Research Journal Volume 14.01 by Perkins&Will

Research Journal

2022 ― Volume 14.01

Research Journal 2022 ― Volume 14.01

Editors: Ajla Aksamija, Ph.D., LEED AP® BD+C, CDT Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C Journal Design & Layout: Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C Cover Design: Tim Pettigrew, LEED Green Associate Acknowledgements: We would like to extend our appreciation to everyone who contributed to the research work and articles published within this journal.

Perkins&Will is an interdisciplinary design practice offering services in the areas of Architecture, Interior Design, Branded Environments, Planning and Strategies, and Urban Design.

Research Journal 2022 ― Volume 14.01

Research Journal

2022 ― Volume 14.01

Journal Overview The Perkin&Will Research Journal documents research relating to the architectural and design practice. Architectural design requires immense amounts of information for inspiration, creation, and construction of buildings. Considerations for sustainability, innovation, and high-performance designs lead the way of our practice where research is an integral part of the process. The themes included in this journal illustrate types of projects and inquiries undertaken at Perkins&Will and capture research questions, methodologies, and results of these inquiries. The Perkins&Will Research Journal is a peer-reviewed research journal dedicated to documenting and presenting practice-related research associated with buildings and their environments. The unique aspect of this journal is that it conveys practice-oriented research aimed at supporting our teams. This is the 25th issue of the Perkins&Will Research Journal. We welcome contributions for future issues. Research is systematic investigation into existing knowledge in order to discover or revise facts or add to knowledge about a certain topic. In architectural design, we take an existing condition and improve upon it with our design solutions. During the design process we constantly gather and evaluate information from different sources and apply it to solve our design problems, thus creating new information and knowledge. An important part of the research process is documentation and communication. We are sharing combined efforts and findings of Perkins&Will researchers and project teams within this journal.

Perkins&Will engages in the following areas of research: ǌ Practice related research ǌ Resilience and sustainable design ǌ Strategies for operational efficiency ǌ Advanced building technology and performance ǌ Design process benchmarking ǌ Carbon and energy analysis ǌ Organizational behavior

Editorial This issue of the Perkins&Will Research Journal includes four articles that offer insight into different research topics—a profound global impact on the health and well-being, of healthcare workers, an exploration into sustainable urbanization for displaced populations, high performance retrofit strategies of existing higher-education laboratory buildings, and developing an understanding of the recommendations of experts, architects, and designers in delivering effective solutions that better serve to protect life, property, and the environment within fire prone areas. “Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design: Spaces for Staff that Support, De-stress, and Connect” presents research focused on how workplace stress can influence healthcare professionals’ physical and emotional well-being by curbing their efficiency and having a negative impact on their overall quality of life. The article outlines how future consideration should be given towards space planning needs that address the mental health and emotional well-being of healthcare workers’ as they have endured the dire stress and pressures of the COVID-19 global pandemic. “Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People: Developing a Framework of Principles within the Institutional and Pragmatic Constraints in Transitional Settlement Design” aims to identify and explore the links between design practices for natural disaster victims, refugees, and displaced houseless communities. The study employs an urban design framework for the evaluation of design standards for housing populations in transitional situations from temporary facilities into planned sustainable living environments with attachments to the local community. “High-Performance Retrofit Strategies for Existing Science and Laboratory Buildings within Academic Institutions: Considerations and Design Strategies” uses analysis of archival data and empirical data, and computational software modeling and simulations to focus on sustainable design considerations and strategies for achieving a high-performance retrofit of existing higher-education laboratory buildings, located in a cold climate. The primary objective was to evaluate present state and potential retrofit strategies in-order to improve building performance. “Living With Wildfire: Exploring A Resilient Future for Fire Prone Areas” does a literature review that summarizes design relevant information including the role of wildfire in California’s ecosystem and the variables that affect its behavior. By developing an understanding of the recommendations of experts, architects and designers can aid in delivering effective solutions that better serve to protect life, property, and the environment within fire prone areas. Ajla Aksamija, PhD, LEED AP® BD+C, CDT Kalpana Kuttaiah, Associate AIA, LEED AP® BD+C

Contents Journal Overview

Editorial

01: Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design: Spaces for Staff that Support, De-stress, and Connect

Kate Carrico, NCIDQ, LEED® AP ID+C Michelle Sanders, AIA, NCARB, LEED® AP BD+C

02: Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People: Developing a Framework of Principles within the Institutional and Pragmatic Constraints in Transitional Settlement Design

Sonata Caric

03: High-Performance Retrofit Strategies for Existing Science and Laboratory Buildings within Academic Institutions: Considerations and Design Strategies

Suncica Milosevic Ajla Aksamija, PhD, LEED® AP BD+C, CDT

04: Living With Wildfire: Exploring A Resilient Future for Fire Prone Areas

Addison Estrada Helen Schneider, RA, LEED AP® Maraya Morgan

Peer Reviewers

Authors

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2022 ― Volume 14.01

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

01 Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design: Spaces for Staff that Support, De-stress, and Connect Kate Carrico, NCIDQ, LEED®AP ID+C, kate.carrico@perkinswill.com Michelle Sanders, AIA, NCARB, LEED® AP BD+C, michelle.sanders@perkinswill.com

Abstract Employee retention is a concern for every industry because turnover is costly and disruptive. For healthcare organizations the turnover rate is approximately 16.2% with the average cost of turnover for a bedside Registered Nurse (RN) ranging from $38,900-$59,700. Our healthcare workers continue to be at the front line of the COVID-19 global pandemic where their stress and emotional well-being has become dire. Compassion fatigue and its related symptoms are a particular issue. Improving, maintaining, and providing staff respite areas to foster community and protect healthcare workers’ mental health is imperative now and in future consideration of space planning. Workplace stress can influence healthcare professionals’ physical and emotional well-being by curbing their efficiency and having a negative impact on their overall quality of life. Creating unique amenity space can enable hospitals to engage staff by creating communities that celebrate teamwork and support wellness. This article will provide examples of staff amenity spaces and best practices to help health workers mental/emotional health. In this article we will cover the following categories: Food Amenity Spaces, Connections to Nature, Wellness Rooms, and Staff Break/Lounge Rooms. As thought leaders we aim to help our clients to understand and develop staff retention initiatives that can improve employee well-being while improving an organization’s bottom line. Keywords: Healthcare, burn-out, clinicians, bottom line, wellbeing, COVID, workplace

1.0 Introduction: Hospital as Workplace sixth among most stressful professions.1 Multiple studies2 suggest that healthcare professionals are more prone to stress and occupational burnout because they are responsible for human lives. The medical and nursing staff within Intensive Care Units for instance, consider dealing with death as their primary source of stress. Additionally, nurses are responsible for connecting providers and patients, which means they are responsible for routine care before, during, and after treatment.

As many of us question return to work with the need to address concerns ranging from air quality to proximity to one another, healthcare professionals never stopped going to “their workplace.” The coronavirus crisis has revealed that the hospital setting is a critical workplace that deserves the same—and perhaps greater— attention to productivity, protection, comfort, efficiency, and satisfaction. Healthcare professions (specifically nursing) are ranked

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Table 1: Stress in the Workplace.

The term “nurture” is commonly used in the alliterative expression “nature versus nurture,” a concept learned in early education, in which researchers consider nurture an essential influence on nature. If we agree that nurturing is critical to human outcome, should we not ensure that the person doing the nurturing is a critical game player who deserves the utmost in care? In a workplace where protective equipment must be worn for job-related safety and health purposes, shouldn’t the most basic layer of protective gear be the wellbeing of the nurturer? By evaluating current retention number and the bottom-line to organizations against negative psychological outcomes, we see the link that could be the underlying problem, where a tangible solution could be addressed in the built environment through design. Therefore we explored these issues with the intent to determine and identify the problems that could be addressed. Workplace stress can influence healthcare professionals’ physical and emotional well-being by curbing efficiency and diminishing their overall quality of life, not to mention their ability to provide the very best care to patients. In the general population, high-pressure companies account for healthcare expenditures that are nearly 50% greater than at other organizations.3 Fear over safety and the available amount of equipment are both high contributors to workplace stress. This increased stress on RNs equates to increased overall spending. This is because workplace stress can influence healthcare professionals’ physical and emotional wellbeing by effecting their efficiency and diminishing their overall quality of life.

Ultimately, more quantitative research is needed to authenticate the effect of environment specifically on healthcare workers, however, several significant research studies have been done to validate this theory within the office workplace. One example, the headquarters of the American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) in Washington, DC, designed by Perkins&Will, underwent an in-depth pre- and postoccupancy research study which demonstrated the impact that design directly has on well-being, while also improving the company’s bottom line. “The additional construction costs associated with incorporating wellbeing strategies for the ASID Headquarters project is compared to an estimated financial gain of 3 minutes per hour, or a 5% productivity increase. An estimated financial gain from a 5% productivity increase for a company occupying 25,000 square feet of office space over the course of a 10-year lease represents $9,032,500 without escalation.”4 If evidence for the financial benefit of workplace wellness exists, perhaps the connection can be made that it may apply to all workplaces— including healthcare.

The American Psychological Association estimates that more than $500 billion is siphoned from the U.S. economy because of workplace stress, and 550 million workdays are lost each year due to stress on the job. Sixty to eighty percent of workplace accidents are attributed to stress, and it is estimated that more than eighty percent of doctor visits are due to stress.3 Workplace stress has been linked to health problems ranging from metabolic syndrome to cardiovascular disease and mortality. Nowhere has that been more evident than in the healthcare professions and those we’ve come to think of as frontline heroes. Table 1 demonstrates how stress in the workplace, results in workplace accidents and increased doctors’ visits.

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

2.0 The Case for Nurturing the Nurturer

well-being. While most patients stay in the hospital for a limited number of hours, the health staff are present night and day. The care community is tasked with an unending job to make sure that there are no obstructions to clinical care at any stage. This patient well-being is directly associated with the capability and efficiency of the healthcare staff. Against this backdrop, design plays a crucial role in influencing overall productivity and employee health, safety, and efficiency. We as designers can ensure that there are ‘on-stage’ and ‘off-stage’ areas, support spaces close by to reduce the number of steps that staff needs to take and ensure that there are flexible work environments.

Employee retention can be positively or negatively influenced by staff well-being. Against a global landscape where talent retention effects every industry, healthcare employers must struggle to minimize turnover costs and protect an organization’s bottom line. Among primary reasons for staff burn-out, turnover and employee dissatisfaction are low morale, absence of a career path, financial insecurity, and lack of commitment to the organization.5 Employees typically “burn-out,” or exhaust their physical or emotional strength when there are prolonged periods of stress or frustration. Burnout is not just a term for being overworked; rather, it is a measurable condition that takes a heavy personal toll on healthcare providers, leads to lower quality care and increased errors. The work environment itself, along with the lack of support or resources and overall job stress, can be tapped as a primary contributor to that burnout. For example, giving spaces dedicated to staff in “prime real estate” areas could certainly go a long way to boost morale when they have pride of place. While it would be ideal for this space to be dedicated to staff, we recognize that hospital space is high valued at roughly $600 to $800 per square foot and even higher in some markets. This cost is understandably a decision factor for any client.

Table 2 describes the project job growth for Registered Nurses. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Employment Projections 2016-2026, Registered Nursing (RN) is among the top occupations in terms of job growth through 2026. Even before the Covid-19 pandemic, the RN workforce was expected to grow from 2.9 million in 2016 to 3.4 million in 2026, an increase of 438,100 or 15%. This increase is attributed to nurses’ roles, responsibilities, and education that are evolving to meet the needs of an aging, increasingly diverse population and to react to a complex evolving healthcare system. The Bureau also projects the need for an additional 203,700 new RNs each year through 2026 to both fill newly created positions and to replace retiring nurses.

Through past projects we have begun to understand that physical work environment is a critical factor for

Table 2: Projected Job Growth for Registered Nursing (RN) by 2026.

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In a sector where employment is experiencing such profound growth, the surroundings that cater to these employees must be a preeminent consideration. In corporate America, recent years have seen the growth of movement around workplace wellness. Numerous studies conducted by The Harvard School of Public Health, Cornell University have shown that daylighting, air quality and biophilia, bringing nature and natural forms into workplace, not only reduces stress but also increases productivity. 6 Included in this aging and retiring population are nurses themselves. Research indicates that by 2030, one million nurses will retire. This is due to retirement that is projected to occur at precisely the worst time—the nursing shortage will be at its height just as a large population segment will begin requiring care.7

Some of the most successful amenity spaces for healthcare professionals include food amenity spaces, break rooms, connection to outdoors, wellness spaces, staff lounges, and smaller staff nourishment areas close to their working space. These spaces can be organized into three main categories: spaces that have access to nature and daylight, spaces that alleviate stress, and areas dedicated to collaboration to support teamwork and efficiency.

Access to Daylight Lack of sunlight is a direct contributor to depression, fatigue, weight gain, changes in sleep pattern and thoughts of suicide.⁸ With the discovery of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) in the early 1980s, it was determined that daylight triggers production of melatonin, which plays a critical role in maintaining circadian rhythm. Research suggests that factors such as shift length, shift changeover time and the number of consecutive days worked raise an individual’s risk of suffering SAD.⁸

Hospital design focuses on enhancing the patient experience which we believe is important, but the patient experience is enhanced when caregivers can be at their best. What a patient typically remembers the most is the staff that cared for them during their stay. It’s the nurse sitting with the patients and listening, greeting the patient by name, and showing empathy for their situation. The equation of good design equals good medicine must extend to caring for the caregivers, not only in the patient-facing areas but in the spaces that are unseen by all but those who work there. These spaces typically have been undervalued because they don’t generate revenue.

In the healthcare sector, worker shifts often last from 8.5 to 12.5 hours. This impacts workers’ awareness of the time of day, current weather, and season—all factors that are required to keep internal rhythms in balance. Humans also have an innate desire to seek connections with nature. Workspaces that welcome daylight and allow views to the outdoors provide a healthier environment for employee concentration, focus and overall happiness. Designers are increasingly providing a direct connection to nature with access to natural light. Because daylight offers both physiological and psychological benefits, it improves employee alertness, happiness, work satisfaction, work performance, and organizational commitment.⁹ Clerestory windows that maintain privacy and transparent glass in public areas enable light to diffuse to adjacent rooms. A transom placed above a window or door is another strategy that borrows and maximized light without losing precious wall space. Stairwells also become a great opportunity to borrow natural light from upper stories. When the design is in a more densely populated area, skylight and light tubes are also great options to channel light into darker areas of a plan.

3.0 Design as a Game Changer Both employers and architects must address the new climate and responsibilities that our healthcare professionals find themselves in. Architects are increasingly being called on to incorporate how the residential, commercial, and business worlds are providing incentives to their employees. In healthcare, designers can create unique amenity spaces that enable hospitals to engage staff and provide communities that celebrate teamwork and encourage recruitment and retainment. In addition to enhancing excellence in patient care, the spaces that cater only to healthcare professionals provide a space of reprieve to alleviate stressful conditions. They can also be designed to promote efficiency and enhance care standards.

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

At the recently completed University of Virginia hospital expansion that includes a new Emergency Department and six-story inpatient tower, natural light is a key factor in a design that focuses on both patient experience and making the work of healthcare professionals more productive, more efficient, and easier. Surgical teams who spend hours on end in an enclosed operating room have access to an adjoining sterile, glass corridor with views to the outdoors (Figure 2). This affords them respite between procedures. This is unique, as in most hospitals, operating suites are in the building’s core. From recent post-occupancy surveys it was reported, that the staff really appreciate the amount of natural daylight provided in the department and their break spaces with both the larger windows and clerestory. In some cases, staff that work in other areas of the hospital have requested to work in the new expansion area due to the access to daylight.

Figure 1: UVA Hospital Expansion—Emergency Department Staff Workstation facing towards the Exam Rooms.

begins to come up, it feels like the mood of the entire ED lightens. That window, the daylight the views outside just bring a sense of newness to the day and everyone’s mood just picks up a little.” This respite area shown in Figure 2 enables the staff to have a direct connection to the environment as it can help to ease the stress of long shifts.

Figure 1 shows the Emergency Department staff workstation facing towards the Exam Rooms. The team stations that enable the staff to be able to observe patients while charting patient information allow for them to have views to nature. Dr. Riordan at UVA recently described the access to daylight near the team station as follows; “As we wrap up the night shift, and the sun

Figure 2: UVA Hospital Expansion—Sterile OR Corridor with views of the surrounding Blue Ridge Mountains.

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Figure 3: UVA Hospital Expansion—Behavioral Health Patient Rooms.

Behavioral Health patient rooms have historically been very cold and insular. By ensuring the patient has a window in their room give them a sense of time and provide both physiology and psychological benefits (Figure 3).

now enable simulated daylight sequences (sunrise through sunset) as well as color variations to reflect different weather conditions. Figure 4 demonstrates examples of providing both natural and artificial lighting to ease patients and create a soothing environment for staff. The imaging rooms were equipped with colorchanging LEDs fixture which could change based on the patient’s preferences.

When natural daylight is not possible, utilizing ambient lighting strategies that mimic daylight and support circadian rhythm is critical. New technology offerings

Figure 4: Medstar Montgomery Medical Center—Helen P. Denit Cancer Center focused on providing both natural and artificial lighting.

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

Amenity Spaces In tandem with the importance of access to daylight, a hierarchy of human needs to achieve significance, contribute to society, and grow must also be met. Physiological needs (food, water, warmth, rest), as well as safety, must be satisfied first. From there, psychological needs like belonging, love, and esteem should be nurtured to let a person achieve their fullest potential.10 In response, typical amenity spaces must be designed to answer staff needs effectively, so they can participate fully in maximizing the quality of patient care. Spaces dedicated to food service and meal breaks create a space for staff to recharge and nourish their bodies, while also providing a sense of place and community. With very limited time for breaks, on-site accessibility to a variety of dining options is key in keeping employees satisfied, healthy, and productive. The new dietary space under design at Lancaster General Health promotes the sense of belonging that often happens around the table through a variety of dining experiences. Not only will this space provide staff and visitors choice and autonomy during a potentially stressful day, but it will also be open to the public to build community within the healthcare experience.

