Between The Blocks: Mikrorayon regeneration strategy by Karolina Petruskeviciute

BETWEEN THE BLOCKS Mikrorayon regeneration strategy Karolina Petruskeviciute

University of Strathclyde Department of Architecture BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study Dissertation â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Between the blocks. Mikrorayon regeneration strategyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Karolina Petruskeviciute Reg. No 201232798 Studies Supervisor: Prof. Sergio Porta March 2017

DECLARATION

AB 420 Dissertation 2016/17 BSc Honours Architectural Studies BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study MArch/Pg Dip Advanced Architectural Design MArch Architectural Design International Declaration â&#x20AC;&#x153;I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged. I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.â&#x20AC;? Karolina Petruskeviciute Name: _____________________________________________________________ Signed: _____________________________________________________________ Date: _____________________________________________________________

CONTENTS Abstract List of Figures

8 10

INTRODUCTION Personal motivations Problem definition Methodology

14 14

PART I: MIKRORAYON 1.1 “Urban atmosphere” 1.2 Spatial Dimension 1.3 Social Dimension 1.4 Mikrorayon Today: Impact of Negative Features 1.5 Mikrorayon and Modern Movement

18 19 24 26

PART II: VILNIUS 2.1 Vilnius. Post-socialist City 2.2 Lazdynai Mikrorayon

PART III: PARTICIPATORY APPROACH 3.1 Modern Movement failures 3.2 Participatory Design Value PART IV: CASE STUDIES 4.1 Case Studies Selection 4.2 Case Study 1: Revitalization of Admiraals Square 4.3 Case Study 2: Wallis Block Regeneration 4.4 Case Study 3: Mission Park Regeneration 4.5 Evaluation & Recommendations PART V: PROPOSAL MIKRORAYON REGENERATION 5.1 Mikrorayon Regeneration. Strategy and Action Plan 5.2 Lazdynai Regeneration: Urban strategies 5.3 Lazdynai Regeneration: Buildings’ and public space transformation

39 43

46 47 52 55 58

62 64 66

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABSTRACT Every city in the former Soviet Union – whether the city is Moscow, Vilnius or Kharkiv; whether it’s medieval, baroque or industrial in the historic core, is the preserve of mikrorayons, best translated as “microdistricts”. They always look the same, at least from the distance – “vast mass housing districts erected from pre-made panels in accordance with the tenents of modernist urban design”1. Mikrorayons, built as a result to solve housing crisis between 1960’s to 1990’s, nowadays have a status of a social ghetto as they are mono-functional sleeping districts, poorly connected to the city centre and surrounded by dead public spaces. These housing neighborhoods can be interpreted as modernism expression in the post-socialist countries due to same urban architectural principles. Design of mikrorayon, where mainly dominate scattered prefabricated concrete blocks and unoccupied green fields, is a major obstacle that does not allow natural urban evolution process to occur. Nonetheless, residents of these neighborhoods do not have sense of ownership and belonging to the place or responsibility of it as they were “housed” by the government during cities’ industrialization process. As well, people were affected by soviet ideology and government actions towards people. Overall, nowadays mikrorayons are experiencing a great number of problems both in spatial and social dimensions and regeneration of these neighborhoods has been a critical problem in post-socialist cities. However, previously applied revitalization strategies had failed and other solutions must be explored. The research aims to propose an alternative solution – participatory design approachfor mikrorayon’s regeneration as it not only revitalizes public spaces and retrofits built structure, but also forms community and strengthens residents’ relation with the built environment. In other words, tackles spatial and social negative features. Design recommendations are based on the case study analysis outcomes created after studying divergent housing and neighborhoods regeneration processes with local residents’ participation. Therefore, analysed examples reveal differences between significant issues that should be considered in regeneration process: project initiators, financial strategies and architect’s role. Finally, regeneration guidelines, which consist action plan recommendations and appropriate selection of urban and architectural elements, are applied to selected mikrorayon in Vilnius to reveal the strength and weakness of chosen approach.

Hirt,S .(2009) Iron Curtains.Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Post-socialist City Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p 35.

LIST OF FIGURES Cover: Mikrorayon. Author’s photomontage by using Antanas Sutkus photographies Fig. 1 Methodology: research plan. (Author’s image).

01 Fig. 2 ‘Urban atmosphere’ concept diagram. ( Author’s image) p 18. Fig. 3 Ideological poster with Nikita Khrushchev. Author Feliksas Novikovas. (Image retrieved from < http://www. archfondas.lt/leidiniu/alf-02/marija-dremaite-vaidas-petrulis-modernizmas-sovietineje-lietuvoje-utopijos-gimimas-irzlugima > p 19. Fig. 4 Mikrorayon and urban core relation. (Author’s image) p 21. Fig. 5 Structure and main elements of mikrorayon based on mikrorayon Pilaite, Vilnius, map. (Author’s image) p 21. Fig. 6 Introductory animated video from movie “Ironiya Sudby” (The Irony of Fate). ( © Mosfilm Studios) Available at < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3WtzkuwGi0 > p 22. Fig. 7 Different Mikrorayons in Eastern Europe Countries. (Author’s image based on Google maps) p 23. Fig. 8 Poster by G. Klucis, 1934. “Vse Maskva stroit” (All Moscow in the building process). (Image retrieved from <http://www. archfondas.lt/leidiniu/alf-02/marija-dremaite-vaidas-petrulis-modernizmas-sovietineje-lietuvoje-utopijos-gimimas-ir-zlugima> p 24. Fig. 9 Poster by A. Deineka, 1929. (Image retrieved from http://www.archfondas.lt/leidiniu/alf-02/marija-dremaite-vaidas-petrulis-modernizmas-sovietineje-lietuvoje-utopijos-gimimas-ir-zlugima>) p 24. Fig. 10 Social dimension alteration diagram. (Author’s diagram) p 25. Fig. 11 Mikrorayon today: deteriorated built environment, vandalism and graffiti evidences. Max Andrew’s, Vaidotas Vaiciulaitis and author’s pictures. p 27.

02 Fig. 12 Map of Vilnius city showing the location, area and population in each mikroyon in Vilnius. ( Author’s illustration based on Vilnius Map < http://www.vilnius.lt/index.php?375153692> and statistical data from < http://www.ivilnius.lt/ apie-vilniu/mikrorajonai/>. pp 30-31.

Fig. 13 Table of Housing types by year by construction. Data based on WHO (World Health Organization) Large Analysis LARES (Review of European housing and health Survey. Available at < http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/Housing-and-health/activities/the-large-analysis-and-review-of-european-housing-and-health-status-lares-project> p 32. Fig. 14 Housing type and Building Neighborhood conditions. Data based on WHO (World Health Organization) Large Analysis LARES (Review of European housing and health Survey. Available at < http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/Housing-and-health/activities/the-large-analysis-and-review-of-european-housing-andhealth-status-lares-project > p 32. Fig. 15 Vilnius Quarter and Building Neighborhood Conditions. Data based on WHO (World Health Organization) Large Analysis LARES (Review of European housing and health Survey. Available at <http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/Housing-and-health/activities/the-large-analysis-and-review-of-european-housing-andhealth-status-lares-project> p 32. Fig. 16 Lazdynai Mikrorayon aerial view showing urban configuration and layout of residential pre-fab buildings. (Author’s image based on Lazdynai map available at < http://www.vilnius.lt/index.php?375153692>) pp 34-35.

Fig. 17 Lazdynai Mikrorayon axonometic diagram showing urban configuration and spatial mikrorayon features. (Author’s image) p 36. Fig. 18 Table diagram demonstrating population and employment possibilities relation in Lazdynai mikrorayon. Data collected from Vilnius City Plan 2015.[online] Available at < http://www.vilnius.lt/lit/Bendrasis_planas_iki_2015_m/783 > [accessed at 5 February, 2017] p 36. Fig. 19 Image of Lazdynai Mikrorayon by Sergejus Jeriomenko. ( Image retrieved from < http://lt.lt.allconstructions.com/ portal/categories/134/1/0/1/article/18031/patraukliausi-vilniaus-rajonai >) p 37.

03 Fig. 20 Ebenezer Howard proposed Garden City diagram. (Image retrieved from < https://scodpub.files.wordpress. com/2011/03/city-group.png >) p 40. Fig. 21 Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (1930). (Image retreived from < https://thecharnelhouse.org/2010/09/17/exact-air/>). p 40. Fig. 22 Participatory design approach diagram. (Author’s image) p 44.

04 Fig. 23 Case studies analysis plan diagram. (Author’s diagram) p 46. Fig. 24 Aerial view of Wielwijk neighborhood in Dordrecht, 1957. (Image retrieved from : < https://s-media-cache-ak0. pinimg.com/originals/96/47/40/964740d9c670d3244ffcbfc5875c44ba.jpg >) p 47. Fig. 25 Zilvervloot Housing Regeneration. Residents participation in design process. (Image retrieved from < http:// homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-project-ZV.htm >) p 48. Fig. 26 Finished Zilvervloot project. (Image retrieved from < http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-project-ZV.htm >) p 48. Fig. 27 Regeneration of Compagnie housing. Construction process. (Image retrieved from < http://homeusers.brutele. be/kroll/auai-project-CO.htm >) p 49. Fig. 28 Visualization of finished Compagnie Housinf regeneration (Image retrieved from < http://homeusers.brutele.be/ kroll/auai-project-CO.htm >) p 49. Fig. 29 Aerial view of regenerated Admiraals- square of Wielwijk (Image retrieved from < http://homeusers.brutele.be/ kroll/auai-project-CO.htm >) p 49. Fig. 30 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, 4 illustrate selected architecural features from Admiraals-square regneration project. (Author’s image) pp 50-51. Fig. 31 Wallis Block Location. (Photo: Ineke Hulshof architects, from “Poetic Freedom” report) p 53. Fig. 32 Wallis Block. Regeneration process. (Photo: Ineke Hulshof architects, from “Poetic Freedom” report) p 53. Fig. 33 Wallis Block. Finished internal courtyard facade. (Photo: Ineke Hulshof architects, from “Poetic Freedom” report) p 53. Fig. 34 Wallis block residents have formed community through participatory design process. (Photo: CPO organization, retrieved from < http://www.bartduvekot.nl/samenbouwen/hetproduct.html >) p 53.

Fig. 35 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, illustrate selected architecural features from Wallis Block regneration project. (Author’s image) p 54. Fig. 36 Roxbury Tenants of Harward corporation. RTH community is formed by group of people from different backgrounds and ethnics. (Photo: Consigli Construction & Co, retrieved from < http://www.consigli.com/> ) p 56. Fig. 37 Landscape features in public space after Mission Park regeneration, designed by Kim Mikyoung (Photo: Kim Mikyoung designs, retrieved from < http://www.arch2o.com/levinson-plaza-mission-park-mikyoung-kim-design/>) p 56. Fig. 38 Mission Park neighborhood after rgeneration. (Photo: John Sharatt architects, retrieved from < http://www.jsaarchitecture.com/> ) p 56. Fig. 39 Mission Park neighborhood after rgeneration. (Photo: John Sharatt architects, retrieved from < http://www.jsaarchitecture.com/> ) p 56. Fig. 40 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, illustrate selected architecural features from Mission Park regneration project. (Author’s image) p 57. Fig. 41 Architectural and urban features to apply for mikrorayon regneration proposal. (Author’s image) p 59.

