THE FRANKLIN
The Science Magazine of Notting Hill & Ealing High School ◆ Spring 2023
Can Chatbots Be Trusted?
By Adeline Goh, 9G
ChatGPT and other chatbots have triggered a huge explosion in the news, with a lot of concern about taking jobs, over-reliance on machines and much more But how do they actually work? Are they really artificial intelligence? What separates a chatbot from a human? continued
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^ ChatGPT can be asked questions about almost anything.
To start, we must understand what they are and how they work ChatGPT and other chatbots are all LLMs Also known as Large Language Models, these are essentially just mathematical models; they are probability distributions over sequences of words They all work via Natural Language Processing, or NLP, which is analysis of natural speech, generally to produce suitable responses Some common examples of LLMs include speech
recognition (like with Alexa), OCR or Optical Character Recognition (transforming images of text into machine encoded text) and information retrieval (Google Search, etc.).
They work through this statistical distribution of words in human-generated text When given a prompt, eg “The capital of France is”, instead of just ‘knowing’ the answer as a human would, it instead finds the words most likely to follow the prompt In this case, the most statistically probable answer would be “Paris” from sources in its database
^ Using the information from its database, ChatGPT is able to accurately answer the question
In order to learn the structure and relationships between words, LLMs require large datasets; this helps generate a more accurate result since it is so heavily based on probability In aid to statistical analysis, LLMs have a lot of different algorithms to make this work
This puts a huge distinction between humans and LLMs; comparing the thought process of a human to the algorithm of an LLM really illustrates the difference and how far off we are from the general idea of ‘Artificial Intelligence’ and sentient robots Back to the example I initially used, if a human were to be asked “What is the capital of France?”, they would consider various things. They would understand that the question came from another person, and that this person would hear their answer and it could have an effect on their beliefs (all of which an LLM cannot) This is communicative intent, where the person is aware of the impact on the person who asked a question; it is something that LLMs do not possess
On the other hand, LLMs are not inherently conversational; yes, they can generate appropriate responses conforming to conversation-like behaviour, but this dialogue is only facilitated by probability. Part of LLMs generating answers is through prefixes, or prompts, that can generate a relevant response If it were to be responding to the question “What is the closest star to Earth?”, it could generate the prompt “The closest star to the Sun is” followed by the most statistically probable answer, which would be “Proxima Centauri”. LLMs do not ‘know’ things as humans do; they completely lack the concepts of true and false and their answers to questions will always be based solely off of probability.
This presents potential for several different problems
Due to the fact that they work off the data in their datasets, they are prone to bias depending on the information in these The most statistically probable answer will be the most frequently occurring, so if the data were to be biased in some way it would impact the responses of the chatbot This also provides potential for
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the production of false information presenting as factual Sucincidents are known as hallucinations Contradictory statements are also likely to occur
There is also another huge problem for users, that being the lack of transparency in results The user cannot determine how the chatbot came to its conclusion (like looking at multiple sources on Google), so that puts a huge question on its reliability.
While chatbots do not fit our current perception of artificial intelligence and are prone to several different errors, it is important to remember what a remarkable advancement they are, created from a relatively simple concept They are undoubtedly a step towards actual AI; however, we still have a long way to go before we create a truly intelligent machine capable of thinking and knowing as a human does
^ Here, ChatGPT makes a mistake It works probabilistically rather than deterministically (meaning it can’t actually calculate the answer and instead must rely on information in its database) so it is prone to mistakes in mathematical calculations
References:
hitechnectarcom/blogs/here-are-the-top-nlp-language-m odels-that-you-need-to-know/
vitalflux com/large-language-models-concepts-examples/ ?utm content=cmp-true
Talking about Large Language Models - Murray Shanahan, Imperial College
^ The actual answer to the first part of the question, solved by an actual calculator
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Breakthrough in nuclear fusion energy production
By Amrit Mander 12 PS
Scientists have been trying to recreate nuclear fusion on earth since the 1960’s, and on 13th December 2022 a major breakthrough was made. For the first time in 60 years of experimenting, researchers at the National Ignition Facility at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in California announced that they produced more energy in a fusion experiment than was put in. Using a 192 beam laser to input 2.05 MJ of energy, they outputted 3 15 MJ of fusion energy
As compared to how nuclear energy is produced currently (fission), fusion is more environmentally friendly and is even referred to as the “holy grail” of energy production It produces no radioactive waste, instead working with hydrogen, which can cheaply be extracted from renewable sources such as seawater, so fuel supplies are limitless. It works by heating the hydrogen atoms which causes them to fuse and release energythree to four times the amount released by fission, which is already almost 8000 times more efficient than coal.