Figure 5: UVA Hospital Expansion—Wellness Room.

and guidelines posted along the wall for users to read, as well as a message board to provide a way for nursing parents to build links with and support one another. Staff break room design in the past has been described as low priority and ‘back of house,’ secondary in budget and design considerations to public-facing or patient care areas. Instead, the breakroom must be considered the anteroom to the clinical setting. With attention to respite, recharge, and self-care, staff are better equipped to provide optimal patient treatment. Inspiring and even “prime real estate” spaces within the building with desirable views offer a reprieve for staff who work tirelessly caring for others. Playful lighting, lounge-style seating, standing height tables/stools, and booths can depart from the clinical setting and foster interactions that build trust, a sense of belonging and esteem. When possible, adjacent lockers/shower reduce steps traveled and increase chance encounters with peers. Likewise, with limited time for full breaks, areas that nourish the staff can be close to clinical areas, so nurturers can grab a quick drink or snack throughout a shift and avoid burn-out.

At a more intimate level, Wellness Room requests have become more common, driven in part by laws that require employers to provide private spaces for nursing mothers. These spaces are most successful when they are flexible enough to serve numerous functions, from supporting new mothers to administering medication to providing stress relief. Each organization can adapt the space to staff needs with controlled lighting, comfortable seating, and storage as a baseline for an overall relaxed environment is a departure from the clinical experience that might be pervasive elsewhere. Figure 5 shows an example of a Wellness Room that is both comfortable and provides a shared experience for staff. Many Wellness Rooms have information on code

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Figure 6: UVA Hospital Expansion—Emergency Department Staff Lounge.

Figure 7: UVA Hospital Expansion—Emergency Department staff lockers and showers.

to support their bodies. A central team design can balance patient comfort, privacy, and visibility by providing stand-up nurses’ station surfaces, sit-down desks, and enclosed areas for private conversation. An enclosed team room within the station, equipped with a conference table and built-in workstations for focused work and team huddles can offer additional staff support that is off-stage, that is, out of view from patients and visitors. Inova Mount Vernon successfully implements this strategy with places for “curbside, stepin, and immersive” workstyles as diagrammed in Figure 8. The encosed Team Station shown allows for a focused work area surrounded by open work options that facilitate staff to view the patients rooms.

Figures 6 and 7 show staff ameniteies—a lounge with direct views to the outside where can recharge and self-care; staff locker and shower located close to clinical areas in the hospital to reduce steps and fosters interactions to build trust.

Collaborative Team Spaces While break and nourishment opportunities adjacent to the clinical setting allow for personal care and a stronger work culture, the Team Station is also key to effect collaboration and teamwork among support staff. Flexible work and posture options allow staff who are constantly on their feet to adapt their workspace

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

Figure 8: Inova Mount Vernon Team Station.

4.0 Value to Healthcare Organizations

Table 3 shows how staff turnover is costly and on the increase. Retention can be improved by providing amenities and incentives.

Recruitment Strategies that prioritize staff comfort and care require budgets and physical spaces, which are often difficult to be prioritze as part of the design. Having defined and described why and how staff well-being is increasingly a crucial driver. We can ascertain that a supported, healthy workforce increases the return on investment (through increased productivity, decreased absenteeism, and reducing turnover). An improved culture and supported employee morale is an incentive for staff to stay and an encouragement for new and talented staff to join the team. In a field where word of mouth, campus recruiting, internships, residency, mentorship, preceptorship and returnships are all considered recruiting tools, first impressions are impossible to dismiss. Spaces that communicate that staff are valued can be a key takeaway during the recruitment process. We discussed turnover costs at the beginning of this article but what if design could lead to a cost savings to improve the bottom line?

Table 3: Retention and employee turnover.

While recruiting new staff is critical in meeting growing demands, less than 20% of hospitals have strategies in place to retain older workers (compared to over 50% who have strategies in place to protect new hires).11 As designer we need to be intentional in the both the aesthetics/function of staff spaces to help adjust the balance between recruitment and retention of a more experienced knowledge base. These pieces are critical to the success of the whole.

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Retention

In a recent article, HealthStream summarized seven common reasons for voluntary employee departure, noting “as job options have increased, workers are not tolerant of jobs that do not meet their expectations or that they simply do not like.” 12 Career development, compensation and benefits, job characteristics, and management behavior are among the operational reasons staff may choose to leave. Well-being, worklife balance, and work environment are also top drivers which, paired with a culture shift, can be dramatically improved through the design strategies discussed above. While nearly all hospitals have retention initiatives, less than 40% have a formal retention strategy in place.11 With so much riding on the ability to recruit and retain top talent, architects and designers can play an influential role. Figure 9 below shows a space that has become a staff favorite when seeking respite. This small incentive has increase job satisfaction and shifted workplace culture.

Prioritizing employee well-being in healthcare design can have a tangible impact on reducing the cost of employee turnover. Industry trends have been characterized by a high turnover rate for many years. Since 2015 the average hospital has turned over a staggering 89% of its workforce.11 In 2019, hospitals aimed to reduce this rate by 3.3%, according to the 2020 NSI National Health Care Retention & RN Staffing Report. While this goal was not met, current hospital turnover is at 17.8%, a decrease by 1.3% from 2018. The costs associated with this issue are enormous. According to the survey, the average cost of turnover for a bedside RN is $44,400 and ranges from $33,300 $56,000 resulting in the average hospital losing $3.6m - $6.1m. Every percent change in the rate accounts for a cost savings of an additional $306,400 per year. In a sector where increased demand for healthcare labor means staff have greater choice in where they work, voluntary departures account for more than 90% of all hospital terminations.11

Figure 9: Medical University of South Carolina Shawn Jenkins Children’s Hospital Staff Pavilion.

Nurturing the Nurturer Through Design

Pandemic Response

symptoms are a particular issue for critical care nurses in time of disaster because the expectation to confront and cope with the need for care can exceed the ability to provide it, almost inevitably leading to emotional distress in staff. In addition to witnessing/experiencing patient suffering and death more frequently, having the responsibility for decisions related to resource rationing and utilization means critical care nurses are at heightened risk of developing emotional and physical suffering. Improving, maintaining, and providing staff respite areas to foster community and protect healthcare workers’ mental health is imperative now and in future consideration of space planning.

At the front line of the COVID-19 global pandemic, the stress and emotional well-being of nursing staffs which was already a major concern has become dire. Health professionals can experience various psychological problems when working in high-pressure and high-risk scenarios, such as in times of disaster and pandemic.11 Figure 10 describes how compassion fatigue has been an increasingly common occurrence of the current pandemic. With long hours and more high stress situations it is now more than even to support our first line responders. Compassion fatigue and its related

Figure 10: Mental Health of those providing Covid-19 Care.

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5.0 Conclusion

[6] Cheshier, A ., coDesign, " The Benefits of Biophilic Design in the Workplace" Retrieved on 12/2021 from ht tps://www.co de sign.us/p ost / why-is-biophilic-design-beneficial-in-the-workplace

Patient experience and workforce engagement are intertwined. Better workplace experience ieads to better patient care. Enhancing culture and well-being, providing staff with places to recharge and care for themselves will in turn yield a better patient experience. Hospital Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (HCAHPS) scores which is the first national, standardized, publicly reported survey of patients' perspectives of hospital care. reveal how patient and staff ratings are interrelated, while also correlating with broader organizational performance and net profit margins. Human-centered design, placing the nurturer at an equal level of importance to the patient, may not totally offset the incredible pressure, budget constraints, and factors organizations are forced to prioritize during the design process. But if nothing else, evidence of the effect of patient and staff experience on the bottom line should command the attention of industry leaders to find new and innovative ways to nurture the nurturer.

[7] Caulfield, C., Medpage Today, "Understanding the Nursing Shortage". Retrieved on 12/2020 from https:// www.medpagetoday.com/nursing/nursing/84407 [8] National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), NIH Publication No. 20-MH-8138, "Seasonal Affective Disorder", Retrieved on 12/2021 from ht tps://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/ seasonal-affective-disorder [9] An, M., Colarelli, S.M., O'Brien, K., Boyajian, M.E., (2016). " Why We Need More Nature at Work: Effects of Natural Elements and Sunlight on Employee Mental Health and Work Attitudes", PLOS One, Retrieved on 12/2020 from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/ article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0155614 [10] Kreitner R, Kinicki A. Organizational Behavior. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2008. [11] NSI Nursing Solutions, (2020). “2020 NSI National Health Care Retention & RN Staffing Report”. Retrieved on 6/2020 from https://www.nsinursingsolutions. com/Documents/Library/NSI_National_Health_Care_ Retention_Report.pdf

References [1] Business News Daily, "The Top 10 Most and Least Stressful Jobs", Retrieved on 12/2021 from https://www. businessnewsdaily.com/1875-stressful-careers.html.

[12] HealthStream, (2021). "7 Common Reasons Employees Leave Healthcare Jobs". Retrieved on 6/2021 from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/ journal.pone.0155614

[2] Sean P. Clarke; Nancy E. Donaldson., (2008). Chapter 25: Nurse Staffing and Patient Care Quality and Safety, Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses, Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US). Retrieved on 12/2021 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2676/ [3] The American Psychological Association, (2015). “Stress in America: Paying With Our Health”, Report, Retrieved on 12/2021 from https://www.apa.org/news/ press/releases/stress/2014/stress-report.pdf. [4] Cordell, David; Nelson, Haley; Penndorf, Jon. 2018. “Practically Productive: Designing for Well-Being and the Return on Value”. Perkins&Will Research Journal Vol 10.02. “ p. 26. [5] Wilson, E., (1984). Biophilia, Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press.

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

02 Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People: Developing a Framework of Principles within the Institutional and Pragmatic Constraints in Transitional Settlement Design Sonata Caric, sonatacaric@gmail.com

Abstract This article aims to identify and explore the links between design practices for natural disaster victims, refugees, and displaced houseless communities. This study employs an urban design framework for the evaluation of three case studies that provide design standards for housing populations in transitional situations. The approaches observed from these three case studies have been analysed and mapped into the sustainable urban design framework. These case studies have been selected because of their indefinite longevity; coordinated response efforts utilized after the natural disasters, by community-driven pragmatic initiatives and central government-led hierarchical action; pilot studies informed by successful community-engagement programs; and emerging practices around humanizing approaches that operate holistically as epicenter for the physical, mental recovery of transient inhabitants and thereby serve as a nexus of strength and growth for the community. A Life-Cycle Thinking approach has been adopted while designing for transitioning people from temporary facilities into planned sustainable living environments with attachments to the local community, instead of considering them as transitional settlements to pass through and leave behind, and where residents and the settled community can have more stake thereby leading to success in the entire approach and process. Keywords: transitional settlements, urban design, phased planning, life cycle thinking, temporary housing

1.0 Introduction This study addresses the design challenges in transitional settlements under an urban design lens. In these settlements, resident populations are vulnerable and often traumatized; financial resources are likely inadequate; and the design operates under institutional and pragmatic constraints. This typically results in these settlements being defined as impermanent and any aspirations toward permanency are prohibited from reflection in construction materials or design quality. A transitional settlement is an encampment built for a community or multiple communities of people experiencing displacement. An estimated 1.2 billion people are expected to face forced migration by 2050 due to conflict and ecological factors.¹ Despite the increasingly large populations of transitional

settlement inhabitants and the emergency nature of the construction, design standards for settlements are inconsistent or absent. Short term solutions are prioritized because the settlements are viewed from a temporal lens. Lack of foresight in design planning can leave people in a state of indefinite limbo in an underfunded, unsound collection of shelter objects. This study identifies connections between design strategies for post-disaster refuge sites, refugee camps, and houseless encampments. An average of 24.5 million people are displaced annually due to violence or natural disaster.² Without recognized design standards for communities of displaced people, there is a higher risk of disregarding the occupant at a

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crucial point in their transition. The implementation of sustainable urbanism and the application of life cycle thinking, a holistic evaluation of the factors affecting the human experience and subsequent environmental impact in a settlement, requires a phased planning and placemaking approach to provide necessary resources and prepare for reintegration into permanent housing. Three transitional settlements are analyzed as case studies through the lens of an urban design framework. First, the Dadaab refugee complex in Kenya; second, the coordinated response to the earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand; and third, the Kenton Women’s Village in Portland, Oregon. To examine a protracted refugee situation, the Dadaab Refugee Complex was selected. This site was constructed as a temporary settlement for Somalian refugees, now holds its third generation of occupants, and is the unofficial third-largest city in Kenya. Responses to displacement situations in developed nations can be seen in relation to the New Zealand government's response to the 2010 earthquake in Christchurch. The Kenton Women’s Village in Portland, Oregon unfolds a connection between the design standards for transitional villages for the houseless community and to those of refugee and natural disaster displacement situations. This study aims to connect the developing refugee and houseless crises and the rise in natural disasters under an urban design lens and propose life cycle thinking as a means for developing sustainable solutions.

1.1.1 Socio-Political/Cultural context The site selection process for a new settlement is dependent on conflicting factors of authority and availability. If the preferred site is on private land, the capacity of the UNHCR and host government is limited. Refugees are often more amenable to staying close to their country of origin or being moved to areas with a familiar or common ethnic, linguistic, or cultural background ensuring a more comfortable experience. International conventions and recommendations are often considered, but the choice of hosting and selection of location is left up to host governments. This often varies according to fluctuating political considerations and affiliations. Any early decisions regarding refugees are made quickly to provide life-saving aid when a conflict or natural disaster causes forced displacement and induces an exodus of refugees across international borders. The location of camps is dictated by the pressures of politics, situational scale, time constraints, and direction of refugee flow. Settlements are often quickly constructed in locations where the local geography, politics, and climate may bring additional challenges in providing a healthy living environment.

1.1.2 Environmental Degradation In addition to the increased risk to mental and physical health for residents, the settlements also impose environmental risks. Refugee dwellings have the potential to increase the carbon footprint of their occupants by over 4,000 per cent.⁴ A local environment undergoes an unsustainable burden when a large, displaced population settles without coordinated planning. The extremely high demand for heat, building materials, and water exhausts existing resources. Soil erosion and runoff are increased by such practices. “Increased soil erosion can lead to increased silt load in surface water courses and possible premature siltation of surface water dams. Increased runoff leads to reduced water infiltration into the ground which carries with it the threat of reduced soil moisture and recharge of groundwater sources.”⁵ Not all temporary changes caused by population influx lead to irreversible degradation, but transitional settlements risk the degradation of an environment when its capacity to revive or revitalize itself has been lost.

1.1 The Design of Refugee Camps Nearly 16 million people are living in a protracted refugee situation, a state of limbo in which it is not safe for a refugee to return to their home country, but they have not been granted permanent residence to stay in another country either.³ The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Sphere Handbook , 4th edition, provides some guidance for non-residential building such as WASH stations and food security, but there are no current design guidelines for non-residential programs such as education, healthcare, community gathering, etc. Designers are obligated to respect the plethora of constraints related to the locality, scope, and operation of refugee settlements.

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

1.1.3 Environmental Health

1.1.4 Energy Use

Lack of planning in large settlements perpetuate unhealthy living conditions and unsustainable management practices. A makeshift migrant settlement in Matamoros, Mexico was observed as containing the perfect conditions for children to get sick. “Safe drinking water is scarce. People regularly line up for a half-hour to fill milk jugs and buckets with water. Some people bathe and wash their clothes in the Rio Grande, known to be contaminated with E. coli and other bacteria. They rely on donors who bring meals, or they pull fish from the river and fry them over wood fires.”⁶ The increase of Environmental health concern correlates to population size increases. Communicable diseases are common among large traveling populations.

There are solutions being developed to reduce the climate impact of refugee camps. Grontmij, a Dutch consultancy firm, designed and constructed a combination of a levee with a drainage canal and pumping stations in 2015 to divert flood water away from the UN refugee camp near Bentiu in South Sudan.⁹ Unfortunately, missed opportunities made the project expensive and unsustainable. There were associated high costs of pumping. Additionally, the initiative focused on removing accumulated stormwater as a waste stream rather than a resource that can be collected, treated, and stored in tanks as alternative useful water sources in dry months of the year. A phased planning approach could have worked to adapt the design to budget restrictions, implement testing and user groups for analysis, and identified the potential of the waste stream as an alternative water source.

Indoor air quality in camps is consistently poor with high and hazardous levels of toxic and volatile pollutants and substances. Poor shelter and settlement design exacerbates multifaceted, setting-specific issues. Overcrowding of camps is a common issue that reinforces other difficulties. The ability to ventilate is restricted. Privacy concerns have resulted in a lack of windows. Occupant activity such as cooking and smoking increases levels of air pollution.⁷ Settlements located in arid climates have high levels of dust. There is a clear design conflict between maintaining adequate air quality through ventilation in settlements and mitigating dangerous particulate levels inside the individual shelters.

1.1.5 Spatial Design A sustainable design approach to refugee housing utilizes life cycle thinking to focus on the well-being of the occupants and environment and considers the time constraints imposed by the situation. In a transitional settlement phased planning approach, the preparation phase establishes, develops, and maintains local and national capacities. The contingency phase identifies opportunities and constraints in responding to the situation and engages stakeholders in the planning process. The care and maintenance phase enables residents using self-management and self-help strategies while the final phase oversees the transition to permanent housing for residents and the deconstruction of the settlement.

COVID-19 has increased displacement and limited opportunities for refugees. Camps are increasingly vulnerable due to densely populated spaces with inadequate health infrastructure and low opportunity for physical distancing. The global shutdown forced many asylum seekers to return to the dangerous situations they were fleeing. Of the 168 countries that closed their borders, only 68 made exceptions for refugees.⁸ Lack of organization and preparation for the pandemic lead to limited availability of protective items such as face masks, PPE, basic hygienic products, and access to clean water. COVID-19 forced organizations to limit aid distribution and services for displaced people, leaving many occupants in a state of intensified vulnerability.

1.2 Post-Disaster Design In a natural disaster context, policies configured and implemented by the government shape recovery outcomes. A range of political factors can have significant impacts on long-term recovery and reconstruction. Leadership changes, distrust, belief, and historical conflicts may all have a crucial role of policies in underpinning post-disaster response and recovery management. Experiences of reconstruction, relocation,

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and claim-settling strongly shape perceptions of recovery and transform local patterns of trust in both public and private institutions.

A phased evaluation should begin with the needs of the occupants based on cultural or regional norms then consider geographic risk factors, climate conditions, and subsequent adaptability. The second phase analyzes the local and regional disparities for those in the disaster radius. The final phase introduces collaboration with local companies and organization to determine the ease of constructing and dismantling housing units.

1.2.1 Socio-Political/Cultural context Natural disasters often amplify existing disparities in affected communities and differences between developed and developing nations. Building codes and private insurance put developed nations at an advantage when experiencing a disaster. Countries like the United States have a reduced need for post-disaster transitional shelter. Regularly enforced building codes ensure structures less likely to be damaged by a natural disaster. Faster reconstruction is made possible when insurance allows the financial risk to be spread among a large group of people. Strong social support and government aid also reduce the chance of large-scale displacement after a disaster.

