THE FRANKLIN
The Science Magazine of Notting Hill & Ealing High School ◆ Autumn 2024
How
is antibiotic resistance caused, using C.
difficile and
MRSA as examples, and how are hospitals preventing these infections?
By Agnes H, Sixth form
Antibiotics are a specific type of antimicrobial agent that aims to treat bacterial infections by targeting individual, unique structures specific to a species of bacteria without causing damage to human cells1 . There are two key types of antibiotics: bacteriostatic and bactericidal 2 Bacteriostatic antibiotics are able to treat infections by interfering with the bacteria’s protein production, preventing growth and further replication of the bacteria so it can no longer grow or replicate but is still alive In contrast, bacteria kill the bacteria completely by destroying its cell wall and structure
There are strains of bacterial infections that have developed resistance to multiple antibiotic types, including C difficile and MSA C difficile stands for Clostridium Difficile. It is a type of bacterial infection that causes severe diarrhoea, often accompanied by stomach pains and a fever 3 Most humans are able to live with C difficile in their bowels without any symptoms. However, the balance of bacteria in
1 https://studymind co uk/notes/bacteria-antibiotics-and-ot her-medicines/
2 https://mdpi-res.com/bookfiles/book/6603/Antibiotic Resi stance pdf?v=1727399060
3 https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/c-difficile/
the bowel can become unbalanced after taking antibiotics, leading to an infection This is because a lack of helpful bacteria can cause C difficile to grow out of control quickly and release toxins damaging the tissues, destroying cells and causing diarrhoea 4 MSA stands for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. It is a group of gram-positive bacteria, resistant to antibiotics that are derivatives of penicillin The infection usually occurs under the skin, causing patches of skin to become painful and swollen. Despite usually living harmlessly on the skin, it can cause an infection once inside the body (for example, a cut)5
Antibiotic resistance is a serious issue being tackled in healthcare today The problem is debilitating amongst ill individuals as bacterial infections can not be treated properly. Antibiotic resistance has two key causes: incomplete antibiotic course and taking antibiotics when unnecessary When one fails to complete a course of antibiotics, some bacteria causing the infection may still be alive It is this remaining bacteria that will be most resistant to the antibiotic taken. Consequently, the almost resistant
4
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/c-difficile /symptoms-causes/syc-20351691
5 https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/mrsa/
bacteria will continue to replicate, passing on their resistance to replicated bacteria through the transfer of plasmid DNA. Over time, the population of resistant bacteria increases and, if the infection is passed to others, the bacteria causing the infection also become resistant to bacteria. Bacteria are extremely susceptible to mutations, often mutating when a drug (in this case antibiotics) attempts to interfere with it. Most of these mutations allow the bacteria to develop resistance As a result, the overuse of antibiotics is a critical cause of the rapid rise in resistant bacteria. Taking antibiotics unnecessarily, for example when you have a viral infection, causes the antibiotic to attack helpful bacteria inside your body 6 This promotes antibiotic resistance within harmless bacteria that can be spread to both harmful and other harmless bacteria through plasmid DNA
Bacteria develop antibiotic resistance through a change of genetics, seen in multiple different ways and methods. Once one bacterium mutates to become resistant to antibiotics, it is able to pass on its resistance through horizontal gene transfer This process involved plasmid DNA, small circular loops of DNA found in bacteria, being transferred through direct contact or conjugation7 A type of direct contact is transformation (see Figure 1) Here, a bacterium takes a free plasmid DNA from its surroundings that has been previously shed by other bacteria This plasmid DNA can then be coped by the bacterium before being passed onto the next generation of bacteria. During conjugation (see Figure 2), plasmid DNA can be transferred easily between bacteria The donor bacterium moves closer to the receiver using a pilus (hair-like structure on the bacterium surface) The donor cells
6
https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/consumer-he alth/in-depth/antibiotics/art-20045720#:~:text=The%20ch ange%20may%20protect%20the,and%20pass%20on% 20resistant%20properties.
7 https://asm.org/articles/2023/january/plasmids-and-the-s pread-of-antibiotic-resistance-g#:~:text=Plasmids%20ca n%20be%20transferred%20through,resistance%20gene s%20with%20their%20neighbors.
involved are able to pass over the plasmid DNA as they contain a section of DNA called the fertility factor8 . The F-factor codes for proteins which form sex pilus while also containing a site where DNA transfer during conjugation occurs The receiving cell can also become a donor cell if the fertility factor is passed onto it and thus the plasmid DNA can be passed on continuously Both methods make it clear how easily a single mutation causing one bacterium to gain resistance can lead to a now evolutionary problem amongst millions of bacteria
8 https://wwwkhanacademyorg/science/ap-biology/geneexpression-and-regulation/mutations-ap/a/genetic-variati on-in-prokaryotes
Figure 1
Figure 2
Images modified from "Conjugation, " by Adenosine (CC BY-SA 3 0)
With the rise in antibiotic resistance impacting hospitals greatly, especially with increased rates of MRSA and C difficile present in such environments, there are many measures taken place to reduce the spread of such infections. All hospital staff have to practise a strict hand washing regime, especially constantly washing hands between every patient Hospitals in the UK have introduced a Bare Below the Elbow policy This policy involves all members of
staff not wearing any item of clothing or jewellery below the elbow, preventing contagious and resistant bacteria alike to MRSA and C.difficile from attaching to clothing and jewellery, unable to be washed off Moreover, patients diagnosed with antibiotic-resistant infections are made sure to be isolated from other hospital patients and treated separately Hospital staff make sure to wear protective clothing and equipment when treating the patient in a separate room in order to prevent the bacterial infection from being passed onto other hospital staff and patients. Hospitals also make sure to prevent any bacterial infections from entering the hospital while monitoring bacterial infections inside incredibly closely When a patient is believed to have a bacterial infection, hospitals make sure to control the entrance of that person into a hospital ward by clearing hallways and making sure the patient and themselves wear protective clothing at all times, preventing spread onto hospital surfaces and thus to staff and patients
It can be argued that the most important measure taken into account to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria is a reduction in the prescription of antibiotics. Those working in the healthcare sector are taught to only prescribe antibiotics for serious bacterial infections, encouraging the patients to make sure to complete the full course of antibiotics, preventing the development of resistant bacteria by reducing selection pressure while killing the infection. By creating these strict measures for all healthcare professionals to follow, antibiotic resistance can be prevented by, as discussed earlier, preventing the two main causes for the spread and start of antibiotic resistance: overuse of antibiotics and not completing the full course
Before finishing the essay, it is imperative to evaluate some of the sources referenced throughout in order to discuss the reliability and validity of the findings and topics mentioned. One of the first websites referenced in the essay is Studymind’s page titled ‘Bacteria, Antibiotics and Other Medicines’ While the reliability of that particular page can be questioned due to the lack of references throughout the page, Studymind claims
to have ‘worked with Universities such as King's, Bristol and also organisations like the NHS’ in order to collect information. Consequently, it can be argued that Studymind is high in reliability, specifically intra-rater reliability as they will most likely use information that is consistent with multiple reliable sources as listed above The next source used in this essay that I will evaluate is the NHS page titled ‘Clostridium difficile (C. diff) infection’. The NHS is the UK’s main healthcare provider, meaning all research and findings discussed on the page will most likely be high in reliability. The page was last updated in 2022, making the information more up-to-date and thus reliable to use However, it can be argued that the page lacks population validity as the NHS is only based in the UK, meaning that most information discussed will only be
representative and thus generalisable to the UK population. The third and final secondary source that I will discuss is Mayo Clinic’s website article titled ‘Antibiotics: Are you misusing them?’ The bibliography list linked on the website article contains eight references to websites and studies used to write the article Most importantly, all referenced pages were written in 2022, increasing the reliability of the article as all information discussed is up-to-date with today’s healthcare problems Overall, all sources used in this essay contain highly reliable and valid information to produce concise and well-written articles, websites and studies
How did the work of other scientists help Crick and Watson to develop their theory for the structure of DNA?
