radical-left-in-europe-its-not-just-the-economy-stupid/. 176 Partido Comunista de España, “Ante el Asalto al Capitolio: Solidaridad con las Fuerzas que Combaten a la Extrema Derecha en EEUU,” January 7, 2021, https://pce.es/ante-el-asalto-al-capitolio-solidaridad-con-las-fuerzas-quecombaten-a-la-extrema-derecha-en-eeuu/. 177 Fabien Roussel, (@Fabien_Rssl), “Avec la Victoire annoncée de @JoeBiden, il y a la Victoire de 28 des 37 candidat.es du mvt DSA Socialiste Démocrate d’Amérique,” Twitter Post, November 7, 2020, https://twitter.com/ Fabien_Rssl/status/1325119330535821312. 178 Kimberly Amadeo, “Brexit Consequences for the U.K., the EU, and the United States,” Balance, March 12, 2020, https://www.thebalance.com/brexit-consequences-4062999#consequences-for-the-united-states. 179Anne, Damiani, “A Stronger and Self-Reliant European Industry Through New Inputs, Innovation,” Euractiv, July 13, 2020, https://www.euractiv.com/section/circular-economy/news/a-stronger-and-self-reliant-european-industry-through-new-inputs-innovation/. 180 European Commission, “Commission Takes Further Steps to Foster the Openness, Strength and Resilience of Europe’s Economic and Financial System,” https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_108. 181 Ibid. 182 Ibid. 183 David Whineray, “Trump Has Irrevocably Changed American Relations With Europe-and Biden Probably Can’t Fix It,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 6, 2020, www.carnegieendowment.org/2020/05/06/ trump-has-irrevocably-changed-american-relations-with-europe-and-biden-probably-can-t-fix-it-pub-81739. 184 Kenneth Rapoza, “Antony Blinken: End Europe Trade War, Sanction China Over Hong Kong,” Coalition for a Prosperous America, November 23, 2020, https://www.prosperousamerica.org/anthony_blinken_end_europe_trade_ war_sanction_china_over_hong_kong 185 “The Folly of Buying Local: Buy American Is an Economic-Policy Mistake,” Economist, January 30, 2021, https://www.economist.com/leaders/2021/01/30/buy-american-is-an-economic-policy-mistake. 186 Evan Fallor, “US-EU Trade Deal Seen Remote Even If Biden Occupies White House in 2021,” S&P Global Market Intelligence, October 19, 2020, https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/us-eu-trade-deal-seen-remote-even-if-biden-occupies-white-house-in-2021-60606405. 187 Steven Erlanger, “Will the Sudden E.U.-China Deal Damage Relations With Biden?” New York Times, January 6, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/world/europe/eu-china-deal-biden.html. 188 Hans Von Der Burchard, “Merkel Pushes EU-China investment deal over the finish-line despite criticism,” Politico, December 29, 2020, https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-china-investment-deal-angela-merkel-pushes-finish-line-despite-criticism/. 189 “Europe should ‘go big’ on fiscal policy too,” Financial Times, February 22, 2021, https://www.ft.com/content/44657614-8107-479d-b2c2-1d49b0ea58eb. 190 Laurens Cerulus, “France identifies Russia-linked hackers in large cyberattack,” Politico, February 15, 2021, https://www.politico.eu/article/france-cyber-agency-russia-attack-security-anssi/. 191Ahn Thu Ngyuen, “Macron’s Call for a European Army: Still Echoing or Forgotten?” European Law Blog, June 22, 2020, https://europeanlawblog.eu/2020/06/22/macrons-call-for-a-european-army-still-echoing-or-forgotten/.

192 Mar Leonard and Jeremy Shapiro, “Sovereign Europe, Dangerous World: Five Agendas to Protect Europe’s Capacity to Act,” European Council on Foreign Relations, December 1, 2020, https://ecfr.eu/publication/sovereign-europe-dangerous-world-five-agendas-to-protect-europes-capacity-to-act/. 193 Christina Wilkie, “Trump is Pushing NATO Allies to Spend More on Defense. But So Did Obama and Bush,” CNBC, July 11, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/07/11/obama-and-bush-also-pressed-nato-allies-to-spend-moreon-defense.html 194 Steven Erlanger, “European Defense and ‘Strategic Autonomy’ Are Also Coronavirus Victims,” New York Times, May 23, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/23/world/europe/defense-autonomy-europe-coronavirus.html?searchResultPosition=17. 195 Leonard and Shapiro, “Sovereign Europe, Dangerous World.” 196 Ibid. 197 Ulrich Speck, “The Consequences of a Trump or Biden Win for European Security,” German Marshall Fund of the United States, October 9, 2020, https://www.gmfus.org/publications/consequences-trump-or-biden-win-european-security. 198 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, “Top Five Russian Myths Debunked,” July 2018, https://www.nato.int/nato_ static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2018_07/20180702_1807-russia-top5-myths-en.pdf. 199 “The World is Facing an Upsurge of Nuclear Proliferation,” Economist, January 30, 2021, https://www.economist. com/leaders/2021/01/30/the-world-is-facing-an-upsurge-of-nuclear-proliferation. 200 Leonard and Shapiro, “Sovereign Europe, Dangerous World.” 201 Ibid. 202Matthew Karnitschnig, “What Biden means for Europe” Politico, November 8, 2020, https://www.politico.eu/ article/what-joe-biden-means-for-europe/.in 203 Robin Wright, “The Seven Pillars of Biden’s Foreign Policy,” New Yorker, November 11, 2020, https://www. newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-seven-pillars-of-bidens-foreign-policy. 204 Speck, “The Consequences of a Trump or Biden Win for European Security.”

Contributors

Authors

Enzo Ambrose

Catharina Brunner-Lopez Emilia Castelao

Emma Dudrick

Will Forsen Katherine Huffert

Genevieve Klien

Madison Kranz

Victoria Kuprewicz

Grace Ma Ryan Merrigan

Sophia Michetti

Nora Murphy

Maggie O’Brian Bridget Paulmann Grace Rozembajgier

Meilin Scanish

Gavin Shust

Joseph Speicher

Interviewees

André Azevedo Alves, reader in economics political economy and public policy at St. Mary’s

University, Twickenham, London

Heinz Gärtner, academic director,Austrian Institute for International Affairs

Lívia Franco, professor and senior researcher at the Institute for Political Studies at the Catholic

University of Portugal (IEP-UCP) and associate researcher at the European Council on Foreign Relations

Merrick Tabor, professor of political science, Stockholm University

Niels Bjerre-Poulsen, associate professor, Institute for American Studies, University of Southern

Denmark

William Collins Donahue, Rev. John J. Cavanaugh, C.S.C., Professor of the Humanities; director, Initiative for Global Europe, Keough School of Global Affairs

Advising Team

Anna Dolezal, student programs assistant manager, Nanovic Institute for European Studies

Clemens Sedmak, interim director, Nanovic Institute for European Studies and professor of

social ethics

Maggie Shum, research and program associate, Global Policy Initiative

Editorial Support

Katherine Bennett, writing skills coordinator, Masters in Global Affairs, Keough School of Global Affairs

Jennifer Lechtanski, graphic designer, Nanovic Institute for European Studies Gráinne McEvoy, communications specialist, Nanovic Institute for European Studies

Grant Osborn, assistant director, Nanovic Institute for European Studies