Veterinary College, Bengaluru Monthly e-Bulletin
. Newsletter Date : 28 Oct 2016
Volume No: 5 Issue : 10
Meghashree C. S., Sudha G., Darshan C. N. and Malasri G. Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru. Mail ID: meghavetvittal@gmail.com Reproductive problems in cattle and buffaloes are of significant economic concern in dairy farming. Anoestrus is one of the most commonly occurring reproductive problems in cattle and buffalo in India, affecting livestock productivity and economics to a great extent. Anoestrus is defined as absence of periodic manifestation of estrus, with the absence of palpable follicular or luteal structures (smooth ovaries) or absence of normal physiological signs of estrus. Domestic buffaloes have a tendency to breed seasonally showing a suspension of sexual activity during summer in almost all parts of the world. During this period, they remain sexually inactive without any signs of oestrus. This condition is popularly known as summer anoestrus. Ovarian inactivity is more frequent (30%) in buffaloes on low level of feeding than in those given high level feeding and also in summer (41–46%) than in other seasons. Factors responsible for Summer Anoestrus: Factors responsible for summer anoestrus mainly include environment, nutrition and management. The environmental factors especially longer day length and increased temperature with high humidity pre-dispose to the condition when the nutritive status of buffaloes is poor. Heat stress suppresses the secretion of gonadotrophins, which leads to an alteration in ovarian steroid genesis. Decreased oestradiol production leads to anoestrus. Generally, buffaloes remain underfed due to poor availability of nutrients particularly protein as tropical forages get lignified during summer months. Besides, high temperature also leads to decrease in feed intake that is one of the important factors for heat regulation of the animals. Management has a paramount importance because buffaloes are weak in oestrus exhibition which is further exacerbated during the hot season. Majority of the buffaloes shows silent oestrus during summer (Chaudhry 1988), characterized by less intense overt signs of oestrus with shorter duration. Poor heat detection is the single most important factor affecting the reproductive efficiency in buffaloes. Management and treatment strategies: Reducing heat stress: extensive housing system & sprinkling water on the body surface or providing wallowing facilities during hotter part of the day in summer can reduce the heat stress considerably.
Pashubandha 2016
Volume No : 5 Issue : 10
Showering, splashing or spraying of water on the body and a shift from day to night grazing practices are also advocated in hot and humid areas for improving the reproductive and productive efficiency of the animals. Improving estrus detection methods: One of the factors that increase the calving-conception interval of buffalo during the hot season of the year is poor detection of estrus. The use of teaser bulls, tail head paint, the heat watch system, radio-telemetric pressure transducers and pedometers can improve estrus detection and thus fertility. Nutritional management: Feeding buffaloes on roughage during night will reduce the heat load on the animal. Moreover feeding green fodders, ad- libitum water and mineral mixture supplementation improve the efficiency of reproduction during summer. The energy balance also had to be maintained in the ration. Hormonal treatment: Administration of GnRH analogues: Single intramuscular injections of GnRH analogues (10 to 20μg Buserelin) stimulate the oestrus within 1-3 weeks after treatment. This effect is probably not mediated through LH, but may involve a long-term stimulation of FSH secretion, which initiates follicular growth or development. Administration of Gonadotrophins: PMSG or eCG (1500 - 3000 IU I/M) can be used to stimulate ovarian activity and can induce follicular growth and oestrus within 2-5 days. Administration of progesterone: Intravaginal progesterone releasing devices (for 7-14 days) such as PRID, CIDR and CueMate are effective in restoration of cyclicity in anestrus animals. Upon withdrawal, the concentration of progesterone decline abruptly and onset of estrus and ovulation occurs within 2–8 days after the end of treatment. Oral progestational compounds (10-14 days) - MAP ( 6-methyl-17acetoxyprogesterone), CAP (6-chloro-6-dihydro-17-acetoxyprogesterone) and long term (4-14days) I/m injection of P4 at 50-100 mg either alone or in combination with other hormones can be used. Prostaglandin Based Treatment: An intramuscular injection of 25mg (total dose) of natural PGF2α or 250 to 500 micrograms of synthetic PGF2α is the treatment of choice for persistent corpus luteum and sub estrus. PGF2α is effective between days 6-16 days of cycle and in presence of active CL. Ovsynch protocol or GPG regimen: Under this protocol first injection of GnRH (at day 0) induces ovulation, if dominant follicle is present and if not luteinizes with emergence of new follicular wave 1 to 2 days later, PGF2α injection given on day 7 regress the CL formed in response to first injection of GnRH and second injection GnRH on day 9 induces ovulation of new dominant follicle subsequently, all the treated animals are inseminated within 16–20 hours of second injection of GnRH.
