November 2014

Veterinary College, Bengaluru Monthly e-Bulletin

Newsletter Date : 30 November 2014

Volume No: 3 Issue : 11

Sunilchandra. U., Ravikumar.C1 and Santhosh.P.S2 Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology Veterinary College, Bidar.1 Veterinary College, Hassan. 2 Dept. of VMD, Veterinary College, Bengaluru.

(Email : sunivet29@gmail.com ) Common behavioral disorders noticed in dogs and cats include aggression, house soiling, excessive vocalization, nocturnal restlessness, separation anxiety, fears, noise phobias, cognitive dysfunction syndrome (neurodegenerative disorder), repetitive and compulsive disorders. Pharmacological treatment for any abnormal behavioral disorders/conditions in pets is most useful when combined with behavior modification. Factors associated with animal behavioral disorders like etiology, predisposing factors, condition and the owner’s cooperation should be taken in to consideration before selecting a suitable pharmacological agent for behavioral abnormalities in small animals • The potential adverse reactions of drugs can be minimized by performing a premedication hematological examination, urinalysis, and serum biochemistry profile and by taking a complete behavioral and medical history.

• Majority of the drugs prescribed for behavioural problems in pets are unlicensed and not registered for veterinary use and are used in an extra-label fashion., with few exceptions.

• Clients must be made aware of this and informed consent forms should be obtained before initiating the treatment.

• Drugs should always be considered as an adjunct to behaviour modification therapy, not as a replacement/ substitute.

• Client compliance is important as behaviour modifying drugs may take up to six to eight weeks to reach therapeutic blood concentrations.

• Drug therapy should always be gradually withdrawn.

An overview of the classes of medications used in behavioural abnormalities of dogs and cats are shortlisted in this article.

Benzodiazepines ( BZDs): • The agents are oxazepam, clorazepate, lorazepam, temazepam, clonazepam, diazepam and alprazolam, the last two being most commonly indicated for treatment of anxiety related behaviour problems like urine spraying and short treatment for sound phobias (eg: fireworks, thunderstorms).

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Diazepam produces short-term anxiolytic effects and at low doses diazepam retains its amnesic effects, while at higher doses anxiolysis and sedation are achieved. Responses to diazepam are highly individual, so that dose response must be titrated.

• Diazepam should be given prior to an anticipated fearful or phobic event. Adverse effects are- ataxia, hyper excitability and disinhibition.

• Alprazolam may also be used in advance or given after a phobic event in order to impair the dog’s memory of it. It may therefore be used to block the effects of unanticipated phobic events in order to prevent them from having an emotional impact on the animal in the future.

• Contraindicated in states of hepatic and renal impairment and for long term use .

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): • Selegiline is used for the treatment of behavioural disorders with an emotional origin, which includes fears and phobias.

• It reduces fearfulness, increases exploratory behaviour and has positive effects on cognition even in healthy animals.

• It takes 4-8 weeks to begin to become effective, and is a useful adjunct to behavioural therapy, especially in individuals that are frequently exposed to noise events, show signs of a generalisation or are inhibited in situations when they are fearful or anxious Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs): • Clomipramine and amitryptilline are the TCAs licensed for use in veterinary medicine., commonly used for separation anxiety, anxiety-related aggression, urination due to submission or excitement, allergy-related pruritus, urine marking and hyper vocalization.

• Side effects: short term lethargy or sedation, mild and intermittent vomiting which is usually transient and increases or decreases in appetite.

• Antihistaminic effect of these agents may be a useful adjunct in controlling pruritus due to atopy and food allergies.

• Contraindicated in animals with seizures, urinary retention or history of cardiac arrhythmias and within two weeks of administration of a MAOI Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): • Fluoxetine, sertraline and fluvoxamine are used for treating psychogenic alopecia, allergy-related pruritus, anxiety related conditions, dominance-related aggression, fearful behaviours, obsessive-compulsive behaviours, and urine marking.

• Fluoxetine is approved drug in dogs, for inter-dog aggression and the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorders in dogs. It reduces the clearance of diazepam, its active metabolite nordiazepam and alprazolam, so concurrent use should be avoided.

Azapirones: • Buspirone is the only member, advocated for treatment of mild to moderate anxiety related problems and urine spraying in dogs and cats.

• Contraindicated in case of renal, hepatic impairment, epileptics, allergic reactions and caution is needed as treatment can lead to an increase in aggression as it may decrease the inhibitory effects of fear.