05 Fig. 42 Mikrorayon regeneration proposal’s action plan. (Author’s image) p 63. Fig. 43 Negative spatial features of Lazdynai mikrorayon.(Author’s image) p 64. Fig. 44 Lazdynai zoning diagram. (Author’s image) p 65. Fig. 45 Urban strategies proposal in Lazdynai mikrorayon. (Author’s image) p 65. Fig. 46 Block transformation. (Author’s image) p 66. Fig. 47 Low-rise block transformation. (Author’s image) p 66. Fig. 48 Street transformation. (Author’s image) p 66.

INTRODUCTION PERSONAL MOTIVATION This a design driven research which explores cities in the former Soviet Union, as post-socialist cities in transition and opportunities to regenerate and revitalize large scale housing estates. This topic is a very challenging area for further investigation and it does not have received much attention in urban literature. My personal motivation to analyse mikrorayon phenomenon throughout Eastern Europe is based on growing up in one of those districts in Vilnius, capital city of Lithuania. Experiencing the lack of public activities integrated into communities and poor public realm, challenged me to propose a new strategy for the neighborhoods’ regeneration. Moreover, as Vilnius is my home city, I can continue working on this research and maybe make a difference for city’s future planning and mikrorayon revitalization as it is a common issue nowadays.

PROBLEM DEFINITION Over a half of the urban population in many large East European cities resides in mikrorayon – large scale housing estates. Identical prefabricated blocks were built in all Soviet Union countries, without any consideration of a regions culture and residents. Inspired by the Modern Urban Movement, the antistreet preoccupations of Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse and Neighborhood Unit concept by Clarance Perry, mikrorayons combine the least loved aspects of the 20th century planning with its non-hierarchical blocks. All components were prefabricated in factories, slotted together like a city of Lego. Moreover, generations under a socialism regime and Soviet Union propagated ideology have had negative impact on people’s value system and social character. Nowadays these housing estates are facing many problems such as social segregation and degradation, low environmental quality, poor mobility and monofunctionalism. As they usually form 2/3 of a cities’ area and cannot be simply demolished and rebuilt as a different typology, other ways of regeneration should be investigated.

The essential need for mikrorayon regeneration is an ongoing issue in post-socialist cities and has been taken into consideration. However, a number of different renovation and rehabilitation strategies were created, but due to financial struggles, lack of experience and low residents’ motivation, have failed. Considering that, an alternative solution, which not only improves the built environment, but also engages public empowerment, should be explored. The research intends to create mikrorayon regeneration strategy which successfully addresses defined problems. To reveal an appropriate solution, the investigation of mass housing regeneration strategies in Western countries has been conducted and revealed that neighborhood revitalization projects, which applied participatory design strategy, has resolved negative spatial and social features which were influenced by the 20th century Modern Urban Movement. In order to create mikrorayon regeneration recommendations research defines the following primary objectives: 1. To understand mikrorayon “urban atmosphere” and reveal the reasons of deteriorating built environment. 2. To define negative spatial and social features which have to be resolved. 3. To create regeneration recommendations after evaluation and comparison of case studies. Recommendations include action plan and built environment improvement guidelines. 4. Conceptually apply regeneration recommendations to Lazdynai mikrorayon in Vilnius.

METHODOLOGY The dissertation, following this introduction, is divided into five parts where each of part explores the following: Part 1 (Mikrorayon) explores background information of mikrorayon development and identifies negative spatial and social features. Part 2 (Vilnius) analyses mikrorayon position in Vilnius urban structure to prove the scope these districts in post-socialist cities as well as illustrate the emerging problems and need for regeneration. Part 3 (Participatory approach) is focused at exploring modern movement failures (which are identical to mikrorayon) and a participatory design approach which tackles defined negative features. Part 4 (Case studies) investigates and evaluates a selection of case studies against set criteria of project initiators and supporters, financial system, residents participation level and architect’s role. In addition, urban and architectural features, which improve built environment and are appropriate for mikrorayon regeneration, are defined.

The primary idea of research is to create design recommendations which explore the potential of mikrorayon regeneration. Main purpose of regeneration strategy proposal is to find a solution how to improve social character as well as retrofit urban environment and “sets seeds” for natural urban evolution process in post-socialist housing estates. Visiting and analysing mikrorayons in Vilnius, reading and reviewing books, journals and online resources will help to study the urban atmosphere of mikrorayon and define main reasons that led to its failure. Analysis of 20th century architectural and urban reforms will provide background information and understanding of the theories. Mikrorayon design guidelines are based on participatory design approach, which resolves both social and spatial negative features. Case studies selection, based on users participation in design, construction or planning process and similarities to housing regeneration projects will allow to set appropriate guidelines for mikrorayon reactivation process. Lastly, defined design guidelines will be conceptually applied to a mikrorayon district in Vilnius. (fig 1)

Part 5 ( Mikrorayon regeneration) presents the regeneration strategy, which sets guidelines for action plan and built environment improvements.

Fig. 1 Methodology: research plan (Author’s image)

MIKRORAYON

1.1 “URBAN ATMOSPHERE”

To understand better what is the mikrorayon and the lived experience of it, it is essential to study the concept of “urban atmosphere”. Urban atmosphere, which was studied by French philosophers and socialogists2, reflects social phenomena and how people interact and behave in space, what meaning spaces have in the everyday life and how people shape the perception about a place, what thoughts, associations and memories it evokes.

Butkus, T. (2011). Miestas kaip ivykis. Vilnius: Kitos knygos. p 23. 3

Lefebvre, H. 1991. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell. p 86. 4

French theorist Henri Lefebvre in “Production of Space” introduces a model of space, which can be used as a model to analyze public spaces. His proposed model of space has three coherent layers: perceived space, conceived space and lived space. Perceived space is the space we can understand physically – can see and touch. The conceived space is the conceptual space with highly abstract and intangible characters. Lived space is the space produced in the shift of use.3 Furthermore, in “Rhythmanalysis” Lefebvre argues that all related issues in social, cultural, historical aspects must be grasped all together at once.4 Therefore, analysis of space should combine historical background, static features of urban space and user experience.

Lefebvre, H. 2004. Rythmanalysis. London: Continumm.

To sum up, to describe the urban atmosphere of particular area, a multi-layered analysis is the best tool, which provides overall ‘grasp’ of the space as it considers social and spatial dimensions (fig 2). Spatial dimension reflects the historical traits and the physical living condition and it analyses the urban frame-work, the typology of buildings, typology of public spaces and the architectural elements. Social dimension encompasses the inhabitant profile and their needs, experiences in the spatial dimension. The concept of “urban atmosphere” will be applied to describe mikrorayon districts in Eastern and Central Europe in order to create an overall image of it. Moreover, historical and cultural issues ‘overlap’ and have an impact on the social character as well as physical structure of the built environment. Analysis of social and spatial dimensions will define negative features that have contributed in shaping mikrorayon’s identity.

[social dimension]

[spatial dimension]

[urban atmosphere]

Fig. 2 ‘Urban atmosphere’ concept diagram. Social dimensionresidents- and spatial configuration forms an overall urban identity of particular place. (Author’s image)

1.2 SPATIAL DIMENSION HISTORICAL CONDITIONS 5

Listova,E. 2009. Sovetskaja Imperia. Krushchevski. Moscow. 6

Dremaite, M. 2010. Modernism in Soviet Lithuania: The rise and fall of Utopia. Vilnius. 7

Stanilov,K. 2007. Post Socialist Cities in Transition. Ohio:Springer. 8

Khrushchev in Listova, E. 2009. Sovetskaja Imperia. Krushchevski. Moscow.

For almost half century- from the Second World War till 1989 - countries in Central and Eastern Europe have been under Socialist regime. Communism has left a tangible footprint on the urban structure in majority of the cities. Due to massive industrialization, there was a significant migration from the countryside to the city and new cities were created around new factories and industrial points. Sudden and rapid expansion of urban population raised housing lack issue which was solved with large scale prefabricated housing estates which form a mikrorayon, best translated as a ‘mikrodistrict’. According to Listova (2009), Socialist Mass Housing ideas in Eastern Europe were copied by the Soviet government from the Western European examples, although, contrary, mass housing took a totally different approach in Soviet Union countries.5 “In the Soviet bloc, the industrial method of construction promised to “build communism faster” while in the West it had to build a “better future”6. Introduction of Mikrorayon was part of utopian communistic image where every person is equal – lives under the same conditions and has the same opportunities -, also, it was one of the tool for industrialization and urbanization. “Architecture through history has been used to reinforce ideas of Society and for a system, dedicated to workers, most important city complex was the residential complex”7. In December 1954, the Soviet Union dictator Nikita Khrushchev delivered his famous speech on the architecture at the meeting with Soviet architects, engineers and builders. The speech conceptualized the face of modern socialism and also drew a new direction for architecture and urbanism in the Soviet Union (fig 3). After it, architects became less important and architecture had one simple goal- to be cheap. “...it is them (architects) who understand architecture as a decorative art rather than means of satisfying material needs of soviet people. It is them who waste the funds of soviet people on beauty which nobody needs, instead of building simpler, but more” (Khrushchev quotation in Listova, 2009).8However, even though new city building strategy helped to resolve housing shortage in urban districts, primitive design consisted a number of negative features.

“...it is them (architects) who understand architecture as a decorative art rather than means of satifying material needs of soviet people. It is them who waste the funds of soviet people on beauty which nobody needs, instead of building simpler, but more! ” - Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 1954 (Listova, 2009) Fig. 3 Ideological poster with Nikita Khrushchev by Feliksas Novikovas

NEGATIVE SPATIAL FEATURES STRUCTURE OF THE MIKRORAYON First of all, the main factor which caused the stagnation of newly built residential districts was the lack of connection to the existing urban core (fig 4). Mikrorayons were designed as large residential areas which were meant to serve industry and depend on the city. They were usually located near the new industrial development or city centre. Moreover, “The structure of a mikrorayon allowed the multiplying of it as many times as was needed, and to expand cities almost without any limits” 9. Government preferred to develop new neighborhoods on the green-field sites rather than to incorporate them in existing urban areas. ”This choice was also determined by the fact that the majority of the buildings in the old urban districts were in private ownership”10. The indicated approach represents state’s attitude towards new housing, which was “housing for mass” during the socialist period. ”It was much easier for the state to construct new housing on large chunks of undeveloped land, where the industrial method of production could be employed at full swing 11. These residential areas created monofunctional ghettos, sleeping districts with diversity lack. “Micro districts were meant to live and sleep, industrial areas to work, university towns to study, and the city boulevards for parades and celebrations. 12 Secondly, the layout of buildings and green spaces in mikrorayon did not consider human scale and neglected identity of the particular place (fig 5). It consisted residential neighborhood, usually not bigger than 60 ha area. Housing estates were perimetrically planned by pre-fabricated blocks, which were formed of approximately 100 flats. Neighborhoods usually had around 5.000 to 20.000 inhabitants. Green zones, which were considered as a public space, were essential elements of soviet neighborhoods. The main purpose of them was recreational - they had to provide facilities for children playgrounds and sports for youth and adults. However, as green zones did not have clearly defined purpose and were designed as a large field, residents hardly used them for intended purpose, and through time these areas became abandoned empty fields between the buildings. According to Jamel Akbar, lands, that are not utilized, are dead lands.13 Thirdly, mikrorayons were lacking essential public and cultural facilities. Despite that, common facilities, such as schools, nurseries, food shops were designed in the middle of the district. “Strict scientific planning arranged public functions around the housing blocks in convenient distances. Schools, shops and pharmacies were maximum 10 minute distance from the apartments” 14 .Even though soviet planners were proposing cultural amenities, sport facilities, health services and hospitals, “most often this issue was left open – which meant that sometimes they were built and sometimes not”15. Overall, Mikrorayons “featured an abundance of public space and public buildings: health centres, schools, cinemas, libraries, theatres and clubs.” 16

