Thesis Research: Informal Settlements in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia by Karolina Petruskeviciute

Informal Settlements in Santa Cruz de la Sierra Postgraduate Thesis Research by Karolina Petruskeviciute

Year 5 Thesis research by Karolina Petruskeviciute University of Strathclyde , Glasgow, United Kingdom in collaboration with UPSA, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia Santa Cruz de la Sierra/ Glasgow 2017/2018 2

01 02 03

Overview 1.1. Motivation........................................................................... 6 1.2 Context................................................................................. 8 1.3 Informal Settlements.......................................................... 10 1.3 a Why Latin America...................................................12 1.3 b Why Bolivia................................................................14 1.3 c Why Santa Cruz de la Sierra.....................................20 1.4 Introduction to Approach ..................................................22 1.4 a Case Studies................................................................24 1.4 b Case Studiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Evaluation ..........................................30

Issue 2.1. Problem Analysis................................................................36 2.1 a Urban Processes........................................................38 2.1 b Plan Techint.............................................................. 44 2.1 c Districts......................................................................48 2.2 Problem Statement.............................................................52 2.3 Research Question .............................................................53

Analysis 3.1. Analysis................................................................................56 3.2 Analysis Tool........................................................................58 3.2 a Place Properties........................................................ 62 3.2 b Structure....................................................................70 3.2 c Historical Evolution & Processes............................74 3.2 d Personality Traits & Behaviours.............................76 3.2 e Name .........................................................................76 3.3 Conclusions..........................................................................78 3.4 Selected Area...................................................................... 80 3.4 a Impressions of the materiality .................................84 3.4 b Spatial patterns...........................................................86 3.5 c Community. Survey....................................................88 3.5 Brief.......................................................................................96

Appendix.....................................................................107

â&#x20AC;&#x153;All cities start in mud.â&#x20AC;? Robert Neuwirth, 2005

part 01 Overview

Motivation Context Informal Settlements Introduction to Approach

1.1. MOTIVATION For my 4th year dissertation, I have analysed Mikrorayon districts in Post Soviet countries. After in-depth research, I have realised that 20th-century modern urban planning approach (especially mass housing high-rise buildings and districts which create social ghettos) is considered to be a failure as throughout the time it set seeds for a number social problems and lowered life-quality for residents. This conclusion leads me to look for a solution which can be found in informal settlements (however, even though they have a number of negative features: lack of access to basic servicespotable water, sewage system, electricity, access, roads, inadequate housing, insufficient living space) positive attributes, such as open grid, flexibility, participatory, sense of community, adaptability and interchangeability- offer opportunities which are lost in large-scale one-stop projects. More importantly, informal urban structures can be related to the traditional city, considering the fact that organic patterns have emerged over time and preserved social networks by community participation. However, the challenge is to integrate and connect informal settlements in the cityscape by diminishing social inequalities. “The Informal city- the slum- is a fact, and accepting it as a functioning, productive piece of the actual city, and not something to be replaced, is the only way forward” (McGuirk, J. 2015). My thesis project is developed in Santa Cruz de la Sierra- a tropical city in Bolivia’s eastern lowlands. Over the last 50 years, this city was experiencing urban explosiona vast number of migrants were coming here to escape from rural poverty, look for a better life and opportunities. The city did not manage to respond to such a huge wave of new residents. Due to that, a number of problems started to arise: social inequality between residents, ethnic issues, poverty, chaos, informal settlements, and slums. Considering above mentioned issues, my postgraduate thesis will explore architectural-urban solution which could resolve existing problems and lead to informal city’s integration to formal and, most importantly, would improve residents living conditions and quality.

”If we extend Goethe’s metaphor [‘ I call architecture frozen music’] beyond architecture, we might say that urbanism is ‘frozen politics’ .It then becomes apparent that there is a need to develop new mechanisms that can unfreeze the boundaries of this condition to open up opportunities for new forms of communication- a need to transform static conventions into dynamic interaction. Not only will this engagement with the edge create an architecture and urbanism that is greater than the sum of its parts, but, through responsible manipulation of the borderland, it will also open up the border-space that makes the st century democratic city possible.” -Alfredo Brillembourg, Hubert Klumpner, Michael Contento and Lindsey Sherman, from “Trans-Borderlands: Activating the Plasticity of Urban Border-Space.

1.2. CONTEXT Urban Future Slums were the primary condition of the Developed Cities in the United States and Europe. For example, in 800 BC people were squatting in temples in vacant lands around Greece (Finley, 1985 in Neuwirth, 2005). In Rome, seven centuries later, the migrating population that could not afford private housing or had anywhere to stay, built freestanding colonies wherever possible (Neuwirth, 2005); whilst France experienced squatter colonies and declining households as early as the 13th century, and by the 18th century their population amounted to 20% of the total.

To begin with, many of the significant urban transformations of the new century are predominantly determined by rapid global urbanization rates (fig. 1; fig 2). According to the ‘Making Room for the Planet of Cities’ author Sholo Angel, “At present rates, the world’s urban population is expected to double in 43 years while urban land cover will double in only 19 years” (Angel, Sh., 2011) and 66% of the World’s population is expected to live in urban areas by 2050 ( Nations, U.,2014). Urbanization processes mainly are taking place in developing world - global south- especially in the countries of Latin America, Africa, Central and South Asia and “the urban population of the developing countries is expected to double between 2000 and 2030 while the built-up area of their cities can be expected to triple.”( Angel, Sh., 2011) However, the majority of urban processes in developing world are associated with informality and poor squatter illegal settlements which often is understood as a direct manifestation of this urbanization. At the moment, 33 % percent of urban dwellers in the world live in the informal settlements- with lack of infrastructure, access, running water, sanitation, and electricity- and, according to Alfredo Brillembourg, almost 1 billion people live with insecure tenure rights and the constant threat of eviction.

Developed vs Developing The major difference between Developed and Developing World, according to Herdando de Soto Polar, author of “The Mystery of Capital”, is the amount of informality in the property system and extra-legal economy. Based on author’s book, legal assets system is the key to successful capital growth. The lack of legal property is the reason why citizens in developing countries cannot make profitable contracts with strangers, cannot get credit, insurance or utility services: they have no property to loose. People with nothing to loose are trapped in the grubby basement of the pre-catalyst world. (Soto, H. 2000)

Considering the fact that much of the urban growth of the 21st century is taking place in the developing world, (Roy, A. 2005) urban sociologist Douglas Massey (2001) states, that the urban future lies neither in Chicago nor Los Angeles, it instead lies in “ Third World” cities like Rio de Janeiro, Mumbai, Hong Kong. and that it is necessary to pay attention to the urban transformations of the developing world as now it is seen “ as a generalized mode of metropolitan urbanization.” (Roy, A. 2005)

However, around 300 years ago West world - the United States and European Countries- were in the same situation as nowadays is Global South world and it took many years to create one integrated system to give the assets of all their citizens the fungibility, bureaucratic machinery and network required to produce capital. Fernando de Soto Polar argues that the only way that ‘cracks’ Developing World economic struggles is to integrate social contracts into a formal property system by building a legal and political structure, a bridge, vanishing economic and social inequalities. (Soto, H. 2000)

Developing world urbanization is often associated with slums, informal settlements, and squatters. However, most of us forget that it is an essential - first step- in all urban developments.

Figure 1: Countries with urban population exceeding 100.000 in 2012

Figure 2: Countries with urban population exceeding 100.000 by 2050

1.3 INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

Informal Settlemets Evolution

Due to the urban growth tendencies and proportion of slum dwellers, informal settlements have attracted interest by worldwide governments and organisations. UN-Habitat programme, aiming to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human settlements development and the achievement of adequate shelter for all, prepared the report on slums, published 2004. This document empathizes 4 types of urbanization expansion which predetermined the growth of the informal settlements: (Un-Habitat, 2004) • • • •

Conditions: 1. Informal Settlement starts at the landscape. 2. Informal Settlement starts illegally: migration from rural areas to the city as people seek for better jobs, opportunities, education. Moreover, better infrastructure and build new roads in the developing world connect rural areas with urban districts and makes cities more accessible for the rural migrants. 3. Newcomers seek for land occupation, illegal appropriation or pirate occupancy to start constructing their own dwellings. Squatters occupy or settle in undesirable or areas in risk (such as cliffs, unstable mountain edges or areas prevalent of flooding), mainly in the outskirts of the urban core.

Rural-urban Migration Natural Growth Combination of natural and migratory growth Population Displacements due to armed conflicts, internal strife or violence

Informal settlements have received a lot of urban designers’ and planner’s attention as it has been widely recognized that informal economies constitute significant proportions of urban economies and that informal settlements house a large amount of urban poor. However, there are more than one dominating frames in the current discussions of the informal settlements. • • •

Circumstances: 1. No recognition by the city: informal settlements in the city are ignored, information, maps are inaccessible or out of date. However, most recent research shows that governments in some developing countries try to accept and integrate informal settlements. 2. Insecure land tenure: land tenures or security is always doubtful as occupancy happens without much (or none) governmental watch) 3. Lack of access to basic services: potable water, sewage treatment, electricity, considerable access and roads, inadequate housing- risky structures built by inhabitants themselves, insufficient living space.

Urban Future 21: A Global Agenda for the 21st Century Cities (Sir Peter Hall and Ulrich Pfeiffer) The Mystery of Capital ( Hernando De Soto) Transnational Perspectives on Space and Place (Ananya Roya and Nezar AlSayyad)

Figure 3 Urban Slums in the World. Since 1990 till 2014, percent of slums in Bolivia decreased by 18%.

Urban Slum Population Urban slumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, according to figure 3, mostly takes place in the global south- Latin America, Africa, and South Asia. Urban Slum population has been growing more rapidly than rural or urban population over the last 200 years and is predicted to continue to grow. This figure is so high because it contains a percentage of rural migrants settling in the city and as well as new-borners.

Figure 4: Rural, urban and urban slum population in the last 200 years

1.3a WHY LATIN AMERICA The region’s countries started to address issues evoked by the informal settlements by adopting various housing policies, however, the majority of them failed to respond to the needs of the slum dwellers as these neighborhoods were not fully integrated into the city. ”The Informal City- slum- is a fact; and accepting it as a functional, productive piece of the actual city, and not something to be replaced, is the only way forward.” (McGuirk, J. 2015)

Latin America, for my thesis research and development was chosen as this continent, according to the report “State of Latin American and Caribbean cities” (2012) is considered the most urbanized region in the world with 80 per cent of its population living in the cities, which is higher proportion even than the group of most developed countries. Moreover, cities in this continent experienced traumatic transformation of the rapid urbanization processes which were not controlled by firstly applied post-modern urban planning models. Due to that, majority of the cities are struggling to cope with the deterioration of the environment, and, most significantly, deep social inequality. (Un-Habitat, 2012)

South American Cities compromise huge social contrasts among people, the gap between poorest residents and the wealthy ones is enormous. Despite economic advances and initiatives to combat poverty, region’s cities remain the most unequal, ‘strongly dual, divided... and segregated spatially and socially’ on the planet. (UN-Habitat, 2012:12).This inequality and division are well reflected by urban fabric and contrasting ‘wealty, developed districts’ and permanently growing informal settlements as well as high-income inequality coefficients. According to UN-habitat report (2012:12), even though “the proportion of the population living in the slums has fallen over past two decades, in absolute terms the number has increased to 111 million people.”

The processs of Latin-urbanization is considered to be “historically recent” as, due to the successful economic situation and the industrialization processes, cities grew larger and attracted people from surrounding rural areas. Population trend in the last century rapidly shifted from the rural- agricultural settlements to the city-industrial-core, across the countries of Latin America. Nowadays, as majority population live in the cities (80%), urban districts have become economic centres and engines which produce more than 60 percent of the region’s GDP. (Un-Habitat, 2012)

Considering the fact that since the year 2000 the annual average urban population growth was less than 2 percent in most countries, from a demographic perspective, the urban explosion was in the past and is now. As population growth remains steady, new challenges arise: how to overcome social inequality, unsustainability and environmental deterioration (under development) and to ensure fundamental improvement in the urban quality of life.

However, the most significant issue to consider is not a success of economic value cities are able to produce, but what are growing-population living conditions in the developing cities of Latin America. Government’s unavailability to control and house rural migrants leaded to creation of informal settlements where new-comers have willingly constructed their own illegal accomodation. Informal settlements, previously ignored by the authorities, house majority of urban poor and plays a significal economical role. As Leonardo Robleto explains, “ the (infomal) urban phenomenon should be regarded as one of the most important characteristics of modern urban development because of the impact it has on the landscape, environment, social components, existing cities and infrastructure.