• It is ineffective in cases such as sound phobias or separation anxiety in dogs.

•

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Beta blockers: • Propranolol and pindolol are, indicated in treatment of situational anxieties in dogs and cats, used before the anticipated situation occurs. They are contraindicated in animals with cardiac disease, hypotension, and bronchospasm.

Antiepileptics • These are the mood-stabilizing drugs, primarily indicated in those cases where epileptic activity is in the etiology of the condition .

• These agents ( phenobarbitone, carbamazepine, and valproic acid) are unrelated chemical compounds that are used in human medicine to treat bipolar disorder, impulsivity, emotional reactivity, and aggression.

• Carbamazepine has been used in cats to decrease fear-related aggression against people, but it may paradoxically increase aggression against same species.

• Lithium (75 mg total dose, bid) has been used to treat dominance-related aggression and psychotic behavior (random air-snapping, pawing) in Cocker spaniels; has narrow therapeutic index exhibiting side effects like polyuria, polydipsia, memory problems, weight gain, and diarrhoea Hormonal preparations: • Progestins should only be given to neutered animals and avoided in diabetes mellitus, breeding animals and with concurrent corticosteroid use.

• The antiandrogen commonly used is delmadinone acetate.

• Cabergoline has antiprolactin effects and is recommended for the treatment of pseudopregnancy in bitches and in spayed bitches with aggressive behaviour attributable to elelvated prolactin levels.

Antihistamines: • They are useful in the management of mild anxiety associated with travel, inappropriate night time activity and anxiety conditions in which pruritus plays a important role.

• Contraindicated in animals with glaucoma, urinary retention and hyperthyroidism. Diphenhydramine and cyproheptadine are the H1receptor antagonists that are successful in some cases of spraying in cats.

Alpha adrenoceptor stimulants: • Phenylpropanolamine used in the treatment of sphincter mechanism incompetence in bitches and used to manage house soiling in these cases. Increased aggression is the possible side effect.

Alpha adrenoceptor antagonists: • Nicergoline is advocated for sleep disorders, diminished vigour and fatigue.

• It should not be administered within 24 hours of using alpha 2 agonists such as xylazine or medetomidine.

Xanthine derivatives: • Propentofylline is licensed for canine age related behavioural changes such as dullness, lethargy and cognitive decline • Response to treatment is better if combination therapy with selegiline is used.

Neuroleptics (Antipsychotic agents): • Low potency phenothiazine tranqillisers (acepromazine, chlorpromazine, and thioridazine hydrochloride) commonly used for sedation and restraint purpose, have side effects of sedation,

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anticholinergic effects, and α-adrenergic blockade.

• High-potency agents (haloperidol, fluphenazine, trifluoperazine hydrochloride, prochlorperazine, thiothixene, risperidone) result in less sedation and fewer autonomic side effects but commonly result in extrapyramidal effects.

• Acepromazine is used as a short-term tranquilliser during phobic events related with fireworks and thunderstorms and travel associated behaviour problems.

• It is believed that immobilising an animal while leaving it aware of, and emotionally responsive, to a phobic event may intensify the experience and lead to worsening of phobia in the future.

• kHigh doses which may be required in order to sedate a dog; may result in hypovolaemia, hyper excitability and extra pyramidal side effects Dosage of drugs used in behavioural abnormalities of dogs and cats.

Class of drug BZDs: Diazepam Alprazolam Oxazepam Clonazepam Clorazepate

Cat 0.55 po 0.2 - 0.4 mg/kg po ,sid-bid sid-bid 0.125 - 0.25 mg/cat, po bid 0.01-0.1mg/kg, po,bid 0.2 - 0.5 mg/kg po, sid-bid 0.2 – 1.0 mg/kg, po,sid-bid 0.016 mg/kg sid-qid 0.1 - 0.5 mg/kg, po, sid-bid 0.125-0.25 mg/kg po bid 0.01-0.1 mg/kg, po, bid 1-2mg/kg, po,bid 0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po, sid TCAs: Amitriptyline 1-3mg/kg, po,bid 0.25 - 0.5 mg/kg po, sid Clomipramine 0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po,sid-bid 0.5 - 1.0 mg/kg po,sid-bid Nortriptyline 3-5mg/kg.po,bid 0.5-2.0mg/kg/po,bid Doxepin 0.5-1mg/kg,po,sid 0.5-1 mg/kg po sid SSRIs: Fluoxetine 1-2mg/kg,po,sid 0.25 – upto 1- 2 mg/kg, po, bid Fluvoxamine 1-2mg/kg,po,bid Sertraline 1mg/kg, po, sid 1mg/kg, po, sid Paroxetine 1mg.kg, po,bid-tid 0.5-1mg/kg,po,bid,(< 5mg/cat) Azapirones: Buspirone 0.5-1mg/kg, po,sid 0.5-1mg/kg, po,sid MAOIs: Selegiline 0.2-1mg/kg,po,bid 0.5-3mg/kg,po,bid Beta blockers: Propranolol 0.125-0.25mg/kg,po, bid Pindolol 1-2.5mg/kg,bid Antiepileptics: Phenobarbi- 1-8mg/kg,po,bid tone 4-8 mg/kg,po,bid Total 25mg, po,bid Carbamazepine CNS stimulants: Dextroamphetamine Methylphendiate Dopamine2 receptor agonists Cabergoline Alpha adrenoceptor stimulants Phenylpropanolamine Alpha adrenoceptor antagonists Nicergoline