Dremaite, M. 2010. Modernism in Soviet Lithuania: The rise and fall of Utopia. Vilnius. 10

Häussermann, H.1996. From the Socialist to the Capitalist City: Experiences from Germany. In Cities after Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies. eds. Szelenyi, I. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p 214. 11

Szelenyi, I.1996. Cities after Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. p 286. 12

Robinson, J. 2009. The Post Soviet City: Identity and Community Development. Madrid: City Futures. 13

Akbar, J. 1988. Crisis in the Built Environment: The Case of the Muslim City. Singapore: Concept Media. p 86. 14

Bronvitskaya. 2009. p 24. 15

Petrulis,V. 2010. Modernism in Soviet Lithuania: The rise and fall of Utopia. Vilnius. 16

Hatherley, O. ‘Radical Suburbs’ Calvert Journal. Available at < https:// calvertjournal.com/ features/show/4235/ soviet-mass-housing-novye-cheryomushki-belyayevo-suburbs >

Fig. 4 Mikrorayon and urban core relation. New residential developments were built on emptly land instead of incorporating with existing urban structure. (Author’s image)

Fig. 5 Structure and main elements of mikrorayon based on mikrorayon Pilaite in Vilnius, map. Image illustrates unutilized green land, buildings’ layout, lack of variation and public buildings. (Author’s image)

PREFABRICATED BLOCKS Prefabricated blocks, another negative feature, were the smallest structural elements of the mikrorayon. Design of these blocks was the result of architectural reforms to bring construction closer to contemporary needs. On Khrushchev’s initiative, Soviet experts were sent to Western countries to study the pre-cast systems and mass housing examples.17 First fully pre-fabricated system, patented by French engineer R.Camus, was acquired by Soviet experts and applied to the first series of the multi-storey precast houses, designed in 1956. Block system was called K7 and was “replicated in the hundreds of thousands, possibly millions, all across the Soviet Union.”18 Even though “Khrushchev’s residential construction programme was a key point in improving the material life of ordinary people” 19, due to the speed of construction and tight economic pressures, the quality of prefabricated housing units was extremely low. However, the standard apartment size increased at the time when Khrushchev came in power, as in 1939 the average space per person in Soviet Union was 5 square meters, the standard apartment size by fit mass prefab house model K-7 was based on the concept of the minimum (which was also the maximum) 9 square meters, two rooms -44 square meters , three-61 square meters 20.

To summarise, the spatial dimension of mikrorayon consists a number of negative features which contributed in shaping mono-functional, apathetic residential districts. The separation from urban core and lack of commercial or cultural use facilities, rejection of place identity, non-utilized use of green zones and same-looking prefabricated blocks are the main factors that leaded mikrorayon, as an urban element, to the failure.

Overall, mass prefabricated houses were like parts of a huge jigsaw which formed Mikrorayon districts in East European cities. Development of Mikrorayon was compulsory in all Soviet Union and the same structure had been applied to the cities with different climate, topographic and cultural conditions (fig 7).“Earlier we thought that such alllooking-alike housing estates stretched from Vilnius to Vladivostok, but now the horizons have broadened, and we can see the same things stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific.” 21 Repetitiveness of such neighborhoods was often derided in theatre and cinema (fig 6). The most famous example in a movie “Ironiya sudby, ili s legkim parom!” 22 shows a man who managed to find exactly same apartment with the same door lock in exactly the same street, but in the different city.

Fig. 6 Introductory animated video from movie “Ironiya Sudby” (The Irony of Fate). ( © Mosfilm Studios)

17 Dremaite, M. 2010. The (Post-) Soviet built environment:SovietWestern relations in the industrialised mass housing and its reflections in Soviet Lithuania. Report. Vilnius.p 13.

Hatherley, O. ‘Radical Suburbs’. Calvert Journal. Available at < https:// calvertjournal.com/ features/show/4235/ soviet-mass-housingnovye-cheryomushkibelyayevo-suburbs > 19 21

Dremaite, M. 2010. Modernism in Soviet Lithuania: The rise and fall of Utopia. Vilnius. Resog. 2014. Seriya K-7 informaciya dlya soglasovanija pereplanirovski. 22 Ironiya sudby, ili s legkim parom! 1975. Film. Directed by Eldar Ryazanov. 192 min. Soviet Union.

Fig. 7 Different mikrorayons in Eastern Europe countries. 1. Zelonograd, Moscow, Rusia 2. Namyw, Mykolaiv, Ukraine 3. Mustame, Tallinn, Estonia 4. Ujpalota, Budapest, Hungary (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image based on Google Maps)

1.3 SOCIAL DIMENSION NEGATIVE SOCIAL FEATURES Socio-cultural and ideological elements which were orientated towards the society as a tool to create Soviet empire had a huge impact on people’s value system and strongly contributed in forming mikrorayon’s social dimension.

IDEALOGY THROUGH ARCHITECTURE

Petrulis, V. 2010. Modernism in Soviet Lithuania: The rise and fall of Utopia. Vilnius. 25

To begin with, the government created a strategy to create a new identity of a Soviet citizen. “In this development a major role was played by literature, art, theatre and cinema, and the education system as a whole.” 23 However, over the Soviet era, depending on the direction Soviet Union was led, architectural language was reflecting different ideas. When Stalin was leading the Soviet Empire, style of socialist classicism emphasized power and over the period when Khrushchev was in power, architecture represented modernization, industrialization and progress. Also, construction and building sites were significant attributes used on propagandistic posters (fig 8, fig 9) what demonstrates that “architecture was really important element in building socialism.” 24 The socialist housing estates represented an embodiment of the socialist political and decision-making system, which placed a great emphasis on centralization” 25 However, even though ideological posters and propaganda were showing idyllic living under communism, the reality was different. People were controlled by the government, did not have many rights and lived in poor quality pre-fabricated housing.

Fig. 8 Poster by G. Klucis, 1934. “Vse Maskva stroit” (All Moscow in the building process)

23 24

Fig. 9 Poster by A. Deineka, 1929. This early soviet poster illustrates an ambition to industrialize the country.

Stanilov, K. 2007. Post Socialist Cities in Transition. Ohio: Springer.

OWNERSHIP 26

Trajkovic, J., Stojilkovic, D., Medo, V. 2015. Influence of The Socialist Ideology on the Conception of Multi-Family Housing: New Urban Landscape and the Typological Models of Housing Units. Report. University of Belgrade. pp 167179. 27

Duburys. 2009.Film. Directed by Gytis Luksas. 140 min. Lithuania.

Moreover, people felt alien to the new residential neighborhoods because the connection with their natural environment was vanished (fig 10). As mentioned before, the system of pre-frabricated housing estates was an effective solution to increase housing production in order to cope with the rapid urbanization after the World War II. All housing stock belonged to the state as the government ran, constructed and maintained new residential developments. Consequently, new neighborhoods were formed with the little concern for the social needs or traditions. People were housed without any cownsideration of their nation, social status or gender. Due to conflicting backgrounds, strong community bonds did not develop. 26 Also, residents neither had ownership rights nor were renters, they were tenants allocated to the particular flat. Individuality and basic human need to have ownership were neglected and this strategy can be considered as a tool to create socialistic regime.

SOCIAL DEGRADATION Furthermore, there is a number of other social problems that emerged in the society through the Soviet period. A movie“ Duburys”, directed by Gytis Luksas and based on Romualdas Granauskas novel, perfectly reflects the life conditions of that time . Movie shows the story of the generation who lived through the entire Soviet period via the main character’s life: his childhood spent in a village, true friendship, work in Soviet Klaipeda (Port city in Lithuania), alcoholism, eroticism and degradation.27

Fig. 10 Social dimension alteration diagram: society is influenced by ideology, government, built and social environment. Over time, people’s social character, values are affected. (Author’s diagram)

1.4 MIKRORAYON TODAY IMPACT OF NEGATIVE FEATURES In less than 40 years, defined spatial and social features have changed Eastern European cityscapes enormously - repetitive, decaying architecture created very monotonic urban environment – mikrorayons. “Industrialised housing made up 75% of all Soviet housing stock by 1991” 28 – this is where the overwhelming majority of former Soviet Union citizens live. Over a half of the urban population in many large East European cities resides in mikrorayon today. “These include Tallin with 55% of the urban population, Warsaw with 56%, Brati-slava with 77%, Bucharest with 82%. “ 29 Nowadays mikrorayon districts are experiencing a great deal of problems (fig 11). Firstly, most of the pre-fabricated blocks are in very poor condition. Majority of the buildings are exceeding proposed life span and experiencing frequent damages (vandalism, graffiti). Secondly, the design of mikrorayon neighborhoods include an abundance of “non-defensible“ spaces that inhibit resident’s activity outside the dwelling unit. These spaces, as well as housing estates, were perpetually poorly maintained by government agencies due to deficiencies in funding. Inadequate maintenance had an impact on the condition of spaces between buildings, graffiti in the neighborhoods and vandalism. Thirdly, residents have lost connection with the built environment and do not feel responsibility to preserve and protect it. Housing researcher Nedovic-Budic stated that “Urban spaces are collectively produced and socially constructed by human actions, and people in turn relate to their surroundings and are affected by them in complex ways” 30. Based on the same belief, I argue that the influence of socio-cultural element, ideology and political system contributed to the residents’ of the large-scale housing estates stigmatization, alienation and social exclusion. To conclude, previously defined negative spatial and social elements have shaped an unappealing image of mikrorayon. Soviet neighborhoods have failed as an urban element because it does not combine interrelated issues to operate efficiently, lacks traditional city features and architectural, infrastructural and social diversity.

Hatherley, O. ‘Radical Suburbs’. Calvert Journal. Available at < https:// calvertjournal. com/features/ show/4235/sovietmass-housing-novyecheryomushkibelyayevo-suburbs > 29

Hirt, S.2012. Iron Curtains.Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Post-socialist City. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p 35. 30

Nedovic-Budic, Z., Tsenkova, S. 2006. The Urban Mosaic of Post-Socialist Europe in The Urban Mosaic of Post-Socialist Europe: Space Institutions and Policy. New York: PhysicaVerlag.