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue Issue::01 10
Dr. Ranjith. D1, Dr. Vishwanath. S2 and Dr. Sindhu. K3 College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pookode, Kerala Mail Id: ranjith946@gmail.com th The date 5 September 2016, alarmed Kolar district of Karnataka by detecting Brucella abortus bacterium (Brucellosis) in 998 cattle including 258 cows. Since disease have no treatment but poses a major risk to humans in form of undulant fever upon consuming milk from infected cows. On 11 th September 2016 came yet another apprehending news concerning outbreak of Brucellosis in Kerala Veterinary Animal Sciences University (KVASU) – Palakkad farm, the government has instructed to cull all infected cattle at KVASU farm. The incidence of brucellosis has been reported worldwide both in animals and humans. Out of 175 countries, the disease was found to be endemic in 86 countries which accounts about 49% and about 5% of total animal population throughout the world infected every year. Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Brucella bacteria. Cow, buffaloes, goat and pigs are commonly affected and the disease spreads through unhygienic conditions (contaminated feed and infected materials) and moisture in atmosphere. Studies have reported that brucellosis normally causes abortion only in first-calf heifers or newly introduced susceptible animals. Subsequent pregnancies in Brucella infected cows seldom terminate in abortions. Epidemiological evidence reveals that, in India, brucellosis is recorded in almost all states but the scenario differs between states and is present in different species of mammalian farm animals. The disease in humans occurs due to consumption of undercooked meat from infected animals, unpasteurized milk or in close contact with the secretions of infected animals. In general, infection by contact is found among veterinarians, abattoir workers, farmers, animal handlers and others who work with animals and their products. The cases reported are only the “tip of an iceberg� even in endemic areas. It has been estimated that the incidence of brucellosis may be 25 times higher than the reported incidence because of misdiagnosis and underreporting. VACCINATION AND ITS RISKS: Brucella abortus S19 vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine administered to sero negative non-pregnant female calves (Not male). The shedding of the organism in vaccinated animal depends on vaccinal S/C dose and age of animal. The best age of vaccination is 3 to 6 up to 8 months old. The first dose of vaccine before sexual maturity is to protect the young females at the beginning of susceptibility period to infection, Boosters at the time of service are to maintain the immunity during the subsequent pregnancy. Vaccination of adult cattle is not recommended, older animal develops persistent serological titers to shed the vaccines compared to younger ones. Alternatively, the vaccine can be administered to cattle at any age given by conjunctival route which protects from antibody response and reduces the risk of abortion. In humans, accidental injection of S19 vaccine can lead to brucellosis. However, human to human transmission is very rare (via sexual contact and breastfeeding). Taking decisions of vaccination with S19 strain is not easy under prevailing animal husbandry conditions
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in developing countries, but, vaccination will reduce the load of bacteria in environment. Many studies have reported the incidence of human brucellosis is decreased in areas where vaccination is practiced whereas the situation is reverse in non- vaccinated areas. To the fact, practitioners fear from brucellosis even avoid vaccinating animals due to misconception /myth. However, it is true that very least number of cases of human brucellosis have the history of acquiring brucellosis from S19 vaccinated animals. Very few animals will shed /excrete S19 in milk after vaccination that too for very short period, as cooking above 850C destroys the bacteria. Vaccination of adult animal should be carried out at reduced dose either subcutaneous or conjunctival route. .In endemic areas, vaccination of adult animals including pregnant and milking animals will greatly improve the situation of brucellosis. To conclude, vaccinate the animals and do not fear of acquiring the disease as it is extremely rare in humans, according to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention data. Even so, along with vaccination, epidemiological data are necessary for developing effective control programme. CAN BRUCELLOSIS IN ANIMAL BE CURED? No, Repeated attempts to develop a cure for brucellosis in animals have failed. Occasionally, however, only the signs may disappear but the animal remain diseased. Such animals are dangerous sources of infection for other animals with which they associate. CAN BRUCELLOSIS BE AVOIDED? Yes. Brucellosis may be avoided by using proper sanitation methods. Proper herd management and vaccination strategies can also aid in the avoidance of the disease. BRUCELLA INFECTED ANIMALS: CULLING OR MASSACRE IS THE ONLY OPTION: The animal tested positive should be quarantined in an isolated area of farm at least for 3 months before conducting another round of tests. The animal should not be used for breeding purpose If brucellosis is detected in farm, mass vaccination of livestock is the only option, regardless of number of animals affected. It is safer and best practice for female animals to be vaccinated using eye drops (conjunctival vaccination) rather than sub cutaneous administration. Sheep and goats of any age and sex can be vaccinated. However, it is necessary to vaccinate before mating season. A one health approach can contribute to brucellosis control at various levels, creating an added value that can be only be achieved by human and animal working closely together. A test and slaughter policy may also be practiced in to prevention disease spreading.