1.2.3 Environmental Health A single natural disaster has the potential to obliterate anthropogenic infrastructure and amplify existing risks of hazardous environmental exposures and adverse health consequences. The Pacific Northwest is predicted to endure a subduction-zone earthquake of 7.1+ magnitude in the next 50 years. Seattle, Portland, and other communities west of Interstate-5 would be impacted by landslides, a tsunami, and liquefaction. Fifteen percent of Seattle is built on liquefiable land, as is Oregon’s critical energy-infrastructure hub, a large site directly north of Downtown Portland which processes 90% of the state’s liquid fuel and is the location for electrical substations, natural-gas terminals, and other potentially volatile substances. An earthquake could result in the release of hazardous materials into land, water, and air. A powerful quake would initiate a domino effect of catastrophes including fires, flooding, pipe failures, and dam breaches. FEMA projects the Cascadia Earthquake and subsequent tsunami would inflict mass casualties of nearly thirteen thousand people, injuries of twenty-seven thousand, and displacement of one million.11 Unlike the nation of Japan, which regularly experiences earthquakes, the Pacific Northwest has no early-warning system to alert citizens of the coming disaster. Government recognition and preparation for the inevitable increase in natural disasters globally is the first step in a creating a more sustainable infrastructure. Regional and urban planners should collaborate with designers to develop a multifaceted strategy that employs lifecycle thinking in preparation for natural disasters.

Despite the clear advantages, transitional shelter is still necessary for those in developed nations, especially in low-income or houseless communities. In developing nations there is an increased chance of large numbers in need of transitional shelter after a natural disaster occurs. Rapid urban population growth leads to quickly, poorly constructed buildings. With limited resources to ensure adequate building codes and standards, overcrowding occurs with the related challenges. Urban areas experiencing rapid growth do not have the infrastructure or resources to maintain good sanitation or equal distribution of food and clean water. This leads to an increased potential for a disaster to cause an overwhelming number of injuries and fatalities.

1.2.2 Environmental Degradation The number of climate refugees is gradually increasing. Any country, regardless of wealth, can experience the effects of natural disasters and will need to provide relief accommodations, beginning with temporary and transitional housing for its citizens. “The number of people displaced exceed the populations of a vast majority of urban centers in the world.”10 The time constraints in postdisaster recovery leave little room for consideration of environmental impact. To work in conjunction with the multifaceted issues created by the disaster, designers should employ a holistic, phased-planning approach.

1.2.4 Energy Use After Hurricane Katrina, FEMA utilized prefabricated insulated panels to provide energy efficient and durable temporary housing. Occupants had an increased sense

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

of ownership in this approach. Housing units could be shifted, reformed, or combined with other units. Power was provided by photovoltaic systems.10 Threedimensional printing and prefabrication of materials are a potentially sustainable solution to temporary emergency shelter. The reduction of production waste, construction time, and labor costs could allow designers more time to prioritize other phases of planning.

housing.12 There is also a negative and dismissive attitude towards people experiencing houselessness perpetuated by adverse media portrayal.

1.3.1 Socio-Political/Cultural context Recently, there have been efforts in cities to provide transitional housing options, such as tiny home villages, but shifts in public policy in developed countries are directed toward restricting the rights of houseless people. The activities of people experiencing houselessness have been criminalized. Laws, public policies, and the bureaucratic logic contribute to marginalizing vulnerable individuals in ‘the name of public safety.13 Houseless women, in particular, often feel victimized by the authorities and left in a cycle of criminal activity. Local bureaucratic systems are not equipped or incentivized to contend with issues unique to people experiencing poverty and houselessness. They are not designed to substitute for health and social services.

1.2.5 Spatial Design After the Izmit earthquake that struck Northwestern Turkey in 1999, a temporary housing camp was created in Duzce. Proactive planning incorporated life cycle thinking in the design of infrastructure and housing for the 600,000 displaced people. Temporary housing projects utilized recycled materials and the design strategy enabled the deconstruction or upgrade of housing units. Incorporation of smart design in postdisaster planning provides an adaptable sustainability aspect, environmental and social, that can be applied to any form of temporary and emergency housing.10 Occupants had the option to replace temporary aspects of their shelter with more permanent ones during the deconstruction phase. The discarded materials were then recycled or converted into permanent reconstruction materials. Natural disasters leave people vulnerable to violence, disease, malnutrition, and dehydration. A disaster usually increases the vulnerability of already vulnerable populations. After a disaster, a transitional shelter is a place to rest and a place to begin recovering. Emergency shelters require appropriate planning and pre-positioning of necessary supplies in locations that can be easily accessed without outside help to avoid waiting periods in the case of limited services and infrastructure.

1.3.2 Environmental Degradation In high-density urban environments, houseless populations are forced to exist in increasingly tenuous situations. “The environmental impacts of houseless encampments include erosion, destruction of native vegetation, debris accumulation, water quality issues, habitat destruction, public health issues, and discouragement of public use of parks and green spaces.”14 The presence of discarded debris is a prominent form of environmental degradation in urban areas. While highly visible on streets and other public spaces, precipitation and wind inevitably send littered trash into local waterways. In a manner similar to the hostility and prejudice refugees face, urban areas have seen an increase in hostile architecture such as spikes or slanted benches meant to restrict the behavior of the houseless population. These initiatives reinforce negative stigma and marginalization and force the relocation of houseless people, creating additional harm.

1.3 Design for the Houseless Community Comparisons between refugees and houseless individuals are scarce, but the situations have similar circumstances and impacts. As opposed to information on the refugee crisis, obtaining accurate data on global houselessness is extremely challenging due to varying definitions of houselessness from country to country. Approximately 2 % of the global population is houseless to some extent and at least 20% of the world’s population lacks adequate

1.3.3 Environmental Health Houseless populations withstand disparate underlying health conditions and societal marginalization that often disenfranchise them from essential services and safe

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living conditions,15 limited availability of which presents a lack of basic hygiene, unsafe sleeping conditions, and increased vulnerability. Poor and inconsistent living conditions combined with a limited access to primary health care increase the risk of exposure to disease and consequent adversities. COVID-19 is an immediate concern to the people experiencing houselessness. Crowded shelters lack access to sanitary products and capacity to socially distance. Encampments, sleeping outdoors, and housing instability make it especially difficult to prioritize health issues.16 Quarantined employees and volunteers, business closures, and supply shortages also disrupt the distribution of food and supplies.

why some homeless do not seek shelters.” 18 The tiny home village model incorporates life cycle thinking in the design of a supportive place where those experiencing houselessness can maintain dignity, build relationships, and solidify their support networks. The villages are cooperative projects, designed by local architects and built by members of the community. Unlike financial donations to traditional service providers, the village allows volunteers to engage with the occupants.

2.0 Design Framework for Sustainable Transitional Settlements The Sustainable Urban Design Framework by Nico Larco of the University of Oregon, Portland (Figure 1) focuses on the design elements utilized in urbanism practices. Sustainable urbanism is a design practice that prioritizes the long-term viability of an urban area by developing solutions to reduce harmful impacts while improving the well-being of population and environment. The incorporation of sustainable urbanism practices organizes the design, implementation, and maintenance processes of a transitional settlement. In the framework, elements are divided into topic areas (Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas; Water; Ecology and Habitat; Energy Use and Production; and Equity and Health) and organized by scale (Region and City; District and Neighborhood; Block and Street; and Project and Parcel). With added elements of Gender & Safety and Deconstruction, this framework analyzes the design strategies and practices of a transitional settlement.

1.3.4 Energy Use There are more than 11 million empty homes across Europe and more than 17 million across the United States, enough to shelter the homeless population threefold. “To address the current housing crisis, it is estimated that 250,000 new homes need to be built each year. Despite several schemes and government incentives, there is a significant shortfall in the number of homes being constructed. Thus, as one of the strategies to help alleviate the current housing shortages, it makes sense to consider bringing empty homes back into use through sustainable refurbishment.” 17 Reviving vacant homes provides various social, economic, and sustainable benefits for a community. A retrofit has the potential to coexist with the pre-established urban fabric as opposed to reinforcing issues of gentrification.

2.1 Gender Responsive Urban Planning

1.3.5 Spatial Design

The experience of residents in a transitional environment influences their experience as they transition into a permanent environment and reintegrate into a community. The added topic area of Gender & Security prioritizes a healthy experience of residents. Gender Responsive Urban Planning integrates gender mainstreams into a design framework to advance equality in inclusive and sustainable cities.19 1 in 5 female refugees will experience sexual violence. Women effected by natural disasters often delay reporting experiences of sexual violence.

The design and management of the traditional homeless shelter dehumanizes its residents. The strict rules prevent occupants from remaining on the property during the day. Shelters are not required to provide a safe space for residents to store their possessions. “A fear of contracting parasites or a disease; incompatibility with work hours; danger of rape, assault, or theft; inaccessible accommodations for the disabled; an invasive checkin procedure; drug addictions; mental illness; crowding; noise; and a lack of privacy and control are all reasons

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

Figure 1: Sustainable Urban Design Framework (Nico Larco, 2016) adjusted for transitional settlements.

2.2 Transition The carbon footprint of transitional settlements is high due to the temporary nature of the site. The added topic area of Transition incorporates the phased planning approach into the design of a settlement and identifies future uses of the site methods of emissions and waste reduction during construction and deconstruction phases.

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3.0 Research Case Studies

Extensive Green Stormwater Infrastructure: The Sustainable Refugee Camp Drainage System (SRCDS) reduces the runoff in sub-catchments via a decentralized drainage system, an ideal solution to the frequent flooding arising from storm events.

3.1 Dadaab Refugee Complex In 1991, refugees fleeing the civil war in Somalia were placed in the Dadaab Complex in Kenya. Over the past three decades, the settlement has grown to be the largest refugee camp in the world. The second-largest influx into the complex was in 2011, when almost 130,000 refugees escaped drought and hunger in southern Somalia. As of 2020, over 200,000 refugees live in one of the three main camps: Dagahaley, Ifo, and Hagadera. Dadaab was initially organized in a temporary grid layout with tents. Over time, residents shifted grid arrangement to create small communities and more secure spaces with the intent of greater social integration. Despite the longevity of the settlement, there are rules against inhabitants constructing permanent buildings; therefore, most people choose to make their home using tarps and other found materials or live in the plastic tents distributed by the UNHCR. The remote location of the settlement prevents any connection to the Kenyan national power grid, communities rely on firewood, kerosene, and spotlights. The hot, dry climate and high winds gives the site potential for the implementation of renewable energies.

Mitigating Habitat Disruption: In 2016, a recycling project initiative was launched to decrease waste pollution and environmental degradation. Refugees gather plastic from camp residents, preprocess it, and then sell it to recycling companies in Nairobi. Efficient Street Lighting Design: Solar streetlights have been installed in the camps leading to reduction in crime and improved security along paths leading to public amenities. Increase Local Energy Production: The UNHCR introduced solar photovoltaic power as a means of water management. The PV has improved reliability on energy services, reduced emissions, provided a continuous efficient power supply, and reduced cost. Solar panels have also provided power for radio communications, internet connectivity, and a perimeter fence lighting system. Equitable Distribution of Uses & Services: Cash-based programs provide refugees with better autonomy and promote initiating new income-generation activities.

3.1.1 Sustainable Urban Design Framework Analysis

Site Design for Ownership and Surveillance: Residents shifted the grid arrangement to create small communities and more secure spaces with the intent of greater social integration.

High Internal & External Connectivity: Currently the camp functions as a system of interconnected but separate settlements. The camps are all located off sub-arteries from the main roads. There is a small transit system that connects the Hagadera camp to Nairobi.20 The location of Dadaab between the Somali Border and the town Garissa is a key strategic crossing point between the rural range lands to the South and the low plains to the north. Despite limitations of interconnectivity between camps, residents have shifted the grid arrangement to create small communities and more secure spaces with the intent of greater social integration in the individual camps.

Renewal Strategies for Improved Environmental Arrangements: Fuel-efficient stoves reduce risks for women and girls fetching firewood and mitigate conflicts over depleted reserves of natural resources. Equitable Access to Health Services: Primary health care services are offered by 15 health posts and one hospital in each camp. Serious cases that need secondary and tertiary care are transferred to Garissa and Nairobi. Biodegradable/Renewable Building Materials

Robust Stormwater Management: The DRC uses a solar water pumping system. This solar based system is an affordable and sustainable solution. It works without smoke and with less noise which will lead to less pollution and carbon emission and an environmentally positive impact.

Robust structures made from interlocking stabilized soil blocks are durable and fairer for refugees. This type of shelter is not expensive; most necessary materials exist onsite.

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

Pressurized modules are protected from cosmic radiation by an inter- wall layer of ice and electromagnetic fields generated by the rings.

Figure 2: Dadaab refugee complex site map.

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Figure 3: Dadaab access and environment diagram.

3.2 Christchurch, New Zealand

were developed in the Central Business District. Postdisaster urban planning and design approaches have been characterized by community-driven bottom-up initiatives on the one hand and central-government-led top-down action on the other hand.

The city of Christchurch, New Zealand was struck by a 7.1 magnitude earthquake in 2010 and a 6.3 magnitude earthquake and many aftershocks five months later. A working group was established to respond to shortterm and medium-term housing issues. Arrangements were made for several hundred campervans to be used as a temporary accommodation option at an Agricultural Park. Large-scale demolitions of damaged or economically unviable to repair buildings have created numerous vacant urban spaces. Various temporary uses emerged on vacant post-earthquake sites including community gardens, urban agriculture, art installations, event venues, eateries and cafés, and pocket parks. Transitional community-initiated open spaces (CIOS)

3.2.1 Sustainable Urban Design Framework Analysis Compact Development (for Density & Proximity): Large parts of the city center and the eastern suburbs were ‘red-zoned’ to restrict access and define unsafe spaces in the city. Robust Pedestrian Networks: The Commons is pedestrian only. The archway feature passively separates pedestrian

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

Figure 4: Christchurch, New Zealand 2010 earthquake, city center damage map.

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‘through-traffic’ from ‘situated’ activities. The rich diversity of activities at the Commons, and its strategic location make it a preferable shortcut for pedestrians.

were leased from private property owners in Canterbury and rented to people requiring accommodation. Mix of Unit Types: The site benefits from a mix of residential units, professional organizations, and public agencies in the near vicinity.

High Surface Permeability: The surface materials are predominantly gravel with a high amount of dust. Micro-Habitat Creation: The Commons are sparsely vegetated including lawn cover, planting pods, and climbing plants at the arches of The Arcades Project. There are a few planting pods near to the seating areas which might help reduce dust irritation.

Designated Sanctuary Spaces: The designs of the transitional Community-Initiated Open Spaces evoke experiences of ecological and cultural connectedness in response to native plant varieties and a stylized indigenous architectural artefact. The sites encourage experiences based on reflection and activity.

Native Vegetation: Transitional community-initiated open spaces are adorned with native plants. The site is rich in native plant varieties. Most areas are covered in grass. The choice of native vegetation fits well with the Māori cultural theme and draws a link to urban sustainability issues in Christchurch by providing a place well suited for native fauna.

Utilize Undesirable Land: Transitional CommunityInitiated Open Spaces are constructed on vacant land subject to major redevelopment in the future and unsuitable for permanent installations.

3.3 Kenton Women’s Village; Portland Oregon

Efficient Street Lighting Design: The Commons surrounding environment is well maintained and equipped with good lighting. Given its strategic location, the park areas on the Avon River side are well visited and streetlights are provided.

In 2016, the Partners on Dwelling initiative formed a group of architects, housing advocates, and houseless individuals to design a cluster of sleeping pods for houseless women in Portland. The village model provides temporary transitional housing, a safe space to sleep, and reintegration opportunities for women. Residents are connected to support services and health providers. The proximity to the Kenton Neighborhood fosters mutual support and community development between residents and the neighborhood. The tiny home modules were designed by local architecture firms. The individual units surround a common building. The success of the project has promoted the replication of the infrastructure within other areas of Portland.

Equitable Distribution of Uses & Services: Welfare centers were opened in Canterbury through mid-March. Transitional Housing Shelters were constructed for displaced families. Active and Attractive Open Spaces: Transitional community-initiated open spaces provide opportunities for various experiences, motivated by activities, consumption offers, physical objects and materiality including new and recycled materials. The Commons is rich in diverse activities. Both access points to the Commons feature a wooden display detailing the sites history and context.

3.3.1 Sustainable Urban Design Framework Analysis

Site Design for Ownership & Surveillance: Food outlet owners and organizations are present for the busiest hours of the day. Businesses are in a ‘U’ shape facing inwards and creating a ‘shelter belt’ that protects from the two main roads adjoining the site. The U’s top end is outfitted with a small, slightly elevated flower bed to separate it from the nearby street without blocking sight.

Dense & Street Activating Building Typology: The tiny homes are arranged around a main path to create a community feeling for the residents. High Internal & External Connectivity: Residents are provided with bus passes to access local transportation. Innovative Land Use: The village is located in an undevelopable industrial area

Affordable Housing Strategies: New Zealand provided temporary housing support to people whose homes were uninhabitable after the earthquakes. Vacant homes

Equitable Distribution Uses & Services: The common building has a kitchen, full utilities, accessible services,

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

Figure 5: Kenton women's village site map.

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Figure 6: Kenton women's village site plan.

Equitable Access to Health Services: Addiction treatment referrals, mental health treatment referrals, and smoking cessation support are offered to residents

and gathering space. Residents also have access to shared facilities for toilets, sanitation, and hygiene; A mailbox and address; on-site leadership development and educational programming; proactive systems for building affinity and collaboration; and integrated case management.

Design for Noise Reduction & Privacy Opportunities: Tiny homes have locked doors, and the typology provides residents with privacy and protection from noise.

Active & Attractive Open Spaces: A community garden was planted for residents and neighbors.

Disposal and Recycling Strategies for Site Preservation: Customized shipping containers have been added to the site with water delivery and garbage service being provided.

Site Design for Ownership & Surveillance: Residents have the ability to customize their spaces to their needs. Mix of Unit Types: Each home is designed and built using a variety of materials by different local architects to create a unique experience for each resident.

Sustainable Urbanism for Displaced People

3.0 Conclusion

[5] Chalinder, A., Gibbons, L. (1998). Temporary human s et tlement planning for displace d populations in emergencies. London, UK Overseas Development Institute.

