Indian Environment Congress by Vinod PG

PROCEEDINGS OF

3rd INDIAN ENVIRONMENT CONGRESS

16 to 18 December 2004 Thiruvananthapuram

Co-ordinated by Centre for Environment and Development Sponsored by State Council for Science Technology and Environment Govt of Kerala and Tokyo Engineering Consultants Company Ltd. Tokyo, Japan

Proceedings of the Indian Environment Congress - 2004 Editor-in -Chief Dr Babu Ambat Editors Dr Vinod T R K D Nambudripad Dr T Sabu Dr C Bhaskaran Dr T Elangovan Published by

Centre for Environment and Development D1, Elankom Gardens, Vellayambalam Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Computer Graphics Soft & Soft, Sasthamangalam Thiruvananthapuram

Design : Godfreys Graphics Sasthamangalam, Thiruvananthapuram

Printed at : SB Press (P) Ltd., Thiruvananthapuram

FOREWORD Awareness about environment has grown tremendously all around the World in the recent years. The World Summits on Environment and Development have brought the nations closer so as to enable them to protect the environment from further degradation through joint efforts. As a follow-up of these Summits, India has also brought out National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement which is certainly a firm step towards achieving the above objective. Implementation of the aims and objectives of the Environment Policy will need support policies and systems for filling up gaps in the existing institutional systems, legislative instruments and enforcement mechanisms, research and development, mobilization of financial resources, creation of public awareness, and training of professionals. It will require strengthening of existing institutions at different levels and a close linkage among the compartmentalized sectors which have been historically dealt with by separate organisations. This calls for a change in the institutional mechanism for ensuring public participation, and will necessitate quick decision-making on developmental projects based on assessment of their potential for rendering longterm sustainable benefits to the society at large, particularly to the vulnerable sections. It should also require effective implementation of laws and regulations for environmental protection through strengthening of, and closer interaction among, the regulatory bodies and administrative machinery. As economic policies form the framework for a range of sectoral developments, it will be necessary to consider how these policies affect the quality and productivity of environmental resources. This will require a system of resource accounting along with cost-benefit analysis. India has a great tradition in Natural Resources Conservation and Environment Management and has organized many programmes and activities to achieve this goal. Programmes like this Indian Environment Congress have high relevance in this context. It provides a forum for discussing various issues on the technological, institutional and legislative aspects related to Environment and Sustainable Development. It also provides a platform for closer interaction of environmental scientists and technologists of various academic and technical institutions in the country. The main theme of this yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Congress is â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Environment and Developmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with four sub-themes: (i) Land and Water Resources Management, (ii) Environmental Sanitation and Health, (iii) Environmental Pollution and Control and (iv) Environmental Policy and Institutional Aspects. The proceedings is a compilation of selected research papers presented in the Congress. It also includes the Keynote address and Invited Presentations. We hope that the Indian Environment Congress and this proceedings will help to evolve programmes and strategies for environment and sustainable development. Dr M K Ramachandran Nair Vice Chancellor, University of Kerala Chairman, Organising Committee, IEC

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INDIAN ENVIRONMENT CONGRESS – PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE The Indian Environment Congress (IEC) was founded in the year 2002, at Palakkad in Kerala, by a group of environmentalists, academicians, engineers and social workers, under the aegis of the Environment Council of India. The Indian Environment Congress is registered as a society under the Societies Registration Act 21 of 1860, mainly to organize the national event every year at a suitable place in India. The first Congress was organized at the Municipal Town Hall, Palakkad, Kerala, under the joint auspices of the Environment Council of India, The Institution of Engineers (India), Palakkad Centre, and the N.S.S. College of Engineering, Palakkad, with the cooperation of many other government, private and voluntary organizations, and funded mainly by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. The second Congress was held at Karpagam College, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, in December 2003, with the cooperation of academic institutions and other government, private and voluntary organizations of Coimbatore, with the key role taken by the Karpagam group of institutions and the Petroleum Conservation Research Association. The third Indian Environment Congress is being held at Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, during 1618 December 2004. The Centre for Environment and Development is co-ordinating the Congress with the support from different agencies and institutions from the State and outside. The venue for the next year’s Congress will be decided at the venue of this Congress. As per the registered bye-law of the Indian Environment Congress, the responsibility of organizing the Indian Environment Congress is entrusted with a consortium, consisting of the past Chairmen and General Conveners of the Congress, and three members of the Environmental Council of India, headed by the seniormost past Chairman as the President. The venue for the next Congress will be decided by the interest shown by the delegates attending the Congress. Those desirous of hosting this national event in their hometown, in the future, may contact The President, Indian Environment Congress, Engineering College P.O., Palakkad – 678 008, Kerala {Telefax (Res): 0491-2556075, Mobile: 94470-56075, e-mail: sreemahadevanpillai@yahoo.com}. The Indian Environment Congress is a venue for serious academic and social interactions for the cause of the environment. Every year, a befitting theme will be selected for the Congress, to enable an in-depth insight into the selected theme. Environmentalists, researchers and academicians may utilize this forum for effectively transmitting their ideas. Politicians also may find this forum interesting, since the future of politics will not be free from environmental issues. Dr P R Sreemahadevan Pillai, President, IEC iv

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INDIAN ENVIRONMENT CONGRESS 2004 Indian Environment Congress is organized by the Indian Environment Council which is a society registered under Charitable Societies Act 1960 as an annual event. The objective of the Indian Environment Congress is to spread awareness regarding the latest technological developments in environment field, to encourage use of technical expertise of individuals/ groups/ organizations and to chalk out various measures for environment and sustainable development. IEC 2004 was coordinated by Centre for Environment and Development, an advanced research and training institute in Environment and Development. The Congress was sponsored by the Kerala State Council Science, Technology and Environment, and Tokyo Engineering Consultants Company Ltd, Tokyo, Japan. The focal theme of IEC 2004 was “Environment and Development”, with subthemes on Land and Water Resource Management, Environmental Sanitation & Health, Environmental Pollution & Control, and Environmental Policy & Institutional Aspects. The Congress focussed on the various aspects related to the themes with a national perspective. Policy and Institutional Aspects were covered in two sessions, one on Environmental Policy and the other on Institutional Aspects, with particular reference to the State of Kerala. The National Environmental Policy document formulated by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, was also a topic of discussion in the congress. The Congress could attract 180 registered delegates from most of the Indian States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Orissa and Gujarat. It is a happy augury that the delegates were a delightful blend of young and experienced, nascent and nurtured and with sizable representation of women. The Indian Environment Congress 2004 got off to an auspicious start in an Inaugural function presided over by the Chairman of the Organizing Committee, the Honourable Vice Chancellor of Kerala University, Dr. M. K Ramachandran Nair. The Honourable Minister for Water Resources and Parliamentary Affairs, Sri. Thiruvanchoor Radhakrishnan, inaugurated IEC-2004 in the gracious presence of dignitaries on and off the Dais. The Organisers have released both the ‘Abstracts’ and the voluminous ‘Proceedings of the Congress’ in the inaugural occasion itself. The programme included a Keynote Address, Theme Presentations by Stalwarts in the chosen areas of specialization and original Technical Paper presentations in oral and in poster forms. The Keynote Address and the Invited Presentations were delivered in four sessions and the presentations by the delegates were held in 3 parallel sessions besides the sessions for poster presentations. The keynote address on the inaugural day entitled “Sustainable Development of Oceans, Coastal, Land and Water Resources” by Dr K. Radhakrishnan, Director, INCOIS, Hyderabad, provided the fertile ground for fostering exciting deliberations on the sub–themes of the Congress. His enlightening talk also v

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culminated with setting the Agenda for the Coastal Ocean Development in the near future. He also succinctly highlighted the imperatives for sustainable development of land and water resources. The invited lectures by the eminent experts in the successive interspersed sessions served as the broader canvas on which the respective technical sessions could picturise further. The talks on “Integrated Land and Water Resources Management – Relevance of River Basin / Watershed Approach” by Dr. E.J James, “Environmental Sanitation and Health” by Dr. C.R. Soman, “Biodiversity Conservation and Management” by Dr. G. M Nair, “Environmental Pollution and Control” by Dr. A. K. Varma, “Environmental Policy and Institutional aspects” by Dr. K.R.S. Krishnan, and “Coastal Zone Management Policy” by Dr. M. Baba, were helpful in acquainting the participants with the latest developments in these areas of concern for Environment and Development. The discussion at the end of each of these invited lectures provided the energy for sustaining interest in the succeeding technical sessions. If it was the keynote address and invited lectures by accomplished scholars and research managers that provided the impetus for the lively setting for the succeeding technical sessions, it was the emphatic presentations of original technical research papers by budding scientists and upcoming academies that enabled the fulfillment of the objectives for which IEC-2004 was organized. In all, 73 technical oral presentations were made under the able guidance of the panelists. In all, 16 posters were exhibited and presented by scholars / scientists/ research students from various research institutions and Universities from all over the Country. To encourage scholars, the Indian Environment Congress-2004 had introduced five awards, one each for the best paper presentation in the four sub-themes, and another for the best poster presentation. The awardees are listed below: 1.

Aswathy M P, School of Environmental Sciences, M.G University, Kottayam.

Shyni D S, Research Scholar, Dept. of Environment Science, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.

Saravanan N, Lecturer, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Anna university, Chennai.

Geetanjoy Sahu, Research Scholar, Development Administration Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore

Surabhi Gupta and Sudeshna Dey, Research Scholars, Hindu College, University of Delhi, Delhi.

The awards were presented by Sri. V.Ramachandran Vice Chairman Planning board Govt. of Kerala after delivering the valedictory address. Valedictory function was presided over by Dr. SC Sharma, Chairman, CED. Dr Babu Ambat General Convenor, IEC-2004 and Executive Director, CED

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Contents Keynote Address Sustainable Development of Oceans, Coasts, Land and Water Resources The Emerging Scenario - Radhakrishnan K

Invited Presentation Integrated Land and Water Resources Management: Relevence of River Basin/Watershed Approach - James E J

Land and Water Resources Management 1. Environment and Development - Challenges and the Future in the Indian Context- Taylor C W P

2. Water Resources Scenario of Bharathapuzha River Basin - Dinesan V P, Anitha A B and Gopakumar R

3. Change in the Drainage pattern of Chalakudy River System after the Construction of Dams - Sujin J, Ajith Mohan and Roy Chacko P T

4. River Action Plans and Water Quality Improvement of the Ganges: Achievements, Issues and Way Forward - Sunil Kumar Karn, Hideki Harada, Lalit Agrawal, Phatta Thapa and Kazufumi Momose

5. Environmental and Biotic Status of the Kayal Ecosystems of Kerala - Bijoy Nandan S

6. Development of Inland Waterways in Kerala and its impact on Environment - Sreedevi B G

7. Impacts of Mudalapozhi harbour on the Coastal Environments of Anjengo, Trivandrum - Arunkumar K S and Sabu Joseph

8. Effect of El-nino on the Rainfall Pattern of Kerala - Sudheesh M V, Prasada Rao GSLHV and Manikandan N

9. Assessment of Groundwater Development Status in Agatti Island of Lakshadweep - Narasimha Prasad N B and Abdul Hameed E

10. Ground Water Quality Improvement through Artificial Recharge in Vadodara, Gujarat- Sejal H. Trivedi and Bhavnani H V

11. Rainwater Harvesting: A Sustainable and Safe Drinking Water Source for Lakshadweep Islands - Unni P N, Pradeep Kumar P K and James E J

12. Delineation of Watershed from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using Watershed Modeling System (WMS) - Celine George and George Abe

101

13. Mapping Wetlands of Kerala through Digital Classification of IRS LISS III Data - Ravindran K V, Gejo Anna Geevargese and Babu Ambat

104

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14. Water Resources Status and Environmental Conditions of Traditional Ponds in Neyyattinkara Municipal Area- Suvarna Kumari N

109

15. Effective Indigenous Practices for Eco-friendly Agricultural Production - Kumari Sushama N P, Geetha G. Nath and Bhaskaran C

113

16. Temperature Dependence of Methane Production in Anoxic Rice Soils Under Long-term Monocropping Management- Ramakrishnan B, Sharmistha Sinha, Lopamudra Ray, Samantaray R N, Mishra A K and Rao V R

116

17. Effective Land Resource Management for The Wet Land Rice-ecosystem in Kerala- Kuruvilla Varughese

120

18. Promotion of Organics for Sustained Vegetable Production - Kumari Sushama N P, Nazreen Hassan S and Bhaskaran C

122

19. Production of Different Type of Vermicomposts and its Application on Vigna Radiata (Greengram) - Kennedy V J F and Rajkumar Immauel S

127

20. The Effect of Awareness Campaign (Bodhavalkaranam) on Mangrove Vegetation in North Malabar Region - Lalitha C R and Raveendran K

130

21. Hydrologic Appraisal of Small Upland Watersheds under Different Land Covers - Jobin Thomas, George Abe, Celine George and Murugan M

134

22. Land Sand Mining – A new Environmental challenge Chandramoni C M and Anirudhan S

142

23. Rainwater Harvesting - An Overview - Bijli B F H R

148

24. Potentials of open water fish culture in net cages in Vembenad Lake, Kerala Padmakumar K G, Anuradha Krishnan, Shilja Joetreson, Martin Renold and Bindu L

25. A study on the sinuosity of Pannagon thodu of Meenachil River, Kottayam - A Remote sensing and GIS based approach Aswathy M V, Vijith H and Satheesh R

155

166

Environmental Sanitation and Health 26. Decentralised and Locale Specific Environmental Sanitation Programme for Anchuthengu – A Case Study of a Coastal Panchayat in Southern Kerala. - Shyni D S, Joy Elamon and Babu Ambat

177

27. Socio-economic and Health Status of Waste Collectors of Kollam Corporation and Their Involvement in Waste Recovery and Reduction - Thomas George and Prakasam V R

183

28. Prevalence of Pathogenic Fungi in Domestic Environment - Manuel Thomas, Abin Varghese, Abraham Samuel K and Kurian P

188

29. Effect of Recirculation Ratio on the Activated Sludge Process with Different Sludge Wastage Options - Mohan S and Ramesh S T

192

30. Disinfection of Domestic Wastewater using TiO2 Photocatalyst -Suja P. Devipriya and Suguna Yesodharan

196

31. Solid Waste Management by Incineration - Babu Alappat

201

32. Incinerator Ash - A Resource for reuse - Shrihari and D’Souza R G

205

33. Bio - Hydrogen Production from Kitchen Waste - Jayalakshmi S and Sukumaran V

209

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34. Role of environment on mental stress of women - Beela G K

215

35. Clean Kerala Mission- A Movement Towards Zero Waste Kerala - Ajaykumar Varma R

220

Environmental Pollution and Control 36. Ecology and Pollution of the Sasthamcotta Fresh Water Lake - A Review- Bhuvanendran C and Harikuttan Unnithan C

229

37. Environmental Hazards of Retting Zones in Kayamkulam Backwaters, Kerala- Kadeeja Beevi M, Sreekumar S and Bijoy Nandan S

233

38. Environmental Friendly Traffic System Management for Calicut City - Cini A and Nagaraj B N

239

39. Environmentally Conscious Design for Automobile Exhaust Emission Control - Mohan Kumar G, Sivaraj S, Chitambaran P R and Kandeepan A

243

40. Low Emission Gaseous Fuel for Diesel Engine System - Saravanan N, Nagarajan G and Rajendra Prasath B

247

41. Assessment of Physico-chemical and Microbiological Characteristics of Ground Water in Burdwan Municipal Area, Burdwan, West Bengal - Mallick T, Saha R, Datta J K, Gupta S and Mandal N K

252

42. Characterisation of Sugar and Textile Industrial Effluents - Kannan N, Karthikeyan G, Vallinayagam P and TamilSelvan N

257

43. Studies on the removal of Hazardous Acids by using Low Cost Indegineously Prepared Carbon - Sayee Kannan R, Sudha E, Veeraraj A and Kannan N

262

44. Studies on the Removal of Metal Ions by Various Cashewnut Shell - Kannan N and Rajakumar A

266

45. Optimisation of Process Parameters for Adsorption of Basic Dye using Response Surface Methodology - Kannan N, Meenakshi Sundaram M and Murugavel

271

46. Treatment of Radioactive Liquid Waste Containing EDTA Using Photo-fenton Oxidation as a Pre treatment Step Mani A G S, Paramasivan K, Chitra S, Sinha P K and Lal K B

276

47. Performance Evaluation of Iodine Filter Installations for a Nuclear Facility- Cheralathan M, Sumangala R K, Raj S S and Lal K B

281

48. Utilization of Treated Tannery Effluent for Growing Certain Tree Species - Rajan M R

286

49. The Impact of Effluent from MC. Dowell and H.R.B Company Ltd., Cherthala, Kerala on Vigna Sinensis, L. - Sheela D and Anila P S

290

50. Stress Tolerance in Fenvalerate-Exposed Air- Breathing Perch: Thyroidal and Ionoregulatory Responses - Peter M C S, Anand S B and Peter V S

294

51. Response of Blackgram (Vigna Mungo L.) Varieties For Dye Industry Effluent- Sundaramoorthy P, Sankar Ganesh K and Rajamohan S

299

52. Utilization of Textile Dye Industry Sludge for the Germination Studies of Some Tree Species - Rajamohan S, Natarajan S and Sundaramoorthy P

303

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53. Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Agricultural Materials - Shukla S R, Roshan S Pai and Amit D Shendarkar

307

54. Impact of Chromium on Germination, Growth and Biochemical Changes in Soybean Sankar Ganesh K, Selvaraju M and Sundaramoorthy P

313

55. Studies on Simultaneous Degradation of Phenol and 3-cholorobenzoate by Axenic and Mixed Bacterial Cultures - Jayachandran V P and Manonmani H K

317

56. Studies on the removal of Benzoic Acid by using Flyash â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Activated Carbon Blends - Kannan N and Xavier A

322

57. Synthesis, Characterisation and Application Phenol- Formaldehyde Resin Blended with Sulphonated Achyranthes Aspere and Terminalia Bellarica Charcoal - Kannan N and Seenivasan R K

326

58. Studies on the Removal of Lead Ions by Coconut Shell and Dates Nut Carbons - Kannan N and Balamurugan J

331

Environmental policy and institutional Aspects 59. Globalisation, Sustainable Development and Environment: An Inquiry into the Causes and Consequences Of Natural Resource Degradation in Kerala - Sreelakshmi K, Muraleedharan P K and Mini K,

337

60. Appraisal Of National Environmental Policy with Special Reference to Kerala State - Kamalakshan Kokkal, Gopan Mukkulath and Krishnan M

343

61. Sustainable Transportation Development - Elangovan, T

348

62. Environmental Improvement Schemes For Central Business Districts - Vijayakumar N and Sindhu N T

353

63. Environmental Audit Of Process Industries - A Case Study on Implementation and Experiences In Gujarat - Joshi P A and Dutta S M

359

64. Doctrine of Public Trust - Ganapathy Venkatasubramanian S and Lakshmanan T V

364

65. Equity Issue in Water Quality Management of Rivers - Murty Y S R

369

66. Price Elasticity of Water Demand - Satish S. Bhatavadekar

378

67. Participatory Irrigation Management: Legal Arrangements in Kerala State - George Chackacherry

381

68. Comparative Study on Water Pollution Control Laws, Regulations and Economic Instruments in Asia - Sunil Kumar Karn

386

69. Internalising Externalities in Aquaculture for Sustainable Development - Sunitha Ninan, Shyam S Salim and Ganesh Kumar

393

70. Pollution Prevention Strategies for Environmental Protection - Senthil Kumaran D and Sambathkumar V

402

71. Institutional Response to Environmental Pollution and Control: Role of Judiciary in India - Geetanjoy Sahu

406

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Keynote Address

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF OCEANS, COASTS, LAND AND WATER RESOURCESTHE EMERGING SCENARIO Radhakrishnan K Vice Chairman of Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Founder Director, Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, DOD [Formerly, Mission Director, Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development, ISRO/DOS] INCOIS, “Ocean Valley”, P.B 21, IDA Jeedimetla PO, Hyderabad 500 055 radhakr@incois.gov.in

1. INTRODUCTION The vital role of ocean, water, vegetation and other natural resources for sustaining life on the Planet Earth has been recognised in India from its ancient past. The current generation has an onerous responsibility to ensure that the environment where we all live and the development process that we drive in for us are in harmony to leave behind a better world for the posterity. With the growing population and the consequent demand on natural resources and environment in general, it is imperative to adopt a comprehensive and integrated view in space and time for the development process. Practices borne out of ignorance, negligence and lop-sided priorities established by power groups, coupled with natural calamities and the complex behavioural pattern of the natural systems compound the problem. Environmentally sound development process is thus a matter of serious concern and an integral subset of the larger national objectives of any country. 2. FROM “SILENT SPRING” TO “WSSD” OVER FOUR DECADES The turning points of the last four decades in our understanding of the linkage between environment and development and moblising actions at global, regional and national level towards sustainable development are as follows: V

The year 1962 is considered as the seminal year in which people began to understand the close linkage between environment and development. The book “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson, in 1962 shattered the assumption that the environment had an infinite capacity to absorb pollutants. In 1963 and International Biological Programme, a ten-year study was initiated by several nations around the world and this laid the foundation for a science-based environmentalism. In 1968, there were several significant events. Paul Ehrlich published a book “Population Bomb”, bringing out the connection between human population, resource exploitation and the environment. The Club of Rome commissioned a 3

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study to model and analyse the dynamic interactions between industrial production, population, environmental damage, food consumption and natural resource usage. The UNESCO organized the Intergovernmental Conference on Rational Use and Conservation of Biosphere that provided a forum for early discussions of the concept of ecologically sustainable development. In 1968, the UN General Assembly authorized the Human Environment Conference to be held at Stockholm in 1972. V

The United Nations Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972 marked the beginning of a new era on underscoring the imperative for preservation and enhancement of the human environment. The Stockholm declaration was the tacit expression by the global community of the need for a common outlook and enunciation of a set of principles for moving forward in this direction. The World Environment Day was established by the UN General Assembly to mark the opening of the Stockholm Conference. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) was also created by a resolution on the same day. Environment and Development Action in the Third World with a focus on Africa (1972), launching of European Environmental Action Plan (1973), the US Act on Endangered Species, and the Chipko Movement of India, followed. The Chipko movement was borne in 1973 in response to deforestation and environmental degradation and in this movement, women played a major role. In 1974, a seminal paper by Rowland and Molina in Nature brought out that if human use of CFC gases was to continue at an unaltered rate, the ozone layer would be depleted substantially after several years. In 1980, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) released World Conservation Strategy that defined development as the modification of the biosphere and the application of human, financial, living and non-living resources to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of life. In 1980, US authorised a study leading to the “Global 2000” report that recognised for the first time biodiversity as a critical characteristic in the proper functioning of the planetary ecosystem and asserted that the robust nature of ecosystem is weakened by species extinction. In 1982, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was adopted, establishing material rules concerning environmental standards as well as enforcement provisions dealing with pollution of the marine environment. In 1983 the United Nations appointed the World Commission on Environment and Development an international commission to propose strategies for “sustainable development” - ways to improve human well-being in the short term without threatening the local and global environment in the long term. The Commission was chaired by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, and its report “Our Common Future”, published in 1987 was widely known as “The Brundtland Report”. This landmark report helped trigger a wide range of actions, including the UN “Earth Summits” in 1992 and 2002, the International Climate Change

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Convention and worldwide “Agenda 21” programmes. V

The UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)-Earth Summitheld in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 resulted in the publication of Agenda 21, the convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Rio Declaration and a statement of non-binding Forest Principles. This was a significant milestone that set a new agenda for sustainable development. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held at Johannesburg in 2002 focussed the world’s attention and direct action toward meeting difficult challenges, including improving people’s lives and conserving our natural resources in a world that is growing in population, with ever-increasing demands for food, water, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and economic security. The outcome of WSSD are (a) Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, (b) the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and (c) Partnership initiatives to strengthen the implementation of Agenda 21.

3. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF OCEAN AND COASTS 3.1. The Importance of Oceans and Coasts V V

Oceans and coasts are an integral part of the global sustainable development. Ocean occupies 72% of the Earth’s surface. The coasts that comprise 20% of the Earth’s surface contain over 50% of the entire human population as of now, and this is expected to grow to 75% by the year 2025. More than 70% of the world’s mega cities (greater than 8 million inhabitants) are located in coastal areas. Coastal ecosystems are highly productive; they yield 90% of global fisheries and produce 25% of global biological productivity. Also, they are responsible for cleaning and chemically reprocessing the ever-increasing flow of artificial fertilizers and other side products of modern economic activities. Over 500 million people depend on coral reefs for food and income. Ocean and coasts support a diverse array of activities yielding enormous economic and social benefits through (i) marine transportation, accounting for 90% of international trade, (ii) coastal and offshore mineral resources, providing about 25 to 30% of the world’s energy supplies, (iii) fisheries, providing direct and indirect livelihood for 400 million people apart from its vital contribution to food security, (iv) marine aquaculture, a rapidly growing industry accounting for 30% of the world’s fish consumption, and (v) coastal tourism. The Indian Ocean, the third-largest of the world’s five Oceans, has a coastline of 66,526 kilometers, and more than half of the world’s population residing around it; primarily in agrarian societies. The bi-annual reversal of monsoon winds and currents in the Indian Ocean is a unique phenomenon. A major contributor of several greenhouse gases, a storehouse for 40% of worlds offshore oil production, a major means of navigation, poorest among the oceans in terms of fish productivity (with a share of 10% of the world’s fish catch) as well as an ideal laboratory to observe 5

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and study the chemical interaction between the gases, particulate matter and clouds, Indian Ocean has been a subject of serious concern for the countries around this region as well as the international community. The Bay of Bengal, with major inflow of fresh water from the rivers and high precipitation during monsoons, has been a major driver of synoptic atmospheric systems such as low pressure, depression and cyclones that affect the east coast of India. The Arabian Sea, with major upwelling systems along the Somali coast and south-west Indian coast, sustain highly productive ecosystems; however, a pronounced oxygen-minimal layer near the west coast of India has also been reported. India has a coastline of about 7,500 kilometers, and the Seas around India directly influence the life of about 370 million coastal populations and the livelihood of 7 million fishing community. V

Ocean has a significant role in the weather and climate system because of its ability to store and transport heat, fresh water and carbon over a wide range of time and space scales. It is well known that the heat capacity of the upper 3 metres of the Ocean corresponds to the heat capacity of the entire atmosphere. It is well known that our country, especially the east coast is frequently affected by storm surges (up to even 6-7 metres high) induced by tropical cyclones. Developing capability for timely and reliable forecast of the height of such surges at the probable land fall, points is of paramount importance for identifying the likely inundation zones. Understanding the biological, physical and chemical environment is essential for sustainable development of the fragile marine ecosystem. Operational oceanography and delivery of information service to the society, government and industry especially in the context of sustainable development of the coastal and marine ecosystem, weather prediction, disaster management and environmental monitoring form a subset of larger socio-economic national objectives of any maritime country.

3.2. Oceans and Coasts at WSSD An integral part of the global sustainable development process, oceans, coasts and islands support a diverse array of activities yielding enormous economic and social benefits. The Earth Summit of 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) of 2002 brought the global community to address holistically and collectively, among other issues, the ecological, economic, and social importance of oceans, coasts, and islands for the global well-being and to prepare a time-bound action plan that need to be implemented with synergy of several actors. It is heartening to note that ocean, coasts and islands received the due importance in the WSSD, as indicated in its major outcomes viz. (a) Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, (b) the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and (c) Partnership initiatives to strengthen the implementation of Agenda 21. The WSSD has given a time-bound action plan over a wide spectrum of areas covering fisheries, biodiversity and ecosystem functions, marine pollution, maritime transportation, marine science, small islands, developing States and several related cross-sectoral aspects.

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3.3. The Vision and Perspective Plan 2015 for Ocean Development in India Our recognition of the intricate and long-term role that the ocean plays in determining our environment and the equally critical role that we play in modifying its characteristics coupled with our realisation of the incompleteness of the understanding that we have on this complex process, have been the driving force for setting out, in the year 2002, a Vision and Perspective Plan 2015 for Ocean Development in India. The mission is to improve our understanding of the ocean, especially the Indian Ocean, for sustainable development of ocean resources, improving livelihood, and for timely warnings of coastal hazards. The Vision 2015 hinges around improving our understanding of ocean processes through conceiving and implementing long-term observational programmes and incubating cutting edge marine technology so that we are able to (i) improve understanding of the Indian Ocean and its various inter-related processes, (ii) assess the living and non-living resources of our seas and their sustainable level of utilization, (iii) contribute to the forecast of the course of the monsoon and extreme events, (iv) model sustainable uses of the coastal zone for decision-making, (v) forge partnerships with Indian Ocean neighbours through the awareness and concept of one ocean, (vi) secure recognition for the interests of India and the Indian Ocean in regional and international bodies. This vision is congruent with the WSSD outcome on oceans, coasts and islands. 4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCES-A NATIONAL ENDEVOUR IN INDIA The Earth Summit (1992) reinforced by the WSSD (2002) emphasized the need for better monitoring the natural resources of Earth, including land and water resources. In India, the severe drought conditions that prevailed in the country during 1987-88 prompted the remote sensing community to combat the drought and pursue the direction of sustainable development. The Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) was then conceived in the early 90â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s as a national endeavour to enrich the planning process for the development of land and water resources in the country using remote sensing satellite data and GIS,. This mission is the epitome of the confluence of scientific knowledge, administrative acumen and local wisdom to reach the benefits of space technology to the common man. About 25 % of the spatial area of the country chosen from 175 districts was covered by IMSD. A comprehensive data base with seven layers of thematic information generated for these areas which facilitated generation of action plans for development of land and water resources. IMSD is reported to be the largest remote sensing application experiment ever done in the world using a meticulous participatory approach.

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REFERENCES: Anthony Charles, 2001. Sustainable Fishery Systems, Fish and Aquatic Resources Series 5, Blackwell Science, UK John G field, Gotthiff Hempel and Colin Summerhayes, 2002. Oceans 2020: Science, Trends, and the Challenge of Sustainability, Island Press, Washington. NRSA, 2002. Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development: Path to Progress, National Remote Sensing Agency, Department of Space Radhakrishnan K, 1999. Some Strategies for the Management of the Indian Earth Observation System, Doctoral Thesis, IIT Kharagpur, Chapter 9-A Case study on Watershed Development UNESCO, 2002. One Planet, One Ocean-Sustainable Development of Oceans and Coasts: a Commitment of 129 Member States at Johannesburg, IOC Information series No 1172 United Nations, 2002. Report of the World Summit on sustainable Development, Johannesburg A/CONF.199/20, United Nations publication Web Sites of UN-DESA. Division for Sustainable Development. United Nations Environment programme and International Institute for Sustainable Development.

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Invited Presentation

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INTEGRATED LAND AND WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: RELEVANCE OF RIVER BASIN/WATERSHED APPROACH James E J Executive Director Center for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode 673 571

SHIFTING PARADIGMS The last few decades have witnessed the recognition that the Earth’s resources are finite and call for implementation strategies which ensure the maintenance of these resources to future generations. At the same time, development is undoubtedly a desirable economic and social objective which seems to achieve or maximize a number of attributes such as: increased income, improvements in health and nutrition status, educational achievements, access to resources and a ‘fairer’ distribution of income (Pearce et al 1990). The World Conservation Strategy (WCS), brought out by UNEP, WWF and IUCN, acknowledged that ‘development and conservation are equally necessary for our survival’ (IUCN et al 1980). The strategies outlined by WCS include: (i) the maintenance of essential ecological processes within ‘life support ecosystems’ such as agricultural land and soil, forests, and coastal and freshwater wetlands; (ii) the preservation of genetic diversity; and (iii) the promotion of sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems. The concept of ‘eco-development’ advanced by the WCS was brought into the realm of political development by the establishment of the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1983. The Commission’s report Our Common Future renewed the debate over sustainable development, defining it as “development that meets the needs of present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Several new paradigms are being propounded to achieve the goal of sustainable development of natural resources, one such being ‘ecosystem’ approach. The concept of a ‘holistic approach’ is relatively easy to preach but difficult to practise, mainly because it encompasses not only the domains of physical and natural sciences but also that of social sciences. To achieve success in natural resources management for sustainability, it is necessary to carefully plan for bringing together the two important components, namely (i) the complex web of interactions in nature, and (ii) still more complex web of interrelationships among human needs, expectations and value systems. 11

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In such an approach, sustainability calls for due consideration of economic, social, environmental and institutional aspects (Fig 1). The need for integrated approaches to water resources management and the linking of water management to land use has been stressed in several national and international forums in recent years. Ensuring availability of freshwater and other environmental components to the ever-increasing population is one of the greatest challenges of the present and future generations. One of the most important conferences preceding and feeding into the Rio Conference was the International Conference on Water and

SO CI AL

RO VI EN

T EN NM

IC OM ON EC

IT ST IN

IO UT

L NA

Fig.1 Factors determining the sustainability of watershed management Environment held in Dublin in January 1992. Principle 1 of the Dublin Statement reads: â&#x20AC;&#x153;Since water sustains life, effective management of water resources demands a holistic approach, linking social and economic development with protection of natural ecosystemsâ&#x20AC;? (ICWE 1992). These recommendations were subsequently incorporated into Chapter 18 of the Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. Agenda 21, Chapter 18 stresses the need for the Protection of Quality and Supply of Freshwater Resources, which calls for integrated water resources management, including the integration of land and water-related aspects to be carried out at the level of the catchment, basin or sub-basin (UNCED 1992). It is worthwhile to note that the UN General Assembly held in June 1997, while examining the progress on sustainable development, made a call for the formulation and implementation of policies and programmes for integrated watershed (basin) management. In such a river basin management, it is essential to ensure the involvement of all stakeholders, encourage public participation, raise public awareness, build capacity and develop appropriate institutional structures. All these will help in building a consensus and resolving conflicts of interests; such exercises are essential for effective natural resources management (Anonymous 1997). LAND-WATER LINKAGES There should be a shift from the present land/water dichotomy, apparent in UNCED Agenda 21, towards an integral concept of the land as a system traversed by water, 12

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with land use depending on access to water (among other factors) and at the same time, affecting the passing water in its pathways, seasonality, yield and quality. Man depends on access to water in the landscape for several parallel functions. These include human and community health and well-being; biomass production; other forms of socio-economic production; the maintenance of habitats for ecological protection; and the transport of soluble and solid materials such as nutrients, pollutants and sediments. The water passing through a landscape is influenced by human activities in that landscape, and may therefore present problems which must be anticipated and met by mitigating measures (FAO 1993). Water may sustain land use but may also be a constraint on land use and socio-economic and biomass production. At the same time, land use influences water characteristics by its partitioning of incoming rainfall between the vertical return flow to the atmosphere as evaporation and evapotranspiration, and the horizontal flow to aquifers and rivers, classified as ‘blue water’. The various functions listed herein, related to human activities, also affect both physical and chemical characteristics of water, as shown in Table 1 (Falkenmark 1993).

Table 1. Land qualities at different levels A. ATMOSPHERIC QUALITIES Q Atmospheric moisture supply: rainfall, evaporation, dew formation. Q Atmospheric energy for photosynthesis: temperature, daylength, sunshine conditions. Q Atmospheric conditions for crop ripening, harvesting and land preparation: dry-spell occurrence.· Q Liability to atmospheric calamities: hazard of tornadoes, hailstorms, etc. B. LAND COVER QUALITIES Q Value of the standing vegetation as “crop” (e.g. timber). Q Value of the standing vegetation as germ plasm (biodiversity value). Q Value of the standing vegetation as protection against soil degradation. Q Value of the standing vegetation as protection for crops and cattle against adverse atmospheric influences. Q Hindrance of vegetation at introduction of crops and pastures: the land “development” costs. C. LAND SURFACE QUALITIES Q Surface receptivity as seedbed: the tilth condition. Q Surface treadibility: the bearing capacity for cattle, machinery etc. Q Surface limitations for the use of implements (stoniness, stickiness, etc.): the arability

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Spatial regularity of soil and terrain pattern: the degree of freedom at determining the size and shape of fields with a capacity for uniform management. Accessibility of the land: the degree of remoteness from means of transport. Surface water storage capacity of the terrain: the presence or potential of “waterholes”, on-farm reservoirs, bunds, fish ponds, etc. Surface propensity to yield runoff water (for local water harvesting or downstream water supply). Accumulation position of the land: degree of fertility renewal and /or crop damaging by overflow or over blow.

D. SOIL PROFILE QUALITIES Q Physical soil fertility: the net moisture storage capacity in the rootable zone. Q Physical soil toxicity: the presence or hazard of waterlogging in the rootable zone (i.e. the absence of oxygen or the excess of CO2 ). Q Chemical soil fertility: the availability of plant nutrients. Q Chemical soil toxicity: salinity or salinization hazard; excess of exchangeable aluminium.· Q Biological soil fertility: the N-fixation capacity of the soil biomass; the microbial capacity for the transformation of fresh soil organic matter into readily available plant nutrients. Q Biological soil toxicity: the presence or hazard of soil-borne pests and diseases. E. SUBSTRATUM QUALITIES Q Groundwater level and quality in relation to (irrigated) land use. Q Substratum potential for water storage (local use) and conductance (downstream use). Q Presence of unconfined freshwater aquifers. Q Substratum (and soil profile) suitability for foundation works (buildings, roads, canals, etc.). Q Substratum (and soil profile) as source of construction materials.

Source: Sombroek 1994 For his use of natural resources, man must manipulate the landscape that contains them. Natural laws operating in that landscape produce side effects, often designated as ‘environmental impacts’. For instance, changes in land use alter two ‘joints’, or boundaries in the soil profile that determine the partitioning of incoming water. The first of these boundaries, at the soil surface, serves as a division between over land flows and infiltration. The other, in the root zone, is a partition between the “green 14

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waterâ&#x20AC;? accessible in the root zone, later to be used in plant production, and the surplus water that flows on to recharge aquifers or other water bodies. The land based phases of the hydrologic cycle are given in Fig. 2 rainfall

evapotranspiration interception

infiltration

evaporation

overland flow throughflow

evaporation

soil moisture storage

transpiration

ground-water storage

evaporation

baseflow

streamflow ocean

Fig 2 Land based part of hydrologic cycle

The characteristics of land and anthropogenic activities will have an impact on the land-based phases of the hydrologic cycle. The human interventions cascades through the water cycle, producing secondary effects on terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems, and thus the sustainability of the environment and of natural resources development and management. The resulting problem profiles are quite different in different hydroclimatic regions â&#x20AC;&#x201C;their occurrence and weight as well as severity (Table2). Table 2. Effects of human action on physical and chemical water flow determinants Activity Sector

Altered physical flow determinants relief

urbanisation industry agriculture forest management tourism

* * * *

plant cover *

soil *

drainage density *

Input of chemicals air

land *

* *

* * * *

water * * *

Degree of problem severity: *higher, o lower 15

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HOLISTIC LAND CHARACTERISATION AND DEVELOPMENT There has been a lack of understanding on the linkages between the hydrological, geomorphological, and pedological processes and the plant nutrients dynamics at landscape level, as well as the implications of soil and water resources conservation and development in the whole river basin environment. Those involved in different sectors of resources development looked at the land units differently (Sombroek 1994). For example, soil specialists gave much weight to soil profile characterization and classification and their mapping work centered on these classification units. Hydrologists had their own methodologies, concentrating on the lateral dynamics of water resources, and rarely using landscape units as unifying criteria. Irrigation and drainage specialists believed in spatial units on the basis of rigid observations without considering soil-water properties. Soil fertility and fertilizer promotion specialists rarely considered soil classification criteria and soil mapping units and followed a grid system. Vegetation and forestry specialists also did not pay attention to land units. Civil engineers had their own sampling techniques disregarding information available with other disciplines. All these mono-disciplinary activities often resulted in a tangle of boundaries of land management units when maps of field information for different natural resources had to be combined. Physical geographers have been trying all along to advocate a landscape and catchment approach. However, geomorphologists were often in disagreement on a unified approach; several fancy schemes on geomorphodynamics were developed by them but not one single classification scheme on landforms to be understood by nonspecialists on the subject. However, the “catena” concept of Milne, “land system” approach of Australia, “geo-pedo-morpho-hydrological” and “landscape-ecological concepts of Trall, Tricart and others (Vink 1986) are worth mentioning. The degree of holism hinges on the definition of “Land”; one such definition is given below: “ Land is a delineable portion of the earth’s terrestrial surface, encompassing all attributes of the biosphere immediately above or below this surface, including those of the near-surface climate, the soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology (including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and associate groundwater and geohydrological reserve, the plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and the physical results of past and present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, etc)” (Sombroek, Brinkman and Gommes 1993). In this holistic approach, a unit of land has both a vertical aspect – from atmospheric climate down to groundwater resources, and a horizontal aspect – an identifiable repetitive sequence of soil, terrain, hydrological and vegetation or land use elements (“landscape”, “land unit”, or “terroir” units. Mineral resources and deeper geohydrological resources (confined aquifers) would, however, be excluded from land attributes. 16

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It is possible in this definition of Land to integrate all compartments vertically: from groundwater-related qualities through qualities of soil profile, soil surface, slope position and vegetation cover, to overhead climatic qualities (Table 3). It is also necessary to integrate all aspects horizontally at the landscape level, in which approach physical geographers take into account typical, micro-geographically repetitive elements of terrain, top or plateau, scarp or upper slope, main slope, lower slope or springline, bottomland or flood plain; with their mutual influences whether natural or under current land use. This influence can be in the sense of internal hydrology (for instance, rainfall traversing into soil of the plateau and surfacing at the springline, including the lateral movement of chemical substances such as salts and silica), or the surface transport of soil material through erosion from upper slopes and accumulating in the bottomland or flood plain (Falkenmark 1993). Both these influences can be detrimental or positive at the receiving end, depending on the rate of transport and the prevailing climatic conditions. The lateral influence also relates to chemical soil fertility. Nutrients may be transferred downslope by natural processes, or from outlying land to arable fields near homesteads in traditional farming systems (Fig. 3).

(1) Local nutrient mining (2) Nutrient harvesting (3) Local nutrient enrichment (4) Natural nutrient import (5) Anthropic nutrient export (6) Anthropic nutrient import (7) Possible nutrient fatigue (8) Integrated nutrient husbandry

Fig 3 Landscape-related nutrient dynamics in mixed farming systems

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Table 3. Sustainability problems in different hydroclimates Region

waste-related human Indust.

Biomass related agric Fuel Forest. wood

Water-dependence-related Water Energy Water underuse supply over use

Rapid pop growth

Temp. Dry trop Humid trop

Degree of problem severity: higher, lower Problems of water over-use and under-use can occur simultaneously, for example in different parts of the water cycle, eg ‘green’ and ‘blue’ waters

SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER MANAGEMENT The management of freshwater has been one of the greatest challenges faced by the present generation. It is estimated that one-sixth of humanity does not have access to freshwater and twice that number lack sanitation facilities. Moreover, freshwater is needed for sustaining the environment with all its biodiversity. As the population increases and people resort to unsustainable development activities, pollution and environmental degradation take place, bringing down the quality and quantity of available freshwater. All these are expected to have their impact on health and economic and social status of people. Most of the freshwater is used to grow food. While the daily drinking water requirement of a person is a few litres, around 2000-5000 litres of water are needed to produce the daily food requirements of an individual. Agriculture now accounts for over 80 per cent of the water consumed in the world. It is estimated that about 15 per cent more water would be needed to meet the food requirement in 2030. Presently, 60 per cent of water used for irrigation is wasted and a 10 per cent improvement in irrigation efficiency could double the water supply for the poor. There are some limitations in achieving equity as far as water is concerned. In the past, water has been taken for granted and it has been an ‘open access’ resource. As it becomes scarce, it goes mainly to those who have the political power and economic capital to appropriate it by controlling the sources and distribution channels. For water as well as for other resources, the following three pillars ensure sustainable development:

·· ·

People- nature issues – management of resources People- machine issues – technologies for water People- people interactions – institutional mechanisms

Two vicious cycles are identified in the context of water shortage (Khosla 2003). In the first case – the vicious cycle of poverty and water - lack of clean water leads to disease, loss of productive time and financial costs, which in turn lead to loss of disposable income and therefore to inability to pay for clean water, which in turn 18

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leads to further deterioration of health and productivity, which in turn leads to loss of income, and so on. The second, perhaps not so obvious, outcome is the vicious cycle of affluence and influences. Those who can afford to do so buy high quality water for all their needs, and ensure that they are adequately insulated from the impacts of the general scarcity of the resource. This is not a minor phenomenon: the money spent today in many countries on bottled drinking water is comparable to the total funds spent by public agencies on drinking water supply. The rich no longer have a major stake in the quality and performance of the public service and little incentive to use their influence to change policies or investment priorities. The result is a move towards privatization of services for the rich and marginalisation of the services accessed by the poor. NEED FOR INTEGRATED RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT Effective management links land and water uses across the whole of catchment area or groundwater aquifer. This was stressed in the First Session of the Committees on Natural Resources (CNR) 1993, which underlined the importance of a holistic approach to water and land management, integration of water and soil strategies and an initial problem diagnosis of major river basins. The CNR specifically requested the FAO to take appropriate steps to develop integrated water-soil-land use management strategies for sustainable development and conservation of the natural resource base. The recommendations of FAO on the framework for landscape/river basin management are given below:

coordination of upstream and downstream aspects of water management; integration of multiple uses of water including irrigation, drainage, aquaculture and livestock, rural and urban domestic water use, industrial and hydropower water uses, flood protection, environmental and health aspects;

conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources; and

integration of water quantity and quality considerations.

The integrated water resources management is based on the concept of water being an integral part of an ecosystem, a natural resource and a social and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilisation (UN 1992). The World Bank (1996) states that degrading the quantity and quality of water in rivers, lakes, wetlands and aquifers can inextricably alter the water resources system and its associated biota, affecting present and future generations. The holistic management of freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national economic and social policy, are of paramount importance to ensure sustainable use of water. The inter-connected nature of river systems means that successful water management requires the adoption of methods which consider all the activities within an area instead of focusing on only one or perhaps a small number of limited objectives. The river 19

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basin provides the natural unit for such an approach. According to Young et al (1994), the fact that water interacts with and, to a large extent, controls other natural components within a basin such as soils, vegetation and wildlife suggests that human activities, which are so strongly influenced by water availability and quality, might best be coordinated within administrative structure which reflect river basins. This management approach should enable the incorporation of both upstream and downstream considerations into decision making and subsequently the management of water resources. It should also help to avoid the problems associated with the isolated, often short-slighted, use of water- land resources in one area which often have knock on impacts elsewhere within the river basins. In the context of a river basin, it is a natural integrator of all hydrologic processes within its boundaries and therefore a rational and ideal unit for soil, water and biomass management. These resources are closely linked and can be rightly designated as a ‘trinity’ in the context of a basin/watershed. If one among this trinity, namely, the bioresources, is overexploited by deforestation, more soil erosion and degradation will take place; this in turn will have its impact on water balance and flora and fauna as such. There is a close interaction between soil structure, plant nutrient availability and soil moisture, all of which have direct impact on potential biomass production. Increasing water use efficiency in rainfed dryland agriculture is a question of converting unproductive water losses to productive transpiration flow and satisfy crop water demand during all stages of crop growth. Options for achieving this are found within the framework of integrated soil-water-crop management on a catchment level, including integrated systems for plant nutrient restitution, crop management techniques, water harvesting systems, soil and water conservation measures, etc. Four crucial questions have to be answered before introducing management activities:

Is there enough biomass to satisfy all the consumptive needs and also maintain a system of in-situ biomass rotation? Does there exist a water surplus for supplementary irrigation as a safeguard for sufficient local biomass production? Are the proposed measures economically feasible and socio-culturally acceptable by the rural community? Would increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration have a positive influence on water use efficiency in practice?

Water resources and river basin management in Asia can be viewed at a range of scales. Some of the local level water management practices followed for hundreds of years include:

· ·

Small dykes with simple sluice gates covering 2-4 ha of rice fields in the mangroves of Vietnam; Lined tanks of Thar Desert in India and the kundi consisting of a tank surrounded by hardened surface with mud that funnels rainwater;

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Contour bunds constructed in the hillslopes in different parts of India and Pakistan; Wells dug in the downstream portion of the bunds to provide water for the livestock; etc.

These types of local scale integration rarely grew into river basin scales in Asia, though several major hydraulic structures were constructed in the later half of the twentieth century. For the purpose of concepts, frameworks and strategies, distinction should be made between different geographic entities and scales, namely: (i) local, village-level landscapes (ii) sub-catchment areas (iii) whole catchments within a climatic zone – parallel catchment series in the coastal zone, river basin catchment areas, major lake catchment areas; (iv) international river basins traversing distinct climatic zones. In each of the above scales or levels of geographic aggregation, a multi-disciplinary and holistic approach is warranted and feasible. One of the attempts made in Philippines to achieve basin-wide management is worth mentioning. The National Power Corporation of Philippines is in full control of Angat River Basin, and has succeeded in achieving multiple objectives. These include (i) maintenance of the watershed’s capacity to support and sustain the generation of electricity by maintaining adequate forest cover and minimize, if not control, soil erosion; (ii) regulating land use activities and controlling exploitation of forest resources; (iii) improving socio-economic conditions of human population within the river basin and ensuring their participation in watershed management and protection; and (iv) generating income from agricultural plantations to partially subsidise the cost of watershed management and development. Another attempt towards achieving integrated river basin management in Asia has been done in the Mekong basin of 7,95,000 km2 area; the river is the longest in Southeast Asia and twelth longest in the world. The six riparian countries of the river include China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Myanmar. The governments of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam gave birth to Mekong Secretariat. In 1995, an international agreement was signed by the lower riparian countries, brokered by UNDP. The Council of Ministers of Mekong River Commission is supported by senior water officials in a Joint-Committee, who are in turn, aided by experts and technical staff of the Mekong River Commission Secretariat. The diagnostic study carried out has helped in coming out with Mekong Basin Development Plan. The immediate challenge is to find acceptable ways of progressing towards a goal, the sustainable development of the water environment, which is conceptual and subject to review as ideas are refocused in the light of experience. A series of paths of evolution can be followed towards integrated river basin management and sustainable 21

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development of land and water (Fig. 4). Sustainable development of land and water environment requires a step-by-step approach which, by following a number of pathways and combining asset management, catchment management and land-use planning and control, will shift the emphasis from single function investment in resources development.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR WATER ENVIRONMENT

PRESENT SITUATION

SINGLE FUNCTION INVESTMENT

ASSET MANAGEMENT PLANNING

CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT PLANNING

LAND USE PLANNING AND CONTROL

INTEGRATED CATCHMENT PLANNING

Fig 4 Pathways to sustainable development of the land and water

Conflicts Between Upstream-downstream Stakeholders in River Basins of Indian Sub-continent Introductory The large-scale population growth in India paved the way for great pressure on land, water, and bio-resources of the river basins. The land use pattern underwent several changes, as manifested by deforestation, urbanisation, and distribution of infrastructure facilities. Several water resources development projects came into existence during the past five decades to meet the demand of water to cater to different requirements. However, all these changes and developments took place without giving due weightage to an integrated and sustainable management of the river basins. The concept of river basin as a unit for planning and management of the resources did not receive due recognition. This has often resulted in the over-use and mismanagement of the resources in the upstream sub-basins, while the downstream reaches often faced water shortage and even water quality problems. Uncontrolled water use upstream often adversely affected the ecology of the downstream reaches. In certain cases, the claim of upper 22

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riparians adversely affected the farmers in the delta region, who depended on their irrigated crops for many decades. Many of the river basins in the subcontinent are spread over more than one federal state of this vast nation and some of the rivers flowing through the north of India have their basins in more than one country. The interstate and international rivers add to the gravity of the problem, since there is no coordination among the upper and lower riparian federal states and countries. Even within a state, proper coordination of different departments and agencies and understanding among actual stakeholders do not exist. All these have led to imbalances in water availability, quality, and use pattern in different sub-basins within a river basin. Many stakeholders have come up with grievances and several agitations and disputes have resulted. Some such water disputes are referred to special tribunals and courts of the country. Need for Cross-Sectoral and Interdisciplinary Approach : Case Study of Ganges â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Brahmaputra-Meghna Delta The flood waters of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna provided multiple benefits to the people of the delta in the past (Hughes et al 1994). These include agricultural production, fisheries, and grazing. Very often, different water management activities have a tendency to conflict with one another. Some stakeholders may have an upper hand over another, which can create hindrance to the wise use of the wetlands. These aspects are highlighted from the case study of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta. Many of the international river basins of Asia do not have any form of international management organisation to ensure an integrated approach towards water management interventions. For example, Ganges-Brahmaputraâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Meghna system has several water control interventions. According to Hughes et al (1994), these have played a major role in altering the hydrology of the basin and have been the subject of intense regional controversy. The large-scale water diversion from the upstream for irrigation and navigational purposes have contributed to the progressive drying out of a number of water bodies throughout the downstream reaches. Water shortages in the dry season have contributed to serious constraint to crop production. Therefore, there is a need for international cooperation to avoid upstream-downstream imbalances and for the wise-use of tidal areas. The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is shared by India, Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Republic of China, Nepal, Bangladesh and Bhutan. While managing the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system, necessary importance has to be given to the Sundarbans, situated in the deltaic region of these rivers in India and Bangladesh. The Saunderbans covers an area of 1,600,000 ha of land and water, and is the largest continuous block of mangroves in the world. There are 27 species of mangrove trees within the Sunderbans. The mangroves make up 45% of the productive forest in India and Bangladesh and constitute the single largest source of wood and other forest products (Dugan 1993). The mangroves also provide other minor forest products, such as wood chips, crust leather, plywood, glues and honey. The mangroves support extremely important fisheries. It is reported that these wetlands have lost two 23

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species of reptiles, seven species of birds, and five species of mammals. In addition, several other mammal species are now considered threatened. Considering all these, there is a necessity to integrate the mangroves in the downstream reaches of the river basins into the river basin plans. The deltaic and tidal zones are highly productive. Within the flood plains of Bangladesh, fish account for over three quarters of the daily animal protein intake of the people. Fisheries also play a major role in the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. The annual catch of fish and crustaceans works out to about 750,000 tonnes. In order to maintain a congenial aquatic ecosystem for fishing activities, an integrated approach in river basin planning is called for. During the wet season, rice is planted in the flooded areas of the delta in the Bangladesh. As the flooded areas begin to dry up in winter, farmers plant legumes, oilseeds, vegetables and tobacco. Drainage and irrigation schemes have now been initiated within the wetlands with the aim of increasing productivity (Zaman 1994). The results of these schemes have been mixed. Increases in dry season productivity have been reported whilst elsewhere, the failure to integrate projects with land tenure systems and local marketing, processing and transport systems have caused negative impact, on the income of farmers. The requirements of water for wetland cultivation in the coastal reaches have to be given due weightage while allocating water for different purposes. This is significant since the agriculture in wetlands can be a risky undertaking, since the area is susceptible to large-scale perturbations. The Farraka barrage constructed just upstream of the border between India and Bangladesh diverted water from Bhagirathi, helped in flushing silt and thereby improving navigation, provided water for drinking to the Calcutta corporation, and also for irrigation. However, the construction of the barrage and the diversion of dry (low) seasonal flows had a number of adverse impacts downstream. The wetlands downstream experiences declining water supplies; the structure also adversely affected the wetland fisheries and increased the salinity intrusion problem. All these had a negative impact on the ecosystem, especially the downstream mangrove ecosystem. The groundwater level in the delta region either declined or the quality of this water deteriorated, especially due to salinity intrusion. This has also affected the rice cultivation in the alluvial plains. Conflict among Stakeholders: Case Study of Cauvery Intensive agricultural activities in the Cauvery delta have been going on for several decades. The 1924 contract ensured that certain levels of water will be maintained at the lower reaches for the agricultural purposes in the delta. There were conflicts between the upper riparian federal States and the lower riparian State. It is feared by the lower riparians that the water resources development projects in the upper riparian States will adversely affect their farmers in the delta. This dispute is still alive and is before a tribunal for settlement. 24

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Improvements to the Downstream Ecosystem: Case Study of Chilika Wetland The unscientific management of the river basins draining into the Chilika wetland has resulted in the degradation of this aquatic ecosystem, which is a Ramsar site. After the construction of Hirakud project for the purpose of irrigation in the Mahanadi river, which is the largest fresh water source draining into the Chilika, the wetland was not getting its full quota of fresh water. The Naraj barrage, which is under construction, is expected to further deprive of this wetland from fresh water supply. Certain hydrological and biological investigations carried out have brought to light that the reduction in flows has changed the hydroperiod, increased the residence time, adversely affected the flushing phenomenon, modified the entire circulation and mixing characteristics and above all caused the partial blocking of the mouth to the Bay of Bengal. All these in turn have accelerated sediment deposition tendencies and have also affected the flora and fauna of this wetland. Over-exploitation of the watersheds on the western side of the wetland, especially deforestation, has also contributed to the increase in sediment load to the wetland. An attempt has been made to cut open a new mouth to the sea, the consequences of which on this ecosystem are not yet properly understood. The artificial channel created, namely Magaramukh, is gradually stabilizing. Large quantum of sediment is flushed out into the Bay of Bengal due to the velocity of flow in the channel. The salinity levels in the estuary have improved and the fish catch has gone up. Chilika was included in the Montreux Record in 1993; this was lifted recently considering the positive signs observed based on the activities undertaken to conserve the ecosystem. Salinity Problems in the Coastal Area: Case Study of Indus Delta The Indus delta covers an area of 6,000 km2 and stretches from 200 km south of Karachi to the Kutchch in India. The delta comprises of 17 major creeks, extensive mudflats and around 2,600 km2 of mangrove forests. The annual rainfall in the area is of the order of 200 mm and the only other source of fresh water is the river flow. This is needed for the mangroves and also to maintain the sediment supply. The productivity of fish is high in the mangrove areas. It is estimated that now only 28% of the total annual flow of Indus reaches the delta, and the dams upstream trap 75% of sediments (Ahmed et al 1993). This has resulted in increase in the salinity levels of creeks; the evaporation is also very high in the region. The salinity levels in many creeks are as high as 40-45 ppt, higher than that of sea water. The salinisation and water-logging are affecting more and more areas and some of these areas are not fit for crop production. A total area of 57,000 km2 is affected by salinity. This case study brings to light how the diversion of water from the upstream areas with less rainfall will affect the flora and fauna in the coastal zone. Wetlands and River Basin Management: Case Studies from South-West India On the southwest coast of India, the estuarine stretch of the Periyar river is facing severe salinity intrusion and pollution concentration. This has adversely affected the 25

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drinking water project to the Greater Kochi and Alwaye urban areas, industrial water requirements of Udyogamandal complex and also the entire ecology of this estuarine ecosystem. The barrages constructed during summer to prevent salinity intrusion from the sea add to the problems faced by the estuarine ecosystem. All these are caused by the transfer of waters more than a century ago from the upper reaches of this river to the east-coast and another transfer to the Muvattupuzha basin on the south for power production arising out of the Idukki project, and also limitations of the operation rules of the upstream reservoirs. A case study conducted in the ten river basins draining into the Vembanad-Kol wetland system in south west India has shown several problems created due to the unscientific management of the river basins. Some of the measures suggested to improve the situation include diversion of waters from the river systems to the wetland during summer months. The existing and planned water resources projects can help in this task. Moreover, the hydroelectric projects have to be operated in such a manner that certain minimum required flows are maintained in them for meeting the requirements of the wetland (James et al 1997). Ecosystem Degradation: Case Study of Loktak Wetland The Manipur valley had several small wetlands in the past, known as phats. During 1980s, a barrage was constructed across the Manipur river to contain the waters in the valley for hydropower generation. All the phats in this area, including Loktak, became one large water body to cater to the requirement of a single sector development. The hydroperiod of these phats got completely changed; flushing got affected, sediments and pollutants were deposited in the wetland; the habitat of the endangered species of brow antlered deer, locally known as Sanghai, was disturbed. The vegetal growth floating in the habitat of the deers became thinner and polluted. Certain action plans have been recommended to improve the situation, including scientific operation of gates considering the wise use of this wetland. CONCLUDING REMARKS Most of the case studies point to the need for integrated river basin management to reduce the imbalances in water availability, quality, and use pattern in different upstream sub-basins and downstream reaches. An integrated river basin plan can be evolved only with the support of a strong data base and systems approach. Modern tools like remote sensing, GIS, and mathematical modelling can be of great use in arriving at decision support systems. The catchment treatment measures should become an integral part of the water resources development projects. Before the commencement of the projects, detailed environmental impact assessment has to be carried out. Often, appropriate cost-benefit analysis is not carried out before taking up large projects, and benefits are often exaggerated. Institutional support and capacity building are very important in achieving success in integrated water management. A two pronged approach is recommended for the institutional support. The local governments, known as Panchayats, are being empowered all over India. The small watersheds can be 26

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scientifically managed by these local level governments. The larger projects within a basin can be managed by a group of multi-disciplinary experts, answerable to a democratically elected group of representatives of people from the watershed committees of the Panchayats. This institutional setup will ensure not only coordination but also total participation of stakeholders. Interstate and international river basins should be managed by a river basin authority with representatives of the stakeholder States/countries. REFERENCES Anonymous, 1997. Wetlands and Integrated River Basin Management: Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. UNEP/Wetland International-Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Brundtland H, 1987. Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and Development, Oxford University Press, UK. Dugan P J, 1993. Wetlands in Danger, Mitchell Bealzey, London, UK. Falkenmark M, 1993. Land-Water Linkages: A Synopsis, Proceedings of FAO Workshop, Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organisation, 1993. Land and Water Integration and River Basin Management, Proceedings of FAO Workshop, Rome, Italy. Hughes R, Adnam S and Dalal-Clayton B, 1994. Floodplains or Flood Plans? A Review of Approaches to Water Management in Bangladesh, IIED, London, UK and RAS, Dhaka, Bangladesh. IUCN, UNEP and WWF, 1980. The World Conservation Strategy, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, United Nations Environment Programme, World Wildlife Fund, Geneva, Switzerland. James E J, Anitha A B, Nambudripad K D, Joseph E J, Nandeshwar M D, Nirmala E, Padmini V, Unni P N and Venugopalan M R, 1997. The Vembanad-Kol wetland system and river basin management, In: Wetlands and Integrated River Basin Management, UNEP-WI (SA), Kaula Lumpur. Knighton D, 1984. Fluvial Forms and Processes, Edward Arnold, London, UK. Mitsch W J and Gosselink J G, 1993. Wetlands, second edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. Pearce D W, Barbier E B and Markandeya A, 1990. Sustainable Development: Economics and Environment in the Third World, Earthscan, London, UK. Ramsar Bureau, 1989. The Ramsar Convention, Ramsar Bureau, Gland, Switzerland and Slimbridge, UK. 27

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Sombroek W G, 1994. The work of FAOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Land and Water Division in sustainable land use, with notes on soil resilience and land use mapping criteria. In: Greenland, D and I Szabolcs, 1994. Soil resilience and sustainable land use (proceedings of a symposium in Budapest, October 1992). CABI, Wallingford, United Kingdom. United Nations (UN), 1992. Earth Summit, Agenda 21: The United Nations Programme of Action from Rio, New York, USA. Vink A P A, 1986. Soil survey and landscape â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ecological survey, Annual Report 1985, ISRIC, Wageningen, The Netherlands. World Bank, 1996. African Water Resources: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Development, World Bank, Washington DC, USA. Young C J, Dooge C I J and Rolda J C, 1994. Global Water Resources Issues, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Zaman S M H, 1994. Agriculture in wetlands of Bangladesh, UNEP/AWB, Scoping Workshop, Kuala Lumpur, 24-26 March 1994.

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Land and Water Resources Management

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ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES AND THE FUTURE IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT Taylor CWP Kerala Water Supply Project Tokyo Engineering Consultants Co Ltd, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

INTRODUCTION Like many other countries, India faces substantial challenges in adapting and improving the built environment to meet the demands, generated by a burgeoning population growth and increasing demands for development to meet the changing global economy. It is reliably estimated that the present population of the nation is over one billion, making it the largest nation in the world, with the exception of China. The State of Kerala, having a present population of 37 million is relatively tiny when compared with other Indian States. Population growth has been a major factor in India, with historical growth rates of over 16% per decade. The effects of this are shown in Fig. 1 which sets down decennial census populations for India and Kerala over the last century. This burgeoning population and its growth imposes major problems in providing the necessary basic infrastructure services such as: Infrastructure Service

Factors

Water supply both rural and urban, quantity & quality Power supply domestic, industrial and commercial Agriculture basic needs in International context Transport road, rail, water borne, air travel Sanitation centralized, low cost, treatment and disposal Storm Water flood prevention and drainage Groundwater use and conservation Marine commercial, fishing ports, pollution. All these are matters which we as professionals (whether engineers, environmentalists, economists, agriculturalists, scientists or decision makers) all have a key role to play. No single skill set can in any way address these problems on its own. Only by adopting a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;joined upâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approach by all concerned can we properly provide to society the services required from us. 31

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GROWTH RATE OF POPULATION 1901 - 2001 KERALA AND INDIA 30.00

26.29 25.00

24.76 KERALA

22.82

21.85

Percentage

23.85

21.51

21.38

20.00

19.24 16.04

15.00

14.22 11.75

10.00

14.32

13.31

11.00 9.16

9.42 INDIA

5.75

5.00

0.00

24.66

24.80

0.00

-5.00 1901

-0.31

1911

1921

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

1981

1991

2001

Census Years

Fig 1. Decennial Census Population Growth Rates for India and Kerala Like many countries, India has major requirements in terms of upgrading its built environment, particularly in terms of infrastructure services â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the startling fact is the SCALE of the infrastructure works required. The Government of India (GoI) is committed and is concentrating hard on infrastructure development projects both to catch up on the substantial backlog of infrastructure rehabilitation to bring basic levels of service up to modern day standards, and to strengthen its infrastructure to meet Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing role in the international context. This is particularly true in the IT / software / Business Process Outsourcing market where GoI is having a major impact in attracting overseas and indigenous companies to invest and create meaningful employment opportunities in India. Typical major projects which fall into these categories include: Project New Veeranam Water Project Calcutta Environment Improvement Kerala Water Supply Project Kerala State Roads Project Municipal Corpn Infrastructure Yamuna Action Plan Environment Improvements

Type Water Sector Infrastructure Water Sector Transport Infrastructure River Clean Up Infrastructure

Location Chennai Calcutta Kerala Kerala Nationally Yamuna Chennai

Funds WB & GoI ADB & Gov JBIC & GoK WB & GoK Developing JBIC & GoI Developing

Summaries of a few of these projects are given below: 1. New Veeranam Water Supply Project (NVP) Madras (now Chennai) has and still is suffering substantial constraints in being able to 32

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satisfy drinking water requirements for the city. This is primarily due to lack of raw water within the state that has been a major problem for over 30 years. Strenuous efforts have been made to address this problem, but these have failed for a range of reasons. For example a major canal over 300 km long was constructed to bring raw water from a neighboring state. The canal was completed but not commissioned as the adjacent state refused to release the water. A second major scheme (NVP) was then picked up with World Bank support for design, to bring water from the south to Chennai. This scheme comprises: • • • • • • • •

Intake at Veeranam Lake Raw Water Pumping (185 Mld) Raw Water Transmission Main (1800 mm dia – 20 km long) Water Treatment Plant (180 Mld) Treated Water Pumping Station Summit Reservoir (3,500 cu.m) Treated Water Transmission Main (1900 / 1600 mm dia – 230 km long) Over 21 major pipe bridges This scheme was constructed in less than 18 months on a fast track basis and has been commissioned to great effect.