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Dog -2..2 mg/kg,

0.2-1.3mg/kg po,bid

-

2-4 mg/kg,po,bid

-

5 mg/kg,po,sid 1.1-4.4 mg/kg,po,bid

1-1.5 1.1-4.4 mg

250-500 µg /kg,po,sid

total dose-1.25mg, po, bid

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Xanthine derivatives Propentofylline Antihistamines Cyproheptadine Chlorpheniramine Diphenhydramine Progestins: Megestrol Acetate Medroxyprogesterone Acetate

Neuroleptics: Acepromazine

2.5-5 mg/kg,po, bid

total dose-12.5mg, po, sid

0.4 - 0.5 mg/kg, po bid 220µg/kg, po,bid 0.4 - 0.5 mg/kg po bid 2.5 - 5 mg ,po sid 10 mg/kg(female) ;20 (male) SC – max : 3 injections per year 0.5-2.25mg/kg, po, tid

2 - 4mg/cat bid-tid 1-2 mg/kg, po bid-tid 2 - 4mg/cat bid-tid 2.5 - 5 mg ,po sid 10(females); 20 (males) mg/kg, sc – max. 3 injections per year 1.13-2.25mg/kg, po, tid

po=oral, IV=intravenous, SC=subcutaneous, bid= twice a day, tid=three times a day, sid= once daily

Sunilchandra. U., Vinay.P.Tikare, Vijaykumar.M and Pradeepkumar1 Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology. 1Dept. of VPE Veterinary College, Bidar.

KVAFSU,Bidar (Email : sunivet29@gmail.com ) Alcohols: • Ethyl alcohol (70% ethanol) and isopropyl alcohol (50% isopropanol) • Isopropanol more potent than ethanol, used as a skin disinfectant and rubefacient.

• Rapid-acting antiseptic effects,wide germicidal activity,non corrosive, but-fire hazardous risk and limited residual activity due to evaporation • Limited activity in the presence of organic matter and not effective against bacterial or fungal spores Acids and Alkalies: • Strong mineral acids (HCl, H2SO4, etc) in concentrations of 0.1-1 N used as disinfectants; corrosive action limits their usefulness.

• Acids are used as food preservatives (eg, benzoic acid), antiseptics (eg, boric acid, acetic acid), fungicides (eg, salicyclic acid, benzoic acid),.

• Acetic acid, 1%, used in surgical dressings, and 0.25% acetic acid is a useful antibacterial agent for irrigation of the urinary tract. At 5%, it is bactericidal to many bacteria and has been used to treat otitis externa produced by Pseudomonas , Candida , Malassezia , or Aspergillus spp.

• Hydroxides of sodium and calcium used as disinfectants, their caustic property usually limits their application on tissues. A 2% solution of soda lye (contains 94% sodium hydroxide in hot water) used is a potent caustic . Calcium oxide , ie, lime (hydrated or air-slaked lime), soaked in water produces Ca (OH)2. are used to disinfect premises.

Chlorhexidine: • Has potent activity against gram-positive, some gram-negative bacteria but not against spores; activity is enhanced by alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds, and alkaline pH, and is depressed by high

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Kical and endoscopic instruments,plastic and rubber apparatus.

Cationic detergents • Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (eg, benzalkonium chloride, benzathonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, cetyl pyridinium bromide/cetrimide) whose activity is reduced by porous or fibrous materials (eg, fabrics, cellulose sponges) that adsorb them • Iinactivated by anionic substances (eg, soaps, proteins, fatty acids, phosphates).