The three case studies have unifying themes of displacement and temporariness and conflicting life cycle approaches. Dadaab was built as a temporary settlement and despite the longevity of the site, the design strategies resist the concept of permanency. The Christchurch disaster invited designers to build temporary interventions. The Kenton Women’s village is a permanent settlement designed for temporary occupancy. The case studies conflict on the theme of permanency. Effective design planning objectives for sustainable transitional settlements employ life cycle thinking and minimize irreversible and negative impacts on the environment and its residents. They promote sustainable practices such as the use of natural resources and reduction of waste, as well as utilize new opportunities created by emerging technologies and the sustainable potential of natural resources. These objectives help the designer influence a positive and beneficial transition experience of a displaced person and their community as a whole. By connecting these topics, designers will be better equipped to holistically address the needs of vulnerable populations as they change over time.

[6] Merchant, N., Madhani, A, and Verza, M. (2019). “Tents, stench, smoke: Health risks are gripping migrant camp.” Associated Press, November. [7] Albadra, Dima & Kuchai, Noorullah. (2020). Measurement and analysis of air quality in temporary shelters on three continents. Building and Environment. 185. 10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107259. [8] UNHCR, the U. N. R. A. (2021, January 4). Covid-19 and refugees. ArcGIS StoryMaps. [9] Ajibade, O.O.1, Tota-Maharaj, K., Clarke, B. (December 2016) “Challenges of poor surface water drainage and wastewater management in refugee camps.” Environmental and Earth Sciences Research Journal, 3. 53-60. 10.18280/eesrj.030402. [10] Perrucci, D.V., Vazquez, B.A., Aktas, C.B., Sustainable Temporary Housing: Global Trends and Outlook, Procedia Engineering, Volume 145, 2016, Pages 327-332, ISSN 1877-7058, [11] Schulz, K. (2015, July 13). The earthquake that will devastate the Pacific Northwest. The New Yorker. Retrieved January 8, 2022, from https://www.newyorker. com/magazine/2015/07/20/the-really-big-one

References

[12] Chamie, J. (2020, July 15). As cities grow, so do the numbers of homeless. As Cities Grow, So Do the Numbers of Homeless. YaleGlobal and the MacMillan Center.

[1] Institute for Economics & Peace. (2021, October). “Ecological Threat Report 2021. Vision of Humanity.” Retrieve d on (10/2021) from ht tps://www. visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ ETR-2021-web.pdf

[13] Nyamathi AM, Leake B, Gelberg L. Sheltered versus nonsheltered homeless women differences in health, behavior, victimization, and utilization of care. J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15(8):565–572. doi:

[2] Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC). (2021). Global Report on internal displacement 2021, Report Retrieved on (5/2021) from https://www.internaldisplacement.org/global-report/grid2021/

[14] Werner, G. (2019). “Environmental Damage and Homeless Camps”, Thornton Creek Alliance. [15] Rodriguez, N.M., Lahey, A.M., MacNeill, J.J. et al. Homelessness during COVID-19: challenges, responses, and lessons learned from homeless service providers in Tippecanoe County, Indiana. BMC Public Health 21, 1657 (2021).

[3] U.S. Department of State. (2020, December 1). Protracted Refugee Situations. Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration. [4] Aalto University, (2016) “Constructing refugee camps might cause massive carbon dioxide emissions.” Aalto University, May.

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[16] Babatsikou, F. P. (2010). Homeless: a high risk group for the public health. Health Science Journal, 4(2), 66 [17] Ceranic, B., Markwell, G., Dean. A., (2017) ‘Too Many Empty Homes, Too Many Homeless’ – A Novel Design and Procurement Framework for Transforming Empty Homes through Sustainable Solutions, Energy Procedia, Volume 111, Pages 558-567, ISSN 1876-6102, [18] Dickinson, J.I., Stafford, K., Klingenberger, K., Bicak, N., Boyd, C. and Dreyer, M. (2017), The Design and Testing of a Student Prototyped Homeless Shelter. Journal of Interior Design, 42: 53-70. https://doi. org/10.1111/joid.12087 [19] The World Bank. (2020, February 4) Handbook for Gender-Inclusive Urban Planning and Design. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development [20] UN-HABITAT. (2021, June). Dadaab Spatial Profile. Retrieved January 9, 2022, from https://unhabitat.org/ dadaab-spatial-profile

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

03 High-Performance Retrofit Strategies for Existing Science and Laboratory Buildings within Academic Institutions: Considerations and Design Strategies Suncica Milosevic, suncica.milosevic@utah.edu Ajla Aksamija, PhD, LEED AP BD+C, CDT, ajla.aksamija@utah.edu

Abstract This article focuses on sustainable design considerations and strategies for achieving a high-performance retrofit of an existing higher-education laboratory building, located in a cold climate. The primary objective was to evaluate the present state and potential retrofit strategies to improve building performance. Research methods included analysis of archival data and empirical data, and computational software modeling and simulations. Using original construction drawings and current state photographs, a full 3D BIM model was developed for analysis and energy simulations. Also, actual energy consumption data was collected for of three years. Building’s formal and spatial qualities were analyzed and then, the building’s response to environmental conditions was evaluated using Revit and Insight 360 simulations. Next, the thermal and moisture resistance performance of a typical facade system was evaluated using WINDOW, THERM, and WUFI software programs. Lastly, a full-building energy simulation was conducted using Sefaira software and compared against actual energy consumption data to evaluate building performance. Results were used to inform proposed retrofit solutions, spatially and formally, which were evaluated using the same sequence of simulation software and quantitatively compared to assess improvement in building performance. Lastly, potential renewable sources of energy were evaluated and suggested as means to further reduce the environmental impact of the retrofit solution’s energy consumption. The existing building drastically underperforms in all evaluated criteria. However, for a building typology that heavily relies on energy-intensive mechanical systems, the sequential process of simulations used in this case study (which are typically utilized to inform design decisions of new buildings), was a useful method by which to quantitatively maximize the use of passive systems and reduce the supplemental energy needs by active systems. Keywords: high-performance retrofit, energy-efficient retrofit strategies, science and laboratory retrofit, energy simulations for existing buildings

1.0 Introduction Retrofitting existing buildings by employing advanced building technologies and high-performance systems will be a high priority over the next few decades.1 On a global scale, we are faced with an urgent responsibility to retrofit existing buildings and improve their energy performance, by as much as 80-90% by the year 2050.2 This is due to our severe reliance on fossil fuels for

buildings’ operation. According to global data collected in 2015, 82% of final energy consumption in buildings was supplied by fossil fuels.1 Thus, rapid, energy-efficient retrofitting of existing buildings is crucial in meeting such a steep percentage of energy consumption reductions by the existing buildings over the next three decades.

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2.0 Literature Review

There are currently more existing, inefficiently performing buildings than newer buildings in the United States, as 60% of buildings in the United States were constructed prior to 1979³ and prior to the 1975 adoption of minimal energy performance benchmarks established by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE).4 Newer buildings in this context are defined as post-energy crisis buildings (built between 1975 and 2000) and energy-conscious buildings (built from 2001 forward) when sustainability rating systems became a common benchmark for new construction.5 With this disproportion of inefficient, existing buildings compared to newer buildings, retrofitting existing buildings is a critical step toward environmental sustainability and economic stability.6

2.1 Challenges in Retrofitting Existing Buildings Retrofitting of existing buildings has many challenges and opportunities, some of which are specifically complex for science and laboratory buildings, including those located in academic contexts. General challenges exhibited by the existing buildings are their general disregard for environmental and climate-specific conditions, their lack of thermal and moisture retention layers within facade assemblies, their low-performance energy systems, and their physical damage due to age, weathering, and lack of maintenance. Due to this combination of unaccounted-for passive design strategies, dated technologies, and existing physical conditions, sustainably retrofitting existing buildings is much more complex and challenging than designing a new construction building. For these reasons, retrofitting is often perceived as a less economically feasible process due to the extensive time, effort, and higher upfront cost these projects may entail.

Recent research shows that energy use in existing buildings can be significantly reduced through proper retrofitting strategies, and that retrofitting is one of the main approaches in realistically reducing a significant percentage in carbon emissions.7 There is a significant opportunity in applying the plethora of current-day computational technologies to evaluate and quantify the present state performance of existing buildings and to utilize that information to inform sustainable retrofit strategies (both passive and active) which can improve performance and extend the functionality of these buildings into future decades.

The primary challenge is to select energy efficient measures and strategies that can be implemented within the already existing infrastructure and building systems, and which are also economically feasible. Performance optimization in existing buildings is more complex as additional criteria must be considered, such as readjusting for potential passive strategies which were not originally implemented, evaluating which parts and systems to salvage and which to upgrade, deciding how to deal with the structural system, and researching how to integrate potential and available renewable energy sources.8 Also, there are many uncertainties, such as changes to services, human behavior, policy, climate, etc., which affect the selection of retrofit strategies and, in turn, the success of the retrofit project.⁷ Other challenges may include financial limitations and barriers, perceived long payback periods, and interruptions to operations.9 It is also not uncommon to uncover some previously undetected physical conditions or to suddenly be faced with a ripple effect of necessary resolution strategies to address unforeseen site conditions—all factors which may inhibit property owners to undertake or even complete the retrofit construction process.

This article analyzes sustainable, high-performance retrofit strategies for an existing, higher-education science and laboratory building, located in a cold climate. The main objective of this case study was to examine current and proposed retrofit building performance and to propose a quantitative, sequential method through which similar buildings can be analyzed when striving for high-performance retrofit design. Although this single case study focuses on the energy efficiency of a very challenging building typology, that of a laboratory building, the applied methodology can be utilized to quantitatively evaluate the performance of any existing building and to utilize that information to influence retrofit design decisions

Once undertaken, the empirical evaluation and archival research necessary to begin the retrofit process for existing buildings is also often a challenge. Apart from

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

relying on accrued knowledge and experience in working with buildings from a specific period or of a specific style, it is difficult to empirically assess building performance, the extent of physical decay or damage or to know composition layers of solid facades. Also, besides utility meter data, most older buildings do not collect energyusage data which makes it difficult to assess the existing performance benchmark. Thus, apart from physical evaluation of facades, designers rely on archival research and utilization of specialized equipment, such as thermal imaging to evaluate thermal performance. These measures often involve a specialized team of consultants and take significant time to evaluate before any design decisions are made. Also, obtaining original construction drawings to review original intent and facade detailing is sometimes difficult due to the lack of detailed construction drawings from that time. Similarly, once reviewed, the original drawings indicate idealized design intent conditions—not accounting for any changes or deviations during the actual construction process, aging and weathering of the building and its systems, or lack of maintenance and repairs over the past decades.

environmentally sustainable than demolishing them and building new buildings. New building construction requires a higher quantity of new materials, while retrofitted buildings conserve the embodied energy and carbon of the original structure, diverging from the potential demolition and construction waste from landfills when buildings are demolished.11 Meanwhile, demolitions generate millions of tons of concrete, bricks, glass, and other construction waste, which is associated with air pollution.12 Thus, for most building types (excluding warehouses and multifamily residential buildings), it would take 10 to 80 years for a new construction building, with even just 30% higher efficiency from average performance codes, to overcome the negative environmental impacts of new construction.13 This embodied energy saved in existing building structures is one of the main environmental benefits of building reuse, which aims to reduce carbon emissions.11 Another opportunity is that implementation of carefully chosen adaptations to achieve more sustainable performance can ensure continued, long-term, and originally planned function. Moreover, implementing sustainable retrofitting strategies can offer additional benefits for the users, such as improvement of occupant comfort, health, and a general sense of well-being.9 Additionally, implementing and allowing for energyefficient upgrades throughout the building’s life and function ensures higher real-estate value and maintains a desirable interest of occupancy by the users,⁵ as user demands and building function both evolve with time. By their transformation into high-performing structures, aged buildings increase in value and offset the need for new construction.⁵ Significant opportunity lies in available computational tools, an array of simulation software programs, which allow designers to quantify, evaluate, and compare numerous combinations of potential retrofit strategies, and to select optimal retrofit design options—ones that offer the highest possible energy-efficiency while being least invasive and cost-inducive. It is possible to quantitatively analyze both passive and active design strategies to achieve sustainable, high-performing retrofits.

An additional and significant challenge also exists in applying current day programmatic and spatial needs and meeting current building codes. Unless the building is undergoing historical preservation, retrofits and renovations fall under current building codes, which may not work within the space restraints and circulation of the original design. For example, current codes and design standards for any building typology—whether it be a hotel, a laboratory, or a school for example—may not work within the space restraints and circulation of the original design, and the currently used technologies may require much more advanced and upsized mechanical systems. Even when building new laboratory buildings, challenges are to meet energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, and sustainable construction practices criteria while providing high standards of user comfort, health, and safety.10 This is especially pronounced in retrofitting of science and laboratory buildings, including ones in academic contexts.

As facade systems play a critical role in the energy efficiency of buildings, and as existing buildings often disregarded climate-specific environmental conditions, low-cost retrofit measures, such as maximizing use of

2.2 Opportunities in Retrofitting of Existing Buildings Reusing existing buildings through retrofitting is more

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daylight and natural ventilation, reducing solar heat gain through shading (in cooling-dominated climates), and/ or maximizing passive heating (in heating-dominated climates) can be evaluated and applied as a primary method or reducing energy loads, reductions which can be quantified with the assistance of computational software. The latter includes higher-cost strategies, such as the incorporation of high-performance technologies, high-performance materials, and available renewable energy sources to maximize on building’s efficient performance, methods whose impact and benefits can also be quantified and illustrated to property owners.

and air-conditioning (HVAC) requirements and plug loads place an additional burden on existing building systems and may be difficult or impossible to be accommodated for within the existing infrastructure, especially if energy-efficient measures and integration of passive, environmental strategies were disregarded from the start. An additional, significant challenge is that highereducation science and laboratory buildings are often part of a larger university or college campus, meaning that their energy supply depends on a centralized system. Achieving a high-performing, sustainable retrofit in this context may entail very large-scale participation and undertaking to restructure and de-centralize these systems.

2.3 Specific Challenges in Retrofitting HigherEducation Science and Laboratory Buildings

Moreover, when it comes to retrofitting science and laboratory buildings, complete reconfiguration and resizing of interior spaces, their circulation, interconnections, and adjacencies are generally always necessary. Many existing examples of higher-education science and laboratory buildings were designed to historic principles of disciplinary separation and even within those specific discipline buildings, spaces were smaller and arranged in an inflexible, isolated manner, branched off of a central corridor.14 It was not until the late 20th century that multidisciplinary laboratory buildings have been designed and constructed to provide collaborative and more flexible spaces.14 Besides not accommodating current day programmatic needs, and not being conductive to user comfort and interdisciplinary collaboration, these spaces often underperform to current day fire and egress code requirements and accessibility code requirements and standards of practice. Thus, when accounting for all these overarching challenges, often, retrofitting of existing science and laboratory buildings results in significant building additions to accommodate the technologically advanced systems and large, customized laboratory spaces, while the existing components are repurposed into administrative wings for office and similar support spaces.14

The most pronounced challenge in retrofitting science and laboratory buildings is their disproportionate demand and utilization of energy. Science and laboratory buildings typically consume 5 to 10 times more energy per square foot of area than office buildings.10 Compared to office buildings, which typically require 1 air change per hour (ACH), laboratory modules require 100% fresh outside air intake which results in about 6-10 air changes per hour.10 Moreover, science and laboratory buildings may also entail disproportionally higher plug loads compared to office spaces to run sophisticated equipment and often, a large quantity of various equipment; for example, while office spaces plug loads are estimated from about 0.5 to 1 watt per square foot, laboratory spaces have loads that range from 2 to 20 watts per square foot.10 Another challenge is that not all science and laboratory buildings have similar mechanical and operational needs, and that retrofitting boils down to a case-by-case approach. In higher-education applications, similar to the case study discussed in this article, laboratories may be intended primarily for instruction and low-hazard research and may not have been designed with more sophisticated and demanding mechanical systems associated with commercial and industrial research. Meanwhile, retrofits of science and laboratory buildings must consider the future direction of research and potential interdisciplinary or industrial collaborations the facility will undertake—where upgrading, upsizing, and increasing the mechanical systems’ capacity is unavoidable. These case-by-case heating, ventilation,

2.4 Specific Opportunities in Retrofitting HigherEducation Science and Laboratory Buildings There are numerous benefits to implementing sustainable retrofit measures for science and laboratory buildings. As science and laboratory buildings disproportionately

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

rely on energy-intensive mechanical systems, facade improvements on this typology of buildings are generally less emphasized. However, building facades are responsible for almost two-thirds (57%) of energy consumption of buildings15 in general, and an immense opportunity lies in integrating high-performing building facades that maximize passive and renewable energy sources in order to reduce the burden on mechanical systems operation long-term. Moreover, as technological improvements in mechanical systems, lighting loads and plug loads become available in the future, the passive and active strategies of high-performing facades will become more significant to overall building performance.

help improve work-life balance and an overall sense of well-being for the users.14

2.5 Retrofitting Strategies for Higher-Education Science and Laboratory Buildings The following list outlines some of the strategies that can be considered in retrofitting existing higher-education science and laboratory buildings14, 10, 15 ǌ Establish energy efficiency and use of renewable sources of energy goals ǌ Conduct codes and standards review

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that even if one-third of energy consumption by laboratory buildings in the United States is reduced, the nation could save 1.25 billion dollars on an annual basis and decrease its CO2 emissions by 19 million tons.10

ǌ Analyze local climate conditions and evaluate potential environmental strategies ǌ Maximize on passive design strategies ǌ Decentralize mechanical systems and segregate energy-intensive zones from non-energy-intensive zones

Another specific opportunity in retrofitting of science and laboratory buildings is that, especially in academic contexts, the supplemental building program such as classrooms, libraries, office spaces, meeting rooms, lounges, and additional support spaces require much less stringent HVAC systems and equipment loads, and— thus—do not need to operate on the historically, typically centralized mechanical system. There are significant energy-efficient advantages in decentralizing, carefully zoning, and clustering the same space-use classifications of spaces into individual mechanical zones.10 Meanwhile, laboratory spaces with more stringent ventilation needs can implement variable-air-volume (VAV) systems in lieu of constant volume (CV) systems.10 Moreover, building program and supporting mechanical systems can be zoned according to academic calendar operations. For example, besides mechanical zoning between laboratory and office spaces, spaces such as the majority of classrooms, coffee shops, and student lounges may not necessarily need to operate year-round. Thus, there is an opportunity in analyzing building occupancy data and considering those patterns when striving for a reduced mechanical systems’ burden and operation.