Fig. 11 Mikrorayon today: deteriorated built environment, vandalism and graffiti evidences. 1.Moscow.(Image by Max Andrew) 2, 3. Seskine mikrorayon, Vilnius. (Author’s image) 4, 5, 6. Karoliniskes mikrorayon. (Author’s image) 7. Virsuliskes mikrorayon.(Image by Vaidotas Vaiciulaitis) 8. Lazdynai mikrorayon. (Author’s image)

1.5 MIKRORAYON AND MODERN MOVEMENT

Comparison between Soviet and Western cities reveals a number of similarities and differences. Hirt defines contrasts in overall social composition, spatial scale, functional balance, aesthetic character and emphasizes mikrorayon, as probably the most phenomenal feature, that sets Eastern World from the West World.31 On the other hand, mikrorayon can be understood as an expression of modernism with ideological elements applied by the Soviet Union. Ideas that were broadcasted by the Soviet Union were closely connected to the general ideas of Modernism. “Soviet planners were influenced by modern city planning outlined in the Athens Charter of CIAM and explored in the works of Le Corbusier” 32. Athens Charter defined four functions - work, dwelling, traffic and leisure. It was proposed to separate four uses based on the argument that contemporary town planning needs to control the cities and introduce zoning of uses which would be connected by the highways, as “most of the cities studied present an image of chaos.”33 Moreover, “despite the ideological differences on both sides of Iron Curtain, post war housing architecture as a modernistic illusion of happiness, shared similar views on social equality, collectivism, community building as well as practical attitude: to build cheaper, faster and more.” 34 In the Soviet bloc, the industrial method of construction promised to ‘build communism faster’ while in the West it had to build a ‘better future’. Mikrorayon, as well large scale housing estates in Western countries, are artificial urban elements that did not develop through the centuries. Design of these districts hardly considered the life quality of the residents and the human scale – convenient distances, opportunities to socialize outdoors and efficient use of public space. Repetitive concrete blocks were built without any effort to understand the character, emotion and the culture of environment. However, such residential neighborhoods never gained much traction in Western Europe, as, “by the 1960s, the negative aspects of this type of residential development became clear and public support for high-rise construction sharply declined”35 and today, it only consists 3 to 7 percent of housing stock in Western European with over 2,500 dwellings.36 In contrast, post-socialist cities have between 40 and 50 percent of residential stock in such dwellings, housing over half of their population. 37 The death of Modernism, as Charles Jencks proposed, is associated with the demolition of Pruitt Igoe mass housing development in the St. Louis city in US in 1972. However, in the Eastern Europe, modernism died with the collapse of Soviet Union in 1991. Pruitt Igoe was demolished due to social processes, as the development started to suffer from high rate crimes, poverty and social segregation. The demolition of Pruitt Igoe (similarly as in the Soviet Union) illustrates the end of unsuccessful attempt to create utopia, but, utopia applied to Socialist countries, was of a much bigger scale and architectural solutions played the smallest role here.

Hirt, S. 2012. Iron Curtains.Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Post-socialist City. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p 37. 32

Stanilov, K. 2007. Post Socialist Cities in Transition. Ohio: Springer, p 181. 33

Athens Charter ,1933, Cultural Heritage Policy Documents (The Getty Conservation Institute). Available at http://www.getty. edu/conservation/ publications_ resources/research_ resources/charters/ charter04.html. (Accessed at 18 December, 2016.) 34

Dremaite, M. 2010. The (Post-) Soviet built environment:SovietWestern relations in the industrialised mass housing and its reflections in Soviet Lithuania.Paper. Vilnius. pp 10-15. 35 36 37

Stanilov ,K. 2007. Post Socialist Cities in Transition. Ohio: Springer. p 181.

To understand the scope of mikrorayon within Eastern and Central Europe urbanscape, the city of Vilnius is analysed. Therefore, exploration in more detail of mikrorayon Lazdynai demonstrates previously defined negative spatial dimension elements that are typical in analogous neighborhoods.

VILNIUS

2.1 VILNIUS POST SOCIALIST CITY Vilnius , the capital of Lithuania, is a post-socialist city, and as other former Soviet Union cities, after the collapse of Soviet Union, has been experiencing a number of political, economic and social changes. Characteristics of a post-socialist city include intense residential suburbanization, sprawl and blurring urban edge, dependence on the private car, decrease of spatial development scale, re-emergence of ghettoes of wealth and ghettoes of poverty, decline of public uses.38 Additionally, particularly in Vilnius, there is a sharp contrast between the declining mikrorayon neighborhoods and the rapidly re-vitalizing urban core in the City Centre and Old town (fig 12).

Fig. 12 Map of Vilnius city is showing the location, area and population in each mikroyon in Vilnius. Map demonstrates that mikrorayons are isolated from the urban core in the city centre. In addition, the population size in mikrorayon proves that majority of Vilnius people reside in mikrorayon districts. ( Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s illustration based on Vilnius Map < http://www.vilnius.lt/index.php?375153692> and statistical data from < http://www.ivilnius.lt/apie-vilniu/mikrorajonai/>. 38

Hirt, S. 2012 . Iron Curtains. Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Postsocialist City. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. pp 38-45.

MIKRORAYONS IN VILNIUS Until the middle of the 20th century, Vilnius used to be a compact European city, consisting diverse neighborhoods from all periods. City started to grow rapidly because new residential neighborhoods â&#x20AC;&#x201C; mikrorayons - were built in the north-west periphery (fig 13). Housing areas were separated from the urban core by river slopes and valleys (fig 12). Mikrorayons were built between 1960 till 1995 and neighborhoods differ by their location, proximity to the centre (the oldest estates are closer to the urban core, other were built in periphery) as well as social composition of inhabitants. Housing situation in Vilnius has changed while the city was shifting from socialist to postsocialist city. Like across much of the Eastern and Central Europe countries, housing in Lithuania was owned by the state, controlled and maintained by municipality during the Soviet times. Housing privatization was introduced sharply after the political changes and up to 98% of the housing in Vilnius had been privatized by mid - 1990s 39. As a consequence, the responsibility for housing maintenance was transferred to new units of management that included newly-privatized (former municipal) management companies, newly-established private maintenance firms, newly-formed home-ownersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; associations and home-owners themselves. Responsibility for the maintenance of shared spaces in between privatized buildings remained under state ownership. However, along with this transfer of ownership of individual apartments, responsibility for the maintenance of shared spaces within and outside the buildings became immediately problematic (fig 15), with neither the national or municipal authorities nor the new owners themselves wanting to accept responsibility.40 Due to that the condition of the shared spaces in panel block housing has rapidly deteriorated (fig 14).

Fig. 13 Table of Housing types by year by construction (LARES data)

Fig. 14 Housing type and Building Neighborhood conditions (LARES data)

ENTRUST Thematic Report. Partnership, urban re-generation and the European city: A community participation perspective. 2003. Coordinators: Corcoran, M., Thake, C. 40

Ackermann, F., Cope, B., Kuc, M. 2016. Mapping Vilnius. Transitions in PostSocialist Urban Spaces. Vilnius: Vilniaus Dailes Akademijos Leidykla. pp 51-62.

Fig. 15 Vilnius Quarter and Building Neighborhood Conditions (LARES data)

REGENERATION PLANS 41

Vilnius City Municipality. 2003. Vilnius Old Town Revitalization, 19982003. JSC IKSTRYS: Vilnius. p 27.

Poor condition of the built environment, lack of maintenance, vandalism and graffiti

42 43 45

improve the quality of the living environment and to raise a sense of responsibility of the

Milstead T.2008. Housing and Urban Development in a Post-Soviet City: A Case Study of Vilnius, Lithuania. pp 21-30. Available at < http:// diginole.lib.fsu.edu/ islandora/object/ fsu%3A180603 >

The URBACT page. Available at < http:// urbact.eu/re-block >

evidences encouraged Vilnius Municipality to take action and develop regeneration strategies. Firstly, in 2002, “Home-owners” associations were created in each mikrorayon based on Vilnius City Strategic Plan, 2001-2011. The purpose of “Home-owners” associations’ is to provide educational, financial and consulting assistance, also “….to community and owners for the maintenance of buildings and their surrounding areas.” 41

Establishment of “Home-owners” association is the first step in creating communities in

mikrorayon districts. Secondly, housing regeneration programs, focusing on panel block districts, were developed. Under the first of these, “Renovate the Housing, Renovate the City”, “Homeowners” association is able to apply up to 45% financial support from the state for the housing renovation. However, association is responsible for organizing the competition between renovation companies and must provide 10% of the total cost of the renovation project. 42 Under the second program, a national housing advisory agency was established in Vilnius. Agency had to provide limited loans for housing regeneration. However, today it mostly offers technical assistance and plays a coordinating role between commercial banks and municipalities across Lithuania. 43 Nonetheless, described programs did not achieve compelling results, as only two housing buildings had been completely renovated. In addition, Vilnius city municipality is participating in the international, European Union financed project RE-Block. The main objective of the project is to revive high rise block neighborhoods in post-socialist and other cities including renovation of the buildings, renewal of public space and infrastructure, the involvement of residents and local action plan for the area. 44 Re-Block project might achieve positive outcomes as it focus not only on built fabric, but also on broader revitalization. To summarize, “Home-owners” associations establishment and developed regeneration programs prove that government understands the need to improve living conditions and built environment in mikrorayon districts in Vilnius. However, presented regeneration programs did not succeed due to financial reasons and lack of residents’ involvement. “The municipality is unable to address all housing issues adequately without the help of residents.45

2.2 LAZDYNAI Lazdynai mikrorayon district in Vilnius was chosen as an exemplar which represents typical mikrorayon urban and architectural patterns as well as the current deteriorating condition of the neighborhoods. However, even though nowadays this district has the same value and reputation as other mikrorayons, at the Soviet times it was considered as a prestigious neighborhood. Lazdynai mikrorayon, designed in 1962 (built in 1963-73) by young and ambitious architects Vytautas Brėdikis, Vytautas Edmundas Čekanauskas, represented qualitatively different modernist town planning ideas, influenced by new urban model in Western countries (like Toulouse-Le Mirail (France), Vällingby (Sweden) and Tapiola (Finland)). Architects implemented the gradual service concept as well as housing estates with semi-open courtyards and convenient pedestrian avenues. Lazdynai displayed all characteristics of a modern neighborhood district: prefabricated five, nine and 12-storey housing blocks, schools, nurseries, cinema, swimming pool and medical centre. Harmony with natural environment is another architectural highlight of this development: the natural hillsides were maintained to diminish effects of dispersed housing blocks among the hills.45 At that time Lazdynai was the most renowned modernist residential district in Vilnius and in 1974 was awarded the Lenin prize for All Union Architecture design. Following the award, Lazdynai became known as standard for the “socialist “design excellence, even though, paradoxically, neighborhood was designed as an opposition to the standard Soviet mass housing and signified direct Western influence.46 Nevertheless, to a casual observer, today Lazdynai represents only a typical socialist housing scheme, as due to the poor quality of construction and inadequate maintenance, neighborhood had lost prestigious image.

Fig. 16 Lazdynai Mikrorayon aerial view showing urban configuration and layout of residential pre-fab buildings. (Author’s image based on Lazdynai map available at : http://www.vilnius. lt/index.php?375153692 .

Dremaite, M. 2010. The (Post-) Soviet built environment:Soviet-Western relations in the industrialised mass housing and its reflections in Soviet Lithuania .Paper. Vilnius. pp 23-25. 46 Drėmaitė, M. 2010. Lazdynai from Living and Dying in Living and Dying. In The Urban Modernity. Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Sweden. eds. Caldenby, C., Wedebrunn, O. Copenhagen:The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. p.106.

SPATIAL FEATURES

Fig. 17 Lazdynai Mikrorayon axonometic diagram showing urban configuration and spatial mikrorayon features.(Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image)

Axonometric view (fig 17) illustrates Lazdynai mikrorayon structure and reflects previously defined negative spatial features. Residential prefab-blocks dominate in the area and there is a small number of public use buildings as well as employment facilities in comparison with district population (fig 18). District is separated into smaller quarters by road which serves as a boundary. Street, as an urban element, is not defined as the majority of buildings are located within a great distance. Layout of residential blocks does not create intermediate space between the buildings. Moreover, green zones do not have designated purpose and have been used inadequately â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as a place to park a car. To sum up, analysis of Lazdynai demonstrates that considered and innovative design did not succeeded because it features identical negative urban elements as other mikrorayon districts: lack of public buildings, mono-functional uses, rejection of street and human scale, unutilized green space.