To conclude, Latin America been facing rapid urban growth over the last century. Due to immense urban population growth, cities in this continent been struggling to deal with chaos, informality and social inequality.

Figure 5: Favela in Caracas, Venezuela

Figure 6: Favela in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil

1.3b WHY BOLIVIA Bolivia has 9 departments: Beni, Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija. Departments are responsible for administrative and governmental duties. All departments are very different in terms of cultures, economics, climate, topography and population.

Bolivia as a location for my thesis research was chosen as the country, by being less developed than other countries in Latin America, is backwards regarding urbanization, infrastucture, economical and political development. Considering recent population growth tendencies in neighborhood countries and urban expansion, current statistical information of Bolivia’s development, country will possibly come accross the same rapid urbanization processes that majority Latin American cities have already overcome. Due to that, country governmental institutions and urban planners have a great references accross the boarders and can put efforts to tackle predictable problems. Hovewer, as governmental institutions are corrupted and political situation is unstable, majority of reformations should start to happen there.

Infrastructure Development: Bolivia has main urban cores (La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Cochabamba) separated by large distance. Due to that, road and rail network is essential to connect and develop the country. However, As Bolivia is a large country, featuring diverse topographical conditions, infrastructure development has been very challenging. As the railway network is not developed, people mostly travel by buses. Bolivia has about 43,000 kilometers of highways of which only 2,000 kilometers are paved. In recent years, Bolivia has made highway construction and maintenance a priority. However, Bolivia’s infrastructure is changing and has adopted new technologies. As well, the country has received support and investments from developed countries.

Context and facts Location: Bolivia, by not having an access to the ocean, is one of two landlocked countries within South America ( fig. 7) . Moreover, country, spreading from the Andean Highlands to Lower Eastlands, has varied environment ranging between extremes with altitudes as high as 6000 m above sea level and dropping to just 100m in the lowlands where the climate is tropical. Due to topographical reasons, weather and environmental conditions within the country vary considerably.

Political Situation: Currently Bolivia is experiencing extremely high political tension in the country as some people support Evo Morales government and others are against. Evo Morales is the first indigenous president. While being in power he has tightened state control over the economy, nationalising the energy sector and key utilities. By fighting for indigenous rights, he has diminished social inequality. However, violent crime and human rights violations remain a serious problem in Bolivia and, most importantly, even though voters rejected a national referendum that would have reformed the constitution to allow President Morales—who has served as president since 2005—to run for a fourth term in 2019, Evo Morales stayed in the power and continues to be a president.

Population: Currently population in Bolivia is reaching the figure of 10, 8 million people. Moreover, the country is very diverse culturally as there are 36 different indigenous groups living in Bolivia, each with their own cultures and many with their own languages. Approximately 60% of the population identify as being part of an indigenous ethnicity, creating a diverse cultural mix within the country.

VENEZUELA COLOMBIA

GUYANA SURINAME FRENCH GUIANA

ECUADOR

PERU BRASIL

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY CHILE ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

Figure 7: Boliviaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Location and illustrative map

Urban Growth leave their hometowns based in rural areas seeking to find a better future- employment opportunities, services, education. However, new cities’ inhabitants do not automatically have an access to essential public services: electricity, water, access and adequate housing.

Following an urbanization trend that began in European countries in the 1800s till 1900s, major population growth in the cities of Latin America happened during the second half of the previous century, reaching 80% of total continent population living in the cities. (Un-Habitat, 2012) However, urbanization processes in Bolivia started happen later than in other continent countries. Today, as a late follower of urbanization trend, Bolivia is experiencing high growth rate and is catching up with neighboring countries. According to the 2012 Census, more than 67 per cent of Bolivia’s population lives in the urban areas and it is predicted by the UN that this figure will reach 75 per cent by 2025.(Ponce, R. 2017)

Firstly, as migrants come to the city, they seek for land occupation, illegal appropriation or pirate occupancy to start constructing their own dwellings. Squatters occupy or settle in undesirable or areas in risk (such as cliffs, unstable mountain edges or areas prevalent of flooding), mainly in the outskirts of the urban core. The delivery time-frame of domestic basic services ranges for migrant families ranges between several years. Until that time, people live in inadequate conditions and extreme poverty.

Moreover, majority of population growth is concentrated in the three metropolitan areas and house almost 50% of the Bolivia’s population. (Ponce, R. 2017:3). These areas: La Paz- El Aalto, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz ( The Eastern lowlands- Santa Cruz Departmentare gaining population more than the rest of the country) - are the cornerstones of the social and economic development scene. As the urban population and migration rates continue to grow, country’s authorities have to work on on planning, administrative reforms that are implemented at the national, central and, most importantly, local levels of government. However, mentioned cities are struggling to provide enough housing and public services to meet growing population needs which results in an increase social, economic, infrastructul and environmental problems.

However, it is important to note that cities affected by migration flows are growing in a low-density pattern, generating challenges in the provision of basic services and urban infrastructure.

Poverty Bolivia is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. The country suffers from extremely high levels of poverty and inequality. In 2002, 65 percent of the population was living in poverty and nearly 40 percent of the population was living in extreme poverty.(Fig 9) In the late 1980s and early 1990s market-orientated reforms helped to reach decline in income poverty, but, due to economic shocks of the late 1990s, poverty rate between 1999 and 2002 increased from 62 percent to percent and extreme poverty rose from 36 percent to 37 percent. In addition, poverty is higher in rural areas. Here almost 55 percent of the population is poor and 82 percent suffers in extreme poverty. (Ponce, R. 2017) Nevertheless, approximately 10% of the urban population is still trapped in extreme poverty.

Migration Patterns Rapid migration from rural areas to the urban districts rapidly changed Bolivia’s urban landscape in the last 50 year, and, especially since 1992, when cities started to dominate in the country, some urban areas grew to over one million inhabitants ( fig. 8) ( Ponce, R. 2017:3). The main reason for rapid migration rate is that citizens

URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION- PROJECTIONS URBAN

RURAL

12, 000,000

NUMBER OF PEOPLE

10, 000,000 8, 000,000 6, 000,000 URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION- PROJECTIONS

4, 000,000 URBAN

RURAL

2, 000,000 0

1950

1976

1992

2001

2012

2020

2030

2040

2050 YEAR

Figure 8: Urban and rural population projections in Bolivia

EVOLUTION OF URBAN AND RURAL POVERTY 62,2

59,9

2000

2006

2013

38,8 28,4

26,1

23,4

27,1

26,9

21,1

19,8 14,7 9,2

Urban

Rural

Urban

EXTREME POVERTY

Rural

AVERAGE POVERTY Figure 9: Extreme and average poverty in Bolivia in rural and urban areas

Moreover, the expectations of better services and employment opportunities in urban areas are on hold, having yet to deliver the benefits to almost 20% of the urban population, a poverty level almost comparable to that of rural areas. A modest reduction in 6% of the moderate poverty over 7 years during an era of economic bonanza puts into question the efficiency and delivery capacities of urban areas in Bolivia.

The informal economy comprised 68% of the remunerated urban employment in 2002. Surprisingly, about 44% of employment in the top earnings quintile is informal salaried or self-employed. Considering above stated figures, we can conclude that extralegal sector not only serves rural and urban poor, but also people with higher incomes. (UN-Habitat, 2008) .

Informal economy

To summarise, Bolivia is a developing country currently facing many challenges in various aspects: poverty, social inequality, migration, rapid urbanisation and political crisis. For this thesis research, following chapters analyses the urban development and informal settlements. However, it was essential to understand other layers that contribute to building an overall grasp of the urban environment.

Informality plays an important role in all Latin America and The International Labour organization reports that since 1990 85 per cent of all new jobs in the continent and the Caribbean have been created in the extralegal sector (UN-Habitat, 2012). Moreover, Bolivia in particular has one of the highest levels of informal employment in Latin American and the Caribbean ( fig. 10; fig 11).

UNEMPLOYMENT AND UNDEREMPLOYMENT DATA (in percentages) 1996

2000

2001

2002

2003

OPEN UNEMPLOYMENT

3.1

7.5

8.5

8.7

8.2

VISIBLE UNDEREMPLOYMENT

10.4

9.3

12.4

11.9

12.0

15.1

INVISIBLE UNDEREMPLOYMENT

9.8

18.0

12.8

15.4

15.9

12.3

TOTAL

23.3

34.8

33.7

36.0

36.6

35.6

2005

Figure 10: Unemployment and underemployment data in Bolivia

AND IFORMALITY LABOURLABOUR INCOMEINCOME AND IFORMALITY INCOME FROM INCOME INCOME FROM INFOR-FROM INFOR% OF INFORMAL INCOME FROM % OF INFORMAL FORMAL INCOME MAL EMPLOYMENT MAL EMPLOYMENT EMPLOYMENT FORMAL INCOME EMPLOYMENT (Bs./month) (Bs./month) (Bs./month) (Bs./month)

CAPITAL CITIES CAPITAL CITIES

63%

3.777

3.000

OTHER CITIES OTHER CITIES

66%

3.583

2.809

RURAL AREAS RURAL AREAS

90%

3.863

1.660

NATIONAL

74%

NATIONAL

3.741

74%

3.741

2.496

Figure 11: Labour income and informality

1.3c WHY SANTA CRUZ DE LA SIERRA

Santa Cruz de la Sierra for my thesis research was chosen as the city currently is experiencing significant growth and all problems which accompany extreme urbanization processes: urban sprawl, informal settlements, economy and inequality issues. Santa Cruz de la Sierra is a rapidly emerging city in Santa Cruz Department, Bolivia. This city is the most popular place for internal migrants across Bolivia and also a new economic capital. The 2001 Census shows that Santa Cruz de la Sierra was the most popular place in terms of historic migration with 494 148 residents having come from Cochabamba and Chuquisaca alone. Immense migration is followed by ethnical diversity, social inequality and an overall chaos in the city. However, the later countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (Boliviaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) development and urbanisition give an opportunity to integrate particular design approaches and planning solutions which were discovered and tested in other neighborhood Latin American cities. In particularly I am interested in Urban Acupuncture actions and how a network of urban interventions could address informal settlements and their integration to the cityscape, problem.

Figure 12: Migration to the city illustration. Authors image

All they know is that you’re trying to get to the city of gold, and that’s enough. Come on bord, they say. We’ll adjust.” -Suketu Mehta (Author of Maximum City) 21

1.4 INTRODUCTION TO APPROACH

Urban Acupuncture Network Urban Acupuncture term in Latin America is not new as some architectural practices throughout the continent have already applied this approach to solve rapid uncontrolled urbanization issues and urban inequality, which ‘is one of the great challenges of the century’ (McGuirk, J.). Urban acupuncture approach - use of small-scale interventions to transform the larger urban contextmostly addresses people living in “informal”, self-built communities, where residents, “without the necessary infrastructure- transport, running water and decent sanitation” (McGuirk, J.) create ghettoes on a vast scale.

Architects have to gain knowledge about communities they work for them personally, understand their needs and make residents participate in the process. Firstly, activist architects observe the conditions of the chosen context, conclude research and accumulate data, and lastly, by experimenting, create a prototype- an action which produces form and is able to evolve and grow. Their goal is not to design a beautiful structure for their own glory, but for the benefit of residents. As the architecture theorist Keller Easterling states: systems, networks, connections, infrastructure- all of these are more important arguably than the dumb object-housing of the modernists( McGuirk, J. 2015:33).

Around the late 1990s, some Activist architects in Latin America turned back to the difficult situation of the city dwellers living in the poverty and manifested it as a design tool of politics to tackle urban issues followed after an absolute explosion of slums. In the second half of the 20th century, Latin America experienced mass urbanisation and governments applied modernist planning and mass housing schemes. However, this approach failed as mega blocks could not be built fast enough and authorities were not able to control the massive flow of rural migrants.

Moreover, it is significant to consider the scale of Urban acupuncture interventions. Small improvements within communities can stimulate change, but it needs to be implemented at a relevant scale as only the whole network of interventions can lift the character of a city. As Jorge Fiori, a teacher at London’s Architectural Association, once put it:’ Architecture only makes sense if there is a body’, and the city is a body, ( McGuirk, J. 2015:33) and only system of urban actions across the city will be powerful enough to make a significant impact beyond their immediate site.