By Olivia F C, Sixth form
Francis Crick and James Watson were the pioneering scientists credited with the discovery of the structure of DNA, winning the 1962 Nobel Prize for medicine for this discovery (1). However, they were neither the first scientists to propose such an idea nor the only scientists that were working on discovering the structure of DNA. Additionally, the work of many other scientists such as Rosalind Franklin, Friedrich Miescher, Maurice Wilkins and Phoebus Levene were essential in not only laying the groundwork for their discovery but for proving it as well
The first discovery linked to the modern model of DNA occurred in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher , a Swiss chemist He set out to isolate and characterise the protein in leukocytes (a kind of white blood cell) to increase understanding of their role in the immune system linking to the destruction of pathogens.(3) To do this Miescher used fresh puss coated bandages form a local surgical clinic. Meischer washed the bandages and collected the white blood cells by allowing them to collect at the bottom of a beaker. The nuclei of these cells were then given an alkaline extraction and then acidification leading to a previously unseen precipitate forming (1). However after subjecting the substance to rigorous testing Miescher realised that the substance had a far higher phosphorus content than other proteins, did not contain any sulphur and was more resistant to proteolysis (3)(8). Miescher dubbed this substance nuclein, the first name for DNA This discovery of Miecher's was the catalyst that brought about all subsequent research into genetic material and is therefore the foundation on not only the work of Watson and Crick but also all the scientists that came before them who's research was also only possible thanks to Miescher's work.
Now that DNA had been discovered biologists and chemists alike were eager to know more about its structure. Phoebus Levene not only discovered how DNA molecules are put together but also the three main components of nucleotides To do this he subjected them to multiple stages of hydrolysis revealing a sugar group, a phosphate group and four nitrogen bases and revealed the phosphodiester bonds that formed between the sugar and phosphate groups (2). This discovery of the building blocks of DNA by Levene was essential in its contribution to the work of Watson and Crick as without the understanding of its components and their chemical properties it would have been impossible for DNA's structure to be discovered
Levene's work was built upon by Erwin Chargaff who was inspired to look into nucleotides' and DNA's potential variation between species. Initially, Chargaff developed a chromatography method in order to extract and separate the minute amounts of genetic material he needed (3) Upon microscopic inspection this revealed that nucleotides do not repeat in the same order for every organism (contrary to what had been proposed by many scientists including Levene). But most crucially, Chargaff revealed that despite the composition of DNA varying organism to organism the chemical properties of all DNA remained the same. In all genomes he examined the amount of purine molecules and the amount of pyrimidine molecules remained the same, with the numbers of adenine corresponding to thymine and guanine to cytosine (3)(4)(8) This is known as Chargaff's Rule Chargaff's Rule provided incredibly valuable insight into not only the uniqueness of DNA but also the complementary base pairings that were paramount
to Watson and Crick's comprehensive model of DNA's structure. However, it also presented Crick and Watson with challenges relating to how these bases would fit and join together on a molecular level
Finally, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin were both using X-ray diffraction and crystallography (a process that can map physical structures by monitoring the change in directions of x-ray beams due to their interactions with electrons around nuclei) to study DNA (5). Many photos of DNA were taken using this process which resulted in the capture of photo 51 In Photo 51 the x-rays (which were scattered off of a pure beam of DNA) showed an X shape which was considered the first photographic evidence of the double Helix in DNA (6) Despite this photo being taken by Rosalind Franklin in 1952 it was Maurice Wilkins who shared this photo with Crick and Watson without her permission (3) This image allowed for Watson and Crick to focus their research on the double helix shape which they went on to prove was the true structure of DNA However, Franklin received no credit within her lifetime for her invaluable contribution, despite Wilkins getting to share the Nobel with Crick and Watson
and Watson working on their model (Science History Institute)
Using both the research of these scientists and their own research Crick and Watson were able to deduce the double helix structure of DNA They utilised their complementary backgrounds of physics and x-ray crystallography (Crick) and viral and bacterial genetics and zoology (Watson) to drive their research towards DNA's 3D structure (7) Their research combined photographic evidence such as Franklin's Photo 51 with the molecular knowledge of DNA with new model building techniques (three-dimensional structures based upon known molecular distances and bond angles, a technique advanced by American biochemist Linus Pauling (who was racing Crick and Watson to the discovery))(3). Crick and Watson applied Levene's discovery of each nucleotide's components and their linkage by phosphodiester bonds to form the sugar phosphate backbone of their model Then they applied Chargaff's Rule to link the two helixes; however, this caused them a problem. Crick and Watson's understanding of how thymine and guanine were configured was incorrect, a mistake that was only rectified due to the suggestions of Jerry Donohue (a fellow scientist) to rethink the makeup of their carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen rings, which allowed for the model to be completed (3) This led to Crick and
Photo 51 (King's College)
Crick
Watson's "suggestion for a new structure of DNA" to be published on the 25th of April 1953.
Therefore it is clear to see that the work of these (and other) scientists from 1869 onwards made
contributions to the field of chemistry and genetics without which Watson and Crick's discovery of the double helical structure of DNA would have been impossible Number Given ( )
Link/ Name of Source
1 BBC - History - Crick and Watson
2 Phoebus Levene | Discoveries & Biography | Britannica
This is a good quality resource that provides reliable information. This reliability can be proven by the fact that the BBC is a well known large scale company so the information will have passed through rigorous checks by many scientists and journalists as well as the fact that all the information provided on the site is corroborated by other websites I have used
Britannica is a reliable resource as it is a large site that is frequently visited by many people increasing the likelihood of mistakes and errors being pointed out Also, the page I used to research had been written and fact checked by the editors of encyclopaedia britannica and the information provided on the site is corroborated by other websites I have used.
