Identification guide to birds in the hand

III

Acknowledgements .........................................IV Introduction.....................................................V 1. Presentation ...........................................V 2. Important remarks about terminology ...VI 3. Methods of measuring ..........................VII 3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

3.4.

3.5.

3.6.

3.7.

3.8.

3.9.

Holding a bird ....................................................VII Wing length........................................................VII Length of P3/P4 ..................................................VII Wing formula ....................................................VIII Tail.....................................................................VIII Head and bill.......................................................IX Tarsus, toe and claw ............................................IX Other measurements.............................................X Body condition .....................................................X

4. General remarks on moult .....................XI 4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

Moult and plumage sequences ............................XI Moult codes ........................................................XI Moult types..........................................................XI Moult in Non-Passerines .....................................XII Moult in Passeriformes .......................................XIII

5. General sex criteria ..............................XV 5.1.

5.2.

5.3.

5.4.

Brood patch (BP) ................................................XV Cloacal protuberance (CP)..................................XV Measurements ....................................................XV Bare parts ...........................................................XV

6. General age criteria .............................XV 6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

6.4.

6.5.

6.6.

6.7.

Terminology .......................................................XV Apteria and pterylae ..........................................XVI Moult and feather appearance ..........................XVI Bare parts ..........................................................XVI In Anseriformes ................................................XVII In Waders .........................................................XVII In Passeriformes................................................XVII

7. References ........................................XVIII Anseriformes ..................................................19 Anatidae ........................................................................19

Galliformes ....................................................42 Phasianidae ...................................................................42

Gaviiformes ....................................................45 Gaviidae ........................................................................45

Podicipediformes............................................46 Podicipedidae ...............................................................46

Procellariiformes ............................................49 Procellariidae ................................................................49 Hydrobatidae.................................................................53

Pelecaniformes ...............................................55 Sulidae ..........................................................................55 Phalacrocoracidae .........................................................56

Ciconiiformes .................................................59 Ardeidae........................................................................59 Ciconiidae .....................................................................64

Accipitriformes ..............................................65 Accipitridae ...................................................................65 Pandionidae ..................................................................81

Falconiformes .................................................83 Falconidae .....................................................................83

Gruiformes .....................................................91 Rallidae .........................................................................91 Otididae ........................................................................97

CONTENTS Charadriiformes .............................................98 Burhinidae.....................................................................98 Recurvirostridae ............................................................99 Haematopodidae .........................................................100 Charadriidae ................................................................101 Scolopacidae ...............................................................110 Stercorariidae ..............................................................143 Alcidae ........................................................................147 Sternidae .....................................................................151 Laridae ........................................................................162

Columbiformes ............................................182 Columbidae ................................................................182

Psittaciformes...............................................186 Psittacidae ...................................................................186

Cuculiformes ................................................186 Cuculidae ....................................................................186

Strigiformes ..................................................189 Tytonidae.....................................................................189 Strigidae ......................................................................190

Caprimulgiformes.........................................198 Caprimulgidae .............................................................198

Apodiformes ................................................199 Apodidae.....................................................................199

Coraciiformes ...............................................203 Alcedinidae .................................................................203 Meropidae ...................................................................204 Coraciidae ...................................................................205 Upupidae ....................................................................206

Piciformes ....................................................207 Picidae ........................................................................207

Passeriformes................................................214 Alaudidae ....................................................................214 Hirundinidae ...............................................................220 Motacillidae ................................................................224 Bombycillidae .............................................................241 Cinclidae .....................................................................242 Troglodytidae...............................................................243 Prunellidae ..................................................................243 Turdidae ......................................................................245 Sylviidae......................................................................269 Muscicapidae ..............................................................314 Timaliidae ...................................................................321 Aegithalidae ................................................................321 Paridae ........................................................................322 Sittidae ........................................................................329 Certhiidae ...................................................................330 Remizidae ...................................................................332 Oriolidae .....................................................................333 Laniidae ......................................................................335 Corvidae......................................................................342 Sturnidae .....................................................................351 Passeridae ....................................................................353 Fringillidae ..................................................................357 Emberizidae ................................................................375

Bibliography .................................................386 Appendices...................................................387 Index of English names .................................389 Index of scientific names..............................391

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1. PRESENTATION

In order to limit the size of this guide, the species covered are the 301 most frequently ringed in Western Europe. This list is based upon the ringing totals, published online, for several national ringing schemes and certain ringing stations as well as figures from wildlife rescue centres. Some of the very largest species have been omitted as these are generally only ringed as pulli and are not likely to be encountered by most ringers. However, some vagrant species which are often caught, eg the majority of Siberian pipits and Phylloscopus warblers, are included. Similarly, species that are very infrequently caught but that could be confused with other species are included in this guide to enable accurate identification.

This guide is not intended to be an encyclopaedic work.

Only those important criteria used under normal ringing conditions and helpful in identification, sexing and ageing are included. Consequently not all plumage variations are described fully; average measurements are not indicated, etc.

Taxonomy, English and scientific names follow those lists published by the Association of European Records and Rarities Committees, corrected where necessary by the IOC World Bird List, the British Ornithologists’ Union, the BTO and the Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive.

The names of the orders appear before the first species of each order – or family within the order Passeriformes.

For each species the heading will include a variety of information (Fig 1). Passeriformes generally have 10 primaries (P1 vestigial), 9 secondaries and 12 tail feathers; this information is only given again in cases which differ from the rule. For other orders the number of feathers are those given by Cramp & Simmons (2011); other authors state that only members of the Genera Podiceps, Ciconia and Phoenicopterus have 11 primaries, all other European orders having 10 functional primaries, the vestigial P1 being sometimes considered as a modified covert. In order to avoid errors in interpretation, the relative size of P1 is indicated. The sex of adults involved in incubation and parental care is also given. The youngest age at which individuals return to the breeding areas and at which they may begin to reproduce is included for both non-Passerines and several Passeriformes (the majority of which can begin breeding in their second year). This information is only given for information to help with sexing and ageing when catching a bird at the nest.

The ‘Identification’ section is short for easily recognised species. This guide is intended for those who Fig 1 – Informations given within the heading of each species English name scientific name

already have a good working knowledge of ornithology so a well-illustrated field guide will enable identification of these ‘easy’ species. A direct comparison with the species giving rise to the greatest confusion should be the next step in identification (Fig 2). Aberrations in plumage, arising from melanism, albinism or leucism are covered in cases where they can resemble other species. The possibility of hybridisation is also included (not exhaustively), usually only for those cases known to exist in the wild. The possibilities of hybridisation and second intergradation (fertile breeding hybrids) are more common for species widely held in aviculture like many Anatidae and Fringillidae.

The ‘Measurements’ section quotes all measurements in mm. The units are not given if they follow a measurement without ambiguity. In the absence of any contrary indication, the data relate to species or sub-species found in Europe. Other than where indicated, the data are given for length, eg ‘wing’ = ‘length of wing’. If the measurement method is not mentioned in the text (eg ‘bill’), it is the most common method for this species or group of species (eg ‘to cere’ for raptors, ‘to feathers’ for waders, etc) and it is indicated in the table of measurements. Weight in g is quoted although it rarely helps with identification.

Extreme weights, eg emaciated individuals or females carrying eggs, are not included. The measurements are a combination of data from different sources coming from museum specimens or live birds. These data are not directly comparable: museum specimens tend to be up to 4 % smaller than live examples, particularly for wing length and bill length. A correction multiplier, variable according to species, can be applied to wing measurements from museum skins to compensate for the contraction of the dried tissue. The proposed multiplier is: preserved wing × 1.017 ≈ live wing but the regular use of a multiplier is not recommended. The size of the sample is not given but the accuracy of the measurements quoted is indicated by parentheses and square brackets: • those measurements based upon a small sample size must be used with caution: (64 - 68).

• extreme measurements: (61) 63 - 68 (70) [72].

The ‘Variation’ section – meaning ‘Geographical variation’ – looks at sub-species found in Europe or those that may occur as vagrants, and their distribution range.

They are briefly described or only mentioned if identification necessitates comparison with a series of individuals of known origin, eg museum collections, which is impossible during a ringing session. A more complete

within parentheses, synonyms still recently used

6 letter code if it can be confusing (see Table in Appendix 1)

NORTHERN GANNET Morus bassanus (Sula bassana) Gannet (GANNE) Incubation: F, M name recommended by the BTO

Ring: 16.0 SS (15.0) Parental care: F, M BTO 5 letter code

V

BTO ring diameter (see table inside back cover); figure in parentheses shows size commonly used by other schemes

SULBAS

WP = 2 3; 11 P (P1 reduced); 26 - 31 S; 12 TF Return to breeding grounds: 4Y? primaries forming the wing point

Fig 2 – Example of comparative table of species identification

(1)

1st breeding: 6Y/7Y

number of primaries, secondaries and occasionally coverts per wing (the number of secondaries includes tertials unless otherwise specified), and total number of tail feathers

characters on the grey background

European Serin Serinus serinus (2) Citril Finch Serinus citrinella are common to all species in the table (unless otherwise indicated) small ; yellow or yellowish rump - tail and PP without yellow ≠ 3 - tail and PP without yellow ≠3 - cheeks with a pale central spot ≠ 2 - cheeks and nape without pale spot ≠1 (3) Eurasian Siskin Carduelis spinus difference from other species in the table, () indicates that this criterion is not - tail sides and base of PP yellow ≠ 1 (2) serial number of species in the table (only if 3 or more species shown in the table)

absolute; “all” indicates that this difference is valid with all species of the table

VI

INTRODUCTION

treatment is given where field identification of a particular variant is possible, eg Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava. In the case of sexual dimorphism, the male in breeding plumage is generally described. The identification of sub-species can be subjective without a great deal of experience or reference material. The geographical names cited in this guide (except for continents, countries, oceans and seas) are listed in Appendix 2.

The ‘Moult’ section provides information on the dates and extent of the moult for juvenile/immature and adult: these dates are given only for information, considerable variations are possible. The term ‘moult from 07 – mid-08 to late 08 – early 10’ means that moult can start between the beginning of July and mid-August and can finish between end of August and the beginning of October. A good understanding of the progression of moult is indispensable for ageing (chapter 4). Some figures show the extent of the moult period for certain species (Fig 3). In cases where the progression of moult is relatively straightforward, a figure summarising the major stages has been used (Fig 4). These simplified figures are intended as a visual support to the text, to which reference should be made for better understanding of the details.

to sex it (or vice versa). The order in which this occurs will vary according to species. This may appear confusing but is straightforward, eg it is probably easier to first age a Eurasian Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus before trying to determine its sex, whilst a Great Tit Parus major can usually be sexed before assessing its age. All the different criteria, used in ageing and sexing, do not have equal value: while some can be relied upon, eg moult limits within juvenile and postjuvenile feathers, others may be merely considered helpful, eg shape of feathers, presence of particular marks, etc. To base the determination of age/sex solely on a single criterion can easily lead to errors. Another common mistake is to transpose a criterion from one species to another, eg just because the colour of the iris of the Common Whitethroat Sylvia communis can be used to age an individual; it does not mean that the same is true for the Garden Warbler Sylvia borin. It is preferable to combine as many criteria as possible when ageing or sexing. If in any doubt, it is better not to record age or sex.

To take account of individual variation, terms such as ‘usually’, ‘often’, ‘sometimes’, ‘occasionally’, ‘rarely’ (in descending order of frequency), have been regularly employed. Although these make the guide less easy to read they reflect the great variety that exists in certain cases and also advise caution. Overconfidence can easily lead to mistakes in ageing and sexing.

The most significant references are given at the end of the book. Abbreviated references are mentioned after each species but not in the body text. General references dealing with a large number of species are not repeated after each species: eg Cramp & Simmons (2006) for all species, Svensson (1992) for all Passeriformes, etc. Linked references are included in those of the common species if a species is only treated in the identification table. If species is fully treated, references are given at the end of its description.

The complete reference list is available on the link <http:// ringersguide.e-monsite.com> For reasons of presentation the order of some sections is adapted to the requirements of each species, eg raptors or Anatidae. For each species account the scientific genus names are only given once. When another species of the same genus is referred to, this is indicated by an initial letter (except in cases of possible confusion). The full scientific name of a species is only used once in a description. Eg: PURPLE HERON Ardea purpurea IDENTIFICATION See Grey Heron A. cinerea.

Hybridisation possible with Grey Heron.

generally moulted sometimes moulted rarely moulted

Fig 3 Fig showing the extent of moult

complete moult may be possible

Fo r n u m e ro u s s p e c i e s o f Pa s s e r i f o r m e s, t h e ‘Pneumatisation’ section indicates whether this criterion can be used for ageing and until when (chapter 6.7.1).

The criteria for determining ‘Sex’ (Male then Female) and ‘Age’ (juvenile, immature, then adult) are generally presented by season, ‘Autumn’ and ‘Spring’, corresponding respectively to the periods that follow postjuvenile/postbreeding moult and prebreeding moult (as appropriate). Although the majority of juveniles hatch in spring, their plumage following postjuvenile moult is classed ‘1Y’ and logically placed in ‘Autumn’ (chapter 4.1 Fig 33).

In the absence of a prebreeding moult, the criteria used in autumn will generally remain valid in the following spring: thus, sequentially, ageing will follow ‘1Y - 2Y spring’ then ‘Ad’. In circumstances where there are no known differences between sexes or age groups, these sections are left empty. It is often necessary to first age a bird to be able Fig 4 – Fig showing the progression of moult 03 Juv – 2Y spring Ad

04

complete moult

05 06 Postjuv Postbreeding

07

08

if 2 lines overlap, the left-hand indicates the period during which moulting can begin, the right-hand indicates the period during which moulting may finish (in the absence of any contrary indication)

partial moult 09

10

11

12

Thick line: common case 01

? date not known with sufficient accuracy

change of calendar year marked by the grey months

02

Thin line: rare case

03

04 05 06 07 Prebreeding Prebreeding in this example, a single moult cycle is taken into account, the postbreeding moult beginning again in 06 is not shown

2. IMPORTANT REMARKS ABOUT TERMINOLOGY The principal parts of the body and details of plumage are illustrated inside the front cover. In other books, the fine circles of feathers or bare skin around the circumference of the eye are often designated respectively as ‘eye-ring’ and ‘orbital ring’. Both terms refer to the immediate area around the eye but are no longer used exclusively for the feathers or the bare skin, which can lead to confusion. To avoid ambiguity in this guide these rings are referred to as, ‘the periocular ring of feathers’ or ‘periocular ring of bare skin’. Occasionally the iris may have a different-coloured

ring within it and this is called the ‘intraocular ring’ (see inside front cover).

In this guide the numbering of remiges and greater coverts is always ascendant, from exterior towards interior, eg outermost primary = P1 (see inside front cover). This choice has been made because it is harder to find the innermost primary than the outermost primary and more so as the number of primaries can vary between different orders. Furthermore, in the majority of the ‘classic’ guides the primaries are counted descendantly

INTRODUCTION

for the study of moult, including those species that have an atypical moult, eg Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata, even if they are counted ascendantly for the wing formula. The use of both methods, at the same time, can be a source of error. Some very recent guides even reverse the numbering according to whether they deal with Passeriformes or not.

To avoid confusion, the number of flight feathers and the

VII

relative size of P1 are given in the heading for each species (Fig 1 page 5). The tail feathers are numbered from the interior to the exterior, eg TF1 = central tail feather.

The development of an abnormal number of flight feathers may occasionally occur, either asymmetrically or not. It is best to acknowledge this anomaly, particularly when studying moult or in the establishment of the wing formula.

3. METHODS OF MEASURING Whilst the choice of which measurements to take may be guided by the requirements of a particular study, the well-being of the bird must always come first. The degree of precision when taking measurements should only be what is necessary, not what it might be possible to achieve. For example, it is not necessary, or desirable, to measure the length of the bill to 0.01 mm just because digital callipers can give this level of accuracy; 0.1 mm accuracy is sufficient but nevertheless needed.

Measuring a bill with a ruler with an accuracy of 1 mm may not give the level of precision required to allow reliable comparisons. The method of measurement used should be recorded or data risk becoming unusable in the case of doubt being raised over its validity at a later date.

3.1. HOLDING A BIRD The recommended method for holding a bird is shown in Fig 5. In this position it is possible to take measurements of the wing, tarsus, bill and tail using the free hand. To measure the primaries (Section 3.3), the original procedure recommends holding the bird in the reversed grip (Fig 6).

To hold a bird in your ‘favoured’ hand, ie use right for someone who is right-handed, allows better feeling.

However this can make it harder to write down data. Many people therefore prefer to hold the bird in the left hand leaving the right hand free to manipulate tools and write.

The presence of 2 people is sometimes necessary when dealing with larger birds.

Fig 5 Standard grip

Fig 6 Reversed grip

3.2. WING LENGTH This is the distance between the carpal curve and the tip of the longest primary of the closed wing. This measurement cannot be taken if the longest primary is still growing, badly worn or broken; confirm which primary is the wing point (Fig 1 page 5). In this guide the length will always be that obtained using the ‘maximum chord’ method, ie wing flattened and stretched to correct for wing curvature (Fig 7).

A ruler with a ‘stop’ should be used. It can be very difficult to correct the curvature of the wing of the larger species; a metre tape can be used to measure the wing by following the natural curve. Accuracy: 1 mm. Tolerance: 0.5 - 1 mm.

Birds are rarely perfectly symmetrical and this can be appreciated by taking measurements on both sides.

However, the accuracy of the observer can be affected by having to change hands.

Juveniles often have a shorter wing than adults. A lengthening of the wing after the first complete moult can

thus be frequently observed and is quite normal. Four hypotheses are proposed to explain these differences: • the amount of food supplied during the breeding period is insufficient to allow juveniles to develop longer wings; • growing only a short wing could reduce the length of time before fledging (a time of greatest risk for juveniles) and gives the adults the possibility of starting a second brood more quickly; • a short, rounded wing, could be an adaptation giving rise to greater manoeuvrability; • the flight muscles may not yet be strong enough to efficiently control the full size wing.

On the other hand, among certain diurnal raptors the juveniles have a longer wing than the adults.

Fig 7 Measuring wing length

1 Wing in its natural resting position 2 Wing flattened, carpal joint pressed against the zero-stop of the ruler 3 Curvature corrected 4 wing stretched Fig 8 – Measuring P3 Passeriformes

2

P4

3

P3

1 4 pin

PC

P1

P2

3.3. LENGTH OF P3/P4 This section concerns the measurement of the 8th primary (counting from the innermost primary) being P3 for Passeriformes (10 primaries) or P4 for the majority of other species (11 primaries).

This method allows a comparison to be made between those measurements taken from live specimens with those obtained from museum skins. Contrary to widespread opinion it does not particularly reduce the differences in measurements taken by ringers of different levels of experience. Furthermore, sexual dimorphism between P3/ P4 can be less marked than that found between wing lengths. Finally, the first measurement is always shorter than any repeated measurements because of changes at the base of the feathers caused by the insertion of the pin (see below). For a large number of species of Passeriformes, the length of P3 ≈ 75 % of wing length.

The following applies to species with 10 primaries. Use a ruler with a vertical pin of about 1.4 mm diameter. The ruler must be supported firmly, eg on a table, and the original procedure recommends to hold the bird in the reversed grip (Fig 6; do not hold the ruler in the hand).

Hold the wing between thumb and index finger (Fig 8).

Gently open the wing and carefully push the pin of the ruler between P2 and P3 until it comes up against the fleshy part of the wing. P3 must be completely straight, the curvature being gently corrected. Do not push the ruler in with any excessive force (risk of injury) and make certain that the primary covert adjacent to the pin corresponds to the same primary. In the case of very small birds the pin can cause some lesions, as the space between 2 primaries

VIII

INTRODUCTION

is < 1.4 mm. A finer, unstopped ruler can be used instead.

Accuracy: 0.5 mm. Tolerance: 0.5 mm.