Activist Architect methology Activist Architect attitude towards the urban design is different from the modernist approach. This kind of architecture requires profesionals to work as mediators between communities and politicians.

Urban Acupuncture approach will be used as an initial framework for this thesis design approach.

Figure 13: Informal vs formal. Favelas in Rio de Janeiro

Figure 14: Transformed favela in Rio de Janeiro

CASE STUDIES

PREVI

PREVI experimental housing estate in Lima, Peru was chosen for a case study’s analysis as it marked the shift from modernistic (high rise housing block estates) approach to deal with the social housing to affordable neighborhoods on a human scale that are adaptable and walkable. PREVI “... celebrates the evolutionary, organic nature of informal settlements, that ethos has now been embraced by a new generation of socially motivated architects.” (McGuirk, J. 2015:79)

In other words, PREVI was conceived as a formal neighborhood that could grow upwards informally. Competition became an experimental field and attracted worldwide famous architects’ attention, such as James Stirling, Aldo van Eyck, the Metobolists, Charles Correa, Christopher Alexander and Candilis Josic Woods. In 1970 Competition Judges struggled to pick a winner and it was decided to build a pilot project consisting nearly 500 houses to test the performance of all the entries. “PREVI became an anomaly: a housing laboratory containing so many design ideas, so diverse and adaptable, that it can probably never be repeated.”( McGuirk, J. 2015:74)

PREVI (Proyecto experimental de Vivienda) started as an international competition, organised by Peru President, Fernando de Belaunde, a former architect, in 1966. Competition aim was to solve the city’s housing problem and it was sponsored by the Government of Peru and United Nations. The brief was to design high-density and low-cost housing units in conjunction with community facilities such as schools, sports centers, services and infrastructure, housing a community of 1500 families. Another aspect of the brief was that housing units themselves were to be expandable.

The genius idea of PREVI, which can be applied to my thesis design proposal, is an opportunity for incremental growth, or, as Justin McGuirk states design “... as a platform for change”. PREVI set a framework for an expansion, evicted one of the key principles of the barriadas, which is that a house is a process and not a static object.

“Success of each typology is based on how extensively they have been transformed”

Figure 15: PREVI after the construction and later. Urban evolution

1978

2003

Half a House. Quinta Monroy Alejandro Aravena, the principal of the Santiago-based practice Elemental, brought back to life PREVI principle of the organic evolution in a social housing project Quinta Monroy. This project has received worldwide attention and has been called “ a masterpiece of open design, a platform for adaptability, the Iphone of housing” ( McGuirk, J. 2015:82)

the families could extend, adding extra rooms until they had a sixty-square-meter house. Houses in the Quinta Monray are arranged around communal courtyards, where they become protected by playgrounds as well as car parks. Since the construction year in 2004, residents in the development have ‘filled the gaps’ by self-built extensions. These are varying in quality. Some owners have balustraded balconies and nice windows, while others add-ons look like a slum shacks wedged between concrete houses.

Quinta Monroy social housing project was very challenging and required inventitive solution. Project task was to accommodate 100 families living in a 30-year old slum, using subsidy of USD $ 7,500. With this amount of money, both to buy the land and build the houses was not possible as architects aimed to keep the families’ social and economic networks and not to evict themto the periphery.Due to that, “after testing every signle known typology on the market”, Aravena’s answer to the problem was to build each family half of a good house, the half they would not be able to do on their own: concrete structure, roof, kitchen and bathroom. The total living aread on the first stage would only be 30 square metres. However, the houses were arranged with the voids between them, so that when they had a little extra cash

Another aspect of Quinta Monroy social housing solution is it’s profitability, in other words, value increase over time. Architect Alejandro Aravena looks seems it as an investment for the residents. According to this model, the housing can be used to ask for loans which could help poor people to start a small business, to pay for better education and even enable social mobility. Quinta Monroy resident Marco, “ thanks to this house, has some social mobility. He paid 180, 000 pesos, or just $400, of his own savings for it, and now he estimates that it is worth $50, 000.” (McGuirk, J. 2015:82)

Figure 16: Quinta Monroy Social Housig

Alto Comedero or Welcome to the Country Club In the city of San Salvador de Jujuy, between Bolivia’s and Argentina’s boarders, is the Alto Comedero community built by a social movement called Tupac Amaru. This community, consisting 2,700 houses where live approximately 7,000 people, has it’s own education and medical care institutions, factories and other amenities.

roof houses spread along the streets and only vary in color. Each unit consist 50 square meters and has 2 bedrooms, garden in front and the small courtyard in the back. However, what makes this community unique is that it consists luxury amenities: swimming pools, basketball court and football pitch and Jurassic theme park. the idea beneath that is that with a simpleswimming pool, sport’s amenities- gesture you could make the poor feel rich.

Tupac Amaru community build their own housing and it is one of the few schemes in the world where you can be paid to build your own house—and then be given it for free. Tupac Amaru receives a goverment funding worth to build 1,000 houses per year. However, the real genious is how she spends the money: she has created their own brick and steel factories and employs poor as the labour force (who are going to live in the houses later on). This approach makes construction process much more efficient and faster than in the private sector.

Tupac Amaru’s created community has became a state within the state and a zone of exception in the world map. It’s a place about the people, independent territory from the political fashion, property values and speculation. As Tupac Amaru states herself “ “We are not revolutionary in the sense that we don’t carry weapons and we don’t believe in violence—we understand the value of human life. But we are revolutionaries in that we understand that we can change how people think. Through dignified work and a change of consciousness, people can become better.” ( McGuirk, J. 2015)

Houses in the Alto Comedero community are ordinary, repetetive and not remarkable: standard-issue pitched

“What may be Tupac Amaru’s most remarkable achievement is in carving out a few squares of independent territory on the capitalist gameboard.” -Justin McGuirk

Figure 17: Alto Comedero development and itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s founder

CASE STUDIES EVALUATION Features that can be adapted for my thesis design proposal:

Figure 18 Incremental growth. Authors diagram

1.Incremental growth within the communities: in the housing and public amenities.To avoid urban sprawl, housing should be densified and have the tendency to grow up rather than spread around.

Figure 19: Built facility’s financial benifit to the community. Authors diagram.

2. Built facilities should grow in value during the time, or in other words, be an investment. That should address housing as well as public amenities which can be a property of the communities with small businesses enterprises. 3. People in the communities ( districts, barrios) should be engaged and interested to contribute. It can be done by producing benefit and value that reach residents’ ‘pockets’.

Figure 20 Activities and facilities incorporated into the urban development. Authors diagram.

4. Building facilities that diminish the social inequality barriers between poorer and richer districts. These facilities are essential as they not only improve the life quality but also contribute to the psychological perception of oneself- poorer people will feel richer. Moreover, these facilities could be built by communities and become its property, what will produce benefits for its residents.

Figure 21: Network of new urban interventions-urban acupuncture. Authors diagram.

5. Physical architectural and urban interventions should create networks. In that way â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;community bodiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; would become stronger institutions and would be able to seek help from the government. Moreover, a change that has an impact to peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lifes quality should work on relevantly bigger scale.

Visiting Favela Rocinha in Rio de Janeiro

Favela’s upgrading projects

While visiting Rio de Janeiro, I decided not to miss an opportunity to visit favela Rocinha which is known as the largest and most famous slum in Brazil. According to the Census 2010, the population in Rocinha was 100, 000, however, unofficial estimates say it has up to 180,000.

Favela Bairro Project, Brazil Favela Bairro Project, known as ‘slum to neighborhood’, took place in 1995 and sought to integrate existing favelas into the fabric of the city through infrastructure upgrading and service increases. Another project objective was to ‘to ameliorate the effects of poverty through a combination of infrastructure investments, improvement in the coverage and quality of social services, regulatory changes, and incentives and assistance for land legalization.’ Favela Bairro Project was successful as it followed participatory approach and used local labor to retrofit buildings and create public spaces.

Rocinha is in a privileged location, next to Leblon and Ipanema beaches and has relatively better standards than other favelas. The poorer areas are higher on the hill, with many houses only accessible by foot. Richer communities live in the lower areas which are well urbanized, have paved roads and sidewalks, good access to electricity, sanitation, plumbing as well as wide range commercial use facilities. The main reason to visit this favela was to observe informal architectural patterns which have emerged throughout the long period of time. Due to the boundaries settled by the landscape conditions, the main tendency for houses is to ‘grow up’ rather than ‘spread around’. People tend to add new levels stacking on top of other buildings and some of the houses are 7, 8, 9 or even 11 stories tall. Some of the urban features in Rocinha reminds traditional cities qualities: high density, human scale, diversity and organic layout of the streets. However, some streets are very narrow and only very few are accessible by vehicles. Regardless traditional city features and well-established communities, walking in the favela is not very pleasant as sometimes it can be very dangerous due to drug dealers’ gangs.

Figure 22 and Figure 23: Housing in favela Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Authors Images

Figure 24: Housing in favela Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Authors Image

part 02 Issue

Problem Analysis Problem Statement Research Question

2.1 Problem analysis

Housing Situation in Bolivia

Bolivia, in the last 50 years has experienced a significant urban population growth, reaching the figure of 168%, while the rural population increased only by about 16% (UN Habitat, 2008:15). As in other Latin American countries, rapid urban expansion had not been accompanied by the development of public services and areas within the citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; environment. Rapid urban growth during the last century has led to land occupation, the appearance of human settlements and an urbanisation that has resulted in the construction of an average 35,000 additional urban housing units per year over last 25 years in Bolivia. However, the majority of this housing does not match urbanisation norms and do not meet basic service standards. Although exact figures are unavailable, about one-third of the housing built each year is unofficial. Particularly, the majority of urban expansion processes are related to unauthorised and illegal developments, poor quality buildings and lack of community spaces and adequate urban services. (UN Habitat, 2008:15)

According to housing mechanisms in Bolivia report, informal markets features same inefficiences as in most Latin American Countries: 1. They produce low standard housing in environmentaly fragile zones; 2. Due to lack of access to regular financing schemes, home improvements take years, postponing the benefits of a decent place to live for slum dwellers; 3. The improvement process is slowed down also by the titling issue: most informal housing units do not have formal title dreeds; 4. Occupants are reluctant to invest their savings in what they consider an insecure investment; similarly, municipal utilities resist as long as they politically can before ceding to pressure by slum dwellers to install services - all the more so when a house without a title does not bring in revenues from local real estate taxes.

At the moment country requires around 60,000 additional houses every year just to provide additional household formation. However, approximately 50% of this demand is met through informal markets. (UN Habitat, 2008:22)

Above mentioned inefficiences are common to all Bolivian cities, however, they are most brutal in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, as this city, over the last 50 years experienced significant growth and increase of population.

Figure 25: La Paz. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image.

Urbanization Processes in Santa Cruz and Bolivia

In the past half century, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the capital of the department of Santa Cruz, Bolivia, has experiencied rapid growth.From an isolated frontier town, with population of 42,000 people in 1950, has transformed to the center of the country’s major production zone and largely overtaken financial capital position and became most important economic pole in the Country. Regional economic growth has attracted rural migrants from poorer Andean regions over the past fifty years which resulted in urban expansion as Santa Cruz de la Sierra became the 14th fastest growing city in the world and 1st in all South America. Fast urbanisation caused social, economical and environmental problems, as goverment was unable to control rapid pace growth and city planners adopted modernist principles have failed, as Santa Cruz never became the ‘garden city’ as its city builders envisioned.

March the East’ encouraged investments and foreign aid to the easter lowlands- particularly Santa Cruz region. The state promoted national self-sufficiency in sugar, rice, timber and other lowland commodities (Gill. 1987). These reforms stimulated economic growth and attracted rural migrants. With an inkling of rapid growth to come in the late 1950s, the Compania Tecnica International ( or Technit), an Italian- Brazilian firm, was selected to recommend plans for the city’s modernization (Limpias, 2003)

Development History Santa Cruz de la Sierra until the 1952 experienced natural and slow growth as, lacking the rich silver veins the Spanish found in the highland Andes, Bolivia’s eastern lowlands were largely overlooked by colonial officials and relegated to scattered rubber tappers and Jesuit missionaries ( Stearman, 1985) ( fig. 25). The start of urban explosion of Santa Cruz de la Sierra was impacted by the city’s economy growth which took place just after the 1952, when national revolution in Boliva, which overthrew the thin-mining oligarchy, abolished the semi-feudal agrarian system in the highlads and initiated democratizing reforms and state-led policies for modernization and development. (Grindle & Domingo, 2003). State’s initiated program known as

1600

Figure 26: Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1600 and the timeline between 1500 to 1870. - Urbanised area

1900

Figure 27: Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1900 and the timeline between 1900 to 1950. - Urbanised area

1970

Figure 28: Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1970 and the timeline between 1950 to 1970. - Urbanised area

Plan Techint- modernist urban design proposal- was introduced as a solution to cope with rapid urban growth.