Benefits: • provision of additional 180 Mld into Chennai – total supplies now around 450 Mld • moves the supply situation from virtually no supply other than tankers, to an improved piped supply every other day. • Previously 10,000 to 20,000 tankers were employed every day to bring in and distribute water supplies. This highly expensive requirement has now been massively reduced. 2. Kerala Water Supply Project (KWSP) Reporting and design has been completed, and this project is about to be tendered. The overall cost is around IRS 1, 750 crores and is funded by the GoK and the Japan Bank for International Cooperation. The executing agency is the Kerala Water Authority (KWA). It comprises 5 separate Water Supply Schemes (Thiruvananthapuram, Meenad, Cherthala, Khozikode and Pattuvam), 3 of which are first time piped water supply schemes and the remaining two are augmentations to existing municipal schemes. The beneficiaries of these schemes total over 4 million people. The reporting and detail design started in September 2003 with project completion anticipated by the end of 2007. Principal data concerning this major project is as follows: 33

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• • • -

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The KWSP looks to provide both Engineering and Institutional Strengthening services to the State of Kerala through the KWA Each Scheme comprises: Intake Raw Water Pumping Raw water Transmission Water Treatment, Disinfection and Storage Major Transmission Mains to principal areas of water demand Service Reservoirs: both GLSR and OHSR Booster Pumping Stations Distribution System Primary Chlorination at WTP and Regional Rechlorination Stations Telemetry and SCADA Scheme Administration Offices for each Scheme. Training center Conference center Staff Housing Rehabilitation of ex-WTP, Booster and Trunk mains Each Scheme consists of packages: Intake and Water Treatment Plant Transmission Mains Distribution System Service Reservoirs Rehabilitation

Of these the first two are ICB Contracts while the others are LCB Contracts. Benefits: • • •

new water supplies to over 4 million people major upgrade to KWA through Institutional Strengthening significant reduction in unaccounted for water (UFW) through pipe rehabilitation, replacement house connections and leakage control.

3. Municipal Corporation Infrastructure Development Project This project is still in the development phase prior to IFI funding application. The project is to upgrade the basic infrastructure services for a municipal corporation having an estimated population of around one million. The project is likely to comprise: 34

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•

New Water Treatment Plants – present plants are in poor condition, have exceeded their economic life, and are not capable of meeting present or future demands and quality standards

•

Distribution system upgrade

•

Sewage collection, conveyance and treatment – present facilities are grossly defective and requires full replacement. The situation is severe and poses a potential major public health hazard as groundwater is highly polluted and discharge of untreated sewerage is direct to a major river

•

Storm Water – virtually no facilities exist and major areas of the corporation are flooded during storm events

•

Transportation – no projects for improving transportation have been carried out and due to major expansion of the city, its road system is choked. Benefits: • Major augmentation to water supply will ensure 24 hr supply coverage throughout the city • Introduction of modern sewage collection, conveyance and treatment will avoid present ground water pollution and major pollution of river from foul flows discharging into it affecting water qualities downstream of discharge points • Will stop flooding significant areas of the Municipal area • Will reduce traffic congestion SUMMARY From the above three, clear common factors are evident: a) Interstate water resource agreements are essential to properly and equitably use raw water resources effectively. These need to be developed through State and Central government agencies. b) There appears to be a gradual swing to the adoption of more comprehensive ‘Infrastructure’ style projects, rather than the traditional sector specific projects. This is to be encouraged, including the adoption of stronger planning approaches for infrastructure development. c) Even after scheme implementation, infrastructure problems still exist since overall planning does not appear to be comprehensive or effective. Planning policy needs to be developed to address infrastructure problems. This policy should consider regular (say, quarterly) statutory meetings which include all concerned infrastructure bodies.

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WATER RESOURCES SCENARIO OF BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER BASIN Dinesan V P, Anitha A B and Gopakumar R Surface water division, CWRDM, Kunnamangalam

INTRODUCTION The Bharathapuzha is one of the largest river basins of Kerala, with a total basin area of 6186 sq km, of which 4400 sq km is in Kerala State and the remaining in Tamil Nadu. Though the river basin receives fairly good rainfall, it faces water shortage during summer. The Bharathapuzha river basin is the rice bowl of the State. Of all the water requirements, the major share goes for agriculture. Palakkad district, which covers the major portion of the basin area in Kerala, accounts for 34 percent of area under rice cultivation in the State with 35 percent share in rice production. It is reported that rice cultivation here is seriously affected due to water shortage during the second and third crop periods. In many places the domestic and industrial water supplies were seriously affected due to water shortage during the non-monsoon periods. An attempt has been made to investigate the water resources scenario of Bharathapuzha basin. The salient findings of this preliminary investigation with the available data/ information are presented. SALIENT FEATURES OF THE STUDY AREA 2.1 Location The Bharathapuzha originates from the Anamalai Hills in the Western Ghats at an elevation of 1964 m above MSL and flows through Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, and Palakkad, Malappuram and Thrissur districts of Kerala and finally joins the Arabian Sea near Ponnani. Gayathripuzha, Chitturpuzha, Kalpathipuzha and Thuthapuzha are the major tributaries of Bharathapuzha. Of the 4400 sq km basin area in Kerala, about 87% falls within Palakkad district. The remaining 13% falls in Malappuram (12%) and Thrissur (1%) districts. The river basin covers 90 Panchayats and 4 Municipalities in the above three districts. Palakkad, Chitturâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Thathamangalam, Shoranur, and Ottappalam are the four municipal towns within the basin. A location map of the river basin is given in Figure 1.

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2.2 Population As per 2001 census, the total population in the river basin is 3,265,535. In the Palakkad district, the population growth rate has reduced to 11.25% during 1991-2001from 19.32% during 1971-1981. Agriculture is the major occupation of the people in the basin. Major part of the land is under paddy cultivation; since the cost of cultivation is high and net return is low the economic condition of people in this basin is generally poor. 2.3 Land use The major land utilization in the basin includes forest (26%), cultivated area (52%), fallow (8%) and barren and cultivable land (5%). Rice accounts for the major portion of net cropped area of the basin followed by coconut and rubber. Palakkad district, the major portion of the basin area, accounts for 34 percent of area under rice cultivation in the State with 35 percent share in rice production. There is a predominant shift in cropping pattern from seasonal to perennial crops in the basin, which is in consonance with similar development in other parts of the State. There is a drastic declining trend in the area under rice in Palakkad district; the decline is about 35% over a period of two decades (1981â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2001). During this period, similar negative growth rate was also recorded for tapioca, cashew nut, sugarcane and cocoa. However, area under coconut and rubber showed significant positive growth rates of 102% and 161% respectively over the last two decades. 2.4 Rainfall The average annual rainfall (2500 mm) received in the basin is about 17% less than the State average (3085 mm). Southwest and the north-east are the two monsoon periods of which southwest monsoon is more predominant. The South-west monsoon (JuneSeptember) contributes about 60% of the rainfall and north-east monsoon (OctoberDecember), 30%. The remaining 10% is received from the summer showers. The western part of the basin receives more rainfall (about 3000mm) in comparison to the eastern border region like Kozhinjampara, where the average annual rainfall is only 1164 mm. On an average, there are 100 rainy days (i.e. days with rainfall of 2.5mm or more), of which, almost 71 rainy days occur in the south-west monsoon season. 2.5 Surface water potential The total yield of Bharathapuzha basin has been computed as 7,478 MCM, of which 938 MCM is the contribution from Tamil Nadu (PWD, 1974). The total utilizable yield is assessed as 4,466 MCM, the contribution from Kerala being 3,782 MCM. There are seven river gauging stations maintained by the Water Resources Department (WRD) and five stations by the Central Water Commission (CWC) in different tributaries of Bharathapuzha basin (Fig 2). A comparison of 75 % dependable flows of the pre 1980 period and past 1980 period at different gauging sites for lean flow period is given in Table 1. It is found that at Thiruvegapura, Cheruthuruthy, 37

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Fig 1 Location map of the Bharathapuzha river basin

Manakadavu, and Pampadi, the lean flow has reduced, whereas an increase in flow is observed at Kuttipuram. But, 75 % dependable flows for the same period at the downstream CWC station (Table 2) at Kumbidi nearer Kuttippuram shows that there is no flow during March - April. 38

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Table 1. Comparison of river flows ( MCM): 75 % dependability at different WRD gauging sites during lean flow period Thiruvegapura Month Jan

Pre1998 6.60

Cheruthuruthy

Post 1980 4.00

Pre1998 27.50

Post 1980 27.00

Manakadavu Pre1998 31.00

Post 1980 29.00

Cheerakuzhy Pre1998 3.60

Post 1980 7.50

Pampadi Pre1998 17.00

Kuttipuram

Post 1980 14.00

Pre1998 25.00

Post 1980 32.00

Feb

1.56

0.00

11.00

8.00

8.50

17.00

1.65

1.00

6.00

3.29

17.00

18.00

Mar

0.00

5.25

1.50

10.20

6.00

0.00

2.50

0.31

1.00

4.00

Apr

0.90

0.00

7.20

4.00

1.85

1.00

0.00

2.50

0.71

5.00

4.00

May

5.20

1.30

18.00

7.00

8.60

8.40

0.10

0.00

7.75

3.84

25.00

27.00

Table 2. 75 % Dependable flow (MCM) at Kumbidi (CWC station) for Lean Flow Period January

February

March

April

May

42.2

4.4

5.4

Analysis of runoff data for the period from 1984 to 1992 indicated that about 70% of the river flows occur during the south-west monsoon period, about 25% during the north-east monsoon period and the remaining 5% occur during the summer months (January - May). The average monsoon flows and lean flows at five gauging stations are given in Table 3. Table 3. Average base flow and monsoon flows (%) at selected gauging stations (Period: 1984 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1992) Station Kuttippuram Thrithala Cheruthuruthy Pampady Thiruvegapura

Average annual runoff, MCM 3286 1465 1256 465 1159

Lean flow (%) 5.9 4.7 5.3 5.5 2.3

Monsoon Flow (%) 94.1 95.3 94.7 94.5 97.7 Source: CGWB, 1997

2.5.1 Surface storage created Presently Bharathapuzha basin has seven storage reservoirs and two diversion schemes to meet the irrigation water scarcity during the non-monsoon periods ( Table 4). The total live storage created is 409.83 MCM, about 11% of the utilisable yield.

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Fig 2 Bharathapuzha River Basin

Indian Indian Environment Environment Congress Congress 2004 2004

Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram

Table 4 Storage created, import and export: Bharathapuzha river basin

2.5.2 Surface water import and export In addition to the water available from within the basin, 71 MCM of water is expected to be made available from the Parambikulam-Aliyar project (import), primarily for irrigation purpose in the Chittur Taluk. Currently, no export of surface water is made from the basin. 2.6 Groundwater potential Alluvium encountered along the banks of Bharathapuzha acts as potential phreatic aquifers, and the deep aquifers consist of fractured crystalline rocks. The block-wise groundwater resource for the basin is presented in Table 5 (CGWB, 1999). The gross annual recharge into groundwater is estimated as 831.81 MCM of which, 83.18 MCM (10%) is contributed to the base flow in rivers. Hence, the estimated utilizable groundwater potential is 748.63 MCM, which is about 20% of utilizable surface water. The existing gross ground water draft is 378.94 MCM (51%), of which, 189.75 MCM (50% draft) is the draft for irrigation and 189.18 MCM (50% draft) is the draft for domestic and industrial water supply. 41 41

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Table 5. Groundwater Resource of Bharathapuzha Basin (Kerala Region) No.

Particulars

Quantity

Total annual GW recharge (MCM)

831.81

Natural discharge during non-monsoon (MCM)

83.18

Net annual GW availability (MCM)

748.63

Existing gross GW draft for irrigation (MCM)

189.75

Existing gross GW draft for domestic & industrial (MCM)

189.18

Existing GW draft for all uses (MCM)

378.93

Stage of present GW development in Basin (%)

50.62

Note: Estimate based on CGWB-Report-2003 The stage of ground water development with regard to the entire basin is 50.62%. However, block-wise figures indicate higher stage of ground water development (above 70%) in two blocks. The Chittur and Trithala blocks of Palakkad district belong to this category. There is scope for further development in nine blocks with stages of development within 50%. Although there is further scope for groundwater development in certain blocks, care has to be taken while exploiting groundwater, in some blocks. 2.6.1 Groundwater Development The major domestic supply source in the district is open wells. The general depth to water level in open wells varies from 3 to 8 m and the depth of wells range from 4 to 10 m below ground level (bgl). The depth of bore wells range from 80 to 300 m bgl. Many farmers of Palakkad district developed these deep-seated aquifers on a large scale through bore wells. Most of the households have their own open dug wells for their domestic needs. About 35% of the dug wells are seasonal, and dry up during summer months. The well density is the highest in Thrithala block. In four eastern blocks of Palakkad, viz, Chittoor, Kollengode, Palakkad and Kuzhalmannam, there was an increase in the number of irrigation bore wells since 1986. High water demanding crops like sugarcane and paddy are being cultivated using the bore well water. Bore well density is high in three blocks: Pattambi, Alathur and Thrithala; the well density is lower in Mannarkkad and Palakkad blocks. 2.7 Other water sources There are numerous tanks, ponds and springs found in the hilly regions of the basin. About 60% of ponds are perennial. Blockwise distribution of ponds shows a higher density in Sreekrishnapuram, Thrithala, Pattambi and Kuzhalmannam blocks. Most of the tanks require cleaning and desilting. Proper maintenance of tanks and ponds will enhance the recharge of ground water and also serve the needs of the public. A summary of the water resource availability within the basin is shown in Table 6. 42

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Table 6. A Summary of water resource availability within the river basin.

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2. Using CWC gauging station data 3. Ground water estimation, CGWD, 2003

2.8 Water demand 2.8.1 Consumptive The consumptive use requirements in the Bharathapuzha basin consists of domestic water demand, irrigation for agricultural crops and industrial needs.. Domestic water supply The domestic water requirements of the river basin are calculated considering the present population and the projected population for 2025 AD. The present population (2001 census) of the basin is 3,265,535 and the same is projected as 4,294,389 in 2025 AD. With the per capita demand for urban areas as 200 lpcd and for rural areas as 150 lpcd (IS 1172: 1993), the present annual domestic requirement is estimated as 186 MCM. The future requirement in 2025 AD will be 232 MCM. The Malampuzha reservoir, Chitturpuzha and Thoothapuzha are the main sources of the drinking water supply schemes operated by Kerala Water Authority (KWA) in the basin. Besides these, there are a number of bore well based water supply schemes in operation in Bharathapuzha basin. At present, the supply is at the rate of 40 lpcd for the rural areas, 75 lpcd in semi-urban areas and 140 lpcd in urban areas. The water demand for the existing schemes is estimated as 61.26 million liters per day (MLD) and corresponding annual utilization works out to 22.4 MCM, of which 2.8 MCM is met from ground water sources. Kerala Water Authority is presently involved in investigations to provide water supply to all non-covered and partially covered villages. For the schemes planned with river sources, the main problem is non-availability of adequate water in the rivers during the summer season. Irrigation water demand Of all the water requirements, the major share goes for agriculture. Rice accounts for 58 percent of the net cropped area of the basin followed by coconut with 22 per cent. The main rice growing seasons adopted in the region is Viruppu (Mayâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;August), Mundakan (Septemberâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;December) and Punja (Januaryâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;April). The area as such depends on pre-monsoon and monsoon showers for Viruppu (First crop); a steady supply of water is required to stabilize Mundakan (Second crop), which is generally a transplanted crop. For the Punja crop (Third crop), assured irrigation is essential. Generally, the crops do not require irrigation water from June to October. In a normal year, irrigation water is needed for 6 to 7 months. The present total irrigation water 44

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demand for the different irrigated crops in the basin works out to 1165 MCM. Based on the projected maximum irrigated area under wetlands and garden lands in the year 2025, the expected water demand is estimated as 1845 MCM. There are eight irrigation projects in Bharathpuzha basin with a total cultivable command of 74,000 hectares. The live storage available from all these schemes works out to be 409.83 MCM. In addition to these schemes, 7,122 ha (net) area is irrigated by minor irrigation schemes. The efficiency of water distribution system, in general, is very poor in most of the projects due to poor maintenance of irrigation canals. Inadequacy of water for irrigation is a perennial problem, especially for tail-end farmers. Industrial water demand As per the data from the District Industries Centre, Palakkad, the major industrial establishments and manufacturing units working in the Palakkad region requires daily 18.50 million liters of water, which translates to annual water requirement of 6.8 MCM. Most of the major industries are located in the Kanjikode area, which falls in the Malampuzha block. The existing annual water demand for the industries in the Kanjikode area alone is 3.942 MCM. New industries are coming up in other parts of the region also. Though an exact industrial requirement of water in the Bharathapuzha basin is not available, it is estimated that about 164 MCM is the current industrial water requirement and the projected requirement for 2025 AD is 240 MCM. 2.8.2 Non-consumptive use Non-Consumptive uses in the basin include salinity exclusion, fisheries, inland navigation, water sports and tourism. Out of these, only the flow required for flushing salinity has been estimated. On the basis of model studies conducted at KERI, Peechi, it is estimated that at least 44 m3/sec discharge has to be maintained to arrest salinity in the Bharathapuzha basin. Therefore, the total quantity of fresh water required to bring down salinity to reasonable limits during the six summer months works out to 686 MCM. There are no hydroelectric schemes in the Bharathapuzha basin and the needs are met from the power generated using the potential of the other basins. The fresh water reservoirs of Bharathapuzha basin are being utilized for pisciculture. Additional requirement of water use/storage is not anticipated specifically for this purpose. In the lower reaches, about 40 km length of Bharathapuzha is navigable. Malampuzha reservoir site is one of the leading tourist spots in the State. A garden, park and other recreational facilities including boating have been created in Malampuzha in Palakkad district for which water stored in the Malampuzha reservoir is used. A water amusement park is also being operated near Malampuzha for which the exact requirements are not quantified. The status of current and future water demands on various water use sectors in Bharathapuzha basin is shown in Table 7. 45

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Table 7 Summary of water demands for various water use sectors in Bharathapuzha basin Sl no. Features 1 Water requirement ( present) in MCM Monsoon Rural and urban water supply Industrial water demands Energy requirements Other common needs in MCM Non-monsoon Irrigation Rural and urban water supply Industrial water demands 4

Salinity exclusion works Energy requirements Other common needs in MCM Total water requirement ( Present) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon Water requirement ( 2025) in MCM Monsoon Rural and urban water supply Industrial water demands Energy requirements Other common needs in MCM Non-monsoon Irrigation Rural and urban water supply Industrial water demands Salinity exclusion works Energy requirements Other common needs in MCM Total water requirement ( 2025) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon

4 Water Resources of Kerala, PWD, 1974

Quantity

93.00 88.00

NQ 44.00 1165.00 93.00 88.00 686.00

NQ 44.00 2301.00 225.00 2076.00

123.00 120.00

NQ 60.00 1845.00 123.00 120.00 343.00

NQ 60.00 2794.00 303.00 2491.00

NQ - Not Quantified

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3. WATER RESOURCE SCENARIO OF BHARATHAPUZHA BASIN The water availability and the status of current and future water demands for various water use sectors in Bharathapuzha basin shown in Table 8. The estimated annual utilizable water resources both surface and groundwater, in the basin are 5011.46 MCM. In a year, about 95 % of the total utilizable surface water is considered to be available during the monsoon between June to November and the remaining 5% during the summer season as lean flow. Since the groundwater potential of the basin is computed based on the difference in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon water levels, the entire utilizable recharge is taken to be available for use in the summer season. Table 8. Status of water surplus / deficit within the river basins

Sl no. 1

Description Current water availability (surface & groundwater) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon Total water requirement (Present) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon Total water requirement (2025) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon Surplus/ Deficit (Present situation) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon Surplus/ Deficit (2025) MCM Monsoon Non-monsoon

Quantity 5011.46 3976.32 1035.15 2301.00 225.00 2076.00 2794.00 303.00 2491.00 2710.46 3751.32 -1040.86 2217.46 3673.32 -1455.86

The total storage capacity of the reservoirs in the basin is 409.83 MCM. It is assumed that the reservoirs will be filled only once during the monsoon period. The storage created is used mainly to supplement the irrigation need of the second crop and summer crops. The first crop does not require irrigation. The status of water surplus and deficit within the river basins is shown in Table 8. Though on an annual basis Bharathapuzha basin appears to have surplus water, it experiences water deficit during the non-monsoon periods. From the table it is evident that there is considerable imbalance between water availability and water demand during monsoon and non-monsoon periods within a year. Both in the present and the future scenarios, the water requirement during the non-monsoon season cannot be met from the storage available in the reservoirs. The estimated present and future water deficit during the non-monsoon period will be 1040.46 MCM and 1455.86 MCM 47

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respectively. The estimated water surplus during the monsoon period after meeting all present and future demands will be of the order of 3751.32 MCM and 3673.32 MCM respectively. Currently the requirement is met by pumping from the ground water storage, which in turn is leading some of the blocks to the stage of over exploitation. It will be practically difficult to meet the future requirements through such unsustainable development of the water resources. Hence, it can be concluded that the water deficit during the non-monsoon periods can be met through scientific water conservation of the available surplus water during the monsoon period. The estimates/ computations are based on the limited available data taking the whole basin as one unit. However, the spatial variability in rainfall and stream flow in different regions of the basin also indicates the spatial imbalances in the utilizable water resources in different seasons. One of the major water resources management problems to be addressed in the river basin is to resolve the seasonal imbalances between water supply and water demand, which calls for detailed investigations. 4. CONCLUSION Salient findings of a preliminary investigation on the current water resources scenario of Bharathapuzha with the available data/ information are presented. The estimates/ computations are based on the limited available data taking the whole basin as one unit. The study reveals that the water deficit during the non-monsoon periods can be met through scientific water conservation of the available surplus water during the monsoon period, which calls for an integrated water resource management plan for Bharathapuzha river basin for allocating the utilizable water resources for use in all water use sectors, both temporally and spatially. 5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge the scientific support provided by Dr E J James, Executive Director, to carry out the investigation at CWRDM and the technical support extended by Mr. N K Joseph, Mr. K Babu Mathew, and Mr K Mammen Scientists, CWRDM, Kunnamangalam. 6. REFERENCES CWRDM, 1991. Report: Water resources development of Bharathapuzha basin. Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. CGWD, 2003. Report: Groundwater resources of Kerala. CWRDM, 2004. Report: Master Plan for drought mitigation in Palakkad district. Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. PWD, Kerala 1974. Water resources of Kerala, Govt. of Kerala, Trivandrum, India.

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CHANGE IN THE DRAINAGE PATTERN OF CHALAKUDY RIVER SYSTEM AFTER THE CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS Sujin J, Ajith Mohan and Roy Chacko P T Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapurm. Pin- 695 581

INTRODUCTION Construction of a dam is an alteration of the natural hydrologic system. Hydrologic system in turn is a function of geomorphic setup. Since, most of the landform expressions do have overtones of geomorphic imprints, they are considered as results of hydrologic actions. While considering the evolutionary processes, the role of surface water dynamics appear to be the most significant contributor in a tropical climate. The velocity of flow determines the components of surface flow and sub-surface seepage. The gradient, pressure head and the nature of the surface decide the ability of surface water in carving out the geomorphic shapes. Thus, it can be inferred that whenever there is a change in the hydrological and hydromorphic conditions, that will be reflected in the consequent geomorphic expressions. The geomorphic expression is determined by the drainage features (Sujin and Roy Chacko, 2004) Even without any anthropogenic interventions, hydromorphic systems can evolve. But such an evolution will be based on (1) a catastrophic event like earthquake, landslide or a volcanic eruption and (2) gradual change in the dynamics and space, which will tend to evolve the systems gradually responding to the changing conditions. In this study authors have attempted to explore the role of dams in the watershed system and its impact between pre-dam and post-dam conditions of Chalakudy river system (76° 07’ to 77° 03 ’E longitude and 10° 10’ to 10° 33’ N latitude) using GIS as a tool and overlapping of two maps, which provide data on a pre and post, dam existing conditions.. The study area is shown in fig.1. MATERIALS AND METHODS Survey of India toposheets (numbers 58 B/10,58 B/11, 58 B/14 and 58 B/15) generated in the year 1910, in 1:63,360 represented the pre-dam condition. Toposheets of the area generated in 1977 in 1; 50, 000 provided the post-dam inputs. Narural evolution in the 67 years could not be very high, as the meteorological records do not suggest any extreme changes in intensity, frequency, and duration of precipitation. There were no major tremors or landslide activities in the area selected for study. Most of the area 49

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Fig.1 Location map of the Chalakudy River System. comes under un-inhabited forest range. The agricultural endeavour also did not make drastic changes in surface modifications or soil erosion. The major factor for the change in the hydrological scene thus points down to the construction of a series of dams across the Chalakudy river system, constructed between 1960 and 1977. Remote sensing inputs in a pre-dam condition were ofcourse not available. This prompted the authors to probe the possibility of changes in the hydrologic system before and after dam construction. The studies were aimed at understanding the changes in drainage pattern in the two situations. The overlapping method using Geographical Information System (Mapinfo) was utilized for understanding the changes during this period. Changes mostly in the form of disappearance/appearance of lower orders streams and changes in their length, width and sinuosity. Changes in drainage network are shown in fig.2.

Fig.2 Changes in drainage pattern in the Chalakudy river system 50

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Hydroloigical conditions of Chalakudy river system Chalakudy river system, which has a basin area of 1704 km2, orginates from Anamalai at an elevation of 1250 and experiences an average rainfall of 3600 mm. The average annual stream flow is 1429.3 Mm3 (C W R D M, 1995 and P W D, 1974). There are four hydel dams, namely, Upper-Sholayar (owned by TNEB), Sholayar, Parambikulam and Poringalkuthu and Athirappilli hydel dam is under consideration. There are three irrigation dams at Thunakkadavu, Peruvaripallam and Thumburmuzhi. There are intervalley transfers from these dams to adjoining watersheds. There are altogether 3548 streams having an average length of 0.719 km (T B G R I, 1996). Percentile difference in sinuosity index increases in the lower order streams by construction of dams. The Percentile Sinuosity Change, PSC, can be calculated as follows. The PSC values obtained are shown in table 1. PSC

Difference in sinuosity between post- and pre-dam situations X 100 Sinuosity index prior to dam

From the table.1, it can been observed that as the order of stream increases, PSC value increases. This is because the fluvial impact naturally increases when the order of the stream increases. This is a natural phenomenon, which is seen in all cases. Added to that, the introduction of dam will decrease the velocity of flow, thereby mimicking a higher order stream. Construction of a dam decreases the length of flow from the starting point to the repository of surface water. In this case this is a reservoir. If we assume that the starting velocity is the same prior and after the construction of the dam, the distance between these two points have reduced very much, making the system like a bonsai. This bonsai system appears in all dynamic standards as a mature system. Added to that, when the dams stop the downstream flow and only a controlled flow is maintained, the total picture in those sections will not change. Thus, the bonsai systems interspers with dormant systems will show fluctuations in progressive consideration of effect of dams in changing sinuosity in the case of a sequence of dams. From fig. 3, it can be seen that PSC changes much in lower and higher zones of stream orders whereas the change in the middle portion (5th order stream) tend to be low. The reason is that, in lower order streams, the control on morphology is mostly structural and the steams are straight. When dams are constructed, impounding water especially in higher reaches will occupy a non-straight course as the contour configuration in the banks do not conform to the structural trends. Similarly, in the lower end, the variation is high because the sinuosity of the earlier streams do not conform with the structural trends. In middle, the river is controlled by structural trends which are making geomorphic expressions as ridges, creating a contour configuration with sinuosity. This is the reason for the lower values of PSC in the middle stage.

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Table.1. PSC values Dam Peruvaripallam Thunakkadvu Parambikulam U-Sholayar Sholayar Poringalkuthu

Post-dam condition 1.0186 1.0333 1.0087 1.0116 1.0276 1.0623

Pre-dam condition 1.0148 1.0189 1.0027 1.0039 1.0116 1.0461

PSC 0.3745 1.4068 0.6048 0.7597 1.5888 1.5448

Fig.3 Relationship between PSI and stream order Table.2. SCI values Dam Peruvaripallam Thunakkadvu Parambikulam U-Sholayar Sholayar Poringalkuthu

Post-dam condition 129 307 1341 446 236 1003

Pre-dam condition 138 334 1376 565 298 1403

SCI -6.5217 -8.0838 -2.5436 -21.0619 -20.8053 -28.5103

Fig. 4. Relationship between SCI and stream order 52

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From the fig. 4, it appears as in the earlier case that geomorphology and structures control the appearance and disappearance of streams. Same order of streams having a higher geomorphic expression tend to change the streams as per their congruence to structural and fluvial trends. CONCLUSIONS The study shows that there are changes in the number of streams and their sinuosity indices after the construction of dams. Numbers of streams that disappear are higher in catchment areas of low order streams but lower in higher orders. In the downstream side, instead of decrease, smaller orders of new streams appear. Similarly, the sinuosity indices change after the construction of the dams. These factors are controlled by the congruence of fluvial and structural factors for drainage system. REFERENCES CWRDM, 1995. Water Resources Atlas of Kerala. Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. PWD, 1974. Water Resources of Kerala, Govt. of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India. pp.109. Sujin J and Roy Chacko P T, 2004. Appraisal of Environmental Impacts of Successive Hydro-electric dams in River Pamba, Kerala. Proceeding of the conference on Large Dams and Hydropower Development, May 2004, Central Board of Irrigaton and Power. pp. VII/75-80. TBGRI, 1996. Environmental Impact Assessment of Athirappilli Hydroelectric Project, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Kerala. pp.192.

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RIVER ACTION PLANS AND WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT OF THE GANGES: ACHIEVEMENTS, ISSUES AND WAY FORWARD Sunil Kumar Karn*, Hideki Harada+, Lalit Agrawal*, Patta Thappa* and Kazufumi Momose* *

Tokyo Engineering Consultants Co. Ltd., Tokyo 100-0013, Japan + Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka 940-2188, Japan

INTRODUCTION The Ganges is by far the largest and longest (length 2525 km) river in India. The river basin encompasses an area of 861,404 km2 in India and spreads over eight states. Several other prominent rivers of India including the Yamuna River serve as tributary to it. The Ganges brings sustenance to about 40% population of India and some major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi, Allahabad, Patna, Asansol, Jaipur and Bhopal are thriving in this basin. The river has been exploited for almost all sorts of human uses; water for domestic and industrial purposes, irrigation, hydropower generation, fisheries, transportation and recreation. Moreover, Hindus consider the Ganges a sacred river and means of salvation. Therefore, millions of Hindus throng to take bath in it daily throughout its main course and tributaries and also cast the ashes of the cremated body adrift. There are numerous temples, bathing Ghats and places of pilgrimage all along the Ganges.

Figure 1. The Ganges River Basin (Base map adopted from Bilgrami, 1991). 54

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Pollution of the Ganges was properly documented after the then Central Board for Prevention and Control of Water Pollution (presently the Central Pollution Control Board, CPCB) conducted a Comprehensive Pollution Study of the basin in 1981-82. In 1982, however, the Planning Commission of India also initiated a coordinated scientific study on the pollution and physical, chemical and biological profiles of River Ganges under â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ganga Basin Eco-development Programâ&#x20AC;?. GANGA ACTION PLAN (GAP) MODEL AND PHASE-1 Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was launched in 1985 as a five-year (1985-1990) action plan sponsored by the Government of India. The main objective was to restore the water quality in the main stem of Ganges up to bathing standards by integrated actions of pollution control and abatement. The strategy was multi-pronged and multi-sectoral effort involving State governments and public participation in the implementation process. The idea was that the assets once made would be handed over to local (State) government and authorities for operation and maintenance at their own resource. The GAP was formulated based on the findings of the studies that (i) the distribution of point sources of pollution in the River was generally in the ratio of 75:25 in terms of municipal sewage and industrial effluents, and (ii) nearly 80% of the total pollution load on account of municipal sewage was arising from 25 Class-I cities located along the River banks (MoEF, 1999). Accordingly GAP-I, as it is referred to now, was implemented in 25 Class-I category cities situated along the banks of the Ganges with the sanction of 261 schemes under six categories (Table 1). As the construction of full-fledged sewerage system to the entire city would have been unaffordable, strategy was made to intercept the sewage from existing drainage system and divert to the sewage treatment plants with minimal sewer lines. Table 1. Schemes under GAP-1 S.N. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Category of Schemes Sewage interception and diversion Sewage Treatment Plants construction Low cost sanitation (public toilets) Electric crematoria River front facilities (bathing ghats) Miscellaneous schemes such as, Biological Re-generation of the River Total Pollution Control in Grossly polluting industries (Total wastewater discharge was 260 MLD)

No. 88 35 (873 MLD) 43 28 35 32 261 68

Source: MOEF 1999 55

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The aim of GAP-I was to develop necessary sewage treatment facilities for 873 MLD (65%) out of the total estimated 1340 MLD wastewater generated in those 25 cities at the time of implementation. Industrial pollution was to be controlled under existing environmental laws and the GAP envisaged only monitoring of pollution from identified Grossly Polluting Industries and bring them to adopt adequate pollution control measures. EFFECT OF GANGA ACTION PLAN ON WATER QUALITY OF THE GANGES According to national criteria and classification of inland surface water, the main stem of Ganges has been primarily designated as water of outdoor bathing quality (Class B), which requires DO>5 mg/l, BOD<3 mg/l and Total Coliform (TC)<500 MPN/ 100ml.

A llah ab ad

BOD (mg /l)

1985 1989 1995

Varan as i

12 Kan p u r

9 6

Calcu tta

3 0 200

600

1000

1400

1800

2200

2600

Dis tan ce fro m Orig in (km) 9

DO (mg /l)

8 7 6

1985 1989 1995

5 4 200

600

1000

1400

1800

2200

2600

Dis tan ce fro m Orig in (km)

TC (M PN/100ml)

1.E+08 1985 1989 1995

1.E+07 1.E+06 1.E+05 1.E+04 1.E+03 1.E+02 200

600

1000

1400

1800

2200

Dis tan ce fro m Orig in (km)

Fig. 2 Change in Water Quality of the Ganges over the years 56

2600

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Figure 2 presents the Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Total Coliform (TC) in the main stem of Ganges at three different years; just before the launch of GAP (1985), three years after GAP (1989) and 10 year later in 1995. From this figure, it is clear that the GAP Phase-I brought marked improvement in the water quality of the River in the period of 3 years after implementation but the pollution level again increased subsequently. The scenario of fall and rise in pollution of Ganges is more clearly understood in Figure 3, which presents time series annual summer averages (March to June months) of BOD at the major cities of Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. We also attempted to confirm the recent increasing trend of pollution in terms of overall noncompliance rate of BOD with respect to the water quality standard based on the number of monitoring stations. As shown in Figure 4, the percent non-compliance ratio of BOD was 50% in 1987, which fell down to 6% during 1992-93 and again roses up to 40% by 1999. K annauj A lla h a b a d

S u m m a r a ve ra g e

K anpur V a ra n a s i

M a rc h

100

% n o n -c o m p lia n c e

B O D (m g /l)

1 1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

40 30 20 10

2000

Y ear

0 1985

Fig. 3 Summar (March-June) BOD of Ganges at downstream of cities

1990

1995

2000

Fig. 4 Trend of non-compliance ratio of BOD in the Ganges river.

SHORTCOMINGS OF GAP (PHASE-I) â&#x20AC;˘

Delays in project completion: Delay in project execution and completion has had impact in that the available infrastructures and pollution abatement efforts lagged behind the demand over successive years. For example, when GAP-I was planned, 65% of the sewage (873 out of 1340 MLD) was considered to be tackled but by the time of completion, the demand had doubled and the built up capacity became merely 35% of the newer demand.

â&#x20AC;˘

Poor operation and maintenance of the assets: Due to lack of proper operation and maintenance, a number of plants are shut down, under-utilized or faulty. Out of 45 STPs commissioned as of March 2000, 19 did not perform well due to erratic power supply, non-rectification of defects and non-release of funds by State governments. Similar situation has been observed in the utilization of 57

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crematoria and community toilets. Out of 28 electric crematoria constructed under GAP-I, 8 were either closed or inoperational. A large number of community toilets built in several cities have remained unused due to closure or unauthorized occupation or partly used due to other reasons. •

Public awareness and cultural problem: Crematoria have been also less utilized due to poor acceptance by people for cultural and religious reasons. Such problem is particularly observed in areas with lower literacy rate and public awareness.

•

Wrong placement of facilities: Some facilities were placed at location that weren’t in substitution of that contributing sewage pollution to the River Ganges. For example, some community toilets have been built in the premises of government and private institutions, which were in violation of GAP guidelines.

MODIFIED APPROACH UNDER JAPANESE GOVERNMENT’S ASSISTANCE Although the GAP-I couldn’t realize the desired benefits, a marked reduction in pollution of Ganges was observed. Viewing upon this fact, the Government of India, in 1991, decided to extend the program to GAP Phase II and also in the tributaries namely Yamuna, Damodar and Gomati rivers. Yamuna Action Plan (YAP), now referred as YAP-I, was started in April 1996 (although sanctioned in 1993) with a funding assistance of 17.77 billion yen from the Government of Japan. Modifications in the program and policies were made based on the experiences gained in GAP-I and update in technological innovations. The key additional features of the YAP-I are: •

Decentralized sewage treatment facilities: Mini- and Micro-STPs

•

Adoption of low cost options in sewage treatment, primarily the Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) technology and Oxidation ponds

•

Piloting on innovative technologies for disinfections of STP effluents such as Downflow Hanging Sponge (DHS) Bio-tower developed at Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan.

•

Construction of Wood-based Crematoria

•

Increased public participation and awareness campaigns

Recently YAP-II has been also launched as an extension of YAP-I. Further, in continuation to the GAP-II, the Government of Japan has provided another assistance to a study “Water Quality Management Plan for Ganga River Basin”, which aims to formulate a Master Plan for water quality management (focusing on four major cities; Lucknow, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi) and conduct feasibility study of the priority projects. The study has commenced since 2003. The target year of the Master Plan is 2030 and phased implementation of the plan is being proposed. The sewage treatment technology for each location is chosen based on the life cycle cost comparison.

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REFERENCES Bilgrami K S, 1991. The Living Ganga. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. CPCB, 1984. The Ganges Basin, part-II. Basin, Sub-basin inventory of water pollution. ADSORBS/7/1982-83 CPCB, 1990. Water quality statistics of India, 1979-1987. MINARS/3/1989-90 (ENVIS-1). CPCB, 1990. Water quality statistics of India, 1988 and 1989. MINARS/5/1990-91. CPCB, 1998. Water quality status and statistics (1995). MINARS/12/1997. Krishna Murti C R, Bilgrami K S, Das T M and Mathur R P, 1991. The Ganga, A Scientific Study. Published by Northern Book Center for Ganga Project Directorate. MoEF, 1999. Status paper on the River Action Plans. Ministry of Environment and Forest, New Delhi.

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ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOTIC STATUS OF THE KAYAL ECOSYSTEMS OF KERALA Bijoy Nandan S Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Alappuzha Centre, Alappuzha-688001 Kerala

INTRODUCTION The biological importance of the chain of the backwaters / estuaries / wetlands (locally called kayals) along with the canals on the south-west coast of India are of special significance in this part of India. These interconnected backwaters together are a unique ecosystem supporting high biodiversity and a rich commercial fish and shellfish fauna. The available literature mainly pertains to the ecological characteristics, seldom taking into consideration the interrelationship with the fishery. This contribution reveals the environmental and fishery investigations in11 kayals along the south west coast of India in Kerala during the 1996-98 period. They were Kadinamkulam, Anchuthengu, Ashtamudi, Kayamkulam, Azhikode, Chettuva, Ponnani, Kadalundi â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Beypore, Mahe, Valapattanam and Neleswaram (Fig.1). MATERIALS AND METHODS Water samples were collected and analysed for pH, dissolved oxygen, total sulphide, BOD5, COD, free carbon dioxide, alkalinity, conductivity, total dissolved solids, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate and silicate (APHA, 1995). Rate of primary production was estimated using the dark and light bottle method as described by the Strickland and Parsons (1972). Plankton was collected using bolting silk having 56Âľ meshes. The Phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic fauna were collected and analysed based on Davis (1955), Ward and Whipple (1959), APHA (1995). The diversity index (H), dominance index (c ), richness index (d) and evenness index(e) of plankton and benthos were also computed (Margalef, 1968). Fish fauna were identified based on Talwar and Jhingran (1991). Samples were collected from 33 stations at these kayal systems for the ecological assessment and 36 landing sites for the fishery survey. A landing centre approach was adopted for the fishery enumeration, and almost all the important landing sites around the lakes were covered for the survey.

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Fig. 1 Map of Kerala indicating the major Backwaters, Rivers and Retting zones 61

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water, sediment quality & Productivity The pH was generally near neutral to alkaline in range. However, there was a reduction in its values particularly during the pre-monsoon period, owing to less mixing coupled with the impact of retting activity at certain stations. The mean pH values varied from 6.85 in Kadinamkulam and Kadalundi to 8.12 in Chettuva backwater during premonsoon season. Moderate to low transparency values were observed at different sampling centres in the systems (0.29-1.54m). Retting areas had significantly lower values, particularly during the pre-monsoon period due to the accumulation of coir pith and ret liquor containing organic acids like pectin, pentosan, phenol, tannin, etc. in the water body. Low values of transparency in systems rampant with retting have been reported by earlier works (Bijoy Nandan 2004). The salinity values indicated mixo-haline condition of these systems with a range of 5.20-32.38 ppt during the premonsoon, 0.18 to 22.42 ppt during the monsoon and 0.5 to 28.6 ppt during the postmonsoon periods. The mean values of the dissolved oxygen (4.68mg/L at Kayamkulam to 7.38mg/L at Valapattanam) for the whole year did not indicate a deteriorated environment in these water bodies. This is also true in case of the sulphide values (0.18-0.80mg/L). But a highly stressed environment was evident from a separate season-wise treatment of the values. During pre-monsoon, on an average, most of the water bodies recorded dissolved oxygen within a range of 1.73-4.57 ppm during the pre-monsoon survey. Marked depletion of dissolved oxygen leading to anoxic condition coupled with the presence of sulfide was the most conspicuous observation at certain stations. This was mainly due to the intense retting activity in these zones. The free carbon dioxide values also was at an elevated level in retting areas during the premonsoon season, but the trend between the systems was erratic during the monsoon and post monsoon seasons ( Table 1 & Fig.2). Table 1 Mean values of physico-chemical characteristics of retting and non-retting zones in the backwaters Retting zone Depth (m) Transparency (m) pH Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) Total sulfides (mg/L) Turbidity (NTU) Free carbon dioxide (mg/L) Alkalinity (MO) (Mg/L CaCO3) Alkalinity (Ph.) (Mg/L CaCO3) Inorganic phosphate (mg/L P) 62

Non-retting zone 1.88 0.60 6.92 2.43 8.80 2.62 6.4 103 6.7 40.6

2.88 0.69 7.99 7.60 3.01 1.60 3.5 91 10 36.5

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Alkalinity was mostly nil in all the northern backwaters, but registered high values at Ashtamudi (6.40mg/L) and Kadinamkulam (6.50mg/L). Elevated values were recorded at retting areas during the pre-monsoon months. Moderate to high COD values (3.069.00 mg/L) were observed during the post-monsoon when compared to the monsoon season. Sediment pH showed acidic trends in many of the backwaters particularly towards the southern, represented by the Kadinamkulam, Anchuthengu, Ashtamudi and Kayamkulam backwaters. Conductivity and organic carbon values were also high during the pre-monsoon period as compared to the other two seasons, indicative of the accumulation of organic matter and other materials during the period. Calcium carbonate was at its peak in Ashtamudi (Av.17.65%) during the pre-monsoon and the lowest in Anchuthengu backwater (Av. 0.29%) during the monsoon period. The available phosphorous content was high during the pre-monsoon with an average of 0.40% during the pre-monsoon followed by monsoon (Av.0.27%) and post-monsoon (Av. 0.28%) in the backwaters. The productivity values were generally low in most of the backwaters during the study. The gross production varied from a mean of 0.30gC/m 3/day in Anchuthengu to 0.98 gC/m 3/day in Azhikode kayal. Earlier investigations conducted on the primary productivity in the Kadinamkulam backwater reported zero values at retting zones during October to May and 0.02-1.49gC/m 3/day at other stations and that in Ashtamudi the gross production rate was estimated at 143.88mgC/m3/hr (Bijoy Nandan, 2004). The present results were in conformity with these studies. Anchuthengu kayal had consistently poor chlorophyll values indicating the severe stress originating from coconut husk retting and other anthropogenic influences (Fig.3). Biodiversity of Plankton and Benthos The mean seasonal plankton biomass values varied from 0.52 in Azhikode to 5.85 mL/m3 in the Kadinamkulam backwaters during the monsoon, whereas it varied from 0.28 in Mahe to 6.83 mL/m3 in Ashtamudi estuary during the post-monsoon period. The southern backwaters except Ashtamudi were dominated by Bacillariophyceae during monsoon, which got replaced by Myxophyceae during the post monsoon season. During the pre-monsoon period Chlorophyceae, Myxophyceae and Chrysophyceae showed higher percentage incidence in the southern backwaters whereas Bacillariophyceae showed higher incidence in the northern backwaters. Campylodiscus sp., Staurastrum sp., Micrasterias sp., and Spondylosium sp. contributed to the higher density of Bacillariophyceae. Chlorophyceae represented by Microspora sp., Pediastrum sp. and Hormidium sp., contributed to the high planktonic biomass in Chettuva and Ponnani estuaries. A total of 100 species of phytoplankton were recorded from the backwaters.

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Fig 2 Mean water quality variations in selected backwaters during pre-monsoon.

Fig.3 Mean Chlorophyll-a (mg/m3) and algal biomass (g/m3 wet wt) in the selected kayals 64

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The diversity index (H), richness index (d) and evenness index (e) of the phytoplankton showed peak values during the pre monsoon and post monsoon periods in the Valapattanam and Azhikode backwaters whereas minimum values were observed in the Kadalundi, Chettuva and Ashtamudi backwaters. The monsoon period showed the presence of 14 groups of zooplankton whereas the post monsoon showed 20 groups in the backwaters. But during the pre-monsoon study conducted in the same water bodies during 1996 showed the presence of only 12 faunal groups. The southern backwaters (Kayamkulam to Kadinamkulam) showed higher incidence and diversity of the different planktonic groups when compared to the backwaters in the northern segment during monsoon as well as post-monsoon periods. During the pre-monsoon, the Kayamkulam backwater recorded the maximum numerical density (64273 Nos./ m3) and the Mahe backwater recorded the minimum (3350 Nos./ m3). Amphipoda, Polychaeta and Gastropoda formed the dominant benthic groups in all the kayals during both the seasons. The monsoon as well as post monsoon periods showed higher numerical density in the southern backwaters when compared to the northern segments. Nemertea (Ribbon worms), a rare group was recorded in the Neeleswaram (0.5%) and Ashtamudi backwaters (0.4%) during the post-monsoon period (Figs.4 & 5). Thirteen species of polychaetes viz. Eunoe macrophthalma, Ancistrosyllis constricta, Ceratonereis mirabilis, Ceratonereis sp ,Nephthys polybranchia, Diopatra neapolitana, Diopatra sp, Glycera papillosa, Polydora kempi, Prionospio cirrifera, Prionospio cirrobranchiata, Capitellides sp and Pectinaria neapolitana, contributed to the benthic population in the backwaters during the pre monsoon period. Fish resources and Catch Structure Ninety four species of fish and shellfish were identified that contributed to the fishery of these kayals. Definite zone marking could be seen in the distribution of these species in the backwater. Table 2 Percentage contribution by various species/groups to the total landings from selected kayals Species/ Groups landings

Range

Acanthurus spp. Gerres spp. Platycephalus sp. Leiognathus spp. Etroplus spp. Megalops sp. Tachysurus spp. Ambassis sp. O. mossambicus Stolephorus sp.

0.0-4.9 1.0-6.1 0.1-3.1 0.3-5.9 2.0-13.9 0.0-5.8 1.9-10.4 0.0-8.6 0.0-14.7 0.0-3.3

Contribution (%) to total Mean% of Pooled data 0.47 2.72 1.08 1.08 5.68 0.60 3.20 2.92 0.94 1.57 65

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Sillago sihama Caranx spp. Lutjanus spp. Mullets Flat fishes Half beaks Others Fishes total

0.0-3.8 1.0-5.2 1.1-11.4 1.5-16.5 0.1-3.6 0.1-2.5 6.4-20.0 26.9-75.0

0.81 1.29 1.50 5.07 1.21 0.26 10.66 41.20

Metapenaeus dobsonii M. monoceros Penaeus indicus P. monodon Other penaeids Non-penaeids Prawns total Crabs

9.2-53.4 1.0-8.2 2.5-29.6 0.0-9.0 0.0-2.9 0.0-1.3 13.9-70.5 2.6-11.1

33.06 6.53 9.19 1.22 0.64 0.46 53.1 5.75

Total yield (kg/ha.)

246-2747

630.1

Puntius filamentosus, P. sarana, Labeo dussumieri, Mystus malabaricus, Anabas testudineus, Channa spp., Oreochromis mossambicus, and Mastacebelus armatus could be cited as examples. Rhinobatus halavi, Congressox talabanoides, Lobotes surinamensis, Acanthurus strigosus, Eleotris fusca, Lepturocanthus savala, Platax orbicularis, etc were also recorded from certain systems, though in stray numbers. Etroplus suratensis,, Penaeus indicus and the Metapenaeus monoceros represented 2.0-13.9%, 2.5-29.6% and 1.0-8.2% in the total catches (Table 2). The total landings from different backwaters varied from 96.8t from Mahe to 2899t from the Ashtamudi. The average yield/ha varied from 410 kg at Anchuthengu to 2747.3 t from Azhikode estuary. The CPUE exhibited wide variation from gear to gear, but exhibited a general trend for most of the backwaters. The high rate CPUE for the Stake net (7.5-18.1) was largely offset by the limited days of operation and the low market value fish forming the bulk of the catch. Seine net (11.3-74.7) too brought high CPUE, but again the catch composition was composed largely of small fishes, young fishes and the low priced M. dobsonii. The study clearly indicated that from the 15,100 ha backwater covered, the average yield per hectare was to the tune of 651kg. Considering that the coastal interconnected backwaters spread to over 65000 ha, the total annual yield should exceed 42315 tones. The average density of active fishermen being 74 per km2, the total fishermen directly depending on the backwater fishery is estimated at about 50000 nos. Therefore, the fishermen population directly depending on the backwater fishery approximates 2.5 lakhs. Annual yield should exceed 42315 tones.

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R o ti fe r a

C opepoda

Thiruvananthapuram

R o t i fe ra

C o p e p o d n a u p lii 40

105

P re m onsoon

C o p e p o d n a u p lii

C opepoda

M onsoon

0 N EL

V PM

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

K DK

N EL

R o t if e r a

V PM

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

K DK

Copepoda

C o p e p o d n a u p lii 105 90

P ost m onsoon

75 60 45 30 15 0 N EL

V PM

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

K DK

Fig. 4 Seasonal mean percentage distribution in zooplankton in the Kayals

A m p h ip o d a

P o l yc h a e ta

G a s tr o p o d a

P o l yc h a e ta

B i v a l vi a

105

A m p h ip o d a

G a s tr o p o d a

B i v a l vi a

P re m onsoon

Post m onsoon

10 0

0 N EL

V PM

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

P o l yc h a e ta

N EL

K DK

A m p h ip o d a

V PM

G a s tr o p o d a

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

K DK

B i v a l vi a

105

M onsoon

90 75 60 45 30 15 0 N EL

V PM

MHE

PN I

CTV

A ZK

KY M

A ST

A NG

K DK

Fig.5 Seasonal mean percentage distribution in benthic fauna in the Kayals

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1. The fishing effort should not be allowed to increase further and has to be restricted at least to the current level till further suggestions are made based on population dynamics investigations conducted on major fish/shellfish species of the backwater systems. 2. No proper registration of the fishing gear and craft is being carried out except for 67

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4. 5.

8. 9.

Thiruvananthapuram

the stake nets. The registration system followed under the Fishermen Welfare Board is not effective in regulating the fishery. Strict registration and licensing to all existing craft, gear and fishermen is to be immediately implemented. There is an urgent need to restrict the mesh size of the stake net, Chinese dip net and the drag net to ensure more growing period to the young ones. Though a minimum mesh size of 25 mm (stretched) is advisable, considering that M. dobsonii is also to be exploited, the minimum mesh size may be restricted to 18mm. It has been observed that several units of purse seine are diverted to the backwaters during the closed season for marine fishing. This has to be totally prohibited. Several of the stake nets are being deployed during the tide incursion to the backwaters against the norms. The enforcement machinery is to be strengthened to ensure that the stake nets are deployed only during the receding phase. Considerable area of the backwaters has already been lost due to reclamation for agricultural, mining, urban area development and similar activities. Backwaters are priceless heritage serving to a variety of economic activities apart from fisheries. Further encroachment/reclamation are to be strictly regulated. Several stretches of backwaters are subjected to extreme organic/industrial pollution. Hence pollution abatement measures are to be given top priority. Technology for alternate coconut husk retting practice has to be developed that free backwaters from organic pollution. Reclaimed paddy lands such as at Kuttanad, Kattampally, etc are to be utilised to raise an additional crop of fish during the fallow period. Ranching programme will be more effective after implementing fishery regulations. Hence, regulatory measures are to be strictly implemented to benefit from the currently envisaged massive ranching programme in backwaters/river stretches.

REFERENCES APHA, 1995. Standard Methods for the examination of analysis of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association 19th edition. Bijoy Nandan S, 2004. Studies on the Impact of retting on Aquatic Ecosystems, ISBN 81-901939-0-2, Limnological Association of Kerala, India, 120 p, Davis C C, 1995. The marine and fresh water plankton. Michigan State University Press Margalef R, 1968. Perspectives in ecological Theory. University of Chicago press, Chicago. Strickland J D H and Parsons T R, 1972. A practical handbook of sea water analysis, Bulletin No.167, Fisheries Research Board of Canada. Talwar P K and Jhingran A G, 1991. Inland Fishes. Vol.1 & 2 Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Ward H B and Whipple G C, 1959. Freshwater Biology. Second Edition, John Wiley and sons, Inc. p.1248. 68

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DEVELOPMENT OF INLAND WATERWAYS IN KERALA AND ITS IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT Sreedevi B G Head, Highway Engg. Dn and Lab, National Transportation Planning and Research Centre, Thiruvananthapuram

1. INTRODUCTION The West Coast Canal System in Kerala comprising of the backwaters and rivers connected by artificial canals and having a distance of 656 kms runs parallel to the coastal belt of the State. This was the main mode of transport at one time. With the development of mechanized vehicles and faster travel by road and rail transport, inland navigation lost its favour. Thereafter, the canal was neglected and the maintenance of waterway system got de-prioritized. As a result, the canal got filled up in many places and lost its functional glory. The ever-increasing pattern of transportation needs with road and rail systems failing to meet the demand adequately, have resulted in a shift towards development of the Inland Water Transport (IWT) System all over the country. There has been a consistent demand from the environment-lovers, tourists and industries for the revival of the canal system mainly due to the following reasons: • The coastal aquifer can be saved from salinity. • Ground water replenishment and elimination of recurrent fresh water storage. • Establishment of an agricultural grid system by connecting the existing or abandoned small canals and rivers • The resulting pollution hazard can be eliminated and the public health of the coastal belt safeguarded. The State of Kerala, gifted with a large area of backwaters, rivers, navigable canals and water bodies, has made some advancement in this venture. Among the three National Waterways declared by the Government of India, the NW-3, forming a part of West Coast Canal system, is in Kerala. The development of IWT in the State can be sequenced as given below: 1

K o llam to K o ttapuram sectio n of W est C oast C anal, U dyo gam an d al canal and C ham p akkara can al (20 5 km )

D eclared as N ation al W ater w ay N o.3 (N W 3 ) in 1 99 2 an d the d evelo pm ental activities are in pro gress.

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E xtension of N W 3 upto K ovalam in the T echno E conom ic feasibility established. A w aits clearance from G overnm ent of India. south (77 km s) and K asargode in the north (391 km s) F urther extension of W est coast C anal T E F report prepared K erala to K olachal in T am ilnadu (41 km s) D evelopm ent of feeder canals under K S T P program

D evelopm ent in progress w ith W orld B ank A ssistance

2. IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT OF WATERWAY The proposed development of the Waterway is to improve the same by widening and deepening at the required places to facilitate movement of mechanized barges. This is expected to divert the road traffic, mainly cargo to the Waterway so as to decongest the densely populated road stretches. This will ultimately result in providing economic benefits as a result of savings in fuel cost, accident cost and pollution cost and positive improvement to the environment. As the development of Inland Water Ways in Kerala aims at the rehabilitation of the existing canals, the net effect on the environment will be positive only. The canal development can affect the environment at the development stage and operational stage. 2.1 Development Stage The main activities at the developmental stage are: Land Acquisition Widening and Deepening of the channel Development of terminals Bank protection Demolition and reconstruction of bridges and locks Construction of roads and other paved areas. Deepening of the channel by dredging is an activity which affects the environment for which proper monitoring has to be done for the dumping of the material and change in the water quality. a) Dumping of the material It can be seen that in most cases, dredging is to be done in wider reaches and therefore disposal of the spoil cut from the cruise route can be dumped in the water way itself without interfering with the local ecosystem. In case of narrow reaches, the dredged material can be used for filling the low-lying areas. Wherever the disposal at the sides is not possible the material can be transported to wide areas and dumped to aid progressive reclamation. 70

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b) Change in Water quality For NW3, where dredging is taking place, monthly testing of the water samples is being done, and it is found that there is no significant adverse effect on the water quality. 2.2 Post Development (Operational) Stage The general impacts anticipated during the operational phase will be attributed to air, noise, water, land and aquatic life. i Air The air quality surrounding the water is likely to be affected by Gaseous emissions from the movement of mechanized barges, loading and unloading of chemicals at IWT terminals, leaks or spills from handling volatile and flammable materials and vehicular movement on access roads. In addition to the above, secondary development such as urbanization may also affect the air quality. Regular tuning of engines is recommended to reduce incomplete combustion of fuels. ii Noise There will be rise in ambient noise level due to the movement of relatively large vessels. MOEF guide lines for ports and harbors recommend that noise level should be kept below 85 dBA at a height of 5 feet. To combat the noise impact in narrow stretches, a physical barrier can be provided between navigational channel and residential houses by planting trees. iii Water Surface water quality may be affected due to spills of POL, fertilizers and chemicals during handling of movement, discharge of sanitary waste, maintenance dredging, effluent from industries and sewage from urban areas to be developed consequent to the canal development, alterations of hydrology including water flow and wave pattern of the canal due to regular barge movement, etc. To minimize these effects, the following practices are recommended: • • • •

Scrupulous house-keeping should be practiced during loading and unloading to minimize leaks and spills. Periodic dredging of sediment near terminals to remove accumulated pollutants. Provide floating oil booms to carry the spilled oil The sewage and waste water shall be treated before discharging in to the channel

iv Land Erosion of banks, if unprotected, can occur due to barge movement. Reclamation of 71

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land by dredged material may lead to alteration of the nutrient status to the existing soil. But these impacts are expected to be miner. v Biological changes Both terrestrial and aquatic flora – fauna can be affected due to regular barge operation. Good house keeping, maintenance and other management practices can minimize the above impacts. 3 POLLUTION COST Major environmental problems caused by growing vehicular population are air pollution and noise pollution. Studies indicate that traffic noise causes subjective effects, behavioral effects and psychological effects. Report of the “Study Group of Alternative System of Urban Transport” has estimated the pollution cost for truck as four percent of the fuel cost. But in the case of Inland Water Transport Vessels, the pollution cost is negligible. The estimated savings in pollution cost due to the diverting of cargo to IWT mode is given in Table 1. Table 1. Savings in Pollution cost Sl. No.

Section

Estimated volume of divertible traffic (lakh tonne-Km)

Kollam – Kovalam

Kottapuram – Kasargod

3368.35

33.68

Total

5065.37

50.65

1697.02

Savings in pollution cost (Rs. in lakhs)

16.97

• The fuel cost for truck operation is assumed as Rs. 0.25/t-km based on RUCS study 4 IMPACT OF DREDGING The estimated quantities of dredging in these reaches are as given in Table 2. Table 2. Estimated Quantity of Dredging (lakhs cubic metre) Sl. No. 1. 2. 3.

Stretch

Quantity

Kovalam - Kollam Kollam - Kottappuram (NW - 3) Kottappuram - Kasargod

27.3 21.2 96.44

While dredging was being done in NW3, water samples were collected monthly and sediment samples were collected bimonthly from the dredging sites and reference points from April 2000 to February 2001. Water samples were analyzed for fifteen parameters; Temperature, Turbidity, pH, Colour, Odour, BOD, COD, Oil and Grease, 72

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Acidity, Alkalinity, Total Nitrogen, Ammonia Nitrogen, Nitrate Nitrogen, Phosphate and Sulphate. Sediment samples were analyzed for six parameters which are phosphorous, sulphide, organic carbon, iron, oxygen demand and settling velocity. The results showed that there is enrichment of the water and sediment quality parameters at the dredging sites than at the reference sites. Sample observations are given in table 3 and 4. Table 3. Analytical Results of Sediment Samples (Location: Panikarkadavu) Sl.

No.Parameter

Dredging

Dumping

Total Phosphorous µg/g

859

809

Sulphides µg/g

270

2340

Total organic carbon %

0.18

2.19

Iron %

8.712

4.934

Oxygen demand mg/g

163

Setting velocity mm/s

20.6

4.38

Table 4. Analytical Results of Water Samples (Location: Panikarkadavu)

Sl. No.

Location Sample No. Type of water sample

1. 2. 3. 4.

Temperature 0 C pH Turbidity Colour

Odour

6. 7. 8.

BOD mg/1 COD mg/1 Oil & Grease µg/1 Acidity mg/1 Alkalinity mg/1 Total nitrogen µg/1 NH3 –N µg/1 N03 –N µg/1 P04 –N µg/1 S 04 mg/1

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Reference site 1 2

Dredging site 3 4

Dumping site 5 6

Surface

Bottom

Surface

Bottom

Surface

Bottom

28.4 6.85 1.40 <2 units

28.9 7.30 2.88 <2 units

28.4 7.31 2.92 4 units

28.2 7.40 5.30 8 units

28.5 7.16 7.56 7 units

28.2 6.98 5.64 6 units

Odourle ss

Odourless

Odourle ss

Odourles s

2.82 42 0.08

2.41 53 0.06

3.72 106 1.12

3.88 118 0.68

2.50 86 0.62

2.87 92 0.42

Nil 38 165

Nil 52 207

Nil 54 181

Nil 40 230

Nil 32 192

Nil 40 184

15.8 24.30 48.6 607

14.3 1.65 64.8 1606

31.5 28.0 32.4 602

27.3 7.82 50.6 1583

28.5 131.0 49.6 515

23.1 50.2 36.5 652

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5. CONCLUSION In the case of NW3, the water and sediment quality parameters recorded high values in the dredging and dumping sites than the reference points. The changes in the bottom geometry and strata trigger subsequent changes in current pattern . The dumping of spoil on the banks has not caused any adverse effect on the flora and fauna. Dredging has helped to restore the flow and thus cause a better refreshment of the estuaries. But for the extension stretches, dumping of the dredged material has to be properly planned to have minimum disturbance to the environment in view of the excessive quantity. 6. REFERENCES CESS, 2001. Environmental status of NW3 between Kollam and Kottapuram, Kerala. Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. NATPAC, 1998. Techno-economic Feasibility study for the extension of NW 3 up to Kovalam in the South and Kasargod in the North (Revised TOR). National Transportation Planning and Research Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. NATPAC, 2001. Study on environment impact of capital dredging in NW3. National Transportation Planning and Research Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. RITES, 1992. Detailed Project Report on Development of IWT on West Coast Canal. RITES Ltd., New Delhi, India.