3 Discovery of DNA Double Helix: Watson and Crick | Learn Science at Scitable (nature.com)
4 Chargaff's Rules: the Work of Erwin Chargaff - Journal of Biological Chemistry (jbc.org)
5 Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins | Science History Institute
6 The story behind Photograph 51 | Feature from King's College London (kcl ac uk)
Nature com is a reliable resource as it is a reputable science journal that has been publishing since 1869 and was the journal that Watson and Crick first published their ideas in. Therefore the article will have been written and checked by scientists knowledgeable in the field and the information provided on the site is corroborated by other websites I have used. Additionally it provided lots of relevant information so was of good quality.
The journal of biological chemistry is a reliable resource of quality as it provided relevant information that was corroborated by other websites I have used. Additionally, as it was a science journal the information will have been peer reviewed and fact checked.
The science history institute provided quality reliable information as the article was written by scientists and historians provided accurate information in both fields. Also, the information provided on the site is corroborated by other websites I have used
This source was used to find the photograph of Photo 51 which was the same photo used on many other sites making it a reliable picture.
7 The Discovery of the Double The nation library of medicine is a reliable resource as it is
Helix, 1951-1953 | Francis
Crick - Profiles in Science (nih gov)
8 The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins
a large site that is frequently visited by many people increasing the likelihood of mistakes and errors being pointed out as well as the fact that all the information provided on the site is corroborated by other websites I have used
Initially, I questioned this source's reliability as I found a few articles online suggesting that some of its content was disputable and influenced by Dawkins' personal opinions However, the fact that all the information provided by The Selfish Gene is corroborated by other resources means that I can use the information provided without worrying if it is inaccurate.
How Has AI Changed Healthcare?
By Esha S, Year 7
AI has an increasing potential to have a huge impact in healthcare It is helping patients and doctors by spotting diseases earlier, enabling personalised treatments and in designing new medicines.
Firstly, AI can spot diseases earlier because they can recognize patterns in the data before the symptoms arrive For example In 2018, researchers at Stanford University created an AI system that could spot skin cancer better than doctors. The AI robot was trained on thousands of images of skin problems and learned to tell the difference between cancerous and non-cancerous skin It correctly found skin cancer 86% of the time, while doctors only found it 88% of the time.
Secondly, AI could analyse a patient’s medical history, genes, and lifestyle to suggest the best treatments In 2016, AI was used to help people with cystic fibrosis, a genetic lung disease By studying the patients' genes, AI found the most effective medicines for each person. One patient who wasn’t getting better with normal treatments started improving after switching to a medicine recommended by AI. This shows how AI can help doctors find the right treatment for each person.
Finally, AI speeds up the process of creating new medicines by predicting which chemicals could work as drugs In 2020, AI helped find a potential
drug for COVID-19 in just a few weeks The AI system looked at millions of chemicals and predicted which ones might work against the virus
In conclusion, AI is clearly transforming healthcare by making diagnoses faster, treatments more personalised and drug development more efficient However, as Dr Nirupa Murugaesu, Principal Clinician in Cancer Genomics, notes, "AI applications in cancer genomics could unlock a new level of decision-support tools to enable more personalised care for patients with cancer" Despite its potential, AI cannot replace doctors, as it lacks the ability to connect with and empathise with patients on a human level
Bibliography:
Stanford Medicine (2024, April) AI skin diagnosis tools could change dermatology Stanford Medicine https://med stanford edu/news/all-news/2024/04/ai-skin-diagnosis html
Royal Papworth Hospital (n d ) Artificial intelligence healthcare award for cystic fibrosis Royal Papworth Hospital https://royalpapworth nhs uk/our-hospital/latest-news/artificial-intelligence-health-care-award-cystic-fibrosis
Pfizer (2020, December) How a novel incubation sandbox helped speed up data analysis in Pfizer’s COVID-19 vaccine trial Pfizer https://wwwpfizercom/news/articles/how a novel incubation sandbox helped speed up data analysis in pfizer s covid 19 vaccine trial
Why Do Onions Make Us Cry?
By Akshaya S, Year 8
Onions are a culinary staple, adding depth and flavor to countless dishes Yet, chopping an onion can turn even the most seasoned cook into a teary mess. So why do onions make us cry? The answer lies in a fascinating interplay of plant defense mechanisms and human biology
When an onion is cut, its cells break apart, releasing enzymes called allinases These enzymes interact with sulfur-containing compounds naturally present in the onion. This chemical reaction produces sulfenic acids. One of these sulfenic acids quickly converts into a volatile compound called syn-Propanethial-S-oxide, often referred to as the “lachrymatory factor” (LF). As this gas diffuses into the air, it reaches your eyes, where it dissolves in the tear film and forms a mild sulfuric acid The acid irritates the sensitive nerves in your eyes, prompting tear production to wash away the irritant
Onions don’t produce these chemicals just to make us cry; they are part of a natural defense mechanism These sulfur compounds are thought to
have evolved as a way for the onion to protect itself from being eaten by pests or herbivores. The tears in humans are just a side effect of a plant’s strategy to ward off potential threats
Thanks to modern science, there's even a way to reduce the tears caused by onions through genetic modification Over the years, scientists have developed "tearless onions" by suppressing the enzyme responsible for producing the lachrymatory factor This makes these onions less pungent and less likely to cause discomfort while cooking.
One variety, called Sunion, which has been developed for its low sulfur content, is now available in some markets. These onions have a much milder flavor profile, making them more pleasant to work with in the kitchen without sacrificing taste A biological solution to this historic problem.
Fossilized Faeces and Vomit: Clues to the Rise of Dinosaurs
By Satya R, Year 9
Paleontologists have uncovered an unusual treasure trove that sheds light on the rise of dinosaurs: fossilized faeces and vomit deposits. These ancient remnants, scattered across prehistoric ecosystems, offer a unique glimpse into the diets, behaviors, and ecological interactions of creatures that roamed the Earth millions of years ago
By analyzing hundreds of these fossils, researchers have begun to piece together how dinosaurs ascended to dominance during the Mesozoic Era. The findings also highlight the interplay of predator-prey dynamics and gut microbiomes in shaping evolutionary success
Fossilized faeces, known as coprolites, are invaluable for studying ancient ecosystems Unlike skeletal remains, coprolites capture direct evidence of diet, revealing what creatures ate and how they interacted with their environment Similarly, vomit deposits, often found near coprolites, provide insights into digestion and feeding habits.
Recently, paleontologists unearthed a significant collection of these fossils, dating back to the Triassic and Jurassic periods (about 200–145 million years ago) These fossils contained traces of plants, insects, small vertebrates, and even evidence of parasites, painting a vivid picture of life in ancient ecosystems
The coprolites reveal that early dinosaurs were highly adaptable eaters, capable of thriving in
diverse environments For instance, some coprolites contained traces of cycads and conifers, indicating herbivorous dinosaurs’ ability to exploit available plant life Meanwhile, carnivorous dinosaurs, like theropods, left behind faeces with fragments of bones and scales, showcasing their role as apex predators.