Fig. 18 Table diagram demonstrating population and employment possibilities relation in Lazdynai mikrorayon. It is evident that population rate is much higher than work places rate. Date collected from Vilnius City Plan 2015.[online] Available at http://www. vilnius.lt/lit/Bendrasis_planas_ iki_2015_m/783 [accessed at 5 February, 2017]

To conclude, analysis of Vilnius illustrates an enormous scale of mikrorayon districts in post-socialist cities as well as negative spatial and social issues that have emerged through the time in the large scale housing estates. It is evident that deteriorated neighborhoods are facing a number of problems. To solve them, government has proposed different regeneration strategies which, however, due to financial struggles and lack of motivation, did not succeed. For that reason, a further investigation of regeneration strategies, that transform built environment and social composition, is completed in the following chapters.

Fig. 19 Image of Lazdynai Mikrorayon. (Image by Sergejus Jeriomenko).

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH

As mentioned in the previous chapter, design of mikrorayon was influenced by the Western architecture and the Modern Movement. The following chapter explores participatory design approach which helps to solve spatial and social problems caused by new planning ideas that developed during the 20th century.

3.1 MODERN MOVEMENT FAILURES

Alexander, C.1965. A city is not a tree. 48

Jacobs, J. 1962. The Death and life of great American cities. London: Jonathan Cape.

Participatory Design Movement started when Modern Movement failures became apparent and it was seen as a tool to tackle social and economic ills. This design approach contains user’s involvement, community design, different architect’s and users relationship and creation of pleasant, vibrant built environment. Participatory design proved that Modern Movement drawbacks - lack of traditional city features, mass housing and alienation to environment - can be resolved.

Trancik, R. 1996. Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

LOSS OF TRADITIONAL CITY To begin with, the modern urban design principles that appeared during the 20th century have changed our cities structure in relatively short time compared with their existence time period. The way traditional cities were created and structured was not an example to follow for modernist architects and urban planners. They wanted to tackle health and decease, hygiene and sanitary problems and have totally ignored or only poorly developed public space definition and use. Christopher Alexander, in his essay “A city is not a tree” says that traditional cities are like microcosm or alive organism which consists different layers that feed each other to make them successful.47 Traditional cities developed through the centuries, and people, who lived in the city, developed it. Street patterns, layouts of the buildings and other structural elements were describing particular area, traditions and manners. Also, basic features, like walkable distances, private and public differentiation, were typical worldwide. According to Jane Jacobs, author of “The Death and Life of Great American Cities”, modern cities are lacking vibrancy and diversity as they were designed just considering planning factors and other elements or layers of the cities, like public life and public space, were forgotten.48

NEW NEIGHBORHOOD CONCEPTS: GARDEN AND RADIANT CITIES Moreover, major alterations in urban planning, which started with Ebenezer Howard proposed Garden City theory (1898), had an influence on modern urban design development and contributed to the loss of traditional city. Garden city proposed neither a city, neither a suburbs – Howard’s aim was to design self-sufficient small towns (fig 20). Garden City proposal did not address such interrelated issues that great cities have to combine to operate efficiently, Howard focused on the housing as the central problem. 49 For instance, street was perceived as a bad environment and houses had to be turned from it and faced inward.

Radiant City concept, created by Le Corbusier, was inspired by Garden City fundamental principles but adapted for high densities. Le Corbusier was proposing a dream city for a new century, with high skyscrapers and wide motorways (fig 21). His ideas gave start for new modern urban design movement called Functionalists. Physical-functional aspects of cities and buildings were considered as a priority: dwellings were to have light, air, sun and ventilation.50 Instead of being orientated towards street, buildings had to be orientated towards the sun. Due to that, buildings were scattered around leaving a vacant land without use. Psychological, social aspects and public space design have not been considered. It was thought, that the extensive grass areas between the buildings would be a place for social life and recreational activities. Another aspect, which reduced the possible advantages of contact between people, was separation in function among dwellings and greater distances between buildings. To conclude, neighborhoods which were built based on these principles might have solved hygiene and health problems, but as well it realized powerful city-destroying ideas : streets and squares, which throughout the history were focal points and gathering spaces, were replaced by roads, paths and endless grass lawns, human scale, convenient walkable distances were forgotten. The “tragedy” of the modern city was depicted in the comedy film “Mon Oncle” by French filmmaker Jacques Tati. The film compares traditional, natural city and urban life with a modern, mechanized lifestyle and architecture. Contrasts between traditional and modern cities are revealed through vibrancy, quality of public realm, people interaction, emotions and colors. Film author clearly makes a statement that modern city is foreign and lacks essential urban features that makes a place attractive to people.

Fig. 20 Ebenezer Howard proposed Garden City diagram.

Fig. 21 Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (1930).

50 Gehl, J. 2011. Life Between Buildings. 2nd ed. London: Island Press.

MASS HOUSING. INDIVIDUAL AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT 51

Carlo, G. 2007.’Architecture’s Public’. In Blundell, J., Petrescu, D., Till, J. Abingdon . eds. Architecture and Participation. Spon Press. pp 3-22. 52

Sennet, R. 2002. The Fall of Public Man. London: Penguin Books. 53

Hatch, R. 1984. The Scope of Social Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.p 7. 54

Habraken, J.1972. Supports, An alternative to mass housing. London: The Architectural Press. p 5. 55

Alexander, C. 1984. The Production of Houses. In The Scope of Social Architecture. eds. Hatch, R. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 123-133.

Another significant failure of the 20th century, which diminished connection between individual and it’s environment, is mass housing. Post-war housing demand crisis was addressed at CIAM Frankfurt Congress of 1929 devoted to Minimum Housing standards. Architects who participated in the Congress offered a number of solutions how to build more and as cheap as possible: reduce to the absolute minimum floor area per person, wall thickness, insulation and materials. The quality of spaces, opportunities for privacy and individuality, communication and creativity were neglected.51 Functionalist ideas of more air, more light, more green areas, more sun were just formal expression, hiding the real aspiration how to deal with housing crisis, how with “less” create “more”. Nowadays, with the appearance of mass housing, the relationship between people and their environment has disappeared, people do not feel ownership and responsibility to the place as they used to. However, as Richard Sennet, author of “ The Fall of Public Man”, argues, industrial revolution was one of the factors that contributed to the decline of public life, loss of traditional city and an appearance of mass production.52 The development of economic order, specialization at workplaces, change of work purpose - “what work now creates is not ours, not what we want or need. It is done for others; what is produced is theirs” - were the reasons which diminished rich social existence and detached people from their environment, as society was reduced “to an aggregation of fearful and mutually suspicious individuals”53 The natural relationship between people and their environment was common in former days when people were involved in the building process. Dutch architect, theorist and author N. J. Habraken says that housing is and always has been an important expression of human civilization. Housing illustrates people’s way of living and relationship between environment– it can be interpreted as a society’s mirror. “The housing process is the common action of a society to fulfill certain conditions without which it’s existence would not be possible. This process is a fascinating phenomenon and it involves both rational consideration like construction, finance and organization and impulses of biological nature which are rooted in fundamental relationships of human existence”54 . According to Christopher Alexander, today’s housing systems are lacking fundamental necessities to any human society. First condition is the recognition of every family, person’s individuality, uniqueness and ability to express that. Second is the fact that every family and person requires connection and relation with other people as they are part of the society.55 Existing housing nowadays fail to fulfill these two requirements , as the houses are like a machines for residents (Le Corbusier’s term “machine a habiter”) People, instead of housing themselves- creating a place to live based on their needsare housed, the individual is ignored. This condition isolates people from each other, sets anonymity and tears off bonds of community. Modernisation and current housing system have meant people’s removal from decisions, what caused detachment and alienation to environment, breakdown of community and fraying social fabric. To summarize, mass housing set conditions for social exclusion and vanishing relation between individual and his environment. As a result, built environment tends to deteriorate as ownership and responsibility senses have diminished.

ARCHITECT’S ROLE Furthermore, at the moment architecture is more often dependent on capitalist world and is loosing the primary relationship with the society. Nowadays architects, according to Peter Blundell “… needing clients with power and money, are usually on the side of those in power and willing to embrace and express in built terms the ideology and economics of these clients” 56. These days exists a broad opinion that architects usually design a finished product without any consideration of its development, evolution and adaptability to the user needs. As we look at architectural magazines, we usually only see finished building with hardly any impact of the user and it is not demonstrated how architecture functions in everyday life, how people interact and transform it. In an essay “Architecture is too important to be left to architects” Giancarlo de Carlo, Italian architect and planner, argues that architecture is closely related to the structures of the society and depends on them, that architecture is the most fundamental expression of human existence and that it should not only depend on architects.58 Author suggests “metamorphosis” in the practice of architecture: “therefore all barriers between builders and users must be abolished, so that building and using become two different parts of the same planning process.” 57Instead of designing and planning functional forms, we should start thinking from the user point of view and what design allows to experience. Moreover, Lucien Kroll, one of the participatory design pioneers, argues that architects should be aware of changes and environment: “If architects were conscious of the time dimension when designing a building, they would be able to anticipate how the landscape would take the abstract and alien object and consume it, assimilate it and make it one with the environment. “59 Considering above mentioned arguments, architect, as a professional, should choose a direction which leads to closer relationship with people and society, work for process instead of the final result, have a broader framework than the surface image, engage with the context through the experience of use.

Blundell, P. 2005. Architecture and Participation. London. New York: Spon Press. 57

Carlo, G. 2007. Architecture’s Public. In Blundell, J., Petrescu, D., Till, J. Abingdon. eds. Architecture and Participation. Spon Press. pp 3-22. 58

Bouman, O., Toorn, R. Architecture is too important to leave to the architects: a conversation with Giancarlo De Carlo. Volume.2005. pp 21-26. Available at http:// volumeproject.org/ architecture-is-tooimportant-to-leaveto-the-architects-aconversation-withgiancarlo-de-carlo/ [accessed at 25 January, 2017]. 59

Kroll, L. The Voice of Libertarian Socialism Available at http:// www.roemervantoorn. nl/Resources/ Lucien%20Kroll%20 identity.pdf [accessed at 28 December, 2016].

3.2 PARTICIPATORY DESIGN VALUE

Sanoff, H. 2000. Community participation methods in design and planning. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp 181-190. 61

Broome, J. 2005. Mass housing cannot be sustained. In Architecture and Participation. eds. Blundell, P. London. New York: Spon Press. p 75. 62

Carlo, G. 2007. Architecture’s Public. In Blundell, J., Petrescu, D., Till, J. Abingdon. eds. Architecture and Participation. Spon Press. pp 3-22.

Participatory design approach is seen as a tool to solve previously identified Modern Movement failures. Architectural participation could be defined as a design approach with the user involvement at some stage of the design process. Up till now, various participatory design strategies have been invented and tested, some of them succeed better and others have limited individual’s satisfaction. However, in comparison with commercial architecture, design participation has proved its value by the following reasons: Firstly, it emphasizes individual user’s needs. Consequently, environment built according to people needs will last longer and will evaluate naturally. Secondly, residents’ involvement into design process induces the sense of ownership that leads to the responsibility of the built environment. Thirdly, majority of the projects which applied user’s participation strategy have resolved negative Modern Movement architectural features and rehabilitated environment.60 Moreover, participatory design approach has a positive effect both on the user and the built environment as well it strengthens the connection between two. Jon Broome, in an essay “Mass housing cannot be sustained” emphasizes the participation in housing process impact to the users. Author states, according to his own experience, that people, who were involved in design and building process of their own home, “have grown enormously in self confidence through working with the authorities, with professionals and with one another” 61 . The main purpose of participation is the effect on the participants, not on architecture. Participation is the field in which people can experience the collective work and develop environmental competence, form communities. Therefore, participation also has an impact on social inclusion and regeneration of urban areas. Due to that, participatory design is viewed as an instrument for transforming both the environment and the people who live in it. Furthermore, user’s participation in urban design process might ensure development success as it will reflect society’s needs. Large scale urban and region planning tend to fail even though accurate analysis had been carried out and design decisions were based on collective interests as well as precise forecasts.Usually the reason for these failures is that “wise” plans are opposed organic development and cannot efficiently predict and support it. “The neighborhoods and buildings planned “for” the users decay because the users, not having participated in the planning, are unable to appropriate them and therefore have no reason to defend them.“62 Some architects and urban planners, who believe in participatory design power, states that participation has to transform architectural planning into a process, as until now it was considered as an authoritarian act. This process has three phases. Firstly, process begins with discovery of users’ needs, afterwards follows formulation of hypothesis and lastly - the phase of actual use. This process of participation must be open for continuous alterations and reformulations, feeding back into earlier phases.