• Limited value in presence of blood and tissue debris.

• Effective against most of bacteria, some fungi , protozoa but not against viruses and spores.

• Aqueous solutions of 1:1,000 to 1:5,000 have good antimicrobial activity, especially at slightly alkaline pH. • When applied to skin, they may form a film under which microorganisms can survive, which limits their reliability as antiseptics.

• Concentrations >1% are injurious to mucous membranes Soaps • Antibacterial potency is often enhanced by inclusion of certain antiseptics, eg, hexachlorophene, phenols, carbanilides, or potassium iodide.

• Incompatible with cationic detergents Chloroxylenols • Parachlorometaxylenol and dichlorometaxylenol are broad-spectrum with more activity against gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria.; • Active in alkaline pH; however, contact with organic matter diminishes their activity.

• 5% chloroxylenol solution (in α-terpineol, soap, alcohol, and water) is diluted with water (1:4) for skin sterilization and (1:25 to 1:50) for wound cleansing and irrigation of the uterus and vagina.

Preferred antiseptics • With antifungal activity: phenols, chlorhexidine , iodine, povidone iodine, hypochlorite, cetrimide isopropanol, ethanol, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, sodium • With antviral activity: hyopochlorite, phenol, potassiumpermanganate, hydrogen peroxide, iodophors.

Recommended antiseptics/disinfectants for hospital/surgery: .

1. 2% Sodium hypochlorite: for gloves, syrienges, needles , blood spills on floor, floor washing. lab glasswares 2. 2% Benzalkonium chloride: foreceps, thermometer 3. 2% Glutaraldehyde: Instruments-catheters, laryngoscope, endotracheal tubes 4. 6% Hydrogen peroxide: removal of blood clots from tubes,catheters, dressing wounds 5. Benzalkonium chloride: hand wash, foreceps, catheters , instruments 6. Phenol: disinfecting floors,walls, sanitary rooms.

7. Povidone iodine: surgical scrub, painting skin, dressing, hand wash.

8. Ethyl alcohol: antiseptic at injection site, furniture disinfection

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RELATIVE EFFICACY OF CLASSES OF ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS. Type of activity

Alcohol

Bactericidal Lipid enveloped Virucidal Nonenveloped virucidal Sporicidal Effecive in presence of soap Effecive in presence hard water Effecive in presence of organic material

++ ++

Classs of antiseptics/disinfectants Iodine, Chlorine Chlorhexidine Quaternary Iodophors ammonium compounds +++ ++ +++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +

Glutaraldehyde +++ +++

-

+

+++

+

-

++

-

+

+

-

-

++

++

+++

++

+

-

++

+*

++

++

+

-

++

-

-

-

+++

-

++

*- not to be diluted in water

Dr A. S. Patil, Dr Ramesh Rathod, Dr B. N. Nagaraj and Dr L. Ranganath Veterinary Hospital, University of Agricultural Sciences Dharwad-580 005 (Email: patilas@uasd.in; anilpatiluasd@yahoo.co.in ) Under field conditions a veterinarian may have to perform surgery under various circumstances like: to eliminate life threatening maladies ( Dystokia, Choke); removal of diseased parts (gangrenous tail amputation, excision of tumors and yoke gall); removal of foreign bodies (Rumenotomy); to hasten recovery process (Fracture stabilization); to make animals less dangerous (Disbudding); for economic reasons (Castration); for aesthetic reasons (removal of supernumerary teats) and for diagnosis (Exploratory laparotomy). Before taking up surgery he has to keep in mind the intricate relationship between himself and others i.e. Veterinarian - Client - Patient – Government - relationship. He should strike a balance between them.

Constraints At hospitals : • No facilities for Inpatient housing and animal owners in most veterinary hospitals • Complications can occur because of housing in a new environment • Distress of transport • Boredom in captivity at new place • Diet may not be suitable

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Advantages of field surgery

Disadvantages of field surgery

Community involvement

Need for transportation of all equipments from the hospital to the field

Awareness & education

Rainy season and unreliability of electricity supply

Cost-effective-for owner

Need to arrange the post operative care of animals somewhere Less stress on the animal and Sustainability Rural villages, hill areas, difficult road conditions Good option for remote rural areas And Volunteers - non-monetary support

Field surgery is not a place for a new and un experienced team to start work.

With the bare minimum facilities available under field conditions the veterinarian can take up various surgeries. But to get good results he has to keep certain considerations in his mind before undertaking surgeries which relate to the owner, patient and surgeon himself.