Urban growth continues and the construction of third and fourth rigs begins.

1970s

1959 1970

1960 1954 March to the East Cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s residents demanded the Americans to pay royalties to the government for using their oil. With this money, city started to develop rapidly which caused a migration wave from rural areas and Highlands.

Due to financial reasons and constant migrantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; flow,

1960s Between 1963 to 1970, city developed at the rapid pace. Sewage system, electric energy plant, telephone network and street pavement was introduced at the two first rings of Plan Techint.

1985

Figure 29 Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1985 and the timeline between 1970 to 1990. - Urbanised area

Plan Techint- modernist urban design proposal- was introduced as a solution to cope with rapid urban growth.

Urban growth and the cons third and fo begin

197

1959 1970

1960 1954 March to the East City’s residents demanded the Americans to pay royalties to the government for using their oil. With this money, city started to develop rapidly which caused a migration wave from rural areas and Highlands.

Due to financial reasons and constant migrants’ flow, city’s development did not follow Plan Techint and new settlements hd expanded over the fourth ring.

1985 1990

1980 1978

Santa Cruz de la Sierra became Bolivia’s financial Crisis: capital. The political, legal and economic crisis caused debt, hyperrinflation and shrinking GDP. Due to lack of finances, planning efforts were abandoned.

1960s

Between 1963 to 1970, city develop rapid pace. Sewage system, electr plant, telephone network and pavement was introduced at the rings of Plan Techint.

2015

Figure 30 Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1985 and the timeline between 1990 to 1917. - Urbanised area Urban growth continues and the construction of third and fourth rigs begins.

1970s

1970

3 to 1970, city developed at the ewage system, electric energy ephone network and street was introduced at the two first ngs of Plan Techint.

City continues to grow even further to rural areas as there are no geographical boundaries. Migrants tend to settle down illegally in the vacant lands what caused rapid urban sprawl.

2017 2010

2000

Plan Techint

However, due to the significant amount of migrants and rapid increase in population and government failure to properly cope with this issue, the city never fully met Plan Techint principles. To justify, various aspects of the new urban plan were never implemented; for example, the outlying neighborhoods did not become the self-contained units as envisioned, and the transport system remains informal rather than the centrally coordinates system advocated by Techint ( Kirshner, J. 2013:546).

Plan Technit urban planning ideas were inspired by 20th-century European modernist design principles and was founded on a similar model as the urban design of San Pablo (Brazil) in 1930 (Kirshner, J. 2012) Plan Technit was based on the utopian idea of the “Garden City” by Sir Ebenzer Howard. Urban design plan proposed radial city’s development based on four centric rings and the outer ring, acting as a green belt to restrict further development into the surrounding landscape. Between the rings, a series of self-sustainable autonomous neighborhoods, with centralized streets and public transport network linked to the rings, had to ensure a sustainable expansion of the city. These neighborhood units with approximately 1,000 residents form ‘ barrios’ which contain all the primary amenities at their core: shops, pharmacies, health clinics, and nurseries. The cluster of three or four barrios, housing between 4,000 to 8,000 people, together create UVs and provides secondary services as schools, markets, and shopping centers. Around five UVs create a district which is designed to inhabit approximately 50,000 people. Moreover, besides the new urban layout, Plan Technit featured designs for water and sanitation, a power plant, and a liquid gal supply system (Limpias, 2003). To sum up, Technit encouraged an elderly and flexible cityscape to foster economic dynamism and accommodate urban growth. As in other cities influenced by modernist urbanism, planers and officials sought to shape society through altering space, believing the plan would encourage efficiency, productivity and public hygiene while enhancing public control ( Goldstein, 2004; Scott, 1998).

Figure 31 Plan Techint proposal for Santa Cruz de la Sierra.initial concept idea

Urban Growth and main challenges

The large-scale inward migration began in the late 1970s and by 1978, ‘ the city’s population had surpassed Techint’s prediction for the year 2000, and new settlements had overtaken the outer limit of the fourth ring ( Limpias, 2003). As in other developing cities, the realities of urban life collided with modernism’s ‘spacial fix’ as migrants arrived in unprecedented numbers (Hardoy, 1992, UN Habitat, 2009).

Many districts that illegally developed outside the fourth ring fit the United Nations’ criteria for slums. People in these communities live in the very poor conditions or extreme poverty. Areas are lacking secure tenure and basic services such as improved water, sanitation, and electricity. New residential districts typically start out when migrants occupy vacant lots, without houses or amenities. Newcomers build a one-room structure, gradually adding rooms. Informal settlements develop in a low-density manner as people tend to occupy large plots of land. Due to that, Santa Cruz de la Sierra is experiencing urban sprawl, political, social and economic problems as transport system around the city is chaotic and generates a lot of pollution, majority buildings constructed by urban poor is very low quality and lack necessary amenities.

Waves of rural migrants in the 1970 and 1980 posed housing challenge and, as a consequence to the lack of affordable or public housing, newcomers organized renter’s unions to secure their right to the adequate shelter. Moreover, the absence of affordable housing sparked land speculation and unplanned expansion as well as the creation of informal settlements. (Kirshner, J. 2012) By the late 1970s, urban expansion was proceeding without regulation and government control, as without policies to control land use on the urban fringe, loteadores (speculators) sold lots on empty tracts of land with promises to buyers that authorities would supply basic infrastructure. Lacking the means to prohibit land invasions, local authorities had little choice but to recognize the new settlements, reacting to what had already occurred on the ground (Kirshner, 2013:547).

To sum up, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, over the last fifty years experienced a rapid increase of population and urban explosion as the city developed gas, oil and construction industries as well as agricultural businesses. Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the economic capital of Bolivia, is expected to continue to grow and become a world-class city, containing infrastructure and support services required to compete in the global marketplace. However, levels of poverty, inequality, unsustainability, and informality remain high and city’s municipality is responsible for addressing these issues to ensure positive urban growth.

Migrants from the Andean highlands and the rural eastern lowlands, seeking to escape from extreme poverty and have the better education or employment opportunities, started claiming space beyond the outer rings. Contrary, high status, and established families are associated with central part of the city.

Figure 32 Problems in the city: poverty, inequality, unsustainability. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s illustration

Districts

Santa Cruz de la Sierra is formed by 16 districts (fig. 32). The oldest, primary 5 districts are located around the urban core, while others- the consequence of urban sprawl, are located further. Santa Cruz de la Sierra is still continually expanding as there are no geographical boundaries to stop the urban sprawl.

The city was designed with industrial park taking place out-with the first 4 rings to the north. This area is purposely separated from residential areas. It houses mainly food processing and assembly plants rather than the heavy industry as originally planned. The large sugar plantation on the southeast is a significant part of the city as has been successfully maintained. Along the third ring is the “strip of district equipment” which provides commercial and industrial services to the residential districts in the vicinity.

Central districts are well designed, they contain necessary amenities, efficiently designed public space and have paved roads and sidewalks. Contrary, districts out-with the first 4 rings, especially in the east and south, lack urban structure. Majority of people living here are migrants who “took over” the land illegally. Residents here do not have an appropriate access to amenities, the majority of the buildings are low-quality construction and do not have the sewage system. The chaotic transport system, dusty roads, and waste on the streets make an undesirable place to live or visit.

Most of the Santa Cruz de la Sierra growth is based on the grid structure following the same manner as started in the central downtown area during colonial times. However, this is not the case everywhere as many of the unplanned settlements in the east and south of the city fail to follow it and are much freer arranged.

14 6

1 11 4

8 9

12 16

Figure 33 Santa Cruz de la Sierra districts. Authors image

Figure 34 Employment map

Employment Map The map shows employment rates within the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s districts. Employment is high within the first four rings, especially in the central area. In the north part of the city, employment rates stay high as there is an industrial park. However, this map shows that in the south and south-east part of the city employment rates are extremely low. This is partly because these areas are occupied by migrants looking for a better life. Due to poor education and lack of job opportunities, people in these areas are self-employed, they start small businesses by selling merchandise to neighbors and friends.

Figure 35 Density map

Density Map The city density, originally designed for 139 people per hectare in the Plan Techint design, is now around 4 people per hectare on average. The unplanned areas expanding outside of the city are of low density due to the informal settlements. Migrants tend to occupy large areas for the purpose that they can use it for agriculture. Houses in unplanned areas primarily are single story homes with large areas of land around for external space and potential expansion. Low-density patterns cause many problems to the city as it is very expensive to integrate infrastructure and sewage system. Due to that, on average, around 42% of the city has no coverage of the sewage system in their homes.

Figure 36 Poverty map

Poverty Map As shown on the map, poverty rates within the first four rings are very low as this area was primarily developed and do not house rural migrants. This part, concentrated around historical center, is known as the wealthy part of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Areas to the north, next to the industrial park, have lower poverty rate than areas in the south-east. This is most likely due to their proximity to the industrial park which raises employment rates in the area. However, the poverty rates in the south-east, especially in the districts surrounding sugar plantations, are extremely high. Almost half of the population living in this area suffer from poverty. The reason why is partly because the majority of these residents are migrants looking living in poor conditions in unplanned settlements.

Figure 37 Job oppurtunities map

Job opportunities map Majority employment opportunities are concentrated within the first 4 rings, especially in the city center. Further, from the urban core, job opportunities decline and in the boarders of the city it is almost impossible to find the job as most of the areas are only residential use. For this reason, people living outside the city center, have to commute to work. Due to that, roads in Santa Cruz de la Sierra are very busy and polluted.

2.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Over the last fifty years, Santa Cruz de la Sierra experienced a significant increase in population as well as urban explosion and currently it ranks as the 14th fastest growing city in the World. Economic growth attracted migrants from Andean highlands and rural eastern lowlands as they people are seeking for better living conditions, employment and education opportunities. However, newcomers tend to settle down in vacant lots illegally and live in the poorly developed environment with no access to water and electricity. By forming urban poor majority migrants are experiencing social inequalities issues and poverty.

Inequality between â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;eliteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Santa Cruz residents and newcomers as well raises ethnic and racial tensions within the cityscape. In this context, urban space is more than a neutral background; rather, it plays a central role in the interaction, integration, and segregation of urban society (Massey 1994; Ruddick 1996).

In most cases, informal vendors or illegal migrants are often banished from gathering in public places (Springer 2009). Moreover, vendors are seen as a threat to urban public health and hygiene, and their existence points to the need for local officials to reclaim control of civic spaces.

-how to reduce social and inequality tensions

Considering mentioned inequality and informality issues which were caused by urban expansion, a number of questions arises: -how to integrate newcomers in the city

-how to diminish boundary between formal and informal cities - how to improve living conditions in informal settlements

Figure 38 Social inequality illustration. Authors image

2.3 RESEARCH QUESTION Considering research analysis and problem statement, main aspiration of this thesis is to create a strategic

framework, prototype or action plan incorporating urban acupuncture network and social- economic production of space in an informal settlement that would diminish the boundary and link to the formal city leading to the long-term inclusive and sustainable development projects. The prototype will be developed after analysing one of the districts featuring informal settlements in Santa Cruz.

â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;When dwellers control the major decisions and are free to make their own contribution to the design, construction and management of their housing, both the process and the environment produced stimulate individual and social well-being.â&#x20AC;&#x2122; -John Turner in Freedom to Build

part 03 Analysis

Analysis Analysis Tool Selected Area Brief

3.1 ANALYSIS Nuevo Palmar: why this district?

Nuevo Palmar, which is also known as district 12, was chosen for in-depth analysis as it the newest, poorest and most rapidly growing district in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Migrants from other parts of Bolivia started to settle here by firstly occupying vacant plots and then legalizing property rights. In 1995 it was officially established as a

new district and since then, the population continued to expand at a rapid race. Nuevo Palmar, by being the newest district in the city, perfectly illustrates urban sprawl process from the very first stage. Newcomers, by moving and settling in the very edge of the city, firstly did not have adequate

Figure 39 Nuevo Palmar: shelters, mud and heat. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s illustration

To sum up, considering above mentioned factors, District 12 will be analysed to clarify itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s condition within Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Based on defined issues, my thesis aim is to create a toolkit or prototype which would help to integrate new area into an overall cityscape.

living conditions. As the district continued to grow and became authorized by the government, municipality started to install services and facilities. However, there is still not a sufficient number of required amenities. Apart from that, Nuevo Palmar, or District 12, features highest rates of unemployment, poverty and arising social issues.