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Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Suma, N., Prabhu, T.M., Anitha, K.C1. and Umashankar, B.C. Department of Animal Nutrition, Veterinary College, KVAFSU, Hebbal, Bengaluru Mail Id: sumavet@gmail.com The role of animal feed in the production of safe food is recognized worldwide, and recent events have underlined its impacts on public health, feed and food trade, and food security. Concerns prompted by the outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and other more common food problems associated with Salmonella, Escherichia coli and other micro-organisms, have encouraged health professionals and the feed industry to scrutinize more closely the causes of these diseases and methods for their control. Some corrective measures are as basic as improving housekeeping and staff training in feed mills. Other measures are more challenging, and may require limiting the use of some ingredients or radically changing the way in which they are prepared (processed) or sourced, or restricting the locations where animals are grazed. Animal feed ingredients and mixed feeds produced and used should have a strong safety record. Government has to focus typically on known safety issues such as unsafe tissue residues resulting from feeding of medicated feeds, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), Salmonella, and unsafe food additives. But, because the efforts didn’t address feed safety in a comprehensive manner, issues affecting safety of animal feed still happened. Implementation of a preventive, risk-based system composed of required (through regulation) and voluntary components, designed to ensure the continued production of safe feed, will help maintain user confidence in the safety of animal feed and animal-derived human food. Feed hazard A feed hazard is defined as any biological, chemical (including radiological), or physical agent in feed with the potential to cause illness or injury to animals or humans. One regulatory challenge is defining terms to take into account the fact that the presence of certain agents in feed does not always pose a likely risk to animal or human health. It is when controls are not adequate at feed establishments that these same agents may cause the feed to be a much greater risk to animal or human health. For example, corn containing aflatoxins at levels below 20 parts per billion (ppb) is not likely to cause an adverse health consequence for animals (except for trout) given feed made with this corn or for people consuming the food derived from these animals. However, if environmental or other pertinent conditions are not controlled while the corn is in storage at the feed establishment and aflatoxin levels in corn rise above 20 ppb, then the feed establishment’s use of this corn to make feed for lactating dairy cattle causes a much greater risk to health for people consuming milk products from these animals. Mycotoxins Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi of various genera when they grow on agricultural products before or after harvest or during transportation or storage. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence fungal growth and mycotoxin production on a given substrate. The intrinsic factors include water activity, pH and redox potential whereas extrinsic factors which influence mycotoxin production are relative humidity, temperature and availability of oxygen. Many mycotoxins with different chemical structures and biological activities have been identified.
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They may be carcinogenic (e.g. aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1), oestogenic (zearalenone), neurotoxic (fumonisin B1), nephrotoxic (ochratoxins, Citrinin, oosporeine), dermonecrotic (trichothecenes) or immune-suppressive (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin). Much of the published information on toxicity concerns studies in experimental animals and these may not reflect their effects in humans and other animals. In addition, the implications for human health of the presence of combinations of mycotoxins are not well understood. Mycotoxins are regularly found in feed ingredients such as maize, sorghum grain, barley, wheat, rice meal, cottonseed meal, groundnuts and other legumes. Most are relatively stable compounds and are not destroyed by processing of feed and may even be concentrated in screenings. Different animal species metabolise mycotoxins in different ways. For example in pigs, ochratoxin A can undergo entero-hepatic circulation and is eliminated very slowly while it is rapidly excreted by poultry species. The polar mycotoxins, such as fumonisins tend to be excreted rapidly. Mycotoxins or their metabolites can be detected in meat, visceral organs, milk and eggs. Their concentration in food is usually considerably lower than the levels present in the feed consumed by the animals and unlikely to cause acute intoxications in humans. However residues of carcinogenic mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1 and M1, and ochratoxin A, when present in animal products pose a threat to human health and their levels should be monitored and controlled. The Codex Alimentarius Commission is currently considering maximum limits for Aflatoxin M1 in milk. The extent of mycotoxin accumulation in fish tissues due to consumption of contaminated feed is poorly understood. Mycotoxins
Fungal species
Aflatoxins Cyclopiazonic acid
Aspergillus flavus; A. parasiticus A. Flavus
Ochratoxin A
ochraceus; Penicillium viridicatum; P. cyclopium
Citrinin
P. citrinum; P. expansum
Patulin
P. expansum
Citreoviridin
P. citreo-viride
Deoxynivalenol
Fusarium culmorum; F. graminearum
T-2 toxin
F. sporotrichioides; F. poae
Diacetoxyscirpenol
F. sporotrichioides; F. graminearum; F. poae
Zearalenone
F. culmorum; F. graminearum; F. sporotrichioides
Fumonisins; moniliformin; fusaric acid
F. moniliforme
Tenuazonic acid; alternariol; alternaeiol Alternaria alternate methyl ether; altenuene Ergopeptine alkaloids
Neotyphodium coenophialum
Lolitrem alkaloids
N. lolii
Ergot alkaloids
Clavicepspurpurea
Phomopsins
Phomopsisleptostromiformis
Sporidesmin A
Pithomyceschartarum
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Drugs used in veterinary practice Veterinary drugs may be administered in animal feeds for livestock and aquaculture. If good veterinary practices are employed then Maximum Residue Limits (MRL) should not be exceeded. However, if good pharmaco vigilance practice (GVP) is not adhered, residues in foods of animal origin may exceed MRLs. The need for the containment of antimicrobial resistance due to the use of antimicrobials in livestock, including their addition to feedstuffs, is gaining much attention. Antimicrobials are used for therapeutic, prophylactic or growth purposes and in the latter case they are added to feed and / or water. Even first-line antimicrobials (e.g. glycopeptides) are being used as feed additives for growth promotion. Agricultural and other chemicals Potential contaminants in feedstuffs include excessive residues of pesticides and fungicides or other environmental contaminants such as the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins and heavy metals including mercury, lead of cadmium. Dioxins and PCBs are ubiquitously present as contaminants in the environment and dietary intake represents the most common route of human exposure. PCBs and dioxins have similar physical and chemical properties. They are both lipophilic and persistent compounds that accumulate in the food chain; consequently biological samples often contain both dioxin and PCB congeners. Foods of animal origin are the greatest source of human exposure to these contaminants and animal feeds may be an important source of contamination for livestock. Contaminated fats or oils added either intentionally or unintentionally to manufactured feeds can be a source of dioxins and PCBs. These industrial pollutants may be emitted into the air containing soil and water and remaining deposited on pastureland. In