3.4. WING FORMULA A wing formula consists of measurements of the distance between the wing point and the other primaries (generally P2 to P8) and sometimes S1; as well as the length of any emarginations and notches. P1 is generally vestigial and its length is compared to the longest primary covert. Before taking any measurements, confirm the feathers are in good order (none in moult, broken, missing or supernumerary, etc.). Two alternative methods exist but only the firstdescribed, below, is used in this guide. a - distance between the point of each primary and the wing point (Fig 9). Hold the closed wing in as natural a position as possible against the ruler, maintaining a firm grip with the thumb and index finger near to the carpal joint, ensuring that the primaries do not move while being measured (Fig 9). Match the wing point to an exact cm line on the ruler. Note the number of this longest primary (Fig 10: 4 5) then read the distance between the wing point and the primary nearest to it and so on in order. This method has the advantage of being quickly completed and leads to a reliable representation of the pattern of the wing but it does not allow for a direct comparison to be made between live birds and preserved skins.

A method of rapid notation (Busse 2000) can be used when wing formulae are recorded systematically: if the wing point is not made by the outermost primary then place a 0 in front of the distance from the wing point for the distal primary (Fig 10: 02 for P3); if a distal primary is the same distance from the wing point as a proximal primary the use of 0 can be omitted (Fig 10: 5 – 5 for P2 and P7). Another method is to record all the information in tabular form, which allows the data to be better visualised (see Appendix 3): write 0 for the longest primary then note the distance from the wing point to each primary; use X for measurements not taken; the length of emarginations and notches can be added in additional rows for each primary.

Fig 9 – Hold primaries on the rule

Fig 10 – Wing formula measurement – P2 to P8

P8 P7

P2

P6 P3

mm 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

P5 P4 Quick notation: 45–02–3–5–5–7 Notation in table: P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Formula X 5 2 0 0 3 5 7 X X

b - total length of each primary. Each primary (except P1) is measured as described in chapter 3.3; P2 is measured by inserting the pin of the ruler between P2 and P3 and not between P1 and P2. The wing formula is calculated by subtracting the length of each primary from the length of the longest one. Compared to the first method the outer primaries can seem shorter while the inner primaries appear longer. The major drawback is that this method only gives the length of each primary without showing the relationship of one to another and notably fails to account for the gaps between the points of attachment for each feather. It takes longer, particularly for the less-experienced but does allow comparisons to be made between live specimens and preserved skins.

The size of notches or emarginations of the primaries is important information. They should be measured from the

tip of the primary to the place where the vane starts to enlarge (Fig 11) and not along the shaft.

The figures accompanying certain species show the principal measurements needed for the wing formula (see inside back cover). An example of a page on which to record wing formulae is given in Appendix 3. start of widening

Fig 11 Length of notch and Em of a P

3.5. TAIL Several methods can be used but they are not directly comparable, eg the standard method gives measurements < 15 - 20 % of the method measuring from the back.

Accuracy: 1 mm. Tolerance: 1 mm.

3.5.1. Standard method (Fig 12a) One of the points of a pair of fine-pointed dividers is inserted at the base of the tail between the 2 central tail feathers with the other point corresponding with the extreme end of the longest tail feather. This method is widely used for museum specimens. For live birds a ruler is placed under the tail, against the roots of the central tail feather, between the undertail coverts and the tail. The ruler must not be placed so that 2 tail feathers are straddling it as there is some doubt over the reliability of this measurement.

Fig 12 – Measuring tail length

12a – Standard method pin

12b – Alternative method

12c – Method from the back

3.5.2. Alternative method (Fig 12b) The alternative method requires a ruler fitted with a pin, which is slid against the roots of TF1, between the undertail coverts and the tail. The results obtained may be comparable with those obtained with the ‘from the back’ method (see below) but this remains to be verified.

Significant differences between observers using this method can be encountered.

3.5.3. Method ‘from the back’ (Fig 12c) This method is simple and quick but could cause damage to the preen gland. The body of the bird is held vertically while the tail is held at a right angle to the back. The unstopped ruler is placed firmly against the back (controlling the pressure with the ring finger and little finger on the abdomen); the tail feathers should be in contact with the underside of the ruler for their entire length.

3.5.4. ‘Roundness’ of the tail (Fig 13) The ‘roundness’ of the tail is the difference in length between the short outer tail feather and the longer central tail feather.

3.5.5. Tail streamers and forked tail (Fig 14) Tail streamers consist of a pair of tail feathers markedly longer than the others; they can comprise either the outer tail feather or the central tail feather. Left and right-sided streamers are sometimes asymmetric.

The forked tail is the distance between the short TF1 and the longest outer tail feather.

Fig 13 ‘Roundness’ of the tail

TF1 TF6

Fig 14 Length of tail streamers and forked tail forked tail TF1 - TF6

TF5 - TF6

TF1 - TF2

INTRODUCTION

3.6. HEAD AND BILL 3.6.1. Length of the bill (and head) Figures 15 to 18 show the principal measurements taken of the bill and the head, all these measurements are taken with callipers. Accuracy: 0.1 mm (1 mm for lengths > 100 mm). Tolerance: 0.3 - 0.5 mm.

The length of the head and bill is measured from the rear of the skull, making sure the callipers are parallel to the head-bill axis (Fig 15a). The length of the bill from the skull is measured from the small indentation in the front of the skull, hidden by feathers (Fig 15b and 16b), using the fine points of the callipers intended for measuring internal diameters. The callipers must be held vertically, if held horizontally the measurement will be too short (Fig 16a).

The length of the bill from the feathers is taken from the base of the most frontal feathers of the forehead, not from the tips of these feathers or from the feathers of the nostrils (Fig 15c). The length of the bill from the nostrils is measured from the distal or proximal edge of the nostrils but whichever is used must be made clear (Fig 15d). The length of the bill may sometimes be measured from the gape of the mandibles (Fig 15e).

Fig 15 Head and bill length

a b c d

a head and bill b to skull c to feathers d to distal edge of nostrils e to gape Fig 16 slight indentation on the Skull front of the skull seen from above a b

e

a calliper held horizontally; measurement too short b calliper held vertically; correct measurement

cere

Fig 17 Bill length to cere and bill depth at cere

length

depth

For raptors in particular, measurements of the bill are taken from the cere; this applies to both length and depth (Fig 17).

Certain parts of the body, particularly the bill, can develop abnormally, eg, as a result of genetic problems, an accident, a dietary deficiency, parasites, etc. If a mandible is broken the remainder can grow in an exaggerated fashion, often curving unusually. In such a case the measures obtained are clearly of no use for identification purposes.

3.6.2. Depth of the bill The measurement of the depth of the bill is less standardised than that for the length and it is important to state clearly at what point the measurement was taken (Fig 18). The proximal or distal edges of the nostrils are commonly used as reference points (always state chosen position clearly). The jaws of the callipers must be perpendicular to the axis of the bill to the bird. Do not apply any pressure and ensure that the mandibles are together in a natural way. Be particularly careful with waders, which can have very sensitive bills. For raptors see Fig 17.

Fig 18 Bill depth

e

d

c

b

a

a at the tip b at the gonys c min d at distal edge of nostrils e at feathers

3.6.3. Width of the bill and nail measurements (Fig 19) The measurement of the width of the bill is delicate because it is difficult to decide where on the bill to take the

IX

measurement (always state chosen position clearly). It can be taken at the gonys, at the nostrils or at the joint of the mandibles (take care with recently-fledged birds), or indeed at the point where it looks the widest. The reliability of this measurement may vary between observers.

In certain species (Anatidae, skuas, gulls…), the measurement of the nail may be useful.

Fig 19 Bill width and nail measurements

length of nail width of nail at distal edge of nostrils

3.6.4. Length of the crest (Fig 20) Fig 20 Crest The length of a crest is measured length along the axis of the longest feather, with a fine ruler, from the base of this the longest feather to its point. The feather must feather straightened be held flat and straightened if curved. and flattened 3.7. TARSUS, TOE AND CLAW Figures 21 to 24 illustrate the principal measurements taken of the tarsus and the middle toe. All these measurements, with the exception of the combined length of the tarsus and toe, are taken with callipers. The alternative method for measuring the length of the tarsus (Fig 21) is easier to use with a live bird than the standard method but the results are not entirely comparable. It is recommended that the wider parts of the callipers jaws are used rather than the tips (Fig 21). Unless otherwise stated in the ‘Measurements’ section, the toe length is the length of middle toe with claw. Accuracy: 0.1 mm. Tolerance: 0.3 0.5 mm.

The measurement of the tarsus and longest toe combined (Fig 24) is easier to take than the length of the tarsus alone and is frequently used for waders. Accuracy: 0.5 mm.

Tolerance: 0.5 mm.

Other measurements can be taken of the toes and the claws (Fig 25). These measurements are taken by placing Fig 21 – Tarsus length

toes held perpendicularly to the tarsus

last undivided scale before the articulation of middle toe

Standard method Tarsus depth measured at the middle of the tarsus in the antero-posterior direction

Alternative method Fig 22

Fig 24 Tarsus and middle toe length with a ruler with a zero-stop Fig 25 Various measurements on the toes and the claws

Fig 23 Claw length

Toe length from the last undivided scale to the base or tip of the claw

from the skin to the tip

from the back of the tarsus to the tip of the middle toe without the claw

hind toe

inner toe e

c

middle toe

d a

b a length of hind toe and middle toe without the claws b length of hind toe and middle toe with the claws c ventral length of the claw d cushion length of the inner toe, from the notches separating the toe cushions from the foot cushion to the base of the claw e distance between the tip of the claw of the inner toe and the ventral base of the claw of the middle toe

X

INTRODUCTION

the foot flat on a ruler, straightening the toes and keeping the claws in the same axis as their associated toes. These measurements can be difficult to take accurately and practice is recommended.

The tarsus is generally shorter in adults than juveniles because of a reduction in the amount of cartilage during ossification of the tarsus.

3.8. OTHER MEASUREMENTS Those measurements that are only used for certain species are described within those species accounts.

Fig 26 Wingspan

a b

a wingspan b half-wingspan

Fig 27 Forearm length

Fig 28 Measurement of a feather

a

length a from the tip of the calamus b from the base of the web b width at x mm of the tip

with a ruler with a zero-stop from the folded carpal joint to the elbow (proximal edge of ulna)

Fig 29 – Head width – with a calliper a in the widest area in the ear-C area behind the eyes b above eyes a Fig 30 – Measurement of sternum b

furcular depression

base of sternum

Wingspan is measured by placing the back of the bird on a ruler and spreading the wings perpendicular to the body, the leading edges of the two wings being nearly in line (Fig 26). The half-wingspan is measured from the centre of the back. The length of the forearm is used for certain raptor and skua species (Fig 27). The width of a feather is measured at a certain distance from the tip (Fig 28). The length of a feather may be measured from the tip of the calamus or the base of the web (Fig 28). The measurement of head width is used eg for sexing Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus, ageing Guillemots Uria aalge or to distinguish Common Swifts Apus apus and Pallid Swifts A. Pallidus (Fig 29). The length of the central part of sternum is Fig 31 – Waders Fat scores Meissner method

0

1

2

no visible yellow fat

furcular depression

measured from the base of the sternum to the base of the furcular depression (Fig 30).

3.9. BODY CONDITION Fat reserves and muscles are the 2 main energy resources used by birds during migration. Fat deposits and development of the breast muscles are indicators of body condition of migrants.

3.9.1. Fat score Fat is recognised by its yellow colour contrasting with pinkish-red skin. Several scores occur, especially for Passeriformes, and are not directly comparable. It is always advised to use the scale which is advocated in the country in which the ringing survey is conducted.

A scale of 8 classes (Meissner 2009) is used for waders (Fig 31). Axillary deposit is located on top of the flanks under the axillary feathers; this area is an apteria where breast muscles are visible under the skin. Place the bird on its back in the palm of the hand. Consider first the axillary deposit, then the furcular depression, and choose one of 5 options A to E. • if A = code 0.

• if B = code 1.

• if C, blow the furcular depression; no fat = code 2; less than ⅓ of fat in the depression = code 3.

• if D, blow the furcular depression; fat fills ≈ ½ of furculum = code 4; fat in the depression flat or slightly concave = code 5.

• if E, blow the furcular depression; fat convex or at least flat = code 6; fat overflows the depression and reaches the abdomen = code 7. A code 8 could be assigned if the fat layer covers the entire abdomen and breast.

The difference of determination should not exceed 1 class value between 2 observers. The examination of the furcular depression in large species of waders can be difficult because of its depth; distinguishing between the codes 2 and 3 may then be impossible. Although designed for waders, this scale could be used, after validation, for other species, such as Rallidae or large Passeriformes such as Corvidae.

3.9.2. Breast muscles In individuals whose breast is not covered with a layer of fat, the shape of the pectoral muscles can be easily examined. A scale of 4 classes (Bairlein 1995) is estimated visually (Fig 32).

Fig 32 – Breast muscles (cross-section) sternum muscles body 0 sternum sharp, muscles depressed 3

≤ ⅓ of fat

1 sternum easy to distinguish but not sharp, muscles flat

2 3 sternum difficult sternum still distinguishable, to distinguish, muscles slightly muscles rounded rounded

4

5

≈ ½ of fat

depression fat filled but level, sometimes a small hollow in the middle

6

7

fat overflows depression fat convex and reaches abdomen or at least flat

hole

muscle

axillary deposit depression between the muscles

A no visible yellow fat

B a bit of yellow fat fills the depression between 2 muscles

C fat overflows depression between muscles but is still flat and does not fill the hole

D fat forms a convex cushion and fills the depression at least partly; muscles still visible

E fat forms a convex cushion and totally fills the depression; muscles not visible

INTRODUCTION

4. GENERAL REMARKS ON MOULT 4.1. MOULT AND PLUMAGE SEQUENCES Feathers wear and must be replaced by regular complete or partial moults, these may include respectively all the feathers or only some. Moulting is costly in energy so it does not usually overlap with migration or breeding. Main moult therefore normally occurs between completion of breeding and commencing autumn migration or after migration during the winter months (Fig 33).

Ageing in birds is strongly based on the state of moult as it progresses across the year. Various terminologies have been used. The one we use in this book is explained below (Fig 33) with EURING age codes for comparison. Another, more complex, terminology that focuses on the evolution of moult cycles is frequently used in North America.

4.2. MOULT CODES The Ashmole (1962) scoring system for moulting is used in this book. Each flight feather is scored from 1 to 5 (Fig 34).

For primaries, final score is calculated by adding the total of each feather (eg max score is 50 for 10 primaries).

• 0: old feather (V for very old feather).

• 1: old feather missing or new feather completely in pin • 2: new feather just emerging from the sheath, up to ⅓ grown • 3: new feather between ⅓ and ⅔grown • 4: new feather more than ⅔grown, but waxy sheath still at its base • 5: new feather fully grown with no trace of sheath at its base Fig 34 – Feather scores: codes 0 to 5 0

1

2

3

4

5 pin ⅓

emerging from the sheath

Fig 36 Conventional moult direction of moult (typical wing of passerine) PC P GC S

• Suspended moult (Fig 37): the moult is stopped before completion (2 generations of primaries), but will start again from the previously reached stage to complete the process.

• Arrested or interrupted moult (Fig 38): a moult which would normally have been complete but is stopped before completion and will not be resumed again later. In Fig 38, the 6 innermost primaries are moulted before stopping, leaving the 4 old outermost ones. When moult starts again, the 2 innermost primaries are renewed but not yet the 4 outermost ones (thus 3 generations of primaries occur simultaneously).

Fig 37 – Moult of P suspended

Fig 38 – Moult of P arrested

missing or in pin

new

An example is provided for 10 primaries (Fig 35): • P1 to P3 (outermost primaries) are old, code 0 • P4 does not reach ⅓ grown, code 2 • P5 is between ⅓ and ⅔grown, code 3 • P6 is greater than ⅔grown, with apparent sheath, code 4 • P7 to P10 (innermost primaries) are new, code 5 Following the methodology adopted in this guide, primaries are numbered ascendantly (see inside front cover), including moult study.

Fig 35 – Example of P moulting (10 P) Total: (3 × 0) + (1 × 2) + (1 × 3) + (1 × 4) + (4 × 5) = 29

arrested

stopped – resumed

⅔

worn

XI

A moult card is established by noting the moult code of each feather (see Appendix 3).

4.3. MOULT TYPES In most species, especially Passeriformes, moult of flight feathers is rather uniform, but some unusual kinds of moult may occur. When moult strategy of remiges and tail feathers differs from basic sequence, the specific sequence is given.

• Basic sequence (Fig 36): moult of primaries, greater coverts and primary coverts descendant (from inside outwards); moult of secondaries ascendant (from outside inwards).

GC10 is usually renewed after the others.

P1: code 0 code 0 code 2 code 3

resumed 6 inner P moulted, then moult arrested; next moult starts at the normal point of initiation

3 inner P moulted; moult resumed at the point of interruption and completed

• Partial moult: moult does not involve the whole plumage (different from a complete suspended or arrested moult).

• Eccentric moult: the renewal of the feathers starts from a central feather and moves forward in a single direction (generally towards outermost and in primaries only).

• Divergent moult (Fig 39): moult of remiges away from the centre in both directions.

Fig 40 – Moult of P in series

Fig 39 – Moult of P divergent

code 4 simultaneous moult of PC corresponding to P

moult of P starts at the P6 and progresses in both directions

If P1 is vestigial, it is often omitted.

code 5

moult of P starts simultaneously at the P6 and the P4

Fig 33 – Terminology of moults and ages complete moult partial moult Months 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv moult

Moults hatching Imm (year of hatching known) pullus

Juv

Ad (year of hatching unknown)

1Y +1Y

prebreeding postbreeding moult moult breeding 2Y spring 2Y autumn

prebreeding moult

postbreeding moult breeding 3Y spring 3Y autumn

+2Y

+3Y

EURING age codes – Simplified diagram for common cases (for definitions of EURING age codes, see inside back cover) Imm (year of hatching known) Ad (year of hatching unknown)

1

1J

3J

3 4

5

7

6

8

XII

INTRODUCTION

• Moulting series (Fig 40): moult of remiges starts simultaneously in 2 or 3 places. If the moult starts from 2 places and each series moves towards the other, it is called convergent moult.

• Simultaneous moult: all or nearly all the old remiges are lost simultaneously and new ones grow simultaneously.

• ‘Fright moult’: some species are able to suddenly lose a large amount of feathers, usually body feathers and tail feathers, under stress such as predator attack or capture. This appears to be a confusion strategy.

4.4. MOULT IN NON-PASSERINES Moult usually occurs twice in adults: one complete postbreeding moult and one partial prebreeding moult.

Primary coverts and primaries are generally renewed simultaneously, except in Piciformes (chapter 4.4.4).

Species belonging to some orders or families renew all their remiges simultaneously and are consequently unable to fly for several weeks: eg Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Anseriformes, Rallidae. In contrast, in some large species, remiges are renewed over several years.

Several examples are given below in 5 groups whose moult process differs strongly from the norm.

4.4.1. Anseriformes (simultaneous moult of remiges; Fig 41.1) In adult male, the complete moult leading to eclipse plumage begins in early summer. All remiges fall simultaneously (a few days). Bird is consequently unable to fly for several weeks, until new primaries have reached up to ≈ ¾ grown. When growth of primaries is complete (≈ 4 - 8 weeks), the new breeding plumage is acquired through the moult of body feathers and several wing feathers: tertials, scapulars… The 4 innermost greater coverts are usually acquired through the first moult (eclipse), and are not renewed in the second prebreeding one, leading to breeding plumage in adults differing from first-year birds.

Adult female moult is similar to adult male, but moult leading to eclipse plumage starts after offspring disperse and is consequently delayed by 1 to 2 months compared to male. The moult leading to breeding plumage is very slow and may last until breeding in the following year.