3.2 ANALYSIS TOOL To analyse chosen district, a comprehensive framework to define an unique urban context and create guidelines for future interventions will be applied. The main aspiration of this analysis is to collect information which would allow experiencing an overall ‘atmospheric grasp’ of the slum or an urban district which is in a very early stage of its existence.

must be grasped all together at once ( Lefebvre, 2004). Therefore, analysis of space should combine historical background, static features of urban space and user experience. To sum up, to describe the urban atmosphere of the particular area, a multi-layered analysis is the best tool, which provides an overall ‘grasp’ of the space as it considers social and spatial dimensions. Spatial dimension reflects the historical traits and the physical living condition and it analyses the urban framework, the typology of buildings, typology of public spaces and the architectural elements. Social dimension encompasses the inhabitant profile and their needs, experiences in the spatial dimension.

The urban atmosphere, which was studied by French philosophers and sociologists, reflects social phenomena and how people interact and behave in space, what meaning spaces have in the everyday life and how people shape the perception about a place, what thoughts, associations, and memories it evokes. French theorist Henri Lefebvre in “Production of Space” introduces a model of space, which can be used as a model to analyze public spaces.(Lefebvre, H. 1991) His proposed model of space has three coherent layers: perceived space, conceived space and lived space. Perceived space is the space we can understand physically – can see and touch. The conceived space is the conceptual space with highly abstract and intangible characters. Lived space is the space produced by the shift of use. Furthermore, in “Rhythmanalysis” Lefebvre argues that all related issues in social, cultural, historical aspects

Considering the analysis of the slums in particular, it is essential to understand the complex contexts - social, physical, economic and political- as they play an important role in an overall condition. However, there is a number of dimensions that are hard to define: -Differences in perception -Locational, social and spatial dynamics -Transformation with time

Figure 40 Urban atmosphere diagram. Authors image

Slum Property Map

A tool called Slum Property Map (SPM) and developed at Strathclyde University by researchers Ashraf M. Salama, Ombretta Romice and Aisha Abubakar will be used to guide analysis process. SPM approach is an appropriate tool to build up a complex narrative of the slum, taking into consideration many dimensions.

To represent complex nature of informal settlements slums- these properties will be analysed: • • • • • • • •

To describe a district it is necessary to observe how it manifests itself while experiencing a set of property types. For a comprehensive understanding of slums, therefore, its property profiles will include those that are observable – physical, environmental – and those that are not but formed from acquired knowledge of things and of people’s experiences – social and subjective, cultural, economic and environmental contexts. (Aischa Abubakar, Ombretta Romice, Ashraf M. Salama 2017:41)

Structural properties that describe its structure; Functions Procedures and agency Processes Personality traits Behaviours Place Name

According to Slum Property Map concept, structural properties have to be combined within their complex narratives. Combined, cognitive property categories with experiential property types generate a framework of the eight property categories with relevant clusters. (Aischa Abubakar, Ombretta Romice, Ashraf M. Salama 2017:42)

Properties Structural Properties:

The function of the slum:

Structural properties include the form of the settlement: infrastructure, safe water, sanitary conditions, density, spatial patterns, building forms and durability, building construction. These properties of slums describe the nature of the physical spaces, forms, and services that should fundamentally support people’s living and livelihood activities in slums (Arputham, 2016; Gulyani & Bassett, 2010).

This property defines settlement purpose and usefulness to its inhabitants. The primary function of the slum is to provide domicile ( constant livable space) - attributed to an inability to afford standard housing opprtunities within the formal city (Agyeman & Warner, 2002; Geoffrey Payne, 2008; E. Glaeser, 2011).

Place Properties

Processes capturing the evolution of the settlement

This property includes intellectual, mental, emotional characteristics and residents behavior which can be influenced by needs, culture or events. (McLeod, 2014; Sincero, 2012; Veld, 1999 and Wojsiszke & Pienkowski, 1991 in Cordier & Tijus, 2001). Personality traits contain place map: perceptions of the slum by its community – meanings and experiences attached to it, and feelings evoked by these experiences – that are an important in understanding the quality of life of people (Hamdi, 2010).

This property reflects many layers of overlapping contexts: locational, physical, social, spacial. These characteristics are an identity of the slums and include: geography – absolute space and location, relative landscape and site conditions, relative position in the city, and slum presentation (visible or hidden) – that influences settlement and livelihood choice and patterns (Davis, 2006; Gulyani & Bassett, 2010), (2) demography – population profile (count, family structures, culture, education, work, political engagement), and socioeconomic enterprise – that frame vital information on the people and their livelihood endeavours (Hamdi, 2010; Kyobutungi et al., 2008; UN-Habitat, 2003), (3) tenure conditions – tenure security, tenancy and ownership, and tenure mix – that are symbolic to dwelling and habitation patterns (Gulyani & Bassett, 2010; Patel, 2011), and (4) poverty conditions – income poverty, non-income poverty, and social exclusion – which are a reality in slums that need to be clearly understood to encourage human development (Broch-Due, 1995; UN-Habitat, 2003).

Behaviours

Name

This property reflects people’s manners pattern and physiological responses to their environments. These include health conditions, which are vital information on challenges and vulnerabilities to people’s quality of life (Satterthwaite, Mitlin, & Bartlett, 2015; UNHabitat, 2003), and (2) activities of people – that capture changes to slum profiles, livelihood and need endeavours, as well as social vices etc.

Name property can have casual- historical references and therefore includes: slum name and its significance – a unique characteristic of a slum that knowing its origin and meaning can contribute to a better understanding of the physical and social profiles it is attributed to (Suditu & Vâlceanu, 2013; UN-Habitat, 2003, 2013a; Wood, 2007), as well as its effects on the quality of lie of people.

Or in other words, historical evolution of the slum. These include history and defining events, social consolidation, established social structures and spatial consolidation of place – are vital information on how it reached the stage it is and social and spatial dynamics at play (Hamdi, 2004, 2010; Maturana, 2014; UN-Habitat, 2003). Personality Traits

District Reputation and associations Name Origin

Community Activities Residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Relation to each other Well-being in the Neighborhood Social Activities

Development of the District Important Events Function of the Housing Evolution Function of the Public Space Evolution

Structural Units of the District Roads and pavement Spatial Patters and Organic Development Building types and materiality

Absolute Space and Location Relative Landscape and Site Conditions Relative Position in the City District Analysis Statistical Information

Figure 41 Slum properties analysis layers. Authors diagram

1.PLACE PROPERTIES

1.1 Absolute Space and Location Overall location is the main factor which dictates most important features of site conditions. Geographical condition predetermines weather conditions which have an impact on building construction type, landscape treatment, and an opportunity to cultivate the land. Nuevo Palmar district is located in the south-east part of the Santa Cruz de la Sierra city. Considering broader geographical location, this district is in eastern lowlands of Bolivia. Due to that, tropical climate and heavy seasonal rains are common in the area. Rain water collection system is integrated into the main street of the district, however, as the majority of the rest part of the area do not have pavement, during rain season streets become very muddy. Warm and humid climate predetermine greenery’s variation as well as the fact that people grow vegetables and fruits in their gardens.

District Nuevo Palmar does not have many paved roads and streets, sideways and walkways. The street is only defined by the buildings or plot boundary line which is most commonly expressed by a large fence. Brown ‘clayish’ sand covers the area and is one of the most important features that illustrates overall district conditions. Due to sand, there is a lot of dust during the windy days. The district has a lot of greenery, variety of tropical trees. Some of them have fruits like papayas, bananas.

Figure 42 Absolute space and location map. Author’s diagram

1.3 Relative Position in the City Nuevo Palmar District is located in the south-east part of the Santa Cruz de la Sierra and is the newest district in the city. As shown in the illustrative map, the district is not within 4 rings zone and it takes around 45 minutes to get there by public transport from the city center. Micro-bus routes go only through the main streets. However, there is a local public transport like motorcycle taxis or â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tuk-tukâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; that serve the rest of the district. District Nuevo Palmar occupies a large area in comparison with central districts. However, population level is not high as density is very low. This area, in relation to other parts of the city, is poorly developed. Majority of the streets are not paved, there are no walkways for pedestrians, lack of schools and public amenities. On the east side district has boundary with large sugar plantation. This sugar plantation seperates Nuevo Palmar from District 8 - Plan 3000. Plan 3000 is known to be the poorest and most dangerous area within the city.

Figure 43 Relative Position in the city diagram. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

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Informal land plots

Municipality

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Prison

School

1.4 District Analysis Nuevo Palmar district consists 21 UVs. These UVs vary in size, population and density rates, life quality and a number of amenities in the neighborhood. Some of them do not follow traditional grid patterns. Instead, they feature organic layout of the streets. This can be easily recognized in the upper barrio which has the boundary with sugar plantation and Sixto Anillo. Probably the main reason of organic pattern is that migrants started to occupy land and settle down in those areas firstly. In other words, it was the starting point of the district. Nuevo Palmar district mainly consists residential use buildings. However, Nuevo Palmar road is framed by mix and commercial use buildings. This road has the vegetable, fruit and food shops, a number of eating places and supermarkets. Moreover, rain collection canal goes in the middle of the street by separating the traffic. Unfortunately, most of the time canal is dirty and contain a lot of trash.

Sugar Plantation

The analysed district has sports fields and children playgrounds which were recently built. However, these facilities are not located in all barrios. Another important feature of Nuevo Palmar district is a prison, located in the south-west part of the district. This prison occupies the large area and is gated and well-secured.

Figure 44 District analysis map. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

1.5 Statistical information

RISING POPULATION TRENDS

Demographical information

200 000

District Nuevo Palmar is one of the newest in the city. Officially it was established in 1995 when a number of new-comers and rural migrants have settled there. Since then, district population continued to grow at rapid pace. In 2001 there were 60, 000 residents in District 12 and in only 12 years, population has tripled by reaching figure of 180, 000 residents in the area.

180 000 160 000 140 000 120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000

PEOPLE

40 000 20 000 0 1992

2001

2013 YEAR

Figure 46 Nuevo Palmar district population trends.

Figure 47

Figure 48

Figure 49

Migration and immigration rate

Children classed as poor

Poverty Levels

65% of population are migrants 35% of population are immigrants (PiedraLibre, 2012)

70% of childred are classed as poor 30% of children live in reasonable conditions (PiedraLibre, 2012)

9% have their basic needs met 2% are extremely poor 40% are in poverty 49% are moderately poor (PiedraLibre, 2012)

100

RESIDENTIAL PHONE

WATER

STREET LIGHTING

ELECTRICITY

% OF POPULATION WITH ACCESS

ACCESS TO SERVICES

Figure 52

Figure 50

Access to services

Figure 51

Levels of overcrowding

Economic activities

44% of District 12 population live in overcrowded conditions (PiedraLibre, 2012)

65% of economic activity relates to trade. 15% relates to services 10% relates to small industry (PiedraLibre, 2012)

As the district developed partially unplanned as newcomers started to occupy illegally and claim rights to the land, basic services were not installed into the neighborhood. However, as municipality has recognized Nuevo Palmar district, the government provided residents with access to electricity and water ( 100% population has access today). 60% of the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s streets have street lighting and around 50% of all population has the residential phone. (PiedraLibre, 2012)

2. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES

2.1 Structural units of the district- UVs The district is formed from 21 UVs. Majority of the UVs consist private residential buildings with courtyard space. UVs do not have many amenities within District 12. Some residents have local food shops. or small businesses. Empty fields without the clear purpose is a very common feature in all district. 2.2 Roads: primary, secondary, thirdary The district has the primary, secondary and thirdary roads. Main roads paved and have water collection canals. These roads are used by the public transport system. Motorcycle and â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tuk tukâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; taxis serve secondary and thirdary areas. Most of the roads are not paved. (fig 47) 2.3 Construction Majority of the buildings in the area are poor quality and self-built. Materials used vary from bricks to simple plastic sheets. Some of the houses remind simple shelter rather than a building. Most properties have a high fence. (fig 48)

2.4 UVs rate of employment, poverty, density In the Structural Properties diagram, UVs are colored in varying beige tones according to employment, poverty and density rates ( data based on the diagrams included in the appendix page 107). UVs which are colored in the darkest tone have the lowest status: residents are unemployed, live in poverty and overcrowded conditions. According to this information, most southern part of the district tend to have the lowest rate while UVs in the north part have better living conditions.