This dietary flexibility may have given dinosaurs a critical edge over other reptiles during periods of volcanic eruptions and climate shifts Their ability to exploit varied food sources likely contributed to their dominance in terrestrial ecosystems.
Another fascinating discovery within the coprolites is the presence of fungal spores and other microorganisms. This finding suggests that ancient dinosaurs, like modern herbivores, had gut microbiomes that helped them digest tough plant material. These microbes may have played a crucial role in enabling dinosaurs to extract nutrients from fibrous vegetation, giving them an advantage over competitors.
Interestingly, researchers are drawing parallels to modern animals For instance, a commensal fungus found in mouse guts today might be the evolutionary descendant of fungi that co-evolved with dinosaurs These symbiotic relationships, preserved in the fossil record, underscore the importance of microbes in evolutionary success
These findings offer more than just a glimpse into the past. They underscore the complexity of ancient ecosystems and the interconnectedness of diet, behaviour, and evolution By studying fossilized faeces and vomit, scientists can uncover the dynamics that allowed certain groups, like dinosaurs, to thrive while others perished
The research also highlights the importance of microbiomes and ecological interactions, which continue to shape the evolution of species today Understanding these ancient relationships could
inform conservation strategies and even inspire new biotechnological innovations.
Abstract: The far fetched idea of sending our waste into Space
By Shree M, Year 9
Annually, [1] approximately 2 billion tons of landfill waste is produced globally, which is equivalent to 24 times the circumference of the Earth. Data suggests that [2] 220 million tons of waste is generated in the UK alone - 20% industrial, 60% from construction, 20% from households and packaging - only 50% of which is recyclable and biodegradable The average [3] annual carbon footprint of one person is 4 tons; this is significantly bad because our carbon footprint [4] indicates the increase in landfill and emissions The cost of maintaining our landfill and emissions is increasing annually because of the [5] limited availability of space on Earth By 2050 [6] there is likely to have been an increase of landfill per capita of 19%, therefore enlarging our carbon footprint. Another major contributor is [7] nuclear waste, a byproduct of the nuclear industry Whilst we have humans to consider, there is also a duty of care for us to protect the wider biodiversity of the world as over 50% of different species die as a result of human intervention Diminishing the magnitude of nuclear waste is a trillion dollar problem, as the byproduct of nuclear waste unfortunately contains radioactive isotopes which, if exposed to humans, can be fatal
With recent statistics, leaders are attempting to rapidly mend the global crisis Politicians have been promoting the concept of [8] reduce, reuse, recycle. This encourages citizens to reduce their food waste, reuse plastics - metals, bags - and recycle different items in the allocated bins Alternative ways to decompose the landfill is through [9] incineration which allows certain waste products to be converted into useful energy However, none of these policies have really had
enough of an impact to a point where it’s changing the situation Recently, [10] COP29 took place in Azerbaijan, however, there was no certified agreement to reduce carbon footprint in developed countries, instead the aim was to focus on their financial situation
Moreover, a recent theory was introducing the idea of disposing waste in space, first introduced by [12] NASA’s Lewis Research Center. Essentially, the idea would be to have numerous rockets, launching under a scheduled itinerary, with containers holding bulk waste products To initiate this, rockets would travel into space into regulated zones where landfill products would be dumped, and the rockets would return to earth The concept is not new, because we already have space junk in Earth’s orbit. However, the technology innovation would be to find cost effective ways to develop rockets that are able to carry a payload of containerized waste. The Ariane 5 Rocket [13], which generally carries 7,000 kg of payload, is one example of this concept Since the world produces 1 2 million kilograms of waste annually, 168 million Ariane 5 rockets would need to be launched on a yearly basis to get rid of all the waste created by us This would cost around £33,600 million per year, disregarding the cost of resources necessary, space and the potential failure rate If the launches fail, there would be sufficient damage to the face of Earth. This example would need numerous nations investing in building rockets
The main reason why this hasn’t been discussed further is because of space junk. [14] Space junk includes broken satellites and used fuel rods that continue to orbit the Earth So, if we were to launch rockets to space, the main concern is that it would fall into the Earth’s orbit and contribute to the remaining junk To fix this, scientists need to be able to regulate the containers holding the bulk, payload and where the rocket's contents will be
Bibliography
deposited, for this scheme to work It seems likely that standard landfill waste would be easier to dump into space compared to nuclear waste given these issues
The advantages of putting waste into space were discussed in a scientific paper [15] One main benefit is that it would reduce the risk of the human race being forced to leave Earth, and another is the constant reminder that humankind is failing to dispose of waste and landfill Whilst ridding of nuclear waste may require more attention, landfill should be able to be launched with the necessary equipment There are however many disadvantages that need to be considered, such as the billion pound investment to deposit the waste every year, or a secure process to containerise nuclear waste, the process of making sure the nuclear waste does not possibly destroy other satellites in Earth’s orbit Another example could be: [16] the emission of black carbon that the rockets will radiate will highly affect our attempt to reduce waste. Black carbon emissions on Earth already contribute 1500 times more than CO2 per unit of mass Waste in space will not be cost efficient, however with recent promotionsinvolving Elon Musk and Virgin Media’s explorations, the research into whether there is any chance may be doable.
To summarise, waste in space will possibly be an idea to consider in the future, with the necessary precautions taken. Safety measures such as where the waste will be deposited, how costly it will be and what the percentage decrease of waste product will be, and therefore how this will benefit the environment
[1]https://www theworldcounts com/challenges/planet-earth/state-of-the-planet/world-waste-facts
[2]https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/uk-waste-data/uk-statistics-on-waste
[3]https://www nature org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/carbon-footprint-calculator/#:~:text=A%20 carbon%20 footprint%20is%20the,is%20close%20to%204%20 tons
[4]https://impactful.ninja/why-reducing-your-carbon-footprint-is-important/#:~:text=Carbon%20emissions%20hav e%20devastating%20effects,contribute%20to%20global%20climate%20change.
Ariane 5 Rocket
[5]https://environmentjournal online/features/waste-crisis-imminent-as-landfills-could-overflow-by-2022/#:~:text=' Even%20if%20 mattresses%20where%20the,less%20than%20 for%20 years%20 left.
