Cultural Competence and Leadership

Team Leadership Skills

Working as a team is crucial in an age of interdependence promoted by a globalized world since the increased interdependence makes it necessary to work as a team. The implementation of public policy requires cooperation among the teams to accomplish the goals of the organization. One of the issues in a globalized world is how to manage a network of teams connected by interdependent functions. The leaders must be capable of promoting cooperation among the various teams. The success of the organization is dependent on the cooperation among the various teams. Kakabadse et al. (1996) emphasized team leadership in the European context through highquality dialogue and cabinet responsibility.

parTicipaTive Leadership The network of actors needs to participate in decision-making and also in the implementation of policies. Leadership can make a significant contribution by encouraging the various actors to participate. Leithwood et al. (1999) emphasized the necessity of participative leadership, which involves maintaining relationships with different constituents. According to Burns (1978), a common good can emerge out of the conflicting situation and goals. Rost defined leadership as “an influence relationship among leaders and their collaborators who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes” (1990, p. 99). There are four major elements based on the definition: (1) the multidirectional influence; (2) the existence of multiple actors; (3) the commitment of leaders and their collaborators to make changes; and (4) the common purpose of the leadership. One of the challenges of leadership is how to make the employees participate. Many leaders emphasize participation for the namesake, and there is no genuine interest in employee participation. If the leadership cannot create an environment of positive benefits, people would be reluctant to participate. People must see the results of participation in important policy-making and performance evaluation. Therefore, the people need to have a good perception of a genuine participation to be worthy of their time and efforts.

adapTive Leadership In a fast-changing world, the leaders need to adapt to changing circumstances. Heifetz’s (1994, pp. 69–73) theory of adaptive leadership proposes for different leadership strategies based on different situation.

The type I situation is characterized by the absence of complex problems and it does not require much of the role of the leader. The type II situation requires some, limited leadership. In the type III situation, there is a need for a redefinition of the problem, a high degree of political expertise, greater sensitivity, and a greater involvement of the public. There is a higher likelihood of a type III situation at the present time because of the volatile situation in a globalized world. For example, European countries faced a massive refugee problem as a result of the Syrian crisis. On the other hand, the developing countries, especially the beneficiaries in the western world, have to adapt to a possible end of outsourcing.

cuLTuraL compeTence and Leadership Governance in a globalized world requires an understanding of global culture and behavior. In an interdependent world with the involvement of various actors, including both domestic and international, it is crucial for the leadership to understand world culture. In one contribution, Schein (1985) stressed the importance of culture: “neither culture nor leadership, when one examines each closely, can really be understood by itself” (p. 5). Governance involves the interaction among different individuals across different cultures. Ethnocentrism and prejudice can stand in the way of understanding of different culture vital to governance. Robinson and Harvey (2008) suggested, based on the actions of the private sector to develop a corporate vision, how an organization adheres to that vision, and the articulation of values for each relevant area. Similarly, public sector leadership can come up with a global vision and lay down the ways to implement the vision. Adler and Bartholomew (1992) assert that global leaders need to develop five cross-cultural competencies, in which a culture is regarded as the way of life, customs, and script of a group of people (Gudykunst et al. 1988). It provides people with a set of values, beliefs and perspectives about how the world operates influencing them in their meanings of lives (Kumar et al. 2011). House et al. (2004) identified six global leadership behaviors: charismatic/value based, team-oriented, participative, humane-oriented, autonomous, and self-protective. Hofstede (1993) identified five major dimensions of culture: uncertainty avoidance, power distance individualism—collectivism, masculinity—femininity, and longterm—short-short term orientations. Based on research by others, GLOBE researchers identified nine cultural characteristics:

Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which a society, organization, or group relies on established social norms, rituals, and procedures in order to avoid uncertainty. It refers to the way cultures use rules, structures and laws, ensuring predictability in decisions.

Power Distance Power distance is the degree of a group’s expectation and agreement on the inequality in sharing of power. It also reflects the stratification of power, authority, prestige and authority, wealth and other material things.

Institutional Collectivism

Institutional collectivism reflects the extent of the society’s desires for collective societal action. It refers to the desire for overall societal interests rather than individual goals and accomplishment.

In-Group Collectivism

In-group collectivism measures the extent of people expressing pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. It refers to the devotion of the people to their organizations or families.

Gender Egalitarianism

Gender egalitarianism measures gender equality. It determines the extent of gender equality in organizations, homes, and broader communities.

Assertiveness

Assertiveness measures the extent of assertiveness, and aggressiveness in social relationships. It measures how culture reflects the nature of toughness in a society.

Future Orientation

Future orientation reflects how people are oriented towards future wellbeing and future planning. It measures the extent of their concerns about the future rather than present gratification.