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IMPACTS OF MUDALAPOZHI HARBOUR ON THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS OF ANJENGO, TRIVANDRUM DISTRICT Arunkumar K S and Sabu Joseph Dept. of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom 695 581

INTRODUCTION The State of Kerala is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Lakshadweep Sea, with an average width of 60 km and a coastal stretch of 560 km. From timeimmemorial this coastal zone was more vital to its population not only due to geographic reasons, but also due to its economic and social considerations. Due to the intense maritime activities many of the foreign traders and settlers came to Kerala coast and attracted the local populace to the coastal zone. Before the coming up of the roads and railways, the water transport systems, mostly along the coast, were more active and hence the development of important towns and cities along the coastal belt. During the present century, urbanization of the coastal zone has upset the delicate balance of this coastal environment resulting in problems like high population density, coastal pollution, coastal erosion/accretion, flooding, salt water intrusion, siltation of waterways and harbours etc. Among these, coastal erosion has attracted much attention. This problem not only affects Kerala State alone, but also prevails along the other parts of the East and West Coasts of India. A plethora of publications are available indicating its severity. For example, studies on beach changes in Vishakapattanam on the East coast (Mohan et al., 1981) and off Kerala coast (Suchindan et al 1987) showed that the beach erodes during the SW monsoon and accredes during the calm weather period. Study of stability and safety of Goa beach showed that the beach is fairly stable although it undergoes a series of short term cuts and fills during the monsoon and non-monsoon seasons respectively (Narayanaswamy and Varadachari, 1981). Further, sediment movement in relation to the wave refraction and beach erosion and accretion has been discussed by many authors (Reddy and Varadachari, 1973; Nair et al., 1973; Murthy and Varadachari, 1980; Baba, 1985; Thomas, 1986, Thrivikramji and Anirudhan 1992). Therefore, steps are to be taken to tackle it on an emergency basis without giving much consideration to the associated environmental problems. A significant developmental activity, which has considerable impact on coastal environments, is the construction of port and harbour. While serving the main purpose, such shore-perpendicular structures usually obstruct the flow of onshore (long shore) 75

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currents and pose serious coastal erosion/accretion problems. Though data on beach erosion and accretion of coastal stretches are available, data of this type generated by studying the impacts of harbour construction on coastal stretches are scanty. A harbour has been constructed recently in the outlet of Kadinamkulam estuary at Mudalapozhi in the Anjengo coastal tract of Trivandrum district. In the present study, an attempt has been made to examine the beach erosion/accretion phenomena at Anjengo coast vis-à-vis the recent development of a harbour at Mudalapozhi, and to relate it to the seasonal variation in the long shore current pattern. STUDY AREA The study sector (length= 5 Km) falls in the immediate northern part of Mudalapozhi harbour and is confined between Mudalapozhi (lat. 80 38’ N & long. 760 47’ E) in the south and Anjengo (lat. 80 40’, 30" & long. 760 48’ E) in the north of the coastal tract of Trivandrum district. This sector forms part of an almost straight, roughly NW-SE trending shoreline between the rocky headland at Kovalam in the south and laterite cliffs at Varkala in the north (Fig.1). The accretion/erosion study along this coastal tract is of much concern because Anjengo Panchayath is the second most densely populated coastal Panchayath in Trivandrum district with an average width of ~100m and having an area of only 3.36 km2. 50°

45°

40° 45°

Varkala

∀

45° 1 km

Scale

5 10

A8 Anjengo A8 A7 A7 A6 A6 A5 A5 A4 A4 A3 A3 A2 A2 A1 A1

40°

ΛΛ

k am din Ka

Beach profile stations

40°

m ula

35°

45°

Fig1.Location map 76

zh po ala d Mu

r ou arb ih

50°

40°

35°

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MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to examine the beach accretion/erosion phenomena along the Anjengo coast, a total of 8 stations (Nos. A1 to A8) were selected at an interval of ~600m (Fig. 1). Monthly beach profile measurements in these stations were carried out from January 2003 to December 2003. Further, oceanographic environmental parameters like breaker height, wave period, wave angle and long shore current speed and direction were also measured. A beach profile is identified by one or more reference stations in the backshore and is defined by a direction. A beach profile is measured from a reference station in the backshore to a point seaward up to a few meters beyond the low water line using a dumpy level, leveling staff and tape. The profile datas were processed by using a computer program. The program compares the different monthly profile datas of each station and brings out the beach volume changes as either erosional or accretional, and cumulative volume changes (cubic meter/meter of the beach). The net volume changes of the beach represent the algebraic sum of the erosion in one part of the profile line and accretion in another part (Goldsmith et al., 1977). The longshore current velocity and direction were measured by deploying a suitable buoyant drift bottle in the surf zone. The distance traveled by the bottle in 2 minutes is recorded and represented in m/sec. The wave period was measured using a stopwatch by observing the time required for 10 waves crests to pass an imaginary fixed point. The breaker height was estimated visually. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The season-wise averages of the oceanographic environmental parameters (viz., wave height, wave period, wave direction, long-shore current direction and speed) of different stations for pre-monsoon (January-April), transitional (May), monsoon (June-August) and post-monsoon (September- December) are given in Table 1. Further, the results of station-wise monthly beach volume changes are given in Table 2. It is found that the wave heights vary between 0.75 and 2.5m; the wave direction between 190o and 2700 and the wave period between 9 and 14 seconds. Two distinct seasons based on the wave heights can be identified, viz., November- April and JuneSeptember, with May and October as transition months. The long period waves (1014s) dominated during post-monsoon and short period waves during monsoon (Table 1). The longshore currents are predominantly northerly except for four months (MayAugust) that covers the transitional and monsoon seasons. Further, it has been found that the longshore sediment transportation is more predominant and is mainly responsible for the shoreline instabilities. From the monthly beach volume data of different stations, it is found that maximum erosion (-286.89 m3/m) is during June (monsoon) and minimum (-16.7m3/m) during August (monsoon). Similarly, maximum accretion (+290.5 m3/m) is during October 77

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(post-monsoon) and minimum (+67.8 m3/m) during January (pre-monsoon). During the entire study period about 71.27m3/linear meter of beach has been eroded from the study sector (Table 2). The variation in the erosion/accretion pattern in the study area for different months and seasons warrants explanation. In the pre-monsoon, the longshore currents set to the north and its velocity increases from January to April (i.e., 0.4 to 0.6m/sec). This rise in velocity during pre-monsoon is accompanied by an increase in the accreding rate favouring accretion in the coast, which is in conformity with the findings of Samsudhin and Suchindan (1987). i.e., the wave conditions (wave period 13sec; breaker height 0.75m) are favourable for an accreding environment in the beach. However, during the transitional period, the reversal of longshore currents towards south is observed for most part of the study area (Table 1). The speed ranges between 0.1 and 0.3m/sec. During this season the breaker height increases to 2m and wave period to 12sec. Under the influence of this wave climate and feeble southerly current, the coast experiences perceptible erosion and -191.30m3/m of beach was eroded. Nevertheless, the SW monsoon is the principal rainy season and provides 80% of the annual rainfall in Kerala. The NE monsoon is the secondary rainfall season, and at times there is a decrease in rainfall from south to north (Ananthakrishnan et al., 1979). It has been found that the breaker height increases from pre-monsoon to monsoon, whereas, the wave period shows a decreasing trend (Table 1) and this would reflect in the occurrence of short-crested, low period and high waves capable of causing severe shock to the coast leading to erosion during the monsoon season. Wave refraction studies along the West Coast of India by Reddy and Varadachari (1973) suggested that waves from the SW, SSW and W are the principal wave direction during the SW monsoon, and the littoral transport is directed generally towards north. However, the present study exposes a different scenario for Anjengo coast such that a reverse phenomena (i.e., southward trend) is seen during transition and monsoon season due to the hindrance in the sediment transport by shore perpendicular structures like harbour groins at Mudalapozhi. With the advance of the monsoon, strong southerly currents of 0.4 to 0.8m/sec were generated. The strong currents and short period (8 to 10 sec) high waves (2 to 3m) could be responsible for the erosion of about -286.89m3/ m of beach. With the end of the monsoonal winds, i.e., during the postmonsoonal season, the southerly current ceases and northerly current is generated. The sediment loss to the beach during the monsoon is partly made up during this postmonsoonal season. During this period, the longshore current shows a northerly trend with a velocity range of 0.3 to 0.6m/sec. In addition to this, the wave period increases (14 sec) and the breaker height decreases (0.9m). The influence of the strength of longshore currents on the accretional behavior of the beach can be readily seen during this season. Under the influence of the long period swell waves and northerly currents, 566.12m3/m of the beach was accreted during the season. The slackened rate of accretion during the postmonsoon may be due to the effect of harbour structure. 78

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Table 1. Average of oceanographic environmental parameters, Anjengo coast Season

Breaker height (in meters)

Wave period (in seconds)

Wave direction

Premonsoon (January- April)

0.75

2500-2900

0.3, Northerly

Postmonsoon (Sept.- Dec.)

0.9

1900-2100

0.4, Northerly

Transitional (May)

1900-2300

0.5, Southerly

2.5

2500-2700

0.4, Southerly

Monsoon (June-August)

Longshore current (m/s) speed direction

Table 2. Station wise beach volume changes (in m3/m), Anjengo coast Pre-monsoon Station January February 2003 A1 -9.52 -29

April

Transition May

June

Monsoon July

36.07

27.80

5.93

-7.75

7.23

Post-monsoon Oct. Nov. Dec. 2003 -5.45 -1.23 -1.60

Aug.

Net change 23.07

-6.18

-0.82

-54.95

-32.82

-14.30

56.90

-6.83

19.77

-0.07

9.03

-1.68

1.10

3.63

-55.8.

-107.83

-62.05

-6.65

8.45

58.08

12.25

-22.80

-47.13

-6.88

-0.10

4.32

-13.45

-81.15

5.35

17.52

22.35

47.35

1.32

-2.27

-2.20

4.57

-12.15

-8.22

-65.40

-24.75

1.40

40.93

17.40

48.50

-16.53

-0.03

-7.02

32.63

-34.60

-56.42

-62.63

7.92

66.63

16.80

36.55

-2.17

24.20

6.28

-2.43

-18.17

-55.85

-17.92

8.95

40.47

17.18

26.02

28.65

67.32

-9.53

-39.97

-20.85

-48.35

-51.95

-31.95

46.22

42.30

19.97

-15.78

TOTAL

67.81

-31.99

-92.28

-191.7

-286.89

-93.9

-16.69

290.49

157.44 125.19 -71.27

CONCLUSION A series of beach profile surveys have been conducted and oceanographic environmental parameters were measured between Mudalapozhi and Anjengo in the Trivandrum coast from January 2003 to December 2003. The study of beach volume changes has revealed that during the pre-monsoon season 57.49m3/m of the beach has been eroded. During the transitional period, the coast experience perceptible erosion of 191.30m3/m of the beach. During the monsoon period about 286.89m3/m of beach has been eroded. During the post-monsoon period 566.12m3/m of the beach has been accreted. During the one year study period 71.27m3/m of the beach has been eroded from this sector and the coast is designated as highly eroding as the cumulative beach volume changes is above 15m3/m (Suchindan et al 1987). The variation in the erosion/accretion pattern in the study area for different months and seasons is closely linked to the changes in the longshore current pattern, which 79

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eventually is controlled by the shore-perpendicular structures (Mudalapozhi harbour) in the study sector. REFERENCES Ananthakrishnan R, Parthasarathy B and Pathan J M, 1979. Metereology of Kerala. In: G.S Sharma, A. Mohan Das and Antony (Ed.). Contribution to Marine Sciences (dedicated to C.V. Kurian), 60-125. Baba M, Shahul Hameed, Kurian N P, Thomas K V, Harish C M, Joseph P S, Prasannakumar M and Varghese K K, 1985. Wave climatology for the southwest coast of India. Paper presented at the Symposium on Concepts and Technique in Applied Climatology, Waltair. Goldsmith V, Sturn S C and Thomas G R, 1977. Beach erosion and accretion at Virginia Beach and vicinity. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Miscellaneous Report, 77 (12): 189 pp. Komar P D, 1976. Beach processes and sedimentation. Prentice- Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 429 pp. Mohan P, Narasimha Rao T V and Panakala Rao D, 1981. Studies on the beach changes at Vishakapattanam, Mahasagar 14 (2): 105- 115. Murthy C S, Sastry J and Varadachari V V R, 1980. Shoreline deformation in relation to shore protection structures along the Kerala coast. Indian journal of marine sciences, 9: 77- 81 Nair R R, Varma P U, Pylee A and Varadachari V V R, 1973. Studies on the sediment transport in the Mopla Bay. Proceedings of the Indian geophysical Union, 10: 193- 197. Narayanaswamy G and Varadachari V V R, 1981. Stability and safety of Anjuna Beach, Goa. Mahasagar, 14 (2): 93- 107 Reddy M P M and Varadachari V V R, 1973. Sediment movement in relation to the wave refraction along the west coast of India. Proceedings of the Indian geophysical Union, 10: 169- 182. Samsudin M and Suchindan G K, 1987. Beach erosion and accretion in relation to seasonal longshore current variation in the Northern Kerala Coast. Journal of Coastal Research, 3: 55- 62. Suchindan G K, Samsudin M and Thrivikramji K P, 1987. Coastal geomorphology and beach erosion and accretion in the Northern Kerala Coast. Journal of Geological Society of India, 29: 379- 389. Thomas K V and Baba M, 1986. Berm development on a monsoon influenced microtidal beach. Sedimentology, 33: 537- 546. Thrivikramji K P and Anirudhan S, 1992. Sealevel Rise due to Green House effect: Implication to Kerala: Final Report submitted to DST, Govt. of India, New Delhi. 86p. 80

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EFFECT OF EL-NINO ON THE RAINFALL PATTERN OF KERALA Sudheesh M V Prasada Rao GSLHV and Manikandan N Department of Agricultural Meteorology College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur

INTRODUCTION Observations and global models indicated strong teleconnections between both phases of El-Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and global circulation. Most of the seasonal climatic variability in the tropics is related to the ENSO phenomenon which influences the location of tropical convection and ultimately changes the global atmospheric circulation. El-Nino year is connected with severe droughts in Indonesia (Quinn et al, 1978), Australia and India (Angell, 1981). A strong relationship between El-Nino event over the equatorial eastern Pacific and deficit Southwest monsoon (June â&#x20AC;&#x201C; September) rainfall in India was reported by Sikka in 1980.The Indian summer monsoon rainfall is known to have significant relationship with Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) according to Ramakrishna et al (2003). IMD has developed forecasting models for summer monsoon rainfall using 8/10 parameter models. El-Nino of previous year (July, August and September) is one of the parametric models. However, the relationship between El-Nino as well as ENSO and Indian monsoon is not clear yet as evidenced during 2002 deficit monsoon. Though, some signals are seen between them over India, their links at the regional level is not known. With this view, an attempt has been made to understand the relationship between ENSO and rainfall over Kerala, which is the gateway of Indian monsoon. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rainfall over Kerala for 128 years published by the India Meteorological Department from 1987 to 2003 was correlated with month-wise SOI values published by Bureau of Australian Meteorology. Monthly rainfall of Kerala was converted into Southwest monsoon, Northeast monsoon and Annual. The ENSO response analysis of rainfall over Kerala is based on composites of 28 warm events and 23 cold events which are given below (Table.1).

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Table 1. Warm and cold event years E ven t

Y ears 19 05 , 1 91 1, 1 91 2, 1 91 4, 1 91 8, 1 91 9, 19 25, 19 30 , 19 32 , 19 39 , 19 40 , 1 94 1,

W arm event / E l-N ino

19 51 , 1 95 3, 1 95 7, 1 95 8, 1 96 5, 1 96 9, 19 72, 19 73 , 19 76 , 1 97 7, 1 98 2, 1 98 7, 19 91 , 1 99 4, 1 99 7 and 200 2 19 08 , 1 91 0, 1 91 6, 1 91 7, 1 92 0, 1 92 4, 19 31, 19 38 , 19 42 , 19 49 , 19 50 , 1 95 4,

C o ld even t / L a-N ina 19 55 , 1 95 6, 1 96 4, 19 66 , 1970 , 1 97 1, 197 3, 1974 , 1 975, 1 97 8 and 1 98 8

The daily rainfall data collected from four stations, representing various agro-climatic zones Viz., Pilicode (1970-2002), Ambalavayal (1970-2002), Vellanikkara (1980-2002) and Vellayani (1983-2002) of the Kerala Agricultural University were also collected and added to obtain seasonal data. The observatories were under IMD inspection umbrella every year and the data quality is with IMD standards. Relationship was also worked out by correlating monthly SOI values with rainfall of the above agro-climatic stations. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The annual rainfall of Kerala was above normal (>2792 mm) in fifteen years out of 28 during which ENSO warm phases (El-Nino) were noticed. The similar event of above normal rainfall was noticed in ten years out of 23 cold phases (La-Nina). As a whole around 50 per cent (49 %) of the years received above normal rainfall irrespective of El-Nino or La-Nina events that took place between 1905 and 2002 (Table.2). Table.2 Association between ENSO phase years and seasonal rainfall over Kerala Event

Total number of years

El-Nino La-Nina

28 23

El-Nino La-Nina

28 23

El-Nino La-Nina

28 23

Number of above Average rainfall normal years Annual 15 (54%) 2792 10 (44%) 2928 Southwest monsoon 13 (46%) 1775 11 (48%) 2009 Northeast monsoon 14 (50%) 526 12 (52%) 449

Standard deviation 333 373 312 369 139 159

The monthly correlation between ENSO of March and April and monsoon rainfall over Kerala showed negative relationship though it is not significant. At the same time, it is significant at Ambalavayal and Vellanikkara (Fig.1).

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Fig.1 Relationship between Southwest Monsoon rainfall and monthly SOI The study also revealed that, the relationship between ENSO and monsoon rainfall over Kerala is weak positively as well as negatively over the Indian context, where a strong relationship has been established. Interestingly, the relationship between ENSO and rainfall at Vellayani (Fig.2) showed a strong negative relationship which is in conformity with the results obtained over Tamil Nadu. It is again an indication that the relationship between these parameters is sound over the regions where the influence of Northeast monsoon is felt. Hence, ENSO parameter can be used in prediction models for the monsoon during the North Eastern Monsoon. The influence of NEM over Kerala is felt more towards south Kerala (Vellayani) and totally negligible towards north of Kerala.

Fig.2 Relationship between Northeast monsoon and monthly SOI 83

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CONCLUSION ENSO can be one of the parameters for predicting rainfall during Northeast monsoon over south Kerala. At the same time no relationship was found between ENSO and SW monsoon rainfall over Kerala, though the linkage is seen at location level which is to be studied in detail. REFERENCES Angell J K, 1981. Comparison of variation in atmospheric quantities with sea surface temperature variations in the equatorial pacific. Monthly weather rev. 109: 230243 Quinn W H Zopf D O, Short K S and Kuo Yank R T W, 1978. Historical trends and statistics of the Southern Oscillation, El-Nino and Indonesian droughts. Fish. Bull. 76: 663-678 Ramakrishna Y S, Singh H P and Rao N G, 2003. Weather based indices for forecasting foodgrain production in India. J. Agrometeorology. 5(1): 1-11 Sikka D R, 1980. Some as ts of the large scale fluctuations of summer monsoon rainfall over India in relation to fluctuations in the planetary and regional scale circulation parameters. Proc. of Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planetary Sci.) 89: 179-195

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ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT STATUS IN AGATTI ISLAND OF LAKSHADWEEP Narasimha Prasad N B and Abdul Hameed E Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kunnamangalam P O, Kozhikode 673 571, Kerala

INTRODUCTION Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea is one of the most important regions in India, strategically and economically. Built on the ancient volcanic formations is the Lakshadweep, the tiniest Union Territory of India. Agatti Island is one of the 10 inhabited Islands of Lakshadweep. The major problem experienced by the islanders is the acute scarcity of fresh drinking water. Groundwater is the only source of fresh water for the islanders and the availability of the same is very restricted due to peculiar hydrologic, geologic, geomorphic and demographic features. The demand for groundwater is increasing every year due to growing population and urbanization in the island. To properly develop and manage the fresh groundwater resource data on, the present stage of groundwater development is a pre-requisite. It is in this context, the present study was carried out in Agatti Island, to know the current status of groundwater development, utilization pattern and to determine the amount of groundwater draft due to domestic purposes. METHODOLOGY ADOPTED All available secondary data on rainfall, geology, hydrogeology, water quality, water related problems, etc, were collected from various published reports and from Lakshadweep Public Works Department (LPWD). Details of well census, carried out by the staff of LPWD under the guidance of CWRDM, was collected to get information on groundwater draft, well density, groundwater utilization pattern, etc. All these information were compiled and analysed to understand the groundwater development scenario in Agatti Island. GENERAL FEATURES OF AGATTI ISLAND Agatti Island is at a distance of 459 Kms from Cochin (nearby Airport). This island lies between north latitude 100 48’30’’ and 100 53’ and east longitude 720 09’30’’ and 720 12’ 30’’. The Agatti Island has an areal extent of 3.29 Km2, with a maximum 85

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length of 7.5 Kms and maximum width of 0.875 Kms and stretched in a NE-SW direction. The total population of this island as per 2001 census is 7072, with a population density of 2149 persons / Km2. The average annual rainfall of 1573mm recorded at the Amini Island, can be considered as the annual rainfall for Agatti Island also, as no long duration rainfall data is available exclusively for Agatti Island. As the area is covered by sandy soil, the rainfall immediately infiltrates in to the soil and hence there is no surface runoff. Agatti island is lying on a north-south oriented sub-marine ridge known as the Lakshadweep â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Chagos ridge. This island has an enclosed shallow lagoon on its western side and is fringed by a rugged coral reef and a narrow storm beach on the eastern side. The beach rock - coralline limestone - occurs along the eastern shores of Agatti Island. The island is covered by medium to fine-grained assorted coral sand, which is underlain by a thin hard coral limestone at a depth of 1.5 to 3.0 m. This hard coral limestone is characterised by cavities, and is seen in the well sections and also exposed near the east coast. Loose coral sands underlie the hard coral limestone. The ground elevation varies from less than one metre to about 4m above mean sea level. HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITION Groundwater occurs under phreatic condition in the coral sandy aquifer. The fresh groundwater is floating as a lens over the brackish water underlain by saline water. The seawater is in hydraulic continuity with the groundwater and the same is evidenced by the tidal influence in almost all the wells in the island (Singh and Gupta, 1999). It is observed that the depth to groundwater level varies from less than 0.5 m to 4.0 m, depending on the topography. It is noticed that, there are some peaks in the groundwater level hydrographs during non-rainy days. These peaks should be due to the tidal influence. Thus in this island, the groundwater level fluctuation is due to the combination of rainfall, tidal activities, sub-surface runoff and draft. STATUS OF GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT A hundred percent well inventory was carried out by staff of LPWD under the guidance of CWRDM. This data was collected and analysed to determine the status of groundwater development in Agatti Island. Groundwater Extraction Structures Dug wells - Large diameter dugwell is the main groundwater extraction structure in this island. There are 1243 dugwells in an areal extent of 3.29 sq. km in this island, with almost each family having its own well. The depth of these wells range between 1.0m and 5.0m below ground level depending on the ground elevation. The diametre of the dugwells varies from 1.0m to 4.0m, with majority of the wells having around 2.0m diametre. These open wells are mostly constructed using cement rings or cement bricks up to the coral limestone, to prevent the collapsing of sandy formation and the groundwater is extracted from the loose coral sand below the cavitiferous hard coral limestone. 86

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Tanks / Ponds - There are 147 tanks or ponds, mostly constructed near the Mosques for bathing purpose. Pumping of water from these tanks is very rare. The length and breadth of these tanks varies from 2.0m to 12.0m and 1.0m to 8.0m respectively. The depth ranges between 0.5 and 1.5 m. Radial Wells - There are 3 radial wells constructed for the purpose of public water supply but at present only one radial well is working. These radial wells have 6 to 8 pipes of 160mm diametre and 5m length, embedded at about 30 cms below the average groundwater level. The water is collected through a 6m-diametre well; constructed using concrete rings and the bottom of the well is sealed. Daily water is pumped for 30 minutes. Density of Dugwells Total number of dugwells in Agatti island is 1243 and the density of dugwells is 378 wells / sq. km. The number of dugwells is increasing every year, due to increasing population (Fig.1). It has been observed from the well census data that the dugwell density was only 60 wells / sq. km. Up to 1960, which has gradually increased to 100 wells / sq. km at the end of 1970, 150 wells / sq. km in 1980, 240 wells / sq. km during 1990 to the level of about 375 wells / sq. km in 2000. This steep increase in the number of dugwells during the last two decades may be due to the influence of urbanization. If the same trend continues, it is expected that at the end of 2010 the total number of dugwells may be more than 1650. Majority of the wells are used for domestic purposes. Type of Lifting Devices Groundwater withdrawal from the wells is made using pulley with rope and bucket or by using energized pump. Out of the 1243 dugwells, 263 wells are fitted with pulley (21%) and 980 wells are fitted with energized pump (79%). 98% of the wells fitted with energized pumps are using 0.5 HP. These wells are generally pumped for 10-20 minutes in a day.

87 87

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Groundwater Related Problems Various problems have been reported during the well census, but all of these are related to water quality. These can be broadly classified into natural and man-made causes. The water quality problem due to natural cause is mainly salinity. The problems due to man-made causes include pumping of groundwater thereby forcing saline water intrusion, wells very close to leach pit / septic tank, presence of grave yards, indiscrete disposal of coconut waste and washing of cloths inside the step wells. The major man-made quality problem is the construction of leach pits / septic tanks close to dugwells. This problem is severe because majority of these are not septic tanks. 71% of the wells are within a distance of 10m from the leach pits / septic tanks (Fig.2). Depending on the type of lifting devices used in the wells, localized variations in the quality of water is noticed. Overall groundwater quality in the northern part is better than the southern part of this island.

Fig. 2 Dugwell Proximity to Leach Pit/Septic Tank GROUNDWATER DRAFT According to the 2001 census, the population of Agatti Island is 7072. The Rajiv Gandhi National Driving Water Technology Mission has fixed 40 litres/capita/day (LPCD) as the domestic water consumption in rural areas. As already stated, all through the year, people depend on groundwater for domestic purposes. Considering all these, the annual groundwater draft for domestic purposes is 0.10 MCM. This draft is the minimum, considering the fact that 79 % of the wells are energized. The groundwater potential, draft for irrigation, loss due to transpiration by coconut trees and subsurface runoff to sea has been estimated by Central Ground Water Board (Najeeb, et al, op cit), as 1.21MCM, 0.055MCM, 0.63 MCM and 0.12 MCM respectively. 88

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From the above estimates it is found that the stage of groundwater utilization is 75%. Considering the urbanization, percentage of energized wells, existence of many more tree species, etc, it is possible that more than 75 % of the annual groundwater recharge is already utilized in this island. For the purpose of establishing the scope for future groundwater development, the Agatti Island can be categorised as “Semi-Critical Area” (CGWB, 1997). CONCLUSIONS The density of wells and tanks / ponds suggest that there is great deal of dependence on groundwater. Groundwater being the only source of fresh water, the demand is increasing every year. However, the groundwater potential is very limited and the stage of groundwater development is more than 75 %. More than 90% of the wells are bacteriologically contaminated due to faecal pollution. In this type of a scenario, groundwater conservation and management techniques such as artificial recharge, rainwater harvesting, periodical disinfection of the wells etc, have to be adopted, to control further deterioration of the groundwater status and quality in this island. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work presented here is part of a mega research project entitled, “Management of fresh water sources in the Lakshadweep islands” funded by India-Canada Environmental Facility, New Delhi and implemented by CWRDM, Kozhikode. Dr. E J James, Executive Director, CWRDM, provided unlimited help and encouragement. The Staff of LIWAMP Cell and MOS Unit of CWRDM gave all necessary help and cooperation. The staff of Lakshadweep Public Works Department and Science and Technology Department were of great help during the fieldwork and data collection. All these are duly acknowledged. REFERENCES Najeeb K Muhammed et al., 1994. Detailed Groundwater Appraisal Studies for Evaluation of Resources in Amini and Agatti Islands of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. Central Ground Water Board, Trivandrum, Kerala. Singh V S and Gupta C P, 1999. “Feasibility of Groundwater withdrawal in a coral Island”, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 44(2), pp. 173-182.

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GROUND WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT THROUGH ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE IN VADODARA, GUJARAT Sejal H Trivedi and Bhavnani H V Parul Institute of Engineering and Technology, Vadodara - 391760

INTRODUCTION Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset. Water can no longer be taken for granted and has to be treated as a valuable resource. The unprecedented drought conditions that have prevailed in many developing countries including India in the present century have focused a renewed and concentrated attention of the art and science of harvesting water to use it most optimally and beneficially under appropriate priorities of use. Objective of Artificial recharge Artificial ground water recharge techniques have been used throughout the world for more than 200 years for a variety of purposes. Some of the uses are as under: Improvement of ground water quality, Ground water management, Reduction of land subsidence, Renovation of waste water, Storage of stream waters during periods of high or excessive flow, Reduction of flood flows, Increase in well yield, Decrease in the size of areas needed for water supply systems, Reduction of salt water intrusion or leakage of mineralized water, Storage of fresh water derived from rain and snow melt, Seasonal storage, Long-term storage or water banking, Emergency storage or strategic water reserve, Disinfection byproduct reduction, Diurnal storage, Restoration of groundwater levels, Maintain distribution system pressure, Maintaining distribution system flow, Agricultural water supply, Nutrient reduction in agricultural runoff, Enhancement of well field production, Reclaimed water storage for reuse, Soil aquifer treatment, Hydraulic control of contaminant plumes, Maintaining water temperature for fish hatcheries, Reducing environmental effects of stream flow diversions etc. Recharge Mechanism Rainfall gets distributed as surface runoff, subsurface infiltration, returns back to atmosphere as evaporation or evapotranspiration losses from land surface or from root zone and surplus if any goes as deep percolation or recharge. Recharge is that portion of infiltration that reaches ground water level. 90

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Following are the Artificial recharge techniques, classified as under: 1.Recharge through induced infiltration. 2. Recharge through water spreading (i) flooding, (ii) Basins, (iii) Ditches (iv) Natural channel modification (v) Irrigation 3. Recharge pits and shafts, 4. Hydrofracturing of bore wells 5. Farmpond 6.Storage tanks, M.I. tanks, M.I. schemes, village tanks 7. Percolation tanks 8. Recharge wells or Injection wells, 9. Check dams, 10. Sub surface dykes or dams, 11. Gully plugging 12. Contour bunding, 13. Contour trenching, 14. Roof top water harvesting; (i) Recharge through abandoned dug well, (ii) Recharge through open well method, (iii) Rain water harvesting through bore well, (iv) Recharge through abandoned hand pump, (v) Recharge pit, (vi) Recharge trench, (vii) Gravity head recharge tube wells, and (viii) Recharge shaft. Average Rise in Water Level in Wells due to Construction of Artificial Recharge Structures (in meters) in gujarat District

Check dam

Percolation tank

StorageTank/Village Tank/M.I. Tank

M.I. Scheme

A.Gujarat Region Ahmedabad

3.00

Banaskantha

2.00

1.00

Bharuch

1.50

Dang Kheda Panchmahal

1.50

2.00

1.00

Surat

1.20

1.00

0.50

2.00

Vadodara

0.50

Average

1.40

1.10

0.75

1.15

Amreli

2.00

3.00

Bhavnagar

3.00

Average

2.50

3.00

0.50

1.00

1.20

0.30

0.50

1.00

B.Saurashtra Region

C. Kutch Region Kutch

2.00

1.25

1.50

Average

2.00

1.25

1.50

(Source:GERI, 1997)

STUDY AREA Geologically this study area falls under recent alluvial formation, overlaying the Deccan trap formation. The over-burden is of 30m to 40m thickness and is composed of soil, silt and gravels. Below 30m to 40m from top soil there is a rocky strata of basalt which comes under igneous and metamorphic rocks, with poor porosity and permeability, permitting negligible water circulation in it. Only in case of fractured rocks, it gives higher yield of water during pumping. 91

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Hydrologically, aquifers of this area are recharged by two rivers,which are semiperennial. In this area, ground water occurs under two conditions, in alluvial formation as unconfined aquifer and in rock formation. In fine grained unconfined aquifer, gravity drainage of the pores is often not instantaneous, consequently the water is released only some time after lowering of water table. So, it is also called unconfined aquifer with delayed yield. Such phenomena are observed in this area, along with decreasing water level by 1m to 1.5m every year. Aquifer characterization using lithological information was done and the aquifer was divided into five strata. First stratum is top layer consisting of thickness from ground level up to a maximum of 4.1m. The second strata is of variable thickness from 6.2m to 9.4m, consisting of different layers like silt clay kankar, sand, etc. The third stratum is sandy, which extends from thickness 8.2m to 16.6 m. Due to high porosity, this strata holds good amount of water. Hence strata two and three contribute 80% to 75% of the total ground water. Next lower stratum consist of weathered basalt of 4m to 3m thickness contributing 20 to 25% of ground water. The last stratum was massive basalt or trap of thickness 38m to 69m, which is highly compacted and contributing negligible amount of groundwater during pumping. The area falls under arid to semi-arid climatic condition and the temperature varies from min of 100C to max of 450C. Wind velocity on an average is medium. The average annual rainfall ranges between 900mm to 1000mm. As per the data collected from Jilla Panchayat, rainfall in this area during the study, in year 2001 was 987mm. Depth of tube wells T-5 & T-6 below ground are 81m& 76.2m respectively, and tube well discharge range between 15m3/hr and 2m3/hr. TDS data were also obtained, ranging from 1100ppm to715ppm. Periodical water level in tube wells in percolation tank were measured on daily basis. Resistivity survey of site was carried out and its data were analysed in the study. As per the pre-monsoon data, water levels in tube wells T5 and T6 below ground level were 21.96m and 21.60m respectively. Recharge Through Percolation Tank In the recharge through percolation tank a trapezoidal tank of top width 45mX20m and bottom width 35mX14m with side slopes 1:1.667 lengthwise and 1:1 slope along width in section and depth 3m including 0.5m free board was excavated as shown in plate-1. Water from nearby storm water drain was conveyed to the tank, through PVC pipe of 0.15m diameter and 50m length. Change in water level of the tank was monitored daily by a staff in the tank. Water percolates through bottom and sides of tank into ground. 70 holes of 2 to 3mm diameter were made in the casing pipe of tube well, which were covered by steel wire mesh to allow the water injection from the percolation tank into the wells T5 and T6 from ground level up to 1.5m depth . Water from the percolation tank before entering the holes of casing pipe of tube wells, is filtered through sand and gravel layer placed around the well. Plateâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;2 shows the trench excavated for placing the filter material. In this trench, filter material like gravel & 92

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sand are placed. Gravel layer with grain size of 10to 15mm underlies sand layer of grain size 2 to 3mm.Waterlevel in percolation tank after rainfall along with staff and PVC pipe is shown in plateâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;3. As per water level observation from the staff in percolation tank, daily rise, depth and volume of water was calculated. Secondly, from the evaporation data, recharge rate was also calculated. Recharge rate was analyzed graphically and it was found that average recharge rate from 12th July to 9th September 2001 and from 10th September to 10th December 2001 were 23mm/day and 8 mm/day respectively. Taking the average of the two recharge rates, the average recharge rate of percolation tank was 16 mm/ day figure-1. Graphically, it was found that as depth increases, recharge rate also increases. Volume of water recharged through percolation tank was calculated form the surface area, daily evaporation and daily reduction volumes were found to be 2040 m3. Average volume recharge per day was computed as 14 m3/day. Using Theim and Dupuitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s equation, average permeability K of the aquifer was found out to be 1.2m/day.Using Soil Conservation Services (SCS) method runoff obtained was 34.3 % of the total rainfall. Total inflow volume in percolation tank is estimated as 2766 m3 out of this 2040 m3 was recharged. So the volumetric efficiency i.e. the ratio of recharge to total inflow in percolation tank was found to be 74%. By analyzing water level data of the tube well it was found that after recharging, water level in the tube wells had risen as compared to water level prior to recharging. The maximum rise in water level in T-5 and T-6 were 4.35m and 3.21m respectively. Comparison of water level functions in the tube wells are shown in figure-2. Total dissolved solids (TDS) of tube well T6 has been reduced to 715 ppm from 1100 ppm.Thus, TDS reduction was found to be about 40%. CONCLUSION (1) In percolation tank, due to buffer storage, continuous percolation takes place throughout the monsoon (even in between two successive rain fall intervals) and after monsoon. Due to recharge through the bed of percolation tank, higher rise in water level has been observed in nearby tube wells. (2) In the initial stages, the soil of percolation tank is dry, and so, infiltration rate is higher. Higher recharge rate was observed when depth in percolation tank was more than 1.5m. Because, in this condition, recharge well connected with percolation tank directly inject water into aquifers. Secondly, greater water depth in percolation tank causes higher infiltration through bed. The results of combined recharge system, i.e. injection of water into well through filter and from bed of percolation tank, gives good results as compared to individual system. (3) From the rise in water level in each of the tube wells, it is concluded that tube well recharging technique is found to be successful in increasing ground water level and improving the water quality. (4) The decrease in TDS values shows that artificial recharge is effective in improving the water quality. 93

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Water Level Fluctuation in Tube Wells(T-1,T-5,T-6)

R ech arg e rate V s T im e R e charg e ra te

70 T ota l a vg. re ch. ra te

60 50

1 2th July to 9 th S e p .-a vg.1

1 0th S e p to 1 0th D e c.-a vg.2

30 20 10 0 8 -Jun

2 8-Jul

1 6-S e p

5 -N o v

2 5-D ec

30.0 R.L. of water level, m

R e c h a rg e ra te (m m /d a y

25.0 20.0

T-1

15.0

T-5

10.0

T-6

5.0 0.0 19-Apr 8-Jun

28-Jul 16-Sep 5-Nov 25-Dec Date

D ate

Fig. 1 Variation of recharge rate with time

Fig. 2 Water level fluctuation in tubewells (t-5, t-6)

Plate - 1 : Percolation Tank Excavated by power shovel with side Slope 1:1.667 Lengthwise and 1:1 breadthwise

PLATE - 2 : EXCAVATION AROUND TUBEWELL FOR FILTER MATERIAL PLACEMENT

PLATE - 3 : WATER COLLECTED IN PERCOLATION TANK AFTER RAINFALL.

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RAINWATER HARVESTING: A SUSTAINABLE AND SAFE DRINKING WATER SOURCE FOR LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS Unni P N, Pradeep Kumar P K and James E J Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Calicut – 673571

INTRODUCTION The Union Territory of Lakshadweep is an archipelago in the Arabian Sea, lying between 080 00’ and 120 30’ N latitude and 710 00’ and 740 00’E longitude. It is located on the Laccadive ridge Chagos, which is supposed to be the remnants of submerged mountain cliffs and formed from corals. Submarine banks on which the atolls stand, rise from a depth of 1500 - 4000 m. The islands were formed from the continuous reef-building activity for several thousands of years, by the accumulation of coral sand bars by the action of wind, waves and ocean currents. Out of the 36 islands with a total area of 32 km2, only eleven are inhabited (Fig. 1). The inhabited islands put together have an area of 29. 24 km2 and a population 60,595 (Census of India, 2001). Table 1 shows the details on area and population of Lakshadweep islands. Table 1. Geographical Area and Population of Lakshadweep Islands

Island

Distance from Cochin (km)

Area (km2)

Population (2001 Census)

Population Density (per km2 )

Amini

407

2.59

7340

2834

Agatti

463

3.84

7072

1842

Androth

296

`4.84

10720

2215

Bitra

482

0.10

225

2250

Bangaram

519

0.58

105

Chetlat

426

1.14

2553

2239

Kadmat

407

3.12

5319

1705

Kalpeni

296

2.79

4319

1548

Kavaratti

407

4.22

10113

2396

Kiltan

389

1.63

3664

2248

Minicoy

407

4.39

9495

2163

29.24

60595

2072

Total

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The average annual rainfall of the islands is 1500 mm. Since the main litho-units of the islands are highly permeable coral limestone and sand, most of the rainfall gets infiltrated into the ground. There are no streams and rivers in the islands. Because of high permeability and limited subterranean storage space available above the mean sea level, a substantial portion of the infiltrated water drains in to the sea as subsurface flow. Only a small fraction of the total infiltrated water reaches the aquifer as recharge.

Fig.1. Lakshadweep Islands Showing the Project Sites WHY RAINWATER HARVESTING? The availability of potable water is the most critical factor in the islands in the present scenario. The only source of potable water in the island is rainwater, received during the Southwest (June-August) and the Northeast monsoon (November). It seeps down the porous coral sandy soil and forms a subsurface fresh water lens above the sea level. This water is drawn through the open wells to meet the water requirements of the islanders. With consumption, the lens keeps on shrinking till it gets recharged during the next monsoon season. Earlier reports (DST, U T of Lakshadweep, 2002), shows the sustainable yield and requirements of water at the rate of 40 litres per day 96

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Table 2. Sustainable yield and requirements of potable water in Lakshadweep

Island Kadamat

Water Water Deficit per Water Deficit per available for requirements day in requirements day in litresexploitation per day in litres per day in 2000 per day in litres - 2000 2000 litres -1990 litres 5,64,000 1,65,000 Nil 2,11,000 Nil

Kiltan

2,98,000

1,26,000

Nil

1,60,000

Nil

Chetlat

1,31,000

79,000

Nil

1,00,000

Nil

Androth

10,46,000

3,61,000

Nil

4,60,000

Nil

Kalpeni

2,79,000

1,88,000

Nil

2,39,000

Nil

Minicoy

2,68,000

3,53,000

85,000

4,50,000

1,82,000

Kavaratti

3,42,000

3,50,000

8,000

4,46,000

1,04,000

Nil

Thinnakara Cheriyakara (Suheli) Bangaram

Nil

9,000

Nil

Agatti

1,81000

2,19,000

38,000

2,79,000

98,000

Amini

2,67,000

2,66,000

Nil

330,000

6,300

per person in various islands of the Lakshadweep (Table 2). The feasibility of Reverse Osmosis Plants (ROPs) has been tried in Lakshadweep to supplement the freshwater requirements. Out of the ten ROPs installed in different islands only two are functioning properly at present. High cost of installation and the problems associated with operation and maintenance make these ROPs neither technically feasible nor economically viable. Several attempts have been made to construct rainwater-harvesting structures using conventional brick masonry, concrete, etc. Due to improper design, workmanship and lack of maintenance, many of these structures have become redundant. Further, the cost of construction of these structures is also very high. Lack of awareness among beneficiaries on the quality of rainwater adds to the improper use of these rainwater-harvesting structures. It is in this context, low cost ferrocement roof top rainwater harvesting systems has been introduced to supplement drinking water, which is now catering to the domestic requirements of about six hundred families. The average annual rainfall of the island is 1500 mm. (i. e., 1.5 m). If the roof area (projected base area) is 10 m2, one can harvest a quantity of 15 m3 of rainwater. Assuming the runoff coefficient as 0.85, the quantity of water that can be harvested is 12.75 m3 (12,750 litres). Hence, a small house with a catchment area of only 10 m2 is sufficient to collect the rainwater to meet the domestic requirements of 200 non-rainy days for a five-member family. 97

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GROUNDWATER UTILIZATION Hundred percent well census (CWRDM 2003) has provided the exact information in terms of well density, groundwater utilization pattern, groundwater draft, etc., which is very vital in determining the groundwater utilization and scope of future groundwater development (Table 3). Analysis of the collected information shows that groundwater is extracted through (i) Large Diameter Dug Wells; (ii) Tanks / Ponds; and (iii) Radial Wells. Table 3. Density of Open Wells in Different Islands Area (Sq. km)

No. of Open Wells

Density of wells/ km2

Agatti

3.84

1243

323

Amini

2.59

1169

451

Androth

4.84

1753

362

Bitra

0.10

590

Chetlat

1.14

443

388

Kadmat

3.12

1023

328

Kalpeni

2.79

803

288

Kavaratti

4.22

1192

282

Kiltan

1.63

839

515

Minicoy

4.39

811

185

Island

ROLE OF FERROCEMENT STRUCTURES Ferrocement is a form of reinforced cement concrete, in which the cement mortar is reinforced with layers of continuous and relatively small diameter wire mesh. The proportion and distribution of the reinforcement are made uniform by spreading out the wire mesh throughout the thickness of the cement. Ferrocement concreting also provides advantages in terms of fabrication of products and components like water filter unit, lid, etc. In view of its low cost, easy maintenance and relative impermeability, ferrocement has become a popular material for water storage tanks of various capacities, generally from hundred litres to a few thousands litres. The ferrocement structure can be circular or rectangular or of any other shapes. Considering many factors such as individual domestic needs, land availability and aesthetic look, tanks of 10,000 litre capacity are preferred for rainwater harvesting. This can be constructed above ground or below ground according to convenience. The island wise details of structures constructed so far in various islands are shown in Table 4. 98

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Table 4. Details of Ferrocement Roof top Rainwater Harvesting Structures Constructed and Freshwater Storage Created Sl No

Name of Island

No. of structures so far constructed

Additional fresh water storage created (litres)

Agatti

4,80,000

Amini

5,80,000

Bengaram

30,000

Chethlat

4,90,000

Minicoy

9,10,000

Kadmat

5,10,000

Kavaratti

8,40,000

Suheli

1,00,000

Kalpeni

8,00,000

Kiltan

7,70,000

Total

543

55,10,000

The roof catchment should have adequate area to drain sufficient rainwater to the storage tank within the period of collection and the roofing material should be good enough to drain clean water to the tank. The house-wise survey conducted as part of the programme in various islands reveals that 70-80 percent houses are having tiled roof, 10-20 percent reinforced concrete roof, and the remaining with either Asbestos/ GI sheet or thatched with coconut leaves. COST EFFECTIVENESS The actual expenditure incurred for collection of one litre of water through this system is about Rs.2.50 at Lakshadweep, i.e., one fourth the cost of concrete/ masonry structures of the same capacity (about Rs. 8.00 per litre). Commercially available polyvinyl tanks costing around Rs. 5/- per litre are not advisable as they may become brittle in the long run and develop cracks due to degradation and may cause adverse effect on health and the island environment. Ferrocement roof water harvesting structures are viable, cost â&#x20AC;&#x201C;effective, environmentally safe and user friendly. PEOPLEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S PARTICIPATION In order to keep the roof water harvesting systems sustainable, functional and beneficial to the community round the year, a sense of ownership have to be created among 99

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stakeholders so that the annual cleaning, repair and maintenance can be taken care of by themselves. Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation was ensured in all stages of implementation of the scheme and the construction work was carried out with their participation. For a cluster of 8 to 10 structures, Water User Associations have been formed in the respective islands and have been made aware the maintenance activities. The structures have been handed over to the beneficiaries after giving a proper awareness on the management of the freshwater and operation and maintenance of these structures. A handbook in the local language showing all details with illustrations was prepared and distributed among the beneficiaries. CONCLUSION Due to limited extent of freshwater aquifers, availability of groundwater is limited and therefore rainwater harvesting is the only future sustainable source of water for meeting the domestic requirements. Five hundred and forty three roof water harvesting structures have been constructed in Kavaratti, Agatti, Amini, Bangaram, Minicoy, Kadmat, Chetlat, Suheli, Kalpeni and Kiltan islands with a total storage capacity of 5.5 million litres to catering to the fresh water requirements of about 600 families. The cost effective ferrocement technology has been introduced in the islands for the construction of rainwater harvesting tanks and on site training was given to the local masons on ferrocement construction methodology. The scheme is being implemented in the islands ensuring peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation providing training and awareness to the User Associations to ensure timely maintenance and sustainability of the RWHSs. Initial feed back from the stakeholders indicate, that RWHSs are the most enable system to meet the drinking water need. REFERENCES CWRDM, 2003. Management of freshwater sources in the Lakshadweep Islands. Annual Report-2002 submitted to India-Canada Environment Facility (ICEF), Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode, Kerala DST, U T of Lakshadweep, 2002. Environmental Impact Assessment of Ninth FiveYear Plan 1997-2002 Department of Science & Technology, Kavaratti, UT of Lakshadweep, pp 108-111

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DELINEATION OF WATERSHED FROM THE SHUTTLE RADAR TOPOGRAPHY MISSION (SRTM) DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL (DEM) USING WATERSHED MODELING SYSTEM (WMS) Celine George1 and George Abe2 1

CWRDM Sub Centre, Oliyappuram P. O., Koothattukulam – 686 679. 2 CWRDM Sub Centre, S. H. Mount P. O., Kottayam – 686 006.

INTRODUCTION Watershed is an area of land that is drained by network of streams or river and is separated from other watersheds by ridge top boundaries. Often called the drainage basin or a hydrologic unit, a watershed can cover large multistage area or a relatively small area. A digital representation of the continuous variation of relief over space is known as Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The DEMs have proved to be very efficient in extracting the hydrologic data by analysing different topographical attributes for the purpose of watershed modeling. DEMs have potentially proved to be a valuable tool for the topographic parameterisation of hydrologic models especially for drainage analysis, hill slope hydrology, watersheds, groundwater flow and contaminant transport etc. The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data products results from a collaborative mission by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), the German space agency (DLR) and Italian space agency (ASI), to generate a near-global digital elevation model (DEM) of the Earth using radar interferometry. The SRTM-1 (1 arc-second) and SRTM-3 (3 arc-second) digital elevation models are being developed from the SRTM C-band radar observations for selected regions to satisfy the needs of NASA related projects and to speed the evaluation of acquisition and processing and applications algorithms. The SRTM-1 and SRTM-3 are preliminary terrain height data sets. These data are freely available from the USGS web sites. The present study was carried out with an objective to delineate the Kalleli watershed and to obtain the physiographical attributes and stream properties of land surface of the Kalleli watershed. MATERIALS AND METHODS The Kalleli watershed lies between 9° 2’ 10" & 9° 14’ 10" N latitude and 76° 57’ 57" & 77° 16’ 5" E longitudes. The entire area lies in Pathanamthitta and Quilon districts of Kerala State. 101

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SRTM DEM data SRTM data is delivered in individual rasterized cells, or tiles, each covering one degree by one degree in latitude and longitude. Sample spacing for individual data points is either 1 arc-second or 3 arc-second, referred to as SRTM-1 and SRTM-3, respectively. Since one arc-second at the equator corresponds to roughly 30 meters in horizontal extent, the sets are sometimes referred to as “30 meter” or “90 meter” data. SRTM DEM files are preliminary terrain height data sets. File names refer to the latitude and longitude of the lower left corner of the tile – e.g. N09E076 has its lower left corner at 9 degree north latitude and 76 degrees east longitude. The DEM is provided as 16-bit signed integer data in a simple bunary raster. There are no header or trailer bytes embedded in the file. The data are stored in row major order (all the data for row1, followed by all the data for row 2, etc.). N09E076.hgt and N09E077.hgt was downloaded from the USGS web site. This file was converted to grid data file. The DEM as obtained is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 SRTM DEM of N09E076 & N09E077 Watershed Modeling System (WMS) The Watershed Modeling System is a comprehensive hydrologic modeling environment. WMS provides tools for all phases of watershed modeling including automated watershed and sub-basin delineation, geometric parameter computation, hydrologic parameter computation (CN, time of concentration, rainfall depth etc.) and results visualization. WMS is the most powerful tool for analysis and visualization of watersheds. The WMS interface is separated into several modules; these modules contain tools that allow manipulation and model creation from different data types. Here in this study the Map module and the Drainage Module are used. The Map Module is used to import and manipulate the Digital Elevation Model. WMS can import/export several formats of DEM data. The Drainage module in WMS allows us to automatically delineate streams and 102

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watershed/sub-basin boundaries bsed on the land surface represented by the DEM. One of the best features of WMS is the flexibility and control you have when using the DEM-based delineation method.You can use any stream network (automatically generated or manually digitized) in conjunction with a DEM to delineate drainage areas. With the drainage module the outlet for the basin is marked on the DEM and the delineate drainage wizard is used to draw the streams followed by drawing the drainage boundary. The compute basin data option is then used to compute the needed parameters. Fig.2 shows the Kalleli watershed delineated from the DEM data with contour shading inside. The area of the basin computed is 440.16 km2. The minimum elevation in the watershed is 34 meters and the maximum elevation is 1881 meters. The mean elevation is 466.93 meters. The basin slope is 0.3052 m/m. The perimeter obtained is 144060 meters.

Fig. 2 Kalleli Watershed with the contours shading inside

CONCLUSION The SRTM DEM can be directly used with the WMS software for delineating the watershed automatically and obtaining the topographical parameters and stream properties. These parameters derived may succesfully be used for simulation of runoff and sediment yield from the watershed for planning of best management measures. 103

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MAPPING WETLANDS OF KERALA THROUGH DIGITAL CLASSIFICATION OF IRS LISS III DATA Ravindran K V, Gejo Anna Geevargese and Babu Ambat Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION Wetlands are one of the most productive ecosystems of the world and they cover about six percent of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. They are ecotones or transitional zones that occupy an intermediate position between dry land and open water but dominated by the influence of water and therefore possess not only characteristics of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems but also properties that are uniquely their own. Wetlands support a wide array of ecological, climatic and societal functions that are essential for supporting plant, animal and human life and for maintaining the quality of the environment. Kerala, notwithstanding its limited geographical extent, supports a rich diversity of wetland ecosystems. Physiographically, Kerala comprises of three zones, viz. the lowland, the midland and the highland, running across the length of the State. The inter-hill basins or valleys forming the lower configuration of topography in the midlands and coastal lowland belt are characterised by numerous lagoons and backwaters which constitute the major wetlands of the State. Wetlands of Kerala comprise, a) the coastal wetland ecosystems such as backwaters and estuaries with the associated mangroves, mudflats, swamps and marshes, b) inland ecosystems like natural fresh water lakes and swamps and c) man-made reservoirs. The growing awareness about the protective, productive and social functions of these ecosystems has highlighted the need for their conservation and proper management. Mapping the extent and type of wetlands is one of the primary and most essential tasks in the whole exercise of formulation of management plans for the wetlands. Due to the spatial distribution of wetlands over large areas, remote sensing is considered as the most effective tool in mapping wetlands and their environs, as it provides a synoptic view of large area in real time. Remote sensing can provide information on the type of wetlands, their spatial distribution, areal extent, associated land use/land cover classes, their temporal variations and present status. Classification and mapping of the wetlands of Kerala using satellite remote sensing data have been carried out earlier by many agencies under various projects. Space 104

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Application Centre has carried out classification and mapping of the wetlands of Kerala on 1:250,000 scale using IRS LISS I data of 1988-90 period under the National Wetland Mapping Programme. Subsequently, maps of land use around wetlands on 1:50,000 scale were also prepared by SAC and CESS using IRS LISS II data for selection of sites for aquaculture. Individual wetland ecosystems of the state were also studied and mapped by several other workers (Nair and Trivikramji,1996, Nalinakumar et al, 1998, Subramaniam et al., 1998, Ramachandran et al,1986 , Gupta et al,2001.) In this paper presented are the salient results of mapping carried out under the project Survey and Inventory of Wetlands of Kerala for Conservation and Sustainable management of Resources by CED for Kerala Forest Department.(CED,2003) DATA USED AND METHODOLOGY The data used in the present study included Survey of India topographical sheets of scales 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 and IRS -1D LISS III digital data (spatial resolution 23.5m) of December 2000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; March 2001 period. There are two approaches of mapping using remote sensing technique, viz., visual and digital. In the present study, a combination of both the digital and visual methods has been used. Visual evaluation of the wetlands and their environs was carried out at the reconnaissance stage, while actual mapping was carried out using digital classification techniques. Mapping was carried out at two levels - 1: 2,50000 Scale : The entire State was mapped showing distribution and extent of all wetlands of mappable size along with the broad land cover classes. - 1:50,000 Scale : Selected wetlands and their surroundings were mapped showing different wetland features and land use/ land cover classes and area statistics of each class were calculated. Digital Image Processing Digital image processing of the IRS 1D LISS III data was carried out using ERDAS IMAGINE software, with the objective of preparing digital maps through digital classification. The digital techniques used are image rectification /registration, image enhancement and supervised classification. Raw data was enhanced using contrast stretching to facilitate better perception during ground data and training set collection Supervised classification was carried out using the Maximum likelihood algorithm to prepare land use/ land cover maps. Classification performance was evaluated by redundant training sites and field sample points based on the omission and commission error matrix.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Wetland mapping on 1:250,000 scale The maps on 1:250,000 scale represent only an inventory of major wetlands of the entire Kerala. In these maps, the wetlands are categorized under coastal wetlands (Back water/estuary), fresh water lakes, reservoirs, paddy fields (wetland cultivation) and other water bodies and the rest of the land cover is put under vegetated areas, and built up/barren/exposed / sandy areas. All the water bodies mappable on this scale are located in the map. As per the map generated, the area calculated for various categories of wetland are given in the Table 1. Area statistics does not account for all the rivers and very small water bodies. Table 1. Area statistics of different types of wetlands of Kerala (SOI Topographic Sheet Wise â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1:2,50000 Scale ) WETLAND CLASSES

48P & 48L 49M

Reservoir

58A

58B & 49N

58F

58G

58D & 58H

TOTAL (Hectares)

1380.51

12222.4

3710.89 6082.21 3516.89

27751.32

Estuary/backwater

4635.09 6828.02

3084.26

2971.02

7365.3

24883.69

Water logged areas

2449.73 3273.08

22031.3

14684.2

169.87

42608.18

374.64

270.98

664.00

297.27

8719.34

Fresh water lake

10.98

Other water bodies

79.13

838.42

58C

7.4 138.17

316.93

Kole land

4593.01

11.21

28.93

9905.98

Kuttanad

55547.2

Vembanad Total area

3254.69

9905.98

7174.93 11619.78

324.33

3023.62 54860.57

20993.9 849.63 101536.54 6111.14 11620.31

55547.2 24017.52 194097.23

NOTE: 1. Surface area of wetlands given above pertains to the date of acquisition of satellite data used for mapping Topographic sheets of 1:2,50000 scale is utilised for geo-referencing the digital data for Kerala Wetland Inventory Mapping of selected wetlands on 1:50,000 scale The wetlands of Kerala are broadly grouped into 4 categories for the present study, ie., backwaters â&#x20AC;&#x201C; estuary complexes, fresh water lakes, reservoirs and mangrove areas. Since there are wide variations in the land use / land cover types not only between these categories, but also between different wetland regions of the same category, it is not possible to use a common legend and classification for all the maps generated under this project. Each map is provided with its own legend, with common classes between different maps. 106

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The terminology used in the 1:50,000 scale maps for different wetland types and landuse/ land cover classes in the present study are the following: Backwater/lagoon/ estuary, Water body, Rivers/streams, Mud flats/tidal flats/marsh, Mangroves, Mud flats with scanty mangroves, Beach/beach sand, Beach ridge /strand lines, Paddy fields, Agriculture, Mixed crops, Coconut plantation, Plantations (Rubber, tea, coffee), Barren/exposed/ rocky areas, Built up land / settlements etc. The following 13 wetlands representing different categories of wetlands have been covered by digital mapping on 1:50,000 scale (Table 2) Backwater-Estuary Ecosystem: Vembanad, Ashtamudi, Purathur-Ponnani, VeliAkkulam Mangrove ecosystem: Kavvay-Kunhimangalam, Valapattanam, Kadalundi, Puthuvypin and Chettuvay. Freshwater ecosystem: Shastamkotta and Pookot. Reservoirs: Malampuzha and Periyar. Table 2.Wetlands covered by mapping on 1:50,000 scale Category

Wetland area

Toposheet No

District

Backwater /Estuary

Vembanad &Puthuvypin

58C/5 58C/6

Ernakulam,Alleppy,Kottayam

Purathur â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Ponnani

49N/13

Malappuram

Do Do Mangrove Ecosystem

Ashtamudi Veli/Akkulam Kavvay â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Kunhimangalam

58B/9 58D/14 48P/4

Kollam Thiruvananthapuram Kannur

Do Do Do Freshwater Ecosystem Do Reservoir Do

Kadalundi Valapattanam Chetwai Sasthamkotta Pookot Malampuzha Periyar

49M/16 49M/16 58B/2 58C/12 58A/2 58B/9 58 G/2

Kozhikode and Malappuram Kannur Thrissur Kollam Kozhikode Palghat Idukki

CONCLUSION The study has not only demonstrated the potential of satellite data in mapping the wetlands and their environs at different scales but also brought into focus the need for utilizing the satellite data of varying spectral, spatial and temporal resolutions for monitoring the fast rate of changes that is taking place in the land use pattern all over Kerala. 107

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The help received from the colleagues in CED during the course of the work and while preparing this paper are thankfully acknowledged. REFERNCES CED, 2003. Survey and inventory of wetlands of Kerala for conservation and sustainable management of resources; Project Report. Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Gupta M C, Krishnarajan V P and Nayak S R, 2001. Brackish water aquaculture site selection in coastal tract of Cannanore, Kerala, using Remote Sensing and GIS, Journ. of Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Vol.29, No.1&2. Nair A S K and Thrivikramji K P, 1996. Classification of Kayals in the coastal zones of Kerala; Proceedings, 8th Kerala Science Congress. STEC, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Nalinkumar S and Nair A S K, 1998. Environmental degradation of Vellayani Kayal using IRS data, Proc. lOth Kerala Science Congress. STEC, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. Ramachandran K K and Mohanan C N, 1986. Mangrove Ecosystem of Kerala:Mapping, inventory and some environmental aspects, CESS, Trivandrum, Kerala Subramoniam G and Nair A S K, 1998; Application of Remote sensing for spatiotemporal variation of landforms. Proceedings lOth Kerala Science Congress. STEC, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.

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WATER RESOURCES STATUS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS OF TRADITIONAL PONDS IN NEYYATTINKARA MUNICIPAL AREA Suvarna Kumari N CWRDM Sub centre, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION It is widely recognized that water is going to be one of the major issues confronting with humanity at the turn of the century and beyond. We are facing a crisis as regards the quantity and quality of water supply, but we are yet to experience the full social and political impact of that crisis. Therefore, development of water resources and its proper utilization is important for all governments. In this context, CWRDM Sub centre Neyyattinkara has conducted a study on the water resources of Neyyattinkara area, funded by the Municipality . The present paper highlights the water resources status and environmental condition of 21 ponds in the municipal area. Location and General Features Neyyattinkara town is located between North Latitude 80 22â&#x20AC;&#x2122;47'â&#x20AC;&#x2122; and 80 25' 16" and East longitude 77 0 3' 8" and 77 0 7' 8". It belongs to the midland and having a total area of 970 hectares (9.7 sq. km). Neyyar River (6.14 km) passes through the north east part of the town. Main crops grown in the area are coconut, paddy, tapioca, banana etc. Climate of the study area is humid tropic in nature. According to six years rainfall data collected by CWRDM (1994-1999), average annual rainfall in Neyyattinkara area comes to 1659 mm. Major part of the Municipal area lies at an elevation up to 20 meters (66%). Details are given in Table 1. Table 1 Elevation Variation of Neyyattinkara Municipal area Sl No

Elevation ( above sea level )

Area (ha)

Area (%)

Above 60 meters

1.8

Between 40 meters & 60 meters

8.3

Between 20 meters & 40 meters

221

22.8

Up to 20 meters.