[6]https://datatopics.worldbank.org/what-a-waste/trends in solid waste management.html
[7] https://education nationalgeographic org/resource/landfills/ [8]https://wwwwwf org uk/press-release/50-plant-and-animal-species-risk-climate-change#:~ https://pandaenvironmental.com/Trash-Garbage-and-Waste-Removal-Solutions-that-Don-t-Involve-a-Landfill.htm [9]https://pandaenvironmental com/Trash-Garbage-and-Waste-Removal-Solutions-that-Don-t-Involve-a-Landfill ht m
[10https://unfccc.int/cop29
[11]https://www archives gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-paris#:~:text=This%20 treaty%2C%20sign%20on%20 September,States%20as%20an%20 independent%20nation [12]https://www.discovermagazine.com/environment/waste-in-space-is-sending-trash-into-the-beyond-an-option [13]https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFFLnO6e0Es
[14]https://www energy gov/ne/articles/3-reasons-why-we-dont-launch-nuclear-waste-space
[15]https://space nss org/wp-content/uploads/Space-Manufacturing-conference-12-111-Disposal-Of-High-Level-Nu clear-Waste-In-Space.pdf
[16]Black carbon | Climate & Clean Air Coalition
What will the end of the Universe be like?
By Petra M, Year 9
The universe was created 14 billion years ago in the Big Bang, and it is currently expanding The Big Bang was not just a random explosion in a void-like area, it was a force pushing out from a singularity The universe is still expanding due to the energy left over from the original pulse Meaning that it will grow until it's inevitable end.
There are 2 major forces that will determine the end of the universe; gravity and dark energy. Dark energy is the force that pushes everything away from each other and expands the universe, while gravity attracts matter to matter and is slowing the expansion of the universe down. It is unknown which of those forces will be the end of the universe Since we don’t really understand dark energy, we won’t know whether it will increase in strength, stay constant in its strength or grow weaker
If dark energy is to stay at its constant strength, the universe will have a ‘Heat Death’ The forces
are not evened out since the universe is expanding. Which means that matter is diluting, and spreading out And since the matter is spreading out there is more empty space for dark energy to form in. The new dark energy will also push matter apart, making more empty space, increasing the expansion of the universe This is a feedback loop that will expand the universe at an exponential rate Roughly every 12 billion years it will double in diameter forever
While dark energy is keeping the universe separate, gravity will be able to keep smaller galaxy bubbles together that will overcome the push of dark energy. Our local galaxies will merge into a massive gigantic ball of trillions of stars and become a super galaxy But that will be our last view of the cosmos since everything else will be so far away After a few hundred billion years there won’t be any galaxies that can be seen and we will be alone surrounded by an infinite dark void. Then in about 100 trillion years all the stars in our super galaxy will have died and all the gas
to make new ones will have been used up And other stars like neutron stars and dwarf stars will take about a quadrillion years to cool as well, turning off the last lights in the universe
All structures will start dissolving and all of the stellar corpses will be pushed out by dark energy It will be as if each object has its own universe In the end all structures might dissolve into single particles which will be pushed apart by an ever growing empty space It will be a whole universe with just a single travelling particle moving through nothingness. That will be the true end of the universe, the ‘Big Freeze’, or ‘Heat Death’ A completely featureless cold and eternally expanding universe.
Another thing that could happen, is that dark energy increases in strength and literally rips apart all matter This scenario is called ‘The Big Rip’ In this scenario things escalate quickly, in about 20 billion years or so. Firstly, dark energy will create empty space between individual galaxies Our galaxy will leave its cluster and begin drifting alone in the expanding universe Some billion years later dark energy will start to push between individual stars, dissolving the galaxy Since we live in a star system the night sky will start looking dim and gloomy since all the stars are being pushed away from us
A few million years after the sky turns dark, dark energy will start pushing in between individual planets, life on those planets will freeze to death But a few months later, dark energy will create empty space inside solid objects. All solid objects will be ripped apart, even humans A half hour later even atoms will be destroyed since new space is being created so furiously that electrons will be pulled away from their nuclei The universe now has a fraction of a second left Dying black holes smaller than atoms will explode with the power of a trillion supernovae in a trillionth of a octillionth of a second Finally the very fabric of reality will be pulled apart obliterating spacetime itself.
The final way would be if dark energy decreases in strength. The universe would die in something called the ‘Big Crunch’. If the strength of dark energy decreases enough gravity will be able to pull everything together This would lead the universe to collapse in on itself. We don’t know when this might happen but it could be in as little as a hundred million years But what will it look like?
Well, as the universe begins to contract, over billions of years, galaxies and galaxy clusters will approach each other until they eventually collide. Over time, galaxies and then stars will get closer and closer Planets and stars will eventually collide but that is not the worst problem, if space itself shrinks all the radiation that has been released by quasars, supernovae, blackholes and other things will be concentrated in one area. The empty space will be radiation and the “nothing” will heat up and make life everywhere unpleasant and then impossible since all the planets will just burn.
Slowly at first, but then increasingly space will get as hot as it was just after the big bang. Stars are hot but since the space around them is even hotter, they will boil from the outside in As the universe collapses, all galaxies and all stars will merge into a single ball of hot plasma And that will be the end of the ‘Big Crunch’ From here on there are two possibilities. Either the universe will collapse completely into a singularity, a point of zero size and infinite density, without space and time The way it probably was before the big bang. Or it could bounce back, restarting the expansion of the universe But we have zero evidence of this happening before or that it will in the future.
But what will happen? Most scientists believe that dark energy will stay constant and the universe will face a heat death. This seems bad but in fact this means that the universe will be alive for the longest It gives us trillions of years to expand, jump from star to star, maybe even galaxy to galaxy We might even find a way to keep
consciousness around forever We don’t know though, so we'll just have to wait and see.
Bibliography: Kurzgesagt - How to destroy the Univers
Stem Cell Therapy and Autism
By Manya V, Year 9
For a bit of context, my sister was diagnosed with ASD when she was about 7. Although ASD is evidently simply a different ability, there are still things which people diagnosed with ASD are unable to do on their own, which can vary depending on where they are on the spectrum.
Now, in neuroscience, the brain is categorised into two sections: the higher and lower brain. The higher brain is responsible for the logical thinking that a person may do, for example while doing work, or making decisions; while the lower brain is responsible for the more animalistic side of decision making, for example instincts In children with autism, the lower brain is slightly underdeveloped, which is why they tend to experience behavioural issues
Dr. Alok Sharma is known for his work in utilizing stem cell therapy as a treatment approach for children with autism His research focuses on the potential of stem cells to repair and regenerate damaged neural pathways that are believed to contribute to the symptoms of autism
In his treatment protocol, he often uses mesenchymal stem cells, which are derived from umbilical cord tissue or bone marrow These cells are thought to have the ability to modulate the immune system, reduce inflammation, and promote neurogenesis, which could help improve cognitive and behavioral functions in autistic children.