this case grass-fed animals in highly contaminated areas may give rise to unsafe food products. Weak associations have been reported between exposure to dioxins and soft tissue carcinomas and lung cancer. Initial symptoms of high PCB exposure are reversible dermal and ocular effects and persistent respiratory problems. Foetal exposure to dioxins and / or PCBs might be associated with cognitive deficits in infants and children. An increase in tumour incidence as well as neurological, endocrine, hepatic and immune-toxic effects were observed in populations accidentally exposed to high levels of PCBs, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated quaterphenyls. Maximum levels of these contaminants allowed in foods of animal origin have been established in some countries, but existing limits are quite variable. Plant materials growing in areas with high levels of other environmental pollutants such as radionuclides and heavy metals that are used as feed may also lead to unacceptably high levels of contamination in food products of animal origin. Similarly, fish oils used as animal feed ingredients may contain high levels of lipid-soluble contaminants if they are produced from fish grown in polluted areas. Infectious agents Animal feed may be the source of a limited number of infections for farm animals that could lead to human illness on consumption of foods of animal origin. These include Salmonella enterica, Bacillus anthracis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinellaspirlis and possibly the agent of bovine spongiform encephalopathy. The risk to human health from several other infectious agents which may contaminate feed or forage, appear to be either negligible or non-existent.
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Heat treatments of varying severity are commonly used to ensure the microbiological quality of animal feed. Irradiation may be considered a potentially important control measure for certain microbial agents in the feed of food-producing animals. The joint FAO/IAEA/WHO study group on high dose irradiation which convened in Geneva, in September 1997, concluded that food irradiated to any dose appropriate to achieve the intended technological objective is both safe to consume and nutritionally adequate. As their conclusion was partly based on animal feeding studies in a broad cross section of species, fed a variety of diets, it may be assumed that the study group conclusion would also apply to irradiated animal feed. Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) TSEs in ruminants are non-febrile neurological diseases of man and many animal species including ruminants. They have a long incubation period and are ultimately fatal. TSEs are associated with incompletely defined agents, currently termed prions, which are resistant to normal heat treatment of feed and food. Sheep scrapie has been recognized for over 250 years, while Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) was first recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. For BSE it has been postulated that the aetiological agent enters the feed primarily through rendered infected tissues (notably the tissue of the central nervous system and the reticuloendothelial system) under conditions of insufficient heat treatment to destroy or inactivate the infectious agent. The reported occurrence of a new variant of the human TSE, Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD), has raised the possibility of an association with BSE in cattle with CJD in humans through consumption of meat from BSE infected cattle. At the present time, there is a strong presumption of a link between this new variant and the possible transmission of the infective agent from infected bovine tissue to humans. Other infectious agents Salmonellae are widely distributed in nature and animal feed is only one of many sources for farm animals. Animal and plant origin feed ingredients are frequently contaminated with Salmonellae. Processed feed can be contaminated from these raw feed ingredients. There are over 2000 Salmonella serotypes and these can be divided arbitrarily into three unequally sized groups. These include the species specific serotypes which may cause septicaemic disease in several animal species (e.g. S. enteritidis and S. typhimurium); and the non-invasive serotypes which tend not to result in septicaemia. Members of the first group are not recognized as food borne pathogens. The third group is by far the largest and may be associated with subclinical infections in farm livestock. They can cause disease on occasion and are associated with food poisoning in humans. The principal manifestation of human salmonellosis is gastroenteritis. Septicaemia occurs in a proportion of patients. Toxoplasma gondii, the protozoan is found in cats and based on serological surveys also in birds, other domesticated species including sheep, pigs, goats and horses. The primary source of infection for animals is feedstuffs contaminated with faeces of cats and possibly rodent tissues. A proportion of humans may become infected following the handling or consumption of contaminated raw meat. Trichinella spiralis is a nematode which parasites the intestinal tract of mammals, particularly pigs. The larvae encyst in the tissues, particularly the muscles which act as a source of infection for humans who consume raw or partially cooked meat. The clinical manifestations include fever, muscle pain, encephalitis, meningitis, myocarditis and rarely death. The cysts can be killed by freezing infected carcasses at -180C for 20 days. They are also heat sensitive and are killed by traditional rendering temperatures. Effective cooking of raw meat and table scraps before feeding to farm animals
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would eliminate this hazard. Bacillus anthrascis, which causes anthrax, sporulates on exposure to air and the resulting spores can survive for long periods in the environment and in contaminated animal feed. The spore is widespread in some CIS countries. There have been cases of anthrax in people who have consumed the meat of infected animals. Prevention and Control of feed borne hazards Given the direct links between feed safety and safety of foods of animal origin, it is essential that feed production and manufacture be considered as an integral part of the food production chain. Feed production must therefore be subject, in the same way as food production, to quality assurance including food safety systems based on the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. Industry is ultimately responsible for the quality and safety of the food and feed that it produces. National authorities should provide guidance to industry including codes of practice and standards that they must respect. Governments must also establish the necessary controls to ensure that industry consistently meets mandatory quality and safety requirements. The foregoing outlines the responsibilities of both industry and national governments in ensuring safety of feed and food. It is important to realize however that the large volume of international trade in foods of animal origin as well as in feedstuffs, adds an important international dimension to the control of animal feedstuffs. Furthermore, the World Trade Organization’s Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phyto-sanitary Measures (SPS) advocates that national standards related to food safety should be harmonized with international standards. In light of existing shortcomings in the regulation of feed safety, several actions and activities have been undertaken at international level to develop sound standards, guidelines and recommendations in this area. International organizations also have and important role to play in providing information and training which could be used at national level to improve the knowledge and skill of those involved in all areas of the feed industry, including primary producers of feed materials, in order to prevent failures in food/feed safety systems rather than control them.