Nevertheless, participation is a challenging design approach as a true participation, where users are able to express their opinion, can become chaotic and requires a lot of efforts and time. Discovery of the real needs of the users means provoking direct participation and questioning the traditional value system. Moreover, when participation field is occupied by official organizations potentially are manipulated and do not necessarily express users point of view. In spite of that, according to Peter Blundell, there is “a belief, that participation can make a difference to the way that we all, users and experts alike, engage with our built environment.” 63

Blundell, P. 2005. Architecture and Participation. London. New York: Spon Press. p 1.

Fig. 22 Participatory design approach diagram which illustrates the effect on residents’ and built environment connection. (Author’s image)

The evidence can lead one to conclude that only through residents ‘participation can architecture and urban planning become more responsible and thoughtfully engage with the built environment and social conditions as well as improve the quality of housing (fig 22). In other words, participatory design approach makes auspicious alterations in both spatial and social dimensions. People are far more accepting what they have built or contributed to the design process. House then becomes not just a physical structure - it gains social and cultural value. Participation not only allows individual to express and fulfill his uniqueness, it also bonds association with other people. Considering above mentioned reasons, participatory design approach is chosen as tool to transform built environment and form social inclusion in mikrorayon regeneration proposal.

CASE STUDIES ANALYSIS

4.1 CASE STUDIES SELECTION

approach.

strategy.

HOUSING AND NEIGHBORHOOD REGENERATION

Regeneration reason Initiators Financial aspects Regeneration strategy: participation community involvement architect’s role Design program

REGENERATION PROCESS

Moreover, “Demolition or Refurbishment of Social Housing?” report, completed by UCL Urban Lab, reveals unwanted environmental, social and economic impacts of demolitions and emphasizes that lifecycle extension of housing by improvement, regeneration and revitalization is a better solution due to economic and sustainability reasons. “Refurbishment is one method of supporting local economic development, particularly if it involves reinvestment in declining neighborhoods using local building firms that hire local workers “64. This method significantly contributes to job creation, skills and motivation within demoralized communities. Considering above mentioned positive impact of housing regeneration through participation and the complications that demolition, residents’ relocation may evoke due to the massive scale of mikrorayon, it is logical to assume that revitalization is the best

Chosen case studies represent different participatory design approaches that vary from block regeneration to the whole neighborhood redevelopment. Selected examples not only illustrate community involvement in the decision making processes and design, but also architectural and urban elements that were applied to improve the built environment. The purpose of case studies analysis (fig 23) is to identify following characteristics: reasons for regeneration project and initiators, financial support strategy, architect’s role, community involvement,design process and final design program. Also, architectural and urban elements that improve spatial quality of the neighborhoods and resolves identical problems to mikrorayon (unutilized green zones, mono-functional uses, human scale, alienation to environment), will be defined and applied to mikrorayon regeneration

URBAN AND ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS TO RESOLVE NEGATIVE FEATURES

Previous chapters proved that mikrorayons in Eastern and Central Europe countries require regeneration both in spatial dimension as well as in social dimension. Defined negative spatial characteristics (lack of different uses, disconnection from urban core, non-utilized green zones, decaying condition of public space and prefabricated blocks) and social features (social exclusion, lack of sense of ownership, belonging and responsibility) can be improved through participatory design approach. People are responsible of their living environment and the first step to make a change would be the public empowerment. To achieve that, individuals should change their attitude of housing and the space around them. Participatory approach, combining residents involvement in design, planning and construction processes contributes in urban environment development as well as has impact on residents’ socio-cultural values: ownership, civility, responsibility and belonging sense.

Quality Variantion of program Public space redevelopment Variation of apartments Controlled environment

Fig. 23 Case studies analysis plan diagram. Chosen projects are analysed by defining regeneration process and urban & architectural features that improves negaitve spatial features. (Author’s diagram)

Demolition or Refurbishment: A Review of Evidence.2014.UCL Urban Lab report. Available at < http://www.engineering.ucl. ac.uk/engineering-exchange/files/2014/10/Report-Refurbishment-Demolition-Social-Housing.pdf > [ accessed at January 27, 2017] p 56.

4.2 CASE STUDY 1 REVITALIZATION OF ADMIRAALS-SQUARE IN WIELWIJK 65

Kroll, L. 1984. Anarchitecture. In The Scope of Social Architecture. eds. Hatch, R. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 166-182.

The first case study - revitalization of Admiraals-square in Wielwijk -can be an exemplary regeneration model to follow and apply to mikrorayon. Project consists revitalization of two housing developments (The Compagnie and the Zilvervloot), in Dordrecht, South Holland. This project was chosen for detailed analysis as it has a number of similarities to mikrorayon: neighborhood was developed in the fifties in a typical way as other post-war districts; mass housing blocks, which nowadays are suffering from decaying, dominate in the area (fig 24). The leading architect for the project was Lucien Kroll, who is well known as a pioneer in participatory design and “spontaneous” architecture. His design approach emphasizes architect’s role as a listener to the future user or client and a helper to overcome difficulties in design and construction process. Moreover, Lucien Kroll, in his writings and essays, highly criticizes Modern Movement architectural approach and mass housing.65 Architect suggests participatory design as a problem solving approach.

Fig. 24 Aerial view of Wielwijk neighborhood in Dordrecht, 1957. Image shows post-war housing developemnt and similar urban features an in mikrorayon. (Photo : History of Dordrecht)

THE ZILVERLOOT HOUSING REGENERATION Regeneration reason and initiators: Zilvervloot housing regeneration was initiated by Social Housing corporation “Woondrecth” with the help from the municipality of Dordrecht as it had been suffering from physical decaying as well as social problems. Housing was abandoned by comparatively wealthy Dutch inhabitants and occupied by mixed nationalities residents. Social problems as criminal activities, drug abuse started to appear in the neighborhood and a vital need to react ant tackle these problems became

orientation, the terraces and balconies, the sizes, and also the choice of the facade’s forms and materials (fig 26). Nearly a hundred apartments were designed to be totally different and forty apartments followed three variants. Green roof with large private gardens were added to produce a lively skyline (fig 30).

obvious to publicity.

Regeneration strategy, architect’s role and participatory approach: Project initiators had an “intelligent” vision of neighborhood revitalization which integrated a holistic approach with top down planning and bottom up movements as it was initiated by local government and as well included residents’ participation. Social housing company organized a competition which was won by architect Lucien Kroll, who stated, that “we could not conceive anything without engaging with the inhabitants” 66.The design program emerged step by step with the inhabitants’ involvement. Residents were able to contribute to the decision making processes, to express their opinion and attitude in the discussions. Also, “Hands on participation” strategy had been applied as residents were participating in workshops, drawing and model making. Lucien Kroll and his team, through residents’ participation, established housing regeneration qualities.

Design program: A new vision of Zilvervloot housing emphasized social and ethnic character of the inhabitants as well as an introduction of mixed uses, commercial developments and neighborhood centre. These features created vibrant, lively environment. Moreover, introduction of commercial use facilities on the ground floor attracted people from other districts and contributed to pleasant public realm creation. An ecological architectural approach was chosen by keeping main structural core and transforming existing building (fig 30). There were to be partial demolitions and “remolitions”, some apartments to be finished by their tenants allowing all possible personal choices in the

26 66

Kroll, L. De Zilvervloot - 130 dwellings + shops [online]. Available at http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-project-ZV.htm. [accessed at December 18, 2016].

THE COMPAGNIE HOUSING REVITALIZATION Regeneration reason and initiators: The main reason for Compagnie neighborhood revitalization project is the same as for previously analysed Zilvervloot housing : need to solve emerging social problems and improve the deteriorated built environment. Scheme was commissioned by housing corporation “Woonbron” and realised together with Kristal project development.

Regeneration strategy and architect’s role: Architect Lucien Kroll continues to lead the process and applies similar strategies as in Zilvervloot project: residents’ participation, sustainable approach and mixed use introduction. In addition, Compagnie project consists metamorphosis of existing flats by keeping existing structural elements and introducing improvements that enrich architectural quality of the flats (fig 27). Preserving, according to project architect Lucien Kroll, is more intelligent strategy in an urban context as it respects local and social history and at the same time allows to restructure at different scales.67

Design program: New housing types were designed within the existing concrete structure in order to attract wider variety of residents like small families and elderly people. To achieve more luxurious standards and raise the residential quality of the flats, a number of methods were applied. These include creation of larger openings, expansion of floor areas, integration of new balconies, galleries, communal spaces, entrance halls (fig 30). Also, new apartment types, like maisonette and penthouse flats, were developed. Following higher standards inside, new architectural image was created externally. Material choice, colour palette and architectural tools transformed existing banality. Moreover, commercial use facilities, new neighborhood centre and sports halls were included in design scheme. To summarise, Admiraals-square revitalization and housing regeneration scheme improved residents living conditions as well as built environment in the district. Residents’ participation allowed to design their aspired environment, which reflects inhabitants and local character.

29 Fig. 25 Zilvervloot Housing Regeneration. Residents participation in the design process. (Photo: homeusers. brutele ). Fig. 26 Finished Zilvervloot project. Picture emphasizes variation in materials, roof line, facade articulation. ( Photo: homeusers.brutele ). Fig. 27 Regeneration of Compagnie housing. Construction process. ( Photo: homeusers.brutele ). Fig. 28 Visualization of finished Compagnie Housinf regeneration ( Photo: homeusers.brutele ). Fig. 29 Aerial view of regenerated Admiraals- square of Wielwijk (Photo: homeusers. brutele ).

U Kroll, L. De Compagnie - transformation 60’s flats + “ wijkcentrum”. Available at http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-projectCO.htm. [accessed at December 18, 2016].

SELECTED ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

01 VARIATION OF APARTMENTS Transform existing flats by keeping structural core and introduce improvements to enrich spatial quality of the living environment.

02 FACADE’S ARTICULATION Introduce diversity be using different materials, colors’ palette, architectural elements and roof line articulation.

Fig. 30 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, 4 illustrate selected architecural features from Admiraalssquare regneration project. (Author’s image)

03 LANDSCAPE Design of landscape elements in the inner courtyard to provide different activities and uses, also to create controlled environment.

04 INHABIT GROUND AND ROOF LEVELS Design of large private gardens and terraces to produce lively skyline. To introduce commercial uses on the ground level to create vibrant public realm and promote local economy.

4.3 CASE STUDY 2 WALLIS BLOCK REGENERATION The Wallis Block regeneration project, which is also called “Poetic freedom”, illustrates a successful collective private assignment. This Project gave a start for new housing upgrading development campaign. Project approach and funding strategy could be adapted to mikrorayon housing regeneration as an exemplar model which has an effect on physical building condition as well as positive social impact on residents.