Figure 53 Structural layers in Nuevo Palmar District.Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram

Figure 54 Roads in the district.Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s photographs

Figure 55 Construction and building types in the district. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s photographs

3.HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND PROCESSES Development of the district construction of drainage channels, educational modules, health centers, urban parks, plazas. We invest every peso of the municipal budget in works for the poorest”. According to Angelica Sosa, Secretary of Parks, Gardens, and Works of Social Equipment, progress will continue in this district as there are plans for almost 200 new projects, which include:

Nuevo Palmar district, as mentioned before, is the newest district in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. It was created after the municipal executive decision in 1995 resulting of the approval of the Master Plan 1995. According to the Master Plan of 1978, until District 12 was officially recognised as an urban unit, there were informal settlements in the south-west sector adjacent to the road to the Palmar de Oratorio (Fig. 53) (PiedraLibre, 2012) District has been growing in population constantly, as majority of the people living in the district are rural migrants and immigrants who decided to settle down in Santa Cruz de la Sierra wishing for better life-quality. According to the 1992 Census, the population was 14,092 inhabitants and in the 2001 Census, 81,331 inhabitants. It is estimated at present has doubled and reaches 180,000 inhabitants.

39 places and parks, 8 educational modules (4 under construction), 16 multifunctional courts, 1 municipal coliseum, 3 security centers, 4 new health centers, 1 comprehensive justice center, daycare center and library. The investment exceeds 137 million bolivianos. 58 kilometers of pavement and 41 kilometers of drainage channels that have allowed to contribute to the development in the neighborhoods of this district.

Rapid population expansion and development of the district required basic amenities and services like schools, clinics and health centers, roads, electricity and water access. However, the municipality could not develop infrastructure at such a rapid pace. Due to that, residents have been contributing to the life quality improvement in the district. For example, local people were taking part in the construction of classrooms in order that their children have access to education. In many cases, they were paying salaries to the teachers. Activities like that were recognized and the district received municipality’s support. A number of projects, financed by the municipality, have reached 86 barrios and benefited to 200 thousand people. Mayor Percy Fernández said “ We work without stopping so that they have paving, public lighting,

Recently, with Police help, 40 residents were trained as brigadistas to provide citizen security in the neighborhoods. Until the end of the year, the number is expected to increase to 1500. (Hoybolivia virtual newspaper, 2014) In addition to that, district residents require better healthcare facilities. Due to poverty, polluted and contaminated environment, epidemics and infectious contagious diseases are common in the area. Nowadays district has 9 health centers. However, these amenities are not sufficient for the district’s population rate. Moreover, residents requested training in sexual and reproductive health.(PiedraLibre, 2012)

Figure 56 First settlements around Palmar de Oratorio road. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram

Figure 57 District growth. New developments take place in the east side. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram

4.PERSONALITY TRAITS AND BEHAVIOURS Community Activities a number of events were organised and run for 5 days. District anniversary started with motorcycle race followed by different events in Municipal Council. Moreover, schools and civic parades, health and craft fairs, football championship and athletic competition were organised.

Nuevo Palmar district, even though it is very young and constantly growing, has community bonds. People, to improve living conditions, have been gathering together and participating in various activities. For example, there are cultural groups working on theater performances, training in arts. These groups should be encouraged as they strengthen values and traditions in the district.

In addition, based on personal observations and district survey data, people in the district know their neighbors and keeps in contact with them. On the Sundays, families participate in football and other sports matches.

Moreover, every year district celebrates its birthday on the 12th of May. Last year, during the celebration, a

5. NAME District Reputation and Associations instead of walking in the streets. However, after the first visit I realised that district is not dangerous, people living there are friendly and helpful.

Nuevo Palmar district does not have a good reputation within the city. The main reason is because it is one of the poorest, least educated and dangerous district. Moreover, high amount of domestic violence cases affecting people of all ages have been reported. The issue of gangs is also relevant with young people between the ages of 14-20 being involved in large groups. It is thought that this is a result of family issues, lack of educational opportunities and training to assist employment.

In addition, district has bad associations because of the largest prison in Bolivia -Palmasola - which is located in the south-west part of the district. Even though it is a maximum security prison, guards exhibit minimal control over what happens within the prison, leading it to being described as a â&#x20AC;&#x153;prison townâ&#x20AC;?. Name Origin

People from central and richer districts try to avoid visiting Nuevo Palmar as they consider it to be dangerous. Before the site visit, I was advised to explore district only during the day and accompanied by at least one person. Moreover, I was recommended to take local taxi

District 12 is called Nuevo Palmar because of the road Palmar de Oratorio which crosses the area and connects Santa Cruz de la Sierra with surroundings in the southeast part of the lowlands.

Figures 58, 59. Football match on Sunday. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s photographs

3.3 CONCLUSIONS

Nuevo Palmar district is associated with bad neighborhood as it has bad reputation for poverty, crime rate and lack of infrastructure.

People living in the neighborhood tend to form the community and organise themselves to improve living conditions.

Nuevo Palmar district has been growing rapidly and will continue to grow. However, infrastructure and amenities were not implied at the same pace.

District is divided into UVs which are formed from different barrios. Some parts of the district developed organically as migrants, who occupied the land, developed their urban patterns.

Analysed district is located far from the urban core and is disconnected from the formal city both physically and socially.

Figure 60 District analysis conclusion. Authors diagram.

Figure 61 District propertiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; analysis. What should be addressed by design proposal and what features adapted. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram.

3.4 SELECTED AREA Thesis proposal will be developed in the selected UV - 166. This area was selected as it was one of the first ones occupied by migrants, the starting point of the districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s evolution. Due to that, from the nolli plan and map (fig. 61), we can recognize organic development patterns: streets do not follow grid structure, blocks vary in size and shape. From the employment, poverty and density maps in the appendix page 107, we can summarise that this area has â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;middleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; rating among the whole districts. Employment is lower than overall in all district, however, people, living in UV 166, are not the poorest ones. Moreover, density issues can be recognized as the area developed in exceptionally low-density patterns.

Figure 62 Selected UVs map. Authors diagram.

In the area dominate residential buildings, which majority are self-built by residents. Due to that, some of the buildings remind shelters, built chaotically from varying materials, without design considerations, and in very poor quality (fig 62, 65). However, among â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;shelterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; type buildings, some of the houses outstand by its quality and richness. Considering that, we can assume that people living there have different economic backgrounds. Most houses occupy large areas and residents around their homes have land for garden. Moreover, in the selected UVs is a number of vacant, deteriorated fields which can be utilised as the possible location for my thesis design proposal.

Figure 63 Nolli plans. Urban pattern through built forms, materiality and greenery. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram

Figure 62 Self built object and homes. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

IMPRESSIONS: DISORDER, DIRT, HEAT, GREENERY

Figure 64 Muddy roads and greenery. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

3.4a Impressions of the materiality

Photo montages in the previous pages (fig. 62, 63) reflects built environment condition in the neighborhood. Materials used for houses are either in very poor condition. Some houses use materials that normally would not be applied for construction. Dominating material is the red brick and majority of houses do not have any cladding. Moreover, it is very common to see tall fences and gates which is a sign that people try to protect their properties. In many cases, it is hard to observe any built environment behind the fences. Figure 63 is a photo montage which illustrates streetsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; conditions and greenery in the UV 166. Analysed area do not have paved roads and sidewalks. Due to that, there is a lot of dust and dirt in the streets. After talking with people living there I found out that asphalt is the most needed improvement that could be provided by the municipality. The purpose of figure 64, an illustrated map of UV 166, is to reflect the urban and architectural impression through materiality and greenery. Moreover, it allows perceiving built environment relation with the vacant sites and green areas. As there is no information about buildingsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; layouts in municipality maps, this image was created by using aerial view maps and site observations.

Figure 65 Illustated map of the selected area. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

3.4b Spatial Patterns

Figure 66 Spatial patterns of the selected area. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

3.4c Community. Survey

Figure 67 Community in the informal settlements. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

People living here: SURVEY

This thesis research empathizes the importance of people contribution to the built environment, participatory design approach, and urban acupuncture networks. Intentionally design proposal will incorporate mentioned features. Due to that, trying to know and meet people who live in the area is an essential part of the thesis research. The survey, containing 35 questions about inhabitants, their home, and district from their point of view, was carried out. However, the main reason for the survey was to get a chance to meet and talk to people, to see the conditions they live in. The survey was carried out on Sunday, 19th of November, between 10 am to 15 pm. 32 residents participated in the survey, however, most of the time they were surrounded by family members or friends, who were helping to answer the questions. Durig the survey I was accompanied by a Spanish-speaking friend who helped to communicate with residents.

Figure 68 Market in the UV 166. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

Survey Questions Original Version

Encuesta del distrito Esta encuesta es realizada por Karolina Petruskeviciute, estudiante de intercambio de arquitectura en la universidad UPSA. Esta encuesta ayudará a recopilar información para mi proyecto de posgrado en la universidad. La información solo se usará para el desarrollo del proyecto.

Preguntas acerca de usted: 1.¿Cuantos años tiene?

2. ¿ Cual es tu lugar de nacimiento?

¿ Hace cuanto tiempo vive en Santa Cruz de la Sierra?

3. ¿Cuántas personas conforman su familia?

4. Mujer Hombre

Soltera/soltero

Tienes hijos?

Casado/casada

Cuantos hijos tienes?

Formación tecnica

Universitaria

5. ¿Cual es tu nivel de escolaridad? Años en la escuela 1 -12

6. ¿Tienes trabajo? ¿Cuántos días a la semana trabajas? ¿Cuántas horas por día trabajas?

7. ¿Cuál es tu salario semanal o mensual ?(no es necesario responder si no quieres)

Preguntas sobre su casa

Preguntas sobre el barrio y la comunidad

1. Número de casa

1. ¿Por qué vives en este distrito?

2. Tipo de casa

2. ¿Te sientes seguro en este distrito o barrio?

3. ¿Tienes carro?

3. ¿Tuvo algún iccidente en los últimos 5 años aquí?

4. ¿Es tu casa o alquilas?

El robo La agresión

5. ¿Cuántas familias viven en la casa?

El asalto

6. ¿Cuántas habitaciones tienes?

Teléfono robado

7. ¿Cuántas personas viven en la casa?

4. ¿Hay algún sistema de seguridad en el barrio? Que?

8. ¿Qué tipo de construcción es tu casa? 9. ¿Cuantos pisos hay en tu casa? 10. Si alquila, ¿cuál es su relación con el propietario?

5. ¿Conoces bien a tus vecinos? 6.¿Conoces bien a la comunidad?

11. ¿Firmaste contrato de alquiler?

7. ¿Tienes reuniones o discusiones comunitarias?

12. ¿Cuánto tiempo estás en esta casa?

8.¿Crees que son suficientes las áreas de juegos para niños?

13. ¿Cuánto pagas de alguiler?

9.¿Qué tan lejos de ti está el mercado o la tienda?

14. ¿Cambió el precio del alquiler? ¿Se volvió más caro o más barato? 15. en tu casa tienes:

10. ¿De qué manera el municipio puede mejorar el vecindario?

electricidad

internet

agua

agua caliente

gas

aguas residuales

11. Describe la comunidad y el barrio en el que te gustaría vivir

Survey Questions English Version

Questions about the resident: 1. What is your age? 2. Where are you from? 3. How many people are in your family? 4. Your gender 5. Status 6. Do you have children? 7. How many children do you have? 8. What is your education? 9. Do you have job? 10. What are your working hours? 11. What is your salary? Questions about residentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s home: 12. Number of your house 13.Type of your home 14. Do you have car? 15. Ownership rights: own or rent the property 16. How many families live at your home? 17. How many rooms do you have? 18. How many people live in the property? 19. What is the type of the building? 20. How many levels are in the property? 21. If rented, what is the relationship with the owner? 22. Did you sign the rent contract? 23. How long do you live in the property? 24. Rent price changes: incresed or declined? 25.Services in the property ( electricity, water, gas, internet, hot water, sewage system) Questions about the barrio and community: 26. Why do you live in this district? 27. Do you feel safe in this district? 28. Did you have any accident in last 5 years? 29. Is there a security system in the barrio? 30. Do you know well your neighbors? 31. Do you know well the community? 32. Do you have community meetings? 33. Is there suffiecient amenities for children? 34. How far is the closest shop/market? 35. How municipality could improve the barrio?