In some cases, adults are unmoulted in autumn: they are easy to distinguish from first-year birds by their very worn feathers. First-year males generally acquire breeding

appearance right from first autumn but still keep the juvenile type wing.

How to define the various moult types remains controversial. In this book, we followed the classical approach: moult leading to eclipse plumage = postbreeding moult; moult leading to breeding plumage = prebreeding moult. An alternative approach saying that plumage colouration should not be used to define various moults suggests opposite definitions.

4.4.2. Accipitriformes (series of slow moult of remiges; Fig 41.2) Moult of females usually begins before that of the males and strongly overlaps with breeding.

Large diurnal raptors moult continuously throughout the year, but suspend flight feather renewal during migration and parental care. Complete remiges renewal takes several years. Primary moult is descendant, in regular series in juveniles but irregular in adults (Fig 42). Secondary moult is ascendant from S1 and S5, and divergent or descendant from the third centre, the longest inner secondary. Moult centre from S5 may be due to the loss of S5 during evolution, although GC5 remains. This phenomenon is called ‘diastataxy’.

Small raptor species display a single annual complete moult, starting in spring-summer and ending in late autumn.

Primary moult is descendant; secondary moult is similar to most large species.

Fig 42 – Accipitriformes – Example of moult P1 not shown P moult in descendant series.

S moult ascendantly from S1 and S5, and divergently or descendantly from the 3rd center of the longest inner S S

P

4.4.3. Falconiformes Primary moult is divergent, starting from P7 and P8, usually according to the following sequence: P7 (P8 – P6) – P8 (P7) – P6 (P8) – P9 – P5 – P4 – P10 – P3 – P11 – P2 (Fig 43). Secondary moult is generally divergent from the Fig 43 – Falconiformes Typical moult sequence of P P1 not shown darker = moulted 1st lighter = moulted last

Fig 41 – Sequence of moults and ages – 1st winter 2nd winter 3rd winter Non-Passerines 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 complete postjuv moult to breeding postbreeding moult to postbreeding moult to moult moult plumage moult breeding plumage moult breeding plumage Example 1 partial hatching breeding breeding Anseriformes moult (Anas sp) pullus juv 1Y 2Y spring Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y) Ad (+1Y) look imm

juv wing retained

eclipse

P moult simultanenous

eclipse P moult simultanenous

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv postbreeding moult moult breeding hatching

Example 2 Accipitriformes (Common Buzzard Buteo buteo)

Example 3 Waders (Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus)

pullus juv – 1Y 2Y spring moult of contour feathers and C

2Y autumn P moult

3Y spring Ad P moult suspended or arrested

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv prebreeding postbreeding prebreeding postbreeding moult moult moult moult moult hatching breeding pullus juv 1A 2Y spring Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y) Ad (+1Y) moult suspended, resumed and completed in the winter quarters 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv postbreeding postbreeding moult moult moult hatching breeding breeding pullus juv 1Y 2Y spring Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y) Ad (+1Y)

Example 4 Picidae (Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major)

moult as soon as fledging, almost complete

INTRODUCTION

median secondary. It often starts during the breeding period and may be suspended during parental care and/or postbreeding migration.

4.4.4. Waders (Fig 41.3) Usually, adults moult twice a year: one complete postbreeding (mainly from 08 to 11) and one partial prebreeding (mainly from 01 to 04). Juveniles display either a single postjuvenile partial moult (mainly from 09 to 11), or both a postjuvenile partial moult and a partial prebreeding moult. Second-year birds often start moulting early in spring, thus an individual with a complete non-breeding plumage from 07 – 08 is probably a second-year bird.

Moult generally begins from P11; the loss of 5 or 6 inner primaries is very fast and the following ones fall when inner feathers have grown again. When half the primaries have been renewed, secondary moult starts ascendantly. Tertials are renewed shortly after. In many species, most inner secondaries are then renewed and moult progresses in both directions from the centre of secondaries, otherwise secondary moult is ascendant from S1 and S5, and descendant from tertials. Tail feathers are renewed during secondary moult. Tertials are often renewed a second time during partial body moult.

Moult of remiges may progress in one of three ways: • adults display a complete moult during autumn or winter depending on the date, the period and the extent of migration.

• in many Nordic species, adults start moulting in breeding sites, then suspend and end it in wintering sites (Fig 44).

Only the largest species, especially Eurasian Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus, sometimes arrest the moult of outer primaries (these are retained for 2 years).

• some first winter migrants to the Southern hemisphere may only moult outer primaries and inner secondaries, mostly in wintering sites (Fig 44). A complete descendant Fig 44 – Extent of P moult – Late winter – spring P1 not shown 2Y spring fresh outer P often contrasting with the worn inner P juv

moulted during the 1st winter

Ad

in autumn, retained outer P more worn than inner P; in spring, outer P a little fresher than inner P, all the P are a little worn

moulted before suspension for migration

moulted in winter after suspension

XIII

moult of primaries may also be observed in first winter birds. Juvenile wing feather moult, especially of coverts and tertials, is delayed in immature birds so wear allows accurate ageing.

Atypically, for some unexplained reason, breeding plumage may be acquired in autumn or early winter in several species. An infirmity may also handicap a bird sufficiently to affect the moult cycle: breeding plumage may consequently be kept in whole or in part.

4.4.5. Picidae (asynchronous moult of primary coverts; early postjuvenile moult; Fig 41.4) Adult moult is complete and occurs in summer, ending in autumn – early winter. Moult of primary coverts is not synchronised with corresponding primaries and odd primary coverts are sometimes retained. Secondary moult is divergent from S8 and ascendant from S1. Tail feathers are renewed from TF2 to TF5 and then TF1 (timing of moult may vary for TF6).

Postjuv moult is nearly complete (Fig 45) and starts shortly after fledging or even in the nest. Primaries are moulted descendantly but only some outer primary coverts (or none) are renewed. Secondaries, tertials and all or part of alula and greater coverts are usually retained.

Fig 45 – Picidae – Example of postjuv moult Moult of P, all or some LC and MC, sometimes some inner GC, part of alula and some outer PC. Contrast between: MC/GC, inner/outer GC, inner/outer PC generally moulted all or some moulted sometimes moulted The double arrows show where to look for contrasts and the moult limits

4.5. MOULT IN PASSERIFORMES 4.5.1. The 4 main types of moult (Fig 46) • Type 1: juvenile and adult complete moult in summer (Fig 46.1) This generally concerns sedentary birds. The following species and families are concerned: all Alaudidae, Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis, Moustached Warbler Acrocephalus melanopogon, Bearded Reedling Panurus biarmicus, Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus, and all Sturnidae, all Passeridae and Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra. Juveniles of migratory populations of Fringillidae may moult completely or almost, as well as a small proportion of Hirundinidae and Sylviidae.

Fig 46 – Sequence of moults and ages – 1st winter 2nd winter 3rd winter Passerines 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 complete postjuv postbreeding postbreeding moult Type 1 moult moult moult breeding breeding partial (House Sparrow hatching moult Passer domesticus) pullus juv age unknown Ad (+1Y) age unknown Ad (+1Y) age unknown 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv postbreeding postbreeding Type 2 moult moult moult breeding breeding (Eurasian Blue Tit hatching Cyanistes caeruleus) pullus juv 1Y 2Y spring Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y) Ad (+1Y) 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv prebreeding postbreeding prebreeding postbreeding Type 3 moult moult moult moult moult (Meadow Pipit hatching breeding breeding Anthus pratensis) pullus juv 1Y 2Y spring or Ad (+1Y) Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y or +1Y) Ad (+1Y) 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 postjuv prebreeding postbreeding prebreeding postbreeding moult moult moult moult moult breeding breeding hatching pullus juv 1Y 2Y spring or Ad (+1Y) Ad (+1Y) Ad spring (+2Y or +1Y) Ad (+1Y)

Type 4 (Eurasian Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus)

XIV

INTRODUCTION

Birds are easy to age before complete moult because structure and colouration of juvenile plumage differs strongly from old plumage, which is very abraded and bleached in adults. Ageing after complete moult is not possible, unless some juvenile feathers have been retained.

• Type 2: juvenile partial moult in summer (Fig 47); adult complete moult in summer (Fig 46.2) During summer, birds displaying active moult of median coverts, greater coverts and tertials and/or regular moult of tail feathers but without any sign of moult in remiges are first-year individuals. Nevertheless, in several species, firstyear birds may moult innermost secondaries and/or some primaries. Partial primary moult is usually eccentric and does not start from P10 but from a central primary (often P4 to P6) or may atypically concern the innermost primaries. Birds displaying this type of moult may be recognised as first-year because they do not moult primary coverts corresponding to primaries or do so irregularly, whereas moult of primary coverts and primaries is well synchronised in adult.

After the summer moult, the number of feather generation determines the age of birds: only one generation in adults but two (juvenile and postjuvenile) in first-year birds. This holds in the following spring until the summer moult even if it is less visible because of wear.

The position of moult limits within a set of feathers or among various sets may enable ageing of birds according to the extent of the moult (Fig 47).

It is noteworthy that some adults may atypically retain several old feathers or interrupt the moult, which could be confused with a juvenile moult limit. In this case, retained feathers, which are often the last to be moulted (S6, P2 and P1, and alula) are strongly abraded and bleached (contrast more obvious than in first-year birds).

• Type 3: juvenile partial moult in summer (Fig 47) and in winter; adult complete moult in summer and partial in winter (Fig 46.3) Ageing in autumn is possible according to the same criteria as type 2.

Ageing in spring after prebreeding moult: a – species with a prebreeding moult restricted to body feathers. As in autumn, wings of adults are composed of a single feather generation (postbreeding) whereas second-year birds display 2 generations (juvenile and postjuvenile). Moult limits within the wing are consequently visible although less obvious than in autumn, because of wear. b – species with a prebreeding moult including some coverts. Both second-year birds and adults display a moult limit in coverts and ageing is consequently usually impossible. An inspection of the feathers which have not been moulted during prebreeding moult (remiges, primary coverts, often outer greater coverts and tertials, occasionally median coverts and lesser coverts) may allow ageing according to their type: juvenile (only in 2Y), postjuvenile or Fig 47 – The double arrows show where to look for contrasts and the moult limits Example of little extended postjuv moult Moult of LC, some MC, 2 inner GC, the innermost T. Contrast between: LC/MC, inner/outer MC, inner/outer GC, inner/outer T Example of extended postjuv moult Moult of all LC, MC, GC and T, alula 1, S6 and P5.

Contrast between: GC/PC, GC/CC, alula 1/2, inner/outer S, moulted/retained P

postbreeding. Juvenile feathers are distinct from adult postbreeding feathers by their abraded and bleached appearance. Postjuv retained feathers are generally impossible to distinguish from adult postbreeding feathers.

Without juvenile feathers, ageing may be very difficult in some second-year birds. Prebreeding moult may be less extensive than postjuvenile moult, thus 3 feather generations may occur in coverts. This is typical of secondyear birds: eg for greater coverts, from inside outwards, prebreeding, postjuvenile and juvenile. The prebreeding moult process may be more complex with irregular sequences and mixed wear stages. In this case, ageing is not reliable, and it remains better to refrain from ageing. c – species with a prebreeding moult including some remiges. Some species can interrupt/suspend their postbreeding moult before autumnal migration and thus exhibit a moult limit within the remiges. During winter, adults usually finish the moult of remiges, but immature birds may also moult secondaries or primaries (mostly in an eccentric way).

Moult of remiges being highly variable, it does not constitute a reliable feature for ageing. In case of partial moult of primaries, the non-renewal of the corresponding primary coverts usually indicates an immature bird.

• Type 4: juvenile and adult partial moult in summer and complete in winter (Fig 46.4) All species exhibiting this type of moult are long-distance migratory birds wintering in the tropics. Postjuv partial moult is usually restricted to some of the body feathers (sometimes the coverts) or is absent. Postbreeding partial moult is similar, but may include some tertials and tail feathers, occasionally some secondaries or innermost primaries. Ageing in juveniles and adults remains easy before, during and after the partial summer moult because adults exhibit a worn plumage compared to juveniles (it is noteworthy that juveniles born in early spring may exhibit a worn plumage in summer). When a moult limit occurs, it is much more detectable in adults than in first-year birds.

Besides, only adults moult the remiges, except in Hirundinidae.

Ageing after the complete winter moult remains impossible, except in Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator where some second-year birds may retain some primary coverts, some secondaries and the innermost primaries.

It does not apply to Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus, or to Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus, adults completely moulting both in summer and winter; this also occurs in many Garden Warblers Sylvia borin and Pallas's Grasshopper Warblers Locustella certhiola.

4.5.2. Sequence of postjuvenile partial moult The following sequences are the most widespread, even if a large variability occurs. Postjuv partial moult of wing and tail is usually as follows: lesser coverts, median coverts, greater coverts and carpal covert, alula, tertials and tail feathers.

Moult of lesser coverts starts from proximal feathers. Lower row moults last and is often retained. Moult of greater coverts starts from GC9 (second after the innermost) and progresses descendantly; GC10 moulting last is often retained. Alula moult starts from the smaller feather.

Sequence of tertial moult is highly variable. Moult of tail feathers progresses from inside outwards (except in wagtails, Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata and European Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis). Usually, juvenile tail feathers are strongly abraded after only a few months or even after a few weeks.

The extent of postjuvenile partial primary moult is asymmetric between wings in approximately 60 % of cases.

During postjuvenile moult, moult of primary coverts does not occur simultaneously with corresponding primaries, which enables distinguishing first-year birds from adults, even in the case of suspended moult.

INTRODUCTION

Except in some rare species, all juvenile body feathers are renewed during postjuvenile moult.

In Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris and Spotless Starling S. unicolor, the shape and colour of juvenile tail feathers, throat feathers and mantle feathers differ from those of adult, this distinguishes immature birds from adults despite the complete postjuvenile moult.

4.5.3. Sequence of postjuvenile or postbreeding complete moult Complete moult starts from the inner primaries. Moult of tail feathers, secondaries and tertials begins after 4 or 5 primaries have been renewed. Tertials and tail feathers stop

XV

growing before P3 and P2. The latest feathers to grow are S5 and S6. Moult of greater coverts (except GC10) and carpal covert starts after the beginning of the primary moult, and finishes before (or almost) the beginning of the secondary moult. GC10 is renewed last. Lesser coverts are renewed at the beginning of the primary moult, median coverts during growth of greater coverts, alula and underwing coverts during the second half of the primary moult. Tertials are usually renewed in order T8 - T9 - T7 or T8 - T7 - T9. Body feather moult starts after that of primaries, with the head moulting last.

5. GENERAL SEX CRITERIA 5.1. BROOD PATCH (BP) Brood patch is a patch of featherless skin that is visible on the underparts, developed just before incubation in most species, usually located in the middle of the belly and/or on each side of the belly (eg waders; Fig 48). Ventral down is lost, revealing a reddish and wrinkled patch of skin with many blood vessels at the surface allowing improved transfer of heat to the eggs during incubation. A few days after hatching, brood patch starts to regress, becoming slightly wrinkled. Then revert to normal unless the species is multi-brooded.

Generally, only females exhibit a clear brood patch (but beware of rare species with reversed breeding roles), even species where brood patch also occurs in males, it remains less obvious than in females. This sexual feature seems to be reliable but, except in Passeriformes and Anatidae, information is often lacking and caution is advised.

Fig 48 Location of brood patches lateral brood patches

To facilitate manipulation, remain seated and keep the bird on its back between your legs, with the head pointed towards you. Open the bird’s legs and search for the cloaca with 2 fingers on each hand. Gently press the cloaca to open it and slowly massage from the centre outward until completely uncovered. Usually, this manipulation is quick, but sometimes cloacal examination remains uninformative.

5.2.2. In Passeriformes (Fig 49) Most passerines can be sexed during breeding season from the shape of the cloacal protuberance. In males, it looks bulbous, cylindrical, at right angle (or almost) with vent. In females, it grows gradually from vent and cloaca is more expanded. Nevertheless, only the most typical birds can be sexed from this feature.

M

Fig 49 – Cloacal protuberance F gradual slope bulbous, from the vent cylindrical

sides more parallel

enlarged at top

right angle (or almost) with the vent ventral brood patch

5.2. CLOACAL PROTUBERANCE (CP) During the breeding season, the cloaca swells and birds may exhibit a cloacal protuberance. During laying and the following days/weeks, females exhibit a distended cloaca, which is bigger than in males (see European Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus). This feature may be useful for sexing, especially in comparing both mates of a pair.

5.2.1. In Anseriformes Sexing Anseriformes according to the cloacal pattern is reliable, even in juveniles (page 19). However, it requires experience and care because the penis in juvenile males is hard to observe. Adult males exhibit a well-developed penis, measuring 50 to 150 mm compared to ≈ 10 to 20 mm long in juveniles. Observation of the penis involves uncovering the cloaca. In females, the opening of the bursa of Fabricius is observable in juveniles whilst the opening of the oviduct is observable in adults. In juveniles, cloaca is usually translucent but reddish and darker in adults.

cloaca more swollen

belly vent

5.3. MEASUREMENTS Sexual size dimorphism may sometimes be used to determine sex but it should be used with caution. Available data may come from a small sample size or the overlap may be large; aberrant individuals or migrants from other populations (see Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules) cannot be excluded. The comparison of both members of a pair should also be used with care, same sex pairs not being unusual. Only extreme measurements far from overlap range should be used for sexing. Moreover, combination of various measurements allows drawing up discriminant functions to classify individuals, eg: Following formula valid for adults in Spain (3 % error): male if 0.26 × head and bill + 0.35 x wing – 48.78 > 0 (implies female if < 0) Importantly, use of these formulae requires a sufficient sample with known sex and is only valid in a restricted area (eg seabird colonies). A formula should consequently be created for each study area or at least the validity of available formulae should be tested.

5.4. BARE PARTS See chapter 6.4.

6. GENERAL AGE CRITERIA 6.1. TERMINOLOGY To date there is no universally recognised method to record age, and every commonly used method is open to criticism.

Thus, it is advised to use the method which is advocated in the country in which the ringing survey is conducted. In this guide, age is determined following calendar years, ie from birth to 31 of December for the first year (1Y), from 1st of January to following 31 of December for second year (2Y) and so on

(chapter 4.1). The EURING age codes (Fig 33 page 11) are added in brackets after the headings of each paragraph of sections ‘Moult’, ‘Sex’ and ‘Age’. In the ‘Moult’ section, the EURING age codes 3/5 and 4/6 do not indicate that the birds can be separated into these ages following completion of the winter moult. They are used simply as shorthand to indicate ‘1Y autumn/2Y spring’ and ‘+1Y autumn/+2Y spring’. For ageing of species see data under the ‘Age’ section.

XVI

INTRODUCTION

The term ‘juv’ is applied to birds with a complete first plumage, before postjuvenile moult. Depending on the groups, this moult may start before fledging (eg Piciformes) or only during first winter and even following springsummer (eg some raptors). However, in Passeriformes; it is recognised that a juvenile has not started to migrate, which provides important information about its origin. If in doubt, ageing a juvenile as a first-year bird is advised. The limit between juvenile and first-year stages is recognised when at least 90 % of juvenile feathers which should be renewed during postjuvenile moult are replaced by postjuvenile feathers. The extent of postjuvenile moult is consequently important to consider, and a lot of information is given hereafter on this topic for each species.

Some exceptions must be considered: eg during eruptions, the Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major stops postjuvenile moult during migration, and thus exhibits traces of juvenile plumage for several months.

The term ‘1st winter’ (and following ones) is commonly used as it is not confusing. On the other hand, the term ‘1st summer’ (and following ones), which is applied to birds living in their second calendar year is not used in this guide. Seasons do not correspond to precise periods between fixed dates (eg from 21 of March to 20 of June for spring), but may be defined after the timing of moult if it occurs (Fig 33 page 11).