Regeneration reason and initiators: Wallis block regeneration was initiated by Rotterdam’s municipality and local authorities. The main reason for revitalization was to solve negative spatial and social issues that were emerging in the area. Wallis Block is located in neighborhood called Spangen in Rotterdam, near the canal “Schie”, which connects Delft with Delftshaven, Rotterdam’s historic harbor (fig 31). The area had a bad reputation and was abandoned for a long time. The quality of neighborhood was extremely poor as several flats were empty and not maintained, what leaded to drug dealers’ and criminals’ attraction to the area.

Financial strategy: The need for regeneration was obvious since 1990 as many flats were bought by municipality with an intention to start redevelopment. However, the first attempt for regeneration failed and was only renewed in 2003. Rotterdam municipality were giving dwellings ‘for free’ to interested future owners, with a condition, that each “buyer” has to invest into block refurbishment in the concern with other owners. This was an alternative approach to attract people to dilapidated and abandoned neighborhood, what consequently would revive the area and solve crime, drug dealing and other problems.

Architect’s role: The architect, Ineke Hulshof, and the Stichting Woning consultancy were assigned to lead and supervise Wallis Block regeneration project. Architect took a project leader role who supervises a process and solves a complex puzzle involving a lot of assertive clients who all haveto be fitted into a single

Ineke Hulshof, leading architect of the project, emphasized participatory process rather than design. Based on that, instead of expressing building externally, (fig 33) designer decided to concentrate on the quality of internal space and renewal of the organizational structure.

Regeneration strategy: Project scheme received a lot of attention due to the low cost and design adaptability, as each buyer had an opportunity to build their own “dream house”. Before the start of the building process, a set of rules and regulations were defined: future residents had to participate in design process, participants had to renovate the building together and share upgrading costs, architects and project managers has to lead the project and provide with required help. Also, Rotterdam municipality required to keep the high level of technical standards.

Design program and participation: Planning process started in November 2004 with 35 independent households willing to shape strong community and build their dream house. Through the number of meetings and workshops, it was decided to start with basic interventions which include new the independent entrance for each house, stairs, insulation, central heating, new installations. A variety of floor layouts and sections have been developed with the help of architects and in the end of participatory design process, dwelling scheme had 35 different houses (fig 35). Moreover, residents, according to individual interests, joined into several groups which applied responsibilities for different fields: finances, garden, construction and organization. To summarise, Wallis Block regeneration project, as well revitalization of Admiraals – square in Wielwijk, was initiated by local authorities as there was a need to tackle emerging social issues. Developed project scheme, which combines Top down planning and residents engagement through participation process not only allowed to express individual inhabitants’ design aspirations and requirements, it also promoted private ownership and built a strong community (fig 34).

block.69 Hulshof,I. Poetic Freedom. Report on Regeneration Project in the neighborhood in Spangen in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Delft, 2008. Available at https://www.hulshof-architecten.nl/portfolio/kopersgroepen-cpo-bouwgroepen/detail/wallisblok/4. [accessed at January 3, 2017]. 69 Baker, D. ‘Urban renewal: invention, transformation and the power of the architect’. Crimson Architectural Historians. Available at http://www.crimsonweb.org/spip.php?article75.[ accessed at January 3, 2017]. 68

31 Fig. 31 Wallis Block Location: Spangen neighborhood, Rotterdam. (Photo: Ineke Hulshof architects). Fig. 32 Regeneratiom process: Existing structural framework was left, but different apartmentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; variations, according to the resident, were designed. ( Photo: Ineke Hulshof architects). Fig. 33 Finished internal courtyard facade: architect does not emphasize exterior as internal quality is more important. (Photo: Inke Hulshof architects). Fig. 34 Wallis block residents have formed community through participatory design process. (Photo: CPO organization)

SELECTED ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

01 VARIATION OF APARTMENTS Design of different flat’s variations according to residents’ requirements and needs, by keeping existing structure.

02 COURTYARDS

Fig. 35 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, illustrate selected architecural features from Wallis Block regneration project. (Author’s image)

Design of controlled environment and facilities for community gardening, as well diverse landscape elements.

ROOF GARDENS Efficient use of roof by creating gardens and roof teracces. Variation of balconies.

4.4 CASE STUDY 3 MISSION PARK REGENERATION Case study, which explores Tenants of Harvard (RTH) neighborhood development in Mission Park, Boston, was chosen for extensive analysis, as, according to the project planner and architect John Sharratt, it is “the most successful resolution of urban neighborhood and institutional conflict”70 as well as it illustrates the community strength and organization while threatened by powerful institutional expansion to destroy the neighborhood. Also, introduced architectural and urban elements coherently link dense urban typology with pleasant suburbian image. This approach allows to densify land use as well as introduces diversity and vibrancy. Not only defined built environment features, but also community strength and willingness, can be an exemplary characteristics for mikrorayon regeneration.

Regeneration reason and initiators: Mission Park redevelopment emerged as reaction to the threat for total demolition of the neighborhood with no plans for relocating housing considered. To begin with, Harvard Medical School complex in Boston announced plans to build a new hospital on a land currently occupied by housing. Residents of the neighborhood were afraid and paranoid, they demanded cancellation of Harvard extension and joined into community tenants’ union - Roxbury Tenants of Harvard Association (RTH) (fig 36). Community movement was based on of human needs to maintain their identity, family and shelter and later on developed clear social and political objectives.

Architect’s role: RTH neighborhood asked John Sharratt to assist them in the development process as an architect previously had been involved in similar projects. John Sharratt in RTH neighborhood development took a wide range of roles: architect, planner, friend, political strategist. His performance was constantly changing, from an expert with professional experience to a supportive friend. In the first phases of development he was leading the project, but later, when residents gained new confidence and required skills, his position shifted back to more standard professional role.

Community achievements and regeneration process: The RTH community was leaded by strong leaders who were deeply attached to the community. After frequent meetings, RTH gained more members and became powerful tenants’ association. Community managed to present their interests in newspapers, radio and television stations. This combination of actions was the turning point when RTH positive commitment was strong enough to be taken seriously. After five years of negotiations with Harvard Corporation, RTH gained the control of rental policies, architectural plans and maintenance. It became community-controlled housing with developed service programs like: Senior Citizens Food Program, Senior Citizens Health Program, Library and Tutoring Program, Youth and teenagers program, Child Care, Crime Prevention Awareness program. Over this period, community has developed sense of pride and mutual support to other neighborhood residents.

RTH Accomplishments and final design program: The final program for neighborhood redevelopment has been financed through variety development groups, partnerships, associations and by Harvard institution. RTH accomplished to save existing neighborhood and also build 775 new units of housing, 40,000 sf of rental office space, 5000 sf of community space, basketball and tennis courts, swimming pool and a plaza (fig 40). The buildings vary in size: from high rise 27 floors to stepping mid-rise buildings from 4 to 13 floors (fig 38). Lower buildings were introduced as an attempt to relate to the two- and three-story townhouse to the high rise building. Community facilities with the swimming pool were placed in the center of the neighborhood, playgrounds, basketball and tennis courts as well as landscaping elements were scattered throughout the site. Moreover, parking facilities beneath the site were built. This design solution reduces traffic congestion in the neighborhood and creates safe, car-free streets in the neighborhood (fig 40). To conclude, Mission Park regeneration project demonstrates community power and strength and successful bottom up planning movements, which are initiated by local residents.

Sharatt, J. 1984. Preserving the RTH Neighborhood. In The Scope of Social Architecture. eds. Hatch, R. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 202- 214. 71

Lee, T. 1984. Commentary on Mission Park. In The Scope of Social Architecture. eds. Hatch, R. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 215- 217.

36 Fig. 36 Roxbury Tenants of Harward corporation. RTH community is formed by group of people from different backgrounds and ethnics. (Photo: Consigli Construction & Co). Fig. 37 Landscape features in public space after Mission Park regeneration, designed by Kim Mikyoung (Photo: Kim Mikyoung designs). Fig. 38; Fig. 39 Mission Park neighborhood after rgeneration. Neighborhood consists variety of programs and typologies buildings but manages to keep pleasant human scale. (Photo: John Sharatt architects).

SELECTED ARCHITECTURAL & URBAN FEATURES

01 MIXED TYPOLOGIES Introduce mixed typologies and variation of program to create diversity in neighborhood and employment possibilities.

02 UNDERGROUND PARKING FACILITIES Design of underground car park facilities to reduce traffic congestion and promote car-free street in the residential area.

03 DEFINED LAND USE Utilize green zones by applying particular uses and activities. Defining residential quarterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s character according to the building typologies.

Fig. 40 Diagrams 1, 2, 3, illustrate selected architecural features from Mission Park regneration project. (Authors image)

4.5 EVALUATION Housing regeneration and neighborhood revitalization through residents’ participation is a process consisting many interconnecting issues and elements and it can be applied as a tool not only to improve physical living conditions but also to create or strengthen community, develop user’s responsibility and control sense of the built environment. The analysis of case studies has shown that in order to implement the regeneration with long term lasting results there is a need to consider following aspects.

Regeneration reasons and outcomes First of all, it is significant to understand why regeneration with participation is needed in a particular neighborhood and what outcomes are aspired as it predetermines community involvement techniques. In analyzed Admiraals- square as well as Wallis Block regeneration projects, neighborhood revitalization was needed to tackle emerging social problems which were affecting districts on the broader level. In both cases, the importance to take action was realized by local authorities and they were regeneration initiators and supporters who decided to choose “intelligent” design approach with local residents’ integration. Top down planning elements, like local municipalities’ involvement, facilitated legal aspects of funding, agreements and planning applications, were solved by professionals. Consequently, regeneration projects went smoothly, without major delays on the site. Contrary to above discussed cases, Mission park regeneration project in Boston emerged as residents’ reaction to safe their home from demolition. In this case, powerful institution had local authorities support and people had to fight against it. Due to that, regeneration process lasted for 10 years and was very challenging to neighborhood association leaders and inhabitants.

Participation strategy Secondly, the other aspect to consider is the type of participatory process and the level if direct residents involvement to make decisions throughout design development. Inhabitants had a right to choose features of their flats and design them individually

in the Wallis Block and Admiraals-square projects. However, Wallis block residents also had to participate in the building process from the very beginning and had more authoritarian rights towards their future home. For this reason, people have formed a strong community, they became more connected and related with other neighbors. The result of that is visible in community gardening activities which involve residents and creates a lively and pleasant outdoor environment. In contrast, community took different role in Mission park regeneration project. Residents formed Tenants of Harvard neighborhood association represented by the group of leaders who made most of decision making. Already existing community throughout the project became stronger and achieved the right to control neighborhood.

Architect’s role Thirdly, it is essential to define architect’s performance in participatory design approach. Opposite to commercial developments, where architect is responsible for design and deals with formal organizations and authorities, participatory design is orientated to the research of user’s needs. In other words, architect is more engaged in the process rather than in design result, however, architect has to combine professional knowledge with residents’ aspirations to achieve the best result. In analyzed regeneration projects, architect connects community, leads the process and provides required help. To sum up, case studies analysis has clarified main aspects which predetermine participatory regeneration process. Comparison of different strategies and their outcomes allows to create adequate proposal for mikrorayon regeneration.