Dr. R. Jayashree, Assoc. Prof & Head, Dept. of LPM, Veterinary College, Hassan Mail Id: jayavet@gmail.com In computation of rations for dairy cattle, it is insisted that the ration should contain not less than 1% and not more than 2% of the cows live weight as roughages on dry matter basis. One of the guidelines is to consider that roughages will meet the requirement upto 4-5 Kg of milk production and feed 1 kg of concentrate for every additional 2 Kg of milk yield. Many people have a misconceived idea that the deficiencies of a poor quality fodder can be made good by feeding more concentrates. Crude fibre is very important in the ration of milking cows because the cows need acetic acid for maintaining normal milk fat percentage as well as total milk production.
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Acetic acid production is dependent on the percentage of cellulose in the ration. Feeding schedule is tied up with the production of crops on the farm. Guidelines for feeding 1. Include optimum proportion of forages and concentrates in the ration. The ration should consist of concentrates at the level of 30-40% and roughages at the level of 60 to 70 percent. 2. The forage should be of excellent quality and cut at the optimum stage. A short delay can adversely affect its quality. 3. The feeding schedule should be planned such that continuous rumen fermentation happens. 4. The cows should be fed four times a day at six hours interval with both grain and forages. Considering all these facts it is essential that a farmer should plan well head for fodder production to meet out the fodder requirement at the same time it should be cost effective. Forage crops can be classified as follows Grass fodder- Para grass, Guinea grass, Napier , Rhodes grass, Blue panic, Sudan grass Grain fodder- Maize, Sorghum, Bajra, Oats, Legumefodder-Berseem(Clovers),Lecerne(Medicago),Beans,Sunhemp(Crotolariaspecies) Tree fodder –Sesbania, Moringa, Bauhinia, Acacia Guidelines for fodder production In minimum land high yielding forage varieties must be selected. Select forage varieties suitable for both irrigated and rainfed condition. Based on soil testing forage crops could be cultivated. Steps in fodder production 1. Number of animals to be maintained in a year 2. Available land for fodder cultivation 3. Existing irrigation facility. 4. Selection of suitable fodder crop and their combination for intercropping Cereal grass fodders are mixed with legume fodders to reduce the cost incurred for concentrate. It is always necessary for a farmer to decide upon the quantity of fodder required per day for his dairy farm and the methods by which he can see that the availability of green fodder is all through the year. For the purpose of under standing few of the fodder crops are chosen. The available land has to be optimized for fodder production all through the year. This is explained with an example.