Although the researchers made a significant development in regards to nuclear fusion, there is still a long way to go. Despite energy output being more than the energy inputted by the laser beam, not counted was how much energy was needed to actually power the laser In addition, the experiment at the National Ignition Facility costs about $3 5 billion dollars, and the energy produced in the recent success was only enough to power approximately 15-20 kettles
References:
bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-63957085
bbc co uk/news/science-environment-63950962
What is absolute zero and why is it impossible to reach?
By Farah Nehor - Raune, 9S
Absolute zero is the lowest theoretically possible temperature where the movement of heat-generating particles would be minimal It is commonly defined as 0 Kelvin (K) on the Kelvin temperature scale, -273 15 degrees on the Celsius scale (°C) or -459.67 degrees on the Farenheit scale (°F) Not all the movement of molecules stops at absolute zero but the energy obtained from the movement of molecules (e g heat energy) cannot be transferred to other systems, and therefore it is correct to say that the energy at absolute zero is minimum The reason why it is impossible to reach absolute zero is due to the third law of thermodynamics.This law states that it is impossible to reach absolute zero in a finite number of steps therefore making this temperature theoretically impossible to reach, as it would require infinite amounts of energy. In practice, scientists have been able to reach temperatures very close to absolute zero; however, even in these extreme conditions, there is still residual thermal energy in the system, which means that absolute zero remains an unattainable goal.
References:
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2023) Absolute zero | Definition & Facts. Available at: britannica com/science/absolute-zero
Gainey, C (2019) Racing toward Absolute Zero Available at: blogs scientificamerican com/observations/racing-toward -absolute-zero/
Delbert, C (2022) Scientists Got Close to Reaching Absolute Zero Available at: popularmechanics com/science/a38967844/reaching-abs olute-zero/
Morrison, R. (2021) Scientists create the coldest temperature EVER recorded in the lab Available at:dailymail co uk/sciencetech/article-10072549/Scientists -create-coldest-temperature-recorded-lab.html
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Moons of our solar system
By Caitlin Fernandez Antao , 9D
Our solar system is made of 8 planets that contain 219
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, Phobos being
moons within them, each having different modifications to their moons that correlate to the planet that they belong to The Earth has 1 moon, Mars has 2 moons, Jupiter has 92 moons, Saturn has 83, Uranus has 28 and Neptune has 14
Our moon rotates and completes its full orbit around the earth in a total of 27 days to complete The moon has a varied amount of roles connected to Earth, for example, the moon controls the tides of our seas, how strong they are and when they come in
the larger moon between the two. Both moons orbit Mars around 3 times a day Phobos contains a 6 km wide crater that has been named Stickny that was caused when a meteor crashed into it with such force that it did actually end up leaving a patterned mark all over the moon Deimos on the other hand, is only 6 3km wide meaning that it is only a bit larger than the crater on Phobos and is said to actually be moving away from Mars meaning that eventually not be in orbit of the planet at all, unlike Phobos which is said to be crashing into Mars itself
Jupiter actually has 92 moons, however the main one is named Europa. There are 4 Galilean moons that are known to be Jupiter and Europa is said to be the smallest between them even though it is the sixth largest moon in the solar system One of reasons that it is such an important moon is because of the fact that it is a possibly suitable area that humans could possibly live in in the future due to the fact that it is said to
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contain two times more salt-water than on the earth itself
Saturn has 83 moons, however its most important moons are Rhea and Titan, which are its two largest moons Titan is the second largest moon within our solar system and is said to be one of the only other areas in the solar system that is suitable for humans to possibly live on in the future. This is mainly because Titan contains water for humans to survive in and has a very thick atmosphere that would protect us from radiation Rhea on the other hand, is the ninth largest moon in the solar system and contains three rings like its planet Saturn that are thin and narrow
Uranus has 28 moons, its main ones being Ariel and it takes roughly 2 and a half days to orbit Ariel. It is roughly 190,000km away from the planet itself and is the fourth largest moon out of the 28 that Uranus has in total It is said to be less than 100 million years old which means that the moon may still be geographically active due to the fact that it is relatively young Fun fact - in the book the Tempest, Ariel the fairy is named after the moon of Uranus
Neptune has 14 moons, its biggest being Triton This moon was discovered in 1846 and is roughly 4 billion
What is Epigenetics?