He then injects these cells into the spinal fluid of these children, so it can therefore travel directly to the brain. Then, the cells travel to the lower part of the brain and form all the nerves and brain tissue that is required to fully develop the lower brain. The higher brain does not take any of these stem cells as it is already fully developed
Clinical trials and case studies conducted by Dr. Sharma suggest that some children experience improvements in communication, social skills, and overall behavior after receiving stem cell therapy However, it's important to note that this area of research is still evolving, and further studies are needed to fully understand the efficacy and safety of stem cell treatments for autism
Dr. Sharma emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive treatment plan, which may include therapy, educational support, and family involvement, alongside stem cell therapy to achieve the best outcomes for children with autism
Bibliography: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4eC-qblPHU
What would happen if the Moon disappeared or exploded?
By Jaya I, Year 9
If the Moon were to explode or disappear, Earth would cease to exist as we know it The Moon controls the tides by using a gravitational force, it also moderates Earth’s wobble on its axis which our relatively stable climate is reliant on Without the Moon our ecosystems would crumble leaving Earth uninhabitable. (1)
The Moon is a large astronomical body which acts as a natural satellite for Earth It is about four times smaller than Earth (according to NASA) yet exploding it is next to impossible Theoretically, in order to explode the Moon 600 billion Tsar Bombas (most powerful nuclear bomb ever created) would be needed
Upon the Moon’s destruction moon rocks ranging enormously in size would spread across space. Some would float into the abyss while others would speed towards Earth due to our gravitational force Smaller rocks would most likely burn up upon gaining speed while giant rocks would be travelling much slower and thus not necessarily create a huge impact. However, as a result of the endless barrage of debris in our atmosphere the Earth would start to heat up significantly to a point of incinerating all life (2)
Having said that, if the Moon simply disappeared Earth would die in various other ways Firstly, the Moon controls Earth’s tides because the Moon and the Earth exert a gravitational pull on eachother The Moon’s gravitational pull causes the oceans to bulge outwards on both the closest and furthest side to the Moon These bulges cause high tides
The Moon’s gravitational pull as well as other tangential forces result in Earth’s waters being redistributional. Most shorelines experience two high and two low tides per day due to the Earth’s landmass rotating through the bulges Of course the tide is also affected by variables such as continents, the shape of the Earth, the depth of the ocean etc
(3)Nonetheless, without the Moon, Earth's oceans would experience far lower tides (about ⅓ of what they are now) which could lead to detrimental effects on animals in coastal ecosystems who rely on tides to survive e g crabs, mussels and starfish This could then result in a domino effect leading to mass extinction of other land or marine animals. (4)
(4)
Another consequence would be that seasons change or vanish completely. The Moon holds the Earth at a 23. 5 degree tilt. We have days because the Earth spins on its axis creating night and day, but we have seasons because the Earth orbits around the Sun in an elliptical (elongated circle) that requires 365 ¼ days to complete So, seasons are dependent on how the axis is tilted to the sun For example, the Northern Hemisphere is most tilted towards the sun in late June and away from the sun in late December This correspondence is what causes summer and winter and is reversed for the Southern Hemisphere. During march and September for both hemispheres earth is tilted 90 degrees away from the sun which is known as autumn and spring. (5)If the Moon were to disappear there would be nothing stabilising Earth’s tilt Leading to no seasons if it moved into no tilt or extreme weather and even ice ages if it moved into a larger tilt. (6)
(7)
In addition to no tides and no seasons a missing Moon would affect all animals differently Most animals, particularly birds, rely on the Moon during migration and for navigation. In fact, The Lund University in Sweden have done a study showing that the presence or absence of moonlight has a considerable influence on when migratory birds take flight during autumn. They specifically studied the activity of 39 European Nightjars over a one-year period and their three month long migration flight to areas south of the Sahara. Their results were fascinating They discovered that the birds would hunt insects during the full moons (as the most light was provided for them to see flying prey) and the next part of the migration proceeded ten days after the full moon Therefore, without the Moon migration patterns could crumble and birds
Bibliography
would have less food intake leading to decreased energy levels for long journeys.(8)
To conclude, the Moon is an essential part of Earth’s existence and without it life would be impossible The seas would be still, extinction would prevail and Earth would become just like any other uninhabitable rock In the end we must be fascinated by how substantial the Moon is and hope that it never explodes or disappears
(1) https://science nasa gov/moon/ (2) https://wwwyoutube com/watch?v=rM-4ocneCEc (3) https://science nasa gov/moon/tides/ (4)(6) https://www rmg co uk/stories/topics/what-would-happen-if-moon-disappeared (5) https://wwwweathergov/lmk/seasons# (7) https://wwwwave3 com/2020/09/11/behind-forecast-why-our-seasons-change/ (8) https://www sciencedaily com/releases/2019/10/191016124625 htm
Harold the Haematoma and Leaonard the Lump
By Frankie S, Year 10
Cerebrospinal fluid, otherwise known as CSF protects and cushions the brain and other intracranial structures. This minimises damage, while also removing waste. It is colourless and clear, and carries needed chemicals such as oxygen and glucose, from the blood to the neurons It continuously flows through the spinal cord and the brain’s cavities, including the ventricles, as well as around the brain, brainstem and spinal cord CSF contributes to homeostasis, it mechanically and chemically protects the brain and it acts as a shock absorber to protect the brain’s delicate tissue It chemically protects it as it is an environment that allows signalling in the brain to be accurate.
When there is a build-up of CSF the result is hydrocephalus, this excess fluid increases the pressure in your head, potentially causing damage to your brain Hydrocephalus used to be known as ‘water on the brain’ but is no longer called so since it is not water but CSF. Hydrocephalus causes headaches, dizziness, difficulty walking and sometimes vomiting.
There are three types of hydrocephalus, congenital, acquired and normal pressure hydrocephalus Congenital hydrocephalus is present at birth, where a baby is born with excess CSF in his or her brain This can be caused by infection to the mother when the baby is in the womb. Babies born with congenital hydrocephalus have a high risk of brain damage due to the pressure put on their brain, they face many problems in later life, including difficulty with memory and speech. Normal pressure hydrocephalus, occurs in those over 60 in most cases the cause is unknown, but we know it can sometimes develop after a stroke or injury, it often presents as dementia, mobility problems and urinary incontinence common symptoms of other illnesses that occur at this age, such as Alzheimer’s, making it hard to diagnose. Acquired hydrocephalus
occurs in children or adults, normally developing after illness or injury, common causes are serious head injuries, or complications such as a brain tumour
In this specific case it was a brain tumour in a child that caused the hydrocephalus The pineal region is part of the brain that drains the CSF daily, 500ml of CSF is produced every day for an adult and 65-150ml for children 4-13. This specific tumour was located near the pineal gland, which produces the hormone melatonin, which helps control sleep The pineal tumour meant that the cerebrospinal fluid could not drain properly putting pressure on the brain, the tumour was discovered during a routine eye test, the optic nerve was swollen due to the pressure it was being put under, this is called papilledema When the tumour was found a small part of it was removed to see if it was cancerous, and unfortunately it was.
The child who had the tumour named it Leonard the lump.