ǌ Isolate office and support spaces from laboratory spaces ǌ Provide shared prep-room spaces to reduce the number of fume hoods ǌ Consider academic calendar operation of building zones ǌ Integrate occupancy sensors and energy-monitoring and control systems ǌ Maximize user communication through shared, informal zones ǌ Invite public visitation and integrate the public program ǌ Integrate program for other disciplines such as art, humanity, and sociology ǌ Integrate meeting and collaboration spaces between academia and industry ǌ Provide plenty of casual meeting spaces to encourage conversation opportunities and socialization

Likewise, as there is an unavoidable need to significantly reconfigure interior spaces and integrate code requirements, this process offers designers an opportunity to maximize user needs and lifestyle, and to introduce and integrate collaborative, flexible, and publicly inviting articulation of spaces as those concepts

ǌ Provide exhibition spaces to share knowledge and showcase achieved progress ǌ Provide incubation, informal, and flexible spaces ǌ Design for the latest computational technologies

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ǌ Provide pleasant views, outdoor space, and vegetation ǌ Exceed minimal energy performance standards and code regulations ǌ Provide easy wayfinding, transparency, and allow for predicted anticipation of program on other floors

3.0 Research Questions and Methods The objective of this research was to investigate highperformance retrofit strategies for an existing science and laboratory building. The study focused on the following research questions: 1.

What are the building's formal, spatial, and programmatic qualities? What is the building’s response to its environmental conditions? (Step 1)

What is the building’s typical facade system and how does it perform? What are its HVAC systems and how do they perform? (Step 2, Step 3, and Step 4)

What programmatic and spatial organization strategies can be implemented to improve the building’s function and performance? (Step 6)

What passive and active design strategies can be implemented to improve the building’s performance, and what is their impact on the building’s performance? (Step 5 and Step 6)

Research methods included qualitative and quantitative research methods—archival and empirical research, simulations and modeling, and comparisons between simulated and actual energy consumption data. This specific case study was chosen due to the availability of building system metering data of this university campus building. Methods and their relationship to research questions are described in the following steps: Step 1: Original construction drawings and photographs of the building’s current state were collected and used to analyze design intent characteristics of this building, and to develop a full, 3D BIM model using Revit software. Additional collected data included actual energy consumption data, which was averaged for 3 years—2017, 2018, and 2019—intentionally excluding the year 2020

when facilities’ operations may have been atypical. This process helped answer questions 1 and 2. Step 2: Using Revit and Insight 360 simulations, the building’s response to environmental conditions and it's utilization of passive design strategies was analyzed, such as building orientation, solar exposure, and solar radiation. This process helped answer question 1. Step 3: Detailed section drawings were analyzed, and typical solid facade systems were selected for thermal and moisture transfer simulations using WUFI software. Results of these simulations were verified against collected thermal imaging data and compared to current ASHRAE 90.1 recommendations. This process helped answer question 2. Step 4: Full building energy simulation was conducted using Sefaira software and compared against the threeyear average of actual energy use data. This information was used to develop a performance baseline and to account for any differential between simulated and actual energy usage of the original building design. This process also helped answer question 2. Step 5: Results of these series of simulations were then used to influence retrofit strategies, striving to achieve sustainable and high-performance design solutions that would exceed current ASHRAE 90.1 recommendations. This process helped answer question 4. Step 6: Proposed design solution initiated with reconfiguration and space planning exercises where strategies from precedents and literature review were integrated to accommodate flexibility, inter-connectivity, and accessibility of building program while integrating additional public, exhibition, mercantile, casual, and green spaces as part of the retrofit process. While striving to maintain as many interior CMU partitions as possible, including structural elements, this exercise resulted in a significant addition of building area and volume. This process helped answer question 3. Step 7: The proposed design solutions were then also simulated using the same sequence of simulation software, and quantitative results were compared to summarize percentages of improvement from existing to retrofit conditions. Of primary focus were passive strategies, such as heat harvesting solar wall facade technology, improved glazing systems, and solar panels —energy-efficient strategies whose thermal properties

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

4.0 Research Results

could be calculated and used in proposed design simulations to quantify their effects and anticipated reductions of the Energy Usage Intensity (EUI) value. Then, the additional active strategies were proposed. This process helped answer question 4.

4.1 Physical State of the Case Study Building Hasbrouck Hall is a science laboratory building, centrally located on the university campus at the University of

Figure 1: Hasbrouck Hall site plan.

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Figure 2: Hasbrouck Hall East elevations of the Addition Building (left), Original Building (right), and full building axon (bottom) according to original design intent and current state.

Massachusetts Amherst. This building is composed of two buildings in one, with the original Hasbrouck Hall built in 1947 by Kilham, Hopkins, Greeley, and Brodie, and the addition building built in 1964 by Desmond and Lord.14 The building is not deemed as historically significant and is currently in use according to original function.

climate may not only contribute to significant lighting loads and heating loads but may also result in low occupant comfort, sense of well-being, and productivity.16

4.2 Case Study Environmental Response Analysis

The Original Building is oriented 25 degrees off of north-south axis due West, while the Addition Building is oriented directly on the north-south axis (Fig. 1). Both buildings have their elongated east facades facing the main street. The Original Building is a two-story, flatroofed, common bond pattern brick building with a central, limestone architrave entrance and tall, multipane, steel-framed windows. The Addition Building is a four-story, flat-roofed, also common bond pattern brick building characterized by ribbon storefront glazing along the main level and the top story (Fig. 2). The Addition Building also includes a single-story, central, fanshaped volume which serves as the main entrance and a circulation attachment with the Original Building (Fig. 2).

The case study site in Amherst, Massachusetts, falls under the ASHRAE 90.1 climate zone classification 5A (cold and humid), which makes this a predominantly cold and heating-dominated climate. The following design strategies are recommended for facade systems in heating-dominated climates: solar collection through building envelope and passive heating, heat storage in building envelope, heat conservation within building through improved insulation and maximizing daylight to reduce lighting demand.16 Available climate charts for the nearest location, Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, show that the temperatures are predominantly below the comfort zone for about 9 months of the year and that the average low temperatures during winter months are between 20 to 30°F (-7 to -1°C). Solar radiation is consistent for about 8 months of the year, which reinforces the general recommendation to harvest this passive source of energy in this predominantly cold climate.

While levels 1 and 4 of the Addition Building are characterized by fully glazed storefront facades on the east and the west, levels 2 and 3 have no windows (Fig. 2). The only daylight available at these two levels comes from the storefront windows at the far ends of interior corridors (Fig. 3). Given their primary program of laboratories, classrooms, and offices, the absence of daylight in occupied spaces in a predominantly cold

Due to pre-existing site conditions, building orientation and shape conflict with design recommendations for this location and climate, as the east and west facades of

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

both buildings are elongated, and the north and south facades are minimized. Moreover, the formal qualities of the building exterior are not responsive to environmental conditions, as the treatment of the facades is irrelative to sun exposure and similar on both the east and the west facades. Both buildings demonstrate few differences in facade treatment, and window locations, sizes, and quantities are similar regardless of east or west orientation. The south facade, belonging to the Addition Building, apart from being minimally exposed, is characterized by dense vertical louvers on levels 1 and 3, while level 2 does not have any windows. The north

facade, which belongs to the Original Building, has only a few windows that serve the central corridor and not the occupied spaces. This indicates that passive strategies, such as solar exposure and radiation were not considered during the design of both buildings. Revit software was used to model a full 3D, BIM model of the existing building based on digitized scans of original construction drawings from the university’s archives for both buildings. The resulting Revit model was used to study shadows during different times of the year, and Insight 360 Solar Analysis software was used as a simulation tool to evaluate solar radiation (Fig. 5). Revit

Figure 3: Hasbrouck Hall solar exposure and solar radiation analysis using Revit and Insight 360 software simulations.

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4.3 Case Study Formal and Spatial Overview

software was able to provide the solar path and shading simulation based on exact geographic coordinates and the site-adjacent weather file for Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. Results show that regardless of season, the south facade and the general south portion of the Addition Building are predominantly in shade due to the size and proximity of an adjacent building. In addition, as expected, the elongated east and west facades of both buildings are most exposed to the sun during operating hours, which is more accentuated during the spring and fall seasons. However, dense trees on the building site filter and reduce exposure and heat gain upon these elevations, which is reflected in the solar radiation analysis results (Fig. 3). The lack of any glazing on east and west elevations of levels 2 and 3 of the Addition Building, coupled with predominant shade and low solar radiation for both buildings, make it difficult to implement design recommendations, such as maximizing natural daylight and harvesting solar radiation through the building envelope for passive heating to reduce the lighting and heating loads in this climate zone.16,17

Hasbrouck Hall is composed of primarily research laboratories and administrative spaces, which branch off the central corridor to the east and the west of each level, without a particular pattern at both buildings (Fig. 4). Laboratories and office spaces are segregated into separate spaces without visual transparencies between these functions, and the general size of these types of spaces is irregular. Current practice encourages larger laboratories that implement visual transparencies to encourage collaboration, flexibility to allow for adaptions to space function in the future, and decentralization and clustering of energy systems by program function to balance energy needs. Through empirical evaluation of the building program adjacencies and circulation, it may be concluded that the current spatial organization and size of individual laboratory spaces may not be conducive to current day needs, current day code requirements, or a comfortable user experience and wayfinding. These aspects were considered in the proposed retrofit design strategies, which influenced the proposed reconfiguration of floor plans and interventions at the building facades. This resulted in an addition of significant building area and volume, which were later included and accounted for in full building energy simulations.

Since both buildings were designed before the energy codes were introduced, it is not surprising to observe contradictory design strategies and general disregard of environmental conditions and energy performance criteria. High-performance buildings should surpass energy codes by maximizing passive design strategies and incorporating high-performance technologies and materials to achieve optimal facade function and thermal behavior based on climate.16

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

Figure 4: Hasbrouck Hall floor plans according to original design intent and spatial organization.

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4.4 Case Study Formal and Spatial Retrofit Design Exercise The existing, solely transient nature of the central connecting volume between the Addition and the Original Hasbrouck Hall buildings was replaced by a dramatically sculptural five-story curtain wall, which integrates amorphous photovoltaics in addition to opaque spandrel panels (Fig. 5 and Fig. 14). With this gesture, an effort was made to accentuate the main building entrance with a canopy and steps which integrate accessible ramps. The remaining building entrances were also reconfigured to include accessible means of entry.

The next major challenge was to maintain as many CMU interior partitions as possible, while enlarging laboratory spaces between both buildings, and integrating shared office spaces, meeting spaces, and also shared laboratory prep rooms where heavy equipment and fume hoods are typically located (Fig. 6). Shared prep rooms and office spaces were difficult to achieve at the Original Building, where the structural bays were narrower, and the existing CMU partitions and window locations dictated a tighter layout of those retrofit spaces. Another challenging planning exercise regarded evaluation of the existing vertical transportation and accommodating sufficient egress, which required an addition of several

Figure 5: Hasbrouck Hall full building axon (top) and axonometric floor plans of each level (bottom) according to proposed retrofit design intent.

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

stair towers and an additional elevator at the Original Building (Fig. 5).

green roof garden was provided for building users. Ultimately, the planning reconfiguration was not something that could be simulated for building performance. However, it was necessary to understand a holistic retrofit process—one that for this specific building typology almost always requires additional building area, a significant overhaul of interior partitions and egress circulation, and repurposing of insufficiently sized, original laboratories into administrative spaces. Additionally, plans influence the approach that should be taken for the building enclosure (location of glazed openings and percentages of glazed versus solid facades).

Next, as the second and third levels of the Addition Building did not integrate any windows into the occupied laboratory spaces, windows were added, and the building was enclosed with a double skin facade system of a solar wall technology that attaches onto the existing building skin. While the intent was to insulate and clad the Addition Building on the outside, the strategy for the more traditional brick veneer and stone ornamented facade of the Original Building was to insulate and refinish from the inside. High-hazard laboratories were located on the roof level of the Addition Building, and a

Figure 6: Partial floor plans at the Hasbrouck Hall Addition Building (top) and the Original Building (bottom) according to the proposed retrofit design intent.

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4.5 Case Study Facade System Performance

climate zone 5A is 40%.15 However, for colder climates, a higher SHGC can help support passive solar heating, but it should not exceed 45%.13

ASHRAE 90.1 prescribes minimum allowable thermal resistance (R-value) and the maximum allowable heat transfer coefficients (U-factor) for the different types of exterior walls. The glazed portions of a facade also include the maximum allowable solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC). For the case study climate zone, 5A, the minimum recommended R-value for an opaque facade assembly is 11.40 / 2.01 (h-ft2-°F/Btu / m2-°K/W), the maximum recommended U-factor for a glazed facade is 0.090 / 0.511 (Btu/h-ft²-°F / W/m²-°K), and the maximum recommended SHGC of glazed fenestration in

Typical window system details of both the Original Building and Addition Building indicated a rather simple technology, utilizing painted aluminum, non-thermally broken frame profiles, aluminum spacers, and single layer, clear glazing of slightly different thicknesses, respectively. Similarly, typical solid, exterior wall sections at both buildings indicated few layers and no insulation in their brick veneer and concrete masonry unit (CMU) frame assemblies. At the Addition Building, a typical

Figure 7: Typical solid and glazed facade systems at the Hasbrouck Hall Addition Building, indicating both the existing condition (black) and proposed retrofit strategies (superimposed in color).

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

solid facade system included 4 in (10 cm) standard course brick veneer and 8 in (20 cm) CMU frame, with reinforced fabric flashing sandwiched between these two layers. For the Original Building, a typical solid facade system included 4 in (10 cm) standard course brick veneer, 8 in (20 cm) cinder block frame, and an additional, interior layer of 2 in (5 cm) cinder block as interior finish. There was no mention or indication of any waterproofing layers at that building. The performance of the typical solid facade at the Addition Building was evaluated through manual R-value calculation and also though WINDOW, THERM, and WUFI software simulations. Through the inter-changeable operability of WINDOW and THERM, WINDOW was used to derive the overall U-factor, and THERM was used to analyze heat transfer performance and potential of

condensation at the Addition Building typical window system. WUFI was used to derive simulated R-values of the typical solid facade system, and to analyze its combined heat and moisture transfer. Figure 7 illustrates the typical solid and glazed facade systems at the Addition Building. Color notes and detail indicate proposed retrofit strategies upon the same diagram. Regarding the retrofit strategy for the solid facade system, solar wall cladding system was used for the proposed analysis. It acts both as an additive air insulation layer and as a heat harvesting, passive, double skin facade system that could be applied to existing facades. Choice to integrate this technology was a result of the existing condition, where the embodied energy of the existing concrete and brick layers dictated that these layers remain part of the assembly, and where the complete

Figure 8: R-value performance analysis of the typical solid facade system at Hasbrouck Hall Addition Building, including the original assembly (left), same type of exterior wall assembly according to current practice (center), and proposed retrofit assembly (right).

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lack of insulation dictated that additional facade layers were necessary and would have to be applied either on the exterior of the existing facade or the interior of the existing facade. Here, a choice was made to treat the existing facade layers as structure, and to insulate and reclad on the exterior.

underperforming by 83% compared to the conventional assembly of this facade type, and by 78% compared to minimum code requirements. Such underperformance in a predominantly cold climate likely incurs excessive heating loads on this building. Similar results are to be expected with the original building due to a similarly crude makeup of the facade system.

Figure 8 shows the results of manual R-value calculations for this typical solid wall assembly at the Addition Building. It includes the existing condition analysis (left), what this exterior wall assembly would have been composed of in conventional practice (center), and the proposed, retrofit condition utilizing the solar wall technology (right)

Thermal imaging was also conducted of the east facing facades, which reinforced the poor thermal performance results based on manual and WUFI simulations from archival drawings (Fig. 9). For the proposed retrofit option, the manual R-value calculation indicated a 173% improvement compared to minimum code requirements and 135% increased thermal performance compared to conventional brick veneer and CMU frame facade. The resulting R-value was 19.71 / 3.47 (h-ft²-°F/Btu / m²-°K/W), by adding insulation and a 4 in (10 cm) air cavity within the metal cladding layers of the solar wall system.

Through manual calculation, the R-value of this existing exterior wall assembly was 2.47 / 0.43 (h-ft 2-°F/Btu / m 2-°K/W), while accommodating for an interior finish layer of plasterboard, which was not noted on the section drawings but was indicated as a finish material in other areas of the building. To note, this extremely low result indicates an idealized thermal performance per the original construction drawings, not considering the potential degradation of the facade through the building’s age, thermal bridging, or any lack of maintenance. Conventional brick veneer and CMU frame facade resulted in an R-value of 14.60 / 2.57 (h-ft²-°F/Btu / m²-°K/W) and was 28% higher than the minimal recommendation.17 This common facade type is not considered a high-performance facade, as high-performance facades strive for improved thermal performance.16

Next, WUFI simulations were conducted to evaluate the thermal and moisture resistance performance for the same typical, solid facade at the Addition Building, simulating the same three options (existing, conventional, and retrofit). Two environmental orientations were evaluated - east and west - for each of three options, as WUFI has the capability of simulating climate-specific precipitation and wind conditions which do vary based on building orientation (Fig. 10). For these simulations, climate for Boston, Massachusetts, was used as the nearest available data file. Thus, 6 WUFI models were evaluated and presented in Figure 10. Additional, but not illustrated, WUFI models were generated and simulated to account for different exterior insulation

Thus, manually calculated results indicated that the typical solid facade system of Hasbrouck Hall’s Addition Building is not only a poor-performing system, but it is

Figure 9: Hasbrouck Hall east facade thermal imaging during winter of 2021; Addition Building (left), Addition Building’s main entrance volume (center), and Original Building (right).

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

Figure 10: Thermal and moisture transfer analysis of a typical solid wall assembly at Hasbrouck Hall using WUFI software simulations.

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types and thicknesses, air cavity of the solar wall cladding system, and different interior finish layers in order to derive the optimally performing exterior wall assembly for the retrofit option. Also, a couple of additional WUFI models were simulated to specifically compare heat flux values of having a “perforated metal” exterior cladding layer for an emulated, novel solar wall system against a solid exterior cladding layer, as the best attempt to emulate this technology was resulting in undesirable performance results due to the limitations of utilized software for non-conventional facade systems. This is clarified in Figure 10 notes.

the facade assembly.18 Similar to total water content results, the east-facing facade of both the existing and conventional assembly was prone to a higher increase in moisture transport toward the interior, while the westfacing facade of these two assemblies was in near-zero or negative digits. This resistance to moisture buildup is also illustrated in the graphs of Figure 10, where blue traces indicate a near complete reduction of water penetration over two years, and where green traces indicate a much more constant and stable value of relative humidity within the wall assembly layers. For the retrofit option, the charts of Figure 10 also illustrate an improvement in maintaining the temperature levels (red traces) within all facade layers above the dew point temperatures (purple traces), indicating less potential for condensation within the assembly.