Owner is the custodian and provider for the animal so a vet is legally answerable to him. First he should be convinced that everything being performed is in the interest of the animal. Vet must also consider the economic aspects of the case, surgical risks involved and sentiments of the owner. A word of caution about the surgical risks should always be passed on to the owner and a surgical risk note should always be attained well before surgery.

The patient should be identified properly and history collection should be given due importance.

Proper clinical examination is a must prior to surgery to assess the health status and to correct dehydration and debility if any. Rest should be given if the animal has traveled long distances on foot to reach a hospital for surgery. Withholding of food (for 16-24 hrs) and water (for 8-12 hrs) is required for general anesthesia or when surgery is to be done under lateral recumbence. Animal should be washed and cleaned, surgical site to be shaved one day prior to surgery if possible.

Equipments should be sterilized with autoclave preferably, if not at least expose them to steam in pressure cooker and immerse in antiseptic solutions like Savlon (1:30), Dettol (1:4), Povidone iodine or 70% ethyl alcohol. Drapes or plastic vinyl sheets should be used to prevent contamination. Simple boiling of instruments is a poor, slow and tiresome means of sterilization. The minimal period of boiling is 30 minutes. Addition of alkali to the sterilizer increases bactericidal efficiency and boiling time may be safely reduced to 15 minutes. Corrosion is avoided by the addition of 0.5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1% washing soda (Na2CO3), while accumulation of lime in serrations or joints is removed by leaving instruments in 5% acetic acid overnight, then brushing off.

While planning surgery we must mentally visualize the operation to be done and make a checklist of all items required (equipments, instruments, drugs and assistants including those for restraint) and should be pre arranged.

Surgeon must take immediate action in the face of an emergency. Whereas the planned surgery takes into consideration all aspects, which make the procedure as safe as possible for the patient. Such surgeries should be performed only when circumstances are most favorable. Hands of the surgical team

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Operation theatre is preferable location for surgery because of its advantages. Open field surgery is a common practice in most developing countries. An area free of dust and dirt should be selected or a thorough cleaning of the area should be done and dust allowed settling down. Sprinkling of water prior to cleaning is advised. Travis or bullock cart can be used for standing surgical procedures. If lateral recumbence is required, sufficient cushion should be provided by using sand (Fig. 1) or straw material covered with clean gunny bags or tarpaulin. Sufficient clean Fig. 1: A hallikar bullock water and light should be made available. Onlookers should not be allowed is restrained in right lateral recumbence on a to assemble at the site to avoid disturbance and distraction.

Preparation of operative field: shave operative field widely after sand bed and is being application of disinfectant, soap and water. Wash area with soap and water prepared for urethrotomy. twice, then scrub with povidone-iodine solution, dry off, apply 70% alcohol and rescrub with povidone iodine.

Effective hand sterilization procedures include: Chlorhexidine ‘scrub’ or 0.5% chlorhexidine concentrate in 90% ethyl alcohol with 1% glycerine as emollient, in which 10 ml is first applied to clean dry hands and permitted to dry, before further application and five minutes’scrub-up. Later sterilized with Surgical spirit.

Prophylactically Antibiotics and NSAIDs should be administered 30 min prior to surgery because presence of antibiotics in tissues prior to surgery will reduce the risk of infection. Anti-microbial drugs are no substitute for sound and aseptic surgical technique in sterile aseptic procedures, neither can they be expected to control deep-seated necrotic and purulent foci. These drugs should be considered as adjuncts to the natural defense mechanisms of the host. Pre-operative use of analgesics reduces the degree of operative discomfort and post-operative pain. Aim of fluid therapy is not complete restoration of deficits but to correct crucial imbalances to restore patients own mechanisms. Here possible effects of surgery, stress, anesthetics and other therapeutic agents on body fluid and its composition should be considered.

Some of the conditions are listed below.

Sl No

Disease

1

Salivary fistula or injury, Pharyngitis, choke

2

Abomasum - Impaction, torsion and displacement; Intestinal - obstruction intussusceptions and volvulus Ingestion of large quantities of starch, grains

Metabolic hypochloremia hypokalemia Metabolic acidosis

4

Obstructive Urolithiasis

Metabolic alkalosis, hypochloremia, hypophosphataemia, hypocalcaemia, hyerkalemia and hypernitremia

Normal saline (0.9%), KCl (1.1%) and Calcium Borogluconate

5

Starvation, TRP, diaphragmatic hernia

Loss of water, electrolytes and ketosis

Repeated small quantities of glucose, amino acids, Ringers lactate, and oral edible oil.