Sample Survey Answers

Question number

Answers 1 2

20 Santa Cruz

50 Camiri

Santa Cruz

Santa Cruz 4

22 Sucre

Cochabamba Sucre

Female

Male

Female

Single

Married

Single

Married

yes

University

10 years

7 years

tecnica

7 years

tecnica

yes

full day

3600

4000

3000

full day

2000

12 13

sin numero

2800

0 16

poor/like shelter medium quality

10000

sin numero sin numero medium quality

good quality

medium quality

yes

15 16

owner 3

owner 4

self-built

1 level

relative

12 years

22 years

5 months

10 years

300 pesos

bricks

all, but no sewage, no hot water

sin numero

rent 4

owner 1

rent 1

5 medium quality

26 medium quality

yes

owner 1

partly self-built

designed

partly self-built

designed

1 level

all, but no sewage, no hot water

all

all, but no sewage

26 27

Likes no

Likes si

Nice si

does not know

yes 7 years

350 pesos

1 level

3 years

18 years

all, but no sewage all, but no sewage all, but no sewage hot water

Calm no

Calm yes

Nice yes

yes

1 km

3 min

10 min

security

pavement, security, health care

32 33

yes no

yes yes

10 min

5 min

pavement

pavement, security

pavement

Survey Conclusion Conclusions based on survey answers Survey data has proved that people living in the selected UVs are very different. First of all, they come from various departments and cities what has an impact on their culture and ethnic roots. Secondly, surveyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participants were different age, social status, gender and education people. The major tendency within survey participants in regards to education was the basic school (7 or 10 years ). Fewer people have the technical education and only one survey participant has a university degree. Most of the people have a job and work full-time during the week, the average salary varies between 2000 to 4000 bolivianos per month. Majority of the properties do not have house number what means that property is not registered with the municipality. Although most of them are privately owned, some survey participants rent accommodation. Some of the contracts are illegal, with no contract signed, as people rent from relatives. Others are legal, with the contract signed. Rent prices vary from 300-350 per week. Living in a group of families in one property is very common among the residents who earn less money. Some people live in the houses with 20 other people, while another share only with their family members. All properties which were examined during the survey had electricity, water, and gas. However, very few had hot water and only 3 had a sewage system. According to survey participants, they live in this area because they like it there- itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quiet, calm and cheap. However, people had different opinions about safety in the district. Some of them stated that it safe, others claimed that it is dangerous. Despite that, none of the survey participants experienced any accidents in the last 5 years ( robbery, assault etc) People in the area use to know each other well and keep in touch. They greet, talk and help to their neighbors. Residents have gathered in a community and time after time discuss neighborhood issues together.However, families which live in better conditions interact less with their neighbors. Examined people enjoy living in the area, but, despite that, they would like to improve living conditions there. Majority people complained about the pavement and sidewalks lack, other were concerned about security levels. Conclusions based on personal impression After visiting the area for a number of times and talking to the residents, I have realised that Nuevo Palmar district is very diverse and people living there come from various backgrounds. Some of them are much richer, have a good education and high incomes. These people talked to me more open and friendlier. Others, living in the poverty, were very shy and suspicious. Considering that, the social inequality is an issue even inside the barrio.

Figure 69 Difference between buildings’ quality. Author’s image

3.5 PROJECT BRIEF Summarising thesis issue/ What is the challenge?

After living in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia for 5 months and carrying thesis research based on the rapid urban growth and migrants flow to the city as well as analysing informal settlements in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and other Latin Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cities, I have discovered that there is a huge social, economic and ethnical gap between formal and informal cities and the residents living there. Santa Cruz de la Sierra is the most rapidly growing city in Latin America nowadays. The city started to expand 50 years ago after developed gas, oil and construction industries as well as agricultural businesses. Due to that, people from the Andean region and rural areas started to migrate to the city. However, due to countless migrants, the city was not capable to host everyone and deal with the problems that have arisen. New-comers started settling down in vacant sites which are located within a greater distance to the city center. After years, new districts, formed by informal settlements, were established. Previously analysed District 12, or Nuevo Palmar is the newest and the poorest area in the city which started to develop as an informal settlement. New urban districts, mainly formed by migrants from rural areas and highlands, are not fully integrated to the formal city and in a way become social ghettos, separated by social inequality, urban infrastructure, ethnical roots and economic backgrounds. However, it is predicted, considering cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expansion trends, that the population in districts like Nuevo Palmar will grow significantly in the near future. The question arose, how will these areas look in the next 50 years and what actions should be taken now to ensure that current boundary between formal and informal cities will be diminished?

1. Migrants coming to the city

Thesis proposal developed from the research of Santa Cruz de la Sierra urban growth and the reasons that evoked it. Huge migrants flow into the city provoked urban sprawl and appearance of informal settlements, usually located within the greater distance from the city center. Figure 70 Migrants coming to the city. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

2. Boundary between formal and informal cities

Figure 71 Boundary between formal and informal cities. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

As new-comers tend to settle down illegally on the vacant sites, they create informal settlements. Research has proved that there is a huge gap between formal and informal cities. Social inequality, economic, ethnical, and education differences set a colossal boundary separating formal and informal cities.

This thesis proposal will try to find a solution how to integrate informal settlements into the cityscape and create the same opportunities and life quality as in the formal city.

3. Searching for solution: how to integrate informal settlements into the cityscape?

Figure 72 Informal cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s integration initial strategic approach. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

Project Aspirations

Main project aspirations are to improve life quality in the new city districts which lack infrastructure, amenities and also suffer from poverty. One of the main concept features, which could allow reaching this goal, is residents’ involvement and participation. A participatory approach, which involves and takes into account the role of the program’s beneficiaries, is essential to ensure the quality of urban and architectural projects because the residents are the ultimate beneficiaries and evaluators. Figure 73. Financial benefit to community Another project aspiration is to promote human develAuthor’s diagram opment. An amenities providing health care, education, employment, social assistance and public safety could encourage inclusiveness, wellbeing and social development. At the same time, projects promoting human development could be combined with financial benefits to community members. For example, people could contribute to building public purpose facilities and this effort equalized to an investment giving ownership rights. As facilities become more established, they can bring financial benefits to community members. As this thesis proposal is related to the future of the informal settlements, another aspiration is to predict the physical growth and capacity of the analysed district as well as set architectural guidelines. One of the main aspirations is to promote incremental growth as a tool to tackle urban sprawl and spend less money on infrastructure integration. Additionally, case studies analysis and research about urban acupuncture interventions in Latin America have proved that deteriorated districts can be successfully upgraded by a number of improvements which form a network. Ideally, the best result could be achieved if one intervention, even on a small scale, gives a reason for another, or in other words, follows domino effect.

Figure 74 Diagram showing urban, architectural and social strategies that will be applied for Nuevo Palmar district upgrading. Choice of strategies is based on overall thesis research.. Author’s diagram.

Setting proposal design guidelines

Carried thesis research is closely related to specific district, Nuevo Palmar, and community members who participated in the survey. Gained personal relationship with people after numerous district visits allows to develop a project which addresses residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs and aspirations. Additionally, considering the fact that migrants flow is going to continue and population in the area will raise, this thesis proposal will look into the future and in the previous page defined strategies and tools will be applied stage by stage. The last and most important part of this thesis proposal is converting a strategical approach into architectural proposal for the future district in the predicted futuristic context. This architectural proposal will be developed as a prototype which can be applied to other districts. Figure 75 Project Concept: urban interventions that upgrade the district are connected into a network. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image

Initial Strategy

100

Figure 76. Initial strategic framework how to integrate informal city into the formal city. Social improvements and activities would promote built environment upgrading and other actions would follow as domino effect. Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s diagram.

101

Network Thesis research about urban acupuncture interventions in Latin America has proved that a long-lasting result giving a positive impact on life quality can be achieved if small-scale improvements are integrated into a larger network. Prototype which will be developed in Nuevo Palmar district UV 166 can become a primary element to the large-scale network in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. This network would consist architectural typologies that benefit to human development and also diminish social inequalities between formal and informal cities. Education centers, schools, leisure amenities, and health care facilities are building typologies that every community should have and they could become primary elements of the large-scale network.

Proposal development Firstly, calculate built/unbuilt areas, vacant sites, public use areas and convert these figures into percents. Based on urban design guidelines and New Urban Agenda [2017], allocate certain areas for residential, community, public, and recreational use. As well, calculate how many people will live in the area based on urban growth tendencies for 2050 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. In predicted futuristic context, define sites in residential blocks that could be used for ‘human development purposes’spaces for education, healthcare, leisure, community, events, sports. Do not define particular use in the spaces as they will be used as temporary stations hosting different use modules – modules for education, events, leisure etc. Develop an action framework stage by stage considering the population growth in the analysed district. Successful strategy would countain actions that provokes improvements in other fields and works as a domino effect. In other words, social improvements and gained skills would allow to build new facilities. These facilities could continue to educate people and bring financial benefits.

102

Figures 77 and 78. Network applied to the Nuevo Palmar District. The same prototype can be integrated in other parts of the city.. Author’s diagram.

103

104

After living in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, for 5 months and carrying thesis research based on the rapid urban growth and migrants flow to the city, as well as analysing informal settlements in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, I have realised that there is a huge social, economic and ethnical gap between formal and informal cities. Initial proposal purpose is to diminish the boundaries in social dimension and built environment,and integrate informal settlements into the formal city.

After detailed research about informal settlements and urban acupuncture strategies, I came up to the conclusion that the strategic framework containing urban intervention networks is the best way to connect informal and formal cities and improve life quality in the new city districts which lack infrastructure, amenities and also suffer from poverty. It is important to provide equal conditions to all city residents, however, when the government is not able to do that, new solutions and strategies have to be discovered.

A strategic network will be developed and applied to Nuevo Palmar district in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. This district was chosen for in-depth analysis as it is the newest, poorest and most rapidly growing district in the city. Migrants from other parts of Bolivia started to settle here by firstly occupying vacant plots and then legalizing property rights. In 1995 it was officially established as a new district and since then, population continued to expand at a rapid race. Majority people living in Nuevo Palmar suffer from poverty, do not have education and are unemployed. Considering that, this strategic framework will have facilities to educate and employ people and will be developed by district residents. The main tool to reach this goal is residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement and participation.

On the stage 1, community members should gain skills how to build. Then residents could contribute to projects promoting human development which could be combined with financial benefits. For example, people could contribute in building public purpose facilities and this effort equalized to an investment giving ownership rights. As facilities become more established, they can bring financial benefits to community members.

105

106

Appendix

District 12 plan UVs rates in district 12 UVs 166 areas calculations

107

13 5 1

11 4

Â´

DISTRITO 12 - Nuevo Palmar

DI 14 6

3 12

15 8

2 1A

16 35

4 7

38 42

170

50A

72 64A

6363

71 69A

23 30

167

39 40

47 40 33 9

4 5 12

3 2

1 7

1 13

24 5

23 25

28 29

36A

46 51A

46A

53 12

8B 32

37 26

185

34 37

30B 35 36 40 11 20 41 44 21 28 46 30A 1

47A

44A

44C

44D 5

61 6

182

49 64

20 35A

7 17

11 10 12

33 32

31 39

42 41 40

179

16 15

12 13

9 10

4 3

98 99

C C 183 C C C C 19

22 23

44 6

100

118

119

125

26 27

127

123A 122 123

120 128

129

66 65 78A

73 79A

95 115

124 130 137

75 114

135 136 134 133 145 132 144 131 143

126

174

121

117

116

111

113

112

79B79C 68 79A

173

85 55

82 83

56 62

81B 55

169

35 42

82B

81A

27 25

15 14

78 79

9 19

75 74

6 10

62 76

7 5

82A

23 29

32A

25A

21 26

20A

56 4

51 55

14A

50A

2 6

36 39

25A

66 67

53 52

35 52

65 66

178

39 38 47 48

46 47

21A

14A

20A

18 19 28

44B

29 25 26 27

44 1

45A

21 22 22A

10A

43 2B

14 13

19A

2429

168

172

16 15

9 20

53 51

12 14

45B 43A

5 6

4 3A 42

3 2

9B 10

10B

8 7

44B

63 62

61A

8A 9A

50 51

1 49

4 2

48 47

35A

66 65

50 51

47 46

47A

44 33

181

21 32

20A

17 13

27A

19 18

36A 45A 42A

42B 43

9 10

33 32

3031

27 26

7 8

12A 26 25

23 24

1 6

177

33 34

41A

93 94

58A

92 91

61 62

16A

36 38

40A 85

19 37

39 22

19 20

22 36B

5 19

36A

184 10

180

32 31 30

175

27A

25 25 26 27

176

9 10

51A 49

1 6

54A

171

59 58

65 4

44 45

41 46

43 42

29 29A

25 24

75A

50B

76A 76A

76 75

43 47

50 49

73 74

166

32 31

43A

36A

41 43

138

139

146

140

141

108

147 2 4

1 3

142

29 39 37

43 44

Referencias

Usos del Suelo ABASTECIMIENTO CULTURA DEPORTE ECOLOGICO EDUCACION RESIDENCIAL INSTITUCIONAL MIXTO RECREACION SALUD SEGURIDAD SERVICIO VEHICULAR

OFICIALIA MAYOR DE PLANIFICACION

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SOCIAL TERMINAL TRANSACCIONAL

Employment map

Density map

Poverty map

Disoccupation map

General Information District has boundaries with: In the north: District 9

In the south: District 16

In the east: District 8

In the west: District 9

Area: 1,782,70 hectares Population : 81, 331 residents District rate: residetns are poor and very poor; in general district is poor District 12 is far from the 4th ring and is very new urban district in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. This district was incorporated to the Master Plan in the 1995. Moreover, the population here is one of the poorest in all city and district has deficiences both in infrastructure and services. Population in the district has been growing rapidly. Overcrowding in homes reaches 86% of the district families.