The term ‘imm’ is applied to every plumage between juvenile and adult stages and is characterised by the presence of juvenile and postjuvenile feathers simultaneously. The term ‘sub-ad’ is used to describe the stage before adult plumage without precise ageing (species which acquire their adult plumage through several years).

The ‘adult’ plumage is definitely acquired and does not change the appearance (or only slightly) with age and successive moults, except between seasons: breeding, nonbreeding and sometimes eclipse plumages.

The terms ‘imm’ and ‘adult’ are not necessarily linked to sexual maturity: in second-year spring, most Passeriformes can reproduce while they still exhibit juvenile feathers; conversely, long-lived species which reproduce later in age (some Procellariiformes or large raptors) may exhibit adult plumage before first breeding.

6.2. APTERIA AND PTERYLAE (FIG 50) Feathers do not uniformly cover the birds body but are grouped in pterylae (tracts) separated by apteria (bare skin) covered by downy semiplume feathers. Juvenile apteria are featherless, which is characteristic of this age class. Ventral apteria is obvious in juvenile Passeriformes, which is useful for ageing. Be careful not to mistake it with a brood patch: featherless abdominal skin of juveniles is uniformly smooth while brood patch skin is wrinkled and vascularised (chapter 5.1).

Shown from below

ventral apteria

Fig 50 – Pterylies Altricial fledgling

Shown from above

apteria pterylie

6.3. MOULT AND FEATHER APPEARANCE 6.3.1. Moult limits Ageing requires a good understanding of moult sequence (chapter 4). Appearance and wear of feathers, especially remiges, tail feathers and coverts usually allow determining their generation (juvenile, postjuvenile, prebreeding, postbreeding…). A contrast between various feather generations may be very useful for ageing.

Postjuvenile feathers are typically brighter, have more contrast and are longer (especially greater coverts) than juvenile corresponding ones. This is easier to distinguish if

a moult limit occurs within a set of feathers. Comparison of 2 sets of feathers is sometimes possible (eg postjuvenile greater coverts and juvenile primary coverts; Fig 47 page 14).

This contrast is less obvious under direct solar light. Juvenile remiges are shorter, narrower and more pointed than adult ones, except in large species, especially in raptors in which juvenile remiges are far longer than adult ones. During complete moult, S1 is usually renewed while primaries are already half-moulted (chapter 4.5.3), which leads to P1 being slightly more worn than S1 after moulting.

6.3.2. Growth bars (Fig 51) Feather growth, especially structure and colouration, may be altered by nutritional deficiencies. Irregularities are equally observable on all feathers growing simultaneously within a set. Two distinct types may be distinguished, depending on feather growth rate: • juvenile type: bars are located at a similar distance from the tip in each set of feathers (remiges, tail feathers and primary coverts), every feather growing simultaneously within a set; • postjuvenile type: bars are misaligned between feathers within a set, each feather growing sequentially.

Growth bars are obvious on tail feathers, but do not constitute a sufficient age criterion. Moult may occur simultaneously for all tail feathers in adults of some species; besides, unexpected accidental loss of tail feathers may occur. Some bars of postjuvenile type may be considered as an evidence of postjuvenile plumage.

Fig 51 – Growth bars Juv type

Fig 52 – Bare parts eye

bars at a similar distance from the tip in each set of feathers

bill

gape ornaments of skin (wattle, knob, bare skin)

6.4. BARE PARTS (FIG 52) Bare parts include all parts of the body which are not covered by feathers, like bill, gapes, eyes, legs, skin ornaments (crest, knob…).The following criteria are often variable and difficult to judge accurately, their use remains tricky. Besides, colour of bare parts may evolve over time. It consequently requires long experience of the species.

6.4.1. Iris colouration Iris colouration may vary with age, sex or season: generally duller and darker in juveniles than in adults and in females compared to males. Under strong light, pupils contract and iris pigments are consequently more spread, leading to a paler iris. Conversely, under low light, pupil dilation forces pigments to aggregate in a confined circle, leading to a darker and more colourful iris.

6.4.2. Bill colouration Bill is generally duller in juveniles than in adult, particularly in species with a brightly coloured bill.

Variation may also occur in adults between breeding and non-breeding seasons or according to seasonal diet.

6.4.3. Bill gapes (Fig 53) In juveniles, bill gapes are usually thick, dilated and may also be brightly coloured. However, this appearance does Fig 53 – Gape of bill Fledgling often thick, dilated and brightly colored

Fig 54 Tongue spot proximal spots tongue distal spot

lower mandible

INTRODUCTION

not last long after fledging and is consequently only usable for ageing for a short period. Moreover, some species still exhibit a slight gape into adulthood.

6.4.4. Tongue spots (Fig 54) In several species, dark marks may occur on the juvenile tongue (usually at the base). These marks fade during growth becoming absent in adults. Nevertheless, they may disappear at various rates, and may still occur in some adults.

6.4.5. Mouth colouration In juveniles, mouth colouration may be different from adults. However, an important inter-individual variability may exist within a given species.

6.4.6. Appearance of the legs Juvenile legs look soft and swollen; they are harder and thinner in adults, because of shrinkage of the cartilage during tarsus ossification. Juvenile appearance of the legs does not last long after fledging and is consequently usable for ageing for only a short period. Leg colouration may vary during growth but remains difficult to judge. Young of some species may take a different ring size to adults.

6.5. IN ANSERIFORMES 6.5.1. Penis size Males may be aged depending on the appearance and size of their penis (chapter 5.2.1 and page 19).

6.5.2. Shape of the feathers (page 19) Some new juvenile tail feathers exhibit down on their tip.

As it rapidly wears away, a V-shaped notch with bare shaft remains on the tip, this is particularly obvious for central tail feathers. This pattern is typical of juveniles, even though adults may exhibit tail feathers with broken tips (particularly in diving ducks), but in that case, they are without the bare shaft. Adults have wider and larger feathers (especially the coverts) with brighter and more contrasted colours. Juvenile outer coverts and remiges are usually retained until the complete moult occurring in the summer of the second-year.

6.5.3. Tertial coverts Innermost median coverts and greater coverts may be u s e f u l i n a g e i n g. T h e y a r e c a l l e d ‘ t e r t i a l coverts’ (chapter 6.6.1).

6.6. IN WADERS 6.6.1. Tertial median coverts (Fig 55) Inner median coverts are the most useful feathers to age waders, other than primaries (chapter 4.4.3). This group designated as ‘tertial median coverts’ includes the innermost coverts, right in front of the tertials, and sometimes some inner greater coverts.

MC

LC

Fig 55 Location of tertial MC in waders

tertial MC scapulars T

GC

S

6.6.2. Wear of wing feathers Coverts, scapulars, tertials and upper feathers often exhibit some pale areas (fringes, bars, marks...), which look buff or yellowish in juveniles but more white in adults.

Wear of these pale areas is a reliable feature to distinguish juvenile and first winter birds in many waders. Even if pale marks have been lost, the notches left still reveal the original pattern (Fig 56). A scoring system is used to quantify wear of primaries on 4 levels (Fig 57), allowing estimation of age and discriminates some populations with various moulting rates. Wear is noted as an exponent of the primary number.

Fig 56 Wear of light areas on the C new

moderately worn

XVII

heavily worn

Fig 57 – Wear codes of P

0= new feather, no visible wear, tip without any trace of wear

1= feather slightly worn, slight wear at the tip

2= feather clearly worn, small pieces of webs missing

3= heavily worn feather, webs worn to shaft

Example: 33 42 21 10 = • the 3 outermost primaries are strongly abraded, code 3 • the 4 following primaries are significantly abraded, code 2 • the 2 following primaries are slightly abraded, code 1 • the innermost primary is new, code 0 In juveniles, because all remiges grow simultaneously, outer primaries and tertials are most vulnerable and consequently most worn. In adults, wear is more uniform because inner primaries grow first and are several weeks older than outer. This is particularly obvious when the moulting process is slow. If moult is suspended, two stages of wear may occur (inner primaries renewed before suspension more abraded than outer ones; Fig 44 page 13).

In spring, there is a risk of confusion between adults which have finished the moult of primaries after having suspended it and immature birds which have renewed only the outer primaries during winter. Indeed, in both cases, outer primaries look newer than inner ones. However, in immature birds, inner primaries are more abraded than in adults, and wear is consequently more contrasted (Fig 44 page 13).

In autumn, before postbreeding moult, some second-year birds may easily be distinguished from first-year and adults (+2Y) by the pronounced wear of juvenile remiges, compared to the new plumage of first-years and stronger feathers of adults. Be careful of adults which have stopped the moult of outer primaries during previous winter and consequently exhibit much abraded feathers.

6.7. IN PASSERIFORMES 6.7.1. Skull pneumatisation (after Jenni & Winkler 1994) Skulls of Passeriforme fledglings comprise a single layer of bone. Later, a second bone layer is formed under the first one, linked by tiny bony struts, with air circulating between both layers. In European Passeriformes, complete skull pneumatisation (also called ‘ossification’) requires from 2 to 8 months depending on species. Thus, an incomplete pneumatisation is characteristic of juveniles (except in rare species in which adults exhibit incomplete skull pneumatisation like Eurasian Nuthatch Sitta europea, several Hirundinidae and Yellowhammers Emberiza citronella).

Unpneumatised parts with only a single bone layer (called ‘windows’) look pinkish or reddish and rather translucent while pneumatised parts appear milky white and dotted (dots are the points of attachment of the bony struts).

Identification is easier if the demarcation line where the two areas meet is visible.

Examination is conducted by keeping the bird in standard ringers grip. With a wetted index finger (using water is better than saliva to preclude risk of infection); the crown feathers of the bird are parted just beside the midline.

Blowing on the feathers may help to locate this line and may sometimes be sufficient for visual examination through bare skin but moistened skin is more translucent. Skin can be moved around to locate the demarcation line, but this

XVIII

INTRODUCTION

should be conducted with care to prevent internal bleeding. A strong light source like direct sunlight is required. Examination remains difficult during the moult of skull feathers. In some species like shrikes, Corvidae, crossbills and Hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes, the demarcation line is impossible to see because the skull is too thick.

Pneumatisation generally starts from the occipital region and finishes in the more frontal part of the head (Fig 58).

For most studied species, best dates for usable and reliable criteria are given, even if variability may occur in the progress of pneumatisation among individuals or depending on extrinsic factors (in regions where laying dates are earlier, pneumatisation may be complete before cited dates). Thus it is advised to only identify immature birds unless well experienced. Seven stages of pneumatisation are recognised (Fig 58), from stage 1 which denotes the unpneumatised skull roof to stage 7 which denotes the fully pneumatised skull roof. Further details are given for most species. ‘Reliable’ means that no first-year bird exhibits a fully pneumatised skull roof at indicated date. ‘Useful’ or ‘usable’ mean that if skull roof is not yet fully pneumatised at indicated date then this is a first-year bird. If skull roof is fully pneumatised, it may be a first-year bird or an adult. The progress of pneumatisation may vary; figure 58 shows the most widespread sequence.

Other orders have been poorly studied. In some cases, as it occurs in Phalacrocoracidae, pneumatisation is not age related but depends on skull size.

1

Fig 58 – The 7 stages of the pneumatisation of the skull in European Passeriformes – Main pattern unpneumatised, 4 looks red

unpneumatised skull

≈ ½ pneumatised

2

pneumatised, looks white

5 7

≈ ¾ pneumatised

≈⅓ pneumatised

1 or 2 small windows unpneumatised

Fig 59 Examples of TF shapes according to age Juv Juv Postjuv Postjuv juv TF narrower and more pointed, less pigmented, wearing more easily

6

3

• body feathers: juveniles shortly after fledging exhibit an incomplete plumage (pterylae are less developed and featherless areas occur for a long time), particularly in the belly (which looks like a smooth brood patch; chapter 6.2) and underwing.

• feather structure: juvenile body feathers are softer, more loosely textured, less structured and less pigmented than postjuvenile ones. They have fewer and more widely spaced barbs and barbules, especially on the feathers of the neck, the mantle and the undertail coverts and the flanks. In a few species, juvenile body feathers are of relatively firmer structure.

• general colouration: head, nape, mantle and belly are buff or yellowish coloured with poorly pigmented dark colours (remiges and tail feathers obviously darker and brighter in adults).

• bare parts: the appearance of bare parts may also help to discriminate, especially iris colouration, tongue spots, bill gape flanges (chapter 6.4).

Juvenile feathers are easiest to find in undertail coverts and nape. The last body feathers to be moulted are located in the vent, flanks and head, which are priority areas to detect juvenile signs.

6.7.3. Moult contrast A contrast between the various feather generations may be useful for ageing (chapter 4 and 6.3).

6.7.4. Shape of remiges, tail feathers and primary coverts Juvenile tail feathers and primaries are usually narrower, more pointed and less pigmented than adult ones (Fig 59).

Juvenile remiges and tail feathers are shorter, except P1 which may sometimes be longer than in adult. Juvenile primary coverts are also narrower, more pointed, more loosely structured and less brightly coloured than postjuvenile ones. As primary coverts are generally retained during partial postjuvenile moult, they may be useful for ageing. Variations being subtle, it requires experience and care in interpretation.

skull fully pneumatised

6.7.2. Characteristics of juvenile plumage Sexing and ageing correctly require that the bird has already conducted postjuvenile moult. For example, a juvenile Eurasian Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla may easily be mistaken for adult female: brown crown, no clear contrast in wing, new plumage. The juvenile plumage characteristics are given below:

6.7.5. Wear of flight feathers In species where a postjuvenile partial moult and a postbreeding complete moult occur, wear of tail feathers may be used for ageing, as juvenile feathers wear out more quickly than adult ones. Nevertheless, because all or some of the tail feathers may be renewed during postjuvenile partial moult, an adult appearance does not constitute a reliable age feature. An examination of the outer primary tip remains better: usually kept in good shape in adults (wear score 0; Fig 57 page 17) until at least mid-winter, while already worn (score 1 or 2) by the end of autumn in immature birds. Using this feature requires experience.

7. REFERENCES [Alatalo et al. 1984; Albu 1983; Anonyme 1981; Anonyme 1985; Ashmole 1962; Bagemihl 2000; Bairlein 1995; Baker 1993; Baldwin et al. 1931; Barrett et al. 1989; Barriocanal et al. 1993; Bauchinger et al.

2011; Bensch and Grahn 1993; Bostwick and Brady 2002; Busse 2000; Busse and Meissner 2015; CAF 2007; Cardoso 2008; Cornwallis and Smith 1963; Cramp and Simmons 2006; Crochet and Joynt 2015; Crochet et al. 2013; de Beer et al. 2001; del Hoyo 2015; del Hoyo et al.

1992; Drost and Helgoland 1951; Earp 1982; Eck et al. 2011; Ellrich et al. 2010; Engelmoer et al. 1983; Fjeldsa 1985; Froehlich 2009; Gill and Donsker 2015; Ginn and Melville 1983; Gosler 2004; Gosler et al. 1995; Grant and Grant 1992; Grantham 2011; Green 1980; Green and Theobald 1989; Grubb 1989; Harper 1994; Hogg 1980; Howell et al.

2003; Howell et al. 2004; Humphrey and Parkes 1959; Humphrey and Parkes 1963; Jenni and Winkler 1989; Jenni and Winkler 1994; Jiguet 2003a; Jiguet 2003b; Joubert 2000a; Kaiser 1993; Lindström and Nilsson 1988; MacFarlane et al. 2007; McCarthy 2006; Meissner 2009; Melville 1985; Miller 1915; Newton 2009; Pienkowski 1976; Pilastro et al. 1995; Pinilla 2000; Prater et al. 1977; Prŷs-Jones 1991; Pyle 2006; Pyle 2008; Redfern and Clark 2001; Sage 1962; Salminen 1983; Senar 2004; Smithe 1974; Stewart 1963; Stresemann and Stresemann 1966; Summers 1976; Svensson 1992; Tucker 1949a; Tucker 1949b; Tucker 1949c; Underhill and Zucchini 1988; Underhill et al. 1990; Winkler 1979; Winkler and Jenni 1996; Witherby 1920]

40

ANSERIFORMES – Anatidae

Anseriformes

COMMON EIDER Somateria mollissima Eider (EIDER) Incubation: F

Ring: 12.5 Incoloy (13.0 SS) Parental care: F

WP = (2) 3; 11 P (P1 reduced); (12) 16 - 18 S; 14 TF Return to breeding grounds: 2Y

IDENTIFICATION (1) Common Eider S. mollissima

1st breeding: (3Y) 4Y/5Y

(2) King Eider S. spectabilis excluding unmistakable breeding ad M - wing ≥ 255.5 ≠ 3 - coasts of Arctic except Iceland and Scandinavia - bill to feathers ≥ 40.3 ≠ all - wing ≥ 230 - appearance of head and bill (Fig 1) ≠ all - bill to feathers ≤ 39 - F ad Appearance of feathers of flanks (Fig 2) ≠ 2 - appearance of head and bill (Fig 3) - Juv Flanks finely barred - F ad Appearance of feathers of flanks (Fig 4) Fig 2 – Feather Fig 1 forehead in even line from - Juv Feathers of flanks all with dark centre and a pale fringe of flanks bill; triangular head shape featherings extend up to the proximal edge of nostrils pale bill straight gape, barely visible

Fig 3

± straight black line

forehead a little steep; crown a little flat

Fig 4 – Feather of flanks featherings extend little on the sides of bill, especially compared to nostrils and the feathers of forehead black line in V bill darker than head shape dark gape clearly curved towards the eye

(3) Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri - coasts of Arctic from Alaska to Taimyr, sometimes Norway - small and light; wing ≤ 238, weight ≤ 1000 ≠ all - bill to feathers = 35.2 - 43.7 ≠ (1) 4 - appearance of head and bill (Fig 5) ≠ all - speculum purple-blue bordered with white on both sides (sometimes indistinct in juv) ≠ all Fig 5

≠3 ≠1 ≠ all ≠1

steep forehead and flat crown

(4) Spectacled Eider S. fischeri - coasts from NE Siberia to Alaska, vagrant in Europe - wing ≥ 225 ≠3 - bill to feathers ≤ 29.8 ≠ all - appearance of head and bill (Fig 6) ≠ all - axillaries more greyish than whitish (≠ all) pale brown ‘goggles’ contrasting, formed of velvety feathers

Fig 6

no feathered area on the base of bill

featherings covering the bill almost to nostrils

short bill almost vertical bill/feathers limit

Hybridisation possible with King Eider, and perhaps Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (apparently does not dive), Northern Pintail A. acuta, Steller's Eider, Velvet Scoter Melanitta fusca, and Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator and/or Common Merganser M. merganser (size and bill shape in-between, large white marking on the upper-wing).

MEASUREMENTS S. mollissima mollissima borealis Ad M Ad F Juv M Juv F M F Wing 289 - 315 280 - 315 263 - 297 255.5 - 292 270 - 308 262 - 295 Tail 90 - 104 90 - 98 74 - 88 70 - 84 Bill1 53 - 64 46.2 - 60.6 50 - 61 48 - 58 45.5 - 59.0 40.3 - 56.6 Tarsus 51 - 58 50 - 58 41.9 - 58.3 43.7 - 55.9 Weight 1400 - 2875 1192 - 2895 1562 - 2567 1552 - 2009 1560 - 2710 1300 - 2165 1 to feathers in the middle of culmen.

S. spectabilis Ad M Ad F Juv M Juv F Ad M Wing (257) 261 - 302 248 - 296 242 - 275 230 - 275 204 - 238 Tail 79 - 89 73 - 87 83 - 114 Bill2 26 - 34 27 - 39 (28.4 - 33.0) (27.2 - 33.8) 35.2 - 41.7 Head and bill (103 - 105) 88.0 - 103.9 Tarsus 44 - 52.1 43.4 - 48 36 - 42.7 Tarsus and toe (116 - 120) 3 Weight 1310 - 2013 1150 - 1923 1110 - 1520 780 - 1420 500 - 1000 2 to feathers. 3 max = 800 - 2140.