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Considering a model farm with 10 cows and 2 heifers and 3 calves The daily requirement of green roughage would be based on the number of adult units in the farm Total adult units =14 ( Heifer as 0.75 AU and calves as 0.5 AU) Total amount of fodder to be supplied @ 30 Kgs per adult unit= 14 X 35 Kgs= 490 Kgs /day or 5 Q/day For 365 days = 490 X 365 = 1,78,850 Kg or approximately = 1800 Quintals or 17.88 or 18 tonnes/year
Oats
Cow pea
Maize
Sorghum
Lucerne
Berseem
Napier
Bajra
Season
Period
Total fodder needed (Q)
Crops cultivated
Yield per care (Q)
Acreage under fodder production
Kharif
July – October (123 days)
5 X 123 =615
Maize
130
1
130
Sorghum
150
0.8
120
Bajra
150
0.8
120
Napier
327
0.75
245.25
3.5
615.25
Total Rabi
Nov. March (151 days)
5 X151 =755
Fodder yields (Q)
Lucerne
250
1.25
312.5
Berseem
250
0.75
187.5
Napier
210
0.75
157.5
Oats
130
0.75
97.5
3.35
755
Total April-June Summer
5 X 91 = 455
Maize
120
1
120
Cowpea
100
1
100
Early Bajra
120
0.75
90
Napier
200
0.75
150
3.5
460
(91 days)
Total Total quantity (Q)
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1825
10.35
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1830.25
Stage of harvesting of the fodder mentioned above Sl. No 1
Name of fodder Maize
2
Sorghum
20-25 kg with 25-30 X 10-15 cms
3
Napier
4
Bajra
5
Oats
Root slips spaced between 50 X 50 cm or 100 x 50 cm for intercropping with hedge lucerne 6-20 Kg with 25-30 cm apart or broadcasting 75-80 kg with spacing of 20-25 cm
Sowing rate/Hect 50-60 Kg in 30x10cm spacing
Sowing months June-July or SeptemberOctober Onset of monsoon
Stage of harvesting Dough stage of the grain
Days of harvest after sowing Single cut varieties 50-80 days after sowing
In bloom stage 50% flowering
Multicut varities 60 days as first cut and 35-40 days for subsequent cut First cut in 9-10 weeks after planting
All through the year
After the appearance of inflorescence
Sown on all three seasons Late Sept. to Nov
Boot stage, 50% flowering stage Bloom stage or preflowering stage
4-6 weeks
Leaf area index of 4-6
Initial or half bloom stage
First cut at 50-55 days when plant is 15 cm above ground level, 2nd cut between 40-45 days after first cut Multicut varities 50-60 days as 1st cut and subsequent cuts at 30-40 days interval 60-70 days as 1st cut or plants are about 30 cm tall. subsequent cuts are taken 35-45 days after
6
Cowpea
30-40 kg with 30 cm spacing
-can be staggered at fortnightly intervals Sown on all three seasons
7
Lucerne
10 kg spacing at 25 cm solid rows
September to November
8
Berseem
20-30 kg
Sown only during the winter seasons when the temperature is 13-15deg C
4-6 weeks
Crop Mixtures suggested for the above fodder crops Sl. No.
Name of fodder
Crop mixtures
1
Maize
2
Sorghum
Cow pea, Velvet bean, Green gram, Black gram, Soya bean, Field bean in the ratio of 2: 2 Cow pea, Velvet bean, Sun hemp, Soyabean
3
Napier
Hedge lucerne, Cow pea, Pillipesara
4
Bajra
5
Oats
Cow pea, Velvet bean, Green gram, Black gram, Soya bean, Field bean, Pillipesara, Sun hemp Any leguminous crop
6
Cowpea
Maize, Jowar, Bajra
7
Lucerne
Orchards or in silvipasture
8
Berseem
Cotton, Chillies, Sugarcane
Crops of similar nutritional value shall be cultivated based on the availability of seeds and suitability of soil and climate in a particular geographical location.
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Dr. Shwetha.K.S and Dr. Narasimha Murthy Nandini Sperm Station, Kakolu, Hessarghatta, Bangaloore Mail Id: dr.shwetha.k.s@gmail.com In India, the need to preselect the gender of the young one is gaining much importance day by day especially in dairy cattle and buffaloes. With the decreasing land productivity, crop yield and other feed resources one hand and steady increase in demand and consumption of high quality dairy product on the other hand, there is an urgent need to expand the genetic material of our cattle and buffaloes. In 2012 India’s population reached more than 120 million and increasing day by day. In order to meet the food for increasing population, it is necessary to produce pre-sexed livestock by sperm or embryo sexing; which offer a promising breeding strategy to meet the incersed demand for food production and nutritional security. So far it has been demonstrated that the application of sexed bovine sperm using AI is effective in altering the sex ratio and rapidly expanding dairy herds carrying high genetic valued animals. Thus, the practical application of the sexed sperm in indigenous cattle and buffalo breeding wound be a great interest both in biological and economical terms. Besides the long term benefit, farmers can profit directly from the use of sexed spermatozoa by producing optimal proportion of male and female in their animal production system. The use of sexed spermatozoa Increases the rate of genetic progress- especially in combination with genomic selection of sires and easier culling decisions. Has the potential to improve herd management and reduce the incidence of dystocia by avoiding male calves. Superior male can be produced by sex sorted spermatozoa from superior dam, which will be a great boost for semen station Several attempts have been made to develop a method that efficiently separates bovine semen into fractions containing higher concentration of X- or Y- bearing sperm. These technologies includes Sex specific antibodies Centrifugation Flow cytometry Of these attempts, the only methods proven to be commercially viable is FLOW CYTOMETRY till date. But it is not 100 % efficient, but it does the ratio to about 85 – 90 per cent of the desired sex. In cattle. the conception rate of AI using sexed sperm, with one tenth the sperm number of non sexed sperm, is around 70- 80 % of those achieved by non sexed sperm in heifer. HISTORY: Gledhill (1976) first attempted to separate X and Y sperm by analytical flow cytometry and Pinkel et al. (1982) first time successfully separated the mammalian sperm. But the methods were found to be destructive because the tails were removed by sonication leaving sperm biologically unusable.