3

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Resulting Electrolyte Imbalance Loss of water, bicarbonate, phosphates and K+ alkalosis, and

Therapy Polyionic Solution, lactate

Ringers

Normal saline (0.9%) and KCl (1.1%) Ringers lactate, NaHCO3

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Proper restraint (physical and/ chemical) is mandatory for clinical examination and to carry out minor and major surgical procedure. The choice of a method depends upon the species involved, site of lesion, condition of the patient and nature of the animal.

1. Physical Restraint methods: Burleys technique, Rope squeeze method, Restraint for castration 2. Chemical Restraint / Anesthesia :Due post operative care is a must for getting positive outcome. This includes a course of suitable antibiotics, NSAIDs, fluids, regular wound dressing and most importantly prevention of auto mutilation and protection from flies (Fig.2 and 3).

Keeping above considerations in mind veterinarian can perform some of the surgical maneuvers without much difficulty at the door step of the farmer. For Example - Esophagotomy, Rumenotomy, traumatic (Fig. 4) / congenital herniorrhaphy, Patellar desmotomy, Urethrotomy, Exision of superficial tumors, Eye cancers, C-Section (Fig.-5), Dehorning, Castration etc.

Field anesthetic protocols for bovines

Sl. no 1

Xylazine(@0.01mg/ Kg, I/M) followed by Local / Regional analgesia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; via infiltration,

different

nerve blocks or IVRA using 2% Lignocaine HCl, Bupivacaine and Mepivacaine

2

Analgesia after epidural administration of Xylazine 0.03 mg/kg diluted with 2% Lignocaine to 5 ml total volume for adult cow) lasts twice as long (four hours) as after equivalent use of lignocaine HCI (0.2 mg/kg) alone. Extent of perineal anaesthesia is more variable than with lignocaine and reported to include the entire perineal region, including udder and flank.

3

Intravenous

standing

stun:

Xylazine-0.02mg/kg;

Butorphanol-0.02-0.01mg

Ketamine-0.05 - 0.1mg / kg lasts for 15-20 min. Small doses of i/v ketamine improves

/kg; patient

cooperation. Use along with local anesthetic blockade.

Fig : 2 & 3

Fig. 4: Correction of traumatic evisceration of ceacum and small intestine at farmers door

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Fig. 5 : Cesarean section in a jersey cow under field conditions.

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Dr. Madhukar* and Prof. H. A. Upendra# Assistant Professor, Director, Institute of Wildlife Veterinary Research, KVAFSU, Doddaluvara, Kodagu – 571232. (E-mail: madhukar262@gmail.com) Elephant societies consists of 2 to 25 individuals, comprising of closely related adult females and their young ones. These societies are matriarchal and females are bonded for life within these groups. *

#

Bull behavior: Adult bulls live mostly solitary life.

• They may form temporary association of 2 to 3 unrelated bulls (bachelor herd).

• Bulls leave their herd at 12-15 years of age.

• Even though they interact with their herd during mating or feeding, they will not form long term association.

Female behavior: Oldest and most experienced cows lead the group with a single cow acting as their leader (matriarch).

• The seniors and matriarch decide the groups pattern of movements, and reaction to other herds and threats.

• Young calves stay close to mother.

• In addition to the mother, the group takes care of all the young calves.

• Adults encircle the calves to protect from the approaching threats.

• The members separate several times and reunite throughout the day.

• The groups form loose associations (bond groups) with distantly related families.

• These interact during migration and may move together, but ultimately wont mix-up.

Social interaction: Elephants are highly intelligent animals.

• They have a rich range of social interactions.

• Individuals of all ages and sex maintain bonding by frequent touching of trunk tips to each other’s bodies, by rubbing each other, and through auditory and olfactory signals.

• Play is the most common behavior in calves.

• Calves mock charging and learn to defend through wrestling.

• Male calves engage in aggressive and sparring plays.

• Male calves are more independent than females, which increases with age, ultimately leading to complete separation.

Hierarchy: Bulls maintain hierarchy.

• Hierarchy is determined through age, size and power.

• Bulls of equal strength assess each other’s prowess through pulling and pushing, intertwining of trunks, or lightly engaging their tusks.

• The sparring may lead to aggressive encounters, especially in the presence of a female in estrous (but not always).