VARIATION Strong variation; in M according to size, extent of frontal shield on the bill, extent of feathers on the sides of bill (Fig 7) and the colour; in F, according to breeding plumage.

Two other sspp from NE Siberia to N Canada. Areas of intergradation.

• mollissima (NW coasts of Europe). The largest in Europe.

• borealis (Arctic Atlantic, Iceland, Spitsbergen, Greenland, Baffin Island). Smaller than mollissima (except in Spitsbergen). Lower scapulars often more curled up and more pointed.

• faeroeensis (Faroes and perhaps Shetlands and S Iceland).

As mollissima but smaller, bill shorter and thicker with frontal shield short and dark olive-grey. Extension of feathers under the nostrils rather like borealis. F Brown much darker.

Bars less distinct. Appearance of dark hood.

• dresseri (E of N America). Lower scapulars curled up, often very prominent.

faeroeensis M F 260 - 284 257 - 271 48 - 56 (45 - 50) 49.0 - 55.5 (48.0 - 51.0) 1703 - 2223

P. stelleri Ad F Juv M 202 - 235 199 - 213 80 - 116 (72 - 79) 37.3 - 43.7 89.2 - 96.0 36 - 43.2 625 - 1000 -

Fig 7 – Head and bill – Ad M

Juv F (203 - 210) (72 - 75) -

S. fischer 225 - 280 18.2 - 29.8 45 - 50 1176 - 1956

forecrown less prominent bill greenish, sometimes yellowbrown, rarely bright orange

ssp mollissima

featherings spreading under the nostrils (definitely if overlap ≥ 7 mm)

thick dark line, thinner at tip

ssp borealis

dresseri M F 275 - 300 265 - 298 49.1 - 60 42.2 - 56 49 - 55 44.6 - 53 -

forecrown prominent bill typically orange-yellow to bright orange, sometimes greyish or greenish featherings rarely spreading under the nostrils (definitely if overlap ≤ 2 mm); in Spitsbergen, more similar to mollissima

ssp green up dresseri under the eye thin dark line position of nostrils rather like borealis

forecrown very high and prominent broad and rounded frontal lobes, near the eye, greenish, sometimes orange-yellow in winter culmen often concave

03

04

Juv – 2Y spring Ad

P and S Body

complete moult 05 06 07 08 Postjuv

all dark, slightly pointed

Juv

2Y autumn – 3Y spring M arched and pointed, basal half varying from white to dark grey, darkening near the tip

41

Thick line: common case Thin line: rare case 12 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 ? Prebreeding

Postbreeding

Prebreeding

MOULT (Fig 8) Juv – 3Y spring [3/5/7 spring] Partial postjuv very variable, including usually head, upperparts and flanks from 09, followed in 10 by the partial prebreeding moult including ± the same areas. Wing, back, rump and usually underparts and tail retained until 2Y summer (but tail sometimes moulted from 09 of 1Y). Then complete postbreeding as ad but less complete and more prolonged, with some imm feathers retained. Then 2nd prebreeding moult as ad but usually finishing later, sometimes with some nonbreeding feathers still retained.

Ad [6/8 spring] Complete postbreeding from 06 to 08, starting with head, neck and part of body from mid-06 to mid-07, followed by the rest of plumage and simultaneous moult of flight feathers from mid-07 to 08; F moulting ≈ 1 month later. Partial prebreeding limited to head and part of body from 08 to 11 in M, from 10 to 03 in F. In borealis, M often moulting to eclipse plumage from mid-07 or later, and sometimes still in eclipse plumage late 10.

SEX – AGE At any age and in any season, sexing is possible by cloacal pattern (Fig 1 page 19). The late acquisition of ad plumage, the ± continuous moult of imm and the great ind variations make ageing difficult.

Juv [3] Shape of TF (Fig 2 page 19), retained until 09 – 11.

Resembles ad F but without distinct bars on the upperparts, the feathers being plain cold grey-brown with only a narrow buff fringe and a dull black subterminal bar. LC and MC blackish-brown slightly edged with pale buff. Usually no white tip on S and GC (but feature perhaps variable). T slightly pointed, dark brown to almost black usually without pale fringe but sometimes with a pale tip (Fig 9). Outer P narrow, without gloss. M often with some small white markings on the feathers of the breast (lacking in F).

1Y – 2Y spring [3/5 spring] As juv but ± adult type moulted feathers (especially in flanks). Most of juv wing, back, rump, and usually underparts and TF retained until spring. Inner GC rather rounded (Fig 10).

1Y – 2Y spring M [3/5 spring M] Search for body feathers with ± blackish, whitish and greenish for sexing from 11 – 12 (but sometimes only in 03 – 04). Usually, body blackish; breast and upper mantle paler and mottled; head dark; back and shoulders mottled with white. Wing uniformly dark (rarely a few white LC or MC); inner GC brown with a whitish ill-defined or lacking fringe (Fig 10). T brownish sometimes tipped whitish and less pointed (Fig 9). Many ind variations: in spring, sometimes breast white, head of ad M type, but mantle and wing dark.

Fig 9 T

partial moult 09 10 11

1Y – 2Y spring F [3/5 spring F] Inner GC brown with a whitish ill-defined or lacking fringe (Fig 10).

2Y autumn – 3Y spring M [5 autumn/7 spring M] Resembles ad M. LC and MC white and mottled with black on the side. T incurved and pointed, the basal half varying from white to dark grey, becoming progressively black towards the tip (Fig 9). Feathers of underparts well washed with blackish. Tips blackish mainly on the centre of back and rump.

2Y autumn – 3Y spring F [5 autumn/7 spring F] No features of plumage verified for the distinction from ad F, although GC and S probably have the white tip narrower than in ad; double wing bar not complete.

3Y autumn – 4Y spring M [7 autumn/9 spring M] Some MC and LC blackish mixed with the white ones of ad type, usually near the leading edge of wing and the carpal joint.

Small PC near alula, black as the 2 longest feathers of alula. T and the innermost S usually white, mottled with dull black at the tip.

Ad [4/6 spring] Inner GC rather square-shaped (Fig 10).

Outer P broad, slightly glossy.

Ad M (+2Y autumn – +3Y spring) [6 autumn/8 spring M] In breeding plumage, easily distinguished from F and juv M. In eclipse, resembles imm M but T, the innermost GC, LC and MC all white (Fig 9 and 10); usually white tip on black S, GC and PC; alula black.

Ad F (+1Y autumn – +2Y spring) [4 autumn/6 spring F] Whole plumage dark brown. Body uniformly barred with black. S and GC with a broad white tip (Fig 10), forming a complete double wing bar (white tip occasionally missing on the GC). Tip and sides pale on the dark brown T slightly incurved. Feathers of upperparts black with edges broad brown to cinnamon-buff.

Occasionally, old F with an appearance of 2nd winter M: upperparts dark mottled with white; cheeks, throat and neck white with dark mottling; breast largely washed with pink; underparts and flanks largely black with a white patch on each side of rump; wing feathers ± uniformly blackishbrown with MC and LC white and inner web of T white; but crown brown with ± white, white of cheeks including the eye, but no green on the nape.

REFERENCES [Blomdahl et al. 2002; Dawson 1994; Ellis 1994; Forsman 1995a; Fredrickson 2001; Furness et al. 2010; Garner 2015b; Goudie et al. 2000; Hario and Rintala 2009; Henriksen and Lund 1994; Lovvorn et al. 2003; Oppel and Powell 2009; Petersen et al. 2000; Powell and Suydam 2012; Pyle 2008; Suddaby et al. 1994; Swennen et al. 1979; Swennen et al. 1989; Tenovuo and Tenovuo 1983]

Ad M Fig 10 Juv M Inner GC

white, slender and curved

Juv F Juv type: rounded and brown

whitish fringe whitish fringe indistinct or absent indistinct

Ad M

Ad F Ad type: rather squareshaped

all white

brown with a broad white tip

Anseriformes

ANSERIFORMES – Anatidae Fig 8 – Progression of moult

STRIGIFORMES – Strigidae

195

LONG-EARED OWL (Northern Long-eared Owl) Asio otus IDENTIFICATION

Ring: 11.0 Incoloy (8.5) Parental care: F, M

WP = 2 (3); 10 P; 14 - 16 (12) S; 12 TF Return to breeding grounds: 2Y

Long-eared Owl A. otus - iris typically orange-yellow or orange-red - ear-tufts > 45 mm - 4 or 5 narrow bars on outer P - no white posterior edge of wings

Short-eared Owl A. flammeus - iris typically yellow; eye entirely surrounded black - ear-tufts < 25 mm - 2 or 3 broader bars on outer P - posterior edge of wings whitish or light-buff F type ± buff outer part of inner web

Hybridisation perhaps possible with Short-eared Owl. MEASUREMENTS Ssp otus.

Ad M Ad F 282 - 313 287 - 318 130 - 161 132 - 162 (13.8) 14.5 - 18.0 (19.1) 14.5 - 19.3 (34.5) 36.9 - 40.0 (41.6) 37.0 - 42.3 (43.0) (151) 220 - 330 (360) (181) 240 - 370 (435) Juv M Juv F Wing 274 - 310 (279) 282 - 320 Tail 130 - 151 136 - 154 Weight 220 - 295 250 - 340 Wing min = 265. Bill to cere and tarsus of juv as ad of same sex.

Wing Tail Bill to cere Tarsus Weight

03 Juv – 2Y spring Ad

04 ?

complete moult 05 06 07 P

Body

Fig 2 Outer S

08

M type white outer part of inner web

4th bar

Juv type 7 to 8 thin bars closely spaced on outer web

VARIATION Only otus in Eurasia, Azores and NW Africa.

Slight variation in Palearctic; 3 other sspp in America and Canaries.

MOULT (Fig 1) Juv [3] Partial postjuv with continuous body moult during 1st year, also including head and some C, but no flight feathers or PC. 2Y [5] Similar to ad, but moult of S and TF starts 2 to 3 weeks after P moult. Interruption or suspension degree is similar to ad.

Ad [6] Complete postbreeding except often some S, starting with P10 in 06 – 07 in M and non-breeding F, slightly later in breeding F (often in late 07 – mid-08). Fast P moult (until 5 inner P may grow simultaneously) finishing in (early) mid-09 – early 11. S moult from 3 centres (S11 or S12 divergently, S1 and S5 ascendantly) often arrested (1 to 6 S retained). TF moult ± simultaneously. Body moult generally from (05) 07 to 09 (11). Occasionally, P1 and P2 may be retained, especially if low prey density.

SEX Colour of face (whiter in M, greyer in F) and colour of tip of feathers of lower mantle and scapulars (light grey and slightly vermiculated blackish in M, warm buff in F) seem to be unreliable.

M Generally paler and less vermiculate than F. Underwing C very pale, sometimes all white. Inner web of S white, especially on outer part (Fig 2). Edge of outer web of large feather of alula sometimes all white (apparently never in F), sometimes more buff, with max 3 bars but huge overlap (Fig 3).

Underparts streaked dark brown but background colour white with slight buff tinge.

F Background colour generally darker golden-buff, especially underparts and underwing C. Inner web of S ± buff (Fig 2).

Edge of outer web of large feather of alula buff generally with 4 bars, but huge overlap (Fig 3). Underparts streaked as M, but background colour buff, especially breast and upper belly, with white near thighs.

AGE Juv [3] Generally, feathers very loose and downy, often with white 1st down on tip. Underparts, head and rump with ± of 1st down, down generally retained on head as late as in 11; sometimes it is necessary to part ad feathers to find hidden down.

Fig 1 – Progression of moult

1st breeding: 2Y

48 67

31 45

Fig 3 Large feather of alula Variable pattern

F

Ad type 5 to 6 thicker more spaced bars

M ± buff outer web generally 4 bars

generally white outer web, sometimes tinged buff generally 3 or fewer bars

1Y – 2Y spring [3/5 spring] On outer S, bars thinner and closer, generally with 7 to 8 bars on outer web (Fig 2); on S1, distance tip – 4th bar = 31 - 45 mm (distal bar may be hard to detect or absent on S1, but visible on innermost S; should be considered!). TF1 strongly barred with slight grey speckles within pale distal area; distal edge of other TF plain without speckles or only very light and sparse (Fig 4).

Generally, 3 or 4 narrow black bars on dark PC (do not use this criterion if indistinct bars). In spring, heavier wear of flight feathers, particularly outer P. 2Y autumn – 3Y spring [5 autumn/7 spring] 2 or 3 juv S sometimes retained, generally less grey, more buff, with thinner and closer bars, contrasting with S of ad type (Fig 2). Beware of birds moulting from 06 because old juv S are generally moulted first.

Ad (+1Y autumn – +2Y spring) [4 autumn/6 spring] On outer S, broad and spaced bars, generally with 5 to 6 bars only on outer web (Fig 2); of S1, distance tip – 4th bar = 48 67 mm. TF1 less strongly barred and more vermiculate; all TF with slight grey speckles within distal pale area (Fig 4).

Generally, only 2 (or 3) broad black bars on dark PC (do not use this criterion if indistinct bars). Often a slight pink tinge on underwing C (apparently not in 1Y; hard to judge, experience needed; do not confuse with F buff tinge). If 2 P and S generations occur simultaneously and feathers have similar appearance, ageing is possible as +2Y autumn – +3Y spring.

Fig 4 TF

Juv type

Ad type

distal speckles only on TF1; other TF with pale tip without speckles REFERENCES [Blasco Zumeta and Prytherch 1976; Harvey and al. 2008; Marks et al. 1994; Lamminmäki 2014; Mikkola and 2015a; Robertson 1982] 09

partial moult 10 11 ?

slight grey speckles in pale tip of all TF and Heinze 2013; Clark 2007; Davis Riddiford 1990; Jannes 1983; König et Martínez et al. 2002; Mikkola and Willis 2010; Ottenby Bird Observatory

Thick line: common case 12 01 02 03 04

Thin line: rare case 05 06 07

Strigiformes → Apodiformes

(LOEOW) Incubation: F

PASSERIFORMES – Turdidae

267

REDWING Turdus iliacus

P1 - WP = 71 - 85 P2 - WP = 3 - 8 P4 - WP = 0 - 2 P5 - WP = 5 - 8 P6 - WP = 15 - 21 P10 - WP = 33 - 42 Em: 3 4 5 Notch: 2 3 4

Fig 1

≤816 very short P1

long P2

short P5 and P6

(4) 3

MEASUREMENTS Wing Tail Bill to skull Tarsus Weight

iliacus M F (111) 114 - 128 (130?) 108 - 127 69 - 89 id 18.5 - 23.9 id 27.5 - 32 (36?) id (43) 50 - 88 id

coburni Islande 113 - 134 78 - 93 19.0 - 24.4 (30.0 - 32.9) (61.5) 66 - 90

VARIATION • iliacus (N Eurasia except Iceland and Faroes). Dark streaks on underparts rather narrow and limited to breast and flanks. Underparts whitish or pale cream, slightly tinged buff on throat, breast and undertail C. Undertail C largely white with 1 - 2 mm wide lateral dark band (Fig 2). Legs greyish-flesh.

• coburni (Iceland, Faroes). Slightly larger. Upperparts slightly darker than iliacus, especially crown and cheeks (more blackish-brown than warm brown but iliacus sometimes similar). Dark streaks and marks on underparts broader and more extensive, often forming a broad dark area on sides of breast. Warmer buff background colour on sides of head, throat, breast and undertail C. Appearance of undertail C (Fig 2). Legs dark brown. iliacus

often moulted rarely moulted

PNEUMATISATION Reliable until late 09, useful until at least early 10.

SEX See wing length for extremes.

AUTUMN – AGE Juv [3J] Feathers of mantle, LC and MC with pale streaks along shaft.

1Y [3] Usually, juv GC shorter with whitish or yellowish tip, (distinct and streak shaped along shaft of innermost GC but very small or absent on outermost) contrasting with moulted inner GC slightly tinged olive (darker), without pale tip or with narrow pale fringe: often an abrupt change in shape of pale tip between adjacent GC. Tip of both juv inner T variable, often with white or buff-white small triangular mark (Fig 5), but sometimes only with a slight fringe; juv T more rusty tinge than olive tinged postjuv GC. See also shape of TF (Fig 6), and potential contrast between fresh and rounded moulted TF1 with narrow, worn and pointed juv TF. Ad [4] No contrast within GC or T without pale tip; sometimes ill-defined narrow whitish fringe on outer web, mostly visible on both inner T (Fig 5). TF broad and rounded (Fig 6).

SPRING – AGE Same criteria as in autumn usually useful.

2Y [5] Sometimes white tip on GC still visible but often worn. In early spring, typical notch formed by wear of white tip (later, this criterion usually becoming unusable because of wear).

Fig 5 – T and GC Imm with moult limit

Fig 3 – Progression of moult 03 Juv – 2Y spring Ad

04

05 06 Postjuv Postbreeding

Fig 6 – 2 inner T Juv type

Juv type shorter with pale tip

(variation)

generally white notch, but sometimes only slight fringe Ad type

Ad type – slightly tinged olive, without pale tip

(variation) no notch

Fig 7 TF1 and TF5

restricted pale along shaft, striped appearance; sometimes all dark

MOULT (Fig 3) Juv [3] Partial postjuv from 07 to 09 (Fig 4), including body feathers, all LC and MC, 2 to 10 GC (on avg 5), exceptionally alula 1, both shortest T (or even all) and TF1.

Ad [4] Complete postbreeding from late 06 to 09.

Parental care: F, M

generally moulted

dark lateral band 3 - 4 mm wide

dark lateral band 1 - 2 mm wide

Incubation: F

Fig 4 Extent of postjuv moult

coburni – typical appearance but often less marked

Fig 2 Undertail C

largely white

WP = 3 (4)

1Y

narrow and pointed

Ad

broad and rounded

REFERENCES [Alker 2015; Blasco Zumeta and Heinze 2013; Dierschke et al. 2010; Garner 2015b; Garner 2015f; Holman and Walsh 1992; Jenni and Winkler 1994; Ottenby Bird Observatory 2015m; Roselaar 2006a; Roselaar 2006b; Santos 1981; Still 1992]

complete moult 07 08 09

10

11

partial moult 12 01 02

03

Thick line: common case 04 05 06 07

Turdidae

Ring: 3.5 MA (3.8 – 4.2)

IDENTIFICATION Clear pale supercilium. Breast and flanks streaked dark.

Underwing C and flanks rufous. Wing formula (Fig 1).

Resembles 3 spp breeding in Siberia: Eyebrowed Thrush T. obscurus (but underwing light greyish and underparts orange-buff without streaks), Dusky Thrush T. eunomus (but rump and wings largely rufous) and Siberian Thrush Geokichla sibirica (but underwings barred white).

Ind with aberrant plumage (eg, orange breast spreading on flanks) or leucistic (eg, throat and breast pure white) might look like rarer spp.

Hybridisation possible with Common Blackbird T. merula (appearance rather similar to ssp coburni but undertail C all dark and wing formula intermediate between both spp) and perhaps Fieldfare T. pilaris and Eyebrowed Thrush.