SELECTED ARCHITECTURAL & URBAN FEATURES

Fig. 41 Architectural and urban features to apply for mikrorayon regneration proposal. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image)

PROPOSAL FOR MIKRORAYON REGENERATION

The writings of Jane Jacobs and William H Whyte, promoting the diversity and vibrancy of the street and small urban space, echo the importance of the qualities of the medieval urban street in the contemporary cities. 72 73 However, in the current day and age, the question remains whether this quality of the medieval public space can be designed and implemented or whether it can only grow naturally, as a result of cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s evolution. Can designer predict and set guidelines, create process for urban generation,that would not only have an impact on built environment, but also to societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s character and behavior?

72 73

Jacobs, J.1962. The Death and life of great American cities .London: Jonathan Cape. Whyte, W.1980. The Social Life Of Small Urban Spaces. New York.

5.1 MIKRORAYON REGENERATION Mikrorayon regeneration guidelines are created to address previously defined negative spatial and social characteristics. Proposal is divided into two parts: strategy model and spatial improvement guidelines. Strategy model sets recommendations for authorities’ and residents’ involvement, financial strategy, architect’s role and action plan. Spatial improvement guidelines define a selection of urban and architectural features (based on case studies analysis) which transform mono-functional mikrorayon to diverse and vibrant residential neighborhood.

STRATEGY MODEL

Authorities’ and residents’ involvement

Architect’s role

Housing and it’s environment is a difficult matter as its

Architect in mikrorayon regeneration should be a

design process and production includes individuals

“bonding” figure which connects residents and local

and housing cooperations, architects and engineers.

authorities and guarantees that residents receive

”In short, those who are concerned with housing, feel

required support and help. Architect has to develop

largely powerless to produce more and better results

closer relationship with people and put a lot of

because action in their own field either appears to be

efforts not only on final design, but also on project

insufficient or presupposes interrelated action in the

development and process.

part of many others.” 73 Considering that, revitalization of mikrorayon should include equal and cooperative

Participatory strategy and community involvement

efforts by municipalities, homeowners and stakeholders with the aim to improve living conditions,

Mikrorayon regeneration should be based on

increase the environmental and social quality and

participatory design approach as it transforms

strengthen the local economy.

residents’ mentality, improves social inclusion and forms communities. Impact of being involved directly

Financial strategy

into urban regeneration process contributes in shaping resident’s perception about the built environment.

Revitalization of mikrorayon should be initiated

Gained sense of ownership and responsibility ensures

and funded by municipalities and state, however,

that inhabitants maintain and care about their

residents’ financial contribution is essential owing to

neighborhoods. Based on case studies analysis, different

the fact that it will shape sense of ownership and

types of residents and community involvement can

responsibility of the built environment. Considering

be applied. Residential block can be regenerated by

previously failed regeneration strategies, local

including direct inhabitants participation both in design

authorities should develop beneficial financial

and construction process. Contrary, to revitalize urban

strategy. For example, encourage densification

district, community should choose representatives and

of neighborhoods by introducing new housing

leaders, who are responsible for decision making, to

developments that would partly cover regeneration

ensure that participatory method is efficient.

process.

Habraken, J. 1972. Supports, An alternative to mass housing. London:the Architectural Press. p 5.

MIKRORAYON REGENERATION ACTION PLAN: Step 1:”Home-ownwers” association takes a role of participatory design leading structure which encourages small scale modifications including local communities and residents’ participation.

Step 2: Develop a network of “Home-owners” associations and collaborators to connect similar districts and form a powerful institutional organization.

Step 3: Start to design a large-scale masterplan which would address past problems of the area as well as support new local development. Master plan should be developed with users’ participation to reflect society’s needs and ensure organic growth.

Step 4: Efficient financial strategy should be developed. For example, Wallis Block regeneration model can be adopted: local authorities and state provides larger part of financial support, but residents have to contribute and invest into redevelopment as well.

Step 5: Ensure that planning is integrated in all scale levels and a holistic approach for urban regeneration with top down planning and bottom up movements is considered. This tool means the ability for small scale improvements initiated by local communities and their own activities instead of pausing large-scale master plan development.

Fig. 42 Mikrorayon regeneration proposal’s action plan. (Author’s image)

5.2 LAZDYNAI REGENERATION URBAN STRATEGIES The main purpose of mikrorayon regeneration strategy is to apply a number of architectural and urban design elements which improve the spatial and social life quality in the district. Lazdynai mikrorayon was not planned with future changes in mind, but in order to adjust outdated masterplan and revitalize stagnated district, urban strategies with the intent to increase spatial variety, add programmatic diversity and improve public realm are proposed. In addition, selected architectural features, which are adequate for mikrorayon regeneration as they are based on the case studies analysis outcomes, can be applied to revitalize prefabricated panel blocks, unutilized green space and deteriorated public space. Negative features, as lack of intermediate space, mono-functional uses, insufficient parking, outdated apartment layouts and low quality of prefabricated panel blocks can be resolved by raising the attractiveness of residential neighborhoods, introducing variations of housing alterations, improvement of courtyards and public infrastructure, creating community spaces.

Fig. 43 Negative spatial features of Lazdynai mikrorayon. Recommendations of selected feutures improvements are proposed in the following pages. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image).

Fig. 44 illustrates zoning proposal in Lazdynai mikrorayon. District is divided in different areas according to existing features: building type, density and accessibility. Proposed zones suggest an alternative development plans for each neighborhood to introduce more diversity and attract residents with different interests.

Zone 1 can adapt Wallis Block regeneration features: low rise housing blocks with inner courtyards and controlled environment.

Zone 2 can be developed as a higher density urban neighborhood, featuring commercial uses and variation of program.

Zone 3 contains a great amount of unutilized green area which can be developed if the neighborhood population grows.

Zone 4 can be developed as a commercial and mixed use district. Fig. 44 Lazdynai zoning diagram. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image)

Fig. 45 proposes infrastructural development and relations between different zones:

1.Additional buildings to close up the inner courtyards to create controlled environment and encourage community gardening. Moreover, local businesses can occupy ground level to create vibrant public realm and encourage economic development in the district.

2.Main road, which connects east and west sides of the mikrorayon can be developed as a commercial axis. Mixed use civic and commercial buildings can be introduced on the north side, where the majority of existing public buildings are located.

3.Definition of existing street by densifying buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; fronts and commercial use encouragement on the ground level.

4. District can be developed following Mission Park example: introduce different program and typologies buildings. Fig. 45 Urban strategies proposal in Lazdynai mikrorayon. (Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image)

5.3 LAZDYNAI REGENERATION BUILDINGS’ AND PUBLIC SPACE TRANSFORMATION BLOCK TRANSFORMATION:

Fig. 46 Block transformation. (Author’s image)

LOW-RISE BLOCK TRANSFORMATION

STREET TRANSFORMATION

Fig. 47 Low-rise block transformation. (Author’s image)

Fig. 48 Street transformation. (Author’s image)

“Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by everybody.” -Jane Jacobs. The Death and Life of Great American Cities

CONCLUSION

In brief, mikrorayon regeneration is a complicated process, which demands efforts from different parties and intrigues inter-related concerns. Urban regeneration should follow a holistic approach, leading by top-down planning strategies and integrating bottom-up movements. Redevelopment can only be successful when all parties are involved and share the same interest- to improve the built environment. However, the tricky aspect of mikrorayon regeneration is lack of residents’ motivation and involvement. People in these neighborhoods share the same attitude: the built environment that must be maintained and protected is only their own apartment. External or ‘non-defensible’ spaces that inhibit resident’s activities outside the dwelling unit are forgotten- not preserved or cared. Considering that, it is evident that people have lost the natural connection with their built environment and this feature leads to the diminishing natural urban evolution, disappearance of traditional city’s characteristics. Therefore, similar processes are occurring worldwide as current urban and architectural developments do not consider the user as a primary figure. This condition was the consequence of the Modern Movement realized ideas: streets and squares, which were focal points and gathering spaces, were replaced by roads, paths and endless unutilized green zones, walkable distances and human scale were forgotten and the designer had an aspiration to plan the lived environment to the minor details, without leaving space for the user to inhabit it, or ‘life to occur’. My dissertation and mikrorayon regeneration strategy outlines participatory design approach as a starting point to alter residents’ attitude of the built environment and involve users in creating and constructing the space around them. This design approach is seen a tool to resolve Modern Movement failures and encourage people to become responsible and engaged with the neighborhoods and cities they live in. Only renewed bonds between residents and the built environment will allow to ‘set seeds’ for natural urban evolution. To conclude, I use words from Jane Jacobs: “Cities have the capability of providing something for everybody, only because, and only when, they are created by everybody.” Pleasant urban features are hidden in the charm of everyday life and the conditions to contribute in shaping built environment should be approachable for everybody.

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ESSAYS and THESIS Alexander, C. A city is not a tree, 1965 Varna, G. 2010. Assessing the publicness of public places. PhD Thesis. Glasgow University.

FILMS Duburys. 2009. Film. Directed by Gytis Luksas. 140 min. Lithuania. Ironiya sudby, ili s legkim parom! 1975. Film. Directed by Eldar Ryazanov. 192 min. Soviet Union. Mon Oncle.1958. Film. Directed by Jacques Tati. 117 min. France. Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. 1980. Film. Directed by William H. Whyte. 58 min. USA.

DOCUMENTS Athens Charter .1933. Cultural Heritage Policy Documents. The Getty Conservation Institute. Available at http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/research_resources/charters/ charter04.html.

WHO (World Health Organization) Large Analysis LARES (Review of European housing and health Survey) Available at http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/Housing-and-health/ activities/the-large-analysis-and-review-of-european-housing-and-health-status-lares-project Vilnius City Municipality. 2003. Vilnius Old Town Revitalization, 1998-2003. Vilnius: JSC IKSTRYS. Vilnius City Plan 2015.[online] Available at http://www.vilnius.lt/lit/Bendrasis_planas_iki_2015_m/783

INTERNET BLOGS Ross Wolfe. The Charnel House. From Bauhaus to Beinhaus. https://thecharnelhouse.org Roemer van Toorn http://www.roemervantoorn.nl/index.html

WEBSITES Spatial Agency: Available : http://spatialagency.net/database/participation.1970s Vilnius Municipality website http://www.vilnius.lt/index.php?1254962289 Regeneration Projects in Vilnius http://pu-pa.eu/housing-estate-regeneration/ The URBACT page http://urbact.eu/re-block

CASE STUDIES REFERENCES ADMIRAALS-SQUARE REGENERATION Lucien’s Kroll website : http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/ De Zilvervloot Housing Regeneration available at <http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-project-ZV.htm.> De Compagnie Housing Regeneration available at <http://homeusers.brutele.be/kroll/auai-project-CO.htm.> Kroll, L. 1984. Anarchitecture. In Hatch, R. eds. The Scope of Social Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 166-182.

WALLIS BLOCK REGENERATION Baker, D. ‘Urban renewal: invention, transformation and the power of the architect’. Crimson Architectural Historians. Available at http://www.crimsonweb.org/spip.php?article75 Hulshof,I. 2008. Poetic Freedom. Report on Regeneration Project in the neighborhood in Spangen in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. Delft. Available at https://www.hulshof-architecten.nl/portfolio/kopersgroepen-cpo-bouwgroepen/ detail/wallisblok/4. Hulshof, I. 2011. Empty Homes. Creating a new community from a failed and empty estate in Rotterdam 2004. Available at <http://emptyhomes.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/EmptyHomes2011-InekeHulshof2.pdf>

MISSION PARK REGENERATION Sharatt, J. 1984. Preserving the RTH Neighborhood . In Hatch, R. eds. The Scope of Social Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 202- 214. Lee, T. 1984. Commentary on Mission Park In Hatch, R. eds. The Scope of Social Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 215- 217.