The simulated R-values of all three options (existing, conventional, and retrofit) resulted in either slightly or significantly higher values than through manual calculations. That of the Addition Building’s typical solid wall assembly was still extremely low, 3.53 / 0.62 (h-ft²°F/Btu / m²-°K/W), underperforming by 70% compared to minimum code requirement. Conventional brick veneer and CMU frame facade resulted in a 204% higher R-value than minimally required at 23.29 / 4.10 (h-ft²-°F/ Btu / m²-°K/W). The solar wall retrofit facade resulted in a 274% higher R-value than the minimally required value by code, and a 133% improvement compared to the simulated conventional brick veneer and CMU frame facade at 31.19 / 5.49 (h-ft²-°F/Btu / m²-°K/W), well exceeding the minimal recommended benchmark of high-performance.16 Comparatively, although the simulated R-values were 13% higher for the existing assembly, 76% higher for conventional assembly, and 101% higher for the retrofit assembly, the pattern of severe underperformance of the existing and an extreme improvement in the performance of utilizing a double skin facade was observed.

Similar to moisture flux values, heat transfer is indicated by the heat flux values, positive value indicating heat retention at the interior side, and a negative value indicating heat loss toward the outside of the facade assembly.18 Concurrent with extremely low, underperforming R-value results, Figure 10 shows an extreme heat loss through the existing facade assembly, which similar to moisture transfer results is more severe, by 24% at the west orientation. As expected, the conventional facade assembly indicates heat retention. However, heat retention was also significantly reduced at the west orientation, by 97%. The retrofit facade assembly indicated a constant value heat flux regardless of orientation, a 77% reduction of heat loss at the east, and an 83% reduction of heat loss at the west orientation compared to the existing facade assembly. However, its heat flux values still indicated a heat loss. As noted in Figure 10 notes, this is attributed to the perforated metal cladding layers that were utilized and substituted to best represent the double skin facade system of solar wall technology. The microperforations of the exterior layer of metal cladding serve to create negative air pressure, which retains and heats the incoming air within the air cavity – performance properties that WUFI software cannot account for. This was tested by swapping the exterior most, perforated metal layer with a solid material, and the heat flux value immediately resulted in a positive value. Thus, although the software simulation may not be able to truly evaluate this novel, passive system, results show that these tools

Looking at the moisture performance results, Figure 10 shows very little difference between existing and what would have been a conventional brick veneer and CMU assembly, and that east orientation was prone to absorbing moisture, significantly more than the west elevation, which indicated negative digits (or evaporated moisture content). This is likely due to the NW facing winds. Interestingly, the proposed retrofit option, which integrates an air cavity, indicated the same, negative digit value result regardless of orientation. Moisture flux results indicate the direction of water content, positive value indicating a direction toward the interior side and negative indicating a direction toward outside of

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

are very helpful in evaluating both existing and retrofit performance, to test and verify design decisions.

options, using both WINDOW and THERM. THERM was also used to simulate the thermal and condensation performance of the existing window system under 4 environmental scenarios (Fig. 11).

Next, WINDOW and THERM simulations were done to analyze thermal performance of a typical glazed window system at the Addition Building. As archival and empirical data of this specific case study demonstrated what is generally accepted as the worst-performing type of glazed assembly (non-thermally broken frame with a single layer of glass), only the existing and a high-performance alternative system was analyzed to quantify the potential improvement in glazed facade performance. However, where this is not the case, multiple nuanced iterations of potential retrofit options can be analyzed in the same manner.

As expected for a non-thermally broken, single glazed window system, WINDOW results for the overall U-factor of the existing window system were very high, resulting in a value of 0.905 / 0.159 (Btu/h-ft²-°F / W/m²-°K). Compared to the maximum recommended U-factor for a glazed facade in this climate, 0.090 / 0.511 (Btu/h-ft²°F / W/m²-°K), the typical window system of Hasbrouck Hall underperforms by 90%. SHGC result was 0.716, thus 72%, and far exceeding the maximal recommended value of 45%. Another provided value, the condensation resistance CR value was 8, an extremely low value on the scale of 1-100. Thus, the thermal and moisture resistance performance of this window system severely underperforms, especially in its climate.

Typical window system head detail was used to derive the overall U-factor and the SHGC of this typical window system, for both the existing and proposed retrofit

Figure 11: Hasbrouck Hall east facade thermal imaging during winter of 2021; Addition Building (left), Addition Building’s main entrance volume (center), and Original Building (right).

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The first scenario in Figure 11 was based on the NFRC exterior and interior environmental conditions,19 which illustrated a very cold assembly. The entirety of the frame and edge of the glass was at about 8°F / -13°C, and as indicated by the yellow line traced along the interior edges of frame and glazing, this window system’s interior temperatures were below the interior dew point temperatures and, thus, developed condensation. As the NFRC prescribed environmental conditions test a very cold exterior circumstance,19 options 2-4 evaluated the temperature gradient and potential for condensation under some more commonly observed and mild winter temperatures, including both a low interior relative humidity (RH) at 30%, and also a higher one at 50% interior RH. Results show that under an exterior temperature of 20°F / -7°C and 30% interior RH there was no condensation. However, as soon as the exterior temperature drops to 10°F / -12°C or as soon as the interior RH is raised to 50%, condensation occurs either at just the entire interior face of the frame or both the interior face of frame and edge of glass. The temperature gradient in these milder winter conditions remained at about 40-45°F / 4-7°C.

applied for this next step. Floor and roof R-values for the existing building simulation were also manually derived from archival drawings.

4.6 Case Study Whole Building Performance Analysis Once the facade analysis was concluded, whole building energy simulation was conducted using a Revit compatible energy simulation software, Sefaira. To conduct this analysis, the architectural Revit models for both the existing and retrofit options were simplified regarding their geometry and number of components, per software recommendations to prevent errors in the simulations.20 For example, walls were simplified of their detailed layer compositions, window wall mullions were removed, and a single layer glazing window family was used for the glazed portions of the building so that the software reduced the number of individual components and geometric planes it needs to analyze. Instead, the thermal performance of the building enclosure (walls, roofs, glazing) was manually specified within the simulation software (Fig. 12). Additionally, similar function spaces had their partition walls designated as non-room bounding to cluster spaces and reduce the number of rooms, or zones software needs to read in the entire building model. Even circulation and void spaces had to be designated as 3D rooms, which were later manually assigned as ignored or unconditioned spaces. Occupied rooms were assigned function with associative default plug loads for office, school, etc. Also, the building’s passive and active energy systems were manually specified. Additional detailed, simplification procedures along with detailed inputs (outside of default settings) are shown in Figure 12.

Poor performance among all window system components was present (the non-thermally broken frame, the single layer, uninsulated glazing, and the minimal aluminum channel spacer), which informed that all components of this window system would have to be improved. THERM simulations of the proposed triple insulated glazing unit with air and a thermally broken aluminum frame were not simulated. However, WINDOW was used to derive what the overall U-factor and SHGC would be for this type of widow system using generic components. Results indicated a U-factor value of 0.449 / 0.079 (Btu/ h-ft²-°F / W/m²-°K) and an SHGC 0.556 or 56%. Just increasing the layers of clear glass without utilizing any low-e coating or sophisticated thermally broken frames, the U-factor was increased by 50% and the SHGC was reduced by 22%. The SHGC would be further reduced if one of the glass layers included a low-e coating.

Simulation results captured EUI value, including monthly and annual energy consumption by category (heating, cooling, ventilation, etc.) as summarized in Figure 13. For the existing building, results indicate an 18% lower EUI value (139 kBtu/ft2/yr) than actual collected data (154 kBtu/ft²/yr). Deviation in simulation results was about 10%, which was considered when comparing the retrofit design option against the existing building conditions. Retrofit design EUI value (126 kBtu/ft²/ yr) indicates a 9% decrease from the existing building condition. However, Figure 13 shows that the overall energy consumption for the retrofit design increased by

Results of these solid and glazed facade simulations were used as inputs for the whole building energy models in Sefaira software, for both the existing and proposed simulations. U-factors and SHGC from WINDOW were applied. And, due to drastic differences between manual and WUFI R-value results, manual results were

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

Figure 12: Hasbrouck Hall full-building energy model inputs and EUI results for existing and retrofit design options using Sefaira.

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Figure 13: Hasbrouck Hall full-building energy model results for existing and retrofit design options using Sefaira.

32%. This is due to the significant increase in the program area; 67% building area was added to size up laboratory spaces and add a large central, glazed atrium of shared, circulation spaces.

retrofit design option integrated, such as hydrogen fuel cells and thermoelectric (TE) modules (Fig. 7 and Fig. 14). Fuel cells generate electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen across an electrochemical cell, and store this energy as heat or electricity, much like large-scale batteries. Meanwhile, TE facade systems offer passive energy production without the use of mechanical parts or the production of toxic waste.19 Studies have been conducted to determine how facade-integrated TE materials behave in typical climatic conditions, how is their performance is affected by different configurations of heat sinks, and how is the thermal performance affected by varying electricity supply, climatic conditions, and assembly construction.23, 24

Through a separate analysis, EUI reduction through a maximal roof area coverage in solar panels was calculated using a publicly available tool, PVWatts Calculator.21 Those results showed that utilizing 626 premium, 200W, 30-degree tilt, single-axis solar panels, a EUI reduction of 6, and an energy savings of 5% was achieved. This calculated component would further reduce the retrofit design EUI to 121 kBtu/ft²/yr for an overall 13% EUI reduction despite the increased building area.

Although these regenerative systems could not be easily simulated for this article, the exemplified process shows that a combination of manual and simulated steps of analyzing existing state performance and using those

In addition, Sefaira was not able to account for harvested energy of the solar wall technology, which promises between 150-350 kBtu/ft²/yr in generated heat,22 and the additional regenerative systems the

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

Figure 14: Hasbrouck Hall retrofit design axon and section, illustrating combined passive and active retrofit design strategies.

results to influence and test desired design gestures can be very useful in achieving energy consumption reduction in a retrofit design process. Tools presented here allow the designer to quantify maximized passive strategies, before integrating some of the more costly and sophisticated technologies to further reduce energy usage.

have to be either built up on the exterior or interior sides of the enclosure. Moreover, the interior program and spatial organization were segmented and scattered, without any visual transparencies or inviting program for the public and users to socialize, and several floors of occupied science laboratories and offices did not have any windows. Additionally, egress and accessibility were insufficient. Such state would also pose significant challenges for potential retrofit process, as the interior spaces would require a deeply invested intervention and reconfiguration, which may result in needing to provide additional building area to accommodate additional public, interdisciplinary, and casual program in addition to likely having to significantly enlarge and equip existing laboratories to current day standards of practice.

5.0 Conclusion Final research results showed that the existing building drastically underperforms in all evaluated criteria. Conceptualization of both the Original and the Addition buildings did not integrate any environmental or passive design strategies. Building enclosure at both buildings, whether solid or glazed, severely underperformed in its thermal and moisture resistance due to the bare minimum of its systems’ layers and non-integration of any insulation. Such underperformance in a predominantly cold climate poses significant challenges for a potential retrofit process, as the building skin would

Primar y, passive retrofit strategies included improvements in building enclosure, specifically adding insulation and water drainage to the exterior walls and insulation and thermally broken components to window systems. Thermal performance of the proposed solid facade system, a solar wall and double skin facade, showed a 173% higher performance compared to what

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is minimally required by code, an almost 8-fold (798%) higher performance compared to the existing solid facade performance. Moisture performance of the same proposed solid facade system also significantly improved by nearly 300%, and no water was retained. Meanwhile, the thermal performance of the proposed glazed facade system, a triple, air-insulated glazing units with a thermally broken frame, showed a 50% decrease in overall U-factor value and a 22% decrease in SHGC. These quantifiable strategies, including the addition of roof solar panels, were simulated and calculated to evaluate the overall energy savings which resulted in an overall 13% EUI reduction despite a 67% increase in retrofit building area which resulted from an addition of a large 5-story atrium between the two existing buildings.

[3] CBECS., Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Sur vey, Retrieved from: http://www.eia.gov/ consumption/commercial/. [4] Laustsen J. (2008). Energy efficiency requirements in building codes, energy efficiency policies for new buildings. OECD/IEA. [5] Smith A., and Gill G. (2011). Toward Zero Carbon: The Chicago Central Area DeCarbonization Plan. Edited by Kevin Nance and Debbie Fry. Hong Kong: The Images Publishing Group. [6] Fulton, M., (2012). “United States Building Energy Efficiency Retrofits: Market Sizing and Financing Models”, Retrieved from: https:// w w w. ro c kefe l l e r fo u n d a t i o n .o rg /re p o r t / united-states-building-energy-efficiency-retrofits/

Overall results, for a building typology that heavily relies on energy-intensive mechanical systems, show that the sequential process of analysis methods and simulations used in this case study (which are typically utilized to inform design decisions of new buildings), helped to inform retrofit decisions as a reiterative process. It helped quantitatively maximize passive strategies to lower the overall building EUI before considering supplemental, active systems. Though a single case study, the process applied in this article, can be widely applied to analyze existing and proposed performance and to inform design decisions regarding sustainable retrofitting of existing buildings that our society is increasingly challenged with.

[7] Ma, Z., Cooper, P., Daly, D., and Ledo, L., (2012). “Existing Building Retrofits: Methodology and State-ofthe-Art.” Energy and Buildings 55 (December). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.08.018. [8] Deng, S., Wang, R.Z., and Dai, Y.J., (2014). “How to Evaluate Performance of Net Zero Energy Building—A Literature Research.” Energy 71 (July): 1–16. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.05.007. [9] Tobias, L., Vavaroutsos, G., Bennett, M., Grasberger, E.A., Paladino, T., Wille, R., and Zimmer, M., (2009), Retrofitting Office Buildings to Be Green and EnergyEfficient: Optimizing Building Performance, Tenant Satisfaction, and Financial Return. Washington D.C.: Urban Land Institute. [10] EPA. (2008). “Laboratories for the 21st Century: An Introduction to Low-Energy Design (Revised)”. United States: N. p., 2008. Retrieved from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/907998.

References [1] UN Environment and International Energy Agency (2017): Towards a zero-emission, efficient, and resilient buildings and construction sector. Global Status Report 2017.

[11] Aksamija, A. 2017. “Impact of Retrofitting EnergyEfficient Design Strategies on Energy Use of Existing Commercial Buildings: Comparative Study of LowImpact and Deep Retrofit Strategies.” Journal of Green Building 12 (4): 70–88.

[2] Bazaz, Amir, Paolo Bertoldi, Marcos Buckeridge, Anton Cartwright, Heleen De Coninck, François Engelbrecht, Daniela Jacob, et al. (2018). “Summary for Urban Policy Makers - What the IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C Means for Cities”, C40 Cities, Retrieved from: https://www.c40.org/researches/summary-forurban-policymakers-what-the-ipcc-special-report-onglobal-warming-of-1-5-c-means-for-cities.

[12] Appleby P. 2013. Sustainable retrofit and facility management. Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis. [13] Tabataabaee, S., Weil, B., and Aksamija, A., (2015)., “Negative Life-Cycle Emissions Growth Rate through Retrofit of Existing Institutional Buildings”, Proceedings

High-Performance Retrofit Strategies

of the Architectural Research Centers Consortium (ARCC) 2015 Conference, Chicago, April 6-9, pp. 212-221.

[20] O’Connor, R. 2021., “Simplicity vs. Complexity – Modeling for Energy & Daylighting Analysis in Sefaira,” Sefaira. Retrieved from: https://support.sefaira.com/ hc/en-us/articles/206331335-Simplicity-Vs-ComplexityModeling-for-Energy-Daylighting-Analysis-in-Sefaira

[14] Mohammad Shafee, Maryam. 2014. “Architecture for Science: Space as an Incubator to Nurture Research.” Masters Theses, University of Massachusetts Amherst.

[21] NREL. n.d. “PVWatts Calculator,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Alliance for Sustainable Neergy, LLC. Golden, CO. Retrieved from: https:// pvwatts.nrel.gov/

[15] Griffin, B., (2005)., “Laboratory Design Guide. [Electronic Resource] : For Clients, Architects and Their Design Team : The Laboratory Design Process from Start to Finish”, 3rd ed. Architectural Press. Retrieved from: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct =true&db=cat06087a&AN=umass.016085679&site=e ds-live&scope=site.

[22] SollarWall. (2021)., “How it Works,” Conerval Engineering Inc. Retrieved from: https://www.solarwall. com/technology/solar-wall-single-stage/

[16] Aksamija, A. 2013. Sustainable Facades: Design Methods for High-Performance Building Envelopes. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

[23] Aksamija, A., Aksamija, Z., Farid Mohajer, M., Upadhyaya, M. et al. (2020). "Thermoelectric Facades: Simulation of Heating and Cooling Potential for Novel Intelligent Facades", Proceedings of the Facade World Congress 2020.

[17] ASHRAE. 2019. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.12019: Energy Standard for Buildings except Low-Rise Residential Buildings: I-P Edition. ASHRAE.

[24] Aksamija, A., Aksamija, Z., Counihan, C.H., Brown. D., et al., (2019). "Experimental Study of Operating Conditions and Integration of Thermoelectric Materials in Facade Systems", Frontiers in Energy Research, Vol. 7, pp. 1-10.

[18] WUFI. (2019)., “WUFI Pro 6 Manual,” Fraunhofer IBP 2019, Germany. [19] NFRC. (2017)., “THERM 7 / WINDOW 7 – NFRC Simulation Manual,” NFRC (National Fenestration Rating Council), Inc. Greenbelt, MD.