Instead of removing the tumour completely, a shunt was inserted, a shunt is used to drain the CSF into the abdomen where it can be absorbed into the blood
The child named the shunt Sheila.
Many things can go wrong with a shunt surgery, a shunt can be blocked causing pressure to be put on the brain again, in babies the CSF may travel down the side of the shunt instead of inside of it and can sometimes leak out of the wound. Occasionally there is bleeding when the shunt is being placed, potentially causing weakness on one side of the body, nerve problems, there is also a small risk of fits after the surgery. Shunt infections are also possible and are relatively common
The problem that occurred after the surgery was overdrainage, too much CSF was being drained from the brain, thus causing a subdural haematoma to occur, a subdural haematoma is when blood collects between the skull and the surface of the brain. This subdural haemotoma occured because the ventricles collapsed, which tore the blood vessels Subdural haemotomas cause pressure to be put on the brain, otherwise known as intracranial hypertension, potentially damaging the brain’s tissue
The child named the Haematoma Harold.
A Subdural Haematoma can present as a headache, nausea and vomiting, personality changes and severe mood swings and loss of consciousness
Subdural Haemotmas can be treated with a craniotomy or Burr holes. A craniotomy is a surgical procedure where a part of your skull is removed to
Bibliography
National Library of Medicine
Hydrocephalus Association
NHS
Macmillan Cancer info and support
John Hopkins Medicine
expose the brain, the bone flap is removed temporarily, the haematoma is suctioned out and irrigated. Then the bone is replaced and secured with metal plates or screws Burr holes are when small holes are drilled into the skull with a surgical drill, then a small flexible rubber tube is inserted to drain the haematoma
After surgery there are chances of further bleeding, infection and seizures Luckily, none of these have been recorded post-op
After, a new shunt was fitted that was adjustable, so as the child grew they could drain the correct amount of Cerebrospinal Fluid from the brain The science surrounding CSF and hydrocephalus is a relatively untouched field and so efforts of this kind are key to the future of treatment
Genome Editing: The Power to Rewrite Life’s Blueprint
By Esha R, Year 11
Imagine a world where we could cure inherited diseases, create crops that resist drought, and even develop treatments for illnesses once thought incurable Genome editing is making these possibilities a reality By giving scientists the ability to make precise changes to DNA, this revolutionary technology is reshaping medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of biology
At the heart of this revolution is CRISPR-Cas9, a tool that works like a pair of molecular scissors, snipping DNA at just the right spot to fix or enhance it But genome editing isn't just a technical marvel it’s a story of human ingenuity, hope, and the promise of a healthier future
Think of DNA as the instruction manual for life. Every living thing, from bacteria to humans, relies on this manual to function. Sometimes, errors creep in, leading to genetic diseases or vulnerabilities. Genome editing allows scientists to go into the manual and fix those typos
The CRISPR-Cas9 system, one of the most famous tools, is inspired by bacteria Scientists discovered that bacteria use CRISPR as a defense mechanism, slicing up invading viruses. Today, researchers have adapted this system to precisely target and alter specific sections of DNA in plants, animals, and humans.
Other tools, like TALENs and ZFNs, offer similar capabilities, but CRISPR’s ease of use and accuracy have made it the superstar of genome editing.
For patients with genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia, genome editing offers something unheard of: hope for a permanent cure In clinical trials, CRISPR has been used to edit the faulty gene responsible for this painful condition, allowing patients to produce healthy blood cells for the first time
Cancer research is also harnessing genome editing Imagine using CRISPR to engineer immune cells into powerful cancer fighters, tailored to target and destroy tumors Scientists are already testing this approach in patients with promising results
And it doesn’t stop there Genome editing is being explored as a way to eliminate viruses like HIV and prevent them from ever reactivating in infected individuals.
Agriculture is another area where genome editing is making waves. By tweaking the genes of crops, scientists are creating plants that can thrive in harsher conditions For example, rice that grows in salty soils or wheat that resists pests could help feed millions, especially in regions hit hard by climate change
Genome-edited crops aren’t just about survival; they can also be healthier Imagine tomatoes that stay fresh longer or bananas fortified with essential nutrients to combat malnutrition.
Invasive species and diseases threaten biodiversity worldwide. With genome editing, scientists are exploring ways to control these threats. One project is using CRISPR to edit the genes of mosquitoes, reducing their ability to spread malaria a disease that kills hundreds of thousands every year.
Genome editing is still in its early days, but its impact is already profound. For patients living with debilitating diseases, it offers hope. For farmers, it provides solutions to feed a growing population And for society, it opens doors to innovations we can barely imagine today.
An Analysis Of Potential Alternatives to Chemical Rocket Fuel
By Olivia F C, Sixth form
The pursuit of an improved form of space travel is an ongoing one, however it is limited by the constraints of the current understandings of chemical and aerospace engineering In this essay I aim to discuss the problems with current methods of fueling space travel and the limitations it produces, then I will discuss potential alternatives (such as utilising fission, fusion, matter-antimatter annihilation and dark matter) analysing their potential and advantages as well as disadvantages and incompatibilities with the modern technology possessed by major space corporations.
The modern rockets of today primarily use two types of fuel: liquid (liquid hydrogen) or solid (Nitromethane) rocket propellant, both fuel types are combined with an oxidiser (usually liquid oxygen). Moreover, gas fuel rockets use propellant in the gas phase and hybrid rockets use a combination of solid and liquid or gaseous propellants The problem with this is that in order to accelerate any object with mass (which despite the increasing efficiency of engineering- rockets still have large quantities of) an impulse must be imparted on it in order to change its momentum. The aim is to produce as great an impulse as possible to result in the optimum velocity of the rocket. In a conventional rocket the impulse is provided by the fuel undergoing a combustion reaction (accelerated by the oxidising agent) which produces impulse in the form of thrust The main problem with this method is it is incredibly inefficient- which is incredibly limiting This is due to two things; the first is fuel inefficiency The optimum fuel for spacecraft would have a 100% efficiency yet the majority of chemical based reactions have varying low efficiencies with nuclear fuel (that is being developed by NASA and SpaceX) only being 0.1% (1). The reason for this is that the chemical
reactions that allow the thrust to be produced rely on electron transition between the reacting atoms (which result in an average of 5 eVs of energy being transferred) The second problem is the mass of fuel that must be carried by the rocket to power the journey The Saturn V, the rocket that took Neil Armstrong into space weighed over 280,000 kg and over 75% of that mass was fuel. This creates a cycle of increased mass requiring increased fuel resulting in increased mass and so on Even the world's lightest rocket (Japan's SS-520-5) weighed 2600 kg and of that 2000 kg were propellants. Therefore, it is clear to see that traditional chemical combustion rocket engines are both lacklustre and unsustainable.