OENOEN – TURVIS

(REDWI)

PASSERIFORMES – Emberizidae

383

COMMON REED BUNTING Emberiza schoeniclus Reed Bunting (REEBU)

Ring: 2.3 MA (2.5)

WP = (3) 4 (5)

Incubation: F

Parental care: F, M

IDENTIFICATION (1) Common Reed Bunting E. schoeniclus (2) Little Bunting E. pusilla excluding breeding ad M; in any plumage, no greenish, olivaceous or yellow tinge - no whitish wing bar; MC and GC tipped - small, wing ≤ 78 ≠3 brown-buff ≠ 2, 3, 4 (5) - wing bar formed by whitish tip of MC ≠1 - head and bill appearance (Fig 1) ≠ all - head and bill appearance (Fig 2); face rufous-brown - LC intense rufous-brown with ± grey feathers ≠ 2, 5 (rarely whitish median stripe or supercilium) ≠ all - legs flesh-brown to dark grey (≠ 2, 4) - LC dull brown or brownish-grey, not contrasting ≠1 - rump brown or greyish, ± streaked; oriental populations - legs pink-flesh ≠ (1) 3 may exhibit grey-white rump - rump greyish-brown slightly streaked ≠4 - wing formula ≠ 2, 3, 4 - breast and flanks finely streaked median crown-stripe absent or very - wing formula Fig 1 – 1Y F ≠ 1, 3, 5 no distinct black lateral crownstripe

ill-defined (paler brown) all grey bill, generally culmen ± convex

black reaching base of lower mandible (rare exceptions)

no distinct pale ring of feathers

Fig 2 – 1Y / F – autumn narrow distinct ring of feathers, white to cream, more distinct in ad

mix of brown, black and greyish-white

pale median crown-stripe

grey bill, culmen straight or often slightly concave

pale buff patch rather uniform, rufous to rufous-buff

(3) Lapland Longspur Calcarius lapponicus - wing ≥ (80) 83 ≠ 2, 5 - 2 wing bars (white tip on MC and GC) surrounding broad rufous area (outer web of GC ± rufous) ≠ all - head and bill appearance (Fig 3) ≠ all - legs dark brown to blackish ≠ 2, 4 - rump grey-brown clearly streaked ≠ 4, 5 - claw of hind toe rather straight and long (Fig 4) - wing formula; long primary projection ≥ T ≠ all Fig 3 F

distinct brown median crown-stripe edged black; sometimes indistinct in imm

black stops below eye

(4) Rustic Bunting E. rustica - from Scandinavia to N of SE Asia - white tip on MC and GC ≠ 1, 5 - head and bill appearance (Fig 5) ≠ all - legs flesh-brown ≠3 - belly white; breast and flanks clearly streaked rufous-brown ≠ 2, 3, 5 - rump rufous-brown unspotted ≠ all - wing formula ≠ 1, 3, 5

Fig 4 – Hind toe claw

Fig 5 1Y

long white or pale cream supercilium

± pale median crown-stripe on rear crown

± rufousbrown nape

pale (yellowish) bill, dark tip; bill sometimes brownish in juv

long bill, straight culmen, flesh lower mandible

often whitish patch edged dark

rufous-brown

(5) Pallas’s Reed Bunting E. pallasi - from NE Urals to E Siberia, Asia - small, wing ≤ 78 ≠3 - 2 rather clear buff-white wing bars ≠ 1 - no pale median stripe on crown ≠ 2, 3, 4 - culmen straight or almost; upper mandible dark; lower mandible pale pinkish in winter (≠ 1, 2, 3) - LC ash-grey, dull brown-grey, dark grey or buff (no rufous) ≠ 1 - legs pinkish, brown or less often darker grey-brown - rump dirty white or buff-white, or even pale greyish, ± streaked (or even unstreaked) ≠ 1, 3, 4 - underparts virtually unstreaked (sometimes fine streaks on flanks and breast in 1Y) ≠ all - wing formula

≠ 2, 3, 4 E. schoeniclus (3) 4 (5) ≠3 1-3 ≠ (2) 3, 4 3456 ≠ (2) 3 (4) distinct ≠ (2) 3 (4) 24 - 27 ≠2 21 - 24 ≠2

E. pusilla 3 4 (5) 2.5 - 7 3 4 5 [6] slight or no 18 - 22 14 - 18

≠3 ≠ (1) 3, 5 ≠ (1) 3 (5) ≠ 1, 5 ≠1 ≠1

Depending on moult progress and wear, head appearance sometimes atypical (eg white supercilium and blackish cheeks in M).

Hybridisation perhaps possible with Yellowhammer E. citrinella.

VARIATION (Fig 6) Up to 40 sspp described, 20 now recognized, clinal and complex variation (revision needed). Paler from W to E; shape of bill highly variable, stronger and more arched towards S. Four groups with areas of intergradation making identification of isolated ind difficult.

1 – group from N Bill thin (Fig 7).

• schoeniclus (N Europe to Urals). Bill appearance (Fig 7 and 8). Sometimes divided in 5 other sspp.

• lusitanica (NW Spain, Portugal). Bill appearance (Fig 7).

Compared to schoeniclus, head, upperparts and flanks darker in plumage of F type or in winter, C darker and more colourful.

• passerina (NW Siberia). Upperparts slightly paler. Rump often grey. Streaks thinner.

C. lapponicus 2 (3 4) ≠ all 12 - 19 ≠ all 3 4 [5] ≠ all no ≠ 1, 5 -

E. rustica 3 (4) 5-7 3 4 5 [6] slight or no -

≠ 3. 5 ≠ 1, 3, 5 ≠ (1) 3 (5) ≠ 1, 5

E. pallasi 345 ≠ 3, 4 1 - 2.5 ≠ 2, 3, 4 3456 ≠ (2) 3 (4) distinct ≠ (2) 3 (4) -

• parvirostris (central Siberia). Small, pale. passerina Fig 6 – Approximate breeding range of sspp

pallidior incognita schoeniclus lusitanica

ukrainae

stresemanni

tschusii

witherbyi intermedia ?

pyrrhuloides

caspia reiseri

Emberizidae

Wing formulae WP = P6 - WP = Em = Em P6 Em P3 = Em P5 =

384

PASSERIFORMES – Emberizidae

MEASUREMENTS E. schoeniclus Wing Tail Bill1 Bill depth2 Bill depth3 Bill width2 Bill width3 Tarsus Weight

schoeniclus M F (72) 74 - 87 (88.5) (68) 70 - 79 (81) 60 - 73 58 - 69 10.5 - 14.6 10.4 - 13.9 (4.4) 4.7 - 6.4 4.5 - 6.1 4.5 - 5.8 4.1 - 5.7 4.5 - 5.9 4.0 - 5.9 3.5 - 5.4 3.2 - 5.0 18.5 - 24.5 16.8 - 22.2 (14) 16 - 27 (12) 14 - 25

lusitanica M F 73 - 81.5 68 - 79 59 - 69.5 57.5 - 68 12.5 - 14.6 12.5 - 14.0 4.9 - 5.9 4.5 - 5.7 4.1 - 5.3 3.9 - 4.9 18.1 - 20.8 17.4 - 20.6 14.4 - 20.0 13.8 - 19.1

stresemanni M F 78 - 87 (72.5 - 78) 11.4 - 13.5 (11.4 - 12.5) 5.2 - 6.5 (5.8 - 6.3) 5.2 - 6.3 (5.5 - 6.3) 20.8 - 25.0 id -

ukrainae M F 77 - 87 (69) 73 - 80 (11.5 - 13.5) (10.8 - 11.9) 5.2 - 6.5 id 5.2 - 5.8 id 18 - 25 16.5 - 23

E. schoeniclus

tschusii witherbyi intermedia reiseri M F M F M F M F Wing (81.5 - 87.5) (78 - 84) 74 - 84 69 - 78 76 - 89.5 71.5 - 82 82 - 94 (78 - 83) Tail (61 - 77) (60.5 - 67) Bill1 (12.5 - 13.5) [11.8 - 12.2] (12.1 - 15.3) (11.2 - 13.9) 12.3 - 14.5 12.0 - 13.5 13.4 - 14.7 id 2 Bill depth [6.1] (6.4 - 7.4) id [5.2] 5.9 - 6.6 5.0 - 6.3 7.0 - 7.8 6.6 - 7.7 7.7 - 9.0 Bill depth3 (6.1 - 6.9) (5.7 - 6.5) Bill width2 (6.0 - 6.9) id [5.8 - 6.3] [6.2] 6.6 - 7.9 6.6 - 7.5 Bill width3 (4.7 - 7.2) (5.0 - 6.7) Tarsus (20.8 - 22.9) id (17.4 - 21.3) (18.7 - 20.8) 20.8 - 24.4 id Weight 16.5 - 24 15.2 - 20.6 (17.7 - 24) (16.5 - 20.6) 24 - 30 For all measurements, ad generally a little larger than juv. 1 to skull. 2 at base. 3 at distal edge of nostrils.

Fig 7 ssp Appearance schoeniclus of bill rather thin, culmen almost straight, lower mandible thicker than upper mandible

E. pusilla

F 64 - 75 46 - 55 id id id

ssp lusitanica

rather long and thick, culmen curved

E. rustica M F 74 - 85 70 - 81 48 - 59 (49 - 57) 11.6 - 15.0 id 18.4 - 20.3 id 16.0 - 22.0 (25.8) id

sspp witherbyi and intermedia

very heavy, culmen very curved

Emberizidae

2 – intermediate group Bill slightly stronger and more arched than schoeniclus.

• stresemanni (Carpathians). Dark as schoeniclus.

• ukrainae (S Belarus, N Ukraine, S European Russia). Paler and more buff than stresemanni.

• pallidior (E European Russia, SW Siberia to Baikal). Large.

Upperparts very pale sandy-buff. Rump grey-white in worn plumage. Underparts almost white.

• incognita (E Volga to N Kazakhstan). Bill as tschusii. Colour as pallidior.

3 – group from S Bill thick (Fig 7). Four other sspp in Asia.

• witherbyi (Iberian peninsula, Balearics, Mediterranean French coast W of Camargue, perhaps NW Africa and Sardinia). Bill appearance (Fig 7 and 8). Plumage rather dark. Spring F Often with blackish-brown mask (resembling Eurasian Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus).

• intermedia (Italy, coasts of ex-Yugoslavia; perhaps also from SW Ukraine to Caucasus and to Iran; extinct in Corsica).

Bill as witherbyi. Flanks heavily striped rufous-brown (and not black as schoeniclus). Less dark than witherbyi.

• tschusii (from NE Bulgaria to Lower Volga). Bill strong with both mandibles of same depth. Paler than schoeniclus, especially on rump.

• reiseri (from S Balkans to Greece and to Turkey). Larger than intermedia. Bill even stronger and more arched than witherbyi. Plumage dark.

• pyrrhuloides (N Caspian Sea to Mongolia and S Kazakhstan). Bill as reiseri. Even paler than pallidior.

• caspia (E Transcaucasia to Iran).

4 – group from E E Siberia, Japan, NE China. Sspp pyrrhulina and minor (minor sometimes included within E. pallasi).

MOULT (Fig 9) Juv – 2Y spring [3/5 spring] Partial postjuv from (late 06) mid-07 to 09 - early 10 (Fig 10), including body feathers, all Fig 9 – Progression of moult 03 Juv – 2Y spring Ad

04

complete moult 05 06 07 08 Postjuv

Postbreeding

09

Max bill depth × bill length to distal edge of nostrils

Wing Tail Bill to skull Tarsus Weight

M 69 - 78 51 - 58 11.2 - 13.4 16.5 - 18.4 12.7 - 19.3

pyrrhuloides M F 86 - 94 (74 - 84) 11.9 - 13.5 (12.5 - 13.5) 7.2 - 9.3 (7.6 - 9.0) 7.1 - 8.7 (7.1 - 7.8) 20.7 - 25.0 id 22.3 - 30.5 18.6 - 23.6

E. pallasi M 69 - 78 57 - 66 10.6 - 12.8 17.3 - 19.0 11.8 - 16.4

F 64 - 75 57 - 64 id id id

Fig 8 – Relationship between wing length and bill size Sexes and ages combined

44 42 40 38 36

34 32 30 28 26 24 67

witherbyi

schoeniclus

69

71

73

75 77 79 Wing length

81

83

85

87

LC, MC and GC (exceptionally some GC retained), almost always CC, often alula 1, rarely alula 2 and alula 3, 0 to 3 T (often 2), 0 to 6 TF, very rarely S6, exceptionally 1 or 2 central or outer P. Very rarely, complete moult possible at least in S Europe. Partial prebreeding in winter (see Ad).

Ad [4/6 spring] Complete postbreeding from (late 06) 07 (mid-08) to 09 (early 10). Partial prebreeding from 02 (03) to 03 (05?), limited to part of head and throat (sometimes completely absent). Moult more common in M; in F, possible at least in some F of witherbyi (crown).

PNEUMATISATION Reliable until mid-10, useful until late 10, but often difficult to judge.

AUTUMN – AGE Ageing with plumage is sometimes difficult and requires experience. In S Europe, complete postjuv moult possible: verify pneumatisation of skull and iris colour.

Juv [3J] LC, MC and inner GC with buff fringe (becoming rufous). Speckled appearance. Rump without grey and very striated.

1Y [3] Juv TF worn from 09, but often moulted (see Moult).

Longest P more worn than in ad at same period. Moult limit within TF, T, alula and between T and S diagnostic. Juv TF Fig 10 Extent of postjuv moult

generally moulted often moulted rarely moulted complete moult possible in S Europe

partial moult 10 11 12

Thick line: common case 01 02 03 04

05

Thin line: rare case 06 07 Prebreeding, sometimes absent

PASSERIFORMES – Emberizidae

Fig 11 T

Juv type

Imm with moult limit

Ad type

fresh postjuv T

centre less dark than on postjuv T

black centre

worn bleached juv T

edge whitening from autumn

fresh rufous-brown edge

Fig 12 – PC – Typical appearances Juv type rather pointed

Ad type broad and rounded

looser structure, slightly more worn

firm structure grey tip contrasting with the remaining feather

brownish or brown-grey edge

Fig 13 Forecrown

Ring: 3.3 Incoloy (3.0 – 3.5)

IDENTIFICATION Large. Dull colours. Streaked upperparts and underparts. No pure white on tail, only whitish edge on outer TF. Head without distinct pattern, except dark malar stripe. Legs and strong bill yellowish.

MEASUREMENTS Postjuv only. Ssp calandra.

M Wing 95 - 107 (109)1 Tail 62 - 77 Bill to skull (12.2?) 14.4 - 18.7 Tarsus 22.5 - 27.1 Weight [34] (42) 43 - 65 1 min = 91.5, doubtful. 2 max = 106, doubtful.

F (82 ?) 85 - 96 (98)2 54 - 70.5 id id [25] 31 - 47 (55.5)

VARIATION Slight and mostly clinal variation; browner in W, greyer in E. Sometimes considered as monotypic.

• calandra (Europe, Asia Minor, N Africa, Canaries).

• clanceyi (W Ireland, W Scotland). Darker brownish.

• buturlini (from Near East to W China). Paler greyish.

MOULT Juv [3] and ad [4] Complete from (06) 07 – early 09 to (mid-09) mid-10 – 11 [12]. Conversely to other European Passeriformes, TF finish growing after P and S. PNEUMATISATION Useful until 11.

SUMMER – AUTUMN – AGE Juv and ad moult completely. No difference in plumage after postjuv moult [EURING age code 2]. Following criteria reliable before the end of moult.

M

F black

± convex limit

buff

elongated black point

SPRING – SEX Rarely, head appearance of ad F may be similar to M (uniformly dark) but feathers being rather dark brown to blackishgrey instead of black; combine with criteria of autumn.

M Chin and throat black. Centre of throat black rarely with feathers tipped white. All ear-C black.

F Chin and centre of throat buff. Lower throat and breast streaked. Ear-C brown and speckled.

SPRING – AGE Criteria of autumn remain reliable but are more difficult to use because of wear. In late winter, outer P sometimes still not very worn in ad. Iris of 2Y sometimes darker and less brownish than in ad (very difficult to judge).

REFERENCES [Amato et al. 1994; Belda et al. 2009; Bertolero et al.

1992; Blasco Zumeta and Heinze 2013; Broad and Oddie 1980; Byers et al. 1995; Dal Molin and Joubert 1996; Demongin and Dmitrenok 1999; Duranton 2015; Ellrich et al. 2010; Jenni and Winkler 1994; Karlsson et al. 1985; Kasparek 1979b; Kilota 2014; Kitson 1979a; Kitson 1982b; Koenig and Schmitter 1998; la Puente and Seoane 2001; Mather 1979; Mills 1982; Neto et al. 2013; Ottenby Bird Observatory 2015m; Ouwerkerk 1994; Persson 1999d; Pesente et al. 1997; Riddiford and Broome 1983; Schmitz and Steiner 2006; Shirihai et al. 2002a; Svensson 1975; Vollot 2013b; Wallace 1976c; Walton and Walton 1999]

CORN BUNTING Emberiza calandra (Miliaria calandra) (CORBU)

385

• schoeniclus: for 1Y with wing length between 75 and 79 mm, F if weight < 17.5, M if > 18.5. Following formula valid for 1Y in Scotland (5 % error): M if 132.31 – wing × 1.33 – weight × 1.8 < 0 • ukrainae: for 1Y with wing length between 77 and 80 mm, F if weight < 18, M if > 20.5.

M Black bar straight or slightly rounded on feathers of fore crown (Fig 13) and throat (easier to observe on crown). Pure white collar across nape ± hidden by brown-buff tips. Rump largely (olive-) grey, ± tipped brown (huge overlap).

F Black bar reaching tip of feathers on fore crown (Fig 13) and throat (easier to observe on crown). Typically, no pure white visible on nape; sometimes, white or buff-white hidden by broad brown-buff tips. Rump largely brownish, sometimes with ± (olive-) grey (huge overlap).

WP = (2) 3 4

Incubation: F

MILCAL Parental care: F (M)

Juv [3J] Fresh plumage paler and brighter than ad; yellowishbuff more than grey. Breast streaked more than spotted.

Dark lateral stripes on sides of crown. Centre of juv T less dark with whitish to pale buff sharp distinct edge. TF narrow.

1Y [3] Juv PC edged white moulted last. In early autumn, a few pale edged juv feathers of upperparts, especially on rump, sometimes retained.

Ad [4] Plumage worn. Centre of juv T blackish-brown with diffuse rufous-buff edge, quickly whitening with wear.

SEX F if BP. Following criteria not reliable for juv. See wing length. Within overlap area for wing length, 94 to 97 mm, combine weight and wing length. Some intermediates exist; criteria should be tested in various populations (following criteria reliable in NW of range).

M M if weight > 46. In winter, M if weight > 53.

F F if weight < 46. In winter, F if weight < 45.

Following formula tested in Spain (4 % error): M if 0.136 × wing + 0.288 × weight – 26.837 > 0 REFERENCES [Blasco Zumeta and Heinze 2013; Byers et al. 1995; Campos et al. 2005b; Campos et al. 2006; Gauci and Sultana 1981b; Harper 1995; Morgan 2006; Prŷs-Jones 1976; Villarán 1999; Weisshaupt and Vilches-Morales 2010]

Emberizidae

narrow and pointed, postjuv rounded. Juv T more worn with centre slightly less black than moulted T with black centre and less worn (Fig 11); however longest T often looking paler than other T of same generation. If all T moulted, often contrasting with S6 with more worn fringe. Yellowish outer fringe of both shortest juv T becoming white during summer; these are diagnostic in early autumn (Fig 11) but not in winter because fringe of postjuv T is also bleached. Often a contrast within alula, easier to judge if only alula 1 is moulted. Usually, tip of PC with looser structure, slightly more worn, more pointed, with edge brownish or brown-grey more than grey (Fig 12): sometimes intermediate or confusing cases. Iris dark grey (difficult to judge; reliable until 12).

Ad [4] Flight feathers fresher, broader and darker than in 1Y. No moult limit (T may look slightly darker than S but without clear contrast of wear). Usually, PC rounded, wider with grey tip contrasting with remaining feather (Fig 12): sometimes intermediate or confusing cases. TF broader and rounded. Iris tinged rufous-brown slightly more contrast with pupil than in 1Y (difficult to judge).

AUTUMN – SEX Start by ageing. Exceptionally, mix of feathers of M and F type on crown; combine several criteria.

For juv and 1Y, if known ssp, combination of wing length and weight sometimes useful (use with caution):

Index

389

INDEX OF ENGLISH NAMES Figures in bold refer to the first page of the main entry in the species accounts. Other figures refer to the species mentioned in ‘Identification’ section (except hybridisation cases).