642

66.1

970

100 109

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MATERIALS AND METHODS All the 21 ponds located in the different wards Neyyattinkara Muncipality (Table 2) were selected for the a detailed hydrological study. Data regarding the present status of ponds were collected by interviewing local people using a questionnaire preferred for this purpose. Water resources and social economic evaluation was conducted to quantify the overall details. The councilors of the respective wards were interviewed to collect data on water related problems. Physical parameters were measured. Using this, capacity of the ponds were calculated. Water samples were collected and analysed for various chemical parameters and results were compared with the Indian standard in land surface waters. Table 2 List of Ponds in Neyyattinkara Municipal Area Sl. No

110

Ward No

Name of ward

Name of pond

Thalayal

Kaithottukonam

Aralummoodu

Puthichakonam

Puthanambalam

Moolachakonam

Maruthur

Puthukulam

- do -

Thenkarathala kulam

- do -

Kokkidi Pond

Ooruttukala

Kaniyamkonam

Moonnukallinmoodu

Peruvelikulam

Koottappana

Maruthur Pond

Thozhukkal

Pottakulam

Vazhuthur

Erathukulam

Cutchery

Kariyil Kulam

Arasumoodu

Ezhakulam

Nilamel

Mekkari Kulam

Vlangamuri

Thattankari

Panangattukari

Korakulam

- do -

Amaravila

Vayyalikonam

Thannimoodu

Ammottukonam

- do -

Temple Pond [Koottappana]

Chirakkara Pond

Attakulam

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Generally all the ponds were infested with water hyacinth creating environmental problems. Ezhakulam, a pond in the Arasumoodu Ward, very close to Neyyattinkara town, is at present in a pathetic condition and completely infested with water hyacinth. Wastewater including the sewage from the town is being disposed to this pond. Moreover the butchers are disposing the waste to this pond. This undergoes disintegration, creating a foul smell in the nearby areas and the pond has become a breeding site for mosquitoes. Capacity of the pond has decreased due to silt deposition. Table 3. Water Analysis Report of the ponds of Neyyattinkara Municipal Area Sl. No. 1

Name of Ponds Kaithottukonam

pH 8.22

EC 161.8

TH 54

TA 62

F0.26

Parameters ClCa 18.4 23.06

Puthichakonam

8.88

64.8

0.22

13.45

Moolachakonam

7.32

49.2

0.35

Puthukulam

7.66

115.3

Thenkarathalakulam

7.15

75.6

Kokkidi Pond

7.22

51.2

Kaniyamkonam

7.45

Peruvelikulam

Mg 1.94

Na 17.6

K 2.7

Fe 0.46

So422.0

1.6

2.92

13.6

3.3

2.01

1.6

15.38

4.8

0.49

10.8

2.0

1.77

2.4

0.20

23.06

9.6

1.06

16.4

1.0

2.39

2.0

0.25

21.14

0.8

2.43

17.6

1.4

1.71

6.0

0.17

13.45

1.6

2.43

10.8

1.6

1.46

2.0

131.8

0.20

32.67

4.0

1.46

26.8

3.5

0.62

1.6

8.26

279.0

0.23

42.28

27.2

3.89

31.6

3.3

0.38

2.0

Koottappana

8.92

132.1

0.22

26.91

6.4

2.43

22.8

4.4

1.71

3.6

Maruthur Pond

7.50

152.4

0.25

21.14

11.2

2.43

21.6

1.5

0.94

2.4

Pottakulam

7.19

167.8

0.32

32.67

8.5

4.37

24.4

3.6

1.02

2.0

Erathukulam

7.53

107.4

0.27

23.06

3.2

1.94

19.6

2.8

0.73

2.0

Ezhakulam

7.99

289.0

108

106

0.36

48.05

29.6

8.26

38.4

9.9

2.06

7.2

Mekkari kulam

8.30

216.0

0.40

46.13

21.6

5.35

34.4

2.6

0.76

3.6

Thattankari

7.45

145.8

100

0.15

105.7

28.0

7.29

29.2

3.6

0.95

2.0

Korakulam

7.50

241.0

0.38

57.66

5.6

6.32

40.4

4.8

0.62

1.6

Chirakkara Pond

7.55

151.8

0.14

44.21

2.4

4.86

31.2

1.2

0.82

2.0

Vayyalikonam

8.10

283.0

150

0.46

76.88

24.0

21.87

35.6

8.7

0.99

8.0

Ammottukonam

8.25

440.0

180

0.23

124.93

52.0

12.15

68.8

18.4

0.44

8.0

Attakulam

7.71

349.0

0.46

92.26

10.4

12.64

60.0

15.0

2.92

21.0

Note: All values are in mg/l except pH and EC. EC is expressed in micromhos/cm 111

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All the 21 traditional ponds in the area serves as water harvesting structures. Water samples from the ponds were collected and analyzed for chemical parameters and the results are shwon in table 3. The iron level is found varying between 0.38-2.39ppm. From the water sample analysis of ponds it is inferred that all parameters except iron are within the permissible limit of the standards for drinking water and irrigation. CONCLUSIONS Traditional ponds in the study area may be preserved and protected from microbiological contamination, decaying coconut leaves , water plants and other pollution. Renovation of the ponds by desiltation, retaining wall construction and removal of water plants may be done urgenly. Reclamation of wetlands should be discouraged since wetland serves as water harvesting structures. Sectoral availability of water may decline significantly in future, if the limited water resources are not managed properly. Renovation and modernization of ponds and other local water resources have to be given priority. The most important strategy would be to harvest the excess run off in ponds and to be used for supplemental irrigation of crops.

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EFFECTIVE INDIGENOUS PRACTICES FOR ECO-FRIENDLY AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION Kumari Sushama N P, Geetha G Nath and Bhaskaran C College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvanathapuram

INTRODUCTION India is the second most populous country in the world. The cultivable land resource is shrinking day by day. To meet the food, fiber, fodder and other needs of the growing population, the productivity of agricultural land has necessarily to be increased. It requires increased use of agricultural inputs like quality seeds, fertilizers, judicious use of water and agro-chemicals, in such a manner that it does not vitiate the environment. Agriculture still forms the mainstay of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, 75% of which still depends on it for its sustenance. Great strides have been made through green revolution and surplus stock of food grains has been created, as of today. But the increased production of food grain has to be maintained to keep pace with the increasing population. Besides, there are other opportunities available in agriculture to improve the economic status of the farmers by way of diversification and inclusion of high value crops both for domestic consumption and export promotion. ECO-FRIENDLY AGRICULTURE Eco-friendly agriculture(environmentally friendly agriculture) diverges from chemical agriculture and is a colligate concept of organic agriculture, environmental friendly agriculture, environmental preservation agriculture, and environmentally harmonized agriculture. In other words, this agricultural technique does not use chemical fertilizers or agricultural chemicals or at least uses as little chemical fertilizer or agricultural chemicals as possible in order to contribute to environmental preservation. Eco-friendly agriculture means low-agricultural chemicals agriculture, low-input agriculture, nonagricultural chemicals agriculture, organic agriculture, or natural agriculture. Thus it includes all kinds of agriculture that foster high soil vitality and preserve the agricultural environment as well as several agriculture techniques in environmentally friendly agriculture. Need for eco-friendly agriculture: z

To maintain and preserve a healthy agricultural environment by allowing the soil, water and ecosystem to thrive. 113

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To meet customers’ demand for safe farm products and cope with the increase in trade of organic farm products in advanced countries. To provide a pleasant rural scene with crystal clear water and nature as a local tourist resource. To practice techniques such as growing feed with manure crops in order to expand the production of organic stock farm products, recycle and integrate resources. Maintain the production of farm products at appropriate levels and place city-rural area ties on a firm footing through spot transactions.

AGRICULTURE AS AN INDUSTRY As agriculture is an industry, it cannot ignore productivity and profitability. And the commodity value and safety of farm products needs to be guaranteed. Long-lasting agricultural practices use less agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers but can retain quantity and quality and guarantee profit. Thus modern management techniques and high-tech technology should be used in order for long-lasting agriculture to survive in the industry. Strategy: To preserve the agricultural environment by reducing elements detrimental to the environment that are generated from agriculture, to guarantee agricultural productivity and retain farm product safety by enhancing support for developing environmental agriculture. Policies: z

z z

Reducing environmental pollution caused by agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizer Maintaining and improving agricultural resources such as soil fertility and water quality. Developing and expanding farmhouses which practice environmental agriculture Constructing a stable distribution and sales network by establishing a sisterhood relationship between producers and consumers Creating a brand name for eco-friendly farm products.

RESEARCH INITIATIVES OF KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY ON ITK/FARMER’S PRACTICES: Various studies conducted by Kerala Agricultural University in rice, coconut and bitter gourd aimed to document the various ITK/farmer’s practices followed by the farmers. These research on farmer’s ecological knowledge reveals that the farmers are knowledgeable about their environment and this knowledge can be used as a basis for solving environmental problems. Many farmers know things that scientists do not and 114

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vice-versa. This knowledge is the product of centuries of trial and error, natural selection, experimentation and keen observation that can form farmer’s knowledge – base on which researchers and extension workers can plan their research and development strategy. The study conducted in bitter gourd (Manjusha, 1999) identified and documented the farmers practices in bitter gourd cultivation. Soaking of seeds in water, burning of dry leaves and twigs, spraying nattapochedi leaf extract, organic manuring and green leaf manuring are the most eco-friendly practices as identified by the farmers. Another study in coconut farming in Thrissur district (Manju, 1996) identified collection of seed nuts in summer and bringing down the nuts with the help of rope or coir baskets were the most known practices. Another practice of the use of rat trap made of bamboo was also known by majority of the respondents. Manoj (2000) in a study on the techno-socio economic assessment of farmers in rice cultivation in Thiruvananthapuram District revealed that practice of using poultry manure instead of farm yarn manure was rated as most efficient practice in rice cultivation. Also sprinkling cowdung slurry over the soaked and heaped seeds was rated as the most eco-friendly practice by the farmers. The other eco friendly practices were soaking seeds in water, selection of “Thalakkathir” for seed purpose, use of ‘Aiswarya’ for the first crop and PTB-a for second crop, land for nursery is ploughed using Bullocks placing coconut leaflets, streatching audio video tapes and bird scanners to prevent bird menace and plantain containing carbofuran granules bait for squirrels and mynas. CONCLUSION Indigenous knowledge exists everywhere. We should learn to look at it. We need to systematically gather and utilise indigenous knowledge and the traditional wisdom of farmers. In this regard, scientists should be encouraged to maintain a broad perspective. Extentionists should treat farmers as people with valuable information and knowledge about the local environment. REFERENCES Manju S P, 1996. Indigenous practices in coconut farming in Thrissur district. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. 115 p. Manjusha J, 1999. Techno-socio-economic assessment of farmers: practices in the cultivation of bittergourd (Momordica charantia L.) in Thiruvananthapuram district. M.Sc. (Ag.) thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. 112p. Manoj S, 2000. Techno-socio-economic assessment of farmers? practices in rice cultivation in Thiruvananthapuram district. M.Sc.(Ag.) thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. 102 p. 115

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TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF METHANE PRODUCTION IN ANOXIC RICE SOILS UNDER LONG-TERM MONOCROPPING MANAGEMENT Ramakrishnan B, Sharmistha Sinha, Lopamudra Ray, Samantaray R N, Mishra A K and Rao V R Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006

INTRODUCTION Rice cultivation is an important human activity and it has shaped cultures, diets, and economics of billions of humans for many years. Wetland rice paddies are also an important anthropogenic source of greenhouse gas methane (Neue 1993; Ramakrishnan et al. 2001). Increases in atmospheric methane concentration are well correlated with human population growth rates. Recent projections indicate a world food rice need of about 758 million tonnes per year by 2025 or 70% more rice than is consumed today. But, intensification of rice cultivation can further lead to increases in methane emission. Several atmospheric general circulation models (GCMs) predict an increase in mean surface temperature of several degrees (2.0 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4.2 oC). In India, temperatures of the surface soil can be as high as 55oC or more during summer months. With arrival of the monsoon rains, the surface temperatures may range from 20 to 40 oC. Temperature also changes dynamically on a diel basis. The soil temperature influences decomposition of organic matter and affects the rate of CH4 emission from rice soils. Rath et al (2002) reported that the temperature coefficients (Q10) for methane production were not uniform for different soil types. Agricultural management practices such as ploughing and fertilizer application are a major source of temporal variability of soil processes. In the present study, we investigated the influence of temperature on methane production in soils, which are managed, on a long-term basis, with chemical fertilizers (N, NP, NK, & NPK) in series with or without compost. MATERIALS AND METHODS The soil samples, Typic Haplaquept (deltaic alluvium) with a sandy and clay loam texture from the experimental farm of Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack (20 oN, 86 oE) were collected in the rabi season (2002-03), after harvest from the plots of the long-term fertility trial that are being conducted for the last 35 years. Rice is cultivated as monocrop crop in both kharif and rabi seasons to investigate the effects of intensive cultivation on soil resilience and productivity. The treatments of the long-term fertility trial include no chemical fertilizer application (control) and chemical fertilizers (N, 116

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NP, NK, & NPK) in series with or without compost (5 t ha-1-). The soils were air-dried, ground, sieved (<1-mm) and stored in polyethylene bags in the laboratory before use. The methane metabolism by soil microbial communities in these soils was examined using microcosm model of flooded soil ecosystem wherein the soil samples were flooded at a soil:water ratio of 1:1.25 (w/v) in airtight bottles (Schott Duran, Germany). These soil incubation bottles were set aside at 15 oC, 25 oC, and 35 oC in incubators separately for 60 d. Methane measurements and soil analyses The headspace gas samples from six replicate incubation bottles, sacrificed at every sampling, were analyzed for CH4 in a Varian 3600 gas chromatograph equipped with FID and a column (2 m x 0.3 cm stainless steel) of molecular sieve (5 Ao), as described earlier (Ramakrishnan et al. 1995). Column, injector and detector temperatures were maintained at 70 oC, 80 oC and 150 oC, respectively. The content of reduced iron in three sets of pooled soil samples was estimated colorimetrically after its extraction with CH3COONa:HCl (pH 2.8) and reaction with orthophenanthroline. The redox potential (mV) of the soil samples was measured in an ORP redox meter, fitted with a combined platinum-calomel electrode (Barnant Company, Illinois, USA) and pH was measured in a pH meter, as described earlier (Ramakrishnan et al. 1995). Data were analyzed by analysis of variance using IRRISTAT (3/93). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The methane production in these soils started immediately after the onset of anoxia (5d after flooding) (Fig. 1). The onset of methane production was typically low in soils treated with chemical fertilizers, NP and NK, in both compost-applied- and no compost soils. The production of methane in soils treated with NPK fertilizers, with or without compost, was the highest after submergence. In all the soils that showed the early onset in methane production, there was stability subsequently while the production increased in soils with NP and NK fertilizers. During the experimental incubation period (up to 60 d), methane production in these soils ranged from 4-92 ng CH4 g-1 soil. Since there was no de novo amendment of substrates, methane production depended largely on the native substrates and the physiological capabilities of microbial communities. Some soils required a long time for resumption of CH4 production after an early production (Neue 1993), which was somewhat similar to the soils examined in the present study. The temperature effects on methane production, in terms of temperature dependence (Q10) (Rath et al. 2002), can suggest the response of microbial communities and their variations in different soils or soils treated differently. After 60 d of incubation, the Q10 values were more than 1.5 in soils without compost application, examined at two temperature intervals (15 oC-25 oC & 25 oC â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 35 oC) (Table 1). On the contrary, the Q10 117

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values were less than 1.5, with an average of 1.3 in the compost-applied soils. Thus, the Q10 values suggest that temperature significantly influenced the rate of organic carbon decomposition in soils without compost application. Although the total methane production was lesser in soils without compost compared to those of the compostapplied soils, the enhanced rates of decomposition would affect, on the long-term basis under warmer climates, the carbon contents of these soils where the present levels are already low. The differential response of microbial communities in these soils under various treatments have larger implications on the capacity of soils to store carbon, emit methane under flooded conditions, and sustain crop production When the changes in redox potential and pH of these soils were monitored, the control soil (no chemical fertilizer) was relatively oxidized, compared to other treatments (data not presented). In cases of soils without compost application but with chemical fertilizers, the redox potential was negative, around -140 to -155 mV. But the application of compost resulted in highly reduced conditions, with redox potential poised around -160 to -187 mV. The pH of these soils buffered around 6.0 to 6.9. The reduced iron contents of the soils applied with chemical fertilizers were significantly higher compared to that of control (no compost) soil (data not presented). The application of chemical fertilizers along with compost had also positively influenced the reduction process, with reduced Fe2+ in the range of 1400 ĂŹg to 2100 ĂŹg g-1 soil. Co

Co + N

Co + NP

Co + NK

Co + NPK

C1 + N

C1 + NP

C1 + NK

C1 + NPK

100

100 -1

ng CH4 g soil

Incubation time [Days]

Fig 1. Methane production potential of soils under the long-term fertilizer management. The left represents the soils with no compost (Co) and different combination of chemical fertilizers (+ N, + NP, + NK & + NPK) while the panel at right has soils with compost (C1), and different chemical fertilizers (+ N, + NP, + NK & + NPK).

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Table 1. Temperature dependence of methane production in field soils with a history of long-term application of chemical fertilizer and compost Treatment

Q10- for CH4 production (15 oC-25 oC interval)

Control (Co) Co + N Co + NP Co + NK Co + NPK Compost (C1) C1 + N C1 + NP C1 + NK C1 + NPK

(25 oC-35 oC interval)

1.512 1.534 1.456 1.545

1.742 1.665 1.873 1.678

1.612

1.564

1.001 1.132

1.234 1.136

1.341 1.023

1.143 1.345 1.124

1.341

CONCLUSION Microbial methane production is a key stone process in flooded soils and the changes in this biogeochemical process can reveal the influences of many factors such as temperature and availability of substrates. To increase the degree of understanding of soil ecosystems and to further reveal the underlying discriminatory mechanisms there is a need to extend the data set to include such important soil microbial process. REFERENCES Neue HU, 1993. Bio Science 43: 466-474. Ramakrishnan B, Satpathy S N, Adhya T K, Rao V R and Sethunathan N, 1995. Geomicrobiol. J. 13: 193-199 Ramakrishnan B, Lueders T, Dunfield P F, Conrad R and Friedrich M W, 2001. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 37: 175-186. Rath A K, Ramakrishnan B and Sethunathan N, 2002. Geomicrobiol. J. 19: 581-592

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EFFECTIVE LAND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT FOR THE WET LAND RICE-ECOSYSTEM IN KERALA Kuruvilla Varughese Cropping Systems Research Centre, Kerala Agricultural University Karamana â&#x20AC;&#x201C;695 002

INTRODUCTION In Kerala, inspite of the undulating land topography, 56.38 percent of the total geographical area is used for cultivation. Due to the high density of population, the marginal land coming under the classification of class IV and V categories are also being put under cultivation in the State. The marginal farmers having an average operational holding of 0.18 ha of land comprises 93.96 percent of farming community in Kerala. Rice cultivation of the State has become unremunerative and not a full time occupation of the farmers due to various socio-eocnomic reasons. Hence fallowing the wet land rice fields is a common scenario in many parts of Kerala. Now, under lease farming, such areas are being put under operation for alternative cropping. The permanent conversion for alternative cropping is a threat to the wet land ecosystem. Hence, land use management for the intensification and diversification of wet land rice area warrants urgent attention of the scientific community. MATERIALS AND METHODS An experiment was conducted for two consecutive years of 2001-02 and 2002-03 at Cropping Systems Research Centre, Karamana, to evaluate the productivity and land use for different rice-based cropping systems. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design in which the main plot composed of four cropping systems viz., the traditional rice-rice fallow(S1), was compared with rice-rice green manure crop (daincha) (S2), rice-rice-vegetable crop (bhindi)(S3) and rice-banana Cv. Nendran during first year and banana alone during the second year (S4). The soil of the experiment field was clayey loam and low in available nitrogen and medium in phosphorus and potash. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The productivity as computed by rice equivalent indicated that diversified cropping of rice-banana or intensive cropping of rice-rice-vegetable and rice-rice-green manure crop recorded better yield than traditional. 120

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Table 1. Productivity (Rice equivalent) and income generated by different land uses through cropping systems. Net income Rs/ha/annu m

8094 8502

Yield of other crops Kg/ha/ annum 14583

Rice Equivalent Kg/ha/ annum 8094 9543

Gross Expenditur e Rs/ha/ annum 44500 46000

12167 20801

8578

13379

14348

51333

32434

2320

24014

28605

123125

77108

Treatments

Mean rice yield Kg/annum

Rice-Rice-Fallow Rice-Rice-Green manure(Daincha) Rice-RiceVegetable(bhindi) (*) Rice-Banana

(*) Rice only in the first crop season of first year. Cropping of rice-rice-fallow: The highest rice-equivalent of 28605 kg/ha/annum was obtained in rice-banana cropping system. In this system after first crop rice, the banana was planted in mounds or in raised beds. The field preparation and other cultivation expenditure accounts 2.8 times more than the traditional cultivation of rice-rice fallow. However, it recorded an increase of 6.33 times more income than the traditional system. The third crop of vegetable crop or green manure crops depends mainly on the availability of irrigation. Under irrigated condition vegetable crop registered higher productivity and profitability. But with the residual moisture a green manure crop could successfully be cultivated with higher productivity through improved soil health. In all the cropping systems studied, the land can be retained again as wet land ecosystems with better soil health. CONCLUSION Better crop productivity through slight shift in land configuration under rice-bananabanana cropping systems for two year and re using for rice cultivation a viable land use management in the uncultivated or under productive wet land rice area. Intensification of vegetable or green manure crop had also enhanced the land productivity.

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PROMOTION OF ORGANICS FOR SUSTAINED VEGETABLE PRODUCTION Kumari Sushama N P, Nazreen Hassan S and Bhaskaran C College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvanathapuram

INTRODUCTION Organic farming is a paradigm shift from conventional centralized to strategic holistic approach. The main aim of organic farming remains sustaining crop productivity, achieving a closed nutrient cycle in the farm, maintaining soil fertility and animal welfare and in doing so, synthetic chemicals whether fertilizer or plant protectant are not supposed to be used. Cultivation of less susceptible varieties with suitable crop rotation and using beneficial species and mechanical measures for plant culture is the key component of plant protection; nutritional requirement is made through organic means. Our need is to harvest the various natural resources by bringing together the compatible ones to sustain our agricultural production. This maximises the economic returns through optimum resource utilisation without exploiting our environment and the eco system. Hence a redesigning of our present system is essential. This is possible through organic farming which has a legitimate place in sustainable production. The environmental, economic and social benefits of organic farming have captured the attention of many countries presenting both challenges and opportunities. Still it is dubious to some farmers of developing countries. To be eco friendly it is to be economically viable also. Organic farming is the system that avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compound fertilisers pesticides and livestock feed additives. They rely to the maximum extent on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes and green manures, off farm organic wastes and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil health, support plant nutrients and to control insect weeds and other harmful effects. Agriculture in India is heading towards a second Green Revolution. From excessive use of high compounded chemical fertilisers, plant protection chemicals and synthetic pyrethroids, the shift has been towards inputs of natural origin, botanicals of insecticide value, which are sustainable and eco-friendly. SOIL AND NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT Soil organic matter is one of the important nutritional resources in vegetable cultivation. Organic manures contain more or less all nutrients required for plant growth. The various organic manures used in vegetable cultivation are compost, vermicompost, Farm Yard Manure (FYM), Poultry Manure (PM), Green leaf Manure, Bio-fertilizers 122

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etc. Many studies of organic systems have demonstrated beneficial long-term effects on soil properties, including higher soil organic matter, higher soil microbial activity, and reduced erosion. Studies conducted at Kerala Agricultural University have reported the effect of organic manures on growth, yield, quality and soil properties of vegetables. The use of organic manures in vegetable production is: 1. Improved soil quality. 2. Add a source of slow release nutrients. 3. Enhance plant resistance to soil borne diseases. 4. Reduce the residual effect that is caused by chemical inputs 5. Make local agriculture more viable by giving livestock produces a market for their value added excess manure. Studies conducted at Kerala Agricultural University also reveal the importance of organic manure on soil health and nutrients in vegetable production. Rajashree (1999) opined that poultry manure is suitable for commercial cultivation of vegetables in Kerala compared to FYM as organic source. According to Meerabai and Raj (2001) farmyard manure, the most commonly used organic manure, is a good source of both macro and micronutrients. Anitha (1997) reported that in chilly various growth attributes like plant height, number of branches and dry matter production are better when poultry manure is applied. Green manuring is a possibility and a practice in substituting the nutrient requirement of crops. Legumes were found to substitute nearly 50 kg per ha of N in addition to increasing soil organic matter. Seed inoculation with Rhizobium, Pseudomonas and other slow releasing micro-organisms reveal a nitrogen saving to the extent of 20 to 25 kg per ha in addition to increasing disease resistance to seed borne diseases. A gradual replacement of the inorganic to maximum of 40 to 50 % of total economic fertilizer level, would confer higher efficiency and effective functioning of slow release N, protection from losses and long term benefits of soil fertility build up. It is true that diversification-rather than strict elimination of agrochemical inputs-is the key to the improved performance of organic systems. Therefore systems incorporating diversification with reduced input use may well have the same long-term sustainability as organic systems. An action research was conducted by Kerala Agricultural University on participatory basis for cowpea. It was found that 1:1 inorganic and organic combination recorded the maximum yield compared to 3: 1 combination.

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BIO CONTROL AGENTS AND BOTANICALS IN VEGETABLE PEST CONTROL Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of the particular strategy. Conversion to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems, which do not need high levels of external material inputs. Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be situations where the optimum use of synthetic chemicals would be more “sustainable” than a strictly no chemical approach or an approach using toxic “organic” chemicals. The current pest control technology relies heavily on pesticides. In India it was nearly 75,000 tonnes in 1985 which reached 10,000 tonnes in 1990 and 2,00,000 tonnes in 2000 AD (Sharma, 2003). Organic farming aim at operating rather than confronting with nature. Organic pest control is a management strategy to minimise pest incidence rather than controlling the pest. The various bio agents that are found to be effective in vegetable cultivation are Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., VAM that are found to be effective in controlling s root rot disease, nematodes and other fungal diseases. The plant extracts known, as botanicals, are organic pest control measures, which is an integration of making unfavourable environment to the pest and increasing the population of natural enemies of the pests. Several plant extracts are used in controlling the sucking pests like aphids, white flies etc., seen in vegetables. They are: a)

Tobacco extract

b) Neem oil emulsion c)

Neem seed kernel suspension

d) Kerosene emulsion e)

Neem oil Garlic emulsion

Chilli extract

SCOPE FOR ORGANIC VEGETABLES EXPORT IN INDIA Marketing of organic products are growing at faster rate (20 per cent) as compared to conventional ones (5 per cent). (Chakrabarthy, 2003). Organic vegetables fetch a premium price of 10 percent to 50 per cent over conventional products. Prospects of organic products for export from India are tremendous. India is uniquely placed for organic cultivation on account of a variety of reasons, such as: 124

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Varied agro climatic regions for production of vegetable crops, which are in demand. Traditional farming where farmers have not graduated. Till recently, India did not have its own organic regulation and certification system in place. Realising the potential of India for export, Ministry of Commerce initiated the development of National Programme for Organic production since 1996 by Framing the National Standards for Organic Production and Certification Scheme. Launching the National Programme for Organic Production in the year 2000. Laid down procedures for export of certified organic products.

The Steering Committee has identified six accreditation agencies for certification of organic products. They are APEDA (Agricultural Products Export and Development Agency), Tea Board, Coffee Board, Spices Board, Coconut Development Board, Directorate of Cashew and Cocoa Board under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. CONSTRAINTS IN ADOPTING ORGANIC FARMING The extent of post harvest loses of perishable vegetables has been recorded as 4-34% (Chakrabarthy, 2003) due to improper marketing. Farming of vegetables has not been looked upon as an attractive enterprise due to vagaries of weather and mainly due to inadequate market infra structure and lack of storage facilities. A study was undertaken by Kerala Agricultural University and the respondents reported the following constraints. All the respondents (100%) opined that inadequate market infrastructure facilities were the major problem in vegetable cultivation. The following statistical expression reveals the situation explicitly. N=100 Marketing Constraints

Price fluctuation

Lack of storage facilities

Inadequate credit facilities in marketing

High transport charges

Inadequate market infra-structure facilities

100

SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE At present the organic agricultural product are being sold at premium prices of 15-20 % in an unregulated manner. Effective steps such as minimum support prices must be made available to the farmers who produce organic products. The government on its hand should subsidise the organic products like Bio-fertilisers, Bio-pesticides at the cost of synthetic fertilisers towards attaining sustainability. This will effectively control 125

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the liberal use of agricultural chemicals like urea, thus saving the soil and water ecosystem at large. REFERENCES Anitha V, 1997. Nitrogen Management in Vegetable chilli grown in pots with modified drip irrigation system. M. Sc., (Ag.) Thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala. p-123 Chakrabarthy, Sujith, 2003. Branding of vegetables- the organic way. Agrobios Newsletter. Vol . 2. No.1. pp 27 Sharma K, Arun, 2003. Bio-natural management of pest in organic farming. Agrobios Newsletter. Vol . 2. No.1. pp 15 Rajasree, 1999. Standardisation of organic and inorganic fertilizer combinations for maximising productivity in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) Ph. D thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala P- 362. Meerabai M and Raj A K, 2001. Bio-Farming in vegetables. Kisan World 28(4): 1516.

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PRODUCTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF VERMICOMPOSTS AND ITS APPLICATION ON GREEN GRAM (VIGNA RADIATA) Kennedy V J F* and Rajkumar Immaneul S** *Department of Rural Development Science, Arul Anandar College, Karumathur **PG and Research Department of Botany, American College, Madurai

INTRODUCTION Organic Farming is considered as an alternative for resource intensive conventional Agriculture. It is the most widely practiced system of sustainable agriculture in many different countries. Organic agriculture enlivens the soil, strengthens the natural resource base and sustains biological production at levels commensurate with the carrying capacity of the managed agro- ecosystem. The organic materials most commonly used to improve soil conditions and fertility include Farmyard Manure, animal wastes, crop residues, green manures, biogas spent slurry, microbial preparations, vermicomposts etc., Vermicomposting is recycling of wastes through earthworms. Composting is practiced by culturing some selected crop species of earthworms on organic wastes and is regarded as a very important component of the organic farming packages. The present study was conducted to know the production aspects of different vermicomposts and its application on the morphological characteristics of Green gram. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four different types of organic substrates were used for the experiment as four treatments. Farmyard manure (FYM), Green leaf manure (Glyricidia sepium)(GLM), Agricultural wastes( straw, stubbles, stalks) (AWF) and Vegetable wastes (VW) were used for the experiments. Vermibeds were prepared at the bottom of the tank by constructing four cement tanks of 30x60x 30 cm with holes at the bottom. A thick layer of bricks were placed at the bottom. A layer of 5 cm loamy soil was spread over the broken bricks in each tank. The locally collected earthworms 100 per tank were placed over the vermibed. The vermibed were regularly moistened. The organic substrates mentioned above were spread uniformly in each vermibed. Water was sprinkled at regular intervals. They were covered with plastic sheets to protect the worm from birds. The trial was continued 127

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for 60 days. Once in 15 days the organic layer was turned over using hands. The vermicomposting from four experiments were taken for the following studies viz., pH, Electrical conductivity, total Nitrogen, total Phosphorus and Potassium. For soil sterilization the garden soil was soaked with water for 24 hours, drained and then autoclaved at 20 lb pressure for two hours. After sterilization the soil was allowed to cool in shade and then used for pot culture studies. The sterilized soil was mixed with vermicomposts (75 g) as basal dressing and accordingly filled in the plastic bags and were studied as three replications. The seeds of Green gram(Vigna radiata) were purchased , treated with 0.01 percent mercuric chloride solution to keep away free from fungal spores. The treated seeds five in number per bag were sown. The bags were watered regularly and were allowed to grow. After the first reading on 15th day , the plants were given 50g of vermicomposts as topdressing. The plants were evaluated by studying the following biometrical traits every 15 days- shoot length, root length, number of leaves, fresh and dry weight of the plants. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chemical analysis of data of air dried vermicomposts prepared from different organic substrates are shown in Table1.The pH level among the treatments did not vary much(7.5-7.6) except in organic substrates containing Agricultural Wastes. Electrical Conductivity also showed similar results. But vermicomposts produced from Agricultural Wastes showed highest level of Nitrogen (83Kg/Acre) , Phosporus (24.1 Kg/Acre), Potassium (500Kg/Acre). Table 1. Nutrient composition of Vermicomposts produced with different organic substrates

128

Parameter

FYM

GLM

7.5

8.1

7.6

EC(m.mhos/cm2)

1.0

1.1

0.6

1.0

N(Kg/acre)

P(Kg/acre)

22.7

23.1

24.1

22.0

K(Kg/acre)

320

410

500

325

Zn(ppm)

2.14

1.64

1.34

1.90

Cu(ppm)

0.34

0.56

0.50

0.78

Fe(ppm)

3.62

2.46

2.72

3.00

Mn(ppm)

1.48

1.08

0.98

1.56

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Table2. Population of Earthworms in different types of vermicompost Earthworms

FYM

GLM

Adults

250

324

158

148

Young ones

525

661

512

388

Total

775

985

670

536

Table 3. Mean Morphological measurements of Vigna radiata applied with different types of Vermicompostings on 15th and 30th day FYM Parameters Plant height(cm)

GLM th

AW th

VW th

15 day

30 day

15 day

30 day

15 da

30 day

15 day

30th day

25.1

44.2

24.9

28.4

26.0

29.4

21.8

28.0

Stem height(cm)

10.2

17.6

8.9

13.4

11.5

13.6

11.2

12.2

Root height (cm)

15.7

26.6

15.8

15.0

16.4

15.8

10.4

15.2

No. of leaves

5.0

10.8

5.4

7.6

5.8

9.6

5.0

7.8

Fresh weight(g)

2.08

1.51

1.53

1.20

Dry weight(g)

0.38

0.26

0.25

0.10

Table 2 depicts the average number of worms multiplied during the experimental period. Green leaf manure treatment showed an increased population of both young ones (661) and adults (324).Such an increased number of earthworms indicates the superiority of the organic substrates. Table 3 indicates the mean morphological measurements of Green gram when applied with different types of vermicompostings on 15th day and 30th day. The crop registered higher shoot and root lengths and fresh and dry matter accumulation at application of vermicompostings prepared from Farmyard manure on 30th day when compared to the other treatments. Agriculture Wastes vermicomposts also recorded favourable biometrical traits. Therefore, Organic Wastes of Farmyard Manure and Agriculture Wastes can be better utilised to prepare vermicomposts under field conditions using local species of earthworms.

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THE EFFECT OF AWARENESS CAMPAIGN (BODHAVALKARANAM) ON MANGROVE VEGETATION OF NORTH MALABAR REGION Lalitha C R * and Raveendran K** *Dept. of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Kannur **P.G. Department of Botany, Sir Syed College, Taliparamba

INTRODUCTION In Kerala, North Malabar region is blessed by nature with mangroves that is inevitable to preserve pristine purity and balanced ecology of nature. The North Malabar region of Kerala has the maximum mangrove vegetation (1139 hectares). It is estimated that total mangrove area of Kerala is 16.71 sq. km. Out of these, only 2 sq.kms, are under Govt. sector (Mohanan Pillai, 2004). The rest of the mangrove vegetation is under various private agencies and other organized groups like trusts, societies, masquerading under many titles and pretensions. So the conservation and protection of these most sensitive ecological zones are of a problematic regime. For the last two and a half decades, many NGOs, hand in hand with Govt. agencies, are trying their level best to protect these coastal wetland regions. For this purpose, different organizations are conducting seminars, workshops, padayathras and other types of awareness campaigns (Renjan Mathew et al., 2004) Awareness campaigns or â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;bodhavalkaranamâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; are desirable and welcome in many fields including AIDS. This is our experience. But the awareness campaign against the brutal destruction of mangrove sanctuaries is more like a double edged weapon. The present study attempts to elucidate the realities related to the bodhavalkaranam with regard to mangrove ecosystems and multidimensional effect of conversion of mangrove wetlands for other purposes. Everyone is aware of the importance and usefulness of mangrove ecosystem. They provide a treasure of beneficial boon through out the coastal area, increasing water fertility, fisheries production etc. (Hyde, 1989 and Cundell et al.1979) Kerala has 41 west flowing rivers. These rivers are sweeping all the dead remains of plants and animals during the heavy downpour months of monsoon and other seasons, which are deposited into the mangrove sanctuaries. These deposited materials and dead remains of mangroves are harboured in the mangrove swamps and become the best materials for colonization of marine and manglicolous marine fungi along with bacteria (Fell and Master, 1980). Thus these organisms are mainly responsible to make the Kerala 130

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coastal water highly nutritive, helping and fostering different kinds of organisms. Blind commercialism is making rash and mad invasions against our mangrove heritage that will lead to a miserable and sterile future, in due course. MATERIALS AND METHODS The second author has been actively associated with the mangroves of Northern Kerala, since 1989 as a part of his marine mycological studies in the coastal waters of Kerala and his efforts have given a lot of precious information regarding the mangrove ecosystem. All the notable variation and alteration occurred in this ecosystem were properly documented and discussions were carried out with the co-operation of the local people, wetland owners, and other mangrove ecosystem beneficiaries. The common masses in the coastal belts have now begun to realize that the conservation of mangroves is essential for their existence. But the sad truth is that different and pernicious awareness is evoked among the private owners of these rich wetlands. The rich among them, being afraid that these areas will be acquired by the Government. for conservation and protection, destroy the mangroves, sell them to vested parties or fill the wetlands, convert them and use them for other profitable purposes. Many rich persons and parties buy such lands from the poor people at throwaway prices and build multistoried buildings, hospitals, shopping complexes etc. or convert these wetlands for prawn culture which will in the near future give blatant blow to our ecology and economy. We should not be like the foolish, proverbial Irishman who said ‘why should I do anything for the posterity, because, posterity did not do any thing for me’. Threatened areas Eco-tourism is a lucrative idea. Unfortunately in our State ecology is being destroyed in the hope of amassing money through tourism. The net result will be an appalling loss especially to the pristine purity of Kerala’s blessed nature. As a part of the tourism development programme many projects are in the state of execution; the construction of “Swapna Nagari” at Calicut, the tourism resort centre in the mangrove jungle of Valapattanam and proposed amusement park at Pappinisseri, the multistoried hotels and shopping complex, auditorium, resorts are some of them. The productive inland inshore brackish water bodies and semi wetlands along sides of the National highway at Vadakara, the multistoried multi specialty hospital complex cum hotels do eject hospital effluence and impurities containing floor cleaning phenolic compounds and other chemicals, cloth cleaning detergents of various types towards the estuaries. The housing society at Kuyyali has come up by converting the wetlands. The destruction of mangroves for erecting factories, saw mills, work shops, coir retting fields near and around Valapattanam bridges, destruction of natural habitats of mangroves at Mahe, near Mahe railway station by the Panchayat authorities, even against the protest of the native people, the conversion of mangrove wetlands for prawn culture fields at Vadakkumpad, Eranjoli, Edakkad, Pinarai, Meloor and Payyangadi etc. are a few other 131

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examples. The rich and highly productive inland brackish water bodies near Payyangadi, Edakkad, Vadakara, Farooke, Kadalundi are eroding and disappearing from our natural environments. Besides all these, the track doubling of railway also has consumed a larger area of mangroves near Payyangadi, Edakkad, Tellicherry, Mahe, Vadakara, Farooke, Kadalundi etc. The coir retting fields at Kadalundi, Dharmadam, Meloor, Valapattanam are also polluting the mangrove ecosystem by continuous leaching out of phenolic compounds during the process of retting, which leads to the fall out of biodiversity and restriction of the growth of many microorganisms including marine fungi (Raveendran, 2002). This gradual disappearance of vital marine organisms like marine fungi and bacteria will alter the nutritive quality of the coastal water that in turn will reduce productivity of the shoreline water. RESULTS The awareness campaign creates a negative impact on wetland owners and only helps to increase or to accelerate the destruction or conversion processes. The conversion process is continuing at an alarming rate, and if this process is continuing at such an accelerated rate, the prestigious mangrove vegetation of Northern Kerala will become a part of memory. Instead of direct conversion of these wetlands, the cunning profit hungry landowners are indirectly converting these wetlands with ample Government aids & subsidiaries in the guise of prawn cultivation and tourism development programme. Nowhere in North Kerala, the wetland owners came forward to augment the mangrove vegetation under the influence of awareness campaign, even through the forest department made augmentation near and around the proximity of some of the estuaries. CONCLUSION Immediate, practical steps should be taken by the Government to stop any more destruction or conversion of these wetlands by imposing very strict law. The politicians and public may be made sufficiently aware of the vital importance of mangrove sanctuaries to the socio ecological balance of Kerala. The Government of the State should bring forward, with immediate effect, laws to acquire the wetlands for their preservation and conservation. Otherwise, these areas may be considered and protected as National parks with immediate effect. REFERENCES Cundell A M, Brown M S, Stafford Raid Mitchell R, 1979. Microbial degradation of Rhizophora mangle leaves immersed in the sea;Eastern coast. Shelf Sci. 9. 281-286. Fell J W and Master I M, 1980. The association and potential role of fungi in mangrove detritous system. Bot. Mar.23, 257-263. 132

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Hyde K D, 1989. Ecology of tropical marine fungi from the North Sumatra. Can. J. Bot. 67, 3078-3082 Mohanan Pillai K G, 2004. Man and mangrove: The need to establish community reserves for the effective conservation and management of mangroves in Kerala. Training workshop on conservation of mangrove ecosystem 25th to 27th June, pp. 57 to 63. Raveendran K, 2002. Studies on marine fungi of Kerala with special reference to manglicolous marine fungi. Ph.D. Thesis â&#x20AC;&#x201C; submitted to University of Calicut, Kerala. Renjan Mathew Vargese, Bhaskaran and Babu Ambat, 2004. Regeneration, restoration and Eco- development of degraded mangrove areas with community participation in Kalliassery panchayat of Kannur Dist: Training workshop on conservation of mangrove ecosystem. Workshop papers Part I pp. 111-121.

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HYDROLOGIC APPRAISAL OF SMALL UPLAND WATERSHEDS UNDER DIFFERENT LAND COVERS Jobin Thomas*, George Abe**, Celine George+ and Murugan M++ * School of Environmental Sciences, M.G. University, Kottayam ** Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Sub Centre, Kottayam + Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Sub Centre, Manimalakunnu ++ Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara

INTRODUCTION Water resources have shaped history and will be a major determinant of mankindâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s future. Dramatic population growth during the 20th century has made effective water management even more crucial for human survival and prosperity and environmental vitality in the 21st century. Water issues - its availability, allocation, pollution - are likely to dominate the social, economic, and ecological agenda at global level. Large scale shifts in landuse pattern are being attempted to meet immediate needs by ignoring long term complementarities among different components of natural resources. Landuse activities and vegetation manipulation that alter the type or extent of vegetative cover on a watershed may affect water budget of a catchment. Evolution of hydrological sciences has played a major role in defining the fresh water resources and facilitating a process for its utilisation. Hydrologists and ecologists have worked for long in isolation, both have gradually felt the need for interdisciplinary research and integration of their science. The emerging concern for integrating hydrology with ecology, has given rise to the development of ecohydrology as a new paradigm within hydrology and the International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of UNESCO (Zalewski et al., 1997). Soil characteristics play an important role in the hydrology of watersheds. Although the influence of soil on hydrology is quite striking, soil is one of several factors that interact to produce a given hydrologic result. Climate and vegetative cover are the other major determinants. Further, landuse and treatment have been shown to influence water yield and other hydrologic parameters (Harrold and Dreibelbis, 1960; Harrold et al., 1962). In agriculture, the knowledge of soil moisture patterns allows more efficient irrigation scheduling and improved crop yield forecasting. It has been shown in the recent years (Beven and Fisher, 1996; De Roo et al., 1996) that the knowledge of soil surface conditions, namely the soil moisture content and roughness, is of the highest importance in hydrological and climatic studies. In addition, a powerful 134

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technique viz. time series analysis is being applied to many climatic data analysis. OBJECTIVES The present investigation was carried out with the following objectives: 1. To study the hydrologic response of three micro-watersheds with cardamom, eucalyptus, and open scrub land covers. 2. To study the spatial and temporal soil moisture variation in these watersheds. 3. To analyse the trend in different hydro-meteorological parameters. STUDY AREA The study area comprises three micro watersheds (Figure I) in Pampadumpara, Poopara, and Silent Valley of Idukki district in Kerala with Cardamom, Open scrub and Eucalyptus land covers respectively. The watersheds fall in the realm of tropical climate and the dominant feature is the monsoon. The area experiences two monsoon seasons namely southwest from June to August and northeast from September to November which is less dominant. MATERIALS AND METHODS The soil samples were taken from 0.3 m, 0.6 m and 0.9 m depth from the soil surface. Samples were taken in the field with convenient tools such as shovels, spiral hand augers or any hand driven soil sampling tools. Soil samples were immediately placed in a leak proof tare weighted can suitable for transporting to the laboratory for drying in an electrically heated oven. The samples were dried at 1050C to a constant weight (16 to 24 hours). It is best determined by trial and error under typical operating conditions. The moisture content was calculated by the following formula: Î¸

W2-W3 W3-W1

Where, W1- Initial / Empty weight of the Can + Lid, W2-Wet weight of the

Soil sample + Can + Lid and W3- Dry weight of the Soil sample + Can + Lid Raw climatic data are difficult to read meaningfully, whereas, a constructed graph aids in visual interpretation of the climate over a period of time. There are a number of ways the data can be treated to make the observation meaningful. One method uses the semi average data which are derived by finding the mean value for the first half of the period (1990-97) and that for the second half (1997-2004). The two values are plotted on the graph and joined by a line. The semi-average can be used to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the two means (Oliver and Hidore, 2003). The important meteorological parameters considered for the Time Series Analysis was rainfall, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, and humidity. The data were collected from the meteorological yard near the experimental watersheds. Since there is no meteorological yard near the Open scrub watershed, the data is 135

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unknown. Dependability analysis was also done to calculate the dependable monthly and annual rainfall. RESULTS The soil moisture reductions in these three micro-watersheds were compared. The soil moisture variations were represented in figure II, III and IV. The percentage reduction in soil moisture at each layer for the three watersheds were analysed. It was found that the maximum soil moisture reduction occurred at the top layer (0.3 m) and the minimum in the deepest layer (0.9 m). The spatial variation of soil moisture in top layer was found maximum in Open scrub and minimum in Cardamom watershed. The Open scrub watershed may be subjected to dew condensation during the period than the other two watersheds, as it has no interception loss due to trees. The difference in soil moisture percentage between middle and bottom layers was maximum in Eucalyptus watershed and minimum in Cardamom watershed. It is noted that the Eucalyptus watershed has a much more variation in the soil moisture in 0.6 m layer than the others. The results of the study by Sikka et al., (1998) which concluded that there is a significant reduction in soil moisture profile at 0.5 m and 1.0 m depth for the second rotation blue gum plantations, which supports the findings of the present study. The relation between elevation and soil moisture showed that there was a variation. The time series analysis was carried out for the Pampadumpara and Silent Valley stations for finding the trend in different meteorological parameters for 14 years. In Pampadumpara station, the rainfall pattern showed a decrease in the annual as well as monsoon rainfall. But the non-monsoon rainfall has no variation. The South West monsoon rainfall showed a decreasing trend while the North East monsoon rainfall showed little variation during the period. The annual, monsoon, and non-monsoon rainfall measured in the Silent Valley station showed a decrease and followed the trend in the South West and North East monsoon as in Pampadumpara experienced. The semi-average method also confirms the result that the regions are experiencing a decrease in annual rainfall.(Figure V & VI) The other parameters showed no particular trend in Pampadumpara during the period. Mean maximum temperature and relative humidity showed a significant difference in the two seasons Figures VII & VIII), but the mean minimum temperature showed more or less constant trend. Silent Valley station did not experience any particular trend in mean temperatures, but the relative humidity showed an increasing trend (Fig

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Figure-I Location Map of Watersheds

Figure-II Soil Moisture Variations, Figure-III Soil Moisture Variations Pampadumpara-November 2003 to April Novemebr 2003-April 2004- Pooppara 2004 162

A verag e R ain fall (m m )

160

158

156 y = -8.0619x + 169.18 154

152

150

148 1

Y ears

Figure-IV Soil Moisture Variations December 2003- April 2004- Silent Valley

Fig. V. Semi Average (Rainfall) Pambadumpara 137

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195 190

Rainfall (mm

185 180 175 170

y = - 28.632x + 220.56

165 160 155 150 145 1

Years

Fig. VI. Semi Average Rainfall in Silent Valley 30

Mean Temperature ( C)

Jun - Nov

Dec - May

0 90-91

91-92

92-93

93-94

94-95

95-96

96-97

97-98

98-99

99-00

2000-01 2001-02

Year

Fig. VII - Variation in Mean Maximum Temperature (Pampadumpara)

120

100

RH (%)

Jun - Nov

Dec - May

0 90-91

91-92

92-93

93-94

94-95

95-96

96-97

97-98

98-99

99-00

2000-01 2001-02

Year

Fig. VIII- Variation in Mean Relative Humidity (Pampadumpara) 138

Reliability%

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Annual

Pampadumpara

315.8

367.05

256.3

113.1

276.75

166.5

30.2

6.2

10.5

24.9

95.1

103.6

1880.65

187.12

248.57

221.03

61.14

210.74

95.64

7.75

0.4

0.6

2.55

56.5

72.7

1791.95

165.5

198.5

127.6

31.1

115.54

49.15

0.3

1474.52

S tation

R elia bility%

Jun

Jul

A ug

S e pt

O ct

N ov

D ec

Jan

F eb

M ar

A pr

M ay

A n nual

S ilent V alley

35 3.2 5

42 7.2 5

25 5.7 5

22 9.2 5

31 8.5 0

16 0.5 0

12 .8

28 .5

12 2

12 8.5

22 39.75

22 1.8 8

28 4.8 5

18 8.2 5

19 5.76

19 4.6 3

79 .87

2.38

5.88

57 .6

82 .3

19 48.25

20 2.3 5

16 0.3

13 4.3 5

11 6.0 6

21 .60

36 .70

18 .4

20 .9

14 91.74

139

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Table-1 Dependability analysis of Rainfall (mm) at Pampadumpara and Silent Valley

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100 90 80 70

RH (%)

60 Jun - Nov

Dec - May

40 30 20 10 0 91-92

92-93

93-94

94-95

95-96

96-97

97-98

98-99

99-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04

Year

Fig. IX - Variation in Mean Relative Humidity (Silent Valley)

SUMMARY The short term data analysis of three micro-watersheds having Cardamom, Open scrub and Eucalyptus land covers clearly demonstrates the hydrological responses of different landuse. The salient findings are presented as follows: z

The soil moisture is varying depth wise and the variation is in the order 0.3 > 0.6 > 0.9 m. and the percentage reduction of soil moisture is maximum in the top layers (0.3 m and 0.6 m) and minimum in the deepest layer (0.9 m)

The soil moisture has a variation according to the relief and they are in inverse proportion. The soil moisture movement from the upper relief to the lower regions is also clearly described.

The soil moisture has a temporal variation and the landuse pattern has a control on the variation of soil moisture.

The time series analysis showed that the two weather stations were experiencing a decrease in annual rainfall. The South West monsoon has a decrease in rainfall but the North East monsoon showed a steady trend in the two stations. There is no particular trend in other meteorological parameters analysed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank the Executive Director, CWRDM; Director, School of Environmental Sciences, M. G University, Kottayam and The Scientist in Charge, CRS, Pampadumpara 140

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for the encouragement and support in carrying out the study. The Support extended by the Divisional Officer, KFDC, Munnar and Head, R&D Centre, TATA Tea Ltd., Mattupetty, Munnar is gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES Beven K J and Fisher J, 1996. In: Stewart, J. B., Engman, E. T., Feddes, R. A nd Kerr, Y. (Eds.). Remote sensing and scaling in hydrology, scaling in hydrology using remote sensing. De Roo P J, Offermans R J E. and Cremers N H, 1996. LISEM: A single event, physically based hydrological and soil erosion model for drainage basins, Part 2: Sensitivity analysis, validation and application. Hydrological Processes, 10: 1119-1126. Harrold L L and Dreibelbis F R, 1960. Some effects of landuse and treatment on single crop watersheds. J. Soil Water Cons., 15: 65-69. Harrold L L, Brakensiek D L, McGuinnes J L, Amerman C R and Dreibelbis F R, 1962. Influences of landuse and treatment on the hydrology of small watersheds at Coshocton, Ohio, 1938-57. USDA. Tech. Bul: 1256. Oliver J E and Hidore J J, 2003. Climatology: An Atmospheric Science. 2nd Edn., Pearson Education Inc. Sikka A K, Sarma J S, Sharda V N, Samraj P and Lakshmanan V, 1998. Hydrological implications of converting natural grassland into blue gum plantation in Nilgiris. Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute (ICAR), Udhagamandalam. Zalewski M, Janauer J A and Jolankai G, 1997. Ecohydrology: A new paradigm for the sustainable use of aquatic resources: Conceptual background, working hypotheses, rationale and scientific guidelines for the implementation of the IHP-V Projects 2.3/2/4. Technical Documents in Hydrology No: 7. UNESCO, Paris.

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LAND SAND MINING â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A NEW ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGE Chandramoni C M and Anirudhan S Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, 695581

INTRODUCTION Naturally occurring granular material for building construction and other purposes is mainly drawn from rivers. Rivers form one of the major freshwater hydrosystem in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface and modify the landscape through various fluvial processes. They carry weathered materials in the form of bed load, dissolved load, suspended loads and finally discharge them into lakes or oceans. The nature of the river materials depend upon the topography of the river basin, climate of the area, velocity of flow and lithology of the river basin. Recently this valuable resource have been depleted in all river channels of Kerala due to over exploitation for its wide application in the society such as construction of building, reclamation of agricultural land and also in the industries. Now it has become a rare and costly material in our country. In addition to instream sand mining, increasing population, industrialization, and urbanization are various other factors that totally alter the riverine environment. Now sands are mined from other than instream source like floodplain, terraces and overbank deposits of fluvial domains of the River basins of Kerala which are underlined by diverse land cover and land use. Thus the problems related to sand mining have been compounded and hence should attain wider attention by the society. The present investigation is an attempt to analyze the environmental damage which is imminent on account of the recent spurt in widespread inland sand mining activities due to the ever increasing demand and restrictions to channel sand mining imposed by Government. A case study of the downstream part of Muvattupuzha river basin where extensive inland sand (from river banks, flood plains) operations is going on at present is discussed in this paper. OBSERVATIONS Muvattupuzha River is one of the major perennial rivers of central Kerala, flowing through parts of Idukki, Kottayam and Alleppey districts with a length of about 121km. The river is formed by the confluence of three tributaries (Kothamangalam Ar, Kaliyarpuzha and Thodupuzha Ar) near Muvattupuzha town, hence the name 142

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Muvattupuzha (meaning three rivers). The river has a total drainage area of 2394km2 and a dendritic drainage pattern at the headstream portion. One of the major newsprint factories of our country, the Hindustan Newsprint Limited (HNL) situated at the downstream portion of the Muvattupuzha River. Present study is restricted to an area of 170Km2 bounded by Longitudes 76°20′ to 76°30′and latitudes, 9°45′ to 9°51′. In this part main channel has a meandering form and split into two distributaries viz., Murinjapuzha and Ittupuzha. These two distributaries again split into number of distributaries and finally discharge into Vembanad estuary, near Vaikom (Fig: 1). 7700'

7500' 0

INDIA

10 15'

N MUNAMBAM STUDY AREA ERANAKULAM Kaliyar R

0 0

75 0' 9 030'

10 km

Study Area

ALLEPPEY

7700'

Fig: 1 Muvattupuzha River Basin

90 30'

Geomorphology Like all major rivers of Kerala, Muvattupuzha River also originate from western ghat drain through three major physiographic divisions viz., high land, midland and low land (Soman, 2002) The three major tributaries (Kothamangalam Ar, Kaliyarpuzha and Thodupuzha Ar) are originating from the high land, in the eastern side and drain through the midland and debouch to almost sea level in the western side, at shertallai. The eastern part of the basin is characterized by a rugged topography. Thick vegetation is noticed in the basin. Most of the area is agricultural land. Rubber and coconut plantations found along the hill sides and cultivations of paddy and tapioca are seen in the low land region. Laterite soil is the most extensive soil type of the area. Geologically the area is covered by massive charnockites, laterite and alluvium. The midland region is covered by thick laterite. Riverine alluvium occurs along the banks of the river and its tributaries and also near the estuary. This can be the potential aquifer zones of groundwater. The thick vegetation reveals the occurrence of groundwater in the basin. Several floodplains and inter distributary bars have been noticed nearer to the mouth 143

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of River. The different geomorphic units identified in the study area are floodplains, river terraces, alluvial fan and laterite islets. The flood plains, parts of terraces and portion of channel banks form big sand reservoirs. Such areas are now in great demand for the sand mafia because of the unavailability of the instream sand 1. Flood plain deposits Flood plain deposits are formed from repeated flooding, generally low lying areas located adjacent to stream channels. Due to the over land flow, during the monsoon period the transporting sediments are accumulated in the alluvial surface and forms flood plains. The size of the suspended sediments varies from medium sand to fine sand. Vast flood plains are occurring in the lower reaches of Muvattupuzha River, which are almost parallel to the stream channel. The flood plain in this area is largely controlled by channel pattern and form. In the upstream region the river attains a meandering course and the eroded materials from these meanders contribute the sediments to the flood plains. Another major reason for the formation of the flood plains is due to the existence of distributary channels at the lower end of the basin. Lateral migration of this channel inhibits the development of thick flood plain deposits (Reineck&Singh, 1975). Several inter-channel islands and gravel bars are also found associated with these distributary channel environment. The nature of the flood plain deposits is similar to the natural levee deposits. 2. River terraces River terraces are important sand deposits found in the down stream of the river basin. These are the narrow flat surface on either side of the valley floor, represented by the level of former valley floors and also the remnants of former flood plain deposits and resulted by the change in base level. Thus different fluvial landforms are created by running water through various fluvial processes and are controlled by certain factors viz. stream gradient, stream area, lithology, tectonic factors, climatic conditions, stream load, vegetation, erosional rates and discharges. 3. Channel bank deposit Most suitable place of inland sand borrowing activity actively now undergoing is along channel banks. The down stream part of Muvattupuzha River is characterized by number of meandering bends. Channel banks especially convex side of bends is suitable location for sand occurrence. Such sand deposits are resulted out of the shifting of active channel because of growth of point bars usually develop at the meandering bends. Like all major rivers of Kerala, Muvattupuzha also exhibit box shaped channel indicating a stable channel bank. The stability of these river banks owes to the luxuriant natural vegetation typical of tropical climate. Mode of Inland - sand borrowing Three sites were examined during the course of this study. These sites were selected in 144

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such a way that one each come from three geomorphic settings viz., channel bank, flood plain and inter distributary area. Details of the sand mining locations are given in the table 1. In the Inter-distributary environment (Vadayar and around), extensive mining activity is going, on where pits are considerably large (~10x10x4m) and good construction quality sand is being mined from below the water table which usually encounter at depth of 4m. Sand mining from channel bank deposit (eg.at Mulakulam) sand pit is located adjacent to valley. Here, the pit is shallow and has not reached the water table. A large area on the channel bank is marked for sand borrowing activity. Here, a number of trees have been felled as preparatory work. Flood plains are usually used for making fire clays. A number of fire clay kilns are working in this area. Generally, clay pits are under air by fine sands and are taken for construction purposes.

Table.1 Some important attributes of inland -sand borrowing sites Sl.No Location 1

Geom. units.

Mulakulam

Remarks

Mz = 0.2 phi

Coarse sand

(long. E 76 29

Channel

SD = 1.054 phi

Poorly sorted

lat. 9 51 )

bank

Ski = 0.1 phi

Positively skewed

KG = 0.546 phi

Very platy kurtic

Mz = 0.4 phi

Coarse sand

SD = 1.075 phi

Poorly sorted

Ski = -0.105 phi

Nearly symmetrical

KG = 0.614 phi

Very platy kurtic

Thonnallur (long. E 76 27

Flood plain

lat. 9 50 ) 3

Size parameter

Vadayar

Inter-

Mz = 0.233 phi

Coarse sand

(long. E 76 26

distributary

SD = 1.039 phi

Poorly sorted

lat. 9 46 )

bar

Ski = 0.10 phi

Positively skewed

KG = 0.594 phi

Very platy kurtic

Mz=Mean size, SD=Standard Deviation, Ski = Skewness and Kg=Kurtosis

Texture of the sand and environment of deposition Texture of the sand samples from the stream channel, flood plains and Inter-distributary areas is presented in Table 1. The analytical results suggest that there is no significant textural variation between channel sand and land sand. Textural parameters indicate that the sediment from the different inland geomorphic environment is derived from the flowing water at a high energy environment and deposition in an alluvial fan complex. The present disposition of these sands in flood plain or inter-distributary areas are the result of aggradations in a faulted trough which led to the formation of Vembanad lake during the quaternary (Narayanan & Anirudhan, 2004). 145

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Environmental consequence of land sand mining Recently, several studies (CESS, 2000) have been conducted related to the sand mining activities on the river basins of Kerala. They have also noticed the environmental consequence of illegal sand mining. We can notice some alluvial sand pits in the flood plains and river terraces of downstream stretch of the Muvattupuzha River. The sand mining pits are usually rectangular with a size range of about 20m2 to 30m2 area with a depth of 3-5m. Major environmental problems associated with land sand mining can be summarized as: z

Affects stability of the river bank; increases bank erosion, channel widening and bank failure

Lowering of water levels in wells, tanks and other drinking water sources

Affects the fertility of soil and hence agriculture of the area, especially paddy, coconut etc

Reduction in canopy and hence change of micro- climate

Affects stability of nearby buildings due to pit capturing

Pollution of the groundwater

Illegal sand mining activities in the lower end of the river basin cause saline water intrusion

Water logged pits act as dangerous sites where loss of life can be expected during wet season

CONCLUSION Available good quality construction sand from different fluvial milieu has prompted many to dig out these sands mainly due to the scarcity and exorbitant cost of river sand. However, the mining of sands from inland areas poses some serious threat to the environment, life and property of the people who live adjacent to the mining sites. Most important point to be noted is that small land holders will be seriously affected by such activities as their settlements and small scale agriculture will be destroyed due to no fault of their own. Therefore, stringent laws are to be enacted to prevent inland mining activities from precarious sites. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this paper by Dr Roy Chacko, of the department of Geology is gratefully acknowledged. We are also thankful to Prof. Prasannakumar, Head of Department of Geology for encouragement and support.