NASA announced it had been working on a fission fragment rocket engine (FFRE) in 2023 that claimed to be "exponentially more propellent efficient than rocket engines currently used to power today’s space vehicles and could achieve very high specific impulse (>100,000 sec) at high power density (>kW/kg)" The design involves a low density nuclear core that converts the nuclear energy from the fissile material into a high velocity exhaust as well as powering all the electricity that is needed while the rocket is in flight In order to ensure that critical mass is reached (which has been an issue when fission powered rockets have been proposed previously) NASA plans to embed the fissile material in a "ultra-low density" aerogel matrix Additionally, both NASA and SpaceX have presented different models of superconducting magnets to prevent the fission fragment trajectories spanning to large an area, minimising the reactor's volume and mass. Both these iterations allow the fission fragments to escape the core while simultaneously increasing heat loss via radiation and conduction from the reactor, greatly increasing stability. The positives to
this design were that it not only had a much higher percentage yield of energy vs the chemical combustion engine but it also needed a fraction of the fuel due to fission requiring far fewer particles and no oxidising agent However, the size of the fission reactors needed is prohibitively massive and produces uncontrolled thermal energy at a rate that can not be made steady enough to ensure safe and stable flight on a consistent trajectory. Moreover, these designs' safety relies on technology such as dusty plasma levitation (which prevents dust escaping using a parallel plate cathode which also discharges plasma dust particles) which is currently underdeveloped and has not undergone the rigorous safety testing required
Similarly, prominent space corporations such as NASA have begun to research fusion as an alternative to chemical rocket fuel. However, the current research has many problems; the application of current fusion reactor models (designed for power stations) creates a colossal mass for the rocket to have to propel as well as levels of heat energy that can not be stabilised (especially in such an unpredictable environment as deep space) leading to rejection problems. However, if established a fusion powered rocket would be revolutionary This is mainly due to a fusion rocket's power source releasing energy directly into the propellant, which excludes the step of conversion into electricity Moreover, the propellant in this case would be solid Lithium which removes the necessity for tank infrastructure that is needed with liquids or compression technology which would be necessary for gas In addition to this (once working) a fusion driven power source would cause significantly less damage to the rocket itself This is due to the propellant not interacting with the main body of the rocket at all, neither while the propellant is heated nor while it is accelerated to a high exhaust velocity, which alongside technology such as the 'Chopstick Arms' (responsible for catching SpaceX's Starship) can improve the sustainable nature of space exploration through equipment reuse immensely Yet most excitingly, in a NASA publication by Loura Hall states that "it is believed that the FDR [Fusion Driven Rocket] can be
realised with little extrapolation from currently existing technology, at high specific power (~ 1 kW/kg), at a reasonable mass scale (<100 mt), and therefore cost " If this prediction is correct then a method of interplanetary space travel that does not produce immense volumes of greenhouse gas emissions could be much closer than previously thought
Matter-Antimatter Annihilation is the destruction of matter and antimatter particles when they collide, due to their equal yet opposite properties. The particles that would be used in any practical application of this process would be positrons (antimatter) and electrons (matter) which are forced to collide in high energy cosmic reactions or in large hadron colliders such as CERN This results in an explosion of almost pure radiation which is emitted from the explosion at the speed of light and the entire mass of the particles annihilated is transferred into energy This energy is primarily released as gamma rays which can be harnessed for propulsion. Matter-Antimatter Annihilation would be so successful if harnessed due to the energy that is emitted being pure and having a high percentage efficiency which would allow for unprecedented energy levels to be reached and sustained over long distances allowing for spacecraft to be able to reach deeper into space in less time which optimises the potential for experiments that require quick response such as analysing radioactive isotopes. It also removes ethical barriers that can impact space travel such as people having to spend a large fraction, sometimes even a majority, of their lives in space to explore even near planets such as Mars, yet with annihilation driven engines these ethical dilemmas are less restrictive The primary difficulties and disadvantages of this type of alternative engine power lie with the creation and storage of the antimatter Creating antimatter requires a vast initial energy input that can even, in some cases, outweigh the energy yield of the reaction. Moreover, the storage of the antimatter or space crafts consists of the storage of frozen pellets of antihydrogen This involves rapid cooling of antiprotons and positrons (to form the antihydrogen) and then the capture of produced molecules, which
as of 2010 has only managed to be successful on a scale of only a few atoms.
Finally, another potential alternative to traditional chemical rocket fuel is dark matter propulsion. For every proton's mass worth of normal matter, there's five times as much dark matter, resulting in more mass and gravitational potential than anything previously detected Therefore, if it can be harnessed, its potential for providing energy both within the space sector and on earth (as an alternative to coal, oil and gas) promises immense improvement in both the environmental and academic exploration sector Unlike in matter antimatter annihilation, where large amounts of energy are needed to produce the antimatter, dark matter is seemingly omnipresent in the universe meaning it would only have to be captured not created The unique advantage of this is that dark matter's ubiquitous nature means that if harnessed as a form of fuel it would not need to be transported and as previously discussed, the type of fuel used is only half the issue, the incredibly large volume of fuel that is needed (and the increased mass of the spacecraft is the result) is also extremely relevant. Therefore, the use of dark matter as an alternative to chemical rocket fuel would instantly increase efficiency via decreasing the mass of fuel that needs to be transported Once the dark matter has been harnessed and placed in conditions with greater pressure than deep space there is an
Editors’ notes
Thank you to all who make publishing The Franklin possible. We are very grateful to be a part of this fun yet educational magazine and hope you all enjoyed our articles!
Contents
How is antibiotic resistance caused, using C.difficile and MRSA as examples, and how are hospitals preventing these infections? 1-4
increased likelihood of collisions Due to dark matter being made of both fermions (particles with half integer spins) and bosons (particles with full integer spins) it can be made up of both its own matter and antimatter particles Therefore, these collisions can result in dark matter annihilation that (like pure matter-antimatter annihilation) has an efficiency of 100%
To conclude, there are several potential alternatives to chemical rocket fuel that are current subjects of research that tackle the problems of fuel efficiency as well as impacts of the weight of excess fuel on production of thrust However, there are still many constraints on these alternatives such as the weight of current infrastructure as well as the development needed in the production and harnessing of these fuels in order to make them viable alternatives Yet it is clear to see the positive impacts that cleaner and more efficient fuel will have not only in interplanetary exploration (both in terms of pushing the boundaries of how far spacecraft can travel and how fast) but also in how we fuel machinery and industry globally
As we explore the potential of genome editing, it’s important to remember the human stories at its heart families hoping for a cure, communities striving for food security, and researchers working tirelessly to turn possibilities into reality.
faeces and vomit: clues to the rise of dinosaurs?
Abstract: The far fetched idea of sending our waste to space 11-13
will the end of the universe look like? 14-15
What would happen if the moon exploded or disappeared? 17-18
Harold the Hematoma and Leanard the Lump 19-20
Genome editing: the power to rewrite life's blueprint 21
An analysis to potential alternatives to chemical rocket fuels 22-24