A African Blue Tit 326 African Collared Dove 183 Alpine Accentor 244 Alpine Chough 345 Alpine Swift 202 American Bittern 59 American Black Duck 32 American Coot 96 American Golden Plover 101 American Herring Gull 175 American Wigeon 28 Aquatic Warbler 279 Arabian Warbler 295 Arctic Redpoll 367 Arctic Skua 143 Arctic Tern 161, 158 Arctic Warbler 303 Armenian Gull 168 Asian Brown Flycatcher 314 Atlantic Canary 359 Atlantic Puffin 150 Atlas Pied Flycatcher 317 Avocet 99 Azores Bullfinch 373 Azure Tit 326 B Baillon's Crake 93, 92 Baird's Sandpiper 124 Balearic Shearwater 51 Balearic Warbler 288 Band-rumped Storm Petrel 53 Bar-tailed Godwit 115, 113 Bar-tailed Lark 215 Barbary Falcon 88 Barbary Partridge 43 Barn Owl 189 Barn Swallow 221 Barred Warbler 296, 295, 301 Basra Reed Warbler 285 Bean Goose 21, 24 Bearded Parrotbill 321 Bearded Reedling 321 Bearded Tit 321 Bee-eater 204 Bewick's Swan 20, 19, 21 Bimaculated Lark 214 Bittern 59 Black Guillemot 148 Black Kite 66 Black Redstart 250 Black Tern 154, 153 Black Turnstone 116 Black Woodpecker 209 Black-billed Cuckoo 186 Black-crowned Night Heron 60, 59 Black-crowned Sparrow-Lark 215 Black-eared Wheatear 260, 257 Black-headed Gull 163, 165, 166 Black-headed Heron 63 Black-legged Kittiwake 162 Black-necked Grebe 48 Black-tailed Godwit 113 Black-throated Loon 45 Black-winged Stilt 99 Blackbird 264, 266 Blackcap 302, 301 Blue Rock Thrush 262, 261 Blue Tit 326 Blue-winged Teal 30 Bluethroat 248 Blunt-winged Warbler 280 Blyth's Pipit 225 Blyth's Reed Warbler 281, 272, 275, 282 Bohemian Waxwing 241 Bonaparte's Gull 163 Booted Warbler 274, 280, 282 Boreal Owl 197, 193 Brambling 358 Brant Goose 26 Brent Goose 26 Broad-billed Sandpiper 124 Brown Booby 55 Brown Shrike 335 Brown Skua 146 Brown-throated Martin 220 Buff-bellied Pipit 229 Buff-breasted Sandpiper 119 Bullfinch 373 Buzzard 76 C Cabaret Redpoll 369, 367 Calandra Lark 214

Canada Goose 25 Canary Islands Chiffchaff 309 Canary Islands Kinglet 312 Canary Islands Stonechat 252 Canvasback 37 Cape Gannet 55 Cape Verde Shearwater 50 Carrion Crow 349, 348 Caspian Gull 177, 168 Caspian Plover 107 Cattle Egret 61, 62 Cattle Heron 61, 62 Caucasian Chiffchaff 308 Cedar Waxwing 241 Cetti's Warbler 269 Chaffinch 357 Chiffchaff 308, 304, 307 Chilean Skua 146 Chimney Swift 199 Chough 346, 345 Chukar Partridge 43 Cinnamon Teal 30 Cirl Bunting 379, 377 Citril Finch 360, 359 Citrine Wagtail 236, 232, 238 Clamorous Reed Warbler 281, 285 Coal Tit 325 Collared Dove 183 Collared Flycatcher 316, 317 Collared Sand Martin 220 Common Barn-owl 189 Common Blackbird 264, 266 Common Blue Tit 326 Common Buzzard 76 Common Chaffinch 357 Common Chiffchaff 308, 304, 307 Common Coot 96 Common Crossbill 370 Common Cuckoo 187 Common Eider 40 Common Firecrest 313, 312 Common Grasshopper Warbler 270 Common Greenshank 135 Common Guillemot 147 Common Gull 165 Common House Martin 222 Common Kestrel 84 Common Kingfisher 203 Common Linnet 365 Common Magpie 343 Common Moorhen 95 Common Murre 147 Common Nighthawk 198 Common Nightingale 247 Common Pochard 37 Common Quail 42, 44 Common Raven 350 Common Redpoll 367 Common Redshank 137 Common Redstart 251, 250 Common Reed Bunting 383 Common Ringed Plover 106, 105 Common Rock Thrush 261, 262 Common Rock-sparrow 355 Common Rosefinch 372 Common Sandpiper 131 Common Shelduck 27 Common Snipe 140, 139 Common Starling 351 Common Stonechat 256, 253 Common Swift 199 Common Teal 30 Common Tern 158, 153 Common Whitethroat 299 Common Wood Pigeon 182 Common Woodpigeon 182 Coot 96 Cormorant 56 Corn Bunting 385 Corn Crake 94 Corncrake 94 Corsican Finch 359 Cory's Shearwater 50 Crag Martin 221, 220 Crested Honey Buzzard 65 Crested Lark 216 Crested Tit 325 Cretzschmar's Bunting 380 Crossbill 370 Cuckoo 187 Curlew 111, 110 Curlew Sandpiper 120, 124 D Dark-sided Flycatcher 314

Dartford Warbler 288 Daurian Jackdaw 347 Desert Lark 215 Desert Wheatear 258 Dipper 242 Dotterel 109 Double-crested Cormorant 56 Dunlin 124 Dunn's Lark 215 Dunnock 243 Dusky Thrush 267 Dusky Warbler 305 E Eagle Owl 191 Eastern Bonelli's Warbler 306 Eastern Olivaceous Warbler 274, 281, 282, 284 Eastern Orphean Warbler 295 Eastern Subalpine Warbler 291 Egyptian Nightjar 198 Eider 40 Elegant Tern 155 Eleonora's Falcon 87 Eurasian Bittern 59 Eurasian Blackcap 302, 301 Eurasian Blue Tit 326 Eurasian Bullfinch 373 Eurasian Buzzard 76 Eurasian Collared Dove 183 Eurasian Coot 96 Eurasian Crag Martin 221, 220 Eurasian Curlew 111, 110 Eurasian Dotterel 109 Eurasian Eagle-Owl 191 Eurasian Golden Oriole 333 Eurasian Hobby 86 Eurasian Hoopoe 206 Eurasian Jackdaw 347 Eurasian Jay 342 Eurasian Magpie 343 Eurasian Nuthatch 329 Eurasian Oystercatcher 100 Eurasian Penduline Tit 332 Eurasian Reed Warbler 282, 272, 275 Eurasian Rock Pipit 231, 230 Eurasian Scops Owl 190 Eurasian Siskin 364, 359 Eurasian Skylark 218 Eurasian Sparrowhawk 74 Eurasian Stone-curlew 98 Eurasian Teal 30 Eurasian Thick-knee 98 Eurasian Tree Sparrow 355, 353 Eurasian Treecreeper 330 Eurasian Wigeon 28 Eurasian Woodcock 140 Eurasian Wren 243 Eurasian Wryneck 207 European Bee-eater 204 European Crested Tit 325 European Golden Plover 101 European Goldfinch 362 European Green Woodpecker 208 European Greenfinch 361 European Herring Gull 175, 168 European Honey Buzzard 65, 77 European Nightjar 198 European Pied Flycatcher 317 European Robin 245 European Roller 205 European Serin 359 European Shag 58, 56 European Stonechat 256, 253 European Storm Petrel 53 European Turtle Dove 184 European White Stork 64 Eversmann's Redstart 250 Eyebrowed Thrush 267 F Fan-tailed Warbler 270 Ferruginous Duck 37 Fieldfare 265 Finsch's Wheatear 258 Firecrest 313, 312 Forster's Tern 158 Fulmar 49 G Gadwall 29 Gannet 55 Garden Warbler 301, 296, 302 Garganey 34, 31 Goldcrest 312, 313

Golden Eagle 79 Golden Oriole 333 Golden Plover 101 Goldfinch 362 Goshawk 73, 75 Grasshopper Warbler 270 Gray's Grasshopper Warbler 272 Great Bittern 59 Great Black-backed Gull 180, 168 Great Blue Heron 62, 63 Great Cormorant 56 Great Crested Grebe 47 Great Egret 61 Great Grey Shrike 337 Great Knot 117 Great Northern Loon 45 Great Reed Warbler 285 Great Shearwater 50 Great Skua 145 Great Snipe 142, 139 Great Spotted Cuckoo 186 Great Spotted Woodpecker 210 Great Tit 328 Greater Canada Goose 25 Greater Crested Tern 155 Greater Sand Plover 107 Greater Scaup 37 Greater Short-toed Lark 214 Greater White-fronted Goose 22, 24 Greater Yellowlegs 135 Green Sandpiper 133 Green Warbler 303 Green Woodpecker 208 Green-winged Teal 30 Greenfinch 361 Greenish Warbler 303 Greenshank 135 Grey Heron 63 Grey Partridge 44 Grey Phalarope 130 Grey Plover 103 Grey Wagtail 237 Grey-faced Woodpecker 208 Grey-headed Gull 163 Grey-headed Woodpecker 208 Grey-necked Bunting 380 Grey-streaked Flycatcher 314 Greylag Goose 23 Guillemot 147 Güldenstädt’s Redstart 250 H Hawfinch 374 Hen Harrier 71, 69 Herring Gull 175, 168 Heuglin’s Gull 168 Hobby 86 Honey-buzzard 65, 77 Hooded Crow 350, 348 Hoopoe 206 Horned Grebe 48 Horned Lark 218 Horsfield's Cuckoo 187 House Bunting 379 House Martin 222 House Sparrow 353 Hudsonian Godwit 113 Hume's Leaf Warbler 304, 305 Hume's Short-toed Lark 215 Hume's Wheatear 258 Hume's Whitethroat 297 I Iberian Chiffchaff 311, 308 Icterine Warbler 277, 275, 282 Indian Roller 205 Intermediate Egret 61 Isabelline Shrike 335 Isabelline Warbler 274, 282 Isabelline Wheatear 257 Italian Sparrow 354, 353 J Jack Snipe 138 Jackdaw 347 Japanese Quail 42 Japanese Sparrowhawk 75 Jay 342 K Kentish Plover 107 Kestrel 84 King Eider 40 Kingfisher 203 Kittiwake 162

390

Index

Kittlitz's Plover 107 Knot 117 Kurdish Wheatear 248 Lanceolated Warbler 270 L Lapland Bunting 375, 383 Lapland Longspur 375, 383 Lapwing 104 Large-billed Reed-warbler 281 Laughing Dove 184 Leach's Petrel 54, 53 Leach's Storm Petrel 54, 53 Least Bittern 59 Least Sandpiper 121 Least Tern 151 Lesser Black-backed Gull 168 Lesser Crested Tern 155 Lesser Grey Shrike 337 Lesser Kestrel 83, 84 Lesser Redpoll 369, 367 Lesser Sand Plover 107 Lesser Scaup 37 Lesser Short-toed Lark 214 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker 213 Lesser White-fronted Goose 23 Lesser Whitethroat 297 Lesser Yellowlegs 133, 135 Levaillant's Woodpecker 208 Levant Sparrowhawk 74 Linnet 365 Little Auk 150 Little Bittern 59 Little Bunting 382, 383 Little Bustard 97 Little Crake 93, 92 Little Curlew 110 Little Egret 61 Little Grebe 46 Little Gull 162 Little Owl 193, 197 Little Ringed Plover 105 Little Stint 128 Little Swift 199 Little Tern 151 Long-billed Dowitcher 113 Long-billed Pipit 225 Long-eared Owl 195 Long-legged Buzzard 76 Long-tailed Jaeger 143 Long-tailed Shrike 337 Long-tailed Tit 321 Long-toed Stint 121 M Macaronesian Shearwater 51 Madeira Firecrest 313 Magpie 343 Mallard 32, 29 Manx Shearwater 51 Marmora's Warbler 287, 288 Marsh Harrier 68, 66 Marsh Sandpiper 135 Marsh Tit 322 Marsh Warbler 281, 272, 275, 283 Masked Booby 55 Masked Shrike 335 Meadow Pipit 226 Mealy Redpoll 367 Mediterranean Gull 165 Melodious Warbler 278, 275, 277, 282 Menetries's Warbler 298 Merlin 85 Mew Gull 165 Middle Spotted Woodpecker 212, 210 Mistle Thrush 268, 266 Moltoni's Warbler 291 Montagu's Harrier 72, 69 Moorhen 95 Mourning Wheatear 258 Moussier's Redstart 250 Moustached Warbler 278, 279 Mugimaki Flycatcher 315 Mute Swan 19 N Night-heron 60, 59 Nightingale 247 Nightjar 198 Nordmann's Greenshank 135 Northern Fulmar 49 Northern Gannet 55 Northern Goshawk 73, 75 Northern Harrier 71, 69 Northern House Martin 222 Northern Lapwing 104 Northern Long-eared Owl 195 Northern Pintail 33 Northern Raven 350 Northern Shoveler 35

Northern Wheatear 257 Northern Wren 243 Nubian Nightjar 198 Nutcracker 344 Nuthatch 329 O Olivaceous Warbler 274, 281, 282, 284 Olive-backed Pipit 226 Olive-tree Warbler 274, 277, 282, 296 Oriental Greenfinch 361 Oriental Reed Warbler 285 Oriental Skylark 218 Oriental Turtle Dove 184 Orphean Warbler 295, 296 Ortolan Bunting 380 Osprey 81 Oystercatcher 100 P Pacific Golden Plover 101 Pacific Loon 45 Pacific Swift 199 Paddyfield Warbler 280, 272, 275, 281, 282 Pale Sand Martin 220 Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler 270 Pallas's Leaf Warbler 305 Pallas's Reed Bunting 383 Pallid Harrier 68 Pallid Scops Owl 190 Pallid Swift 201, 199 Parasitic Jaeger 143 Parasitic Skua 143 Parrot Crossbill 370 Pechora Pipit 228 Pectoral Sandpiper 119 Penduline Tit 332 Peregrine 88 Peregrine Falcon 88 Pharaoh Eagle-owl 191 Pied Avocet 99 Pied Bush Chat 252 Pied Flycatcher 317 Pied Wagtail 238 Pied Wheatear 257 Pied-billed Grebe 46 Pin-tailed Snipe 138 Pine Bunting 377 Pink-footed Goose 23 Pintail 33 Plain Swift 199 Pochard 37 Pomarine Skua 143 Pontic Gull 177, 168 Puffin 150 Purple Heron 64, 63 Purple Sandpiper 127 Q Quail 42, 44 R Radde's Warbler 305 Raven 350 Razorbill 149, 148 Red Crossbill 370 Red Kite 67, 66 Red Knot 117 Red Phalarope 130 Red-backed Shrike 335 Red-billed Chough 346, 345 Red-breasted Flycatcher 315 Red-crested Pochard 36 Red-flanked Bluetail 245 Red-footed Falcon 87 Red-knobbed Coot 96 Red-legged Partridge 43 Red-necked Grebe 47 Red-necked Nightjar 198 Red-necked Phalarope 130 Red-necked Stint 128 Red-rumped Swallow 223 Red-rumped Wheatear 248 Red-throated Diver 45 Red-throated Loon 45 Red-throated Pipit 228 Redhead 37 Redpoll 367, 369 Redshank 137 Redstart 251, 250 Redwing 267 Reed Bunting 383 Reed Warbler 282, 272, 275 Richard's Pipit 225 Ring Ouzel 263, 264 Ring-billed Gull 165 Ring-necked Duck 37 Ring-necked Parakeet 186 Ringed Plover 106, 105

River Warbler 272 Robin 245 Rock Bunting 379 Rock Martin 220 Rock Partridge 43 Rock Pipit 231, 230 Rock Sandpiper 127 Rock Sparrow 355 Rock Thrush 261, 262 Roller 205 Rook 348 Rose-ringed Parakeet 186 Roseate Tern 160, 158 Ross's Gull 162 Rosy Starling 351 Rough-legged Buzzard 76 Royal Tern 155 Ruddy Turnstone 116 Ruff 119 Rustic Bunting 383 S Sabine's Gull 162 Sand Martin 220 Sanderling 123 Sandwich Tern 155 Sardinian Warbler 293, 290, 298 Saunders's Tern 151 Savi's Warbler 272 Scopoli's Shearwater 50 Scops Owl 190 Scottish Crossbill 370 Sedge Warbler 279 Semicollared Flycatcher 317 Semipalmated Plover 105 Semipalmated Sandpiper 128 Senegal Thick-knee 98 Serin 359 Shag 58, 56 Sharp-shinned Hawk 75 Sharp-tailed Sandpiper 119 Shelduck 27 Shikra 74 Shore Lark 218 Short-billed Dowitcher 113 Short-eared Owl 196, 195 Short-toed Lark 214 Short-toed Treecreeper 331, 330 Shoveler 35 Siberian Rubythroat 245 Siberian Stonechat 254, 253, 256 Siberian Thrush 267 Siskin 364, 359 Skylark 218 Slender-billed Curlew 110 Slender-billed Gull 163 Small Whitethroat 297 Snipe 140, 139 Snow Bunting 375, 356 Snowfinch 356 Snowy Egret 61 Solitary Sandpiper 132, 133 Song Thrush 266 Sooty Falcon 87 Sooty Shearwater 51 Sora 91 South Polar Skua 146 Southern Grey Shrike 339, 338 Spanish Sparrow 355, 353 Sparrowhawk 74 Spectacled Eider 40 Spectacled Warbler 289 Spotless Starling 352, 351 Spotted Crake 91 Spotted Flycatcher 314 Spotted Nutcracker 344 Spotted Redshank 134, 137 Spotted Sandpiper 131 Squacco Heron 61 Starling 351 Steller's Eider 40 Stilt Sandpiper 124 Stock Dove 182 Stone-curlew 98 Stonechat 256, 253 Storm Petrel 53 Striolated Bunting 379 Subalpine Warbler 291, 290 Swainson's Hawk 77 Swallow 221 Swift 199 Swinhoe's Snipe 138 Swinhoe's Storm Petrel 53 Sykes's Warbler 274, 282 Syrian Serin 359 Syrian Woodpecker 210 T Taiga Flycatcher 315 Tawny Owl 193 Tawny Pipit 224 Teal 30

Temminck's Lark 218 Temminck's Stint 121 Tengmalm's Owl 197, 193 Terek Sandpiper 137 Thekla Lark 217, 216 Thick-billed Lark 214 Thick-billed Murre 147 Thick-billed Warbler 285 Thrush Nightingale 246, 247 Tree Pipit 226, 227 Tree Sparrow 355, 353 Treecreeper 330 Tufted Duck 39, 37 Tundra Swan 20, 19, 21 Tundra/Taiga Bean Goose 21, 24 Turkestan Tit 328 Turnstone 116 Turtle Dove 184 Twite 366, 365 Two-barred Crossbill 370 Two-barred Warbler 303 U Upcher's Warbler 274, 282 Ural Owl 193 V Veery 247 Vega Gull 175 Von Schrenck's Bittern 59 W Water Pipit 229 Water Rail 91 Waxwing 241 Western Barn Owl 189 Western Bonelli's Warbler 306 Western Cattle Egret 61, 62 Western Grasshopper-warbler 270 Western Honey-buzzard 65, 77 Western Jackdaw 347 Western Marsh Harrier 68, 66 Western Olivaceous Warbler 274, 282 Western Orphean Warbler 295, 296 Western Osprey 81 Western Reef Heron 61 Western Sandpiper 128 Western Steppe Buzzard 78, 76 Western Subalpine Warbler 291, 290 Wheatear 257 Whimbrel 110 Whinchat 252 Whiskered Tern 153, 158 White Stork 64 White Wagtail 238 White-backed Woodpecker 210 White-fronted Goose 22, 24 White-rumped Sandpiper 124 White-rumped Swift 199 White-throated Dipper 242 White-throated Needletail 199 White-winged Snowfinch 356 White-winged Tern 153 White's Thrush 268 Whitethroat 299 Whooper Swan 21, 19 Wigeon 28 Willow Tit 324, 323 Willow Warbler 311, 307, 308 Wilson's Phalarope 130 Wilson's Snipe 140 Wilson's Storm Petrel 53 Winter Wren 243 Wood Sandpiper 136, 133 Wood Warbler 308 Woodchat Shrike 340, 336 Woodcock 140 Woodlark 217 Woodpigeon 182 Wren 243 Wryneck 207 Y Yelkouan Shearwater 51 Yellow Wagtail 232 Yellow-billed Chough 345 Yellow-billed Cuckoo 186 Yellow-billed Loon 45 Yellow-browed Bunting 382 Yellow-browed Warbler 304 Yellow-eyed Pigeon 182 Yellow-fronted Canary 359 Yellow-legged Gull 179, 168 Yellow-streaked Warbler 306 Yellowhammer 377 Z Zitting Cisticola 270

Index

391

INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES Figures in bold refer to the first page of the main entry in the species accounts. Other figures refer to the species mentioned in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Identificationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; section (except hybridisation cases).