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REFERENCES CESS, 2002. River sand mining from Pathanamthitta district, Kerala, CESS, Thiruvananthapuram, CESS PR â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 42 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2002, 120p Narayanan V and Anirudhan S, 2003. Coastal morphology of Kerala from Vizhinjam to Kochi. Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. 8, No: 1&2, pp: 35-42 Reineck H E and Singh I B, 1975. Depositional sedimentary environments, Springer Verlag, New York, 439p. Soman K, 2002. Geology of Kerala, Geological Society of India, Bangalore, 335p

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RAINWATER HARVESTING â&#x20AC;&#x201C; AN OVERVIEW Bijli B F H R International Union for Health Promotion and Education, Kerala Chapter, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION Water is a vital but scarce resource. Although it covers over 70% of the surface of the globe, only 1% of our water reserves is really available for industrial and domestic use. For this reason preserving the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water and using it properly have become the key pre-requisites for humanityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sustainable development. Rain water harvesting is nothing but an old naturally occurring phenomenon which some well meaning people are trying to revive to overcome the current man made scarcity of fresh water. We all know that rain or snow and sleet are the phenomena through which nature purifies water and supplies the same to the needs of living beings, be they animals or plants or human beings. The precipitation which falls on the land mass is held by it in various manners and forms. According to the character of the receiving body the precipitation is held differently and these are the natural methods of holding and supplying water to lives. It is frozen as ice and held in high altitudes, it exists as snow in cooler areas in temperate regions, as water it flows in rivers and streams, when held in natural troughs water forms lakes, ponds and pools, and it percolates into earth forming aquifers. The precipitation occurs on all places on the earth be it sea or ocean or high mountains, thick jungles, deserts or plains and low lying areas. Only the intensity and the duration of precipitations vary. Man as he progressed in civilization started disturbing the natural phenomena. Population increased stupendously necessitating development and consequent exploitation of water and other natural resources along side. This has adversely affected the availability of water to lives, especially man. Very much like cultivation of specific crops and harvesting them, man has started to feel the necessity to gather more water by learning from the nature the techniques it uses to retain water. These techniques which he has started using are currently called rain water harvesting. Here unlike in agriculture where man plants seeds to harvest a crop, he only uses various techniques to hold the naturally made available water to enable him to use the same at a later time when he needs. 148

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DEFINITION In the present day context, rain water harvesting can be defined as the action of collecting water either directly and holding it in containers like pools, tanks, lakes, or even small concrete or masonry tanks or indirectly by directing it into the ground to improve ground water storage in the aquifer. Rain water harvesting is being claimed by water engineers as a better alternative to conserve and augment the ground water, reduce water table depletion and improve quality of the ground water. PRESENT SITUATION IN KERALA Kerala is popularly called Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own country because of its greenery from south to north and east to west. It had boasted of possessing perennial rivers despite being situated in tropical region. It had its granaries in Nanjinad, Kuttanad, Palghat and Malabar. It had its drinking water sources in shallow dug wells which possessed water even in severe summer. For that matter summers were never as hot as they are being felt now. On attainment of freedom priorities changed. The whole Indian nation looked up to western countries for developing into a modern country. It needed electricity, it needed water for irrigation, modern modes of communication comprising of bridges, roads, and other systems, housing facilities, industries and what not With greed and fervor Keralites intervened and interfered with nature to build a new Kerala The modern Kerala is suffocating and suffering despite attaining remarkable progress in communication systems, housing, electricity, drinking water supply, irrigation systems, industries, health care, education etc. The reason is not difficult to understand. Meddling with the nature has been without understanding the nature. Rivers and streams have dried up, lakes have vanished, forests simply ceased to exist except on paper, wells have dried up, and landslides occur very often, dams have silted up, backwater ecology changed, floods and droughts have become a regular feature, and drinking water scarcity has become the order of the day. We canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t help. We have been led into this by crafty politicians, cunning bureaucrats, and greedy professionals who are but reflections of the highly literate people of Kerala themselves. But still nature has been kind. The rains of Kerala have not failed them as yet. In the worst season in 1987-88, the rain fall was short only by less than 30%; the monsoons have been reasonably regular in their onset, summer rains do occur though at times erratic. But our management of this God given gift has been poor. It has not been looked into with the respect it deserves. Seldom had a Keralite realized the havoc he is causing individually and collectively by ignoring this rare phenomenon he is blessed with. Desertification of Kerala in on the cards. Unless we try to restore the water balance at least to the extent humanly possible the future is going to be very difficult. This can be done only by rain water harvesting. SOME EXAMPLES Before discussing rain water harvesting which has macro and micro dimensions it would be worth while to just see some man made hazards in the water front in Kerala 149

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The Periyar River, just after the famous arch dam at Idukki, is practically dead. Presently the river bed where once the beautiful Periyar majestically flowed is a barren land of shrubs, sand and pebbles. About the river Pampa the less said the better since every time the Sabarimala season is on it is in the news. The Sasthamcottah lake is on the verge of extinction. All the natural springs have ceased to exist as the contributing area has been effectively sealed by development and the Titanium factory. In the river bed at Kakkad in Sabarigiri project area only stones flow not water. The story of Bharathappuzha is a tale of woe. The cases of generally all the rivers and streams are different only in degrees. The ground water in our dug wells has gone down several meters. We, who had not thought of tube or bore wells once upon a time, have started resorting to them heavily in frantic search of water, ignoring the geology of Kerala which has a solid sheet of igneous rock running into several meters at shallow depths. Flash floods cause havoc with loss of life and wealth both agricultural and material. These occurrences have been used only to demand more money from the Central Government. We don’t wish to understand the reason for such occurrences and don’t try avoiding or utilizing them. The hue and cry people make for drinking water as the summer approaches is just a symptom of the rot that has set in Kerala in the water front. EXAMPLES OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN THE PAST In Rajasthan where rains are very less people used to build tanks under their houses. They collect as much rain water as possible which falls in their yard and on the top of their roofs. They take water from these ‘tankas’ for drinking purposes throughout the year. After the building of the Bakra Nangal dam and laying of Indira Gandhi Canal, people have stopped using the Tankas’water. In the old Madras Presidency a system of tanks and canals existed. In this system the rain water was collected in several big tanks and they were interconnected with a well laid out canal system. Across the rivers weirs were built and water was diverted to tanks and ayacuts for storage and cultivation. All this enhanced ground water build up. This was a marvelous system of rain water harvesting. This has been given an unceremonious go by, by our present day stalwarts. What we call minor irrigation system in southern states of India is nothing but a rain water harvesting system. Not only we destroyed the system, it has been a drain of funds in the guise of improving the same. Rain water has been the main source of drinking water in Lakshadeep islands. It is collected in small shallow pools and used for domestic and drinking purposes. The copious rainfall is a blessing for the Lakshadeep inhabitants. MACRO LEVEL RAIN WATER HARVESTING Main reasons for depletion of forest land is increase in population, consequent 150

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urbanization and agriculture, conversion of forest land into cash crop estates and construction of big dams for irrigation and power. This has disturbed the natural vegetation, soil strength, and natural water management However much we may try, it will not be possible to restore the old situation. However since the existing situation is a cause for concern, it is high time we intervene to manage the situation for arresting further deterioration with possible restorations. In hilly areas wherever farm development has taken place, whether in private sector or public sector, appropriate measures should be taken to prevent soil erosion and for soil strengthening to avoid possible land slides. All methods based on agro-forestry and engineering should be judiciously resorted to. Cultivating deep rooted plants which will firm up the soil and other vegetation suitable to the soil and climatological conditions, terracing, bunding, construction of gullies, surface and subsurface dykes may be undertaken. All the measures should be eco-friendly as far as possible. The areas where natural forests were cleared should not be left in the denuded condition. As far as possible they should be planted with trees and vegetation similar to that existed in the original forest. This will make the water falling on the area pass through the surface of the disturbed land in a much more controlled manner enabling it to consolidate loosened up top soil as well as percolate into the ground to increase ground water and develop springs. This will go a long way in restoring some water balance in those areas. Vast areas of forests have been cleared by government for implementing various projects such as construction of dams, roads, urban developments like housing and other facilities. In all theses places ecological restoration in different ways has to be resorted to. In places where dams have been built vast areas are cleared to enable the construction but later left unattended which is a cause even for the high siltation of dams. The cleared forest should be replanted judiciously and restored to old forest condition and ecology as far as possible. It may take decades but leaving uncared for is far worse and it is the cause for great water and ecological imbalance. Restricting the river flow to salvage land on the banks of the rivers is also a cause for downing the water table, destruction of springs, depleting of summer flow in the river, and destroying the river bank vegetation. These types of activities are resorted to in the name of flood control, though initially it might have started as a land grabbing activity with the connivance of government machinery. Water shed management is another area of great importance in rain water harvesting. It is the precipitation that falls in a particular water shed that develops into a stream. Such micro streams from such micro water sheds collectively become macro or major watersheds called river valleys and rivers. We have already discussed about interventions for building dams and consequent destruction of existing systems. However there are many places where we can intervene to preserve, restore and augment the water shed at the micro level to increase sub-surface and surface water. This involves the study of the rainfall data, flows in the water shed, the geology and topography of 151

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the area, followed by design of the appropriate intervention such as gullies, weirs, subsurface dykes etc. MICRO LEVEL RAIN WATER HARVESTING After independence, India was declared as a welfare state. Since then the Govt. of India (GOI) through the state governments and the state governments themselves have been frantically trying to provide drinking water, a basic need of life, to all the citizens. They have tried all tricks up their sleeves, right from building big dams for surface water, intake wells in river courses, water treatment plants, piped distributions systems, water reservoirs, tube wells, bore wells, hand pumps and open dug well etc. But till date they have not been able to cover the whole population. At all India level the average population coverage for safe drinking water is claimed to be 90% and at state level about 65%. Where population is scattered and lives in not easily approachable places and where a water source is not easily available drinking water becomes a problem. In such places if there is sufficient rain we have to save that water at least for drinking purposes. Such a rain water harvesting is a different proposition altogether. LOCAL WATER HARVESTING i. It is a great gift of God that Kerala has an annual rainfall of about 3000mm. In such a situation if we take localized efforts judiciously we can build sizable water storage which can be conveniently used for drinking water purposes. Individuals or groups can implement water harvesting structures such as percolation pits or trenches, percolation tanks, recharge wells, check dams and underground dykes. In farms and institutions where large area of land is available the precipitation should be harnessed by the intervention of one or several of the named measures. The above mentioned methods are for creating Water Bank underground When we take out water through tube well or dug wells or even treat water from a surface storage developed we will get a reasonable perennial supply. Added advantage to Keralites is the good precipitation directly available for nearly 6 months a year. What we have not mentioned here is roof water harvesting which is a direct collection of precipitation and its storage. ii. There are small islands and unapproachable coastal regions where reaching drinking water to people has been a big head ache for authorities and finding that a great misery for the inhabitants. In Gujarat, in areas of high salinity rainwater harvesting has been successfully resorted to. They have constructed big and small ponds as well as small water pools as would be possible in the region, lined them with plastic sheets to avoid percolation and salinity of the soil. We can resort to these methods here also. Apart from this it is also possible to construct individual ferro-cement storage tanks to collect rain water. In high salinity regions it would not be possible to develop ground water. ROOF WATER HARVESTING Roof water harvesting is a good option for providing a secure drinking water in Kerala. 152

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There are several propositions in this area. i. Vast buildings with flat roofs There are vast buildings having flat roofs, the volume of water falling on which run into several thousands of liters. This is just brought down through water pipes and let on the ground to waste. The water can be stored in the rooftop itself or taken to a ground reservoir for storage or taken to percolation wells and ponds if such things are thought of Collecting water in flat roofs is the easiest method of collecting roof water. As is necessary in this method the initial washes have to be utilized to clean and clear the dirt and dust of the roof. The subsequent precipitations should be collected and stored for future use. For example a 1000 sq. meters of roof area for a 30 cm. depth of water will give storage of 300,000 liters of water. This is a monthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s domestic water requirement of 1000 persons at the rate of 10 liters per person. To cite examples for possible flat roof storage spaces I may point out the Trivandrum Engineering College buildings, and the University of Kerala buildings at Karyavattom which are water starved institutions. For that matter there are several buildings including the Secretariat, MLA hostel, Legislature complex etc. in the city and so many similar others in all parts of the state. ii. Roof water harvesting in remote areas which are slope roofed or flat roofed where drinking water in summer is scarce: When the building is flat roofed the collection of rain water becomes easy. The roof top needs small modification for collecting the rain water by having appropriate number of outlets as per design. After allowing for the initial wash to get rid of the dirt and dust the water may be led, through a sand filter if need be, to a storage tank which can be built of masonry or Ferro-cement. When the building is slope roofed we have to provide gutters at the eaves of the roofs. The water falling on the roof will be gathered by the gutters and will fall into the vertical collecting pipes. This will be led into the masonry or Ferro-cement storage tank. A person requires 10 liters of water for consumption needs including drinking. A family of 5 members at the rate of 10 liters per day for 4 months will need a storage tank of 2 meters diameter and 2 meters height. To economize this tank can be built of Ferrocement technique. Tank should contain inlet arrangement for receiving rain water and an outlet tap for collecting water for use and a scour arrangement to clean the tank when needed. It shall have a roof for protection from contamination and weather. The tank should be founded on a firm non-leaking masonry base. If we want to build storage tank for a cluster of houses we can similarly calculate the capacity of the tank and make the necessary piping arrangement to collect the rain water in the tank. Drinking water can be distributed from there. The rain water normally is of good quality and needs minimal treatment Excepting initial costs there is not much expenditure in maintaining the same. Once the system is 153

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installed the cost of production of drinking water through roof water harvesting works out to be negligible. CONCLUSION Rain water is the ultimate resource of freshwater. Rain water harvesting is nothing but collection of rain water directly above surface or charging into the ground to improve ground water. This happens naturally. When such a situation has been disturbed, manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s intervention becomes necessary. It is resorted to store water directly, to conserve and augment the storage of ground water, to reduce the water table depletion, to improve the quality of ground water and to arrest sea water intrusion in coastal areas. As water shortage has become an incessant problem across various states in the country, we look up to nature and draw lessons from it. Rain water harvesting is a good lesson to learn and implement.

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POTENTIALS OF OPEN WATER FISH CULTURE IN NET CAGES IN VEMBENAD LAKE, KERALA Padmakumar K G, Anuradha Krishnan, Shilja Joetreson, Martin Reynold and Bindu L Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kumarakom â&#x20AC;&#x201C;686566

INTRODUCTION With increasing pressure on capture fisheries, due to a variety of reasons, catch from natural fisheries, the world over, is often stretched to their limits. Two main strategies for management of such waters are, enhancement of stocks and adoption of open water fish culture. Stocking of natural waters to compensate poor natural recruitment and restoration of habitats to promote breeding and recruitment are some of the suggested stock enhancement strategies. Culture of commercially important fishes in enclosures in open water bodies is the most accepted strategy that ensures high production by optimal utilization of natural productivity of such waters but will also promote parallel enhancement of resident fisheries (Welcomme and Bartley,1998) . The specific type of intervention and its pursuance, in a given situation, however depends on several biological, ecological, socio-economic factors. Vembenad estuarine system, the biggest of its kind on the west coast of India is uniquely endowed with all attributes of a tropical estuary. Agriculture and fisheries have been the two most important attributes of these wetlands. However, during the last century, this wetland has been subjected to a series of human interventions, all oriented to facilitate and intensify rice cultivation. The earliest of these interventions has been the reclamation of the shallow regions of the lake into rice polders that began during the early part of the last century. Construction of a spillway to drain off floodwaters and a regulator to ward off salinity were the other two important interventions made to facilitate and promote rice cultivation in these wetlands. Of these, the salt water regulator at Thanneermukkom, constructed in 1975 to check tidal ingression of salinity has been almost catastrophic to the estuarine fisheries (KWBS,1989). With total exclusion of saline water south of the barrage and the disruption of the physical and biological continuity of the lake with the coastal waters several estuarine species that used to support a commercial fishery in the lake disappeared from the area. This is evident from the rapid decline in total fish catch south of the barrage (Unnithan et al., 2001; Padmakumar et al.,2002) 155

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On the vast upstream stretches of the lake, that constituted over 50 percent of the lake expanse, the exploited catches has been a mere 7 percent of the total, 507-584 tons per annum (Padmakumar et al., 2002), which obviously indicates the extent of fishery decline. The near decimation of the endemic giant prawn fishery with the physical obstruction of their breeding migration and the poor breeding recruitment of thee commercial species, pearlspot, Etroplus suratensis, with the destruction of mangroves and other fringe vegetation in the lake has been widely documented in several studies.. In the context that inland capture fisheries is exploited close to the sustainable maximum and production levels have reached a plateau due to increased pressure on fishery resource, a variety of enhancement techniques have been sought to increase and maintain production levels. It is in this context that enclosure fish culture attains relevance as an independent approach parallel to enhancement of captures fisheries. MATERIALS AND METHODS Experimental cages were set up in open Vembenad lake near the Pathiramanal island, Muhamma approximately 50 km south of Cochin near the navigational route of the National Waterway No III, at the broadest region of the lake. The location was selected also taking in to consideration the conducive environmental conditions, such as low turbidity, water flow, and open lake situations. Replicated trials were taken up using closed soft type floating cages of size, 4 m3, 3 m3 and 1 m3. These cages were kept in shape by sinkers and anchors, and were ideally suited to the exposed open lake situations with rapid wind and wave action. The cages were moored on to the lake bottom using polypropylene ropes of 300 strand fixed at 30m degree angle to four cement concrete anchors of 25-30 kg . The grow out cages were suspended on bamboo rafts erected 2-3 m apart and were positioned in deeper waters approximately, 4 m deep, with moderate water velocities of 0.02 to 0.05 m/ sec. Cage depth of 1m was invariably kept submerged all times. At the bottom of each of the cages, fine close meshed nets (0.5mm) were fixed to prevent wastage of feed. On considerations of rot resistance, water absorption, braiding easiness, strength and cost, polyethylene and nylon nettings were utilized as cage material. PVC drums and bamboo frames were used as floats and floating platforms. These bamboo rafts also served as work platforms, catwalk and walkways for experimentation and feeding. Mesh size of 18 mm was used for grow out cages in the present study taking in to consideration the size of the stocked fish and better water exchange. Although, round, square or rectangular cages are generally used for cage culture, in the present trials, square and rectangular cages ( L/W= 1:1.2 ) were only used. The rectangular and square cages were placed in such a way that longer sides faced the water current which effectively increased water exchange. Two types of cages were utilized in the study, i) Closed floating soft type and ii) Fixed type cages. Fixed type cages were used for raising fingerlings for stocking and the floating soft type cages secured to floating platform were preferred as grow out cages on considerations of 156

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high wave action encountered during monsoons in the open lake. At the floor of each of the cages, fine nylon mesh cloth (0.5 mm) of 1 m2 was woven as feeding area to prevent wastage of excess feed. To facilitate easy feeding, a mechanical feeder was locally fabricated using 6â&#x20AC;&#x2122; PVC pipe with fiberglass funnel like hopper at the top. The bottom of the feed pipe is linked to the cage bottom, with side-apertures that release feed in to the attached circular feeding trough, so that feed gradually passes in to the feeding tray by gravity through bottom side openings of the feed pipe, as the fish consumes it from the tray. Supplementary feed consisted of Higashi brand commercial sinking pellets of protein 20 percent, and pellet size 2.5x5.0 mm. Water quality parameters around the cage sites were monitored at monthly intervals. Daily feeding was adjusted to size of fish, calculated at 4-5 percent of the biomass at approximately 70-80 percent of satiation amount, and arrived at as the total quantity of feed that the fish consumed in a day. The fish was trained to congregate near the feeding table by making sound, tapping on the bamboo raft. Feed was provided by spreading the feed evenly and gradually in installments; each cage feeding taking at least 15-20 minutes. feeding was performed four times in the day, daily ration, fed in equal in splits. As a protection from sun and for preventing crowding of fishes, the top portion of the cage surface was fully covered by shading cloth. Omnivorous fish species viz., Catla catla,Labeo rohita and Etroplus suratensis were stocked separately as single species culture maintaining a stocking density of 7-10 kg / m2. The average stocking size of fishes was 100 g in the case of Catla and Rohu and 30-60g in case of pearlspots. Critical parameters such as water temperature, light penetration, pH, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient levels and changes in organic carbon content of the bottom sediments were also monitored. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Growth performance of fishes in net cage enclosures in the present study is given in Table.1 . As regards growth rate and survival, the performance of endemic fish, pearlspots, Etroplus suratensis, under the intensive cage system was notably impressive, although, in terms of biomass accrual (g/day) and average size at harvest, the performance of column feeding species such as Rohu (2.81g/day) followed by Catla (1.52 g/day) far excelled the indigenous cichlid E. suratensis (Fig.1). The pearlspots exhibited biomass accrual of 0.84 to 1.07 g/day, however gave the highest harvestable biomass per cage (9 to 35 kg/ m2) with maximum survival( 86.95).

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Table I . Growth performance of fish species in floating cage enclosures in Vembenad lake Cage size

Cage1 (4m3) Cage 3 (4 m3) Cage6 (3 m3) Cage 7 (4 m3) Cage8 (4 m3) Cage 9 (4 m3)

Species Stockin Biomas Period Size at g of stocking Stockin Density (kg) rearing No/m3 (days) Wt Lt gm cm

Size at harvest

Survival Biomas Final FC (%) gain Biomas R g/day (kg)

Catla

7.000

209

102

Wt Lt gm cm 420

Rohu

8.625

222

280

880

80.64

2.70

21.65

6.94

Pearlspot Pearlspot Pearlspot Rohu

3.080

175

62.5

250

70.45

1.07

08.20

4.61

230

182

186

86.95

0.84

38.00

3.05

110

12.00 0 8.500

166

200

100

0.90

24.10

2.91

6.915

254

230

945

82.14

2.81

22.00

4.40

Jan

Feb

71.42

1.52

25.20

3.84

1000 900 800

Weight in gms

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Aug

Sep

Catla catla

Oct

Nov

Dec Month

Labeo rohita

Mar

Apr

Etroplus suratensis

Fig.1 Growth performance of selected fish species in low volume-high density cages in Vembanad lake

The performance of this species under cage culture, in open water farming situation indicates the tremendous potential of low volume high density cage culture in open waters. In a few cases, their retrieval exceeded the initial stocking density owing to colonization and auto stocking of the cages by natural entry seeds from the surrounding waters. After gaining entry, and growing to larger size, utilizing the feed resources, these fishes get trapped in the net cages. The highest yield per cage was observed at highest stocking rates. This indicates that the high stocking rate coupled with heavy feeding is the critical factor that contribute to enhanced production in cage fish farming. The superior performance of pearlspots in cage culture as compared to pond culture situations indicates the versatility of this species for cage culture. This perceptible growth performance of pearlsspots(E. suratensis), to an average size of 250 g in 175 days and maximum size of 400 g during the same period is a remarkable 158

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accomplishment in the context that pearlspots are generally considered slow growing species, growing hardly to 120-130 g in pond fish culture systems (Thampy et al., 1981). This is an omnivorous species feeding predominantly on filamentous algae and detritus, probably the cage enclosures provide favored substratum for the growth of filamentous algae, which formed additional food sources for this species under enclosure system. The algal browsing behavior of pearlspots was further apparent from the observation that net cages stocked with them were almost devoid of algal growth and mesh clogging. This observation indicates that Pearlspots can be employed also as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;scrapingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; species in cage culture systems, similarly like tilapia. In the context that pearl spot is a high valued species, locally fetching almost four times market value as compared to carps, the study points to the immense possibilities of farming of this species under net cage enclosures system in open waters. The study also shows that pearlspots tolerate high density farming situations and can be raised even in low volume cages under higher stocking densities. Also, unlike major carps, Etroplus is not a jumping species; being very gentle, they do not damage the cage netting during harvest. With their laterally compressed body, also they canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t easily escape the net cages. The length weight relationship of this species raised under cage system was compared with morphometric characteristics of identical specimens caught from different culture systems( Fig 3 ). It was evident that the cage-reared fishes attained a higher biomass increment with reference to length, as compared to other culture systems. Apparently, this is a reflection of the superior rearing environment and well being of fishes under the captive rearing situations in net cages. Cage reared fish are often superior to fish reared in other systems and even wild fish in terms of condition factor , appearance and taste (Holt et al, 1978; NORDA,1984) 1000 900 800

Weight (gm)

700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0

Catla catla

Length (cm) W=aLB

Etroplus suratensis

Labeo rohita

Fig. 2 Length-Weight relationship of Cage Cultured fishes (Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Etroplus suratensis) 159

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800

700

600

Weight(g)

500

400

300

200

100

Length(cm)

cage

pond

wild

pen

Fig. 3 Relative performance of Etroplus suratensis under different farming situations

Cage carrying capacity was undoubtedly dependent on the water quality in the open waters. When the carrying capacity is increased beyond the natural purification capacity of the receiving waters, water quality will deteriorate and eventually this might affect the production. Monitoring of critical parameters such as water temperature, light penetration, pH, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient levels in water did not show any significant variation in the culture sites , in the present study(Table 2.) The water temperature in the experimental enclosures varied from 260C to 30 0C in the installation sites, minimum during July and maximum during March. pH fluctuated between 6 and 7 through out the period., although, the observed levels were slightly towards the acidic range, were with in the range favorable to the growth of fishes. The Sechi disc transparency of water in the lake zone fluctuated between 0.58 to 1.70 m, the lowest transparency was characteristic to monsoon season, apparently linked to the monsoonal turbulence and riverine flow. The dissolved oxygen levels were moderate with monthly variation ranging from 5.8 mg/l to 10.10 mg/l for surface, average: and 4 to 9.9 in bottom waters. Cage culture had little effects on the oxygen levels in the receiving waters as its levels were higher at the cage site as compared to that (4-8.4 mg/l) of the open waters outside the cage site. Li and Xu (1988) working on cage culture in Chinese reservoirs, had also showed that little difference exists between dissolved oxygen concentration inside and outside the cages, if rate of exchange is normal and it could be inferred that caged fishes were not constrained by oxygen depletion in such large open waters. Salinity variations were less pronounced, linked to the operation of saline regulator, ranging from nil to 3.5 ppt. Although a higher concentration (6.77 ppt) was reached in the open waters near Pathiramanal during the premonsoon period after the opening of the salinity regulator during May. Soil organic carbon percentage below the cage site 160

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was found to increase perceptibly with the advance of cage culture, and it ranged from 3.1 to 12 per cent during culture. The perceptibly high organic content of bottom sediment as compared to low levels, 0.5 to 2.00 percent prior to the installation of cages indicates that in cage culture, large quantity of feed get deposited at the bottom enriching the sediment. Added to this, the fecal matters that get deposited in the sediment also increase organic content of the soil, probably supporting the view that in oligotrophic water bodies, cage culture can increase organic productivity of the water and parallel enhancement of natural fish production. The low levels of DO in the cage enclosures, as compared to outside environment underlines the need to set optimum limits to stocking density in consonance with the natural capacity of the receiving waters to self purify. Or otherwise, this can lead to eutrophication and high oxygen demand. In locations just outside the cages, the organic carbon percentage was only 0.24 to 1.93 percent during the same period. This highlights the need to maintain an appropriate cage to open water ratio in the water body . The concentration of nutrient elements, monitored both at the cage site and also simultaneously in adjacent locations away from the installation sites revealed that the phosphate concentration perceptibly increase from precage installation period to post installation culture period (Table 2). The nitrite concentration during the precage period also indicated a marginal increase during the culture period. Maximum concentration of nitrite at the installation site was only 4ug/l and highest was 28ug/l observed at the open lake site, indicating that cage culture at such a small scale has little effects on the receiving waters. Nitrate concentration also increased perceptibly at the cage site during the farming season as compared to pre-cage period, its maximum concentration had increased to 15.2 ug/l as compared to 1.76 ug/l at the adjacent open water location at Pathiramanal. The gross primary productivity in the installation area ranged from 30 to 210 mg C/ m 3/ hr, as compared to 24 to 181.80 mg C/m 3/ hr in adjacent open water location indicating the increased contribution of cage culture to primary productivity in the open waters. Table.2 Water quality parameters in the cage culture site, Vembanad lake Month DO(s) DO(b) pH Sepâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;99 10.00 8.60 Oct 7.00 7.00 Nov 6.40 6.00 Dec 7.80 7.00 Jan â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;00 8.00 8.00 Feb 10.10 9.90 Mar 8.00 6.00 Apr 9.60 9.80 May 9.00 8.00 Jun 7.80 7.80

Nitrate Nitrite Phosphate Salinity 0.0007 0.015 0.006 0.119 0.135 0.0006 0.0005 0.06 6.50 0.035 0.02 0.055 0.076 7.00 0.067 0.03 0.02 3.493 7.00 0.00 0.00 3.75 2.73 7.00 0.055 0.35 1.00 1.954 7.00 0.015 0.40 0.45 0.4235 7.00 9.00 3.00 76 2.00031 7.00 13.60 4.00 60 1.842 7.00 1.60 0.20 72 0.17997 7.00 7.00

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Two types of cage materials viz., soft and flexible nylon and polyethelene were utilized in the study. Observations on the durability of net cage materials, in the study indicated that polyethylene was superior to all other materials in terms of strength, high resistance to rotting, and low water absorption. It was also cheap as compared to nylon cages. The only disadvantage was that portions exposed to sun get deteriorated faster. Underwater portions remained in good condition as compared to portions exposed to sun. Hence cages fully retained under water remained in good condition as compared to the ones fixed to the rafts. Rotation of net cages by using duplicate cages at monthly intervals was found to improve durability (Christensen,1995) Experiments on cage culture conducted in India have been mostly exploratory in nature and the yield rates achieved (0.70 to 3.30 kg/m2/month) in most cases not impressive (Govind,1988., Kumaraiah, et.al,1986.,1991; Parameswaran,1993). As compared to these, the results achieved in the present study is impressive and encouraging . Li.(1994.) reported that the average production of fish in cage fish culture in China is 15-20kg/m3. Zainal and Effendi (1998) reported an yield of 1.2 tons of common carp in a cage of 7x7x2.5 m in three months in Sanguling hydropower reservoir in Indonesia. Hu and Liu(1998) reported fish yield as high as 187.5kg/m3 under a small volume high density cage culture in Chinese reservoirs.. This is partly due to the location of the cages, the vastness of the open waters, quality of the feed utilized and the management practices adopted. The supplemental feeds given in most other studies have been oil cakes, rice bran, soybean flour, silkworm pupae etc, not compounded, balanced or complete. The high food conversion efficiency achieved in the present study is much higher than most of the reported studies reported earlier in India. This may be due to the quality of the feed, especially since the commercial feed utilized was nutritionally balanced and water stable. The high production and feed conversion rates may be also due to the high stocking density employed in this study, similar to that followed in Chinese net cage farming system. However, there is a dire need to evolve appropriate species specific and complete feeds, for individual species of fishes using locally available materials so that the feed will be cheaper and efficient. In recent years, there has been reports on the use of circular cages with plastic support structures incorporating no walkway. Instead the cages are dependent on boats for maintenance. The feeding of fishes instead of being done manually is by automatic cage mounted machines fixed with timer devices, which considerably reduce labor costs and improve profitability. In the present trial, a simple fish feeder was designed for feeding which reduced the feed losses considerably. The main objective of the present study was to identify the most suitable and economic species for net cage farming. Hitherto we have been experimenting with either the fast growing carps or hardy predatory species. In the present study, the impressive growth performance pearlspots, an omnivorous species endemic to Kerala waters, indicate the tremendous potential of cage farming of this species. In the present study, it was demonstrated that as compared to nylon cages, polyethylene cages are more durable and cheaper The bamboo raft system was also demonstrated to 162

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be suitable to harbor cages. The studies on the environmental characteristics of the lake waters immediately adjacent to the cages did not show any deterioration in water quality, even during the season when the tidal circulation was hindered during seasons of closure of the Thnneermukkom barrage. This indicates the resilience of this vast water body to ordinary levels of organic enrichment. Nevertheless, fish excreta and feed wastes released from cages undoubtedly stimulated algal production in waters outside the cages. This has not however, led to any organic pollution due to good water exchange and water mixing and the self-purification facilitated in such open waters. The selected mesh size of the cages ie., 18mm apparently facilitated enough water exchange. Beveridge and Stewart (1998) reported that 80-90% of P from intensely managed Tilapia cages was lost to the environment in lake Kariba. It has been observed that approximately around 30% of C, 20 % of N and 60% of p inputs were lost in solid forms from trout cages in Scotland (Merican and Philips,1985). With better management practices, Costa -Pierce and Roem (1990), reported a lower level of 5% of C, 3.5% of N and practically no P loss from cages in Sanguline reservoir, West java. It has been reported that in trout cages with the best feed with FCR 1.5 to 2 the total P loss per ton of fish produced do not exceed 17 to 25 per kg indicating that by adopting judicious feeding and species specific diets , it is possible to reduce feed wastage and oxygen demand in the water body. And in fact it appears that such enrichment helped considerably to improve productivity of receiving waters. However this observation do not foreclose the essential need to rationalize limits to commercial cage operations with the popularization of the enclosure farming technology in waters like Vembenad which has been put to a variety of uses. Although cage culture contributes over 10 percent of inland aquaculture globally (Beveridge,1996), despite abundant water resources, cage farming has not been taken roots in any commercial scale in India. It is in this context that the findings of this study assume significance. However the major difficulty encountered is the lack of Governmental policies for short term leasing of the open water bodies for fish culture. There is a dire need to demonstrate and disseminate the technology to farmers, fishers and the extension personnel of the development departments. At the same time, the negative consequences of over development should also be considered underlining the need to set limits to intensification. What is essentially needed is an integrated resource management perspective considering the environmental, social and economic ramifications with full participation of resource users. The popularization of the technology without compromising on other uses of these wetlands can not only increase fish production but also generate employment and livelihood opportunities to people and can bring about significant changes in the socio economic milieu of the region. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi for providing financial grant for the study. Thanks are due to Dr.K.V.Peter , Vice Chancellor Kerala Agricultural University, Dr.C.K.Peethambaran Director of Research 163

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and Dr.P.J.Joy , Associate Director of Research, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Kumarakom for constant encouragement and support. REFERENCES Bevridge M C M, 1996. Cage culture 2nd Edition. Fishing News Books Ltd., Oxford.346p. Bevridge M C M and Stewart J A, 1998. Cage culture : Limitations in Lakes and Reservoirs. Inland fishery enhancements, Petr,T (ed.) FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No, 374,.FAO, Rome. pp 263-278 Christensen M S, 1995. The durability of different fish cage materials and the pros and cans of cage rotation. Naga 18(2), pp:20-21 Costa-Pierce B A and Roem C M, 1990. Waste production and efficiency of floating feed use in floating cages in a eutrophicated tropical reservoir. In: Reservoir Fisheries and Aquaculture development for Resettlement in Indonesia (Coastapierce, B.A. O.Soemarwoto, eds.): 257-271. ICLARM Tech.Rep.23 ICLARM, Manila. 378p. Govind B V, 1988 Culture of catla(Catla catla) in floating net cages. Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 22:517-522. Holt R S, Cobb B F and Strawin K, 1978. Organoleptic and biochemical comparisons of cage raised and wild striped mullet( Mugil cephalus). In: Proc. First Annual Tropica land Subtropical Fisheries Technical Conference. B.F.Cobb and A.S.Stockton (eds.) Texas A&M University, 473-495. Hu Baotong and Liu Yeping, 1998. The Development of Cage aquaculture and its role in Fishery enhancement in China. Inland fishery enhancements, Petr,T (ed.)FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No, 374,.FAO, Rome. pp 255-262. Kumaraiah P, Parameswaran S and Chakrabarthy N M, 1991. New perceptions in cage fish culture with reference to the growth and production of silver carp(Hypophthalmichthyz molitrix val.) in cages . In. Proc. The institute of Fisheries management, Cage fish rearing symposium, University of Reading 26-27 March 1980. Jansen Services, London. 23-49 Kumaraiah P, Parameswaran S and Sukumaran P K, 1986. Culture of Tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (peters) in cages. Proc.Natl. Symp.Fish & Env., 145-147 KWBS, 1989. Kuttanad Water Balance Study. Vol.I. Main report, BKH Consulting Engineers, Bongaetres ,Kingdom of Netherlands. 164

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Li S F and Xu S L, 1988. Fish culture and capture in reservoirs. Shangahai Science and Technique Publisher. 398pp. Li Sifa, 1994. Fish culture in cages and pens. In Sifa Li and Jack Mathias(Eds) Freshwater fish culture in China, Principles and Practices. Elsevier, Amsterdam.445p. Merican Z O and Philips M J, 1985. Solid waste production from rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson cage culture. Aquacult. Fish. Manage. 16:55-69. NORDA, 1984. Rainbow trout cage farming for Northern lake Huron. A pilot project ministry of Natural Resources. Canada, 69 pp. Padmakumar K G, Anuradha Krishnan, Radhika R, Manu P S and Shiny C K, 2002. Open water fishery Interventions in Kuttanad, Kerala with reference to Fishery decline and Ecosystem changes. In .Riverine and Reservoir Fisheries of India(Eds) Boopendranath, M.R.,Meenakumari, B,,Joserph,J., Sankar,T.V., Pravin,P & Edwin,L Society of Fishery Technologists (India) Cochin. P. 15-24 Paramewaran S, 1993. unconventional aquaculture systems : Cages and Pens. In Summer institute on Recent advances in Freshwater aquaculture. S.Tripathi(Ed) Central institute of Freshwater Aquaculture Bhuvaneswar. Pp.58-69 Thampy D M, Abraham S E, Mrithunjayan P S, Jose M M and Ranjendran C G, 1981. Studies on fish culture along with paddy in pokkali fields. All India Symp.Freshwater Biology, Salem . pp 148-159 UnnithanV K, Bijoy Nandan S and Vava C K, 2001. Ecology and fisheries investigations in Vembanad lake. CICFRI, Bull. No.107, Central inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute, barrackpore, West Bengal, 38p. Welcomme R L and Bartley D M, 1998. An evaluation of present techniques for the enhancement of Fisheries. Inland fishery enhancements. Petr,T (ed.) FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No,374,.FAO, Rome. Pp 1-35 Zainal S and Effendi P, 1998. Implementation of Extension for net-cage Aquaculture in Indonesian Reservoirs: Pitfalls and Prospects. Inland fishery enhancements,Petr,T(ed.) FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No,374,.FAO, Rome.pp 245-254.

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A STUDY ON THE SINUOSITY OF PANNAGON THODU OF MEENACHIL RIVER, KOTTAYAM - A REMOTE SENSING AND GIS BASED APPROACH Aswathy M V, Vijith H and Satheesh R Centralized RS & GIS Facility School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam

INTRODUCTION The Rivers and streams are important not only as the major conveyor of the products of continental denudational process, like sediments and water, to the major sinks (oceans and lakes), but also as a place for a wide range of human activities, especially for transportation, recreation, irrigation, fishing, water and energy supply. Knowledge of the structure, energetics and dynamics of a river is of immense value in understanding the flow characteristics of the river and its management and protection (Ebisemiju, 1994). The flowing pattern and the development of drainage network of a river or stream in an area is influenced by several variables like land use/land cover changes, vegetation, hydrology, geology, geomorphology and slope, through which it flows. If any one of the variables is altered, changes occur in other dependent variables, leading to changes in the river behavior. As stream moves farther from the source through various types of terrain, it attains different patterns from straight to meandering and braided pattern. Practically, the straight-line path of a river is not possible because it is affected by a number of causative factors which make the river to deviate from the straight-line path. Straight streams possess essentially straight banks with less sinuosity, but meandering streams have greater sinuosity. Sinuosity is the degree to which a river departs from a straight line. The distance between two points on the stream measured along the channel divided by the straight line distance between two points is called the sinuosity ratio (Brice, 1984; Ebisemiju, 1994) which is used to determine whether a channel is straight or meandering. Studies on the river channel pattern, mechanics, and dynamics in this area are scarce. Most of the studies are mainly concentrating on sedimentation characteristics or meandering pattern of rivers. The Pannagon Thodu, a major tributary of the Meenachil river shows higher sinuosity than any other tributary. It is exhibiting high degree of 166

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sinuosity with complex and convoluted loops with large area of flood plain on either side when compared to the River Meenachil and the other major tributaries of the same. The local name of this stream (Pannagon Thodu) itself indicates its high degree of sinuosity as the local people believe that the stream is flowing like a snake. Hence an attempt has been made to understand the pattern of the channel sinuosity of the Pannagon Thodu along with the factors that determine the stream or river patterns and dynamics, ultimately to help the watershed managers to modify the existing strategies and methods for better development. STUDY AREA The Meenachil River, one among the 41 west flowing rivers in Kerala, is formed by several streams originating from the Western Ghats. Pannagon Thodu is a major tributary of Meenachil River flowing through the Mattakara and Kidangoor region of Kottaym district between 760 35’ to 760 42’ east longitude and 90 33’ to 90 40’ north latitude and has a drainage basin area of 63.41 Km2 (Fig. 1). The basin is underlain by hard crystalline rocks of Pre-Cambrian origin and intruded Dolerite dykes. The basin has several denudational hills, residual mounds, valley fills with flood plains in the lower portions near the confluence with the Meenachil River. The climate of the area is tropical monsoon and experience both South-West (JuneSeptember) and North-East (October-December) monsoon. The area comprises mostly agricultural lands and no forest land. Major crop include Rubber, Arecanut, Plantain, Pineapple, Coconut and Tapioca. However, rubber occupies a major portion of the area. The Pannagon Thodu is perennial in nature with a well developed drainage network showing both trellis and dendritic drainage pattern. METHODS Base map of the study area was prepared from the toposheets of 1967 (1: 50,000). Factors selected for studying sinuosity of Pannagon Thodu were riparian vegetation, hydrology, lithology, structure, geomorphology and slope, in addition to the morphometric analysis, for assessing the structural set up of the study area. Base maps for each theme were prepared from the toposheet and satellite imagery (1992, 2004), and from information obtained from field observations. Each thematic map was digitized with AutoCAD 2000 and then converted into GIS environment for further analysis. All data collected were analyzed in the GIS environment using ArcGIS 8.3 software. The influence of various factors over sinuosity was studied using the overlay analysis performed in the GIS environment. Finally, the digital elevation model of the study area was also prepared from the contour map, to carry out overlay analysis with river pattern. In order to calculate the sinuosity index, three reaches were selected (Fig. 1). From each stretch, the distance between two points along the channel and straight line distance between these points were measured and tabulated. Sinuosity index or sinuosity ratio 167

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Fig. 1: The location, stream network and the channel segments studied for sinuosity of Pannagon thodu basin of the Meenachil river in Kerala. was also calculated. Leopold system of classification for sinuosity index was used for distinguishing straight, sinuous and meandering, on the basis of sinuosity value 1.0, 1.3 and more than 1.3 respectively. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Rivers and streams are naturally sinuous for much of their length. It has been widely reported that the distance of any river flowing straight, does not exceed ten times its width at that point (Schumm, 1984). The flow pattern of a river is influenced by many. 168

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Interrelated factors, and any change in these factors can cause changes in the river pattern and processes. The factors analyzed and the results obtained are given below: Channel Sinuosity Stream channel sinuosity is generally defined as the degree to which a river channel departs from the straight line. Different types of sinuosity indicess have been proposed by Leopold et al (1964), Schumm (1984), Muller (1968) and Begin (1985). In the present investigation, the index employed is the length of a reach as measured along the channel divided by the airline distance between the two end points of the reach (Begin, 1985). The 2.5 km. length spatial scale was employed to view the small number of bends in each reach. The sinuosity of the sampled reaches range from 1.4 to 1.7 with an average value of 1.6 (Table-1). The highest value is noted for segment ‘B’, followed by segment ‘C’ and segment ‘A’. Sinuosity values have been used to specify meandering. Leopold et al. (1964) distinguished between straight, sinuous and meandering stream on the basis of sinuosity value of 1.0, 1.3 and more than 1.3. Though, Schumm (1984) and Brice (1984) have adopted another system for defining meandering stream as a sinuous stream, Leopold system of classification was employed in the present study. It is noted that no true meanders are found along the Pannagon Thodu, but it is characterized by a very irregular sinuous pattern dominated by compound and convoluted loops as shown in Fig.2. It is noted that all types of deviation can be found in the river from a straight line path. Table 1: Sinuosity index of three segments of the Pannagon thodu

Segments

Channel length

Valley length

Sinuosity index

2.57

1.83

1.4

3.39

1.95

1.7

2.73

1.75

1.6

Average

2.90

1.84

1.6

Factors controlling channel sinuosity a. Riparian vegetation Riparian vegetation system is the interface between aquatic and adjacent terrestrial ecosystem influencing the flow of river. The overall assessment of the riparian vegetation showed that it is abundant in the middle stretch of the river than in the other regions. It stabilizes the tortuous reaches which are inherently unstable, by trapping sediments in their well developed root system. Andrews (1984) showed that the high 169

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Fig. 2: Typical sinuous reaches of Pannagon thodu of Meenachil river in Kerala density of riparian vegetation account for relatively short length of the straight reaches and high frequency of compound and convoluted reaches. In Pannagon thodu, riparian vegetation is found along the loops or where sinuosity is very high .The abundance of riparian vegetation in these complex loop regions might have great influence over the development of sinuosity (Fig. 3) in the Pannagon Thodu.

Fig. 3: The result of the overlay analysis performed in GIS of the structure and riparian vegetation characteristics with river channel of the Pannagon thodu of Meenachil river in Kerala.

b. Hydrology The velocity and discharge were calculated to understand the hydrology of the river at three locations, upper zone, middle zone and lower zone.The velocity of a stream is 170

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the speed at which water moves down the channel in a direction perpendicular to the channel cross section why discharge is the amount of water passing through a given cross section of a stream in unit time. The average velocity and discharge were found to be 0.54 m/s and 4.12 m3/s respectively. The maximum velocity was found at zone1 followed by zone-2 and zone-3, while the discharge was found to increase downstream, due to the additional runoff from the intervening catchment areas (Table-2). Schumm (1984) suggested that increase in discharge will result in decrease in sinuosity. However, in the case of Pannagon Thodu, the discharge and sinuosity were high when the three zones were analysed together, showing that discharge does not influence the sinuosity of Pannagon Thodu significantly. Table 2: Measurement of velocity and discharge Zone

Velocity (m/s)

Discharge (m3 / s)

Upper

0.55

3.55

Middle

0.54

4.00

Lower

0.49

4.80

Average

0.54

4.12

c. Geology Geology includes both lithology and structure. Regional geology of the Meenachil River basin points towards the Precambrian origin of basement rock (Charnockite) and basic intrusive dykes of Paleocene age. Major rock types found in the study area are Charnockite, Dolerite and Quartzite. It is observed that the Dolerites and Quartzite are cross cutting or traversing through the Charnockite with a specific trend of NNWSSE and NW-SE. The overlay analysis performed with lithology and drainage network of the area using GIS showed that the river is more sinuous in the middle and lower reaches, where thick alluvium column is more, indicating minimal influence of the underlying lithology on the sinuosity of Pannagon Thodu. The major geologic structures observed in the area were joints, minor folds and faults. It is found that the area is a part of a major fold system (Anticline), with a fold axis of NNW-SSE trend (Fig. 3). The joints and other major structural features observed in the study area also show the same trend. The overlay analysis of structure and drainage networks using GIS showed that the entire drainage basin is controlled by the younger deformation phase and the whole region might have got uplifted in the past. This might have influenced more on the river to flow sinuously than any other factor, to reach its destination. The field observations also supported the finding by the incised nature of the river. The misfit behaviour of river and lateral shift that occurred due to the uplift might have taken place during the Pleistocene - recent time (Soman 2002). 171

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d. Geomorphology The major geomorphic features noted in the study area are denudational hills, residual mounds, denudational slope, flood plains and valley fills. The relationships between the geomorphology and drainage system were established by overlaying the drainage map on the geomorphology map using GIS (Fig. 4). The analysis shows that the tectonic

Fig. 4: The result of the overlay analysis of geomorphology with river channel obtained in the Pannagon thodu of Meenachil river in Kerala.

activities which might have taken place in the northwestern region of the study area might have resulted in development of land forms like denudational hills and residual mounds. These land forms might have forced the river to follow a highly sinuous path with high sinuosity index. e. Slope Slope of the stream channel is one of the most significant parameters studied to understand the river behaviour. Rosgen (1994) suggested that the river will have a tendency to develop straight channels, when the slope is more. When the slope increases, the velocity of the river also increases and water reaches the lower region quickly. In the Pannagon Thodu basin area five slope classes were obtained i.e., Very gentle (050), Gentle (5-150), Moderate (15-250), High (25-350), and Very high (>350). The overlay analysis done using GIS, of slope and drainage of the river, shows that more sinuosity exists at the gentle slope areas (5-150) where they tend to erode their sides and move back and forth across the land area (Fig. 5). Major changes in the morphology of the river was observed in the lower slope class regions, indicating the influence of slope on the sinuosity. 172

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Fig. 5: The result of the overlay analysis of slope classes with river channel obtained in the Pannagon thodu of Meenachil river in Kerala.

Digital Elevation Model In order to analyse further the effect of various factors over the drainage network of Pannagon Thodu, digital elevation model of the terrain was developed using ArcGIS 8.3 (Fig. 6). The results indicate that the sinuous nature of the river may be mainly influenced by the underlying geology and geomorphology, particularly the structure (joints, folds and faults) and the geomorphological features than any other factor.

Fig. 6: The result of the analysis of the digital elevation model (DEM) of the terrain and the drainage of Pannagon thodu of Meenachil river in Kerala. 173

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CONCLUSION Modern technologies like GIS and remote sensing act as efficient tools to examine various spatial relationships at a variety of scales that would not have been possible in field work or traditional aerial photography. Temporal changes can also be examined effectively as sequential images providing insights into processes and patterns in river morphology. Stream channels are important features of watershed and landscape, serving as conduits for moving water and sediments from side slopes through the watershed system to the mouth of the watershed and eventually to the ocean. Meenachil River is a medium-sized west flowing river in Kerala, and Pannagon Thodu is one of its major tributaries, showing unusual flow pattern with high sinuosity. Understanding of the sinuosity of Pannagon Thodu and the delineation and identification of the controlling factors for the sinuosity help us to know more on the river patterns and dynamics of various tributaries in the Meenachil River basin. The geologic structural set up of the drainage basin is complex with high structural control characterized by low infiltration and high runoff. Sinuosity of Panngon Thodu appears to be controlled by major factors like geomorphology, structural features and slope. In view of the structural set up and neotectonic activities of the region, it can be concluded that NNW-SSE trending and upliftment of the drainage basin might have been responsible for the entire morphologic changes of Pannagon Thodu and the drainage basin. Lithology and hydrology might not have influenced much the sinuous nature of the Thodu. However, the riparian vegetation patches observed in the highly sinuous stretches could have helped in stabilizing its banks. REFERENCES Andrews E D, 1984. Down stream effects of flaming gorge reservoir on the Green River, Colorado and Utah. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 97: 101223 Begin Z B, 1985. A note on the relationship between flow energy and stream sinuosity. GSI Curr. Res., 5; 77-78. Brice J, 1984. Meandering pattern of the White river in Indiana – An analysis. In Fluvial Geomorphology (ed. Morisawa, MO), pp – 178-200 Ebisemiju F F, 1994. The sinuosity of alluvial river channels in the seasonally wet tropical environment: Case study of River Elmi, South Western Nigeria. Catena, 24: 13 – 25. Leopold L B, Wolman M G and Miller J P, 1964. Fluvial process in geomorphology. W. H. Freeman Co., San Francisco: 522 pp. Muller E, Decamps H and Dobson M K, 1993. Contribution of space remote sensing to river studies. Freshwater Biology. 29: 301-312. Rosgen D L, 1994. A classification of natural rivers. Catena:22, 169-199. Schumm S A, 1984. Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of drainage systems. Fluvial Geomorphology. Pp- 298-309. Soman K K, 2002. Geology of Kerala. Geological Society of India, Kerala. 174

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Environmental Sanitation and Health

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ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION STATUS OF ANCHUTHENGU – A CASE STUDY OF A COASTAL PANCHAYAT IN SOUTHERN KERALA

Shyni D S, Joy Elamon* and Babu Ambat** Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala. * CAPDEK, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram ** Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram.

INTRODUCTION In Kerala, there has been a growing emphasis on decentralized and participatory planning in recent years. In health and sanitation planning sectors, there lacks sufficient and appropriate information for sound decision-making. Though there are some information database on health and sanitation at District and State level, Panchayat level information is completely lacking in Kerala. Sanitation has been gaining multidimensional importance and hence it seems more feasible to look at sanitation as a package of services and actions which taken together can influence the health of a person and the community. The scope and content of the term ‘sanitation’ comprehend different components. They are universally accepted as the components of sanitation and they include (i) Safe disposal of human excreta (ii) Safe handling of drinking water (iii) Personal hygiene (iv) Home sanitation and food hygiene (v) Solid waste disposal (vi) Disposal of waste water (vii) Market area improvement (viii) School sanitation (ix) Hospital sanitation. (x) Slaughter House waste management. STUDY AREA Anchuthengu Panchayat of Chirayinkeezhu thaluk and Thiruvananthapuram district is located between 80 35’ and 80 42’ N latitude and 760 44’ and 760 45’S longitude and has a total area of 3.36 sq.km. The Panchayat consists of 9 wards. This region is endowed with sandy coastal plains with water table up to 3 meters in low land and above 25 meters in few places. Almost all regions except that of 9th ward is flat low land. The entire length of this coast has a barrier beach and is between the sea and Anchuthengu Kayal. The main sources of income of the people are fishing and coir related activities. The total population of Anchuthengu is 16527 (8465 males and 8062 females) with a population density of 4918. OBJECTIVES •

To collect and collate information on various aspects of environmental sanitation 177

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prevailing in the area and to prepare an environmental sanitation status report. â&#x20AC;˘ To formulate an action plan for environmental sanitation programme with community participation for a coastal Panchayat - Anchuthengu as a pilot model. METHODOLOGY To identify the problems related to the sanitation and peoples preferences, a need assessment survey was conducted for the whole Panchayat using a questionnaire prepared for the purpose. Data regarding solid and liquid waste emanating from various sources like individual households, residential colonies, market areas, slaughterhouses, ice plants and fish processing units were also collected. The structural details of public toilets and comfort stations at beaches and market places were collected. The information thus collected has been analyzed for further planning and management aspects. A comprehensive action plan for the total environmental sanitation of the Panchayat, incorporating the components of sanitation was developed and was implemented in representative areas of the Panchayat to develop the Panchayat as a model. RESULTS The survey identified that there are about 2979 households in the Panchayat and the number of households in each ward comes to about 280-360 with an average of 5 members in a family. Latrines Details latrines available in the Panchayath are shown in table 1. 1360 latrines were there in the Panchayat which include two-community latrine of Pay and Use type. The houses at 6, 7 and 8th Wards have hanging type latrines, which is totally unsanitary. Most of the houses have their latrine outlets open to the water body. The survey also found that 129 latrines constructed in the Panchayat are using it to store nets, fish baskets, coconut etc. There are about 1600 households without latrines. At least there are few people who think latrine as not much important. Drinking Water Sources The facilities available of drinking water are shown in table 2. Out of the 2979 houses, 602 have their own well and 382 houses have own tap. Among the 679 wells in the area, 404 wells do not have parapet wall. Majority of the wells do not have platform or drainage facilities. The water supply through taps is only on alternate days. Though surrounded by water, shortage of safe drinking water is the major problem in this Panchayat

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Table 1. Latrine facilities available in the Panchayat Ward

Total No of houses

Latrine facility Total No.of latrines

ESP

Single Pit

Two Pit

Hang ing

Abandon ed

No Latrine

152

334

182

119

446

117

285

336

296

327

228

155

280

222

157

358

220

117

317

170

134

Total

2979

1360

140

457

655

329 12

212 283 201

138 147

129

1619

Table 2. Drinking water facilities available Ward

Total No of houses

Sources of Drinking water Own well

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total

334 446 285 336 296 327 280 358 317 2979

52 71 54 35 16 60 131 129 54 602

Comm on Well 1 4 3 3 2 4 18 23 19 77

Own Tap

Common Tap

68 55 15 15 5 63 72 71 18 382

23 15 5 7 8 26 26 20 48 178

Well without Parapet

1 26 8 80 69 50 170 404

Household Sanitation The study revealed that only 229 houses among the 2979 houses in the Panchayat have smokeless choolah. Exactly 2750 houses have choolah that emits large volume of smoke. There were no facilities for the management of solid and liquid waste in the households. Drainage channel for wastewater or storm water was not present. The wastewater from the houses and commercial establishments ultimately drain into the 179

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main road. The average generation of degradables from a household is found to be 420gms and a good amount seems to be fish waste. 58% of the households simply throw the waste outside their houses. Among this, some put waste in coconut pits but never cover it by soil. About 23% of the households burn the waste in their premises and 17% of the houses throw the waste to seashore. 2% of the households dump the waste on roadside. Markets The Panchayat has 2 public markets. In addition 2 fish markets also functions during evenings at roadside after 3 PM. Market waste consists of mainly fish waste and package materials like plantain leaves, paper etc. All these waste are collected and dumped in the corner and waste water drained from fish baskets are causing serious environmental problems. Hotels and Restaurants There are only few hotels and restaurants in the Panchayat but small pan shops and bunks are common. The waste generated from the hotels and restaurants are not managed properly. They just dump the waste on roadside or the canal/kayal nearby. Health Institutions The health infrastructure in Anchuthengu consists of one Community Health Centre, one Government Ayurvedic dispensary and a Government homeo dispensary. A few private medical practitioners are also there in Anchuthengu. But this coverage of health care facilities is not adequate compared to the demand. The health status of the area shows that most of the people suffer from Asthma problems, skin diseases, allergic problems, Urinary Tract Infections etc. The waste generated in these hospitals and clinics are mainly bandages, cotton plasters etc. Other Environmental Problems The accumulation of coir pith is one of the major problems in the wards 6 to 9 while fish wastes are causing major problems in the coastal areas. The other sources of waste generation in the Panchayat include marriage hall and other offices. The wastes generated from these sources include plastic cups, paper plates, used papers etc. The workers burn all these wastes in the premises itself. DISCUSSION A comprehensive action plan was prepared incorporating all the components of Total Sanitation. Latrines From the study it was identified that there are still 1619 households without latrine 180

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and they are adopting open defecation. Wards 1,2,3,4,and 5 are identified for constructing community latrines and the remaining areas can be provided with individual latrines. Womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Complex Construction of exclusive Sanitary Complex for Women by providing total facilities for water supply, bathing, sanitation and washing is suggested. The areas identified for this purpose are near the coir retting samithies located in ward 7 and 8. Solid Waste Management Major share of the solid waste generated from households, markets, hospitals, hotels and small-scale industries like Coir Processing units etc. is degradable waste and it can be managed through composting process, either windrow composting or vermicomposting. The Solid Wastes generated in hotels can be managed through constructing a compost plant of size Im x Im x 0.5m by the hotel owners themselves. The coir pith can be converted into high value compost using a fungus namely Pleurotous sajor-caju. Since, the Neighbourhood groups are very active in the Panchayat, composting units either for every Neighbourhood Groups or 3-4 Neighbourhood Groups together is proposed. Two women from the Neighbourhood Groups can be given the responsibility to operate, maintain and manage each unit and they can even get a nominal honorarium for this by selling the compost produced through this programme. Hotel and Restaurant Sanitation The Action plan suggests Panchayat level orientation training to hotel managers and workers related to hotel sanitation. It is also suggested that small stickers showing the importance and activities to be carried out for maintaining health and hygiene in hotels, may be prepared by the Panchayath and exhibited in the hotels. Waste Water Management Waste Water generation in the Panchayat is from different sources like households, markets, hotels, hospitals, urinals of schools, iceplants etc. To tackle the problem of wastewater accumulation, construction of soakage pits at various generation sources is suggested. Fish Processing There are no fish processing units in the Panchayat but one of the aspects to be considered is related to the drying of fishes. The fishes are salt dried openly in the sand, roadsides or public places in a very unhygienic environment. So a common cemented platform for fish drying inside or outside the market is suggested in the action plan. His can be operated by collecting a nominal service charge from the users. 181

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Drinking Water, Other water usages Various options for water management and providing drinking water in the area are suggested in the action plan. i)

Rain Water harvesting structures especially Roof Water Harvesting structures can be constructed in selected places like schools, colonies etc.

ii)

Construction of public bathrooms near to the wells is suggested to avoid open bathing near the wells. The wastewater from these bathrooms should be drained off through a soakage pit.

iii)

The quality analysis of tap water shows that the water is not pure. So, it is essential to boil the water before use.

iv)

Topographically Ward 9 is different from other places and the water run off is very high in these areas. Implementation of proper soil and water conservation programmes with Community Participation, in this ward will help to increase the ground water recharging.

A centralized water supply can be designed drawing water from the Kayal. But one of the deciding factors to achieve this objective is the willingness of the community to keep the Kayal water clean and hygienic.

Pilot scale models were developed for a few components like solid waste management including coir pith composting, wastewater management through soakage pits etc, at selected neighbourhood groups. The major objective of this is the dissemination of the concept and technology among the community â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a way of capacity building among the community. CONCLUSION The major reason for the poor sanitation and health status of Anchuthengu Panchayat are the low economic status of the people. In addition to this geographical, topographical, behavioural and cultural constraints are also there. Many of the problems confronting the Panchayat are due to the physical environment. The environmental factors remain as a major threat for health and sanitation. The control of infectious diseases depends to a large extent on safe drinking water supply, provision of basic sanitation, waste management, proper shelter and better awareness of hygienic behaviour. When we look the health subject in a holistic concept, it can be seen that, it requires the integrated activities of many of the development sectors, departments and agencies. This necessitates the convergence of programmes of various development departments and agencies.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND HEALTH STATUS OF WASTE COLLECTORS OF KOLLAM CORPORATION AND THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN WASTE RECOVERY AND REDUCTION

Thomas George and Prakasam V R Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom Thiruvananthapuram – 695581, Kerala

INTRODUCTION The solid wastes produced in a municipal area consist mainly of plastic, glass, metal and paper. Such solid wastes are considered to be “Solid assets” which are recovered directly and indirectly for reuse and recycling (Fureday, 1992). The recycling of urban municipal waste in India, as in many other developing countries, takes place through the system of waste pickers, scrap and waste traders, which form an unorganised sector. The primary step in this is waste collection for which waste collectors play an important role. Waste collectors are those who, quite simply pick up the recyclable inorganic waste and put it into the recyclable chain. Recovery of resources also takes place with the help of these waste collectors. In fact, proper municipal solid waste management could call for material recovery and recycling, reuse and reduction of solid waste. Despite the health hazards, the resource recovery is undertaken by scavengers and itinerant waste collectors at the source of waste generation itself. Several studies on the involvement of waste pickers and the connecting links in the chain of waste collection have been carried out in developing countries and India (Dhanalakshmi and Iyer, 1999; Salaria, 2002; Ahsan, 1999; Viswanathan and Tränkler 2003; Furedy, 1992 and Soerjani, 1984). In Kerala similar investigations have been undertaken in municipalities of Thiruvananthapuram, Vadakara, Palakkad, Thrissur and Alappuzha (Menon et al., 1994; 1995). However, no such studies have been made from Kollam corporation. In the present investigation an attempt has been made to assess the role of waste collectors in the recovery and reduction of solid wastes in Kollam Corporation and to find out the socio-economic and health status of waste collectors/rag pickers. MATERIAL AND METHOD In the present investigation, a socio-economic and health survey, based on a 183

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questionnaire for rag pickers (primary waste collectors) was carried out at random in Kollam corporation area during August – November 2003. The residential areas of the primary waste collectors, their work place and their selling shops were visited regularly by the researcher and one hundred rag pickers were randomly selected and interviewed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It was understood from the survey that there were about 450 – 500 people engaged in the collection of recyclable wastes in the corporation area of Kollam Social Status Age of waste collectors: Rag pickers belonging to young, middle and old ages were found engaged in the job. Out of 100 rag pickers, 18 belonged to the age below 25 years. The big majority of rag pickers (70%) belonged to the age group of 26 – 50 years. Only 10% belonged to the age group 51 to 75 years and 2% belonged to the age above 75 years. Sex of waste collectors: The survey result showed that rag pickers of both sexes were engaged in waste collection. But majority of them belonged to male sex (74%). The women rag pickers (26%) replied to a query that they did this work as their spouse’s income was not sufficient to meet their family needs. Educational qualification: Survey revealed that 52% of rag pickers were literate having educational qualifications up to degree level, 37% were below SSLC, 7% up to SSLC and 5% up to Pre Degree. There were 1 graduate and 2 diploma holders among the group. Forty eight percentage of rag pickers were illiterate. Languages known: Coming to the linguistic knowledge, it was found that major percentages (79%) of the rag pickers were speaking Tamil, 15% Malayalam and 1% Hindi. 5% were able to communicate both in Malayalam and Tamil. Native place: It was clear from the survey that 84% of the rag pickers hailed from Tamil Nadu. These rag pickers were natives of Thevarkulam, Thirunelveli, Pavoor chathiram, Sankarankoil, Naduvakurichi, Suppaianpuram, Kallingappatti, Rajapalayam, Thenkasi, Madurai and Puthupallapattanam. 15% belonged to Kerala. They were from Anchal, Polayathodu, Sasthamkotta, Kavanadu, Chanthathopu, Pallimukku, Ashtamudi, Kureepuzha, Vadi, Kureevaen palam, Chinnakada, Karamana, Trissur, Sivagiri and Kadapurathu. Only one person belonged to Uttar Pradesh. It indicated that there was a predominance of Tamil migrants in the rag picking activities of the study area. Duration of waste collection: It was observed that 13% of waste collectors were engaged in their work for less than 5 hrs. A major portion, the percentage being 55, devoted to work for 5 to 8 hours. However, 32% worked for more than 8 hours per day. 184

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Religion and Caste: Primary collectors belonging to Hindu, Muslim and Christian communities were found to be engaged in rag picking but the majority of rag pickers were Hindus (90%). Grouping among waste collectors: A noticeable feature was that 91% opted to go for waste collection as single individual, whereas 5% as two and 4% as three. This shows the reluctance of pickers to co-operate and share the earnings. Family assistance: It was clear that 37% of the rag pickers were assisted by their family members whereas 63% of them were not assisted by their family members in the collection process. This might indicate that rag picking was not the traditional job of most of them. Nature of work: The survey result showed that 95% were regular workers and 5% were occasional workers. Days preferred for waste collection: A major percentage (96%) of the rag pickers roamed for collection on all days including working days and holidays whereas a minor group of 4% preferred holidays. Time of collection: 87% of them work both in the forenoon and afternoon. 5% collect wastes during the afternoon and evening and 3% during the forenoon only. It may be derived from this that most of rag pickers devoted to work for the whole day. Majority start their work as early as 4 a.m, in order not to miss the chance. Whenever the bag was full, he/she returned to the store or trade centre to sell the earnings. Distances travelled for waste collection: 50% of waste collectors travel a distance of more than 10km; 36% travel a distance between 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 10 km and 14% travel a distance of 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5 km. It showed that majority of them travel more than 10km daily for waste collection. Job satisfaction: It was clear from the interview that 60% of the respondents were not satisfied with rag picking job because of the hardships involved in the long hours of work and poor remuneration; others (40%) however, expressed satisfaction. Job selection: One question asked to waste collectors was the reason for taking up this particular job. The answer of 78% of collectors was that there was no other alternative available to them. But 17% showed a special interest towards this job and 5% of them were hereditary rag pickers. It was further understood from interviews that the reason for taking up the job was mainly family circumstances. Some of them were runaways roaming around the streets who later made company with rag pickers. Period of service: A major percentage of collectors (72%) have been working for more than 3 years in this field; 7% worked for 3 years; 7% for two yearsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;; 8% for one year and 6% worked for less than one year. 185

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Public attitude: It was understood that 14% had the feeling that they were looked upon with hatred, 53% felt that there was a non-cordial attitude from the public. Many people treated them as untouchables and made harassments. But 33% of respondents felt that the public had a cordial attitude towards them. Work area: Rag pickers operate on residential, commercial areas, markets, offices, educational institutions, railway stations, bus stations and dumping sites. Most of them preferred residential. Materials collected: It was attempted to find out the preference of rag pickers to any particular type of waste material. It revealed that all types of waste materials available such as plastics, bottles, glass, aluminium, iron, paper and cardboard were collected by them. Quantity of the waste collected: It was noted that 15% of rag pickers collect more than 75 kg/ day; 18 % collect waste between 50 – 75 kg; 25% collect waste between 25 – 50 kg and 42% collect waste below 25 kg. Waste segregation: Eighty nine percentage of the rag pickers collect waste materials without being segregated at the site and remaining 11%, however, segregated the waste materials at the site itself. Cost of waste: It was noted that the prices received by waste collectors were different for the same waste material. For plastic waste it varied from Rs.4.75 to 6.50 per Kg; for iron it ranged from Rs.4.25 to 6.25 kg; for Aluminium it varied from Rs.47 to Rs.52 per Kg and for paper it ranged from Rs.4.25 to Rs.4.75. The income of the waste pickers was mainly determined by the current prices of the waste materials decided by the factories which use the wastes. Economic Status Sale of collected waste: It was noted that 99% of waste collectors sold the collected waste materials on the same day itself. Monthly income: The interview revealed that the income earned by rag pickers of Kollam corporation. Twenty five percent of the collectors earned Rs.200 - 500 per month; 25% earned Rs.500 – 1000; 27% earned a monthly income ranging between 1000 – 1500 and 23% earned above Rs.1500 per month. Other sources of income: For 98% of waste collectors rag picking was the only source of income. However, 2% of rag pickers were persons retired from service and therefore, they were getting pension also. Health status Precautionary measures: The survey showed that 87% of waste collectors were not adopting any precautionary measures; 10% use antiseptic lotions; 2% use hand gloves; 1% used both gloves and antiseptic lotion. Occupational health hazards: Among the 100 waste collectors who took part in the survey, 83% had skin diseases, 78% had wounds and scars, 63% had body pain, 9% 186

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had pulmonary complaints (lung diseases) and 3% had eye diseases. Lack of precautionary measures and lack of awareness of the impact of hazardous waste on health were the main causes for these diseases. Also rag pickers failed to take care of their health because of ignorance and poverty. INFERENCE The generation of solid wastes unavoidably take place with every activity of man, especially because of his constant use of packed consumer items and throwing away of materials after one time use. His habit of disposing waste along the roadside also creates management problems in urban areas. This situation is not different in Kollam Corporation also. Looking for livelihood, the group of people called waste pickers do the scavenging work in the waste heaps. Selectively they pick up solid wastes for selling to waste traders. These traders, in turn transport them to recycling plants. Thus there is resource recovery by the waste pickers, an act which indirectly leads to reduction in the quantum of non-biodegradable wastes to be managed by the corporation. Indirectly and informally the corporation is thus assisted by the rag pickers through their service, ignoring the health hazards involved, as is evident from the tonnes of waste daily removed by them in Kollam corporation. REFERENCES Ahsan N, 1999. Solid Waste Management Plan for Indian Mega cities. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection. 19 (2), pp. 90 – 96. Dhanalakshmi and Iyer S, 1999. Solid waste management in Madras city (A Case Study) Pudhuvazhvup Pathuippagam (P) Ltd., Chennai, p. 194. Fureday, 1992. Garbage: exploring non-conventional options in Asian cities. Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 4, No. 2. Menon R V G et al., 1995. Survey of urban solid wastes of four municipal towns in Kerala (Final report) Sponsored by Hazardous substances management division. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India. Organised by Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram. p. 105. Menon R V G et al., 1994. Survey of urban solid wastes in Thiruvananthapuram city. Sponsored by Hazardous substances management division. Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India. Organised by Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram. p. 91. Salaria H, 2002. Invisible Helpers of the Society : Solid waste collectors. National Seminar on Solid Waste Management – Current status and strategies for future. 12 – 14 December 2002, Bangalore, India pp. 223-225. (Ed.) Somashekar,R.J. Iyengar M.A.R, Solid Waste Management : current status and strategies for the future. Allied publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Soerjani M, 1984. Present Waste Management in cities in Indonesia. Conservation and Recycling, 7(2-4): 141 – 148. Viswanathan C and Tränkler J, 2003. Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A comparative analysis. Workshop on Sustainable Landfill Management, 3 – 5 December, 2003, Chennai, India, pp. 3 187

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PREVALENCE OF PATHOGENIC FUNGI IN DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT

Manuel Thomas*, Abin Varghese*, Abraham Samuel K** And Punnen Kurian* *

Kerala Rodent Research Centre, St.Maryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s College campus, Manarcaud, Kottayam ** Department of Zoology, C.M.S. College, Kottayam

INTRODUCTION Emerging zoonoses are animal mediated diseases caused either by apparently new agents, or by previously known microorganisms, appearing in places or in species in which the disease was unknown (Meslin, 1992). The drift in social and ecological status of the populations results in emergence of potentially new epidemics. Alteration of environment affecting the size and distribution of certain animal species, vectors like rodents and transmitters like domestic fowl, propagates infectious agents to humans. Rodents are potential source of several infections to human beings and animals, and are the reservoirs of a variety of bacterial, ricketsial, viral, parasitic and mycotic zoonoses (Gray, 1993). The carrier status of pathogens among poultry is also well established like avian influenza virus (Hahn and Clark, 2002). Mycotic infections are one of the recent public health problems, especially with the increasing cases of immunosuppression (Fridkin and Jarvis, 1996). Since fungal infections are not notifiable diseases and facilities for diagnosis are lacking, data on emerging fungal infections are almost lacking (Randhawa, 2000). The immunocompromised patients are highly susceptible to infections caused by fungi that were previously considered to be of low virulence or non-pathogenic (Bodey, 1988). Newer technologies and therapies such as bone marrow or solid organ transplants and chemotherapeutic agents causes increase in immunocompromised individuals (Hazen, 1995). The domestic environment consisting of wild and domestic animals offers conducive environment for many pathogens including fungi. Considering the high significance of domestic environment in fungal infections especially of commensal animals and man, the present study was conducted. MATERIALS AND METHODS Domesticated fowl (Gallus domesticus- Girirajan Breed) in a house of Manarcaud Grama Panchayath, in Kottayam district was selected for specimen collection. Rats 188

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(Bandicota indica indica [Bechstein]; Larger bandicoot rat) from the adjoining areas were trapped using Sherman type live trap. Feather samples of fowl and hair and tail scrapings of rats were collected aseptically and inoculated into SDA (Sabouraud Dextrose Agar). Isolated cultures are identified up to the species level. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the isolations are given in Table.1. A total of eight genera comprising 13 species of fungi were recorded. Aspergillus sp. is the most common isolation from both poultry and rodent samples. Aspergillosis among man is an emerging disease (Fridkin and Jarvis, 1996). Several cases are reported from various parts of India too (Vaideeswar, 2004). Aspergillosis can be fatal in birds, especially to those with immunodeficiency. Three species of Penicillium were recorded. Isolations are pathogenically significant among immunosuppressed individuals (Domsch et al., 1980). Trichophyton sp. causes dermatomycosis among man and it is very predominant in tropics (Okafor and Agbugbaeruyleke, 1998). Acremonium sp. has only occasional pathogenic status with regard to human infection (Fincher-Ruth et al., 1991). However it infects other domestic animals like dogs too (Das, 2001). Another isolated fungi, the Chaetomium atrobrunneum is neurotropic in nature (Arx et al., 1986). Though a few fungi like Mucor ramosissimus, Pestalotiopsis sp. and Verticillium sp. are underreported among man due to inaccurate or incomplete identifications, bears significant pathogenic Table 1: Pathogenic fungi isolated from rodents and domesticated fowl Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fungi Aspergillus flavus A. niger A. restrictus Acremonium sp. Chaetomium atrobrunneum Mucor ramosissimus Penicillium citrinum P. purpurogenum P. janthinellum

10 11 12 13

Pestalotiopsis sp. Trichophyton rubrum T. verrucosum Verticillium sp.