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As there are no exact data of residents number in chosen UVs 166, an approximate number of people living there and a density figure can be proportionally calculated from the total area and the total number of people living in the Nuevo Palmar district. The number of residents , density in the predicted future growth trend will help to predict population number in an analysed area within next 50 years. As UVs 166 consists 5% of the total District 12 area, an approximate population there is 9000 people.

Built area

Unbuilt area

Public use

Built area for residential purposes

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Fi Boliviaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Location and illustrativ

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LIST OF FIGURES Chapter 1 Figure 1: Countries with urban population exceeding 100.000 in 2012. Author’s image based on Unicef Urban Population Map < https:// www.unicef.org/sowc2012/urbanmap/> Figure 2: Countries with urban population exceeding 100.000 by 2050.Author’s image based on Unicef Urban Population Map < https:// www.unicef.org/sowc2012/urbanmap/> Figure 3: Urban Slums in the World.Author’s image based on Slum Almanac < https://unhabitat.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02-old/ Slum%20Almanac%202015-2016_EN.pdf> Figure 4: Rural, urban and urban slum population in the last 200 years. Authors image based on UN-Habitat, 2014. Figure 5: Favelas in Rio de Janeiro. Availabe at < https://uploads.disquscdn.com/images/12667495300d65f863325f1e893dc52d1ee4b5b21aa77da970fdad0d6d8fb607.jpg> Figure 6: Favelas in Rio de Janeiro. Available at < Figure 7: Bolivia’s location illustrative map. Author’s illustration Figure 8: Urban and rural population projections in Bolivia. Authors image based on Ponce, R. (2017) Bolivia Country Study and Urban Development Opportunities Figure 9: Extreme and average poverty in Bolivia in rural and urban areas. Authors image based on Ponce, R. (2017) Bolivia Country Study and Urban Development Opportunities. Figure 10: Unemployment and underemployment data in Bolivia. Authors image based on Ponce, R. (2017) Bolivia Country Study and Urban Development Opportunities Figure 11: Labour income and informality. Authors image based on Ponce, R. (2017) Bolivia Country Study and Urban Development Opportunities Figure 12: Migration to the city illustration. Authors image Figure 13, 14: Transformed favela in Rio de Janeiro. Available at < https://www.favelapainting.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/projects-praca-cantao.jpg> Figure 15: PREVI after construction and later. Urban evolution.Available at < https://arquitecturaacontrapelo.files.wordpress. com/2014/07/previ-lima.jpg> Figure 16: Quinta Monroy Social Housig.Available at < https://www.dezeen.com/2008/11/12/quinta-monroy-by-alejandro-aravena/> Figure 17: Alto Comedero development and it’s founder. Available at < https://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/2011/11/24/welcome-tothe-country-club.html> Figure 18: Incremental growth. Authors diagram Figure 19: Built facility’s financial benifit to the community. Authors diagram. Figure 20: Activities and facilities incorporated into the urban development. Authors diagram. Figure 21: Network of new urban interventions-urban acupuncture. Authors diagram. Figure 22, 23, 24: Favela Rocinha in Rio de Janeiro. Author’s photographs

Chapter 2 Figure 25: La Paz. Authors photograph. Figure 26: Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1600.Authors diagram. Figure 27. Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1900.Authors diagram. Figure 28. Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1970.Authors diagram. Figure 29. Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1985.Authors diagram. Figure 30. Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 2015 .Authors diagram.

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Figure 31: Plan Techint proposal for Santa Cruz de la Sierra.initial concept idea. Available at < https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1s2.0-S0264275111001697-gr1.jpg> Figure 32: Problems in the city: poverty, inequality, unsustainability. Authors illustration. Figure 33: Santa Cruz de la Sierra districts. Authors image Figure 34: Employment map.Author’s image based on original map, available at < http://sczurbana.blogspot.com/search/label/ciudad> Figure 35: Density map.Author’s image based on original map, available at < http://sczurbana.blogspot.com/search/label/ciudad> Figure 36: Poverty map.Author’s image based on original map, available at < http://sczurbana.blogspot.com/search/label/ciudad> Figure 37: Job opportunities’map. Author’s image based on original map, available at < http://sczurbana.blogspot.com/search/label/ciudad> Figure 38: Social inequality illustration. Authors image.

Chapter 3 Figure 39. Nuevo Palmar: shelters, mud and heat. Authors image Figure 40 : Urban atmosphere diagram. Authors image Figure 41: Slum properties analysis layers. Authors diagram Figure 42: Absolute geographical location. Author’s diagram Figure 43: Relative Position in the city diagram. Author’s image. Figure 44: District analysis map. Author’s image Figure 46: Nuevo Palmar district population trends.Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 47: Migration statistics.Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 48: Children classed as poor statistics. Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 49: Poverty. Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 50: Overcrowding. Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 51: Economic statistics. Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 52: Access to services. Author’s image based on PiedraLibre 2012 data. Figure 53: Structural layers in Nuevo Palmar District.Author’s diagram. Figure 54: Roads in the district.Author’s photographs. Figure 55: Construction and building types in the district. Author’s photographs. Figure 56: First settlements around Palmar de Oratorio road.Author’s image. Figure 57: District growth. New developments take place in the east side. Figure 58, 59: Football match on Sunday. Author’s photographs Figure 60: District analysis conclusion. Authors diagram. Figure 61: District properties’ analysis. What should be addressed by design proposal and what features adapted. Author’s diagram. Figure 62: Selected UVs map. Authors diagram. Figure 63: Nolli plans. Urban pattern through built forms, materiality and greenery. Author’s diagram. Figure 64: Self built object and homes. Author’s image. Figure 65: Muddy roads and greenery. Author’s image. Figure 66: Illustated map of the selected area. Author’s image.

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Figure 65: Illustated map of the selected area. Author’s image. Figure 66: Spatial patterns of the selected area. Author’s image. Figure 67: Community in the informal settlements. Author’s image Figure 68: Market in the UV 166. Author’s image. Figure 70: Migrants coming to the city. Author’s image Figure 71: Boundary between formal and informal cities. Author’s image Figure 72: Informal city’s integration initial strategic approach. Author’s image Figure 73: Financial benefit to community Author’s diagram Figure 74: Diagram showing urban, architectural and social strategies that will be applied for Nuevo Palmar district upgrading. Author’s diagram Figure 75: Project Concept: urban interventions that upgrade the district are connected into a network. Author’s image Figure 76: Initial strategic framework how to integrate informal city into the formal city. Author’s image. Figure 77: Project Concept: urban interventions that upgrade the district are connected into a network. Author’s image. Figure 78: Network connecting the city. Author’s image.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Books & reports Angel, S. (2001) Making room for the Planet of Cities. Cambridge: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Akbar, J. 1988 .Crisis in the Built Environment: The Case of the Muslim City. Singapore: Concept Media Alexander, C. 1984. The Production of Houses. In The Scope of Social Architecture. eds. Hatch, R. Alexander, C.1965. A city is not a tree. Arputham, J. (2016). Ward diaries : crucial evidence for planning in Mumbai’s slums. Retrieved April 15, 2017, from https://www.iied.org/ward-diaries-crucial-evidence-for-planning-mumbaisslums Brillembourg, A., Klumpner, H., Contento, M., Sherman, L. (2011) Trans-Borderlands: Activating the Plasticity of Urban Border-Space. Available at < https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/62094 Blundell, P. 2005. Architecture and Participation. London. New York: Spon Press. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp 123-133 De Soto, Hernando. (2000) Mystery of Capital. London: Black Swan De Soto, Hernando. 1989. The Other Path: The Invisible Revolution in the Third World. New York: Harper and Row. Gilbert, A. (2007). The Return of the Slum: Does Language Matter? International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 31(4), 697–713. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2007.00754.x Glaeser, E. (2011). Triumph of the City. New York: penguin Books. Glaeser, E. L. (2013). A World Of Cities: The Causes And Consequences Of Urbanization In Poorer Countries (Nber Working Paper Series A) Hatch, R. 1984. The Scope of Social Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. p 7 Jacobs, J. 1962. The Death and life of great American cities. London: Jonathan Cape. Kirshner, J (2010) Migration, Informalization and Public Space in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Bolivian Studies Journal, vol 15-17. Kirshner, J (2011). Hygiene panic and urban space in Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Online resource, available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275769442 Kirshner, J (2013). City profile: Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Online resource, available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257097075 Lefebvre, H. 1991. The Production of Space. Oxford: Blackwell. p 86. Lefebvre, H. 2004. Rythmanalysis. London: Continumm. LIMPIAS, Víctor Hugo. 2003. Arquitectura y urbanismo en Santa Cruz. Santa Cruz: Universidad Privada de Santa Cruz (UPSA) McGuirk, J. (2015). Radical Cities. London: VERSO.

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Neuwirth, R. (2005). Shadow Cities: A billion squatters, a new urban world. New York: Routledge PAP (Programa de Alivio a la Pobreza). 2006. Pobreza urbana: Niveles de incidencia en la ciudad de Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Santa Cruz: Fundación PAP. Ponce, R. (2017) Bolivia Country Study and Urban Development Opportunities Tannuri, M; Donald M. Arias, O.(2004) Informal Employment in Bolivia: A Lost Proposition? UN-Habitat. (2003). The Challenge Of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. UN-Habitat (2008). Housing Finance Mechanisms in Bolivia. Nairobi: UN Habitat UN-Habitat (2012) State of Latin America and Caribbean Cities. Naples: UN Habitat

Websites PiedraLibre magazine https://es.slideshare.net/Idearia/distrito12palmar https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/62094 Architect’s Jorge Jauregui website http://www.jauregui.arq.br/ Architecture researcher Justin McGuirk website: http://justinmcguirk.com/ Urban-ThinkTank website http://u-tt.com/ http://www.plannersnetwork.org/2009/01/social-housing-in-bolivia-challenges-and-contradictions/ Bolivia’s statistical information http://www.ine.gob.bo/index.php/demografia/introduccion-2 Information about Santa Cruz de la Sierra http://www.concejomunicipalscz.gob.bo/portal/index.php/participa/mapas-importantes/mapas-de-los-distritos http://www.eldeber.com.bo/santacruz/Nuevo-Palmar-comienza-festejos-por-sus-17-anos-20160513-73718. html http://eju.tv/2014/04/santa-cruz-los-lotes-el-distrito-pobre-convertido-en-dormitorio/ Blog about Santa Cruz de la Sierra http://sczurbana.blogspot.com/2013/05/

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Videos Talk about informality by Robert Neuwirth https://www.ted.com/talks/robert_neuwirth_on_our_shadow_cities Urban Architecture Talks https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwgWM3h_l-4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hrmQjqgSB0s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aT8tcP02Bo PREVI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1R8t-uPqMOw Talk by Alejandro Aravena https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0I0Poe3qlg

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