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Importance of sperm sexing: To produce calves of desired sex in dairy cattle and buffaloes. Production of unwanted cattle males can be minimized as they can’t be slaughtered in India. Production of superior breeding bulls as country has limited elite cattle and buffalo bulls (<0.1% of total). Combination of super- ovulation and insemination with sexed semen further increases the desired calf crop. Replacement and expansion of herd can be Parameter Difference done quickly. DNA content Less in Y sperm Replacement cost can be reduced. Size X sperm is Larger To ensure required number of daughters production for progeny testing programme Motility Y sperm Faster in shortest time, thus increased genetic gain. Surface Charge X sperm Negative In in- vitro fertilization programs, one dose Cell surface antigen H-Y antigen on Y sperm of sexed sperm can be used to produce many embryos of desired sex. Increased biosecurity and lower disease risk. Selective culling Reduced dystocia cases by preventing production of male calves. Methods of sperm sexing: Sperm separation through albumin gradient Differential sedimentation using Percoll gradient Electrophoresis Flowcytometry Detection of H-Y antigen Detection of Sex specific protein Sperm sorting based on volumetric differences Centrifugal countercurrent distribution using aqueous two phase system. However, a new technology using floe cytometry / cell sorting foe DNA content of sperm has been developed with promising result. In cattle. The X- chromosome bearing sperm (female) have 3.8- 4.2 % more DNA than the Y- chromosome bearing sperm (male) of cattle. The sperm soring procedure involves staining sperm with a dye (Hoechst 33342) that binds specifically to DNA. The diluted mixture passes through a flow cytometer in a fine stream; and a vibrating crystal brakes a stream in droplets. The stained sperm are illuminated by a laser beam for fluoresce. The female sperm glow brighter than the male. A computer, quantifies the fluorescence of the sperm
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
and attaches a positive or negative electrical charge to the sperm droplet. The male and female sperm are then deflected in electrical field and collected into separate test tubes. Currently, the sperm sorter is capable of sorting bull sperm at up to 6000 live sperm/ sec. of each sex. The current sorting accuracy is about 90% of each sex. AI strategies with sex sorted sperm: The conception rate depends on The bull fertility Quality of semen Semen preservation Semen handling during AI Site of deposition Sperm dosage Skill of the insemination In conventional system there is requirement of 8-10 million viable progressive motile sperm at the time of AI, with 50 % post thaw motility, 20 million viable motile sperm should be packed initially before cryopreservation. Reduction in sex sorted spermatozoa to 2 million viable motile sperm leads to pregnancy depression by 15-20% as compared to conventional system. In Indian condition there is a need to standardize the lower dosage of spermatozoa, site of deposition for AI with good conception rate in our conventional system. There is also immense requirement to develop instruments to transfer sex sorted spermatozoa non- surgically and to train the skilled manpower in above area to achieve good results. The main target should be focused to use of sex sorted spermatozoa in good quality heifers and the cow with excellent reproductive and productive performance to achieve good results. Draw back associated with sperm sexing and use of sexed sperm under Indian Condition: Commercial availability of the sorting technology Lower sorting speed and efficiency High cost to maintenance Higher cost of sexed semen Lack of skilled manpower Lack of good quality ejaculates from indigenous cattle and buffalo Low conception or pregnancy rate Lack of availability of superior bull with good fertility Delayed sexual maturity of heifers Sperm from some bulls had higher tolerance for sorting, freezing and thawing than from other bulls Lack of availability of sexed semen Lack of awareness about sexed semen to farmers The major problem is that it needs highly specialized, non- portable equipment which is quite costly foe routine use. Conclusion: Slaughter of cow is banned in most of the stares in India. Extra males are very difficult to dispose
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
So sex selection towards female will help in producing near about 92-95 % female and strengthen the food production and nutritional security. Production of superior male through sex selection will further contribute in improving the production potentiality of the dairy animals. The success of sperm sexing depends on simple, efficient and highly accurate technology having practical and economical feasibility with less deleterious effect on germplasm.
Sunitha R, Raghunath Reddy R and Rajanna R Ph.D. Scholar, Division of Veterinary Public Health, IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly Mail Id: sunithasrinivasvet@gmail.com Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a common mosquito borne flaviviral encephalitis. It is one of the leading forms of viral encephalitis worldwide, mostly prevalent in eastern and southern Asia, covering a region with a population of over three billion. Though underreported, JE causes an estimated 50,000 cases and 15,000 deaths annually. JE is a disease of public health importance because of its epidemic potential and high fatality rate. In endemic areas, the highest age-specific attack rates occur in children of 3 to 6 years of age. Approximately one third of patients die and half of the survivors suffer severe neuropsychiatric sequelae from the disease. Etiology Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) belongs to the family flaviviridae and genus flavivirus. It is a single stranded, positive-sense polarity RNA genome of approximately 11 kb in length. The virion of JEV contains three structural proteins â&#x20AC;&#x201C; nucleocapsid or core protein (C), non-glycosylated membrane protein (M), and glycosylated envelope protein (E), as well as seven non-structural (NS) proteins â&#x20AC;&#x201C; NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS. Socio Economic Impact It causes severe mortality in swine which leads to high economic loss to the swine i ndust r y. In equi nes : Morbidity: 2% during outbreak and mortality: 5% where as in humans, mortality may be 5-35%. Severe neurological symptoms seen in nearly 33-50% of affected patients. Problem in India In India, epidemics of JE are reported from many parts of the country and it is considered a major pediatric problem. The first recognition of JE based on serological surveys was in 1955, in Tamil Nadu, India. Major outbreak resulting in a 42.6% fatality rate was reported in the Bankura District of West Bengal in 1973. Subsequently, the disease spread to other states and caused a series of outbreaks in different parts of the country. Recently the outbreak has been reported in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Odisha.