+++ ++ + _

Rodent samples ++ +++ +++ + + _ _ _ +

Poultry Samples + +++ +++ _ _ + + + _

+ + + -

_ _ + ++

: Maximum : Moderate : Minimum : Nil 189

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potential (Sutton et al., 1998). Kerala has a typical ecosystem pattern termed ‘small-holder ecosystems’ (Richards and Buckle, 1986), which is a conglomeration of a variety of crops, a few animals, fruit trees and uncultivated land or a whole village comprising different landscapes (Kurian, 2001). These kinds of ecosystems are typical in the tropics and subtropics. The animal–man interactions are very complex and chances of pathogenic cyclicity are more in these types of ecosystems. Rodents are the only wild animal group that evolved with man and almost acquired a status of commensal animals (Brooks, 1990). Human-rodent relationships are multifaceted and antagonistic. Birds harbour a wide variety of pathogenic fungi and feathers are the most convenient media for the detection and environmental monitoring (Davidson, 2004). The main route of dissemination of the fungi is through the respiratory system and hence the presence of such pathogens in the domesticated environment is of serious concern to human survival. As the immunosuppression is becoming a common ailment in this era growing presence of fungal pathogens especially in domestic environments has to be studied in detail. Considering the trend of emerging pathogens worldwide the present findings has to be seriously explored for both in the academic purview and of public health significance. REFERENCES Arx J A Von, Guarro J and Figueras M J, 1986. The Ascomycete genus Chaetomium. Beih Nova Hedwigia. 84. Bodey G P, 1988. The emergence of fungi as major hospital pathogens. J. Hosp. Infect. 11: (Supple. A). Pp. 411 – 426. Brooks J E, 1990. Commensal rodents and ectoparasite control. In: Brooks, J.E.. Ahmed, E., Hussain, I, Munir, S. and Khan, A.A. (Eds). Vertebrate pest management: A training manual. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad. Pp.115-122. Das P, 2001. Dermatomycosis of animals; diagnostic results. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 71 (8): Pp. 766-767. Davidson I, 2004. Environmental Monitoring of Avian Viral Pathogens. Proc.2nd Annual Meeting of Israel Veterinary Microbiology & Immunology. (2003). 59 (1-2): 2004. Domsch K H, Gams W and Anderson T H 1980. Compendium of soil fungi. London Academic Press. Fincher-Ruth M E, Fisher J F, Lovell RD, Newnan C L, Espinel-Ingroff A and Shadomy H J, 1991. Infection due to the fungus Acremonium (Cephalosporium). Medicine. 70: Pp. 398 – 409. Fridkin S K and Jarvis W R, 1996. Epidemiology of fungal infections. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 9 (4): Pp. 49-511. 190

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Gray T 1993. Rat race, 1993. World health No.3. May-June 1993. WHO Geneva. Pp 28-29. Hahn J and Clark F D, 2002. A short history of the clean up costs associated with major disease outbreaks in the United States. Avian Advice. 4 . Pp.12-13. Hazen K C, 1995. New and Emerging Yeast Pathogens. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 8(4). Pp.462-478. Kurian P, 2001.Studies on the ecological behaviour of rodents in a small-holder ecosystem. Ph. D. Thesis submitted to University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. Meslin F X, 1992. Surveillance and control of emerging zoonoses. World Health Stat. Q. 45. Pp. 200-207. Okafor J I and Agbugbaeruleke A K, 1998. Dermatophytosis among school children in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria and some physiological studies on the isolated agents. J. Commun. Dis. 30(1): Pp. 44 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 49. Randhawa H S, 2000. Respiratory and Systemic Mycosis: an overview. Indian J. Chest Dis. Allied Sci. 42 (4). Richards C G J and Buckle A P, 1986. Towards integrated pest management at the village level. In: Richard, C.G.J. and Ku, T.Y. (Eds). Control of Mammal Pests.Taylor and Francis, London. Sutton D A, Fothergill A W and Rinaldi M G, 1998. Clinically Significant Fungi. Williams and Wilkins Co. Vaideeswar P, Prasad S, Deshapande J R and Pandit S P, 2004. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: A study of 39 cases at autopsy. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 50: 3

191

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EFFECT OF RECIRCULATION RATIO ON THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS WITH DIFFERENT SLUDGE WASTAGE OPTIONS

Mohan S and Ramesh S T EWRE Division, Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai â&#x20AC;&#x201C;36.

INTRODUCTION In wastewater treatment systems, the biological treatment process is one of the most important and popular systems used for domestic and industrial wastewater treatment. Among the numerous available methods, the activated sludge process is one of the major biological wastewater treatment techniques. This process consists of two units: a bioreactor where organic waste is digested by microorganisms, and a sedimentation basin where activated sludge is separated from the treated effluent. The basic process diagram is shown in Fig.1. In the first phase, the active mass of microorganisms in the aerated bioreactor converts the suspended and colloidal organic material to end products such as carbon dioxide, water and inert material. This is the carbon source utilization phase. The second phase is the flocculation of the microorganisms and other suspended or colloidal components into rapidly settleable biomass. Biological aggregation provides a convenient and effective method for separation of biological flocs from the mixed liquor medium, after they have fulfilled their metabolic role. Flocculation of biomass is responsible for changes in supernatant turbidity and variation in settling and dewatering properties. Therefore, the overall function of the activated sludge process depends largely on good flocculation and on the sedimentation behaviour of the sludge.

Fig.1 Activated sludge process diagram 192

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METHODOLOGY In the complete mix system with recycle, cell wastage can be accomplished by wasting from the reactor or from mixed liquor return line. For the cell wastage from recycle line, the mean cell residence time is given by the following expression. θc =

VX Q w X r + (Q − Q w )X e

—————— (1)

For the simulation study, assuming that Xe is very small, the modified value of mean cell residence time is given by, θc =

VX Qw X r

From the equation 2, the ratio of

—————— (2) Xr X

is found to be,

Xr V = X Q wθ c

—————— (3)

A relationship between the recycle ratio R and èc can be developed from a material balance equation for biomass entering and leaving the aeration tank.

X  1 Q = 1 + R − R r  X  θc V 

—————— (4)

Substitute the value of in the equation (4), the value of èc can be determined. Substrate utilization rate q is calculated from,

1 + K dθ c YT θ c

—————— (5)

Effluent substrate concentration (Se), MLSS (X), MLSS in the recycle line (Xr), SVI and process efficiency (E) are calculated from the following equations. Se =

q K

Qθ c YT (S 0 − S e ) Q(S 0 − S e ) X = or V (1 + K d θ c ) Vq

Xr =

XV Q wθ c

—————— (6)

—————— (7)

—————— (8) 193

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SVI = E=

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10 6 Xr

—————— (9)

S0 − Se *100 S0

—————— (10)

Similarly the equations relating to cell wastage from aeration tank could be modified and used for simulation study. It was carried out for recirculation ratio of 0.25 to 1.0 with various sludge-wasting rate of 0.08 l/day to 0.34 l/day. Simulation results for efficiency and BSRT are given in Fig 2,3,4 and 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sludge recycling from the secondary clarifier to the aeration basin is an important part of the Activated sludge process. Inadequate sludge recycle rates may reduce the MLSS concentration in the aeration tank. The proper sludge recycle rate can be estimated based on the desired MLSS to achieve the required effluent concentration. BSRT is an important parameter because the amount of time that the microorganisms are given to breakdown the waste products has a significant effect on effluent quality. Sufficient time must be permitted for the microorganisms to be in contact with the waste to accomplish treatment. With too little time, the biological system may have insufficient time to degrade the wastes, resulting in poor quality of effluent. The variation of efficiency and BSRT for sludge wastage from recycle line shows (Fig.2 and 4) that, for a constant recirculation ratio, the efficiency and BSRT decreases with increase in sludge wasting rate. At the same time, a slight increase of efficiency and BSRT are observed with increase of recirculation ratio for same sludge wasting rate. For a constant Recirculation ratio of 0.25, and by varying the sludge wastage rate from 0.08 l/day to 0.34 l/day, the efficiency varies from 94.3 % to 84.3% and BSRT varies from 15.2 days to 3.7 days. For a constant sludge-wasting rate of 0.08 l/day, the efficiency increases from 94.3 % 98

97.5

0.08 lit/day 0.1 lit/day

0.15 lit/day 90

0.20 lit/day 0.25 lit/day

0.30 lit/day 0.34 lit/day

Efficiency in %

Efficiency %

96.5 96 95.5 95

94.5 82

0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Recirculation ratio (R)

Recirculation Ratio (R)

Fig. 2 Variation of Efficiency with Recirculation ratio (Sludge wastage in the Recycle line) 194

Fig. 3 Variation of Efficiency with Recirculation ratio (Sludge wastage in the Aeration tank)

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to 96.3 % and BSRT varies from 15.2 days to 37.6 days with increase of recirculation ratio from 0.25 to 1.0. For the sludge-wasting rate of 0.34 l/day, the efficiency and BSRT for various Recirculation ratio (0.25 to 1.0) is very low compared to those for a minimum wastage of 0.08 l/day with varying Recirculation ratio. The reduction in BSRT will affect the quality of the effluent. If there is not enough MLSS concentration available to assimilate the incoming BOD (food) in the wastewater, some of the BOD will pass through the system, resulting in a poor quality of effluent. Similarly, the results for the wastage from aeration tank for various recirculation ratios is shows in the Figs.3 and 5. The BSRT value for wastage from aeration tank is very high compared to what is required for conventional activated sludge process. If too much time is allowed, the microorganisms will deplete the food supply available and begin to die off, resulting in a higher fraction of non-active biological material in the sludge and a resultant loss of â&#x20AC;&#x153;fineâ&#x20AC;? solids in the effluent.

Fig. 4 Variation of BSRT with Recirculation ratio (Sludge wastage in the Recycle line)

.8 R

.7 =0 R

0. = R

Qw = 0.34 l/day

Recirculation Ratio

5 .8

=1 R

5 .7 =0

=0 R

.5 R

.3 =0

=0 R

0. =

Qw = 0.30 l/day

20 10

Qw = 0.25 l/day

Qw = 0.34 l/day

Qw = 0.20 l/day

Qw= 0.15 l/day

Qw = 0.30 l/day

Qw = 0.10 l/day

Qw = 0.25 l/day

BSRT in days

Qw = 0.20 l/day

BSRT in days

Qw= 0.15 l/day

Qw = 0.08 l/day

Qw = 0.10 l/day

Qw = 0.08 l/day

Recirculation Ratio

Fig. 5 Variation of BSRT with Recirculation ratio (Sludge wastage in the Aeration tank)

There is a certain value of BSRT below which no substrate is removed. This is the BSRT at which biomass is removed from the system faster than it is produced. Therefore if a process is operating at a BSRT below this minimum value, cell wash out will occur. After washout, the effluent substrate concentration will be same as the influent substrate concentration, as no microorganisms will be present to utilise the organic material. To overcome all the difficulties caused by BSRT, optimization of BSRT with recirculation ratio is very much important. The effluent quality is improved only after BSRT exceeds the cell washout time. Finally, it is concluded that the performance of ASP with sludge wastage from recycle line gives better results in terms of BSRT value compared to the sludge wastage from aeration tank.

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DISINFECTION OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER USING TITANIUM DIOXIDE (TIO2) PHOTOCATALYST Suja P Devipriya and Suguna Yesodharan School of Environmental Studies, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi-682 022

INTRODUCTION In recent years, use of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) as a photocatalyst for the treatment of wastewaters, removal of noxious organics in potable water and disinfection has received considerable attention (Ollis et al. 1991; Lazarova et al. 1998). TiO2 photocatalysis has also been shown to be an effective germicide method (Ireland et al. 1993; Wei et al. 1994; Zhang et al. 1994; Melian et al. 2000). In this paper, we show that irradiated suspensions of TiO2 can be effective for the facile deactivation of Escherichia coli and other micro organisms. We have also investigated the effect of pH, catalyst loading and light intensity on the disinfection. The practical feasibility of the method is demonstrated by performing outdoor experiments in direct sunlight. This method has been tested for a domestic wastewater sample to establish its practical applicability. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Batch reactors consisted of Pyrex beakers. In a typical experiment, requisite amount of TiO2 (Merck, India) was added to 100 mL distilled water and kept in suspension. Cells of Escherichia coli (ATCC 11775) corresponding to ~ 107 cells/mL were used to inoculate the TiO2 suspensions and controls. This was exposed to sunlight on the roof top of our laboratory during summer months (March-May, 2003) under noon day sun in Kochi, India. (9057’51" N, 76016’59" E).The light intensity was measured using Spectrosense, Skye instruments, Wales U.K All experiments were done in triplicate. The temperature during the experiment was maintained at 27±20C. Therefore disinfections caused by heat could be considered negligible. The domestic waste water was collected from a nearby location. The relatively larger particles were removed from water by settling. The physicochemical characterisation of the samples was done as per standard methods (Clesceri et al., 1998).Total coli forms of the wastewater were measured by MPN method (Clesceri et al., 1998). 196

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Figure 1 shows the effect of light and TiO2 on the survival of E. coli and confirms the findings of earlier researchers (Wei et al.1994; Zhang et al.1994). The time required for the total inactivation of E. coli was less than 30 minutes in the presence of both light and the catalyst. The inactivation proceeded very slowly in the absence of the catalyst, but in its presence, it was completed in 150 minutes. An induction period of approx. 50 minutes was noticed during which no appreciable reduction in the number of E. coli was detected. This might be the reason why some of the earlier researchers (Wei et al.1994) could not observe any inactivation of E. coli in their studies, which were in fact performed for time periods of 60 minutes. It has to be emphasised that contrary to the inference by Wei et al.1994, the inactivation in the current study is not due to any temperature rise of water samples as these studies have been conducted under a constant temperature of Âą 270C by thermostating the samples. However, in the absence of light, but in presence of the catalyst, no inactivation could be observed. This clearly showed that TiO2 played a significant role as a photocatalyst in the inactivation of E. coli in water. 250

1.00E+07 1.00E+06

200 C F U/1 0 0 m

CFU / 100mL

1.00E+05 1.00E+04 1.00E+03 1.00E+02 1.00E+01

150

100

1.00E+00 0

100 Time in minutes

150

200

0 0 .2 5 g /L

0 .5 g /L 0 .7 5 g /L T iO 2 g / L

1 g /L

Fig.1 Inactivation of E.coli (â&#x20AC;˘) in presence Fig. 2 Effect of catalyst loading on inactivation of catalyst + sunlight (540W/m2), of E. coli by sunlight. (Time: 20m) (C) in presence of sunlight but no catalyst, (#) in presence of catalyst but no light.

The effect of catalyst loading on the bactericidal activity was examined by varying the TiO2 concentration from 0.25 g/L to 1 g/L and by measuring the E. coli concentration after 20 minutes of irradiation. The number of surviving bacteria after 20 minutes is shown in fig: 2. The results showed that the inactivation of the bacteria was enhanced significantly with increase in catalyst concentration. Further, this proved the role of TiO2 in the inactivation, thereby discounting the findings of Melian et al.2000, that it was only the light and not the catalyst responsible for the inactivation of E. coli. The effect of light intensity on the inactivation of E. coli was investigated by using light at two different intensities; i.e. 400 W/m2 and 940 W/m2. The rate of cell death increased with increase in light intensity, both in the absence and presence of TiO2. The results are presented in Figs: 3 and 4. 197

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1 .0 0E+0 9

1 .0 0 E + 0 9

1 .0 0E+0 8

1 .0 0 E + 0 8

1 .0 0E+0 7

1 .0 0 E + 0 7

Dar k 1 .0 0 E + 0 6

4 00 W /m2

1 .0 0E+0 5

D ark

9 40 W /m2

C FU /1 0 0 m

CFU/ 10 0mL

1 .0 0E+0 6

1 .0 0E+0 4

4 0 0 W /m 2

1 .0 0 E + 0 5

9 4 0 W /m 2

1 .0 0 E + 0 4

1 .0 0E+0 3 1 .0 0 E + 0 3

1 .0 0E+0 2 1 .0 0 E + 0 2

1 .0 0E+0 1 1 .0 0 E + 0 1

1 .0 0E+0 0 0

1 .0 0 E + 0 0 0

Time ( minu tes )

100

120

140

160

T im e ( m in u te s )

Fig. 3 Inactivation of E.coli with TiO2 at different light intensities.

Fig. 4 Inactivation of E.coli without TiO2 at different intensities

Since wastewaters (domestic or industrial) have different pH ranges, we investigated the influence of pH on the rate of disinfection in presence of TiO2 and light. The results (Fig: 5) show that, at least in the range (pH 5-8) under study, pH does not affect the disinfection rate. This is in agreement with the findings of other authors as well (Watts et al. 1995, Melian et al. 2000). 1.00E+07

1.00E+06

pH 5 pH 6

1 .0 0 E + 0 6

pH 7

1.00E+05

pH 8 CFU/100mL

C FU / 1 0 0 m

1 .0 0 E + 0 5 1 .0 0 E + 0 4

1.00E+04

1.00E+03

1 .0 0 E + 0 3 1.00E+02

1 .0 0 E + 0 2 1.00E+01

1 .0 0 E + 0 1 W it h T iO 2 W it h o u t T iO 2

1 .0 0 E + 0 0 1

2 T i m e ( D a ys )

Fig. 5 Effect of pH on TiO2 catalysed solar inactivation of E. coli.

1.00E+00 0

Time (minutes)

Fig. 6 Reappearance of E.coli after treatment with and without TiO2

One of the major advantages of chemical disinfection is that it ensures the complete destruction of the bacteria and inhibits its re-emergence. Hence the viability of photocatalysis being used as an effective substitute for chlorination depends on the ability of the method to prevent the reappearance of bacteria in treated waters. In this context, we have examined the possible reappearance of E. coli in photolytic (no catalyst, only light) and photocatalytic systems as follows: After irradiation and the complete inactivation of the bacteria (after 3 hours at ~940W/ m2), the light source was turned off. The reappearance of the bacteria was tested after 2 hr, 24 hr and 48 hr (see Fig: 6). No bacterial presence was observed after 2hr, in both 198

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the systems. However, bacterial counts were obtained after 24 and 48 hr and there was significant difference in the bacterial count in the two systems. The system without the catalyst had shown much higher number of re-emerged bacteria. The rate of reappearance of the bacteria was also higher in the system without the catalyst, as seen from the increase in the 2-24 and 24-48 hr period. This clearly indicated that the photochemical inactivation as a substitute for chemical inactivation must involve the use of a catalyst, which could reduce the reappearance of the bacteria in dark. The higher reappearance rate in the absence of the catalyst also indicates that the destruction may not be total and the bacteria can reactivate and grow. The destruction is more effective in the presence of the catalyst and hence the reappearance and growth is slower.

1000000

100

100000

80 % COD reduction

Total coliforms/100ml

This method has been tested for the treatment of domestic wastewater to establish its practical applicability. Total coli forms present in the wastewater estimated by MPN method were found to be 110000 per 100ml. In presence of TiO2 after 4 hours of irradiation complete disinfection was observed. (Fig: 7). Furthermore, photocatalysis reduces COD of domestic wastewater also by 94.8% in 5 hours (Fig: 8).

10000 1000 100 10

Sunlight Sunlight + TiO2

40 20

Only sunlight

1 1

Time in hours

TiO2+Sunlight no dil TiO2+Sunlight 1:1 dil

Fig. 7 Disinfection of total coli forms by photocatalysis

Time in hours

Fig. 8 COD reduction of wastewater by photocatalysis

CONCLUSION Results of this study clearly demonstrate the potential of illuminated TiO2 to disinfect micro organisms in water. TiO2 photocatalysis can be used for disinfection of water and wastewater even in areas lacking electricity or other infrastructure. The study also proves the use of sunlight as the light source. This is a boon to tropical countries like India. The ability of TiO2 photocatalysis for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from water is an added advantage. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial assistance from CSIR (India) to one of the authors (Suja P Devipriya) is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also wish to acknowledge Dr I S Bright Singh of the School for his valuable suggestions. 199

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REFERENCES Clesceri L, Greenberg A E and Eaton A D, 1998. 20 th Ed., Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, American Public Health Association, Washington. Ireland J C, Klostermann P, Rice E and Clark R, 1993. Inactivation of Escherichia coli by titanium dioxide photocatalytic oxidation. Appl.Environ. Microbiol.59:16681670. Lazarova V, Janex M L, Fiksdal L, Oberg C, Barcina I and Pommepuy M, 1998. Advanced wastewater disinfection technologies: Short and long term strategy. Water Sci.Technol.38: 1096-1117. Melian J A H, Rodriguez J M D, Suarez A V, Rendon E T, Campo C V, Arana J and Pena J P, 2000. The photocatalytic disinfection of urban wastewaters, Chemosphere 41: 323-327. Ollis D F, Pelizzetti E and Serpone N, 1991. Photocatalysed destruction of water contaminants. Environ Sci.Technol.25: 1523-1529. Watts R J, Kong S, Orr M P, Miller G C and Henry B E, 1995. Photocatalytic inactivation of coliform bacteria and viruses in secondary wastewater effluent, Wat. Res. 29: 95-100. Wei C, Lin W Y, Zainal Z, Williams N E, Zhu K, Kruzic A P, Smith R L and Rajeshwar K, 1994. Bactericidal activity of TiO2 photocatalyst in aqueous media: Toward a solar assisted water disinfection system. Environ Sci Technol. 28: 934-938. Zhang P, Scrudato R J and Germano G, 1994. Solar catalytic inactivation of Escherichia coli in aqueous solutions using TiO2 as photocatalysts. Chemosphere 28: 607611.

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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT BY INCINERATION

Babu Alappat and Munish Kumar Chandel Department of Civil Engineering I.I.T. Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016.

INTRODUCTION While combustion is the “controlled burning” generally used for the burning of fuels, incineration is the “controlled burning” of wastes to sterile ash in properly designed and constructed furnaces with proper care for air pollution. Incineration technique can be used for destroying a variety of wastes including municipal, medical and industrial wastes and sewage sludge. The advantages of incineration techniques are: Incineration is relatively reliable and fool proof; It is not affected by external parameters like temperature; The treatment is relatively complete; The unit is very compact; i.e. large area not required; Chances of heat recovery and power generation exist; The treatment is relatively very fast; Now, many different types are available; It is considered to be the last resort where all other techniques fail. The disadvantages of incineration are: It is relatively costly and expertise required for proper operation; If not properly operated, there is a probability of severe air pollution; Odour problem; Emission of toxicants like dioxins and furans. An incineration system consists of a furnace, cooling equipments, Air pollution control equipment and a stack (Fig. 1). Waste Waste feed Air

Furnace

Cooling equipment

Air pollution control equipment

ID fan Stack

Bottom ash

Fly ash

Fig.1 Incineration System - Shematic MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW) MSW management is a burning problem with most of the towns and cities, especially 201

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the mega-cities. While the solid waste is managed at the source itself in the rural areas, in the urban areas, it is left for the municipal agencies to collect and dispose off. Hence it gets accumulated and the problems begin. The municipal agencies are responsible for the collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of the MSW. MSW is not hazardous. So it is not the toxicity, but the large volume that is generated a day, is the problem. In India, the average MSW generation is about 0.2 to 0.4 kg/ person/day. In fact, this value depends upon the affluence and life style of the people. Collection of MSW and transporting it to the nearest treatment/transformation/disposal facility has always been a problem and has always attracted severe criticism. The general public can witness only these two activities. What happens to the MSW afterwards? That is a big question in most of the cities of India. As per the Manual on solid waste, Urban Local Bodies spent about Rs. 500/- to 1500/- per ton of MSW. Of this, about 60 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 70 % goes for street sweeping and collection, about 20 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30 % for transportation and about 5 % for the treatment and final disposal. Treatment and disposal of MSW is actually an expensive job. So it is clear that, no proper treatment/disposal is carried out in our towns/cities. On the other hand, technically, it is possible to treat/transform/dispose off the MSW in an eco-friendly, efficient and economically feasible manner. There are established techniques like Composting, Vermi-composting, Incineration, Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) generation and Engineered Landfilling to deal with MSW (after materials recovery and recycling). In the Indian scenario, recovery and recycling of materials is done in a big way by the rag pickers. Whatever is remaining is to be disposed off by either one or combinations of the above mentioned techniques. Composting and vermi-composting are, perhaps, the most appreciated techniques these days to deal with the biodegradable part of the MSW. While vermi-composting is usually practiced on a smaller scale, composting is practiced on a larger scale at present. RDF production has also been tried; however, it has not become popular. Landfilling is the most widely practiced technique for the disposal of MSW in India. In fact, landfilling is the last option and should be practiced only when nothing else can be done with that waste. Though everyone knows that the landfilling option cannot stand long (due to the non-availability of land and stringent rules / regulations of the monitoring agencies), no effort is made to reduce the volume of MSW that is to be landfilled. That means, the MSW collected goes straight for landfilling without any treatment/transformation. Also, about the landfill, almost all of them are just waste dumps (which can cause runoff, leachate and emission problems). Incineration of MSW, though widely practiced in developed countries, is not a popular technique in India. The high inert content (30 - 50 %), the high moisture content (30 50 %) and the low heating value (800 - 1100 kcal/kg) make the Indian MSW an unsuitable candidate for incineration and power generation. Theoretically, incineration can cope up with the high generation rate of MSW and can get rid off the large volumes collected daily making the quantity for final disposal a minimum. On the other hand, 202

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incineration is a cost and expertise intense technique. Also, ill-operation can result in heavy air pollution. In India, there are no many success stories on the incineration of MSW. HOSPITAL WASTE On the contrary to the incineration of MSW, there are many incinerators burning the hospital-biomedical wastes in India. It became a popular treatment technique for dealing with the infectious part of this waste when the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 came into existence. The most important aspect of managing the medical waste stream is its categorisation and segregation. Medical wastes include different types of wastes; viz. infectious, hazardous, radioactive and other general wastes. The infectious portion is only about 10 - 20 % and this goes for incineration in yellow bags. Most of the bio-medical waste incinerators are batch-fed doublechambered fixed hearth incinerators. Results of the monitoring carried out by the regulatory bodies like Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) were compared and a couple of hospital waste incinerators were monitored for their combustion efficiency and stack emissions. In general: Combustion efficiency is usually < 99 %; HCl Emission: 49 to 196 mg/Nm3; NOx Emission: usually within the limits (because the combustion temperature hardly goes above 1200oC); Particulate Emission: 132 to 8600 mg/Nm3 Some of the reasons for the poor performance of these incinerators are: improper operation of the unit, ignorance of the operators, lack of segregation, high fuel and maintenance cost involved, batch operation of the incinerators (this reduces the temperature of the furnace), lack of mixing and low combustion efficiency. It is a must to find out the appropriate ways of operating the existing hospital waste incinerators so that they comply with the emission standards. Suggestions in this regard are: Practice proper segregation (no chlorinated plastics should find their way to an incinerator); Avoid excess capacity and operate on a continuous mode as far as possible; Use of the proper air pollution control equipments; Operate the primary chamber in the starved air mode while the secondary chamber in the excess air mode; Use of centralised large capacity units instead of the many small units. Fluidised bed incineration, instead of the existing batch-fed, double-chambered, fixed hearth incineration, may be an alternate technology for dealing with the yellow bags (the infectious biomedical waste). FLUIDIZED BED INCINERATION There are some basic limitations on the fixed hearth technology. This type of incinerator, in general, cannot give high combustion efficiency. They always lack proper mixing. So the waste combustion is not always complete. Perhaps, adoption of fluidized bed technology can solve this problem to a great extent. Fluidization is a phenomenon in which fine solid particles are suspended by the upward flow of a gas or liquid. Fluidized 203

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bed incineration systems can burn any kind of waste and have been proved to be highly efficient and environment friendly than the other incineration systems. Fluidized bed incinerators operate at relatively lower temperatures than the other types. The boiling action of fluidized bed promotes turbulence and mixing causing high heat transfer and uniform temperature throughout the bed. Also, in-situ acid gas neutralization is possible by the addition of limestone or carbonate. PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE OF INCINERATION SYSTEMS The perception that incinerators are very damaging to health persists. The public needs reassurance. Actually, compared to the big health issues like poor diet, accidents, smoking, lack of exercise, etc., it is very difficult to detect/measure/assess the health impacts associated with an incinerator. Public acceptability can be obtained by involving them right from the beginning in finding out the solutions and deciding the treatment options. Another major issue is the emission of Dioxins and Furans. There is a belief that the incinerators are the major sources of these carcinogens. But there are many contradicting facts and arguments in this regard. Industrial processes including incineration may not be the major sources of Dioxin and Furan emission (they are, of course, generating dioxins and furans in substantial quantities); but the main sources may be the fire works, bonfires, barbeque, forest fire and backyard burning. The pathway of dioxins from the sources to the people is almost entirely through the fat content of food. That means, how much dioxin a person takes is not a function of how near he is to a point source of dioxin formation; but is a function of the fat content of his diet and of the impact of the total world burden of dioxins on food processing from farm to table. CONCLUSIONS Though incineration is a popular method for the disposal of MSW in many developed countries, in India, it was not a success. The high moisture and inert content, along with the low heat content, make it less suitable for incineration and power generation. Composting and vermi-composting are, perhaps, the most suitable technologies for the management of MSW in the Indian scenario. However, due to the long â&#x20AC;&#x153;time requirementâ&#x20AC;? of these processes (especially where the MSW generation rate is very high), incineration may not be completely ruled out. Incineration of the hospital waste is quite popular in India; but has received severe criticism due to the poor performance and high emissions. Fluidized bed incineration may be able to solve the problems associated with low heat content and high moisture content of these wastes. Incineration systems should not be viewed only as power generating units. In fact, power generation is secondary; their primary job is the destruction of waste. This should be remembered while designing and operating the incineration systems.

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INCINERNERATOR ASH â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A RESOURCE FOR REUSE

Shrihari* and Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Souza R G** *NIT (K), Surathkal, **P.A.College of Engineering, Mangalore

INTRODUCTION Landfills were primarily used for waste disposal, allowing nature to take its course ultimately reducing the end volume toxicity of the wastes. However at present the stringent environmental laws and non-availability of land for waste disposal, incineration has emerged as the relevant waste disposal method for municipalities and industries. Incineration is the process of burning solid ,semisolid, liquid or gaseous waste to produce carbon-di-oxide ,carbon monoxide, water and ash. Incinerators thermally decompose matter through oxidation, thereby reducing and minimizing wastes and destroying their toxicity. Depending on the composition of raw waste, compounds containing halogens, metals, nitrogen and sulphur may be produced. In order to reduce the level of hazardous nature of these compounds incinerators have to be equipped with afterburners, scrubbers, filtration units and membranes. INCINERATOR AND ITS RESIDUE Incinerators are engineered apparatus capable of withstanding heat and are designed to effectively reduce waste to residues containing little or no combustible material. Proper incinerator types can be identified based on the waste specification. The following are the types of incinerators: 1.

Municipal incinerators: a) Rectangular incinerators b) Vertical circular incinerators c) Rotary kiln incinerators Industrial and commercial incinerators: a) Single chamber incinerators b) Multiple chamber incinerators c) Conical incinerators d) Trench incinerators e) Controlled air incinerators f) Fluidized bed incinerators Sludge incinerators: a) Multiple hearth incinerators b) Fluidized bed incinerators 205

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Mass Burn Waste-to-energy Facility- Typical Cross Section and Ash Streams

Municipal solid waste (MSW) incinerator ash is the byproduct that is produced during incineration of municipal solid waste in municipal incinerators. Several individual ash streams are produced as byproduct viz: grate ash, siftings, boiler ash, scrubber ash and precipitator or baghouse ash. Normally all of the ash streams are combined and referred to as combined ash. The term fly ash is used while referring to the ash collected in the air control system. Approximately 90% of the bottom ash stream consists of grate ash which is the ash fraction that remains on the stokers or grate at the completion of the combustion cycle. As the combustion gas passes through the scrubber and precipitator or bag house, the entrained particles stick to the boiler tubes and walls and is referred to as boiler ash. Due to air pollution control requirements lime or lime based reagent is introduced into the pollution control system to scrub out gases from the combustion gas stream .This produces a fly ash that contains both reacted and unreacted lime. PROPERTIES OF MSW INCINERATOR ASH Typical samples of incinerator bottom ash and combined ash indicate that it is a relatively light weight material when compared to natural aggregates. The specific gravity ranges from 1.5 to 2.2 as against 1.9 to 2.8 for conventional aggregate .The incinerator ash is highly absorptive with absorption values ranging from 5% to 17% for fine and 4% to 10% for coarse when compared to natural aggregates where the absorption value is less than 2%.Due to quenching and relatively high porosity the resultant incinerator ash exhibits high moisture content. The light weight of incinerator ash is indicated by lower unit weights and loss on ignition indicates a high level of organic contents. In general the incinerator ash is a sandy material with a relatively high silt fraction. 206

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MSW incinerator ash variably consists of silica, calcium and iron within predictable limits depending on the source of its generation. The major concern in using the ash as an aggregate substitute is the presence of high quantities of salts and trace concentrations of lead, cadmium and zinc. The Los Angeles abrasion test values of typical samples suggest relatively poor durability characteristics. The soundness test values indicate that the ash is not susceptible to freeze â&#x20AC;&#x201C;thaw cycles. The CBR test results are almost as anticipated in case of a well graded aggregate. METHODOLOGY FOR DISPOSAL OR REUSE At present most of the incinerator ash is landfilled but countries like Netherlands, Denmark and United states have undertaken many projects where MSW -Incinerator Bottom ash (IBA) is used for some of the following applications: 1) In land fills as daily cover 2) As road base material 3) As construction material in the form of secondary aggregate 4) For mine remediation 5) In agricultural application The production of light weight aggregate by sintering mixes of MSW IBA and Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)represents a potentially attractive reuse application.PFA is added to IBA to control the sintering behaviour.The IBA derived aggregate performance when assessed with commercially available synthetic aggregate has confirmed the feasibility of production of light weight aggregate using significant concentrations of high volume IBA.A study conducted by the Florida Institute of Technology to determine the physical integrity and leaching characteristics of precast ash concrete products like hollow blocks, patio stone, lawn edger etc has given the following results. The MSW IBA can be used as an aggregate and can be mixed with Portland cement and water to fabricate precast ash products using conventional methods, the ash concrete products have maintained physical integrity over a period of one year after being exposed to natural environment and the leachate monitored showed no traces of Ag, Cd, Hg and Fb and the concentrations of Cr, Cu, Ni, As and Zn were below the drinking water and toxicity standards prescribed. At the Institut National des Sciences Appliques de Lyon-Villeurbanne-France while studying the problems encountered with the use of MSW-IBA in concrete it was observed that the metallic aluminium contained in the bottom ash reacted with the cement leading to the emission of hydrogen and swelling of concrete .The investigation pointed out that aluminium gels , calcium aluminate and complex silico aluminate hydrate were formed which reduced the compressive strength of concrete and resulted in cracks . A remedial measure of treating IBA with Sodium Hydroxide was proposed and a replacement of coarse aggregate (upto 50%) was possible without affecting the durability of concrete. 207

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MSW-IBA has been tested for use as an aggregate substitute in asphalt paving mixes particularly in base or binder course applications .The ash is used to replace the fine aggregate portion of the mix to the extent of 10% to 25% of the natural aggregate for surface course and upto 50% for base course application. The IBA has been used in granular base application in road construction, as a fill material and as an embankment material in European countries for almost two decades. The use of ash for granular base and fills has primarily limited to demonstration in the United States. For embankment applications processed ash can be stabilized with Portland cement or lime. During regular landfill operations daily covers are placed on all exposed solid waste at the end of each working day and similarly at the end of their service life .Incinerator ash has been found suitable for both these applications. In Germany the incinerator fly ash is mainly disposed of as fill material in unused salt mines. INCINERATOR ASH AND HUMAN HEALTH On incineration ,heavy metals present in the original solid waste are emitted as stack gases, in association with tiny particles and are also present in the remaining residues or ashes. Incinerators do not solve the problems of toxic materials present in wastes; in fact they simply convert these toxic materials to other forms. These toxic chemicals include dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), polychlorinated napthalenes,chlorinated benzenes,polyaromatic hydrocarbons(PAH’s) and numerous volatile organic compounds(VOC’s).Some of these chemicals are known to be persistent and bio accumulative. Some of the emitted chemicals like sulphur-di-oxide and nitrogen oxide are carcinogenic and endocrine disruptors. Research has demonstrated that incinerators ash can contribute to the contamination of local soil and vegetation with dioxins and heavy metals. When the ash is land filled it can result in contamination of subsoil’s and sometimes the leachate may contaminate groundwater. When the ash is stabilized and disposed it may prevent the immediate leaching of toxic chemicals but ultimately it may release into the environment on weathering and erosion CONCLUSION Management of municipal and industrial waste is a growing problem throughout the world. In western countries as well as in India as the waste output continually increases new regulations are imposing more stringent restrictions on the amount of waste permitted to go to landfills. At the same time many incinerators have been closed because of stricter regulations on their atmospheric emissions.The use of MSW-IBA in construction has to be encouraged however it is necessary to address the engineering concerns and environmental concerns mentioned in this paper.

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HYDROGEN PRODUCTION FROM KITCHEN WASTE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; BIOTECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTION

Jayalakshmi S and Sukumaran V Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women, Vallam, Thanjavur 613403

INTRODUCTION The treatment of municipal solid waste in an environmentally sound way remains a challenge. The final disposal by means of landfilling or incineration is being limited to those fractions which have already been pretreated or for which there is no further alternative available. This has created a need for intermediate treatments that recover fractions for recycling and produce other fractions, which can be safely landfilled or incinerated. Such intermediate treatments include aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion, pyrolysis and gasification in combination with the implementation of sourceseparated collection and with conventional mechanical sorting in order to recover recyclable fractions. One of the most rapidly increasing treatments over the last 15 years has been the application of anaerobic digestion as a central treatment of organic waste. It is clear that the value of renewable energy and other important environmental benefits of anaerobic digestion will continue to increase the desirability of anaerobic digestion as a central treatment of solid organic waste. It is widely acknowledged that hydrogen is an attractive energy source to replace conventional fossil fuels, both from the environmental and economic standpoint. It is often cited as a potential source of unlimited clean power. When hydrogen is used as a fuel it generates no pollutants, but produces water, which can be recycled to make more hydrogen. Apart from its use as a clean energy resource, hydrogen can be used for various other purposes in chemical process industries. It is used as a reactant in hydrogenation process to produce lower molecular weight compounds. It can also be used to saturate compounds, crack hydrocarbons or remove sulphur and nitrogen compounds. It is a good oxygen scavenger and can therefore be used to remove traces of oxygen to prevent oxidative corrosion. In the manufacturing of ammonia, methanol and synthesis gas, the use of hydrogen is well known. The future widespread use of hydrogen is likely to be in the transportation sector, where it will help to reduce pollution. Vehicles can be powered with hydrogen fuel cells, which are three times more efficient than a gasoline-powered engine (Kaushik and Debabrata 2003). As of today, all these areas of hydrogen utilization are equivalent to 3% of the energy 209

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consumption, but it is expected to grow significantly in the years to come. Organic wastes of various sources with low nitrogen contents are ideal substrates for hydrogen production with the advantage of lower costs. BIOHYDROGEN SYSTEMS Direct biophotolysis Photosynthetic production of hydrogen from water is a biological process that can convert sunlight into useful, stored chemical energy by the following general reaction: 2H2O

Light energy 2H2 +O2

Green algae, under anaerobic conditions, can either use H2 as an electron donor in the CO2-fixation process or evolve H2. Hydrogen production by green microalgae requires several minutes to a few hours of anaerobic incubation in the dark to induce the synthesis and/or activation of enzymes involved in H2 metabolism, including a reversible hydrogenase enzyme. The hydrogenase combines protons (H+) in the medium with electrons (donated by reduced ferredoxin) to form and release H2. Thus, green microalgae possess the genetic, enzymatic, metabolic, and electron transport machinery to photoproduce H2 gas. The synthesis of H2 permits sustained electron flow through the electron-transport chain, which supports synthesis of ATP (Ghirardi et al, 2000) Indirect biophotolysis Cyanobacteria can also synthesize and evolve H2 through photosynthesis via the following processes: Light energy 12H2O + 6CO2

C6H12O6 + 6O2 Light energy

C6H12O6 + 12H2O

12H2 + 6CO2

Cyanobacteria (also know as blue-green algae, cyanophyceae, or cyanophytes) are a large and diverse group of photoautotrophic microorganisms, which evolved and diversified early in Earth’s history (Schopf, 2000). Cyanobacteria contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll ‘a’, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins and can perform oxygenic photosynthesis. They are a morphologically diverse group that includes unicellular, filamentous, and colonial species. Within the filamentous cyanobacteria, vegetative cells may develop into structurally modified and functionally specialized cells, such as the akinetes (resting cells) or heterocysts (specialized cells that perform nitrogen-fixation; (Tamagni et al, 2002). The nutritional requirementsof cyanobacteria are simple: air (N2 and O2), water, mineral salts, and light (Hansel and Lindblad, 1998). Species of cyanobacteria may possess several enzymes directly involved in hydrogen 210

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metabolism and synthesis of molecular H2. These include nitrogenases which catalyze the production of H2 asa by-product of nitrogen reduction to ammonia, uptake hydrogenases which catalyze the oxidation of H2 synthesized by the nitrogenase, and bi-directional hydrogenases which have the ability to both oxidize and synthesize H2 (Tamagrini et al, 2002). Photo-fermentation Purple non-sulfur bacteria evolve molecular H2 catalyzed by nitrogenase under nitrogendeficient conditions using light energy and reduced compounds (organic acids). C6H12O6 + 12H2O

Light energy 12H2 + 6CO2

These photoheterotrophic bacteria have been investigated for their potential to convert light energy into H2 using waste organic compoundsass ubstrate (Arika et al, 1996; Bolton, 1996; Fedorov et al, 1998; Tsygankov et al, 1994; Tsygankov et al, 1998) in batch processes (Zurrer and Bachofen, 1982), continuouscultures (Fascetti and Todini, 1995) or culturesof bacteria immobilized in carrageenan (Francou and Vignais, 1984), in agar gel (Vincenzini et al, 1986), on porous glass (Tsygankov et al, 1998), on activated glass (Tsygankov et al, 1998), or on polyurethane foam (Fedorov et al, 1998). Hydrogen synthesis via the water–gas shift reaction of photoheterotrophic bacteria Certain photoheterotrophic bacteria within the superfamily Rhodospirillaceae can grow in the dark using CO as the sole carbon source to generate ATP with the concomitant release of H2 and CO2 (Champine, 1987; Kerby et al, 1995; Ulfen, 1983). The oxidation of CO to CO2 with the release of H2 occurs via a water–gass hift reaction: CO(g) + H2O(l)

CO2(g) + H2(g);PG.

= . 20 (kJ=mol)

Dark-fermentation Hydrogen can be produced by anaerobic bacteria, grown in the dark on carbohydraterich substrates. Fermentation reactions can be operated at mesophilic (25–40o.C), thermophilic (40–65oC), extreme thermophilic (65–80o.C), or hyperthermophilic (>80o.C) temperatures. While direct and indirect photolysis systems produce pure H2, dark-fermentation processes produce a mixed biogas containing primarily H2 and carbon dioxide (CO2), but which may also contain lesser amounts of methane (CH4), CO, and/ or hydrogen sulfide (H2S). The gas composition presents technical challenges with respect to using the biogas in fuel cells. Bacteria known to produce hydrogen include species of Enterobacter, Bacillus, and Clostridium. Carbohydrates are the preferred substrate for hydrogen-producing fermentations. Glucose, isomers of hexoses, or polymers in the form of starch or 211

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cellulose, yield different amounts of H2 per mole of glucose, depending on the fermentation pathway and end-product(s). When acetic acid is the end product, a theoretical maximum of 4 mole H2 per mole of glucose is obtained: C6H12O6 + 2H2O

2CH3COOH + 4H2 + 2CO2

When butyrate is the end-product, a theoretical maximum of 2 moles H2 per mole of glucose is obtained: C6H12O6 + 2H2O

CH2CH2CH2COOH + 2H2 + 2CO2

Thus, the highest theoretical yields of H2 are associated with acetate as the fermentation end-product. In practice, however, high H2 yields are associated with a mixture of acetate and butyrate fermentation products, and low H2 yields are associated with propionate and reduced end-products (alcohols, lactic acid). Clostridium pasteurianum, C. butyricum, and C. beijerinkii are high H2 producers, while C. propionicum is a poor H2 producer (Hawkes et al, 2002). Factors to be considered Hydrogen production by these bacteria is highly dependent on the process conditions such as pH, hydraulic retention time (HRT), and gas partial pressure, which affect metabolic balance. Thus, fermentation end products produced by a bacterium depend on the environmental conditions in which it grows. Reduced fermentation end products like ethanol, butanol, and lactate, contain hydrogen that has not been liberated as gas. To maximize the yield of H2, the metabolism of the bacterium must be directed away from alcohols (ethanol, butanol) and reduced acids (lactate) towards volatile fatty acids (VFA). The partial pressure of H2 (pH2) is an extremely important factor for continuous H2 synthesis. Hydrogen synthesis pathways are sensitive to H2 concentrations and are subject to end-product inhibition. As H2 concentration increases, H2 synthesis decreases and metabolic pathways shift to production of more reduced substrates such as lactate, ethanol, acetone, butanol, or alanine. As the temperature increases, however, conditions that favor reaction (Schopf, 2000). Continuous H2 synthes is requires pH2 of <50 kPa at 60oC (Lee and Zinder, 1988), <20 kPa at 70oC (Van Niel et al, 2002), and <2 kPa at 98oC (Adams, 1990). Area of Research Needed Both light-dependent (direct photolysis, indirect photolysis, and photo-fermentation) and dark-fermenation biohydrogen systems are under intense investigation to find ways to improve both the rates of H2 production and the ultimate yield of H2. Some important areas for research are as follows:

路 212

Study to improve both the rates of H2 production and the ultimate yield of H2.

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Approaches to improve H2 production by green algae Optimization of light input into photo bioreactors for increased H2 yield Genetic modification of enzyme pathways that compete with hydrogen producing enzyme Optimization of bioreactor designs, rapid removal and purification of gases

CONCLUSION Biohydrogen technologies are still in their infancy. Existing technologies offer potential for practical application, but if biohydrogen systems are to become commercially competitive they must be able to synthesize H2 at rates that are sufficient to power fuel cells of sufficient size to do practical work. If the dark fermentation method is optimized it will give the twin solution for the two burning problems of kitchen waste management and energy deficiency. REFERENCES Adams MWW, 1990. The metabolism of hydrogen by extremely thermophilic sulphurdependent bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev, 75:219–38. Arik T, Gunduz U, Yucel M, Turker L, Sediroglu V and Eroglu I, 1996. Photoproduction of hydrogen by Rhodobacter sphaeroides OU001. In: Viroglu TN, Winter CJ, Baselt JP, Kreysa G, editors. Proceedings of the 11th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Stuttgart, Germany. Frankfurt: Scon & Wetzel GmbH. p. 2417– 26. Bolton JR, 1996. Solar photoproduction of hydrogen. Sol Energy, 57:37–50. Champine J E, 1987. Membrane topography of anaerobic carbon monoxide oxidation in Rhodocyclus gelatinosus. J Bacteriol. 169:4784–9. Fascetti E and Todini O, 1995. Rhodobacter sphaeroides RV cultivation and hydrogen production in a one- and two-stage chemostat. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 22:300-5. Fedorov AS, Tsygankov AA, Rao KK and Hall DO, 1998. Hydrogen photoproduction by Rhodobacter sphaeroides immobilised on polyurethane foam. Biotechnol. Lett., 20:1007–9. Francou N and Vignais P M, 1984. Hydrogen production by Rhodopseudomonas capsulata cellsentrapped in carrageenan beads. Biotechnol. Lett., 6:639–44. Ghirardi M L, Zhang L, Lee J W, Flynn T, Seibert M, Greenbaum E and Melis A, 2000. Microalgae: a green source of renewable H2. Trends Biotechnol, 18:506–11. Hansel A and Lindblad P, 1998. Mini-review: toward optimization of cyanobacteria asbiotechnologically relevant producers of molecular hydrogen, a clean energy source. Appl Environ Microbiol, 50:153–60. 213

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Hawkes FR, Dinsdale R, Hawkes DL, Hussy I, 2002. Sustainable fermentative biohydrogen: challenges for process optimization. Int J Hydrogen Energy, 27:1339–47. Kaushik Nath and Debabrata Das, 2003. Hydrogen from biomass, Current Science, Vol. 85, No. 3, 10 August. Kerby RL, Ludden PW, Robert GP, 1995. Carbon monoxidedependent growth of Rhodospirillum rubrum. J Bacteriol, 177:2241–4. Lee MJ, Zinder SH, 1988. Hydrogen partial pressures in a thermophilic acetateoxidizing methanogenic co-culture. Appl Environ Microbiol. 54:1457–61. Schopf JW, 2000. The fossil record. Tracing the roots of the cyanobacterial lineage. In: Whitton BA, PottsM, editors.The ecology of cyanobacteria. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Tamagni P, Axelsson R, Lindberg P, Oxelfelt F, Wunschiers R, Lindblad P, 2002. Hydrogenases and hydrogen metabolism in cyanobacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev., 66:1–20. Tsygankov AA, Hirata Y, Miyake M, Asada Y, Miyake J, 1994. Photobioreactor with photosynthetic bacteria immobilized on porousglas sfor hydrogen photoproduction. J Ferment Bioeng.77:575–8. Tsygankov AA, Fedorov AS, Laurinavichene TV, Gogotov IN, Rao KK and Hall DO, 1998. Actual and potential ratesof hydrogen photoproduction by continuousculture of the purple non-sulphur bacteria Rhodobacter capsulatus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 49:102–7. Tsygankov AA, Fedorov AS, Talipova IV, Laurinavichene TV, Miyake J, Gogotov IN, Rao KK and Hall DO, 1998. Application of immobilized phototrophic bacteria for simultaneous waste water treatment and hydrogen photoproduction. Appl Biochem Microbiol, 34:1–5 (in Russian). Ulfen RL, 1983. Metabolism of carbon monoxide by Rhodopseudomonas gelatinosa: cell growth and propertiesof the oxidation system. J Bacteriol, 155:956–65. Vincenzini M, Materassi R, Sili C and Florenzano G, 1986. Hydrogen production by immobilized cellsIII. Prolonged and stable H2 photoevolution by Rhodopseudomonas palaustris inlight-dark-cycles. Int J Hydrogen Energy;11:623–6. Van Niel EWJ, Claassen PAM, Stams AJM, 2002. Substrate and product inhibition of hydrogen production by the extreme thermophile Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus. Biotechnol Bioeng, 81:255–62. Zurrer H, Bachofen R, 1982. Aspects of growth and hydrogen production of the photosynthetic bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum in continuousculture. Biomass, 2:165 –74.

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ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT ON MENTAL STRESS OF WOMEN

Beela G K Dept of Home Science, College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Trivandrum

INTRODUCTION Technological advancements are forcing the human society to change at a more rapid rate now than any other time in history. The pace with which the changes are occurring in the environment and nature is causing conflicts in the behavior and increase in stress within human beings. Studies in the field of stress have tended to focus on four broad areas: The individual, personality and belief sets, the effect of stress on work, methods of coping with stress and the environment. Environment and nature are behavioral issues of vital importance. Researches on environmental stressors like noise, crowding and pollutants have received attention. Changes in the world around us test our ability to adapt, and may threaten health and well-being. In industrialized societies most people today lead lives very different from their grandparents, who were often directly dependent on the natural world. We are all exposed to the consequences of pollution, climate change, and loss of stratospheric ozone, new threats from toxic substances, infections, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. In every community, environmental threats such as a hazardous waste site, a polluting factory, or a nuclear power plant can be seen and confronted, even if the danger they represent is invisible and technically complicated. Acid rain due to industrial activity in a remote area is a more abstract notion, even though its consequences, for example, dying trees and fish, are starkly visible (Williams, 1973). Global issues such as climate change, ozone depletion, and loss of biodiversity have potentially catastrophic consequences, yet to most people, they seem distant and theoretical, obscured by a debate that is technical and driven by ideology, special interests, and emotion. But pressures on the environment will continue to build. Population and consumption are growing, and we can expect greater environmental health problems. Environment and its imapct on human behaviuor is one area of recent concern, and hence, environmetnal psychology as a branch of science has emerged. Environmental psychology has an important role in keeping psychological science tuned in to practical problems in environmental design, planning, and management that are now and will 215

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always remain of concern to the societies that want to serve the community. Environment In the present study, environment is defined as the physical conditions like land, air, water, mineral, flora, fauna, noise, and objects of historic or aesthetic significance which exist within the area where something exists or lives Environment and Mental Health By the term environment, mental health professionals usually mean an individual’s family and immediate social circle. (Shurley, 1979). Psychotherapy tends to focus on intrapsychic events and on interaction with the closest family and social group. In recent decades, the focus has shifted to biological determinants of individual experience and behavior, to the genetics of serious mental illness, and to pharmacotherapy for psychiatric disorders. (Stokols, 1987). Genetics and family environment combine to mold a person. (Achenbach T. M. 1991) but growing evidence shows that the nonsocial environment — biological and physical — is important as well, not only for health and psychological functioning, but also for psychiatric morbidity. (Freeman 1984). Toxins and traumatic experiences such as natural disasters cause illness and vulnerability. Epidemiological data show a sharp rise in depression among adolescents and young adults. (Gallagher, 1993). On the other hand, interacting with the living world, even contemplating pictures of nature, can have therapeutic effects. (Kaplan & Kaplan 1989). Stress In mechanics stress represents the perturbation of an elastic substance away from its normal resting position. Relaxation is the return towards the undisturbed state. In biological system stress is the body’s normal response to stimuli or anything that disturbs its natural, physical, emotional or mental balance. Role of Environment as a stressor Most of the studies of stress have evolved identifying of the stressors, and several studies have focused on environment, particularly on work environment (Cooper, 1981). It might be argued that if issues of control are central to coping with stress, the ‘artificial’ environment and relations forced on the workforce plus the limited amount of available individual control has actually created the increase in levels of stress in people at work. According to a World Health Organization report, ‘About 50% of the entire working populations are unhappy with the environment they work and live’. There was a great impetus for interdisciplinary research on ecological and environmental problems given by the Chernobyl Catastrophe in 1986, and the thrust areas identified were mostly traumatic stress disorders (Abou-Donia, 1996). There is a dearth of studies on relationships between stress and the environment in which an individual lives. 216

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OBJECTIVE The present study aimed at finding out the impact of environment on the mental stress of woman living in different types of environment METHODS The present study examined the role of environment on mental stress by taking different sample areas with different environmental conditions, selected and classified based on the pollution, population, vegetation and climate (Based on Ambient standards prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board and Population data). In the present investigation, a broad classification was given to the environment as acceptable environment and non-acceptable environment. The areas selected under acceptable environment were, Wynad, Budhiya and Trivandrum. Areas selected under nonacceptable environment were Madras, Ernakulam and Manama. Samples were selected randomly in the age group of 25 to 35 and were subjected to the modified version of the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale. The stress scale emphasized on crowding, noise, alternative work environments, transportation impacts, women and housing, and childcare facilities. Blood cortisol level, a hormone known as stress hormone, was measured with the help of the clinical experts. RESULTS The results depicts that women, irrespective of working or non working both living in non-acceptable environment showed higher stress scores and higher stress hormone cortisol level scores than their counterparts living in acceptable environment (Fig.1 and 2).

Fig.1 The stress scores of women living in acceptable and non-acceptable environment 217

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Fig.2 The stress hormone level of women living in acceptable and non-acceptable environment

The results also revealed that 76% of the sample stated that the physical environment (buildings, office space etc) has the more impact on their stressful life. CONCLUSIONS From the results of the present study it can be concluded that environment plays a vital role in the mental stress of women. Women living in over-crowded and polluted conditions are more stressed when compared to their counterparts living in less polluted and populated conditions. Besides, chronic residential crowding has been a factor for depression. The parents were stressed due to the poor environmental quality in which their children were growing up. This study brings out the psychosocial effects of urban environments, noise, and crowding. Further it can be concluded that acceptable environment which is less polluted, less populated and with vegetation, is advisable to reduce stress in the community. REFERENCES Abou-Donia M B, Wilmarth K R, Jensen K F, Oehme F W, and Kurt T L, 1996. “Neurotoxicity resulting from coexposure to pyridostigmine bromide, DEET, and permethrin”. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 48, 35-56. Achenbach T M, 1991. Manual for the teacher’s report form and 1991 profile . Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry. Cooper C L and Payne R Eds., 1988. Causes, Coping and Consequences of Stress at Work. Wiley: Chichester. Freeman H. (Ed.), 1984. Mental health and the environment . New York: Churchill Livingstone. Gallagher W, 1993. The power of place: How our surroundings shape our thoughts, emotions and actions . New York: Poseidon Press. Kaplan R and Kaplan S, 1989. The experience of nature:A psychological perspective. Cambridge, England & New York: Cambridge University Press. 218

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Shurley J T, 1979. Relating environment to mental health and illness: The ecopsychiatric data base (Rep. No. 16). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Task Force. Stokols D, and Altman I (Eds.), 1987. Handbook of environmental psychology . New York: Wiley. Williams J S, Leyman E, Karp S A and Wilson P T, 1973. Environmental pollution and mental health . Washington, DC: Information Resources Press.