By Rithi Bliawar, SF-HLD
In simple terms, epigenetics relates to changes (particularly heritable changes), in the gene expression of an organism, without any changes to the DNA sequence itself However unlike genetic changes, epigenetic changes are reversible, and don’t change the base sequence of your DNA Our environment brings about epigenetic changes Individual factors include our diet, alcohol intake, and whether we smoke or not. External factors include pollution and radiation
Histone modification describes the adding of a chemical tag to a histone group, in order to reduce or bolster gene expression The different types include acetylation, phosphorylation, and methylation. By adding an acetyl group/methyl group/phosphorus to histone tails, genes
years old which really puts the age of Ariel into perspective It is made up of 45% of volatile ice and water and is roughly 15 5% of the earth's surface area Titan also has a toxic atmosphere due to the fact that it is 95% nitrogen and 5% methane which is split apart by the sun’s ultraviolet rays People wouldn’t really be able to live there because you would still need to wear respirators to help us breathe in oxygen and survive. There were also traces of cyanide found in Triton in 1980 by the voyager
References: space com/15498-europa-sdcmp html#:~:text=Europa%2 0is%20one%20of%20the,of%20the%20 more%20 intriguing%20 satellites.
sciencefocus com/space/the-solar-systems-top-20-moon s-ranked-why-because-we-can/
solarsystem nasa gov/moons/uranus-moons/ariel/in-dept h/
can be turned on or off (DNA itself can also be directly modified in the process of DNA methylation).
Histone modifications can cause short-term or long-term effects Short term effects are to continual processes such as transcription and repair. Long-term effects include heritable changes (cellular memory)
Furthermore, through the incorporation of histone variants, changes in the nucleosome structure can lead to changes in the genome function Histones carrying specific modifications can be bound by proteins that carry defined ‘binding domains’. These proteins regulate/change the function of the genomic regions that they bind to.
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The Silver CREST Award
By Beatrice Cook, 10S
For my Silver CREST project, I have been investigating the effects of sulphate shampoo on hair loss in teenage girls. The Silver CREST project is a scientific research project which requires extracurricular research and work in a field of your choice for which you receive a certification of completion which is well-regarded by UCAS and recognised as a high-quality and tangible source of skills and knowledge. I believe that my project can have a positive effect to help teenagers who are dealing with hair loss to help prevent it from worsening or even happening The foaming and cleaning agents in sulphate shampoos have short term benefits towards your hair but can irritate it and cause it to become dry and brittle which can cause your hair to be more likely to fall out Therefore, I have found it very interesting to learn about the effects of sulphates in shampoo on hair and have had an amazing opportunity to investigate its impact
The ‘Brain-eating’ amoeba case in Florida
By Esha Ratnasingham 9G
Health officials in Charlotte County, Florida reported a recent case of a single-celled organism causing a rare "brain-eating infection " The organism, known as Naegleria fowleri, may have been contracted after rinsing sinuses with tap water As per the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), the amoeba generally living in warm fresh water can rarely cause Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) People cannot get it by swallowing N. fowleri or contact with someone infected It enters through the nose and travels to the brain via the smell nerve
Symptoms usually emerge 1-12 days later, almost always resulting in death; 1 -18 days post symptoms appearing
The earliest symptoms of infection include stiff neck, seizures, altered mental status, hallucinations and coma, the CDA states It is a freshwater ameba that can be found all over the world. This ameba is typically found in warm freshwater bodies like lakes, rivers, and hot springs, as well as in soil, under chlorinated human-made aquatic venues, warm water discharge from industrial
plants, and warm water. It has also occasionally been discovered in contaminated hot water heaters and tap water The only species of Naegleria that has been found to infect humans is Naegleria fowleri. Despite the fact that Naegleria fowleri is prevalent in the environment, infection is uncommon However, due to its high mortality rate, this disease poses a threat to public health., "Tap water isn't safe for use as a nasal rinse because it's not adequately filtered or treated," the Food and Drug Administration warns of the use of neti pots and other sinus rinses Before using tap water for such purposes, it should be boiled and cooled, or it should be filtered to remove infectious organisms
References:
livescience com/brain-eating-amoeba-case-in-florida-pote ntially-tied-to-unfiltered-water-in-sinus-rinse
floridahealth.gov/diseases-and-conditions/primary-amebi c-meningoencephalitis/index html
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James Webb Space telescope
By Anishka Gupta 7S
We all once heard of the James Webb space telescope however where is it now? Is it just another boring science THING! The James Webb Telescope is currently over the constellation of Cancer and will orbit the Sun which is 1 5 million kilometres (1 million miles) away from the Earth. This is called the second Lagrange point or L2 It is the largest most powerful telescope ever built and will enable scientists to discover more about the universe! In order to see, it uses gold-coated mirrors(which will focus light from distant stars) the telescope can see through dust clouds The James Webb telescope was named
after James Webb, an accomplished scientist who oversaw the Apollo mission. It has currently spotted old enormous galaxies roughly 500 to 700 million years after the Big Bang - something scientists didn’t think of! Despite its crucial discoveries, it cost $10 billion US dollars which caused many financial mishaps! The James Webb telescope was something I remembered from 2021 and I decided to write an update of its whereabouts!
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