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During a combat, they charge other and may cross tusks to off balance, with ears stretched and loud vocalizations all through.

• Goring with tusks is common and can lead to fatal wound on head or chest.

• Tusks may be broken during combat.

• Most combats end either with withdrawal of weaker male or death of one.

Attraction: Bulls go into a periodic condition called ‘musth’.

• This condition is initiated by the production of a dark tarry fluid (temporin) from the temporal glands (or musth glands) situated on the side of the head between the ear and the eye.

• This fluid emits strong musky odour.The bulls in musth have heightened levels of testosterone that may rise up to 100 times the normal values.

• Musth males also intermittently dribble urine.

• On an average, a bull can enter into musth annually, duration of which may last about a month. For some bulls this duration may be prolonged.

• Musth is associated with aggression towards other males, heightened sexual activity.

• Musth is an opportunity to rise on the ladder of hierarchy to secure mating with cows.

• Bulls can equally mate during non musth periods.

• Temporal glands of cows can also small volumes of temporin.

• Elephants rub the temporin on trees, which suggest that the secretions may have communication roles.

Senses & Communication :Elephants have relatively poor vision.

• Elephants have highly sensitive sense of taste and smell.

• Chemical cues are received by touching each other’s temporal glands, genitals, mouths and smelling of urine with the tip of the trunk.

• Elephants frequently smell the air to sense the presence of other individuals or animals in their vicinity.

• Elephants have acute sense of hearing and rich array of vocalizations.

• About 25 distinct calls that can be distinguished by human ears have been identified in African elephants. Fifteen of these are low frequency calls and are called rumbles.

• The vocalizations are specific for their conditions or situations. For instance elephants vocalize differently during musth, oestrous, or mating.

• Numerous infrasonic vocalizations that extends far below the hearing capability of human ears have been recorded. These are less likely to be distorted by environmental factors and can be received by elephants over a distance of 5 kilometers.

•

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Injury, diseases and death • An elephant can live for 60 years.

• Most die long before this age of starvation, injury, diseases, drought, predation, etc.

• Elephants have strong emotional bonding, which can be appreciated when a member of the group is injured, sick or dies.

• Some of the common behaviours are circling of the wounded to prevent further attacks; lifting a wounded to feet and shouldering it to safer place; jumping into water where a wounded animal has fallen, and heaving it out again; pulling and pushing a calf out of mud where it had become stuck; standing guard over a stricken but living animal lying on the ground; covering the body of a relative with grass and leaves as soon as it had died; returning to the carcass or even skeleton of a dead relative; and tasting, picking up, and moving the remains with their trunks.

• A widespread belief of elephant graveyard wherein it was believed that elephants go to a common place to die, is a myth.

• Sick and dying elephants usually reach and stay near water bodies with grass or trees nearby, so that it can obtain food with minimal efforts.

• for this reason, more than one elephant may be commonly found dead near water bodies.

Territory: Unlike many wild and domestic animals, elephants are not territorial!

• The social or family groups have rough home ranges. However, these overlap and are not defended fiercely.

• Within this range the group will show some daily or seasonal habits.

• Elephants sleep lying down for about two to four hours, especially during morning hours.

• Elephants stand under shade for hours with their eyes closed. They dose off but won’t be usually sleeping this way.

Movement: Elephants walk or amble, but cannot canter or gallop.

• Elephants walk at a speed of 2 to 10 kilometres per hour which can increase up to 20 km/hr while charging.

• Elephants walk cautiously, to avoid soft or cobbled grounds.

• They can manoeuvre dense terrain and can climb up and down remarkably steep, slippery slopes.

• Elephant trails of 1-2 m wide that can extend tens of kilometers, formed of trampled barren grounds during movements or migration are used by matriarch to guide their groups during migration.

• Elephants can swim good by paddling all the feet and use their trunks to snorkel.

The authors have used images and illustrations for educational purpose only and neither claims their ownership nor endorses the depictions.