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CLEAN KERALA MISSIONA MOVEMENT TOWARDS ZERO WASTE KERALA

Ajaykumar Varma R Former Director, Clean Kerala Mission, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION A healthy ecosystem makes no waste as the discards of one species become food for the next, in an endless cycle. The modern society interrupts this cycle in three ways; by creating a wide range of substances using technological advancement, increasing the per capita use and disposal of such items and clogging the ecosystem qualitatively and quantitatively with discards. We are a generation that saw the development of a resource-consuming society characterized by mass production, mass consumption, and mass waste. The per capita generation of solid waste increases from 1 to 1.33% per year. The quantities of plastic matter and other packaging materials are 70 times higher than those in the 1960s. As a result, we now experience increasing environmental pollution posing serious threat to economic development and sustainability. It is considered that solid waste is one of the root causes of environmental pollution. In Indian cities, more than half of the waste generated remains on the streets without being cleared promptly. Even the collected waste is dumped in improper places under unsanitary conditions leading to pollution of water sources, proliferation of vectors of communicable diseases, foul smell and odours, release of toxic metabolites, unaesthetic ambiance and eyesore. The unhealthy practice of open air burning is increasing in most of our residential areas and in waste dumping yards, leading to toxic emissions. Rapid urbanization and constant change in consumption pattern and social behavior have caused massive waste generation in Kerala beyond the assimilative capacity of the environment, and management capacity of the existing waste management systems. As a result, the urban environment is highly unhygienic with stagnated and contaminated water bodies, accumulation of degradable discards and litter, poor drains, polluted air and high level of noise. There is serious shortage of land for waste disposal. Even the suitability of existing sites is not properly assessed. The low level of incentives and lack of proper regulatory and enforcement mechanism aggravates the situation. The local bodies with their limited human, technical, financial and institutional capacity demonstrated their inability to cope up with the multi-dimensional problems of solid 220

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waste management. Though there are multitudes of agencies designated for activities linked to the upgradation of environment, the networking and coordination are poor. Similarly, pooling and effective utilization of resources earmarked for these activities are also poorly done. The responsibility of the State for time-targeted implementation of the Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 has not picked up momentum to the extent necessary. SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND CHARACTERISTICS Solid waste includes all solid materials that the user no longer considers it as a valuable material to retain. There are three broad categories of solid waste, namely, the Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW), Bio-medical Wastes, and Industrial Wastes. The MSW is a heterogeneous mixture of organic wastes, rubbish, demolition and construction wastes, street sweepings, garden wastes, abandoned parts of vehicles and appliances, and residues from small scale industrial units. The estimated waste generation in the 58 Urban Local Bodies (ULB) of Kerala is about 3000 tons/day. Similar rate of waste generation exists in the rural areas also. The ‘NIMBY’ (Not In My Back Yard) syndrome, increased the waste accumulation in public places due to which the adverse impact on aesthetic and health environment is on the increse. About 50% of the waste generated, i.e. 1500 tons/day, is generally collected by our municipalities, of which less than one-third is subjected to processing. The rest are dumped in haphazard manner leading to unhygienic dump yard contaminating land, water and air environment. In the absence of processing facilities, some of the ULBs bury the waste by spreading soil cover over it, which lead to severe land and water pollution. At places, the wastes are also subjected to reckless burning, causing toxic emissions. Generally, in the urban areas of Kerala, about 31% of the solid waste is generated by vegetable, fish and fruit markets, 24% by hotels and food shops, 19% by households, 9% by road sweeping, 5% by hospitals, 4% by offices and institutions and 8% by miscellaneous sources. Normally, 70% of the total waste generated (by weight) is biodegradable, 6% is plastic, 9% is paper and the rest are metals, leather, clothes, wood, rubber etc., with marginal variation from place to place. The moisture content of our municipal solid waste is high, around 50%, compared to 33% at Chennai and 15% at Delhi. The heavy metal concentration is also quite significant, as the cadmium concentration vary from 0.7 – 3.5 parts per million (ppm), chromium from 18 – 71 ppm, lead from 72 – 165 ppm, nickel from 22 – 26 ppm, zinc from 4 – 174 ppm etc. Although plastics constitute only 6% of the total municipal solid wastes, they are perceived as a major threat because of their long life, high visibility and nuisance value in the waste stream. The plastics when burnt in the absence of sufficient oxygen produce carbon monoxide. The plastics with colourants and plasticizers, on burning, results in heavy metal toxicity and toxic gas emission. The popular Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) contains vinyl chloride monomer which is a known carcinogen and emits chlorine, hydrogen chloride and dioxin during processing and burning. 221

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SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES The social and economic development of the State, in recent years, focuses more towards sectors of health, education, tourism and agriculture. Most of our health care institutions lack good sanitation practices and are devoid of any environmental policy and hence are prone to high risks. The hygienic conditions and overall cleanliness of educational establishments are also far from adequate. The continuous upgradation of environmental conditions at par with development interventions is particularly essential at tourist destinations and tourism related activities to achieve a win-win situation. Instead, the tourism locations are fast deteriorating with litter, disposables and improper waste management. On the other hand, the biodegradable part of municipal solid waste is the prime raw material for production of organic manure. This, in fact, could assist organic cultivation, a necessity in international agricultural market and eco-label production. Considering the escalating hidden cost and environmental constraints for management of increasing quantity of waste, it is imperative that a consumer State like Kerala think and plan beyond mere management of waste. WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES AND ISSUES The Municipal Solid Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000, under the Environment Protection Act of India, make it mandatory for all Municipalities to introduce integrated solid waste management system. It envisages segregated storage at source, prompt collection from the sources and secured transportation based on the principles of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;no waste on groundâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, setting up processing plants using appropriate technology, developing engineered landfill for disposal of refuse and inert waste and establish secured landfill for municipal hazardous wastes. The Municipal and Panchayat Raj Acts of Kerala also include provisions for Local Self Government Institutions (LSGIs) to take appropriate measures for the management of domestic garbage. Accordingly, all our municipalities maintain a health and sanitation section responsible for cleaning public places, collection and transportation of waste to a dump yard for processing and landfilling. However, the local bodies generally fail to address the system of cleaning, collection, transportation, processing and disposal of waste in a comprehensive manner, leading to inadequate and inefficient waste management services. There are specific criteria for scheduling street cleaning, but it is seldom adopted and integrated into a comprehensive waste management system. The collection of rubbish and discards in a segregated manner depending on their characteristics is also absent. The mixed nature of the municipal waste stream destroys much of their value. The organic part of the wastes contaminates the reusable and recyclable portions and toxic substance destroy the usefulness of both. This can change only through source segregation, the responsibility of which has to be assumed by the producer. Similarly, no municipality in the State has a systematic collection and transportation system. The timing of waste collection from primary sources should be known to the public and tuned to the transportation plan. The appropriateness in selecting the technology for 222

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waste processing and engineering skill for operating the processing plant and maintaining the sanitary landfill are also key to the efficiency of integrated waste management system. The lack of financial resources, institutional weakness, improper choice of technology and public apathy towards solid waste management have made this service far from satisfactory. With over 3.6% annual growth in urban population and the rapid pace of urbanization, the solid waste accumulation and management is becoming more and more critical with the passage of time. ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY The part of municipal solid wastes, which are reusable and recyclable, such as paper, plastics, rubber etc in an industrial environment need a separate stream of treatment, wherein the role of informal sector is important. While doing so, it is necessary to pursue a long-term policy to develop an attitude to reuse any article to the maximum extent possible and reduce certain types of wastes such as plastics through policies such as Extended Producer Responsibility or replace it through appropriate alternatives. The technology options available for processing the rest of the wastes for reuse or recovery are based on thermal conversion and bio conversion. The thermal conversion technologies are incineration with or with out heat recovery, pyrolysis and gasification and pelletization. The products of incineration process are ash, gaseous and particulate emissions and heat energy. The pyrolysis produces gas, liquid fuels and solid residue. The pelletization converts the waste to pellets (known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;refuse derived fuelsâ&#x20AC;?) that can readily be used as domestic or industrial fuel. The bio- conversion process is applicable to the organic fraction of wastes, to form compost or to generate biogas such as methane (waste to energy) and residual sludge (manure). Various technologies are available for composting such as aerobic, anaerobic and vermi-composting. The aerobic composting converts the organic wastes to compost in 4 to 12 weeks whereas the anaerobic composting process is lengthy extending over 4 to 10 months. The vermi compost is basically an earthworm casting. The anaerobic digestion subjects solid waste with large proportion of organic matter to decomposition in low oxygen environment leading to the production of bio-gas, a mixture of CH4 and CO2. This gas can be used for burning or for generation of electricity and the sludge is good manure. The high moisture content, low calorific value, substantially high contents of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in solid waste samples indicate that the vegetative fractions of wastes are more suitable for composting to organic manure after separating the reusable and recyclable fractions. The inert, non-biodegradable residue left after composting could be disposed in sanitary landfills. However, the substantial concentration of toxic metals in organic matter samples warrants a prudent leachate treatment unit in the solid waste management design. The thermal conversion processes, especially incineration, may release dioxin (one of the most toxic gases and potent cancer promoter), mercury (a potent neurotoxin), hydrogen chloride (a potent acid 223

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rain inducer), fine particulates (potent lung ailment promoter), toxic metals including lead (causative of nervous system disorders), cadmium (causative of kidney ailments), arsenic (causative of damaging nerves and tissues) etc. The resource requirement for thermal methods and their environmental impacts are very high and hence, are not generally suitable in Kerala context. UPGRADATION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES The conventional solutions consider only the formal sector, ignoring the existence and possible contributions of the informal sector that exists around waste collection and recycling in many cities. The formal sector considers wastes as a disposal problem, rather than as a resource management issue. They seek to maximize refuse collection and upgrade disposal facilities. The centralized and undiversified system does not distinguish the different needs of neighbourhoods within the city. Though there is necessity for giving highest priority to waste reduction, reuse and recycling as most desirable option, it is seldom popularized in centralised waste management strategy. Therefore, it is vital to upgrade the solid waste management through a systematic and comprehensive approach, in tandem with environmental and legal obligations. This will need promotion of the concept of ‘Reduce and Reuse’ among the community and ‘Recycle’ concept based on waste-to-wealth principle in addition to setting up comprehensive centralized waste management system, wherever essential. TOWARDS A ZERO WASTE STATE Considering the worldwide trends of increasing population and depleting resource balance, it is clear that the waste management will lead to a crisis as a state like Kerala cannot afford the increasing hidden cost of waste. A crisis demand action and in the case of waste, the action need to be to end the cheap waste disposal, design a system without waste and engage the whole community in the campaign for achieving a zero waste State. It is a system approach and envisages the redesigning of resource flows and comprise of an underpinning philosophy, a clear vision and a call to action based on the notion that waste can be eliminated. The waste elimination helps to reduce landfills and meet the obligation to Kyoto Protocol by reducing CO2 and methane emission. The recycling of materials, an essential component of this concept, will significantly cut down the imports and enhance the use of the materials imported. The process will facilitate local economic development as the hard-hit communities will be able to take control of a huge untapped and increasingly valuable resource to create wealth from waste. Though the target is highly demanding and may seem beyond our reach, it is important to focus our quest for solution to a complex problem. ROLE OF A MISSION A zero-waste campaign necessitates a strategy and work plan with a long-term vision for a waste free, unpolluted, hygienic and clean Kerala, a new healthy citizenship believing in zero waste concept, that of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle at least 80% of 224

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the waste generated and society inclined to create wealth from waste. Such a vision necessitates intensive actions to develop attitudinal change among the people of Kerala, achieve an overall hygienic environment, institutionalize comprehensive scientific waste management systems, employ appropriate technology to eliminate waste disposal issues and motivate the community to practice reduction, reuse and recycle of materials that they use. Thus, a systematic approach in a mission mode is essential which would aim at establishing socially acceptable, technically feasible, operationally sustainable and financially viable solid waste management facilities and services; strengthening the managerial capacity and responsibility of the community and local governments in planning, implementing and maintaining solid waste management facilities and services; raising the awareness of the community on the critical role of hygienic behavior for improving environmental sanitation condition and enabling the networking and coordination of agencies and groups working in this sector. The zero waste management system is emerging as one of the most important prerequisite for sustainable development and progressive society. Therefore, it is essential to achieve a goal of minimum waste generation through reuse and maximum waste recovery through recycling. Hence, it is necessary to get into a practice of reduced resource consumption, material reuse and appropriate waste recycling. These will save land, reduce pollution and conserve our precious natural resources. CONCLUSION The prevailing scenario in waste management necessitates a dynamic citizen coalition to challenge the usual “bury” or “burn” approach of the LSGIs as well as the community. This requires an attitudinal change among the society and policies and action towards sustainable consumption, clean production and zero waste. In order to achieve this, multitudes of acts have to be performed by the community, institutions, government machinery and social organizations on a mission mode. This creates space for a motivator, enabler and facilitator to bring about a very high degree of human behavior change towards waste which is being filled up by a State level institution like the Clean Kerala Mission. The experience of the mission is expected to help initiate a National policy dialogue on the need and effectiveness of a State level strategy and action plans for moving towards a zero waste State.

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Environmental Pollution and Control

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ECOLOGY AND POLLUTION OF THE SASTHAMCOTTA FRESH WATER LAKE – A REVIEW

Bhuvanendran C and Harikuttan Unnithan C Solid State Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics D.B.College, Sasthamcotta, Kollam, Kerala-690 521

INTRODUCTION Sasthamcotta lake is the largest fresh water lake in Kerala. Over the years, the storage capacity of the lake has come down due to various reasons. Being the only source of water for the major township of Kollam and the adjoining panchayats, conservation of this lake assumes great significance. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other institutions are regularly bringing out reviews on all environmentrelated problems with special emphasis on fresh water resources. With the passage of time, the increasing population and higher living standards have become the major threat to the existence of the lake, bringing down the level of water and causing pollution thereby affecting the sustenance of the people in its vicinity. Sasthamcotta lake lies between 90 11’ and 90 41’ North latitude and 760 36’ 30" and 760 40’ East longitude. The lake has an area of 4.64 km2 having an average depth of 6.7m with a maximum of 13.9m (Prakasam 1991).Except on the southern side, all other sides of the lake are bounded by steeply sloping hillocks. The southern side, on the other hand, is a low lying land of alluvial sediments which is now used for paddy cultivation. The paddy fields end at the western boundary of the Kallada River. The lake is separated from the paddy fields by an artificial barrier (bund) constructed during 1956 under the Indo-Norwegian Project. The region between the lake barrier and the Kallada River is very important from the point of water conservation. There are different views regarding the origin of water in the lake. According to Menon (1964), the lake owes its supply mainly to the infiltration of ground water. But Thomas et al (1980) opined that springs and seasonal rains are the main sources of water. The seepage water and the rain water form the main sources and surface drainage was another source, as suggested by Pillai (1981). Water level in the lake depends upon the quantity of water pumped out for water supply, water runoff from the catchment areas and the water level in the Kallada river. The water level also depends upon the amount of rainfall in this area. The water level increases around 1.5m depending on the amount of rainfall (Prakasam 1991). Later it 229

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keeps on declining indicating thereby that monsoon rain is the major source of water in the lake. Water loss also takes place through evaporation. Excessive mining of river sand from the adjacent water sources, Kallada river and Chelurpola kayal, definitely affects the ground water level in this region, which, in turn, adversely affects the water level of the lake. Besides, in West Kallada, placed near the lake, a new trend has developed among farmers to dig paddy fields for mining the river sand and clay, consequent to the increasing demand of clay and sand. Such paddy fields are very close to this lake, and may have been serving as temporary reservoir of water during the monsoon season recharging the ground water. This trend badly affects the water level of the lake. One of the major reasons for the decrease in water level in the lake is also the large quantity of water pumped out for water supply to provide drinking water to the Kollam Muncipality and parts of the coastal panchayats of Neendakara and Sakthikulangara, and to a lesser extent, in Sasthamcotta and Mynagapally panchayats. Therefore any plan to pump more water from the lake than the required, before enhancing the water availability through adopting catchment conservation/development plan, will certainly worsen the situation. Fig.1 shows the observed water level of the lake near the pump house (Kerala Water Authority) during April - November 2004. The April water level was 0.22m, July: 1.77m, August: 1.95m, and November: 1.97m. A 1.75m rise in the level occurs during this monsoon season.

W a te r le ve l (m )

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

April

August

September

November

Mo n th (2 0 0 4 )

Fig. 1. The water level observed by Kerala Water Authority, Sasthamcotta during April to November 2004. Recently, the task of measuring the depth of the lake (at 15 points) was carried out in collaboration with the Office of the Marine Surveyor, Southern Range, Kollam. The readings as per the Lead line method is provided graphically in Fig. 2. The points chosen are approximately the same as those of Prakasam (1989), and hence compared by adding the 1.75m to the values of Prakasam (1989). From the graph it is noticed that there is a variation in the depth between both the 230

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observations. Except for two or three points on the west side of the lake all other points, the depth of the lake noticed by the present observation is less than that observed in 1989. It can be seen that the maximum depth of 15.65m was noticed earlier which now is only about 14.5m.This depth recorded is at point 10 situated on the path of Sasthamcotta-Kallada ferry. It is observed that there is a difference of about 1m decrease in the depth at points 6 to 10. The estimation regarding the depth in the present study and that of Prakasam (considering 15 points which are located at the center of the lake) shows that water level decreased at an average of 0.5 m during the last 14 years. Neither the present study nor Prakasam accounts for the depth of the entire lake in a systematic way. However it is apparent that the water level has decreased appreciably. In this context, a sophisticated and detailed study and investigation is highly recommended for assuring the sustainability of this fresh water source. 16 14

Black - 2004 Red - 1989

Depth (m)

10 8 6 4 2 0

Points taken in the lake (West to East)

Fig. 2: Comparison of the depth of the lake at various stations: black-present observations 2004, and grey - by Prakasam, 1989.

POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES The increase in population and the related developmental activities on the bank of the lake lead to the pollution of the lake. Many families around the lake do not have proper sanitary facilities. Faecal matter in the nearby area produce harmful bacteria in the water. The inhabitants also make use of the lake water for washing clothes and bathing. Soap, caustic soda and other detergents are used for washing. Coconut leaves are left immersed in the lake water for a long time, to be used for thatching. As a result, oxygen depletion in the lake water can occur by letting in free carbon dioxide. The waste water from the filter house is channeled back into the lake. People who come to the weekly market and the pilgrims to the Dharma Sastha Temple make use of the lake water for various needs. Since the Sasthamcotta panchayat does not have a sewage disposal system, the solid waste from the township including hospitals and market are dumped near the lake. Cultivation of tapioca, paddy, and rubber are carried out on the banks of the lake. They dig up the soil and use fertilizers to improve their crop. During monsoon, the loose soil along with the chemical fertilizers move into the lake. Domestic animals like cattle etc are also bathed in the lake. Thus pollution from 231

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faecal matter, domestic waste, agricultural run-off that includes pesticides and fertilizers, soap and detergents etc pose a major threat to the quality of the lake water. To improve the water quality, it becomes imperative to improve the present sanitation conditions in the catchment area of the lake. For that, the families residing around the lake not possessing any adequate sanitary facilities are to be identified and incentives should be provided for them, for establishing proper latrines. More public comfort stations are to be established at the two stations- one near the Temple and yet another near the market. A proper and scientific waste collection and disposal system should be established for disposing the wastes from the houses, market, township, hospitals and hotels. Construction of small side tanks near the lake shall serve the purpose of washing cattle and laundry. Such tanks should be constructed at strategic locations along the sides of the lake. The drainage of wastewater after pumping / purification and the wastewater from other places should be collected through a proper sewage system. CONCLUSION 1.

The available data indicates a decrease in the depth of the lake over the years, possibly due to increased use and, siltation. By adopting proper slope protection measures and dredging to desilt the lake, the water storage can be maintained.

The mining of sand and clay in the Kallada river and the paddy fields near this water source should be controlled.

Certain measures such as proper sanitation, waste disposal, sewerage treatment etc should be provided to improve the water quality.

In order to create proper awareness among the common public, notice boards should be displayed at various parts near the banks of the lake showing the importance of the drinking water.

Seminars and symposia may be organized with the help of voluntary organizations.

It is suggested that the heavy fiscal needs for the protection of the lake can be collected through a nominal cess for the drinking water and by promoting ecotourism activities in the area.

It is concluded that a thorough scientific investigation of the lake and its adjacent water sources is thus very essential for the survival of the lake. REFERENCES Menon A S, 1964. Kerala district Gazetteers, Kollam, Govt: Press, Trivandurm. Pillai KNR, 1981. Studies on some aspects of the ecology of larval chaoborus in lake Sasthamcotta, M.Phil. Dissertation Univ. of Kerala,TVM. Prakasam V R, 1991. Ecology, Biology and Pollution of Sasthamcotta lake. Project report submitted to ministry of Environment and forest, Govt. of India, Delhi. Thomas P A, Abraham T and Abraham K G, 1980. a: Observations on the primary productivity of Sasthamcotta lake. Proc. Symp.Environ. Biol. Trivandrum.1-7 232

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ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF RETTING ZONES IN KAYAMKULAM BACKWATERS, KERALA

Kadeeja Beevi M*, Sree Kumar S** and Bijoy Nandan S*** *IRTC Mundur, Palakkad. **Dept. of Geology and Environmental Science, Christ College, Irinjalakuda. ***Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (ICAR), Alappuzha Centre, Alappuzha.

INTRODUCTION The estuaries of Kerala are extensively utilized for the processing of coconut husk in the traditional method, and the shores of these estuaries are famous as important coir fiber production centers in the world. The estuaries of Kerala are becoming increasingly polluted due to persistent retting of coconut husk for the manufacture of coir. Coir industry is one of the most well organized cottage industries in Kerala, offering direct employment to over half a million people in the State. Retting of coconut husk is brought about by the pectinolytic activity of microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and yeast releasing large quantities of organic substances such as pectin, pentosan, polyphenols tannins etc. Retting of coconut husk for the production of coir fiber is widely done throughout the west coast of peninsular India. The coir industry is the largest small scale and cottage industry in Kerala. The backwaters of the State spanning nearly 800 km are the sites for the retting of coconut husk. Retting activity has polluted the highly productive estuarine environment along the coast of Kerala. It has virtually transformed them into cesspools of foul smelling sulphide rich stagnant waters, causing large-scale depletion of living resources such as plankton and nekton. RELEVANCE OF STUDY The backwaters of Kerala recently attained international importance since Vembanadkol, Ashtamudi and Shasthankotta Lake have been designated as Ramsar sites in November 2002. Kayamkulam backwaters lie in between Vembanad-kol and Ashtamudi wetland system. Several authors have studied the effect of coir retting in these wetlands. OBJECTIVES ยง Environmental impact of retting activity ยง Water quality, sediment, plankton and benthos analysis in retting and non-retting zones during pre-monsoon and monsoon period. ยง Compare the ecological degradation of different retting in Kayamkulam backwaters. 233

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§ Understand the occupational diseases related to retting activity. AREA UNDER STUDY Kayamkulam backwaters falls between latitude and longitude 76022’, 76031’ and 905’, 9016’25" (fig. 1). The samples were collected from ten stations (five retting and other non-retting) which are fringe areas of Kayamkulam backwaters coming under the Arattupuzha and Thrikkunnapuzha Grama Panchayaths.

Fig. 1 Map of Kerala indicating the major Backwaters, Rivers and Retting zones 234

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METHODS Sampling sites were selected after consultation with scientists, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Alappuzha. Water samples were analysed for the examination of transparency, temperature, pH, turbidity, CO2, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen and H2S. Sediments were analysed for the texture and organic carbon. Plankton and benthos identification were consulted with experts of CIFRI and using previous literature. Sampling and analysis of samples were done based on standard methodology (APHA, 1998). Details regarding health hazards were obtained from literature review and personal interviews with coir workers. Other information were obtained from Vector Control Research Institute, Cherthala. RESULTS The results were analysed for the physical, chemical and biological parameters of water from retting and non-retting zones during pre-monsoon and monsoon period. It was found that parameters such as pH, transparency, carbon dioxide, salinity, dissolved oxygen, hydrogen sulphide and nutrients showed marked variation (Fig. 2 to5). 45 8

Pre-Monsoon Monsoon

35 6

Pre-Monsoon Monsoon 30

25 4

20 3

15 2

0 Retting

Non Retting

Fig. 2 Variation in DO of retting and non-retting zones both

0 Retting

Non Retting

Fig.4 Variation in CO2 of retting and nonretting zones 900

20 800

18 Pre-Monsoon Monsoon

700

Pre-Monsoon Monsoon 600

500

400

300

6 200

4 100

2 0 Retting

Non Retting

0 Retting

Non Retting

Fig. 3 Variation in H2S of retting and non-retting zones

Fig. 5 Variation in hardness of retting and non-retting zones

The pH of water at the retting zones ranged from 4.2 to 8.9, and at the non-retting zones, from 7.9 to 8.3. According to Abdul Azis and Nair (1986), wide fluctuation in pH in the retting yard at Kadinumkulam backwaters was observed. The water at the retting zone was acidic in nature both in the monsoon and pre-monsoon periods. 235

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The Secchi disc visibility depth was around 0.98m in retting zone and 1.5m to 1.9m. in non-retting zones. Low transparency was observed during pre-monsoon period in retting zone. The stagnant condition was developed as a result of the closure of the sand bar during the monsoon period. Very low light penetration in retting zone can be attributed to the suspended husk and sediment particles and to the dark and turbid ret liquor at these zones. Carbon dioxide concentration in retting zones ranged from 7.79 to 12.7 mg/l and from 4.7 to 4.8 mg/l in non-retting zones. The higher concentration of free CO2 in the retting zones could be attributed to the process decomposition of organic matter like pectin, phenol, tannin etc. leading to the rise in temperature and gas production. Salinity distribution in the backwaters was influenced mainly by the opening and closure of the bar mouth, besides rainfall and river discharge. Salinity values at the retting zones ranged from 2.95 to 13.04ppt and at the non-retting zones, from 4.70 to 18.17 ppt. These zones are located in the inland areas so, and saline water intrusion was much less. Salinity was maximum in pre-monsoon period. Continued retting activity reduces the salinity. Dissolved oxygen ranged from 0.28 to 0.36 mg/l at retting zones and from 5.30 to 6.21mg/l in non-retting zones. Depletion of dissolved oxygen was observed during both pre-monsoon and monsoon period. Highly restricted circulatory process and the high consumption can be attributed as the reasons for the very low levels of oxygen in the water. Such anoxic conditions coupled with depletion of oxygen have been reported from the Edava-Nadayara backwater during February to July by Abdul Azis (1978). High concentrations, of dissolved hydrogen sulphide were the characteristic feature of the water quality at retting zones. Hydrogen sulphide concentration at retting zones ranged from 10.4 to 41.10 mg/l, and in non-retting zone from 1.43 to 4 mg/l. Hydrogen sulphide shows higher concentration during premonsoon period. Depletion of dissolved oxygen and production of hydrogen sulphide accompanied with the retting of coconut husk has been reported earlier from the Edava-Nadayara backwater by Bijoy Nandan (1997). The decomposition of the organic matter in the retting zones by bacteria results in the utilization of dissolved oxygen and production of hydrogen sulphide. Sediments were analysed for temperature, organic carbon and grade of the clastic sediments. High organic carbon is present both during pre-monsoon and monsoon period. According to Murthy and Verayya (1972), organic carbon content had an average value of 2.7% during pre-monsoon period, which indicated higher values of organic carbon. The increase in percentage of clay fraction indicated degradation of organic matter and decrease in depth. Qualitatively and quantitatively the plankton and benthos population showed depletion in the retting zones. The biomass values of the plankton were low in the retting zones when compared to the non-retting zones. Algal biomass in retting zone was 3.4 ml/m3 236

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indicating less biodiversity in retting zone. Analysis of plankton in the retting zone shows large number of Navicule, Phacus, Testudinella and high values of Rotifers, which are indicators of sulphide or any other pollution in water. Benthos distributed at retting zone includes three species in monsoon and two species in pre-monsoon. The three species observed during monsoon period were Gastropoda, Bivalved mussel and Polycheata. The species Polycheata was observed during both the periods in the retting and non-retting zone. However bivalved mussel and oligochaeta were totally absent in the retting zone during pre-monsoon period. These indicated higher anoxic condition in retting zone (Remani, et al 1989). Health hazards Coir industry is one of the most well organized cottage industries in Kerala, offering direct employment to over half a million people in the state. Retting of coconut husk by the traditional method and mechanical extraction processes in the backwaters has been a major source of health problem to the workers engaged in various stages of production of coir in the coir industry. Study reports of Bijoy Nandan (1991), and based on personal interview and discussion with the workers, aged between 19-45 engaged in retting activity revealed that they are facing severe health ailments like skin, throat and eye irritation, knee swelling and red eyes when standing inside retting pits, muscular weakness, sleeplessness and swelling in various parts of the body. The epidemiological survey of the retting yards of Kerala and surrounding areas conducted by the Vector Control Research Institute has shown that the inhabitants of these areas are endemic to filariasis. The species Mansonia mansonia, Culex sp. and Brugia malayi are found to be associated with the aquatic weeds along the retting sites. Brugia malayi is specific to the retting areas especially in Kerala, so malarial infection is common in the area. Filariasis still exists as an occupational disease in coir industry. DISCUSSION The high degree and extent of pollution resulting from retting activities in the Kayamkulam backwater system is discussed. Certain correlations also have been established between some important parameters. Sympathetic relationship exists between H2S, hardness, and alkalinity, and carbon dioxide gets depleted. However, dissolved oxygen has an antipathetic relationship with H2S. According to Bijoy Nandan (1997), the Kadinamkulam and Kayamkulam were found to be in anoxic condition, developed due to the absence of dissolved oxygen coupled with the production of large quantities of dissolved hydrogen sulphide. CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT MEASURES Pollution due to coconut husk retting is very acute and converts the wetland ecosystems of Kerala, into a curious and complex ecosystem of micro aerobic and anaerobic properties. Large-scale reclamation of the wetlands leading to the horizontal and vertical shrinkage of the water bodies due to the dumping of the husk, coir pith and related 237

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materials, is a very serious threat to environment. Pollution is very serious in the interior bays of the backwater and in isolated retting pits during pre-monsoon periods. Important mitigative measures suggested are given below: ยง The government should entrust the licensing of retting areas to the local panchayaths or should form a local committees comprising of government representatives, and sanction the zones to be given for retting operations. ยง Permanent retting zones should be closed for a few years to allow ecological restoration. ยง Specially constructed tanks may be used for retting ยง For regulating the quantity of husks, the carrying capacity of each backwater should be studied. ยง Standard biotechnological methods should be developed for the degradation and elimination of the pollutants. CONCLUSION The main conclusion drawn from the studies brings to light the environmental and faunal characteristics of the backwaters system and shows the intensity of the impact of pollution from retting activity. The investigations revealed that due to retting of coconut husk, the water quality has deteriorated with the accumulation of toxic organic compounds, high turbidity value, hydrogen sulphide and depletion of dissolved oxygen, concomitant with the creation of anoxic sulphide in the retting zone. This has led to a severe depletion in the plankton and benthos in retting zones compared to non-retting zones. REFERENCES Abdul Azis P K and Nair N B, 1986. Ecology of the coconut husk retting grounds in Kerala, Proceedings symp. Costal Aquaculture, 4; 115-1130. Abdul Azis P K, 1978. Ecology of the retting grounds in the backwater system of Kerala, Ph.D Thesis, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. APHA, 1980. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. American Public Health Association Washing DC 15th Edition. Bijoy Nandan S, 1991. Effect of coconut husk retting on the water quality and biota of an aquatic biotope in Kerala Ph.D Thesis, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. Murthy and Verayya, 1972. Investigation of fishery Ecology of Vembanad lake Kerala Proceedings National Academic Science India, 16; 16-18. Remani K N, Saraladevi, Venugopal P and Unnithan R V, 1991. Indicator organisms of pollution in Cochin Backwaters, Mahasagar; 16 (2); 199-207.

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ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY TRAFFIC SYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR CALICUT CITY

Cini A* and Nagaraj B N** * Assistant Engineer , Buildings Section(P.W.D) Karunagapally, Kollam, Kerala ** P.G. Proffesor in Traffic and Transportation Planning, N.I.T., Calicut, Kerala, 673601

INTRODUCTION Over the years, a number of traffic Management Measures have been developed and implemented in our cities to control urban congestion, based purely on considerations other than those related to the environment. However a stage has been reached in our cities, in which we can no longer neglect the environmental effects of many of those traffic management measures. Development of models relating pollutant concentration with traffic system variables and meteorological variables have thus become necessary to test and select appropriate traffic system management scheme(s) for the city to limit the resulting ambient air quality levels within the permissible limit. There is an urgent need for the development of comprehensive models which are capable of not only predicting the pollutant concentrations, but also help in the development of Environmental Capacity Standards. DATA COLLECTION For the development of models and the evaluation of air quality levels, the traffic stream variables and the ambient air quality data are required. For this study Calicut city of Kerala State was selected as the study area. To evaluate the existing level of pollution and for modeling, data regarding traffic stream variables like volume, composition and speed, and ambient level of pollutants, were measured. The study area was divided into four bands to get the spatial distribution of pollutant concentrations. While the first band was the area between 0.5km and 1.0km radii, the second was the area contained between 1.0km and 2.0km radii. The third and the fourth bands were the areas formed between 2.0 and 4.0km and 4.0 and 8.0km radii, respectively. Four major roads, viz., Kallai road, Mavoor road, Wynad road and Kannur road are the roads which enter the City . For the purpose of data collection, 16 locations were selected on the four major roads distributed in the four groups of bands. Manual methods were used for the collection of traffic stream variables. Ambient concentration of pollutants like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitric oxide, were measured with portable electronic sensors. These 239

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instruments were calibrated to give the concentrations of pollutants directly in ppm. Simultaneous observation of traffic stream variables and ambient air quality were made for a continuous period of 10hrs(7AM-5PM) with fifteen minute intervals. DEVELOPMENT OF MODELS FOR THE EVALUATION OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO AIR QUALITY Fig.1 shows the Flow Chart for the integrated models developed for the prediction of ambient air quality near highways due to mixed traffic conditions. Such types of models are useful for the design and evaluation of different Traffic Control measures with respect to air quality levels.

INTIAL POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL

O-D MATRIX

TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

VOLUME, SPEED AND COMPOSITION OF TRAFFIC

MODEL FOR PREDICTING CONCENTRATIONS

YES

WHEHER THE CONCENTR ATION IS WITHIN THE

NO EXISTING CONDITION IS ACCEPTABLE

DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE ROUTING PATTERNS

FIG. 1 FLOW CHART FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURES FOR MONITORING POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS

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Evaluation of the Existing Routing Pattern The major problem of the existing road network of the city is that the bus termini are widely scattered, and transfer from one to the other is extremely difficult. Another problem is the excessive number of right turns at junctions in the city center. No separate lanes for right turns have been provided, and bottleneck situations during the peak hours are quite common. Parking of vehicles on the carriageway, high pedestrian traffic during peak hours, and location of bus stops on National Highways or on other major roads, result in a jammed condition most of the time. This existing road network was evaluated by comparing the predicted concentrations of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitric oxide from the developed model with National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). From the comparison, it has been observed that at most of the locations concentrations of CO, HC, and NO are above the permissible limits. Generation and Evaluation of Alternative Routing Patterns In this study , four alternatives to the present day routing patterns of buses in Calicut City were developed. The criteria chosen for the evaluation of the generated alternatives are the number of right turns at junctions, total junction delay due to right turns, and the number of locations where ambient air quality exceeded NAAQS. The calculated values corresponding to all criteria are given in Table 1. From the evaluation, the fourth alternative is considered to be better with respect to all the criteria chosen. TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES

Alternate

Number of

Junction

Number of locations

Routing

Right turns

Delays

where concentrations

Pattern

veh-min

in ppm

Existing

829

508.32

943

687.91

896

610.13

945

691.39

804

473.07

DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY STANDARDS Environmental capacity is defined as the minimum of the capacities of a road section selected to satisfy the ambient air quality levels for various pollutants. The Environmental capacity for four major roads of the study area has been calculated by using the integrated models developed in this study. The minimum service volume corresponding to NAAQS for different pollutants was selected as the Environmental Capacity. From the values, it was observed that the Environmental capacity values are 241

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below the capacity values for all the four roads of Calicut City. Table 2 gives the values of Environmental Capacity for the different roads. TABLE 2 ENVIRONMENTAL CAPACITY FOR ROADS

Road

Maximum flow Capacity Environmental Flow observed veh/hr capacity veh/hr Veh/hr

EC/VC ratio

MAVOOR

1432

1500

1054

0.703

WYNAD

1018

1250

635

0.508

KANNUR

1498

1700

1033

0.608

KALLAI

2232

2400

1815

0.756

CONCLUSIONS Based on the evaluation, an alternative routing pattern for vehicles in Calicut City, has been observed to be better than the present arrangements not only from the point of view of traffic flow, but also from the point of view of limiting the ambient air quality within the acceptable limits. From the analysis of the selected values of the Environmental Capacities, it has been found that, the Environmental Capacities for highways were in the range of 50-75 percent of the highway capacity values. There is a need for the development of an interactive package between the traffic assignment model and the pollution model suggested in this study, so that it is possible to develop Environmental Capacity standards of the roads on the network. Such a package will ultimately suggest a routing pattern of vehicles in the city so that the environmental and the traffic capacity standards are not violated in the City.

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ENVIRONMENTALLY CONSCIOUS DESIGN FOR AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL

Mohan Kumar G, Sivaraj S, Chitambaran P R and Kandeepan A Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION – SCOPE OF AUTOMOBILES IN AIR POLLUTION Human activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans, plants, and animals. One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter. The particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches. This type of pollution is sometimes referred to as “black carbon” pollution. The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles, homes, and industries is a major source of pollution in the air. Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. Smog, temperature inversion, acid rain, greenhouse effect, global warming, ozone depletion are various effects of outdoor pollution. Tobacco smoke, cooking and heating appliances, and vapors from building materials, paints, furniture, etc. cause pollution inside buildings. POLLUTION INGREDIENTS ANALYSIS AND IMPACT ON HEALTH Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. The major air pollutants, their sources and their effects are listed below: 1. Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by the incomplete burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood and from the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes. It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood. 2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principal greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases. 243

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3. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly from airconditioning systems and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere, where they come in contact with a few other gases, which lead to a reduction of the ozone layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. 4. Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. Lead affects children in particular. It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer. 5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels including petrol, diesel, and coal. 6. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke, dust, and vapor that can remain suspended for extended periods and is also the main source of haze which reduces visibility. The finer of these particles, when breathed in can lodge in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory problems. 7. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a gas produced from burning coal. Industrial processes, such as production of paper and smelting of metals, produce sulphur dioxide. It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur dioxide can lead to lung diseases. The common sources of atmospheric pollution, scope of automobile and their effects are shown in table 1. Table 1. Scope of automobile in atmospheric pollution C ategory

Source

E m itting p ollutants S uspe nded particulate m atte r, carbon m ono xide, vo latile organic com po unds

A griculture

O p en burning

M ining and q u arrying

C oal m ining; crude o il and gas production; stone quarryin g

S uspe nded particulate m atter, sulp hur d ioxide, oxides o f nitrogen, volatile organic co m po und s

P ow er generation

E lectricity; gas; steam

S uspe nded particulate m atter, sulp hur dio xide, oxides of nitroge n, carbon m o no xide, volatile organic co m po unds, sulphur trioxide, lead

T ransport

C o m b ustion engines

S uspe nded particulate m atter, sulp hur dio xide, oxides of nitroge n, carbon m o no xide, volatile organic co m po unds, lead

C o m m unity service

M unicipal incinerators

S uspe nded particulate m atter, sulp hur dio xide, oxides of nitroge n, carbon m o n oxide, volatile organic co m po unds, lead

NEGATIVE IONS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; POSITIVE IN NATURE In 1974, the Swiss Meteorological Institute studied problems related to seasonal winds in various regions of the earth. The Foehn that blows across Switzerland, the Sirocco 244

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in Italy, the Sharav in the Middle East, and the Mistral in southern France were determined to cause physical and mental effects ranging from headaches and depression to heart attacks. The common factor identified in all those researches was the type of electrical charge of the ions in the air. A very high concentration of positive ions was found to be the cause. Conversely, the air quality at the site of a waterfall in the mountains showed significant amounts of negative ions. Researchers concluded that negatively charged ions have positive effects on living organisms. When released into air, negative ions quickly attach themselves to airborne particles viz., dust, smog, human and animal dander, smoke, allergens and pollution. These floating particles become too heavy to remain airborne and quickly fall to the ground. The creation of negative ions always results in the production of ozone. Ozone is three molecules of oxygen electrically bonded together which has an oxidizing effect on pollution. The oxidation results in the pollution being broken up on a molecular level into its basic chemical constituents. This neutralizes the harmful aspects of these chemicals. The ozone element also acts as a very powerful germicide quickly destroying bacteria molds and small fungus. IONIZATION – A PROCESS TO FILTER EXHAUST The smoke emitted from automobile exhaust carries harmful gases with it. If they are settled by the action of negative ions, the exhaust coming out would be pollution free and thereby eco-friendly. Most ionizer manufacturers use the “corona discharge” method of producing negative ions, copying the same electrical mechanics as an electrical “lightening” charge. The ions leaving the ionizer are small, high velocity ions, found to be the most beneficial to health. When they collide with particles of smoke, odor, pollen, dust or other pollutants, the negative ions pass on their static charge and are attracted to the nearest surface, a wall or floor. Fig. 1 is a block diagram of the design for emission control by ionization method. Power Supply of Automobiles

Inverter Circuit

Transformer

Voltage Multiplier Circuit (Ionization Circuit)

Pollution free Exhaust

Ionizing and settling

Ionizing Pins (High Voltage)

Smoke emitted by automobile

Fig 1. Block Diagram of Ionizer of Automobile Exhaust DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST PRECIPITATOR The power supply range for the automobiles is of maximum 12V DC. An inverter circuit is used for converting DC to AC voltage and step up this voltage to 230V with a small transformer. This output is given to a voltage multiplier circuit. It is an arrangement of capacitors and rectifier diodes that is frequently used to generate 245

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high DC voltages. This kind of circuit uses the principle of charging capacitors in parallel, from the AC input and adding the voltages across them in series to obtain DC voltages higher than the source voltage. Individual voltage multiplier circuits (frequently called stages) can be connected in series to obtain even, high, output voltages (Fig 2). The circuit is a standard Cockroft - Walton ladder network which steps up the mains voltage to 10kV or so (open - circuit voltage). The idea is that charge is transferred backwards and forwards from one row of capacitors to the other on each mains cycle, but always moving further up the chain because of the action of the rectifiers. When all the capacitors are fully charged, there will be a voltage across each of them equal to the peak-to-peak voltage.

Fig 2. Voltage Multiplier or Ionization Circuit

The ionizing current is quite enough to drop the output voltage to about -4kV, which by a strange coincidence is the ideal output voltage for a smoke ionizer. Voltages above this level tend to produce ozone rather than ions, whereas voltages much lower will not ionize the air efficiently. The method used is to apply a high negative voltage, several kV, to a sharply pointed emitter. The negatively charged air is repelled from the emitter resulting in an â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;ion breezeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. These ions collide with the smoke particles and settle in the ground. In our design, smoke is produced artificially and passed through the chamber where the ionizing sharp edged copper pins are arranged. The high voltage from the voltage multiplier circuit is applied to the pins, which starts ionization in the surrounding atmosphere. The smoke particles are started to settle as brown precipitate in the surface. The ionizing pins are increased in numbers to promote speedy ionization. CONCLUSION The design and fabrication of an ionization circuit for automobile exhaust was performed and its technological feasibility was asserted to be credible enough, so as to proceed to product development. It is an economical design and implementation of such a system would help to make a better way to control air pollution due to automobiles. If this is properly recognized and implemented, it will be a boon in controlling air pollution due to automobiles to a considerable extent. 246

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LOW EMISSION GASEOUS FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE SYSTEM

Saravanan N1, Nagarajan G2 and Rajendra Prasath B3 1

Department of Mechanical Engg, Anna University, Chennai-25. Department of Mechanical Engg, Anna University, Chennai-25. 3 Department of Mechanical Engg. Tagore Engineering College, Chennai â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 48. 2

INTRODUCTION During the last decade the use of alternate fuel for diesel engines has received renewed attention. In recent years, the emphasis to reduce pollutant emissions from petroleumbased engines has motivated the development and testing of several alternate fuels. The main pollutants from the diesel engines are NOx (NO-Nitric Oxide and NO2 Nitrogen dioxide), particulate matter and smoke. In order to reduce these harmful pollutants we have to go for an alternative fuel that not only reduces these pollutants but also not emits other pollutants like aldehydes, ketenes, Sox. etc. Hydrogen for IC Engines H2 is only one of many possible alternative fuels to those that can be derived from natural resources such as coal, oil shale and uranium or from renewable resources based on solar energy. H2 can be commercially produced from electrolysis of water and by coal gasification. Several other methods such as thermochemical decomposition of water and solar photo-electrolysis are presently still laboratory techniques rather than commercial. Curative and Preventive Maintenance Flame arrestors are a set of systems for suppressing explosions inside a hydrogencontaining system. In a hydrogen engine system, development of flame traps have worked satisfactorily, while undesirable combustion phenomenon, such as backfire, occurs. Installation of a non-return valve in the fuel line prevents the reverse flow of gases to the engine cylinder. Testing with Hydrogen Enrichment The engine is started with diesel as a fuel. After starting the engine with diesel fuel, the diesel flow is reduced by adjusting the fuel pump rack and simultaneously hydrogen is supplied into the intake manifold with the help of gas carburettor. The diesel flow is 247

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reduced up to 10% of the base line value and hydrogen flow is increased until the engine reaches the rated speed of 1500 rpm. Then the engine is allowed to run for 15 minutes to reach the steady state conditions. The experimental arrangements are shown in Fig. 1 and 2.

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY,%

35 30

100%diesel

10%hydrogen

20%hydrogen

30%hydrogen 50%hydrogen

70%hydrogen

90%hydrogen 0 0

100

150

BRAKE LOAD,%FULL LOAD Fig:1 VARIATION OF BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY WITH LOAD

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Then the load is increased to 3 amps and the hydrogen supply is increased until the engine reaches the rated rpm. Simultaneously the diesel flow is reduced according to the calculated values. After obtaining the steady state conditions, all the abovementioned readings are taken. This procedure is repeated up to 14amps (i.e. 100% loading). After all the readings are taken, the hydrogen supply decreased gradually and the diesel flow increased. When the hydrogen supply is fully turned off, the diesel flow is set by adjusting the rack in the fuel pump to reach the rated rpm, and the engine is allowed to run for at least 5 minutes and then the engine is switched off. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this investigation, the performance and emission characteristics of a DI diesel engine enriched with hydrogen with varying percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90%, were studied and compared with base fuel operation. Graphs were drawn for the variation of brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption, specific energy consumption, oxides of nitrogen, smoke levels, particulate matter, and tail pipe hydrocarbon against brake power. Brake Thermal Efficiency The variations of brake thermal efficiency with brake power for different values of hydrogen enrichment are shown in Fig.1 Brake thermal efficiency with 30% hydrogen enrichment has a higher value of 27.9% compared to that of diesel with 22.78%, without knocking. The brake thermal efficiency increases with higher enrichment of hydrogen, but is limited due to the problem of knocking. The increase in brake thermal efficiency is due to the better mixing of hydrogen with air. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) The variations of oxides of nitrogen with brake power for different hydrogen enrichment values are shown in Fig 4. The formation of NOx is due to: *Peak combustion temperature. *High Oxygen concentration in the combustion chamber. *Low residence time of high temperature gas in the cylinder. Due to the property of high auto ignition temperature (858K) compared to that of diesel (553K) the NOx formation is high at 10% and 20% of hydrogen enrichment. But it gets reduced below 30% of hydrogen enrichment due to lean burn operation (i.e. equivalence ratio decreases). Smoke Emissions The variations of smoke level with brake power of the engine with different proportions hydrogen enrichment are shown in Fig 5. Low smoke level occurs at 90% hydrogen addition, with the lowest value of 1.8 at no load. In general the smoke level increased with load for all fuels except hydrogen due to increase in burnt fuel. 249

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4000 3500

100%dies el

3000

10%hydrogen

2500

20%hydrogen

2000

30%hydrogen

1500

50%hydrogen

1000

70%hydrogen

500

90%hydrogen

0 0

40 60 80 B R AKE LOAD,%F U LL LOAD

100

120

Fig.4 VARIATION OF NOx WITH LOAD

100%diesel

4.5

SMOKE,BSN

10%hydrogen

3.5

20%hydrogen

3 2.5

30%hygrogen

50%hydrogen

1.5

70%hydrogen

90%hydrogen

0.5 0 0

40 60 80 BRAKE LOAD,%FULL LOAD

100

120

Fig:5 VARIATION OF SMOKE WITH LOAD

Particulate Emissions Diesel particulates consist principally of combustion generated carbonaceous materials on which some organic compounds have been absorbed. This results in reduction of particulate matter around 60-70% in 90% hydrogen enrichment, as shown in Fig 6. Thus, Euro emission standards can be met with hydrogen enrichment technique.

P A R T IC U L A T E E M IS S

0 .2 5

0 .2

1 0 0 % d ie s e l 1 0 % h yd ro g e n

0 .1 5

2 0 % h yd ro g e n 3 0 % h yd ro g e n

0 .1

5 0 % h yd ro g e n 7 0 % h yd ro g e n 9 0 % h yd ro g e n

0 .0 5

0 0

40 60 80 B R A K E L O A D ,% F U L L L O A D

100

120

F ig : 6 V A R IA T IO N O F P A R T IC U L A T E E M IS S IO N W IT H L O A D

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CONCLUSION There is unanimity among the scientific community that Hydrogen is the future source of energy. Because of its favourable properties for use in reciprocating engine systems, it is believed that enriching the intake charge air of diesel engine systems with Hydrogen offers a viable way of using the fuel safely and flexibly for improved engine performance. With minor modifications to the system hardware, significant air pollution containment can be achieved. Along with technologies like fuel cell systems (e.g. proton exchange membrane, phosphoric acid fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell, etc.) the mode of charging the piston engine systems is also set for exciting times.

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ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND WATER IN BURDWAN MUNICIPAL AREA, WEST BENGAL

Mallick T, Saha R, Datta J K, Gupta S and Mandal N K Department of Environmental Science, Golapbag, The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India

INTRODUCTION Water is most vital for living organisms. Ground water is one of the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s renewable resources, which occur as a part of hydrological cycle. It is primarily flows in aquifers, which are geological formations of permeable zones of sand or gravel or fractured rocks. Decomposition of organic matter in soils, leaching of soluble chemical fertilizers, human and animal excreta, untreated effluents and sewage disposal are potential sources of contamination of ground water (Parker et.al 1989; Foster and Young, 1980; Somasundaram et al, 1993; Kar et al., 2003). The crucial role of ground water as a decentralized source of drinking water for millions of rural and urban families cannot be overlooked. Ground water is generally less susceptible to contamination and pollution as compared to surface water bodies. But in India, where ground water is used extensively for irrigation and industrial purposes, a variety of land and water based human activities are causing pollution of this precious resource. In order to assess the quality of ground water in Burdwan Municipal area, both physico-chemical and microbial analysis of some selected samples were carried out. The geology and geomorphology of Burdwan district are directly responsible for its ground water resources. The western parts of the district are underlain by sedimentary rocks belonging to the Gondwana group, while a small area in its north has hard and consolidated rocks of Archaean age. Geomorphology of the area is again a reflection of geology. The western part has an undulating topography and suffers from chronic water shortage upto Durgapur (an industrial town in Burdwan district). This area is underlain by unconsolidated sediments and geomorphologically, it constitutes plain land. Hydrogeologically, the ground water potential is considerable. Burdwan Municipality is densely populated and ground water draught is very high but sanitation and water conservation are lacking and water is getting contaminated. 252

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Gradual deterioration of physico-chemical and microbial quality of drinking water has been suspected in public places like Station, Hospital, Canteen, School etc. in Burdwan Municipal Area. Water samples were collected from different existing sources of ground water where people use it for drinking or domestic purpose. The ten sampling are given in Table 1. Table-1: Details of Sampling Location I.Baburbag CMS High School II. Burdwan University Canteen III. Nilpur Beside Ber High School IV. Salbagan Near St. Xavierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Road V. Kestopur High School VI. Borhat R.K.S Bidyapith VII. Burdwan Station VIII. Badamtala IX. Goda Colony X. Burdwan Medical College Hospital

Depth of Source (m)

Type of Source

Use

42.7

Deep tube well

Drinking

53.4

Deep tube well (Stored in tank and then supplied)

Drinking and washing of utensils

7.9

Tube well

45.7

Tube well

54.9

Deep tube well

Drinking

48.8

Deep tube well

Drinking

43 (approx.)

Deep tube well (store in tank and then supplied)

Drinking and washing

12.2

Tube well

39.6 36.5 (approx)

Tube well Tube well (Stored in tank and then supplied )

Drinking and domestic uses Drinking and domestic uses

Drinking and domestic uses Drinking Drinking and Washing

The parameters viz. pH (using pH meter), colour, TDS, total alkalinity, total acidity, total hardness, chloride, iron, phosphate, nitrate, arsenic, sodium, potassium and coliform bacteria count (MPN count) were all estimated using standard methods (Greenberg et.al; 1998). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Test results reveal that the water of Burdwan Municipal areas is slightly acidic in nature. The pH ranged from 5.1to 6.7. Samples from Golapbag campus, Badamtala area and Nilpur area were highly acidic as compared with the standards of ICMR (1975), WHO (1993) and ISI (1983). It was found that except for two samples, all other samples were below the permissible limit for human consumption and domestic use. None of the samples had unusual colour except sample III and VIII, which showed muddy, cloudy colour indicating elevated levels of suspended sediments. It might be caused by erosion, which is most common source of high levels of suspended solid in water. 253

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The TDS was within the permissible limit, except for samples II, III and VIII. Samples III and VIII were pumped from the upper layer of water table. Different types of waste sediments may have been dumped there. In the case of sample II, there may be some leakage from or corrosion of the pipe which caused the contamination of the water. Sample VI contained very low concentration of dissolved solids than other samples. It indicated the potability of the sample. This study revealed that the total hardness of water in Burdwan Municipal area varied from 128 to 362mg/L. According to BIS (1991), the permissible limit, in absence of alternative sources, is 600mg/L. So, most of the samples of Burdwan Municipal area, except II and III were found to have hardness below permissible limit. The chloride values ranged from 12.05 to 87.34 mg/l, which is well within the permissible limit prescribed by WHO. Iron is an essential element for health but the presence of excessive iron in ground water creates several problems including serious health hazards. The permissible limit of iron in drinking water is 0.3mg/L. according to BIS (1991). The present study revealed that the iron level varied from 0.1 to 1.82 mg/L. Sample III, IV, V, and VIII contained high amount of iron, which exceeded the permissible limit. Sample V from Kestopur area contained the highest amount of iron among the tested samples while those of Badamtala, Salbagan, and Nilpur also recorded high iron content. The phosphate concentration in the tested samples ranged from 0.09 to 8.69mg/L, except for samples VII and I. Sample III from Nilpur showed excessive phosphate, which may be due to percolation of agricultural run-off. Such types of high phosphate containing water could cause degradation of bone and eutrophication in lake. The desirable limit of nitrate is 50mg/L according to BIS: 1991. Nitrate values of the Burdwan Municipal area ranged from 0.3 to 26.38 mg/L, well below the maximum allowable concentration. However, they are high enough to cause health hazards (like methamoglobamenia) especially those of samples II, III, IV, VII and X. So in these circumstances, Burdwan Municipal area may be termed a high-risk zone of nitrate pollution. One of the greatest threats of the millennium is the contamination of ground water by Arsenic. About 34,000sq km of six districts of west Bengal was randomly contaminated by arsenic above permissible limit (De, 2001). The maximum permissible or desirable limit of arsenic is 0.01mg/L, while the present study revealed very low arsenic concentrations with some areas even below detectable limit. All the water samples contained optimum sodium and hence suitable for human consumption from that standpoint. The maximum admissible concentration of potassium according to European Economic Community is 12mg/l. Present investigation showed that except sample III, all others 254

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contained excessive amount of potassium. The drinking water of Burdwan Municipal area was not contaminated by coliform as revealed by MPN test. CONCLUSION Physico-chemical reactions between soil or rock and water are of considerable importance when evaluating or predicting the nature of anthropogenic impacts on ground water quality. The total physico-chemical analysis of Burdwan Municipal area revealed that the drinking water of the area is marginally adequate for human consumption. The water is slightly acidic in some parts of the town, has high amounts of iron contamination Some areas, especially Nilpur, are found to be highly contaminated by phosphate in the upper level of water, which may be due to agricultural contamination. In the Burdwan Hospital and Goda areas, phosphate was above the permissible limit. The Nilpur and Badamtala area mostly showed contaminated water with high amount of dissolved solids and iron. Nilpur water contained high amount of phosphate and nitrate and therefore, not suitable for human consumption. Due to high nitrate contamination in Nilpur, Salbagan, Goda, Hospital and Kestopur areas, there is a possibility for occurrence of Blue Baby disease. There is need for awareness programme for public health. People should be advised to tap the lower level water aquifers (42 -53m) for pure drinking water. The water of Borhat area contained very good quality of drinking water. From the present study a conclusion can be drawn that the water of Burdwan Municipal area is mostly contaminated by nitrate, phosphate, iron and total dissolved solids. There is thus a need for effective treatment to prevent drinking water contamination. To reduce the excessive iron, people are advised to drink water after filtering. To prevent nitrate and phosphate contamination, the Municipal authorities should implement economically viable treatm ent of water. REFERENCES BIS, 1991. Indian standards drinking water specification. Bur. Indian standards, New Delhi. De A K, 2001. Environmental Chemistry. New Age International (P) LTD. 7 (7-15) : 230â&#x20AC;&#x201D;270 Foster S S D, Young C P, 1980. Ground water contamination due to agricultural Land use Practices in United Kingdom. British Geological Survey, London.99: 47-60 I C M R, 1975. Manual of Standard of quality of drinking water supplies. Spl. Report series No. 44 2nd edition. ISI, 1983. Indian Specification for drinking water, IS-10500. Indian Standard Institute. New Delhi. 255

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Kar S, Samal A C, Khan D K and Santra SC, 2003. Ground water quality deterioration and its consequences in environment: A case study in Nadia district, West Bengal. Recent Envl. Changes impact on health Agriculture and ecosystem. Proceding of the National conference 6th and 7th Aug, 2003.Editor S.CSantra.Kalyani University Publication. Greenberg A E, Clesceri L S, Eaton A D, 1998. Standard Methods for the examination of water and waste water, 20th Edition. Parker J M, Young C P, Chilton P J, 1989. Rural and agricultural pollution of ground water. In:Application ground water hydrology. pp. 149-163. Somasundaram M V and Ravindram G, Tellam J H, 1993. Groundwater pollution of Madras urban aquifer, India. Groundwater 31(1): 4-12 WHO, 1993. Guidelines for Drinking water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva.

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CHARACTERISATION OF SUGAR AND TEXTILE INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS

Kannan N*, Karthikeyan G**, Vallinayagam P*** and Tamilselvan N*** * Department of Chemistry, ANJA College (Autonomous), Sivakasi – 626 124 Department of Chemistry, Gandhigram Rural Institute, Gandhigram – 624 302 *** Department of Civil Engg. Mepco Schlenk Engg. College, Sivakasi – 626 005

INTRODUCTION The sugar and textile industries occupy a unique place in the industrial map of India and it earns a sizable foreign exchange for our country. The main raw materials involved in the sugar and textile manufacturing processes are sugar cane, sugar beat, cotton and synthetic fibres. These industries require large quantities of water for the manufacturing processes. It is observed that approximately 20 cubic meters of water is required to process one metric tonne of sugar cane (Economopoules; World Bank, 1995) whereas for wet process in textile industries, it is 235 L/kg of cloth. Besides, a number of chemicals and by-products such as carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), sodium hypochlorite, sulphur dioxide, different dyes, bagasse (fibre residue of sugar cane), press mud (filter cake), molasses, distillery spent wash etc. are discharged into the wastewater without any proper effluent treatment. Hence, it is necessary to characterise effluents of the above industries. MATERIALS AND METHODS Wastewater samples are collected bimonthly from wastewater discharge stream of sugar mill and textile industries according to random selection procedure prescribed by APHA, (1985). These effluent samples are stored at 4oC after adding the necessary preservatives to arrest biological action and hydrolysis of constituents APHA. Water Quality Parameters (WQPs) such as Temperature (T), pH, Electrical Conductivity(EC), Total Suspended Solids(TSS), Total Dissolved Solids( TDS), Total Fixed Solids(TFS), Total Volatile Solids(TVS), alkalinity, total hardness, temporary and permanent hardness, chloride, sulphate, phosphate, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, BOD and COD were determined according to APHA guide book (1985). The value of temperature, pH and EC are determined in the field itself. The other water quality parameters are analysed in the laboratory. Water Quality Index(WQI) values are computed later according to the method suggested by Tiwari and Manzoor Ali (1988). 257

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The concentration of heavy metal ions such as iron, copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc and lead are also determined by AAS method (APHA, 1985). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The range and mean values of the various (WQP) of the effluents from sugar and textile industries are shown in Table 1 along with the permissible values prescribed by BIS for industrial effluents discharged into inland surface water, on land for irrigation and into public sewers (ISI, 1974). The amount of heavy metals present in combined sugar effluents and textile effluents are summarised in Table 2. Average values of temperature of sugar and textile industrial effluents are 31.5oC and 28.5 oC, which shows that they are not thermally polluted. The values of pH range of the effluents from sugar and textile industry are 5.5 – 6.91 and 4.67 - 8.32, respectively. Regarding sugar industry, this value is within the permissible values prescribed by BIS(1974). However, some values are as low as 5.5. Hence, it might need periodic monitoring. But, in the case of textile industry, the pH range is more than the limit prescribed by BIS. Hence, it must be treated before discharging into natural water bodies. The presence of salts in the wastewater increases the EC of the effluent. EC is an excellent alternative indicator of TDS, which is a measure of salinity. The sugar and textile industrial effluents show the range of EC as 1849 – 3305 mmho/cm, 1295 – 3470 mmho/cm, respectively, which are above the tolerance limits prescribed by BIS. The excessive level of EC and the change in pH range indicate that these effluents are highly polluted. Hence, they must be discharged into natural water bodies only after proper effluent treatment. Carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, nitrate nitrogen, calcium, sodium, potassium and iron contribute the TDS. According to Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB, 1991) and BIS (IS:1974, 1977), the recommended limit of TDS for effluent discharged into the open land is 2100 mg/lit. The average values and range of TDS in the sugar and textile mill effluents are 3581.7, 1437 – 8420; 3737.4, 1011 – 5153, respectively. These high values of TDS are indicative of the high level of pollution, which is to be controlled by primary effluent treatment methods. Similarly, TSS values are also found to be very high: average = 2440.8; range = 826.6 – 3615 mg/lit for sugar mill effluents; and average = 4874.2; range = 70 – 21,647 for textile mill effluents. Due to extremely high levels of TSS and TDS in the sugar and textile mill effluents, the average value and range of TS are also found to be high; of the order of viz., 6022.5, 2263.6 – 12035 mg/lit; 8612, 1081 – 26,800 mg/lit, respectively. The value of TFS and TVS of both these effluents are also high. Hence, it is the mandatory on the part of these industries to reduce the pollution load before discharging the effluents into the open land. A proper effluent treatment is needed before discharging these effluents The other physico-chemical parameters such as alkalinity, hardness – total, temporary and permanent, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates etc., are present in excess level than 258

V a lu e o b t in e d f r o m T e x t il e I n d u s t r y

S l. N o.

V a lu e o b t a in e d f r o m S u g a r In d u stry

L im it p r e s c r ib e d b y IS :1 0 5 0 0 , 1 9 8 3

P a ra m eter *

T e m p e ra tu re (T )

R ange

A verage

R ange

A verage

A llo w a b l e

M a x im u m p e r m is s ib le

In to in la n d su r fa ce w a te r IS :2 4 9 0 -1 9 7 4

I n t o o n la n d fo r Ir r ig a tio n IS :3 3 0 7 -1 9 7 7

I n t o P u b lic S ew ers

2 7 .5 – 3 0 .5 ° C

2 8 .5 ° C

2 9 .5 – 3 4 ° C

3 1 .5 ° C

S h a ll n o t ex c eed 4 0 oC

4 5 o C a t th e p o in t o f d is c h a r g e

6 .5 – 8 .5

5 .5 – 9 .0

E l e c t ri c a l C o n d u c t iv i ty

A lk a lin ity

0 .0 – 7 0 2 .0

2 8 6 .6

4 6 4 -7 0 4

631

T o ta l S u s p e n d e d S o lid s

7 0 – 2 1 ,6 4 7

4 8 7 4 .2

827 - 3615

2441

T o ta l D i s s o lv e d S o lid s

1011 – 5153

3 7 3 7 .4

1437 - 8420

3 5 8 1 .7

T o ta l H a r d n e s s

220 – 1820

1024

500 - 1150

770

T em p o rary H ard n ess

60 – 244

1 6 1 .2

60 - 190

130

P e r m a n e n t H a rd n e s s

18 – 1740

8 6 2 .8

340 - 1080

10.

C h lo rid e s

238 – 1157

6 4 3 .2

305 – 460

11.

S u lp h a te s

1 .2 8 – 4 3 7

2 3 9 .6

12.

P h o sp h a te s

160 – 4960

570

13.

S o d iu m

90 – 591

2 8 3 .4

267 – 341

14.

P o ta ssiu m

6 – 113

5 4 .8 4

6 - 200

15.

C a l c iu m

44 – 296

1 9 4 .1

100 - 268

166

16.

M a g n e siu m

26 – 259

1 2 9 .3 1

6 0 – 1 1 5 .2

17.

Iro n

3 .1 5 – 1 0 .4

6 .1 7

0 .7 – 1 0 .0 1

18.

BOD

108 – 7722

2 8 9 9 .3

1493 – 10440

COD

20.

T o ta l S o l id s

21.

4 .6 7 – 8 .3 2

6 .0 9

5 .5 – 6 .9

6 .2

1295 – 3470

2 3 7 2 .4

1849 – 3305

2359

---

100

200

1500

2100

300

600

658

370

250

1000

600

1000

8 .2 1 – 2 6 5

125

150

400

1000

1840 - 9000

6056

5 ***

299

200

100

6 .7

0 .3

1 .0

5789

100+

350+ --

-500

-600 2100

53 – 8932

3 5 1 7 .3

1829 – 9183

5930

2 5 0 **

1 6 0 0 – 2 6 ,8 0 0

8612

2733 – 12035

6023

T o ta l F i x e d S o lid s ( I n o r g a n i c S o l id s )

1055 – 3847

2 0 1 0 .7

1673 - 4315

2764

22.

T o ta l V o l a ti le S o lid s ( O rg a n ic S o l id s

2 9 5 – 2 2 ,9 5 3

6 6 0 1 .3

1280 - 7720

3259

23.

WQI

2 6 7 .1 – 1 1 8 9 .2

6 2 5 .6 5

392 – 1356

848

----

259

* Unit: in mg/lit, except pH, EC (micromho/cm) and WQI. Ref: IS:2490; IS:3307; IS:3360 and IS:5182; ISI, New Delhi 1974[5].

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L im it s p r e s c r ib e d b y I S fo r I n d u s t r ia l E f f l u e n t s d is c h a r g e d

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Table 1. Range and average values of wqps of sugar and textile industrial effluents, Limits prescribed for drinking purpose and discharge of industrial effluents by bis

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Table 2. The amount of heavy metals present in sugar and textile industry effluents Sl. No.