A Acanthis cabaret 369, 367 Acanthis flammea 367 Accipiter badius 74 Accipiter brevipes 74 Accipiter gentilis 73, 74 Accipiter gularis 75 Accipiter nisus 74 Accipiter striatus 75 Acrocephalus aedon 285 Acrocephalus agricola 280, 272, 275, 281, 282 Acrocephalus arundinaceus 285 Acrocephalus concinens 280 Acrocephalus dumetorum 281, 272, 275, 282 Acrocephalus griseldis 285 Acrocephalus melanopogon 278, 279 Acrocephalus orientalis 285 Acrocephalus orinus 281 Acrocephalus paludicola 279 Acrocephalus palustris 281, 272, 275, 283 Acrocephalus schoenobaenus 279 Acrocephalus scirpaceus 282, 272, 275 Acrocephalus stentoreus 281, 285 Actitis hypoleucos 131 Actitis macularius 131 Aegithalos caudatus 321 Aegolius funereus 197, 193 Alauda arvensis 218 Alauda gulgula 218 Alca torda 149, 148 Alcedo atthis 203 Alectoris barbara 43 Alectoris chukar 43 Alectoris graeca 43 Alectoris rufa 43 Alle alle 150 Ammomanes cinctura 215 Ammomanes deserti 215 Anas acuta 33 Anas americana 28 Anas carolinensis 30 Anas clypeata 35 Anas crecca 30 Anas cyanoptera 30 Anas discors 30 Anas penelope 28 Anas platyrhynchos 32, 29 Anas querquedula 34, 31 Anas rubripes 32 Anas strepera 29 Anser albifrons 22, 24 Anser anser 23 Anser brachyrhynchus 23 Anser erythropus 23 Anser fabalis 21, 24 Anthus campestris 224 Anthus cervinus 228 Anthus godlewskii 225 Anthus gustavi 228 Anthus hodgsoni 226 Anthus petrosus 231, 230 Anthus pratensis 226 Anthus richardi 225 Anthus rubescens 229 Anthus similis 225 Anthus spinoletta 229 Anthus trivialis 226, 227 Apus affinis 199 Apus apus 199 Apus caffer 199 Apus melba 202 Apus pacificus 199 Apus pallidus 201, 199 Apus unicolor 199 Aquila chrysaetos 79 Ardea alba 61 Ardea cinerea 63 Ardea herodias 62, 63 Ardea melanocephala 63 Ardea purpurea 64, 63 Ardeola ralloides 61 Arenaria interpres 116 Arenaria melanocephala 116 Asio flammeus 196, 195 Asio otus 195 Athene noctua 193, 197 Aythya affinis 37 Aythya americana 37 Aythya collaris 37 Aythya ferina 37 Aythya fuligula 39, 37

Aythya marila 37 Aythya nyroca 37 Aythya valisineria 37 B Bombycilla cedrorum 241 Bombycilla garrulus 241 Botaurus lentiginosus 59 Botaurus stellaris 59 Branta bernicla 26 Branta canadensis 25 Bubo ascalaphus 191 Bubo bubo 191 Bubulcus ibis 61, 62 Burhinus oedicnemus 98 Burhinus senegalensis 98 Buteo buteo 76 Buteo buteo vulpinus 78, 76 Buteo lagopus 76 Buteo rufinus 76 Buteo swainsoni 77 C Calandrella acutirostris 215 Calandrella brachydactyla 214 Calandrella rufescens 214 Calcarius lapponicus 375, 383 Calidris acuminata 119 Calidris alba 123 Calidris alpina 124 Calidris bairdii 124 Calidris canutus 117 Calidris ferruginea 120, 124 Calidris fuscicollis 124 Calidris himantopus 124 Calidris maritima 127 Calidris mauri 128 Calidris melanotos 119 Calidris minuta 128 Calidris minutilla 121 Calidris ptilocnemis 127 Calidris pugnax 119 Calidris pusilla 128 Calidris ruficollis 128 Calidris subminuta 121 Calidris temminckii 121 Calidris tenuirostris 117 Calliope calliope 245 Calonectris borealis 50 Calonectris diomedea 50 Calonectris edwardsii 50 Caprimulgus aegyptius 198 Caprimulgus europaeus 198 Caprimulgus nubicus 198 Caprimulgus ruficollis 198 Carduelis cabaret 369, 367 Carduelis cannabina 365 Carduelis carduelis 362 Carduelis chloris 361 Carduelis citrinella 360, 359 Carduelis flammea 367 Carduelis flavirostris 366, 365 Carduelis hornemanni 367 Carduelis sinica 361 Carduelis spinus 364, 359 Carpodacus erythrinus 372 146 Catharacta skua 145 Catharus fuscescens 247 Cecropis daurica 223 Cepphus grylle 148 Certhia brachydactyla 331, 330 Certhia familiaris 330 Cettia cetti 269 Chaetura pelagica 199 Charadrius alexandrinus 107 Charadrius asiaticus 107 Charadrius dubius 105 Charadrius hiaticula 106, 105 Charadrius leschenaultii 107 Charadrius mongolus 107 Charadrius morinellus 109 Charadrius pecuarius 107 Charadrius semipalmatus 105 Chlidonias hybrida 153, 158 Chlidonias hybridus 153, 158 Chlidonias leucopterus 153 Chlidonias niger 154, 153 Chloris chloris 361 Chordeiles minor 198 Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus 163 Chroicocephalus genei 163 Chroicocephalus philadelphia 163 Chroicocephalus ridibundus 163, 165, 166

Ciconia ciconia 64 Cinclus cinclus 242 Circus aeruginosus 68, 66 Circus cyaneus 71, 69 Circus macrourus 68 Circus pygargus 72, 69 Cisticola juncidis 270 Clamator glandarius 186 Coccothraustes coccothraustes 374 Coccyzus americanus 186 Coccyzus erythropthalmus 186 Columba eversmanni 182 Columba oenas 182 Columba palumbus 182 Coracias benghalensis 205 Coracias garrulus 205 Corvus corax 350 Corvus cornix 350, 348 Corvus corone 349, 348 Corvus dauuricus 347 Corvus frugilegus 348 Corvus monedula 347 Coturnix coturnix 42, 44 Coturnix japonica 42 Crex crex 94 Cuculus canorus 187 Cuculus saturatus optatus/ horsfieldi 187 Cyanistes caeruleus 326 Cyanistes cyanus 326 Cyanistes teneriffae 326 Cygnus bewickii 20, 19, 21 Cygnus columbianus 20, 19, 21 Cygnus cygnus 21, 19 Cygnus olor 19 D Delichon urbica 222 Delichon urbicum 222 Dendrocopos leucotos 210 Dendrocopos major 210 Dendrocopos medius 212, 210 Dendrocopos minor 213 Dendrocopos syriacus 210 Dryobates minor 213 Dryocopus martius 209 E Egretta alba 61 Egretta garzetta 61 Egretta gularis 61 Egretta intermedia 61 Egretta thula 61 Emberiza buchanani 380 Emberiza caesia 380 Emberiza calandra 385 Emberiza chrysophrys 382 Emberiza cia 379 Emberiza cirlus 379, 377 Emberiza citrinella 377 Emberiza hortulana 380 Emberiza leucocephalos 377 Emberiza pallasi 383 Emberiza pusilla 382, 383 Emberiza rustica 383 Emberiza sahari 379 Emberiza schoeniclus 383 Emberiza striolata 379 Eremalauda dunni 215 Eremophila alpestris 218 Eremophila bilopha 219 Eremopterix nigriceps 215 Erithacus rubecula 245 Eudromias morinellus 109 F Falco columbarius 85 Falco concolor 87 Falco eleonorae 87 Falco naumanni 83, 84 Falco pelegrinoides 88 Falco peregrinus 88 Falco subbuteo 86 Falco tinnunculus 84 Falco vespertinus 87 Ficedula albicilla 315 Ficedula albicollis 316, 317 Ficedula hypoleuca 317 Ficedula mugimaki 315 Ficedula parva 315 Ficedula semitorquata 317 Ficedula speculigera 317 Fratercula arctica 150 Fringilla coelebs 357 Fringilla montifringilla 358

Fulica americana 96 Fulica atra 96 Fulica cristata 96 Fulmarus glacialis 49 G Galerida cristata 216 Galerida theklae 217, 216 Gallinago delicata 140 Gallinago gallinago 140, 139 Gallinago media 142, 139 Gallinago megala 138 Gallinago stenura 138 Gallinula chloropus 95 Garrulus glandarius 342 Gavia adamsii 45 Gavia arctica 45 Gavia immer 45 Gavia pacifica 45 Gavia stellata 45 Geokichla sibirica 267 H Haematopus ostralegus 100 Himantopus himantopus 99 Hippolais icterina 277, 275, 282 Hippolais languida 274, 282 Hippolais olivetorum 274, 277, 282, 296 Hippolais opaca 274, 282 Hippolais pallida 274, 281, 282, 284 Hippolais polyglotta 278, 275, 277, 282 Hirundapus caudacutus 199 Hirundo daurica 223 Hirundo rustica 221 Hydrobates leucorhous 54, 53 Hydrobates pelagicus 53 Hydrocoloeus minutus 162 I Iduna caligata 274, 280, 282 Iduna opaca 274, 282 Iduna pallida 274, 281, 282, 284 Iduna rama 274, 282 Ixobrychus eurhythmus 59 Ixobrychus exilis 59 Ixobrychus minutus 59 J Jynx torquilla 207 L Lanius collurio 335 Lanius cristatus 335 Lanius excubitor 337 Lanius isabellinus 335 Lanius meridionalis 339, 338 Lanius minor 337 Lanius nubicus 335 Lanius schach 337 Lanius senator 340, 336 Larus argentatus 175, 168 Larus armenicus 168 Larus cachinnans 177, 168 Larus canus 165 Larus delawarensis 165 Larus fuscus 168 Larus heuglini 168 Larus marinus 180, 168 Larus melanocephalus 165 Larus michahellis 179, 168 Larus ridibundus 163, 165, 166 Larus smithsonianus 175 Larus vegae 175 Leiopicus medius 212, 210 Limicola falcinellus 124 Limnodromus griseus 113 Limnodromus scolopaceus 113 Limosa haemastica 113 Limosa lapponica 115, 113 Limosa limosa 113 Locustella certhiola 270 Locustella fasciolata 272 Locustella fluviatilis 272 Locustella lanceolata 270 Locustella luscinioides 272 Locustella naevia 270 Lophophanes cristatus 325 Loxia curvirostra 370 Loxia leucoptera 370 Loxia pytyopsittacus 370 Loxia scotica 370 Lullula arborea 217 Luscinia luscinia 246, 247

392

Index

Luscinia megarhynchos 247 Luscinia svecica 248 Lymnocryptes minimus 138 M Mareca penelope 28 Mareca strepera 29 Melanocorypha bimaculata 214 Melanocorypha calandra 214 Merops apiaster 204 Miliaria calandra 385 Milvus migrans 66 Milvus milvus 67, 66 Monticola saxatilis 261, 262 Monticola solitarius 262, 261 Montifringilla nivalis 356 Morus bassanus 55 Morus capensis 55 Motacilla alba 238 Motacilla cinerea 237 Motacilla citreola 236, 232, 238 Motacilla flava 232 Muscicapa dauurica 314 Muscicapa griseisticta 314 Muscicapa sibirica 314 Muscicapa striata 314 N Netta rufina 36 Nucifraga caryocatactes 344 Numenius arquata 111, 110 Numenius minutus 110 Numenius phaeopus 110 Numenius tenuirostris 110 Nycticorax nycticorax 60, 59 O Oceanites oceanicus 53 Oceanodroma castro 53 Oceanodroma leucorhoa 54, 53 Oceanodroma monorhis 53 Oenanthe albonigra 258 Oenanthe deserti 258 Oenanthe finschii 258 Oenanthe hispanica 260, 257 Oenanthe isabellina 257 Oenanthe lugens 258 Oenanthe moesta 248 Oenanthe oenanthe 257 Oenanthe pleschanka 257 Oenanthe xanthoprymna 248 Oriolus oriolus 333 Otus brucei 190 Otus scops 190 P Pandion haliaetus 81 Panurus biarmicus 321 Parus ater 325 Parus bokharensis 328 Parus caeruleus 326 Parus cristatus 325 Parus major 328 Parus montanus 324, 323 Parus palustris 322 Passer domesticus 353 Passer hispaniolensis 355, 353 Passer italiae 354, 353 Passer montanus 355, 353 Pastor roseus 351 Perdix perdix 44

Periparus ater 325 Pernis apivorus 65, 77 Pernis ptilorhynchus 65 Petronia petronia 355 Phalacrocorax aristotelis 58, 56 Phalacrocorax auritus 56 Phalacrocorax carbo 56 Phalaropus fulicaria 130 Phalaropus fulicarius 130 Phalaropus lobatus 130 Phalaropus tricolor 130 Philomachus pugnax 119 Phoenicurus erythrogastrus 250 Phoenicurus erythronotus 250 Phoenicurus moussieri 250 Phoenicurus ochruros 250 Phoenicurus phoenicurus 251, 250 Phylloscopus armandii 306 Phylloscopus bonelli 306 Phylloscopus borealis 303 Phylloscopus brehmii 311, 308 Phylloscopus canariensis 309 Phylloscopus collybita 308, 304, 307 Phylloscopus fuscatus 305 Phylloscopus humei 304, 305 Phylloscopus ibericus 311, 308 Phylloscopus inornatus 304 Phylloscopus nitidus 303 Phylloscopus orientalis 306 Phylloscopus plumbeitarsus 303 Phylloscopus proregulus 305 Phylloscopus schwarzi 305 Phylloscopus sibilatrix 308 Phylloscopus sindianus lorenzii 308 Phylloscopus trochiloides 303 Phylloscopus trochilus 311, 307, 308 Pica pica 343 Picus canus 208 Picus vaillantii 208 Picus viridis 208 Plectrophenax nivalis 375, 356 Pluvialis apricaria 101 Pluvialis dominica 101 Pluvialis fulva 101 Pluvialis squatarola 103 Podiceps auritus 48 Podiceps cristatus 47 Podiceps grisegena 47 Podiceps nigricollis 48 Podilymbus podiceps 46 Poecile montanus 324, 323 Poecile palustris 322 Polysticta stelleri 40 Porzana carolina 91 Porzana parva 93, 92 Porzana porzana 91 Porzana pusilla 93, 92 Prunella collaris 244 Prunella modularis 243 Psittacula krameri 186 Ptyonoprogne fuligula 220 Ptyonoprogne rupestris 221, 220 Puffinus baroli 51 Puffinus gravis 50 Puffinus griseus 51 Puffinus mauretanicus 51 Puffinus puffinus 51 Puffinus yelkouan 51

Pyrrhocorax graculus 345 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 346, 345 Pyrrhula murina 373 Pyrrhula pyrrhula 373 R Rallus aquaticus 91 Ramphocoris clotbey 214 Recurvirostra avosetta 99 Regulus ignicapilla 313, 312 Regulus ignicapillus 313, 312 Regulus madeirensis 313 Regulus regulus 312, 313 Regulus teneriffae 312 Remiz pendulinus 332 Rhodostethia rosea 162 Riparia diluta 220 Riparia paludicola 220 Riparia riparia 220 Rissa tridactyla 162 S Saxicola caprata 252 Saxicola dacotiae 252 Saxicola maura 254, 253, 256 Saxicola maurus 254, 253, 256 Saxicola rubetra 252 Saxicola rubicola 256, 253 Saxicola torquatus 256, 253 Scolopax rusticola 140 Serinus canaria 359 Serinus citrinella 360, 359 Serinus corsicanus 359 Serinus mozambicus 359 Serinus serinus 359 Serinus syriacus 359 Sitta europaea 329 Somateria fischeri 40 Somateria mollissima 40 Somateria spectabilis 40 Spatula clypeata 35 Spatula querquedula 34, 30 Stercorarius antarctica 146 Stercorarius chilensis 146 Stercorarius longicaudus 143 Stercorarius maccormicki 146 Stercorarius parasiticus 143 Stercorarius pomarinus 143 Stercorarius skua 145 Sterna albifrons 151 Sterna dougallii 160, 158 Sterna forsteri 158 Sterna hirundo 158, 153 Sterna paradisaea 161, 158 Sterna sandvicensis 155 Sternula albifrons 151 Sternula antillarum 151 Sternula saundersi 151 Streptopelia decaocto 183 Streptopelia orientalis 184 Streptopelia roseogrisea 183 Streptopelia senegalensis 184 Streptopelia turtur 184 Strix aluco 193 Strix uralensis 193 Sturnus unicolor 352, 351 Sturnus vulgaris 351 Sula bassana 55 Sula dactylatra 55 Sula leucogaster 55 Sylvia althaea 297

Achevé d’imprimer en Mai 2016 par SEPEC à Peronnas (Ain, France)

Sylvia atricapilla 302, 301 Sylvia balearica 288 Sylvia borin 301, 296, 302 Sylvia cantillans 291, 290 Sylvia communis 299 Sylvia conspicillata 289 Sylvia crassirostris 295 Sylvia curruca 297 Sylvia hortensis 295, 296 Sylvia leucomelaena 295 Sylvia melanocephala 293, 290, 298 Sylvia minula 297 Sylvia mystacea 298 Sylvia nisoria 296, 295, 301 Sylvia sarda 287, 288 Sylvia undata 288 T Tachybaptus ruficollis 46 Tachymarptis melba 202 Tadorna tadorna 27 Tarsiger cyanurus 245 Tetrax tetrax 97 Thalasseus bengalensis 155 Thalasseus bergii 155 Thalasseus elegans 155 Thalasseus maximus 155 Thalasseus sandvicensis 155 Tringa erythropus 134, 137 Tringa flavipes 133, 135 Tringa glareola 136, 133 Tringa guttifer 135 Tringa melanoleuca 135 Tringa nebularia 135 Tringa ochropus 133 Tringa solitaria 132, 133 Tringa stagnatilis 135 Tringa totanus 137 Troglodytes troglodytes 243 Tryngites subruficollis 119 Turdus eunomus 267 Turdus iliacus 267 Turdus merula 264, 266 Turdus obscurus 267 Turdus philomelos 266 Turdus pilaris 265 Turdus torquatus 263, 264 Turdus viscivorus 268, 266 Tyto alba 189 U Upupa epops 206 Uria aalge 147 Uria lomvia 147 V Vanellus vanellus 104 X Xema sabini 162 Xenus cinereus 137 Z Zapornia parva 93, 92 Zapornia pusilla 93, 92 Zoothera dauma 268 Zoothera sibirica 267