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04 Living with Wildfire: Exploring A Resilient Future for Fire Prone Areas Addison Estrada, addison.estrada@perkinswill.com Helen Schneider, RA, LEED AP®, helen.schneider@perkinswill.com Maraya Morgan, maraya.morgan@perkinswill.com

Abstract The threat of wildfires in California has significantly altered quality of life in the region. Adaptation will require fundamental corrections in land stewardship, development patterns, and building practices. Design professionals must make sense of an overwhelming array of information. In this article a literature review summarizes design relevant information including the role of wildfire in California’s ecosystem and the variables that affect its behavior. By developing an understanding of the recommendations of experts, architects and designers can aid in delivering effective solutions that better serve to protect life, property, and the environment within fire prone areas. Wildfires play a vital role in the natural environment and their increased activity over the past sixty years is in part due to historic fire suppression policies and sprawling development patterns in the region. Structures within and adjacent to the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) can reduce the risk of structure ignition by implementing home hardening measures, defensible space, and sitewide fuels reduction measures. The scale of megafires cannot be designed against, and some fire prone areas may consider varying scales of managed retreat where fuels reduction proves either cost prohibitive or impractical. The impacts of wildfire are felt globally and the conditions in California are not singular. Keywords: defensible space, fire prone areas, home hardening, wildfire, wildland urban interface

1.0 Introduction In the early morning hours of October 9th, 2017, while the city of Santa Rosa slept, the Tubbs Fire arrived in Coffey Park, a pleasant suburban neighborhood on the northeast side of the city. Residents, awoken by evacuation alerts, had mere moments to gather a few things before fleeing their homes amidst the over 60 mile-per-hour winds leading the encroaching firestorm. The fire had started over 15 miles away, on Tubbs Lane in rural Calistoga. The fire jumped a six-lane freeway, to arrive in Coffey Park. Transformers exploded. A 100,000 square foot K-Mart burned to the ground. What had started as a wildland fire, became something entirely different as the fuel source shifted from trees and vegetation to buildings and artifacts of industrialization. The Tubbs fire became the most destructive wildfire in California history at the time, claiming 22 lives and 5,636 structures. In the aftermath, residents who returned

found their homes and belongings reduced to piles of rubble, cars melted, trash bins liquified, and their futures uncertain.

1.1 The Risk: Catastrophic Wildfires The devastation caused by the Tubbs Fire and the magnitude of the 2017 fire season was an astounding wake-up-call for California. The 2018 fire season proved to be even more devastating when the Camp Fire surpassed the Tubbs as the most destructive wildfire in state history causing 85 deaths, the loss of 18,804 structures, and the decimation of the entire town of Paradise.¹ In the last sixty years, the risk of extreme wildfire events has grown for communities in and adjacent to

Living with Wildfire

Figure 1: Ventura, CA. 6th, December 2017: An example of Firefighters preventing a winds-driven fire from jumping Hwy. 101. Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

Figure 2: Paradise, CA. 10th, November 2018: Vehicles melted on the side of the road during the Camp Fire. Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

and an estimated 4.2 million acres of land. Five of the fires during 2020 ranked among the six largest in the state’s recorded history.² The impact of wildfires extends beyond the flame front, as research also predicts increases in premature mortality due to chronic exposure to air pollution.³ This trend of catastrophic wildfires is expected to continue because of climate change and other factors which we will discuss further. Figure 4, illustrates the role of extreme wildfires in a positive feedback cycle, in turn causing more smoke and ever higher temperatures.

Figure 3: Top 20 Most Destructive Wildfires in California, by structures lost, according to CAL Fire.

1.2 Road Map In the following sections, this document will look at how California arrived at this position and what designers, homeowners, and stewards can do about it. The source of this information is compiled from an extensive and multidisciplinary review of scholarly journals, media, state resources and federal reports. Figure 4: Wildfire Role in Positive Feedback Cycle.

2.0 How Did we Get There?

wildland vegetation. Once considered an occasional disaster, extreme wildfire is now understood to be an established fixture in the Californian landscape. The increase in frequency and size of these fires has resulted in persistent fire seasons, burning for longer periods with no means of containment. In 2020, wildfires in California claimed the lives of 31 people, over 10,000 structures,

2.1 Historic Fire Regimes Wildfire is a natural phenomenon that has always been present in California’s landscapes. Wildfires are the unplanned, uncontrolled burning of biomass.

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Unimpeded wildfires play an important role in shaping ecology and habitat: opening habitats to sun, encouraging reproduction of certain plant species, and controlling devastating pests.⁴ Periodic fires also serve to prevent the buildup of fuel which can lead to catastrophic fires.

burning) to manage vegetation, wildlife, and food resources. Moreover, Indigenous people also set fires intentionally to burn excess vegetative fuel and prevent catastrophic wildfires These cultures flourished through the supportive relationship of fire as a means of managing resources and landscapes. The Yoruk, Karuk, and Hoopa Tribes of Northern California used fire for several tasks including to encourage the growth of hazel into straight stems, which they used for weaving baskets. With fire, these Tribes promoted the production of foods, like acorns, huckleberries, and even salmon. Additionally, landscapes that were mechanically managed by cultural burning developed greater biodiversity than those reliant on natural ignition patterns.⁶

California is home to several seasonal fire cycles. These cycles are called fire regimes, and they follow predictable patterns of intensity, frequency, size, and severity. Historically lightning has been the source of non-human ignition, sparking dry vegetation during the hot summer and fall months. A Berkeley study estimates that before humans, nearly 4.5 million acres of California wildlands burned annually.⁵

2.1.1 Indigenous Peoples’ Use of Fire

2.1.2 What Does the System Look Like in Equilibrium?

Archeologists believe that humans have used fire to impact the California landscape for nearly 11,000 years, since humans first occupied the region.Indigenous people in California understood the ecological impacts of fire. They used deliberate fire (cultural

The health of an ecosystem requires biodiversity, redundancy, and sustained populations. Healthy ecosystems that exhibit these characteristics can continue to support habitats for a large range of organisms. California’s Mediterranean climate features a

Table 1: Characteristics of California's Principal Biomes, assembled from California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan.²

Living with Wildfire

1793 Spanish Governor José Joaquín de Arrillaga issued a proclamation prohibiting cultural burning by Indigenous peoples.⁷ Periods of rapid western immigration increased development and pushed settlers further into fire prone woodlands and shrublands. Early Western conservationists, interested in protecting timber and water resources, created California’s first national forest reservation in 1892. Then in 1910, wildfires burned 3 million acres in Montana, Idaho, and Washington. “The Big Blow-Up”, as it was coined, led to a national policy of fire prevention and suppression.⁷ Policies of suppression continued for another century, offsetting decades of wildfire and resulting in several societal impacts. The seasonal suppression of fire contributed to a widespread impression of fire as foe. It also created a false sense of security for suburban communities residing in fire prone regions without incident.

Figure 5: Second Year Growth after Medium-Intensity Fire in a Redwood and Doug Fir Forest. Photograph by Helen Schneider.

wide mix of biomes including conifer forests, grasslands, oak woodlands, chaparral and shrublands. Each region experiences its own microclimate, biodiversity, and fire cycle.

A UC Berkeley study estimated that between 1950 and 1999, the total amount of land burned in California was only about 5% of what would have burned during a fiftyyear period in prehistoric times.⁵

2.2 Centuries of Suppression 2.2.1 The Growing Scale of Wildfires

With the arrival of Spanish settlers in California, a practice of fire suppression supplanted Indigenous land management practices. The use of fire by Indigenous peoples threatened European settlers’ ambitions of logging, agriculture, and mining. In

The frequency, season, scale, and intensity of a burn are crucial variables in how an ecosystem rebounds after a fire. The ecosystems of California have for centuries adapted to consistent wildfire patterns. In recent years

Figure 6: Soberanes Fire, 2016: Forested Landscape after a Stand Replacing Mega-Fire caused by an illegal campfire. Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

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2.4 Fire Behavior

there has been a trending rise in wildfire frequency. The severity of these wildfires has also increased causing disruptions in fire behavior and habitat stability.

Fire behavior is a result of site-specific conditions: ǌ Fuel: The greater the fuel load, the greater potential for conflagrations. Density, fuel height, and moisture content determine behavior of burn.

Severe conflagrations can alter the chemical composition of soil, impact nearby water sources, and homogenize the eventual vegetation that returns after the fire subsides.⁸ These “stand replacing fires” are not a new phenomenon in fire prone areas. Some ecosystems like southern California’s chaparral experience them within twenty to sixty years on average. They mark the end of old or diseased flora and the start of a new cohort.⁹ The pattern of fires at this scale in California forests has been historically less frequent than in recent years.⁵ See Figure 5 & 6.

ǌ Weather: Dry, hot summers mixed with strong winds can ignite and spread fire rapidly. The effects of periodic droughts dry out vegetation and create large expanses of kindling. ǌ Topography: Fire follows the path of easiest ignition. As fire transitions up slope, it propagates embers and preheats fuels in its path, allowing it to travel faster.⁸

2.4.1 Fuel

2.3 Components of Fire

Fuel, in the context of wildfire, should be understood as any combustible material. Vegetation and structures are both examples of fuel present in today's fire prone landscapes. Fuel loads are the approximate amount (often characterized by equivalent weight in wood) of fuel present in an area.

Fire is the product of a chemical reaction, combustion, that requires sustained fuel, oxygen, and heat. Figure 7, is referred to as The Fire Triangle, and it serves to illustrate the three ingredients of combustion. If unimpeded, the

Fuel load is determined by the dead moisture content and density of fuels in an area.⁸ Dead fuel moisture content measures water content in vegetation (ranging up to 30% in fire season). Dry fuels with low moisture content increase the chances of combustibility. Fuels with high moisture levels (12-30% depending on fuel type) result in moisture extinction, meaning that fire cannot spread. The higher the moisture content the more heat energy must be transferred for combustion to occur.

2.4.2 Weather Figure 7: The Fire Triangle.

The moisture content of dead fuels fluctuates based on local weather conditions. The temperature and humidity Table 2: Dead Fuel Moisture Time Lag, adapted from NOAA.

chemical reaction will continue until one of the three either naturally decays or is actively removed. This principle is the foundation of fire suppression. All fire mitigation strategies are preemptive separation of at least one of these three elements from the chemical chain reaction.

LAG TIME RATE

DIAMETER

PERIOD OF MEASURMENT

1 hour

Litter

Observed weather conditions

.25” - 1”

Observed weather conditions

10 hour

100 hour

1” – 3”

24 hour average weather conditions

1000 hour

3” – 8”

7 day average weather conditions

Living with Wildfire

change the gradient of moisture exchange between the air and fuel. Large fuels transfer moisture slower than small fuels resulting in delays of moisture equilibrium, see Table 2. Prolonged periods of hot, dry, windy weather cause the lag times of different fuels to reach low moisture contents at the same time, making the area extremely susceptible to wildfire.

and solvents are among the fuel in an urban wildfire. When burned, these toxic substances contribute to unprecedented hazardous air quality that has closed schools hundreds of miles away from the fire source. Doctors are already recommending that people with severe asthma or pulmonary diseases move elsewhere. We have yet to fully understand the impact that these incinerated toxins will have on biological systems.

2.4.3 Topography 2.5.1 Emergency Responders

The aspect of a hill changes the solar exposure and moisture content of fuel.10 In the Northern Hemisphere, southwest aspects receive the greatest thermal energy and pose the most vulnerable conditions for wildfire. Narrow northern aspects offer greater self-shading, thereby increasing the retention of fuel moisture in understories. Living fuels are less responsive to swings in moisture content. When trees disappear from the landscape it serves to further imbalance the atmospheric equilibrium.

California depends on its emergency responders to protect its communities from wildfire. When responding to a wildfire, emergency personnel have three tiers of priorities:11 1. Life 2. Property 3. Environment

84% of wildfires today are caused by human activity.1 Aging infrastructure (typically overhead power lines), fireworks, sparks from equipment and railroads, debris burning, discarded cigarettes, and arson are all sources of human-caused wildfires.

Containment of a fire is not always an option, so decisions must be made that favor the safety of people and crew over buildings and land. There are increasing instances when the rate of advancement of a fire poses too great a risk for emergency personnel to respond. Often the defense of a structure is dependent on access, and safe extraction of crew. For this reason, access roads to remote properties with narrow or overgrown road edges are not viable to defend due to risk.

Extremely hazardous air quality and smoke inhalation are a concern for the entire state of California, and its neighbors.³ Plastics, cleaners, leaded paints, fuels,

Increasingly, the conditions that emergency personnel are called on to defend against have become more dangerous and overwhelming.

2.5 Humans and Wildfires

Figure 8: Ignition of a Powerline: Downed power lines, accounted 1,500 wildfires in the past 6 years. Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

Figure 9: September 9, 2020, Smoke and Particulate Matter Occluded the Sun from SF to Yosemite.

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ǌ Intermix WUI describes areas where houses and wildland vegetation are interspersed, where vegetation occupies more than 50% of land area.

2.5.2 Intangible Costs The physical and monetary effects of fire are often cited in a fire’s aftermath, however there are intangible consequences to extreme cycles of wildfire.

ǌ Interface WUI describes settled communities that abut wildland, where vegetation occupies less than 50% of land area. Suburban developments adjacent to wildland typically fall within this category.

The mental health of firefighters is impacted by relentless fire seasons. Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), among firefighters is higher than in civilian populations.12 Fire service personnel report being severely underfunded and understaffed.

While Intermix WUI has more fire spread by acreage, Interface WUI experiences more structure damage. Over a thirty-year period from 1985-2013, 50% of structures destroyed by wildfire in California were in the Interface WUI, whereas 32% of structures were in the Intermix WUI.14

Wildfire survivors may also suffer devastating consequences for years to come. In addition to the trauma of losing a home, some may be forced to relocate, and many will experience PTSD, or other ongoing health consequences. It is estimated that 30-40% of people who are direct victims of a natural disaster will experience PTSD.12 No assessment of development risk can be whole without consideration for the subsequent risk to first responders and residents.

Increased development in the Wildland Urban Interface and adjacent areas has dramatically increased the fuel loads of already dense, dry conifer forests and overgrown chaparral foothills. Man-made structures prove extremely flammable and structure to structure ignition can be of greater risk than adjacent trees. This was the case with Coffey Park in 2017, and the Town of Paradise, which was leveled by the Camp Fire in 2018.

2.6 Development Patterns The Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI) is defined as a place where humans and human development occur among wildland vegetation, and quantitatively where there is at least one housing unit per forty acres.13 Communities within one-half-mile of wildlands are included among the WUI.

2.6.1 Who Lives in the WUI? Among US states, California has the largest number of people living in the Wildland Urban Interface— 11.2 million, or roughly 30% of state residents, as of the 2010 census.13 This number is expected to grow significantly. In a "Business As Usual" growth scenario, 12.9 million acres of sparsely populated and agricultural lands will be added to existing WUI over the next thirty years.15 The current WUI territory is 6.6 million acres of

There are two main categories within the WUI where most wildfire structure loss occurs: The Intermix WUI and the Interface WUI.13

Figure 10: Wildfire Risk in California, Adapted from California Utilities Commission Data.

Living with Wildfire

Figure 11: Developed Land in California and Projected Future Development, Adapted from Fire and Resource Assessment Program FRAP Data.

Figure 12: Wildfire Risk in California, Adapted from California Utilities Commission Data.

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Figure 13: Scorched Redwood Tree with New Growth. Photography by Helen Schneider.

3.1 A New Approach to Land Management

California's total 104.7 million acres. This is significant, because despite only occupying 6% of California by size, 82% of buildings destroyed by wildfires are in WUI zones.14

The factors that influence wildfire resilience are complex and include many variables. While climate change is largely responsible, there are several factors that are within human influence: Land Management, Land Development, and Building Practices. The scale of these measures includes the coordination of multiple state and local agencies, Indigenous Tribal communities, and private landowners and homeowners. Several efforts have already been made to begin this coordination. Resources like the Governor’s Office of Planning and Research (ORP) help centralize research and planning efforts to inform local government requirements for privately owned land across the state.2

In California, the major populated urban areas are directly adjacent to wildland areas—urban densities separated by mere miles of WUI interface residential development. With catastrophic wildfires appearing to be the new normal in a changing climate, millions of urban residents, even those residing outside the WUI, could also be at risk. Figure 10, illustrates the development density continuum from wildland to urban areas. In more densely populated areas, embers from a nearby wildland fire may travel over a mile and spark an urban wildfire.

3.1.1 Learn from Indigenous Communities

3.0 What Needs to Change?

Controlled, low-intensity fire is one of the best means to curb catastrophic wildfires. Recent Indigenous/Western partnerships offer glimmers of hope that California may begin to make amends for decades of suppression. Since 2013, the Yurok Tribe has been actively working to reintroduce cultural burning to their people and to their ancestral lands. To meet stringent legal requirements for prescribed burning (such as having Western equipment on hand), the Yurok Tribe started a knowledge share in 2014—bringing together firefighters from across the country for a training exchange with Indigenous practitioners of prescribed burning. These now biannual exchanges led to national knowledge shares with the nation-wide Indigenous People’s Burning Network.6

To stem the frequency and magnitude of catastrophic wildfires in California, change needs to happen at all scales—from the vast amount of California’s wildland vegetation to that of communities, and down to the details of a home. We must adapt the following approaches: 1. Land Management Practices 2. Land Development Practices 3. Building Practices

Living with Wildfire

These partnerships are crucial and may scale to treat the vast expanses of land that desperately need fire for regeneration, and stem future catastrophic wildfires.

To meet these goals, the state committed to treating 500,000 acres of land with fire resilient management by 2025.² They plan to achieve this with a combination of sustainable timber harvest and prescribed fire. The plan supports Indigenous/Western partnerships like those with the Yurok.

3.1.2 California Resilience Plan In January of 2021, the State of California released California’s Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan. This multiagency report acknowledges the impacts of human activity into wildland areas. The plan seeks to:

This plan represents a significant step forward and appears to mark a new chapter in the state’s response to wildfire; however, the of amount land that will likely fall victim to catastrophic wildfire by 2025 is much greater than the area California has committed to treat.

ǌ Increase Wildland Health and Resilience

The growth of the timber industry continues to loom large in setting land management goals. While the state acknowledges the importance of prescribed burns as a land management tool critical for ecosystem

ǌ Fortify Community Protection ǌ Coordinate Ecological and Economic Forest Management Goals

Figure 14: Factors that Influence Fire Resilience.

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Figure 15: Firefighter ignites path of fire for the Bonnie Doon 2020 Prescribed Fire.

Figure 16: Firefighters observe managed burn of Bonnie Doon Spring 2020 Prescribed Fire. Photographs by Kara Capaldo.

preservation, prescribed burns account for only one-fifth treated land.16 Accelerating training and permitting for the use of controlled fire is one of the most potentially impactful actions to prevent catastrophic wildfires and restore ecosystems in jeopardy.

flame heights.11 When an understory becomes overgrown, the flames can ladder up to the canopy above destroying legacy habitats. This type of vegetation is called “ladder fuels.” 10 It is important to remove lower limbs on legacy trees and cut back shrubs to avoid the fire from leaving the ground. Fuel reduction projects end up with piles, and often they are intended to be removed or chipped. However, these piles can provide significant habitats.10

3.2 Fuels Reduction Forest Management is the practice of human intervention to reduce fuel load in a wildland area. There are several different methods used by land stewards:

Land stewards may remove a habitat pile, away from nearby trees to prevent it from becoming a hotspot. Locating dead wood piles in a gap of vegetation may allow it to serve significant habitat benefits. Dead wood features also contribute to the overall health of the forest returning nutrients and protection for a bevy of species.10

ǌ Prescribed Burning ǌ Grazing ǌ Wood Chipping ǌ Tree Removal (Logging) ǌ Fuel Breaks

3.3 A New Approach to Development

Fuel reduction practices essentially replicate a version of what a normal wildfire cycle would produce, aiding in the return of an ecosystem to its natural state.10 National, state, and local agencies may choose to treat their land with some combination of the fuel reduction strategies listed above.