Pashubandha 2014

Volume No : 3 Issue : 11 01

M. A. Kshama and A. Muralidhara Dept. of TVCC, Veterinary College, Bangalore, KVAFSU (Email- kshamabopanna@rediffmail.com) The Saint Bernard is a large, muscular breed of dog with a surprisingly kind, gentle, sociable and friendly disposition which belies his large size . â&#x20AC;˘ The St. Bernard is said to have originated from Sennenhunds, also called Swiss Mountain Dogs or Swiss Cattle Dogs, the large farm dogs of the farmers and dairymen .These also served as the livestock guardians, herding dogs, and draft dogs as well as hunting dogs, search and rescue dogs and watchdogs. These dogs are thought to be descendants of molosser type dogs brought into the Alps by the ancient Romans, and the St. Bernard is recognized internationally today as one of the Molossoid breeds. The earliest written records of the St. Bernard breed are from monks at the hospice at the Great St. Bernard Pass in 1707and hence the name. â&#x20AC;˘ The most famous St. Bernard to save people at the pass was Barry (sometimes spelled Berry), who reportedly saved somewhere between 40 and 100 lives. The classic St. Bernard looked very different from the St. Bernard of today because of cross-breeding later on Severe winters from 1816 to 1818 led to increased numbers of avalanches, killing many of the dogs used for breeding while they were performing rescues. In an attempt to preserve the breed, the remaining St. Bernards were crossed with Newfoundland's brought from the Colony of Newfoundland in the 1850s and so, lost much of their use as rescue dogs in the snowy climate of the alps because the long fur they inherited would freeze and weigh them down. The dogs never received any special training from the monks. Instead, younger dogs would learn how to perform search and rescue operations from older dogs.

Description They are giant sized breeds and belong to the working group of dogs. Male Saint Bernards stand 28 to 30 inches at the shoulder and weigh 140 to 180 pounds; females are 26 to 28 inches and weigh 120 to 140 pounds. They have an average life span of 8-10 years. Saint Bernards can be found in two coat types: shorthaired and longhaired. The shorthaired coat is smooth but dense. The hair is slightly bushy on the thighs, and the tail is covered with long, dense hair that becomes shorter toward the tip. The longhaired coat is slightly wavy but never curly or shaggy. The forelegs have a bit of feathering, but the thighs and tail are bushy. Saint Bernards are various shades of red with white or white with red or sometimes a mahogany brindle with white. . The red comes in various shades, from brindle patches with white markings to brownish-yellow. The white occurs on the chest, around the neck (known as the collar), around the nose (the noseband), and on the feet and tip of the tail. Black shading is usually found on the face and ears. A white spot on the nape of the neck and a white blaze on the face are especially attractive and desirable, as are dark markings on the head and ears that resemble a mask.

Pashubandha 2014

Volume No : 3 Issue : 11 01

Temperament A well-bred Saint Bernard is calm, sensible, and patient. Some are more outgoing, others more introspective. Adult Saint Bernards are calm and quiet indoors whereas youngsters are boisterous but all Saint Bernards need space and deserve a roomy home with a spacious fenced yard in the suburbs or country. This breed needs daily exercise (whether he seems to want it or not) to stay fit, although long daily walks will do, along with regular opportunities to stretch out. He loves to romp in the snow, and pulling a cart or carrying a backpack gives him a purpose in life.

Companionship is of prime importance to this sociable breed. Left alone too much, he becomes dispirited and destructive. Saint Bernards are generally relaxed and accepting of everyone, but because he is such a massive dog, he requires early, frequent excursions into the world so that he grows up to trust and respect people. Most Saint Bernards are fine with other animals when raised with them, but there is some dog aggression, which can be frightening to experience because of this breed's sheer bulk and power. They have an independent streak, but they are willing to please if you can establish consistent rules through motivational training methods that include praise and food rewards. Originally bred to withstand the cold temperatures of the Alps, the Saint Bernard does not do well in heat. They are not known for barking without cause.

Saint Bernards are hard to beat as droolers, slobberers, and loud contented Issues regarding health The very fast growth rate and the weight of a St. Bernard can lead to very serious deterioration of the bones if the dog does not get proper food and exercise. Many dogs are genetically affected by hip dysplasia or elbow dysplasia. It is also genetically predisposed to Osteosarcoma . They are susceptible to ocular disorders like cataracts, entropion and ectropion. The breed standard indicates that this is a major fault. The breed is also susceptible to epilepsy , dilated cardiomyopathy, and skin allergies.

monthly e-Bulletin Published and circulated by Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru.

Editor: Dean, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru Dr. S. Yathiraj (Ex-Officio)

Associate Editior: Head, Dept. of Vety.& Animal Husbandry Extension Education Dr. K. Satyanarayan (Ex-Officio)

Contact : Dept of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education Veterinary College, Hebbal Bangalore email: pashubandhavch@gmail.com Blog: pashubandhavch.blogspot.in

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Pashubandha 2014

PELVIC

Volume No : 3 Issue : 11 01