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Reasons for emergence of Japanese encephalitis in Asia: Unprecedented population growth Increased pig rearing Increase in vector dynamics Spread of new genotypes Rice production of system. Reservoir host, vectors and mode of transmission Reservoir hosts: ardied wading bird, plumed erget, little erget and black heron. Humans, Amplifier host: pigs Dead end hosts: ruminants, horses and humans Vectors: Culicine mosquitoes mainly Culex vishnui group (Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Culex vishnui and Culex pseudovishnui). Host factors Age: majority of cases are seen in children less than 15 years (85%) or over 60 years (10%) Sex: males are affected than females. Population mobility: migration of people from endemic areas to other areas. Virus survival and reintroduction Overwintering mechanism Duration of viraemia is too short in birds and pigs Experimentaly infected Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. quinquefasciatus transmit the virus following overwintering Maintained in lizards and snakes Vertical transmission facilitate overwintering Introduction by migrating birds, bats or wind-borne mosquitoes
Overview of the drivers of the JEV ecology and epidemiology
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Clinical signs and symptoms Infection due to JEV is most often asymptomatic. On an average, only one in 300 cases produce clinical symptoms. The first signs of infection appear after an incubation period between six and 14 days. It usually starts with a fever above 38â&#x2014;Ś C, chills, muscle pain and meningitis -type headaches accompanied by vomiting. The initial presentation in children usually begins with gastrointestinal symptoms: nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pains similar to those found in an acute abdominal syndrome proportion of patients with JE have an acute flaccid paralysis that is easily mistaken for poliomyelitis. Diagnosis: Diagnosis of JE can be made by virus isolation in cell/tissue culture, antigen detection and antibody detection. Isolation: intracerebral inoculation of clinical specimens in the suckling mouse brain. Various cell cultures that have been used more recently include primary chick, duck embryo cells, and lines of Vero, LLCMK2, C6/36, PK, and AP61 cells. Antigen detection: various studies have proved the efficacy of antigen detection in CSF using reverse passive hemagglutination, immunofluorescence and staphylococcal coagglutination tests using polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies in rapid diagnosis of JE. Antibody detection: IgM capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has been the most widely used diagnostic methods for JEV antibody detection. PCR diagnosis Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays are used. Prevention and control The prevention of JE is based largely on two interventions; mosquito control and by an immunization system Vector control To control the vector population, classical methods such as insecticide and bed nets are widely applied in endemic areas. Thermal fogging with ultra low volume insecticides such as pyrethrum or malathion has been recommended. However, the vastness of breeding areas makes larvicidal measures currently impracticable. Immunization To prevent JE, it is necessary to implement a large-scale immunization of the susceptible human population. Vaccination provides active immunity against JEV. Vaccine
Strain
Inactivated mouse brain vaccine
Nakayama Bejing-1
Efficacy 91%
Inactivated primary hamster kidney cells
P-3
85%
Live attenuated primary hamster kidney
SA 14-14-2
>95%
Inactivated Vero cell culture derived, JE vaccine (JENVAC)
Kolar strain, 821564XY
>95%
Recommended primary immunization schedule - Days 0, 7 and 30 and booster at an interval of 1-3 years Most of the Asian countries including India - 2 doses of the vaccine 4 weeks apart with booster after one year
Pashubandha 2016 2014
Volume VolumeNo No::05 3 Issue : 01 10
Data loggers show they almost never touch the ground on their migrations from Europe to Africa and back again. Every July, young common swifts leave their European roosts and migrate to western and central Africa. They’ll only be back in the following June, and they’ll spend the intervening 10 months almost continuously in the air. They might travel to Africa, but their feet never meet African soil. Common swifts “They feed in the air, they mate in the air, they get nest material in the air,” says Susanne Åkesson from Lund University in Sweden. “They can land on nest boxes, branches, or houses, but they can’t really land on the ground.” That's because their wings are too long and their legs are too short to take off from a flat surface. As a result, common swifts are among nature’s greatest aeronauts, superbly adapted for a life spent largely in the skies.
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monthly e-Bulletin Published and circulated by Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru. Editor: Dean, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru Dr. S. Yathiraj (Ex-Officio)
Associate Editior: Head, Dept. of Vety.& Animal Husbandry Extension Education Dr. K. Satyanarayan (Ex-Officio)
Contact : Dept of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education Veterinary College, Hebbal Bangalore email: pashubandhavch@gmail.com Blog: pashubandhavch.blogspot.in
Pashubandha 2015 2014
Volume No : 05 3 Issue Issue: 01 : 05