To mitigate against catastrophic loss of human life and property, California must adapt development practices that consider wildfire risk and collective dependency.

3.3.1 Guidelines for Development It is recommended that suburban and residential communities that reside adjacent to wildlands should be separated by 300-foot-wide defensive belts to help buffer structures from potential wildfires. The 300foot belt may be a highway, or other zone kept clear of combustible material.11 This belt breaks the continuity of

3.2.1 Balancing Fuels Reduction and Habitat In a prescribed burn, fire occurs low across the understory, burning debris and smaller vegetation without entering the canopy of the tree. The height of vegetation affects

Living with Wildfire

fuel leading to more densely populated areas and serves to protect against the flame front; however, with embers known to spark fire after floating airborne for over a mile, ember ignition remains a risk.17 This scale of intervention is not always achievable nor is necessarily appropriate to replicate for all communities. If habitat protection and buffering cannot coexist then the communities should consider more selective prescribed burns, utilizing manmade roads, bodies of water and natural barriers. Neglecting to invest in fuel treatment all together will leave communities vulnerable to wildfire and pose serious hazards to responding fire personnel. It seems likely that, the mounting maintenance of wildfire mitigation will gradually warrant managed retreat, the relocation of structures from an area of risk, in some WUI Interface and Intermix areas. It should be noted that this last strategy has historically been unpopular with property owners and real-estate interest. Globally the impacts of climaterelated migration will displace millions, recontextualizing expectations and the options left for holdouts in the coming years.

SPUR (San Francisco Urban Research Association), a nonprofit think tank focused on regional planning and public policy in the Bay Area, in collaboration with California YIMBY and Greenbelt Alliance, recently set forth a set of development guidelines for wildfire resilience. The initiative is summarized in Figure 17.18

3.4 A New Approach to Building As architects designing buildings in the WUI and other fire prone areas, we have a significant influence and responsibility in creating sustainable, fire-resistant communities. Given the global rising temperatures, increased droughts, and historic fire suppression, residents, and landowners within the WUI and adjacent fire prone areas will continue to be at risk from wildfire transmission. Private property owners have a vital responsibility to maintain the land they settle, not only in service of the natural habitat, but also to protect their own safety and economic investments. While a wildfire cannot always be prevented, there are many measures that individual property owners can take to reduce the likelihood of ecosystem and structure loss in the event of a fire. These fall into three primary categories: 1. On-site Land Management, (addressed in previous section.) 2. Defensible Space 3. Home hardening.

Figure 18: Road acting as a fuel break during prescribed burn, Bonnie Doon Spring 2020, Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

Figure 17: Summary of SPUR Principles for Managing Wildfire Risk and New Development.18

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3.4.1 Defensible Space

Creating defensible space is not a onetime investment but a continued strategy of managing land around structures. Much like the upkeep of a building, the site also requires periodic servicing to keep it healthy and functioning. Overlooking this upkeep can greatly increase the risk of fire. Special vigilance should be taken during fire seasons.

Defensible space is a means of fuel reduction that seeks to reduce and spread-out fuel sources around the structure. Defensible space deals with the immediate area around a structure called the Home Ignition Zone (HIZ) and is thereby distinct from sitewide fuel management beyond this 100-200 foot area. There are three conceptual zones of increasing distance in the HIZ drawn around the perimeter of the structure.19 See Table 3. Each zone is intended to cut off the easy transmission of dense contiguous fuels to the next. During a fire, spacing may not only limit structure ignition from nearby vegetation but also the chances of structure-to-structure ignition. For this reason, it is important to coordinate defensible space with neighboring structures within the areas defined.

Many communities recognize the shared benefits of establishing fire protection measures across large areas of land. It is important to check for local community guidelines or action plans as a starting point for creating a defensible space plan. Table 3, outlines the guidelines for how to mitigate fire risk in each of the three zones.

1. Immediate or Ignition Zone (0 to 5 feet)

3.4.2 Home Hardening

2.Intermediate Zone (5 to 30 feet)

It is recommended that homeowners prioritize the home and its immediate area and work outward

3. Extended or Reduced Fuel Zone (30 to 100+ feet)

Table 3: Defensible Space Checklist compiled from NFPA Checklist.20 Note: some jurisdictions may have additional requirements.

Living with Wildfire

Figure 19: Defensible Space, Zones of protection extend at slopes to respond to fire behavior. Adapted from Fire Safe Council19 and others.

Figure 20: Tree & Shrub Clearances, grade and vegetation heights determine clear spacing recommended to avoid ladder fuels. Designers should seek consultant input on site specific conditions. Adapted from NFPA diagram.20

Figure 21: Tree Decay Classes and Life Cycle, Dead or dying trees can be sources of fuel within defensible zones. They are also vital habitat resources. All defensible space plans must balance the benefits and risks of removing or preserving dead wood form site. Adapted from The Columbus Dispatch and Maser.

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from the center, moving on to the zones of Defensible Space, discussed previously.19 This approach prioritizes the most vulnerable and impactful areas first and can be developed in stages. In several states including California many of these home hardening measures

have now been integrated in state code requirements. The Home Hardening Table, Table 4, outlines the steps one can take to improve the chances that a home or structure will resist ignition in the event of a wildfire.

Table 4: Home Hardening Checklist, compiled from Wildfire Home Retrofit Guide,21 NFPA.20 Headwater Economics22; and the 2019 CBC.

Living with Wildfire

Figure 22: Points of Common Ignition.

Figure 23: Richburg, S.C. - This ember storm simulation by the IIBH Research Center highlights common pathways of ignition. Photograph by The Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety.23

3.4.3 Emerging Technologies

Fire retardant membranes are a developing industry. These come in a variety of systems and may help resist surface ignition. Due to the wide range of products on the market it is difficult to ascribe effectiveness.

There are several emerging technologies that designers and homeowners may consider when developing a home hardening strategy. Often these systems are omitted in early design phases due to cost or maintenance concerns. However, as the requirements for building in fire prone areas increases, the prevalence of such systems may become more common.

Fire retardant gels can be sprayed on in advance of an oncoming fire. 23 These have a short window of effectiveness after application and are thereby not practical for most situations. Some gels may damage paint finishes. It is also prudent to verify the ecological impacts of any chemical introduced to the site. Manufacturers may use phrases like “environmentally friendly”, or “green” to intimate that their product is safe for the environment, but they are not an indication of specific qualifications.

Depending on their positioning, exterior sprinklers may help to suppress ignition on and around a structure.23 Any active systems that are reliant on electricity for pumping may face issues during a fire event if electricity is lost. Available water is also an important consideration.

Table 5: Site Access Checklist for Designing for Fire Department Access adapted from NFPA guidelines for Fire Apparatus Access Roads.

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Figure 24: Camp Fire 2018, flames moving up hill. Photograph by Kara Capaldo.

Figure 25: Fox Theater in Oakland, CA. Midday on September 9, 2020, the particulate matter from wildfire smoke obscured the sun and turned skies red across the state. Photo by DeVaun Salters.

4.0 Conclusion

to develop in wildland areas renews our societal commitment to the dichotomous preservation of human settlements in landscapes that are defined by, and rely on, wildfires for their existence.

There is no one-size-fits-all solution to establishing fire resilient environments. The exact strategies put in place must respond to a project’s site-specific conditions. There is also no one party who is an expert in all aspects of wildfire response. Proper wildfire design is collaborative and multidisciplinary.

4.1 Further Study We see this work as the beginning of an ongoing conversation about creating fire resilient landscapes and communities. Over the course of our research, our team identified a few areas where further study may be beneficial to our studio and our profession:

As designers committed to sustainable and regenerative design, we need to be attuned to the complex systems and landscapes in which our projects reside. While we have outlined steps to decrease wildfire risk to humans, no combination of these methods outlined will ensure complete protection. It would be misguided if one were to use the measures of fire defense without acknowledging the inherent risk of building in these areas. Continuing

1. Expert Symposium: A series of interdisciplinary open-form discussions with experts on topics of wildfire resilience.

Living with Wildfire

2. A New Vernacular: A multidisciplinary design exercise to develop a new fire-resilient typology for regenerative Californian construction.

[5] Stephens, S. L., Martin, R. E., & Clinton, N. E. (2007). 'Prehistoric Fire Area and Emissions from California's Forests, Woodlands, Shrublands, and Grasslands'. Forest Ecology and Management, 205-216. Retrieved on (April, 4 2021) from https://nature.berkeley.edu/stephenslab/ wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Stephens-et-al.-CA-firearea-FEM-2007.pdf

3. Fire Insurance: Exploring the influence of fire insurance on development and the building industry. 4. Silviculture: Exploring the synergy between fuel reduction efforts and sustainable mass timber industries.

[6] Buono, P. (2020). “Quiet Fire: Indigenous tribes in California and other parts of the U.S. have been rekindling the ancient art of controlled burning” , The Nature Conservancy, Winter 2020. Retrieved on (January 20, 2021) from https://www. nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine - ar ticles/ indigenous-controlled-burns-california/

Acknowledgments Special thanks to Hector R. Estrada (Deputy Chief of Fire Prevention, Sant Clara County Fire Department).

[7] Forest History Society, (2020) U.S. Forest Service Fire Suppression. Retrieved on (April 4, 2021) from https:// foresthistory.org/research-explore/us-forest-servicehistory/policy-and-law/fire-u-s-forest-service/u-sforest-service-fire-suppression/

Additional thanks to Kara Capaldo for providing much of the photography featured in this report.

[8] Schroeder M., & Buck. C. (1970). Fire Weather: A guide for applicaiton of meteorological informationto forest fire control operations, U.S. Department of Agriculture: Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 360.

References [1] Insurance Information Institute. (2021) Facts + Statistics: Wildfires, Retrieved on (2021, January 20) from iii.org: https://www.iii.org/fact-statistic/ facts-statistics-wildfires

[9] Van Pelt. R. (2008). Identifying Old Trees and Forests in Eastern Washington. Washington. Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA pp. 29-68.

[2] State of California, (2021). California's Wildfire and Forest Resilience Action Plan: A Comprehensive Strategy of the Governor's Forest Management Task Force, Retrieved on (2021, April 12) from https://www.fire.ca.gov/media/ps4p2vck/ californiawildfireandforestresilienceactionplan.pdf

[10] Strong N., Bevis K., & Bracher G. (2016). WildlifeFriendly Fuels Reduction in Dry Forests of the Pacific Northwest. Woodland Fish & Wildlife Group, Portland, OR. [11] Nicholls, B. (2018). Defensible Space– Controlling Ignition Potential in the Home Ignition Zone. Living With Fire In California's Coast Ranges. California Fire Science Consortium, Rohnert Park, CA.

[3] O’Dell, K., Bilsback, K., Ford, B., Martenies, S. E., Magzamen, S., Fischer, E. V., & Pierce, J. R. (2021). Estimated mortality and morbidity attributable to smoke plumes in the United States: Not just a western US problem. GeoHealth, 5, e2021GH000457. Retrieved on (2021, August 13) https://doi. org/10.10292021GH000457Special Section:Fire in the Earth SystemRESEARCH ARTICLE 1 of 17

[12] Stern, J. (2020). “A Mental-Health Crisis Is Burning Across the American West”. The Atlantic, July. [13] Radeloff V. C., Helmers D., Kramer H. A., Mockrin M. H., Alexandre P. M., Bar-Massada A., Vutsic V., Hawbaker T. J., Martinuzzi S., Syphard A. D., & Stewart S. I. (2018). Rapid Growth of The US Wildland-Urban Interface Raises Wildfire Risk. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 115, No. 13, pp. 3314-3319.

[4] Pausas, J. G., & Keeley, J. E. (2019). "Wildfires as an Ecosystem Service". Frontires in Ecology and the Enviornment, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 289-295.

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[14] Kramer H. A., Mockrin M. H., Alexandre, P. M., & Radeloff, V. C. (2019). 'High wildfire damage in interface communities in California'. International Journal of Wildland Fire 2019, Vol. 28, pp. 641-650.

[19] Fire Safe Council. (2019). Creating Defensible Space. Retrieved on (April 4, 2021) from Santa Clara Country Fire Safe Council: https://sccfiresafe.org/prepare/ creating-defensible-space/

[15] Mann M. L., Berck P., Moritz, M. A., Batllori E., Baldwin J. G., Gately C. K., & Cameron R. D. (2014). 'Modeling Residential Development in California from 2000 to 2050: Integrating Wildfire Risk, Wildland and Agricultural Encroachment'. Land Use Policy, Vol. 41, pp. 438-452.

[20] National Fire Protection Association NFPA, (2021). Preparing homes for wildfire. Retreived on (April 4, 2021) from NFPA.org: https://www.nfpa.org/ Public-Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/ Preparing-homes-for-wildfire

[16] Schoennagel T., Balch J. K., Brenkert-Smith H., Dennison P. E., Harvey B. J., Krawchuk M. A., Mietkiewicz N., Morgan P., Moritz M. A., Rasker R., Turner M. G., & Whitlock, C. (2017). "Adapt to more Wildfire in Western North American Forests as Climate Changes". PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 114, No. 18, pp. 4582-4590.

[21] Kocher S. D., & Murphy C., (2020) Wildfire Home Retrofit Guide: How To Harden Homes Against Wildfire. Retreived on (January 20, 2021) from: https://www. researchgate.net/publication/348756292 [22] Quarles S. L., & Pohl K. (2018). Building a WildfireResistant Home: Codes and Costs. Headwaters Economics, Retrieved on (January 10, 2021) from https://headwaterseconomics.org/wildfire/homes-risk/ building-costs-codes/

[17] Gollner M. R., Hakes R., Caton S., Kohler K. (2015). Pathways for Buildign Fire Spread at the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) Liturature Review and Gap Analysis. The Fire Protection Research Foundation. Retreived on (October 10, 2020) from: https://www. nfpa.org/-/media/Files/News-and-Research/Fires t a t i s t i c s - a n d - re p o r t s / E m e rg e n c y - re s p o n d e r s / RFPathwaysForBuildingFireSpreadWUI.ashx

[23] Insurance Institute for Business & Home Saftey IBHS. (2021). Regional Wildfire Retrofit Guides. Retrieved from disastersaftey.org: https://disastersafety.org/wildfire/ regional-wildfire-retrofit-guides/

[18] Brown-Stevens A ., Hanlon B., & Karlinsky S. (2021). Managing Wildfire Risk and New Development. Retrieved on (April 20, 2021) from SPUR News: https://www.spur.org/news/2021-04-16/ managing-wildfire-risk-and-new-development

Peer Reviewers Dr. Ajla Aksamija University of Utah/Perkins&Will Ed Bosco ME Engineers Francis Fullam Rush University Medical Center Edward Peck Edward Peck Design Dr. Kristen Sheldon Northwest Anesthesiology Associates Chris Stephens UC Santa Barbara Paul Wack Cal Poly Robert C. Wilkinson UC Santa Barbara Dr. Pegah Zamani Kennesaw State University

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Authors 01

Kate Carrico Kate is an Interior Designer at Perkins&Will's Washington DC studio. Having volunteered at schools and local hospitals in Detroit, bringing art to the classroom and patient room. She learned the profound impact even the smallest gesture can have on an individual’s and community’s ability to thrive. She has been committed to work which betters the health and wellness of society.

Michelle Sanders Michelle is a Project Architect at Perkins&Will's Washington DC studio. Michelle brings her background in fine arts to every detail in her architectural plans and brings creative solutions to each design challenge. Her holistic view of the end-users— patients, visitors, staff, and administration—is focused on optimizing health and well-being for all occupants.

Sonata Caric Sonata is working toward her master’s in architecture at the University of Oregon Portland. As an undergraduate she coordinated the AIAS Quad Conference with a main theme of sustainability and interdisciplinary collaboration. She has worked on an ADA upgrade of the New York City public schools and interned with Perkins&Will Seattle. Her interest in sustainable building practices has expanded to include urban design and humanitarian architecture.

Suncica Milosevic Suncica is a PhD student in Metropolitan Planning, Policy, and Design at the University of Utah. Her research is focused on environmental conservation, sustainable building technologies and retrofit strategies for historically significant buildings. She has 10 years of professional experience working in large and small-scale architectural design firms including Perkins&Will Chicago.

Ajla Aksamija

Dr. Aksamija is a Professor and Chair of the School of Architecture at the University of Utah. Her research expertise includes building science, high-performance buildings and facade systems, emerging building technologies, and innovations in architecture. Dr. Aksamija authored three books, "Research Methods for the Architectural Profession," "Integrating Innovation in Architecture," and "Sustainable Facades: Design Methods for High-Performance Building Envelopes." Addison Estrada

Addison is a designer in San Francisco studio of Perkins&Will. His professional experience is primarily in single family residential projects located in Northern Californian. He has assisted with several fire rebuild projects over the course of his career. As the son of a firefighter his interest in wildfire design is born form a desire to align development and building practices with the efforts of fire services personnel.

Helen Schneider

Helen is a designer in San Francisco studio of Perkins&Will. She has experience with numerous project types. She recently finished a master plan for LightHouse for the Blind, exploring the redevelopment of their Enchanted Hills Camp in Napa after the camp was devastated by wildfire in 2017. Many of the clients she works with are grappling with their resilience in the Wildland Urban Interface because of increased wildfire risk.

Maraya Morgan Maraya is a designer in San Francisco studio of Perkins&Will. She is a designer with a varied background that includes mixed-use/residential, hospitality, education, and corporate/ commercial projects, she strives to introduce innovative solutions to achieve client’s goals, while simultaneously seeking the lure and the beauty in the creation of space.

This piece is printed on Mohawk sustainable paper which is manufactured entirely with Green-e certificate wind-generated electricity.

Through its “Green Initiative” Program, Phase 3 Media offers recycled and windpowered paper stocks, recycles all of its own post-production waste, emails all client invoices, and uses environmentally friendly, nontoxic cleaning supplies, additionally Phase 3 Media donates 5% of all sales from its recycled product lines to Trees Atlanta.

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Articles inside

Exploring A Resilient Future for Fire Prone Areas

Developing a Framework of Principles within the Institutional and Pragmatic Constraints in Transitional Settlement Design

Journal Overview