Amount (in mg/L)

Parameters Textile

Sugar

Copper

0.24

0.04

Nickel

1.61

0.83

Cadmium

0.87

Zinc

3.28

0.295

Lead

0.6

0.30

ND = Non-detectable those the prescribed by BIS (1974). Besides, excess amount of metal ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc., causes soil toxicity and later inflicts infertility to the land. The high level of BOD and COD in the effluent needs pretreatment before discharge. Heavy metal ions such as iron, copper, nickel, cadmium, zinc and lead are found to be present in both these effluents. Among them, iron is found to be high; it may lead to toxic problems to the public, if not treated properly. CONCLUSION From the above studies, it is inferred that sugar and textile industries are the most polluting industries in terms of high solid and BOD and COD content in the effluents, which may be due to the use of hazardous chemicals and dyes, etc. Though air, water and noise pollution is created at every stage of sugar and textile production, water pollution is the most significant one in terms of vast quantity of wastewater and a good number of chemicals (used in the industrial manufacturing process) and the residual dyes. Considering sugar industries, the effluents are generally stored in large unlined lagoon, which was built without proper engineering and environmental care. This may lead to groundwater contamination and affects public residing at the vicinity of these industries. Besides, bagasse dust, fly ash and high noise levels (upto 109dB) may cause eye irritation, skin irritation, asthma, respiratory diseases such as bagassosis (lung disease), SO2, caustic fumes, trace amount of pesticides (eluted during washing of sugar cane) etc., causes serious health hazards. Hence, both these industrial effluents must be treated before discharge to safeguard our environment and eco-system. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Principal and Management of ANJA college, Sivakasi and Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi are duly acknowledged for providing encouragement and facilities. 260

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REFEFERENCES Economopoules. Assessment of sources of air, water and land pollution: A guide to rapid source inventory techniques and their use in formulating environmental control strategies. Part 1: Rapid inventory techniques in environmental pollution, World Health Organisation, Geneva. World Bank, 1995. Industrial pollution, prevention and abatement: Sugar manufacturing, Draft technical background document. Environment Department, Washington, D.C. APHA, AWWA, WPCF, 1985. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, (15th edn.). American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C. Tiwari T N and Manzoor Ali, 1988. Correlations among water quality parameters of industrial waters, Indian J. Env. Prot., 8(1):44. ISI. IS:2490, IS:3360, IS:3307 and IS:5182 (Part III through IX, XII, XV and XVIII), 1974. Tolerance limits for industrial effluents into surface waters, public sewers and for irrigation. Indian Standards Institute, New Delhi. TNPCB, 1991. A report on common effluent treatment plant in Tiruppur. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board, Madras.

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STUDIES ON THE REMOVAL OF HAZARDOUS ORGANIC ACIDS USING LOW COST CARBONACEOUS ADSORBENT

Sayee Kannan R,* Sudha E,* Veeraraj A* and Kannan N** *

Department of Chemistry, Sethu Institute of Technology,Pulloor, Kariapatti – 626 106 ** Department of Chemistry, ANJA College (Autonomous), Sivakasi – 626 124

INTRODUCTION Several organic compounds have been identified in various water and wastewater systems. The impact of man on environment as well as human activities have changed, and in turn changed earth’s environment. Increasing human population and technology had been exerting severe pressure on earth most of which cannot be reversed. Within the ecosystems, there occur many man, such as natural processes that influence atmospheric quality changes, soil generation and conservation, energy flow, water cycle, waste removal and recycling. Human activities are altering the equilibrium in these natural processes and cycles. If these changes are not addressed properly, the stability of the world’s eco-system may be irreversibly affected. This has created an interest among scientists and technologists to study the pollution aspects viz., its status and the removal strategies. Ramu et al (1992) studied the removal of carboxylic acid (Oxalic acid and Acetic acid) by adsorption on commercially activated charcoal and activated carbon indigenously prepared from agricultural wastes and tested the applicability of Freundlich isotherm. Removal of carboxylic acids from a mixture of two or three components such as p-chlorophenol, salicylic acid and benzoic acid have been studied by adsorption using activated carbon, where in the Freundlich isotherm is found to be applicable. Formic acid, Acetic acid and Oxalic acid have pronounced advising effects on plants and aquatic life. Treatment of acid bearing industrial effluents is available in the literature. Some important methods adopted, i.e., Ion exchange, Evaporation and Concentration and Carbon adsorption. From these methods, adsorption technique is found to be widely employed in water and wastewater treatment. The scope of the present work is to conduct adsorption studies in order to evaluate the efficiency of the activated Coconut Shell Charcoal (CSC) in the removal of oxalic acid and acetic acid from wastewaters under various experimental conditions. The present investigation was carried out with the following aims and objectives: To investigate the effect of Initial concentration of Oxalic acid and Acetic acid. To study the effect of Contact 262

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time, to measure the effect of the dose of the adsorbent (Activated CSC) on the adsorption of Carboxylic acids. EXPERIMENTS The chemicals used for the present work were Oxalic acid (Merck) and Acetic acid (Fisher). The various experiments in this adsorption studies were carried out by employing the batch adsorption technique. In order to find out the optimum experimental conditions, adsorption studies were carried out by varying the following experimental conditions. Initial concentration of adsorbate viz., Oxalic acid and Acetic acid at constant dose of CSC and contact time at 32 ± 10 C. Contact time, at constant dose of activated charcoal and initial concentration of adsorbate (acids) at 32 ± 10 C. Dose of adsorbent (CSC) at constant optimum contact time and initial concentration of adsorbate (acids) at 32 ± 10 C. In all the adsorption experiments, the percentage removal of adsorbate on the activated CSC has been calculated. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The adsorption study of carboxylic acids (C2H2COOH and CH3COOH) on CSC at fixed amount of adsorbent i.e., 20gL-1 at different initial concentrations (0.01 – 0.1N) of carboxylic acids (Oxalic acid and Acetic acid) were carried out. The data obtained in these experiments are given in Table 1. The variation of percentage of removal of acid with respect to the initial concentration is graphically represented in Fig. 1. An increase in the initial concentration of carboxylic acid results in the reduction in the percentage of adsorption. This indicates the reduction is immediate solute adsorption due to the lack of available active site on the adsorbent surface compared10. Contact time plays an important role in the adsorption system irrespective of the values of other parameters affecting adsorption kinetics. In order to study the kinetics of adsorption of carboxylic acids, the adsorption experiments were carried out at different contact time ranging from 5 – 120 minutes at constant optimum initial concentrations (0.04N) of carboxylic acids and the relevant data are given Table 2. The uptake of carboxylic acid by activated charcoal is found to be rapid at starting of the adsorption, but becoming more or less same or equilibrium time, as is expected in such cases of both acids. The percentage of removal of carboxylic acids by adsorption on activated charcoal slightly increases with increase in contact time and reaches a limiting value. A major portion of the carboxylic acids is removed due to the immediate solute adsorption on the adsorbent (CSC). The uptake of Oxalic acid and Acetic acid at the active sites of adsorbent is a relatively rapid process. The rate of adsorption is governed by either liquid phase mass transfer rate or intra-particle mass transfer rate. However, the observed values of 1 n indicate that the intra-particle mass transfer rate is the governing factor. The percentage of removal of carboxylic acid by adsorption on activated CSC does not appreciably change in time. The optimum contact time is fixed as 30 minutes for the removal of acids. The high adsorption capacity, measured in terms of the amount of carboxylic acids adsorbed per unit mass of the activated 263

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CSC, must be due to its suitable porous texture. The activated charcoal has a greater positive surface potential, which is responsible for the high value of the amount of acid adsorbed. The removal of Oxalic acid and Acetic acid from aqueous solution by varying the quantities of activated CSC at constant concentration of both acids (0.04N) with a constant contact time (30 min.) are presented in the Table.3. The percentage of removal of Oxalic acid and Acetic acid is found to increase with increase in the dose of the adsorbent (CSC). This is due to the increased availability of adsorption sites. The increase in the effective surface area resulting from the conglomeration of the adsorbent especially at higher adsorbent concentrations is also responsible for this observation. The maximum removal of the acids occurs at an optimum dose of 20 gL-1 of activated CSC. Hence, the amount of the acids adsorbed varies in accordance with a fractional power of the dose of activated charcoal (Dose) -n, where ‘n’ is the fraction. This suggests that the adsorbed Oxalic acid and Acetic acid either blocked the access to the internal pores or caused particles to aggregate, thereby reducing the availability of adsorption sites. The optimum dose of adsorbent is fixed as 20gL-1 of activated CSC, since, beyond this dosage, there is no significant removal of acid. The observed results indicate that as the ratio of adsorbate to adsorbent decreases and the percentage of removal of the acids increases. COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OF BOTH THE ACIDS [Acids] (N) 0.04

% Removal of Oxalic acid 45.0

% Removal of Acetic acid 61.3

% Removal of Acids from wastewaters 36.3

The comparison of results on the percent removal of acids by adsorption of CSC indicates that the removal of acetic acid is higher than that of oxalic acid. Table 1. Removal of Carboxylic acids by adsorption of activated CSC (mesh size 105 microns) ; Effect of Variation of Initial concentration of Formic acid Activated CSC (m) = 20g L-1 ; Contact Time= 30 min.; Temperature = 32 ± 10C % of Removal

x = Ci − Ce

Ci (N)

(N)

 Ci − Ce   × 100   Ci 

0.01

0.0075

0.0025

25.00 (90.00)*

0.02

0.0130

0.007

35.00 (80.00)

3.5 (8.0)

0.03

0.0175

0.0125

41.66 (73.30)

6.25 (11.0)

0.04

0.0220

0.0180

45.00 (61.30)

9.0 (12.3)

0.05

0.0260

0.024

48.00 (56.00)

12.0 (14.5)

0.06

0.0360

0.024

40.00 (50.00)

12.0 (15.0)

0.07

0.0450

0.025

35.71 (77.10)

12.5 (16.5)

S.No.

[Carboxylic acid]

*Values in Parenthesis are for Acetic acid

264

Amount adsorbed q=x

(g.eq.g-1)

(1 x 10-4) 1.25 (4.5)*

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Table 2: Removal of Carboxylic acid by adsorption of activated CSC mesh size 105 microns): Effect of Variation of contact time Initial concentration (Ci) = 0.04 N ; Activated CSC (m) = 20g L-1 ; Temp. = 32 ± 10C S.No.

Time (min.)

x = Ci − Ce

(N)

(N) 0.0095

% of Removal

 Ci − Ce    × 100  Ci  23.75 (10.0)*

Amount adsorbed q =x

(g.eq.g-1)

(1 x 10-4) 04.75 (2.0)*

0.0305

0.0260

0.0140

35.00 (11.3)

07.00(2.3)

0.0230

0.0170

42.50 (18.8)

08.50(3.8)

0.0210

0.0190

47.50(25.0)

09.50 (5.0)

0.0185

0.0215

53.75 (61.3)

10.75 (1.2)

0.0205

0.0195

48.75 (60.0)

09.75 (1.2)

0.0180

0.0220

55.00 (61.3)

11.00 (1.2)

*Values in Parenthesis are for Acetic acid

Table 3: Removal of Carboxylic acid by adsorption of activated CSC (mesh size 105 microns): Effect of Variation of dose of CSC Initial concentration (Ci) = 0.04 N ;Activated CSC (m)= 20g L-1;Temp.= 32 ± 10C % of Removal S.No.

Amount of CSC (g/L)

x = Ci − Ce

(N)

 Ci − Ce    × 100  Ci 

Amount adsorbed q =x

(g.eq.g-1)

0.25

0.0315

0.0085

21.3 (36.3)

(1 x 10-4) 4.3 (7.3)

0.50

0.0300

0.0100

25.0 (47.5)

5.0 (9.5)

0.75

0.0260

0.0140

35.0 (56.3)

7.0 (11.3)

1.00

0.0220

0.0180

45.0 (67.5)

9.0 (13.5)

1.50

0.0175

0.0230

56.3 (52.5)

1.1 (16.5)

2.00

0.0060

0.0340

85.0 (90.0)

1.7 (18.0)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors thank the Principal and Management of their colleges for providing facilities and encouragement. REFERENCE Ramu A, Kannan N and Srivalthsan S A, 1992. Adsorption of carboxylic acids on flyash activated carbon. Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 34(3) 192196.

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STUDIES ON THE REMOVAL OF METAL IONS BY CASHEWNUT SHELL CARBON

Kannan N and Rajakumar A Department of Chemistry, ANJA College, Sivakasi – 626 124, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION Heavy metal ions are highly toxic to living beings. The effluents from metal finishing, alloy manufacturing and some other industries like Cd-Pb battery, chloralkali, smelters, casting, petroleum (gasoline additive), ceramics, fungicide, pigments and chemical industries discharge metal ions in the effluents. This necessitates the removal of metal ions from water (Faust, 1983). The major ill-effects caused by metal ions are dermititis, inhibition of enzyme activity, head ache, Wilkinson disease, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, chest pain, tightness of chest, dry cough, shortness of breath, rapid respiration, nephratis, cyanosis and extreme weakness (Beliles, 1979). Therefore, metal ions like mercury, lead and cadmium ions are to be necessarily removed from the effluents before its discharge. Despite its prolific use in water and wastewater industries, commercial Activated Carbon (CAC) still remains an expensive material, and there also exists difficulty in the procurement of CAC in developing countries like, India. This has led to a search for low-cost materials, as alternative adsorbents to CAC (Kannan et al., 1998; Pollard et al., 1992). The abundance, easy availability, carbonaceous nature and the possibility of its conversion to AC makes the agricultural waste / byproduct, especially cashewnut shell, as potential precursor / raw material for the preparation of chemically prepared CNSC (Pollard et al., 1992). The aims of this work are to study the kinetics and mechanism of adsorption of metal ions on CAC and CNSC prepared from agricultural waste and to compare the adsorption capacity of CNSC for adsorption of metal ions, relative to CAC. METHODOLOGY Commercial AC(CAC) was procured from E.Merck, India. Raw material for the preparation of CNSC, viz., cashewnut shell was collected locally, washed, dried, cut into small pieces and dried. The raw material was then carbonised (at 300°C), activated (at 700°C), acid digested (with 2N HNO3), washed and sieved. Mercury(II) nitrate(AR), lead nitrate(AR) and cadmium sulphate (AR) supplied by BDH, India were used as the sources of metal ions. Adsorption experiments were carried out at room temperature (30±1 °C) under batch mode (Kannan and Vijayaraghavan, 1992). Metal ion 266

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concentrations were estimated spectrophotometrically as per standard method (Rajakumar, 2002). Effect of various process parameters on the extent of removal of metal ions was studied. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The adsorption experiments were carried out at different experimental conditions and the results obtained are given in Table 1. The effect of initial concentration of metal ions on the extent of removal (in terms of percentage removal) of metal ions on CNSC and CAC was studied. The percentage removal decreases with the increase in metal ion concentration. This indicates that there exists a reduction in immediate solute adsorption, owing to the lack of available active sites (Rajakumar, 2002) required for the high initial concentration of metal ions. The percentage of removal of metal ions by CAC and CNSC increases and reaches a maximum value at 35 min. for CNSC and 30 min. for CAC. Similar results have been reported in literature on the extent of removal of dyes (Kannan and Meenakshi Sundaram, 2002), metal ions (Rajakumar, 2002; Kannan and Rajkumar, 2003) and carboxylic acids (Kannan and Xavier, 2000). The increase in dose of adsorbent increased the percentage removal of metal ions. This may be due to the increase in the availability of surface active sites resulting from the increased dose of CAC and CNSC and also due to conglomeration of the adsorbent (Kannan and Xavier, 2000; Kannan and Karuppaswami, 1998), especially at higher doses of adsorbent. The amount of metal ions adsorbed was observed to vary exponentially in accordance with a fractional power term of the dose of adsorbent i.e., qt = (dose)-n +C, where n = fraction. The results of such analysis are given below:

Metal ions

CAC

CNSC

2.32

0.963

5.63

0.977

0.39

0.982

0.67

0.998

0.63

0.998

0.76

0.960

The correlations of log qe vs log(dose) are also found to be linear with r-values close to unity (range of r values: 0.963-0.998). This suggests that the adsorbed species / solute(metal ions) may either block the access to the internal pores or cause particles to aggregate and thereby resulting in the reduction of availability of active sites for adsorption (Kannan and Meenakshi Sundaram, 2002; Kannan and Xavier, 2000). The increase in pH increases the percentage removal of metal ions. The pH after adsorption decreases. The results are in harmony with the literature reports (Kannan and Rajkumar 2003) for the adsorption of metal ions. The percentage removal of metal ions increases with the decrease in particle size of CNSC. There also exists a linear relationship between the amount of metal ion adsorbed and particle size, as evidenced by the r values close to unity (r values for CNSC : Hg= 0.994 Pb = 0.988 and Cd = 0.995). Similar observations have been reported for the adsorption of dyes (Kannan and 267

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Table 1 Effect of process parameters on the percentage removal (range) of metal ions by CAC and CNSC at 300C* Parameter Varied Initial concentration

Contact time

Dose

Initial pH

Particle size

Ionic strength (I)

Range 100– 700 ppm

5 –120 min. 4 -32 gL-1

2–8

Hg(II)

Pb(II)

Cd(II)

92.4 – 65.7

94.7 – 78.9

73.9 – 53.8

(100 – 91.3)

(84.6 – 71.5)

(86.9 – 34.5)

25.1 – 75.3

26.3 – 78.2

25.8 – 77.4

(80.2 – 90.1)

(78.1 – 89.4)

(76.5 – 88.9)

23.9 – 72.8

53.0 – 95.0

48.5 – 96.4

(81.7 –96.7)

(28.5 – 87.7)

(47.4 – 93.0)

59.7 – 82.1

56.5 – 98.0

27.4 – 98.5

(83.3 – 97.0)

(32.0 – 92.5)

(15.9 – 99.2)

75 – 250 m

72.6 – 59.8

99.7 – 78.3

96.2 – 84.1

(-)

0 – 0.5M

92.9 – 63.4

95.9 –90.3

91.5 – 86.4

(90.7 –80.2)

(90.3 – 84.2)

(92.4 – 82.7)

* Values given in parenthesis are the percentage removal using CAC

Meenakshi Sundaram, 2002), metal ions (Rajkumar, 2002; Kannan and Rajkumar, 2003) and organic carboxylic acids (Kannan and Xavier, 2000). The effect of ionic strength was also studied in the range of 0-0.5M by adding salts (chlorides of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Al3+, sodium salts of Cl-, NO , SO , acetate and EDTA). As the ionic strength increases, the percentage removal decreases owing to the competition between metal ions and other ions for adsorption. The adsorption data were analysed with the help of Langmuir isotherm[Rajkumar, 2002; Kannan and Xavier, 2000). 3

Langmuir isotherm: (Ce/qe) = (Ce/Qo) + (1/Qob) Where, Ce = equlibrium concentration of metal ions (ppm), qe = amount of metal ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at equilibrium, Qo = monolayer adsorption capacity (mgg-1) and b = Langmuir constant related to the energy of adsorption (Lmg1) The values of adsorption isotherm parameters along with the correlation coefficients are presented in Table 2. The observed linear relationship, as evidenced by the rvalues close to unity (range 0.930-0.999), indicate the applicability of Langmuir adsorption isotherm and the monolayer coverage of metal ions on adsorbent surface. The monolayer adsorption capacities of the various metal ions are found to be of the order: Cd(II) < Pb(II) < Hg(II). CNSC is found to possess adsorption capacity comparable to that of CAC. The value of separation factor, RL, is found to be a fraction (0.098 – 746), which indicates the favourable adsorption.

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Table 2 Results of correlation analysis of adsorption data* Parameters Hg(II) Pb(II) Cd(II) 1. Langmuir isotherm:-1 a value (mg g ) 28.19 17.0 9,59 (43.93) (21.64) (5.95) 2 -1 10 b value (Lmg ) 1.03 1.53 4.13 (2.14) (1.33) (6.57) r-value 0.930 0.995 0.987 (0.952) (0.992) (0.999) RL-value 0.184 0.649 0.482 (0.098) (0.746) (0.303) 2. Lagergren equation:102 k (min.–1) 77.2 5.93 9.78 (62.2) (7.26) (9.29) r-value 0.977 0.932 0.996 (0.984) (0.965) (0.987) 3. Intra-particle diffusion model:10 kp ( mgg-1 min.-0.5) 6.73 3.24 1.33 (4.51) (2.26) (1.29) Intercept (c) 13.4 1.54 1.38 (20.1) (0.31) (1.42) r-value 0.980 0.994 0.985 (0.947) (0.993) 0.997) 4. log(%R) vs log (time):102 slope 9.6 19.9 13.2 (4.6) (16.9) (12.8) r - value 0.993 0.996 0.994 (0.999) (0.984) (0.998)

* Values given in parenthesis are for CAC

The kinetics and dynamics of adsorption of metal ions by CNSC and CAC have been studied by applying the first order kinetic equation as proposed by Lagergren (Rajkumar, 2002; Kannan and Xavier, 2000). Lagergren equation : Log(qe – qt) = log qmax – (k / 2.303) t Where, qe = amount of metal ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at equilibrium, qt = amount of metal ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at time t (min.), qmax = maximum amount of metal ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1), k = first order rate constant of adsorption (min.-1) and t = time (min.). The values of first order rate constants (k , in min.-1) along with the correlation coefficients are also given in Table 2. All the linear correlations were found to be statistically significant (as evidenced by r-values close to unity; range: 0.932-0.996) and indicate the applicability of Lagergren equation and the first order nature of the adsorption process of metal ions on CNSC and CAC. The values of rate constant calculated from the Lagergren equation are also found to be close to that computed from Bhattacharaya and Venkobachar equation, for CAC or CNSC(Rajkumar, 2002), and hence k values calculated from Lagergren equation alone are reported. The values of qt were found to be linearly correlated with the values of t1/2. Intra- particle diffusion model (10): qt = kp t1/2 + c. Where, qt = amount of metal ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at time t 269

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(min.), kp = intra-particle diffusion rate constant (mgg-1 min.-0.5) t = time (min.) and c = intercept The applicability of this model indicates the presence of intra-particle diffusion process (Rajkumar, 2002; Kannan and Karuppaswamy, 1998). The values of intercept (c = 0.31 – 20.1) gives an idea about the boundary layer thickness. i.e., the larger the intercept, the greater is the boundary layer effect. The correlations of the values of log (%removal i.e., %R) with that of log(time) also resulted in linear relationships (as evidenced by r values close to unity; range 0.984-0.999). The divergence in the value of slope from 0.5 (Table 2) indicates the presence of intra-particle diffusion process, as one of the rate limiting steps, besides many other processes controlling the rate of adsorption, all of which may be operating simultaneously. The results of the present study proves that CNSC could be used as low cost adsorbent alternative to CAC for the removal of heavy metal ions from industrial effluents. REFERENCES Beliles R P, 1979. The lesser metals, In: Toxicity of Heavy Metals in the Environment, Part 2, Oehme, F.W. (ed), Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, p.583. Faust S D and Aly O M, 1983. Chemistry of Water Treatment, Ann Arbor Sci. book, Butterwork Publ., Ann Arbor. Kannan N and Rajakumar A, 2003. Fres. Environ. Bull., Vol. 11, No.3, 160-164 (2002); Toxicol. Environ Chem., Vol. 84, No.1, pp. 7-19. Kannan N and Karuppasamy K, 1998. Indian J. Environ. Protec. Vol. 18, No. 9, pp. 683-686. Kannan N and Meenakshi Sundaram M, 2002. Fres. Environ. Bull., Vol. 10, No. 11, pp. 814-819 (2001); Water, Air Soil Pollut., Vol. 138, pp. 289-305. Kannan N and Vijayaraghavan A, 1992. Indian J. Environ. Protec., Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 46-49. Kannan N and Xavier A, 2000. Toxicol. Environ Chem., Vol. 79, No. 1, pp. 95-107. Kannan N, Srinivasan T and Dhandayudhapani P, 1998. Natural adsorbents for water and wastewater treatment–A Review. In.: Eco-Technology for Pollution Control and Environmental Management, Trivedy, R.K. and Aravind Kumar (Eds.). Enviromeida Publ., Karad, pp. 291-310. Pollard, S J T, Fowler G D, Sollars C J and Perry R, 1992. The Sci. Total Environ., Vol. 116, pp. 31 –52. Rajakumar A, 2002. Kinetics of adsorption of heavy metals by activated carbons, Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai.

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OPTIMISATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS FOR ADSORPTION OF BASIC DYE USING RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

Kannan N, Meenakshi Sundaram M and Murugavel S Department of Chemistry, ANJA College, Sivakasi â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 626 124, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION Dyes are used in textile, printing and other industries. Many coloured effluents are composed of non-biodegradable organic components. Adsorption is an attractive method of treatment for producing high quality colourless effluents. Activated Carbon (AC) adsorption is a widely employed method (McKay, 1983). However, due to the difficulty in the procurement of Commercial AC (CAC) and high cost of regeneration and recharging, alternative low-cost adsorbents have been developed. Indigenously prepared activated carbons (IPACs) from agricultural wastes have been tried by the first two authors as low-cost adsorbents for the removal of dyes, among which, Straw Carbon (SC) was found to be the best adsorbent for dyes. Adsorption process becomes highly effective, only when the optimum process parameters are employed. The effect of several factors influencing the adsorption of dyes, such as the pH, dose and particle size has been studied. Box-Behnken factorial design (Annadurai, et al., 1998) with three variables, pH of the solution (X1), dose of adsorbents (X2) and particle size (X3) (for the dye MB) at three different levels (-1, 0 and +1) was studied to identify a significant correlation between the amount of dye adsorbed and the effect of these variables. It is possible to undertake a rational design which reduces the number of experiments and broadens the range of information about the system (Box and Hunter, 1957; Box and Wilson, 1957). Statistical design was used to determine the optimal levels of process parameter in adsorption studies. EXPERIMENTS Straw was collected locally, washed, dried and cut into small pieces, carbonised (at 300oC) and steam digested (at 700oC). The material was finally sieved to three different discrete particle sizes, 90, 106 and 125 microns using respective sieves (Jayant Sieve Shaker, India). Straw carbon (SC) was thermally activated in an air-oven for 5hr at 120oC. Methylene Blue (MB) supplied by BDH (India) was used as adsorbate. All the other chemicals used in this study were obtained commercially and were of analytical 271

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grade. Double distilled water was employed for preparing all the solutions and reagents. Critical variables of process parameters are shown in Table 1. Table 1 : Critical variables of process parameters for removal of MB Variable

-1

7.1

7.8

8.5

Dose (gL-1)

9.6

10.0

10.4

Particle size (in microns)

0.09

0.106

0.125

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Adsorption in a solid – liquid interface results in the removal of solutes (dyes) form aqueous solution and their concentration at the surface of the solid and in solution are in dynamic equilibrium. At this position of equilibrium there is a defined distribution of solute (dye) between the liquid and solid phases which is generally expressed by one or more number of isotherm. Multiple linear regression (MLR) equation obtained after the analysis of variance, will give the level of adsorption as a function of different process parameters. All the terms regardless of their significance are to be included into the MLR equation (Annadurai et al., 1998). MLR analysis was performed to obtain the coefficients from the experimental results viz., amount adsorbed (Q values) for the set of statistically designed experiments based on Box-Behnken design of experiments. MLR equations could be used to predict the response (equation 1). Methylene Blue (MB) Q = 19.788 + 0.6194 X1 + 0.5043 X2 – 0.340 X3 - 0.361 X12 + 0.115 X22 + 0.0396 X32 – 0.669 X1 X2 + 0.183 X1 X3 + 0.0689 X2 X3 (R = 0.910; R2 = 0.827; S= 0.363)

……………………

(1)

Quadratic regression equation 1 is significant at 95% confidence level (Multiple regression with these three variables X1, X2 and X3 alone are significant only at 80% confidence level) indicating the combined effect of the pH, dose and particle size of indigenously prepared SC. The predicted values of amount of dye adsorbed from the model equation (1) at each 272

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set of experimental conditions are also summarised in Table 2. along with the experimentally observed (Q) values. The percent of variance obtained from the factor analysis of all the dependent (explanatory) variables, its square term and cross products, including and excluding the independent variable (Q) are presented in Table 3. The percent variance of the variables will give an idea about the significance of the each variable and its contribution in explaining the observed experimental results (Q values). Table 2 : Experimental condition for optimisation studies for removal of MB x1

(pH)

Q value

(Dose)

x3 (particle size)

Experimental

Simulated

-1

1.1875*

18.58

18.29

-1

19.26

19.78

-1

1.1875

18.52

18.32

-1

20.76

20.14

-1

21.06

20.89

-1

19.06

20.08

-1

1.1875

18.00

18.32

-1

1.1875

18.01

18.32

-1

18.26

18.38

-1

20.46

19.82

1.1875

19.46

19.93

20.06

-1

1.1875

19.26

18.89

-1

20.26

20.72

1.1875

20.36

20.18

19.36

19.82

1.1875

20.20

19.95

-1

18.27

18.38

S.No.

*Code for particle size = 1.1875 instead of 1.0 Calculated value of q according to the MLR model : eqn (1).

The value of correlation coefficient for the MLR equation (1) is found to be in the range of 95% level of statistical significance which indicate that there should be a close agreement between the experimental (observed) and theoretical (calculated) values of amount adsorbed (Q). The simulated (calculated) values of Q by the equation (1) are found to be in close agreement with that of the experimental values (Table 2). 273

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obtained from these contour plots. The increase in pH increases the amount of dye adsorbed (MB). Table 3 Analysis of variance of process parameters obtained from factor analysis for removal of dyes (AV and RB) by adsorption on SC

S.No. 1

Variable Q (amount adsorbed)

Eigen value -

MB 26.5

2 3

X1 (pH) X2 (Dose)

21.2 14.4

X3 (Particle size)

X12

X22

X32

X1 X2

X1 X3

X2 X3

2.22 (24.6)* 1.92 (21.3) 1.35 (15.3) 1.08 (12.0) 0.96 (10.6) 0.72 (8.0) 0.42 (5.2) 0.18 (2.0) 0.12 (1.3)

11.7 9.6 7.7 4.8 1.8 1.4 0.9

* Values given in the parentheses are the per cent variance of explanatory variables alone. Optimisation of Process Parameters Contour plots (drawn using Mathematica software â&#x20AC;&#x201C; not shown) representing the amount of dye adsorbed against particle size and dose at pH = 7.8 indicate that the amount of dye adsorbed increases with decrease in particle size at a constant dose. The increase in dose of SC at constant particle size also decreases the amount adsorbed (Mc Kay et al., 1982). The increase in dose and decrease in particle size resulted in an increase in amount of dye adsorbed on the surface of SC. Contour plots (not shown) of amount of dye adsorbed versus particle size and pH at a dose of 10 gl-1 reveal that the increase in pH leads to the attraction of dye molecule (in basic dye) and repulsion of dye molecules (in acidic dye) and thereby affecting the extent of adsorption. The extent of variation in Q with these parameters could be 274

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Contour plots (not shown) were also made representing the amount of dye adsorbed versus dose and pH (4.69) at a constant particle size of 106 microns. The maximum amount of dye adsorbed (Q) increases with the decrease in dose and change (increase) in pH (depending upon the nature of dye either acidic or basic). In the case of MB, which is a basic dye, as pH increases the amount adsorbed also increases. The maximum value of amount adsorbed for a given set of experimental conditions could be obtained from contour plots. CONCLUSION The following conclusions were arrived at from the results of the present study: The variables such as pH, dose and particle size were proved to be the most significant parameters for the maximum adsorption of dye Methylene Blue (MB) as evidenced from the Multiple linear regression (MLR) equation and contour plots. The results obtained could be used for better designing of cost effective operation of effluent treatment plant, for the economic removal of dye (MB) by adsorption using Indegenously prepared activated carbons (IPACs), in general and Straw Carbon (SC), in particular. REFERENCES Annadurai G, Srinivasamoorthy V K, Krishnan M R V, 1998. Adsorption of reactive dye on activated carbons: experimental design for exploring response surface. Indian J Environ Protect; 18(4); 281. Box G E P, Hunter J S, 1957. Multifactor experimental design for exploring response surfaces. Ann Math Statist : 28. Box G E P, Wilson K B, 1957. On the experimental attainment of optimum conditions. J Roy Statist Soc, B13: 1. Mc Kay G, Blair H S, Gardner J K, 1982. Adsorption of dyes on chitin. 1. Equilibrium studies. J Appl Polymer Sci, 767: 3043. Mc Kay G, 1983. The adsorption of dyestuff from aqueous solution using activated carbon: analytical solution for batch adsorption based on external mass transfer and pore diffusion. Chem Eng J; 27 : 187.

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TREATMENT OF RADIOACTIVE LIQUID WASTE CONTAINING ETHYLENE DIAMINE TETRA-ACETIC ACID USING PHOTO-FENTON OXIDATION AS A PRETREATMENT STEP

Mani A G S, Paramasivan K, Chitra S, Sinha P K and Lal K B Centralised Waste Management Facility, BARC Facilities, Kalpakkam 603102,Tamil Nadu

INTRODUCTION The presence of Ethylene Diamine Tetra-Acetic Acid (EDTA) in radioactive liquid wastes can cause complexation of the target cations (Sr+2) and precipitant cations (eg: Cu2+, Ca2+, Fe3+), resulting in interference in their removal by conventional treatment processes such as chemical precipitation, ion exchange etc. Further, it might also impart elevated leachability and higher mobility of cationic contaminants from the conditioned wastes, i.e. waste immobilized in cement or other matrices and can negatively influence the quality of the final form of waste (Chitra et al., 2003). EDTA is not easily biodegradable, scarcely degradable by chlorine and hardly retained by activated carbon filters. Its presence in the water phase extends the biological life cycle of the radioactive cations, and the stringent regulation on the discharge limit (2 ppm EDTA) calls for pretreatment step of removal of EDTA to render the liquid waste amenable to treatment and thus protect the environment. Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP) using H2O2, ultrasonic (US), ultraviolet (UV), Fentonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reagent, photocatalysts, ozone alone or in combination etc., are considered as methods of clean & ecologically safe treatment for the degradation of EDTA and other organics. The degradation of EDTA has been attempted by various AOPs alone or in combination with variable results (Chitra et al., 2003). The low and intermediate level radioactive liquid wastes are subjected to chemical treatment process by addition of 20 ppm of Cu+2, 30ppm of Fe(CN)64-, 50 ppm of Fe+3 and 150 ppm Ca+2 and 260 ppm PO43- at pH 9.5 for the removal of activity. The removal of activity is expressed as decontamination factor (DF), which is the ratio of the specific activity of the effluent before and after treatment. In the present study, the interference of EDTA in the existing chemical precipitation treatment of radioactive liquid waste and the optimization of dosage of hydrogen peroxide for the degradation of EDTA during photochemical oxidation using UV (15 W) + Fentonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reagent (Fe+2+H2O2) as a pretreatment step on the removal of activity has been discussed. 276

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METHODS Experimental setup and Characterization of waste The 137Cs was analysed in a gamma spectrometer consisting of 2″X2 ″ NaI(Tl) scintillation counter coupled with a MCA. The gross β-γ content was analysed in a Geiger-muller counter. Alpha analysis was carried out using ZnS(Ag) scintillation counter. The TDS was analysed using conductivity meter. The pH of the solution was measured using a calibrated pH meter (Cyberscan 500). The photoreactor was a 210 mm x 210 mm x 50 mm deep glass trough housed inside a fume hood. A UV lamp (15W) with a top cover was positioned horizontally at a distance of 70 mm above the reactor. All the chemicals used, such as CuSO4, K4Fe(CN)6, CaCl2, Na3PO4, Fe(NO3)3, NaOH, EDTA, hydrogen peroxide (30%w/v) etc., were of analytical or guaranteed reagent grade. Interference of EDTA To 200 ml of the waste (< 5ppm EDTA) appropriate volumes of 2% EDTA was added to get the desired concentrations of 10 ppm, 50 ppm 100 ppm and 200 ppm EDTA and was subjected to the existing chemical treatment to study the interference of EDTA in the removal of activity. Photodegradation of EDTA Fenton and Fenton-like reagents composed of hydrogen peroxide and a metal transition salt (Cu+2, Fe+2, Fe+3) are increasingly used for the destruction of organic pollutants (G. (Ghiseli et al., 2004). Since Cu+2, Fe+2, Fe+3 will be added during the chemical treatment process, external addition of Fe+2 has not been carried out. To 200 ml simulated waste containing 100 ppm of EDTA, 20 ppm Cu+2, 30ppm of Fe(CN)64-, 50 ppm Fe+3 was added. To the above mixture, variable dosage of H2O2 (30% w/v) viz., 0.2ml, 2.5ml, and 5ml was added and irradiated using UV (15 W) for 1 hour. Chemical treatment for removal of activity After irradiation, the effluent was given the chemical treatment by addition of 150 ppm of Ca+2 and 260 ppm of PO43- at pH 9.5 for the removal of activity. Analytical Methods The residual EDTA present in the samples was analyzed titrimetrically against standard zirconyl oxychloride using xylenol orange as indicator (Tucker et al., 1999). At least triplicate runs were carried out for each condition averaging the results.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Interference of EDTA The characteristics of the wastes are given in Table. 1. Figure. 1 illustrates the interference of EDTA in the attainment of DF during the treatment of radioactive liquid waste (waste no.1). From Fig. 1, it can be observed that there is significant Table-1 Characteristics of Wastes Waste No. 1 Waste No. 2 6.68 9.64 2440 mg.l-1 3990 mg.l-1 250.23 Bq.ml-1 42.63 Bq.ml-1 -1 22.26 Bq.ml-1 80.84 Bq.ml -1 1.7 Bq.ml 0.87 Bq.ml-1

Parameter pH Dissolved solids Gross â-ã 137 Cs

Decontamiantion Factor (DF)

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

100

150

200

Cocentration of EDTA (ppm)

Fig. 1 Variation of DF with EDTA ( Interference of EDTA)

decrease in DF from 10 ppm of EDTA. It was also observed that at higher concentrations of EDTA, from 100 ppm –200ppm, phase separation was slow thus affecting the DF, which is in conformity with results obtained earlier (Sinha et al., 1993). Photo-Fenton Processes The formation of hydroxyl radicals by using the photo-Fenton process occurs according to the following Eq. (1) Fe2+ + H2O2 → Fe+3 + OH- + OH.

(1)

UV irradiation leads not only to the formation of additional hydroxyl radicals but also to a recycling of the ferrous catalyst by reduction of Fe (III) (added or regenerated). By this the concentration of Fe (II) increases, and therefore the gross reaction is accelerated (Chitra et al., 2003). Fe 3+ + •OH → Fe+2 + OHFe3+ + H2O2→Fe-OOH2+ + H+ Fe-OOH2+→ Fe2+ + HO2• Fe3+ + HO2•→Fe2+ +O2 +H+ 278

(2) (3) (4) (5)

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Removal of radioactivity from effluent pretreated for EDTA degradation From Table.2, it can be observed that at dosage of 0.2ml of H2O2 to the simulated waste (waste no.2) containing 100 ppm EDTA, there was an improvement in the DF from 14 to 31 after 1 hour of irradiation. The residual concentration of EDTA in the above samples was around 10 ppm. This may be due to the inadequate concentration of oxidant i.e., H2O2, which is not able to degrade EDTA completely, and that there is a possibility of interference of the degradation intermediates with the chemical treatment (Ghiseli et al., 2004). Higher intensities of UV >15W may aid in complete degradation of EDTA with the same dosage of H2O2. The decomposition of EDTA in aqueous solution depends on pH, H2O2 dosages, UV light intensities, temperature and concentration of catalyst (Ghiseli et al., 2004). Table-2 Decontamination Factor for waste (waste no.2) containing 100 ppm EDTA during Photo-Fenton oxidation as pretreatment step followed by Chemical Treatment Processes *D.F D.F ( - ) (after 1hr irradiation) ( - ) 1 2 3 4 5

Waste + 0 ppm EDTA Waste + 100 ppm EDTA Waste + 100 ppm EDTA + 0.2 ml H2O2 Waste + 100 ppm EDTA + 2.5 ml H2O2 Waste + 100 ppm EDTA + 5.0 ml H2O2

50.0 14.4 31.0 50.0 55.0

* without pretreatment step

There was a significant increase in DF from 14 to 50 after 1hour of irradiation at twenty five time the stoichiometric addition of H2O2 i.e., 2.5 ml of H2O2. There was also complete loss of chelating ability of EDTA during the above experiment. The extent of oxidation during Fentonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s reaction is determined by the amount of hydrogen peroxide present in the system (Sinha et al., 1993). At higher dosage of H2O2 (from 2.5 ml to 5 ml), there was no significant increase in the DF (50 to 55). This may be due to the scavenging effect of H2O2 (Chitra et al., 2003). Further studies are underway for the optimization of dosage of H2O2, UV intensities and time of irradiation. CONCLUSION The presence of EDTA at concentrations of 10 ppm and above significantly interferes with the existing chemical treatment of radioactive liquid wastes for the removal of activity. The employment of Photo-Fenton oxidation as a pre-treatment step for the treatment of radioactive liquid wastes containing EDTA was found to be very effective at a dosage of 2.5ml of H2O2. The treated effluent was subjected to chemical treatment and there was a significant removal of activity (DF- 50). Optimisation of parameters viz., dosage of oxidant, UV intensities, irradiation time etc., is necessary to choose between operational costs and kinetics without affecting the overall process efficiency. The usage of transition metal salts in the treatment process makes the external addition 279

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of catalyst unnecessary. It is also possible that UV light could be replaced by solar light with a significant reduction in the costs of the process although this will demand further investigation. REFERENCES Chitra S, K Paramasivan P K, Sinha K B Lal, 2003. Journal of Advanced Oxidation Technology, 6, (1), 109. Ghiseli G, Jardim W F, Litter M I, Mansilla H D, 2004. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A. Chem.167, 59. Sinha P K, Amalraj R V, Krishnasamy V, 1993. Waste Management, 13, 341. Tucker M D, Barton L L, B M, Thomson B M, Wagener A, Aragon, 1999. Waste Manage. 19, 477.

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PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF IODINE FILTER INSTALLATION FOR A NUCLEAR FACILITY

Cheralathan M, Sumangala R K, Raj S S and Lal K B Air Cleaning Services, Centralised Waste Management Facility, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (F), Kalpakkam T.N.603102

INTRODUCTION In nuclear facilities, it is necessary to reduce the amount of radioactive substances discharged to the atmosphere to certain levels which is set by international bodies, national authorities or managers of a particular plant and they may include limits on atmospheric discharges for normal operation and accidental conditions. The general design objectives of nuclear plants aim at fulfilling the ICRP recommendations and the ALARA principle (IAEA, 1980). The techniques adopted for reducing the quantity of air borne activity involve the use of filtration systems, gaseous sorption systems or delay systems. These air-cleaning systems must be properly designed and operated so that the prescribed release limits are met. To ensure that the cleaning systems function correctly, it is necessary to test their efficiency before they are brought into routine use and also subsequently from time to time. Radioactivity generated in a nuclear plant is released to the atmosphere in particulate form, gaseous form or in combination with non-radioactive aerosols. The performance of filtration devices installed in a cleanup system depends not only on the integrity of the device but also on the leak tightness of the housing, ducting, gaskets, seals, etc and on the care with which each component is handled and installed. In nuclear power plants, most of radioactivity remains within the fuel and is transferred with the spent fuel to a fuel reprocessing facility or storage facility (IAEA, 1980, 1973). However, during normal operation, some gaseous radioactivity gets released, due to small leakages of volatile fission products from defects like pinholes in the fuel rods. During normal operation of a reactor, I131 is the iodine isotope considered to be of most significance to the environment. Under accident conditions I132,I133, I 134 and I135 contribute significantly to the total dose caused by iodine release. Air borne iodine can occur in different chemical forms like I2, CH3I, hypoiodous acid, and also as aerosols of iodine. The main air borne radionuclides are H3, Ar41, C14, noble gases and iodine. The release limit for iodine is the lowest due to its radiological significance in human beings, as it gets accumulated in thyroid, the critical organ, which is directly responsible for the metabolism of human body. This damages the thyroid cells causing malfunctions in it. 281

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Also the I131, which has a half-life of 8 days, gets converted into Xe131 causing a drastic reduction in iodine concentration in thyroid, which is another reason for its malfunction. Iodine is a trace mineral that is essential in the development and functioning of thyroid gland. The human body contains 20mg to 30mg of iodine and more than 60 percent of this total is found in thyroid gland. Iodine can be absorbed through skin and digestive track. The main symptoms of malfunctions in thyroid are fatigue, weight gain, hair loss, depression, irritability, nervousness, trembling hands etc. Impregnated activated charcoal has become universally accepted as the preferred iodine sorbent for use in nuclear power plants, from viewpoint of both performance and cost (IAEA, 1984). EXPERIMENTS Two types of tests are carried out. They are Laboratory tests and In-situ tests. Laboratory tests are carried out to establish the performance characteristics of the impregnated activated charcoal for their use in iodine retention systems under specified operating conditions. The performance of impregnated activated charcoal in removing radio iodine is influenced by several factors like iodine species, type of activated charcoal, type of impregnant, temperature, RH, residence time, charcoal loading with iodine, ageing and poisoning of the charcoal. In-situ tests are carried out for determining the leakage due to installation of iodine filter to obtain a measure of performance of iodine retention systems under appropriate operational conditions. A typical iodine filter installation is shown in Fig. 1. In-situ tests are essential on the complete unit in order to obtain a measurement of its actual operational performance.

Fig. 1 Insitu testing of Iodine Filter Installation 282

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Insitu Testing procedure DOP test is conducted prior to iodine test to ensure that the filter installation is in good condition. Maintenance works if any can be done before carrying out the active iodine test. I131 isotope of the required activity is procured from Board of Radiation Isotope Technology, Mumbai (2.5mCi to 10mCi) for each test. Iodine is generated in-situ by the chemical reaction as follows 2NaI + 2NaNO2 + 2H2SO4 = 2Na2SO4 + NOx + I2 + 2H2O Inactive KI is used along with NaI131 to have a controlled iodine release and to reduce the contamination of the ducting. NaNO2 and KI are added to 30 wt% aqueous solution of KOH. This solution is taken inside the generation flask. 50% conc H2SO4 is taken in the dropping funnel and added in a controlled manner into the three-necked generation flask. Inactive run must be done before the active testing to ensure that the injection lines are in order, and also this step reduces the plating out of active iodine while doing the active run. Injection and Sampling of Iodine I131 is generated in glove box is withdrawn using suction, which is provided through the ducting connected to the filter Iodine sampler consists of three sample cartridges arranged in series. Each cartridge is filled with 40cc of 2wt%KI + 2wt%KOH impregnated activated charcoal. A flow rate of 20 liters per minute is maintained for 30 minutes providing a residence time of 0.36 seconds, each cartridge providing a residence time of 0.12 seconds. . Counting on impregnated activated charcoal kept in cartridge The I131 sorbed in impregnated activated charcoal sample in each cartridge of the upstream and downstream tests was counted separately using a gamma counting system (using NaI detector or HPGe detector) connected to a multi channel analyzer. The I131 emits a gamma with an energy of 364 keV. By measuring the upstream and downstream gamma counts due to I131, the efficiency of the filter installation for removal of iodine is calculated. A typical peak of upstream count by NaI is shown in Fig.2. The last cartridge generally gives a value same as background counts ensuring that all I131 had been picked up by charcoal. The counting is done for 100 seconds. The percentage iodine removal efficiency for iodine filter is calculated as N=[(Ci-Co)/Ci] x100, where, Ci=counts received for upstream charcoal samples, and Co=counts received for downstream charcoal samples. The radiation level was monitored throughout the experiment by the health physicist to ensure that the whole operation is done in a safe manner.

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900

Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram

364 keV

Sample: Upstream Sample Counting Duration: 100 secs Area under the peak-1,33,931

800 700

Counts

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Gamma Ene rgy keV

Fig. 2: Typical I-131 Spectrum in MCA Gamma Spectroscopy using NaI (Tl) detector

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Laboratory Test results: Typical Impregnated Activated Charcoal sample received for use in Reactor Exhaust Iodine Filtration was studied. The BET surface area for the sample was found to be 970 m2/g; iodine number was in the order of 1500; CCl4 activity was 70% wt; Impregnants KI was 0.95% (wt) and KOH was 3.3 % (wt). These are some of the important properties of the adsorbent to be estimated before it is employed for use in the iodine filtration. Insitu test results of Iodine filter installations: Efficiencies of iodine filter installations at Reactor sites of Kalpakkam were found to be above 99.9%, which are well within the specifications of the site. CONCLUSIONS Periodical testing of iodine filter installations in nuclear facilities ensures that no iodine activity is leaked to the public through air route. The regular testing of iodine filter installations has led us to believe that iodine removal systems are functioning well and that their life period can be extended upto 3 years without losing the performance. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors acknowledge Shri.P.T.Hariharan for DOP testing, Shri.S.Kathiresan for assistance in iodine testing, Smt.K.Shivakamy for suface area determination and Smt K.Jothi Lakshmi, for charcoal impregnation and preparation of required reagents for the test. Authors also acknowledge Shri.R.V Ramesh, FBTR, Shri.Vetrivelu, MAPS and Shri.I.V.N.S.Kamaraju, PRP for their coordination while carrying out tests in respective facilities. 284

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REFERENCES IAEA, 1973. Control of Iodine in Nuclear Industry, Technical Report Series No. 148,IAEA, Vienna. IAEA, 1980. Radioiodine Removal in Nuclear Facilities, Technical Report Series No: 201, IAEA, Vienna. IAEA, 1984. Testing and Monitoring of Off-Gas Clean up System at Nuclear Facility, IAEA Technical Report Series, NO: 243, Vienna.

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UTILIZATION OF TREATED TANNERY EFFLUENT FOR GROWING CERTAIN TREE SPECIES

Rajan M R Department of Biology Gandhigram Rural Institute, Gandhigram â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 624 302, Tamilnadu.

INTRODUCTION One of the major industries which pollute the soil and water by discharging high amounts of salt and toxic chemicals is tannery. There are about 2161 tanneries in India of which 568 are located in Tamilnadu which contribute half of the finished leather and leather goods exported from India. Dindigul, Tamilnadu is an important centre for leather processing with 61 tanneries. The effluent discharged from these tanneries affected the land to a radius of 6km (Paul Bhasker, 1992). In order to abate pollution from tanneries, a Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) has been set up at Dindigul by the Tamil Nadu Government, in association with Dindigul Tannerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Association. Even after the establishment of the CETP, the treated effluent, which is stored in the Senkulam lake on the Dindigul-Batlagundu highway, is not suitable for agricultural purposes or surface irrigation (Rajan and Rukmani, 2001) due to the presence of high level of chloride and other toxic chemicals. The soil of the whole area is already converted into an alkaline soil due to the continuous addition of raw or treated tannery effluent containing high quantity of chloride. In a developing country like India, where there is constant scarcity of water and fuel wood, the treated tannery effluent can be used for growing salinity resistant non-edible tree species. Though a few studies are available on the physico-chemical parameters of tannery effluent and its impact on drinking and irrigation water, land and biodiversity, specific studies on the utilization of treated tannery effluent for growing tree species are totally wanting. It is in this context that the present study has been undertaken. MATERIALS AND METHODS For the present study the treated tannery effluent from the CETP at Dindigul was utilized. The effluent was collected from the outlet of the CETP in polythene cans and transported to the laboratory immediately and the physico-chemical characteristics estimated (APHA, 1990). Unpolluted ground water obtained from the bore well in Gandhigram Rural Institute campus was taken as control, whose physico-chemical characteristics were also estimated. The water quality Index of the collected effluent 286

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was calculated to arrive at the level of pollution. However, the water Quality Index (WQI) is bound to depend on the intended use of water. The standards for drinking water recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for the 10 parameters chosen for the analysis along with the assigned weights (Punmia, 1977). Fifteen salinity resistant tree species were grown in pots and irrigated with treated tannery effluent for a period of 180 days. Then, based on surviving capacity, growth capabilities, biomass production and economic value, seven tree species namely Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia holosericea, Alianthus excelsa, Chloroxylon Swietenia, Dalbergia sissoo, Eucalyptus globulus and Peltophorum ferungineum were subjected to field level studies for a period of two years by ridge and furrow method near the CETP in Dindigul. Ten number of each species were planted for experiments (Irrigated with treated tannery effluent) and control (Irrigated with bore well water). Separate plots were maintained for both experiments and for control. Table 1 Physico-chemical Characteristics Of Treated Tannery Effluent And Ground Water S.No.

Parameters

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

pH Electrical conductivity Total solids Total dissolved solids Total suspended solids Total hardness Alkalinity Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Sulphate Sulphide Carbonate Bicarbonate Phosphate Chloride Nitrogen Dissolved oxygen Dissolved carbon-di-oxide Biological oxygen demand Chemical oxygen demand Oil and grease Total Chromium

Tannery (mS/cm) (mg1-1) ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ”

7.8 18.2 12,500 11,830 670 1912 159 3110 40 29 36 521.2 3.1 ND 4.2 3.2 8162 0.912 2.3 42.7 60.5 420 0.16 0.012

Ground Water 7.3 1.50 1.4 1.2 0.20 267.72 135 28.2 4.71 4.9 7.62 ND 0.1 2.1 ND 0.98 77.21 1.72 7.26 10.72 15.92 24.5 ND ND

BIS 7 to 8.5 400 500 300 20 20 75 30 150

250

All the values are averages of fortnight sampling for two years; ND: Not detectable

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The physico-chemical characteristics of treated tannery effluent and ground water are presented in Table 1 and were found to be higher than the BIS standards. Water Quality 287

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Index (WQI) is shown in Table2 and the results indicate that, out of the 10 parameters studied only two (PH and calcium) of them were within the permissible limit of BIS standards. The WQI was 17, which showed that the pollution level of the treated tannery effluent was â&#x20AC;&#x153;severeâ&#x20AC;? in the rating scale. Table 2 Waterquality index of treated tannery effluent S.No.

Parameters

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10

pH EC Total hardness Total Diss.solids Calcium Magnesium Chloride Sulphate Sodium Potassium Total water Quality Index

Value (BIS) 7 to 8.5 400 300 500 75 50 250 200 20 50

Rating (Pi) 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0

Unit Weight (wi) 0.04 0.09 0.04 0.09 0.13 0.04 0.18 0.13 0.18 0.09

Product (piwi) 4 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 17.0

The effect of treated tannery effluent on shoot and root length, Total fresh and dry weight and shoot and root diameter are shown in Table 3. The shoot and root lengths are reduced when the plants were treated with tannery effluent. The shoot and root lengths are higher in A. auriculiformis. A. holosericea and E.globulus when compared to other tree species. The total fresh and dry weight was deceased when the plants were treated with tannery effluent. The total fresh weight and dry weight was higher in A.auriculiformis, A. holosericea, A. excelsa and E.globulus and lower in other tree species. The diameter of shoot and root showed a declining trend in all the tree species. The shoot and root diameters are higher in A. excelsa when compared to other species. Total fresh and dry weight decreased in all the effluent treated species. The pronounced reduction of shoot / root length was observed. A decrease in fresh and dry weight of seedlings was observed when crop plants were grown in paper mill effluent (Gomathi and oblisami, 1992). The decreased fresh and dry weight is directly related to the photosynthetic process, which in turn depends upon the pigment level. These results agree with the studies conducted on the impact of tannery effluent on pulses and cereals (Saxena et al 1986 and Geetha and Vembu 1998). It was concluded that the treated effluent can be used for growing salinity resistant non-edible tree species.

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Table 3. Effect of treated tannery effluent on shoot and root length, total fresh and dry weight and shoot and root diameter of certain tree species. S . N o.

Paramet er

III

A.au r C T 152.6 113 ± ± 0.29 0.23 66,9 50.6 ± ± 2.31 0.36 75 31 ± ± 0.21 0.12 13.9 12.9 ± ± 0.08 0.14 6.24 5.05 ± ± 0.23 0.23 4.74 3.74 ± ± 0.23 0.2

A.hol C T 150.6 113 ± ± 0.23 0.21 57.75 42.8 ± ± 0.23 1.31 70.2 26.8 ± ± 0.23 0.26 30.45 15.2 ± ± 0.12 0.21 5.1 5.1 ± ± 0.14 0.14 3.9 2.26 ± ± 0.2 0.11

A . e xc C T 138.6 77.2 ± ± 0.21 0.21 68.4 32.8 ± ± 0.36 0.18 90.7 40.5 ± ± 0.23 0.30 39.5 18.4 ± ± 0.23 0.21 9.3 4.5 ± ± 0.21 0.23 4.95 4.74 ± ± 0.23 0.2

C h . s wi C T 69 46.8 ± ± 1.28 2.69 29.4 16.8 ± ± 0.68 1.21 21.8 12.4 ± ± 0.21 0.18 6.31 3.91 ± ± 0.57 0.4 2.27 1.96 ± ± 0.01 0.01 0.9 0.89 ± ± 0.23 0.18

D.sis C 130 ± 5.07 54.5 ± 0.23 90.9 ± 0.29 44.3 ± 1.35 3.9 ± 0.23 1.42 ± 0.52

T 102.8 ± 0.16 31.9 ± 0.23 31.9 ± 0.19 12.7 ± 0.21 1.94 ± 0.11 2.17 ± 0.30

E . g lo C T 294 252 ± ± 1.63 0.81 162 119.7 ± ± 0.94 0.94 132 73.8 ± ± 0.16 0.24 62.7 30.8 ± ± 0.43 0.21 3.75 1.92 ± ± 0.20 0.09 2.0 1.59 ± ± 0.11 0.09

P. ferr C T 250 148 ± ± 1.69 2.94 123.3 60.8 ± ± 0.47 4.32 113.5 63.5 ± ± 0.21 0.18 49.0 30.6 ± ± 0.23 1.17 3.53 2.30 ± ± 0.23 0.23 4.5 2.7 ± ± 0.40 0.09

C- control, T – Treated Each value is the average of ten individual observation A. aur – Acacia auriculiforms., A. hol – Acacia holosericea., A. exc - Ailanthus excelsa Ch.swi - Chloroxylon switenia., D.sis – Dalbergia sissoo., E. glo – Eucalyptus globules I – Shoot length (cm) II – Root length (cm) III – Total fresh weight (g) IV - Shoot dry weight (g) V – Shoot diameter (mm) VI – Root diameter (mm)

REFERENCES APHA, AWWA-WPCF, 1990. Standard methods for Examination of water and waste water. 20th Edn. American public Health Association, Washington, DC. Geetha S and Vembu B, 1998. Effect of tannery effluent on the morphological and biochemical characteristics of Eleucine corocana. J. Ecotoxicol. and Enviorn. Monit. 8(3):183-186. Gomathi V and Oblisami G, 1992. Effect of pulp and paper mill effluent on germination of tree crops. Indian.J. Enviorn. Hlth. 34(4): 326-328. Paul Bhasker J, 1992. Devastation of Leather tanneries in Tamilnadu. Development in practice. An Oxford journal.2 (2) : 274. Punmia B C, 1977. Water supply engineering. Standard Book House, NewDelhi.P.241. Rajan M R and Rukmani S, 2001. Recycling of tannery effluent for growing selected tree species. J.Ecol.Eviron. & Cons, 6(3):319-322. Saxena R M, Kewal D F, Yadav R S and Batnagar A K, 198 6. Impact of tannery effluents on some pulse crops. Indian.J. Environ.Hlth, 28 (4):3345-3348.

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THE IMPACT OF EFFLUENT FROM MC DOWELL AND HRB COMPANY LTD, CHERTHALA, KERALA ON VIGNA SINENSIS, L.

Sheela D and Anila P S Post Graduate Department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Cherthala, Alappuzha, Kerala- 688 525

INTRODUCTION Day by day the ecological state of biosphere is becoming more and more unbalanced as a side effect of technological and industrial advancement and population explosion. Environmental pollution creates serious problems for the very existence of life on this planet. An awareness of environmental problems and potential hazards caused by industrial wastewater has prompted many countries to limit the discharge of effluent. The effluent, which is sent out, along with a large quantity of water contains considerable amount of essential nutrients, which proved benefical for plants (Sheela and Soumya, 2004). The present study has been undertaken to evaluate the effect of waste water effluent from Mc Dowell and H.R.B company, Ltd. on seed germination, growth, chlorophyll and carotenoid productivity of the plant Vigna sinensis, L. To understand the effect of effluent on soil, analysis of the soil used for growing the experimental plants and the control plant is also included in the study. MATERIALS AND METHODS Before starting the experiment, a sample of the effluent was collected in a plastic container from the main outlet of the factory and its various physico-chemical properties were analysed. Surface sterilized seeds were soaked for 24 hours in various concentrations (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90%) of the effluent. For control, distilled water was used. Seeds were placed on filter paper in sterilized petridishes for germination and moistened with 15 ml of different concentrations of the effluent. After 4 days, the data on the percentage of germination was documented and the length of the radicle was recorded. For field studies, the seeds were allowed to grow in soil in polyethylene bags, and irrigated daily with different concentrations (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 70 and 80%) of the effluent. For control, tap water was used for irrigation. Chlorophyll and carotenoid 290

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contents were estimated according to the standard method adopted by Arnon (1949). Length of the plant, length of the petiole and the number of leaves were recorded at 10 day intervals. After the completion of growth, the plants were uprooted and dried in hot air oven at 1000C for 5 days for recording dry weight. For each treatment, 3 replicates were maintained and samples of dry soil of each treatment were collected for soil analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The physico-chemical data reveals that the effluent is highly acidic in nature (Table 1). At higher concentration (90%), there was complete inhibition of seed germination. This is due to high levels of total dissolved solids, which enrich the salinity, and conductivity of the solution absorbed by seed before germination. The data of germination percentage shows that the rate of germination is similar to that of control up to 10% effluent, but decreased with the increase in effluent concentration (Table 2). These observations are in agreement with those of Ghosh and Kumar (1998) and Vinod Sharma et al (2002). Radicle length increases up to 10% concentration. Table 1. Physico-chemical analysis of the effluent Parameter

Value

Colour

Dark Brown

Odour

Aromatic

4-4.5

BOD COD Total suspended Solids Dissolved solids Sulphates Ammoniacal Nitrate Potassium Percentage of Alcohol

5000 ppm 100000 ppm 5000 ppm 76000 ppm 3500 ppm 500 ppm 7813.16 ppm 37

Table 2. Effect of effluent on germination and radicle length of Vigna sinensis, L Conc. %

Germ. (%)

Radicle Length (cm) 4 th Day

5 th Day

6 th Day

6.3±0.1

9.6±0.31

11.1±0.23

6.4±0.11

10.6±0.15

11.3±0.17

5.1±0.41

7.6±0.48

9.7±0.384

76.6

4.8±0.548

5.3±0.415

7.1±0.48

4.1±0.142

4.8±.054

6.9±0.53

3.8±0.6

4.1±0.46

4.8±0.56

3.5±0.24

3.9±0.38

4.1±0.24

56.6

2.9±0.094

3.2±0.38

3.9±0.212

2.7±0.31

3.1±0.21

3.7±0.31

1.9±0.54

2.2±0.45

2.7±0.215

26.6

1.6±0.25

1.9±0.23

2.2±0.38

0.5±0.11

0.8±0.21

1.1±0.18 -

The amount of chlorophyll and carotenoid was found to be increasing at lower concentration. Maximum chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were observed in plants treated with 5% and 10% effluent. The concentration of chemicals in this dilution is at the optimum level which favoured the biosynthesis of chlorophyll and carotenoid (Table 3). Madhappan (1993) also supports these findings. 291

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Table 3. Effect of different concentrations of effluent on the productivity of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments Conc.% Chl. a mg/ tissue C 5 10 15 20 25 30

0.886 1.389 1.085 0.805 0.660 0.483 0.462

Chl. b mg /tissue 0.548 0.978 0.799 0.529 0.495 0.295 0.208

Total Chl. mg/ Carotenoid mg/tissue tissue 1.434 0.512 2.367 0.742 1.884 0.621 1.333 0.439 1.154 0.393 0.778 0.321 0.667 0.306

In the case of growth study, the shoot length increased considerably at 5% and 10% effluent concentration and decreased at higher concentrations (20% to 30%). The 70% and 80% effluent concentrations proved to be lethal. The inhibitory effect at higher concentration is due to the excess of total nitrogen, sulphates, dissolved and suspended solids present in the effluent. The presence of the above mentioned nutrients in excess proved to be injurious to plant growth as it affected water absorption and other metabolic processes in the plant. Soil analysis reveals that the NPK content of the soil also increased significantly by effluent treatment (Table 4). Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium present in the diluted effluent played a role in Table 4. Effect of effluent on soil

292

Conc. %

T.S.S m mhos/cm

N %

P Kg/ha

K Kg/ha

6.7

1.26

0.28

110

6.63

1.26

0.30

110

114

6.6

1.35

0.33

110

226

6.6

2.2

0.40

110

380

6.5

2.52

0.42

110

380

6.5

3.82

0.44

110

380

6.4

4.09

0.45

110

380

6.3

4.09

0.45

110

380

6.19

4.15

0.48

110

380

5.9

4.384

0.55

110

380

5.8

4.6

0.65

110

380

5.6

4.62

0.70

110

380

5.3

4.73

0.73

110

380

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promoting plant growth in lower concentration. Several authors have reported similar results where soil was treated with various effluents (Renu Rani et al, 1990; Rajaram and Janardhanan 1998). The present study reveals that the distillery effluent has deleterious effect on the growth of Vigna sinensis, L. at higher concentration. The result obtained at 5% and 10% effluent concentrations was invariably better as compared to the control. It appears that these concentrations of effluent act as a liquid fertilizer. Hence the distillery effluent can be used for irrigational purposes at 5% and 10% level after proper dilution. REFERENCES Arnon D I, 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplast poly phenol oxidase in Beta valgaris. Plant physiol., 24, 1-15. Ghosh A K and Kumar P, 1998. Effect of distillery effluent on seed germination of Cicer arietinum, Linn. Neobotanica, 6, 21-22. Madhappan K, 1993. Impact of Tannery effluent on seed germination, morphological characters and pigment concentration of Phaseolus mungo, L. and Phaseolus aureus, L. Enviromedia, 12 (3), 159-163. Rajaram N and Janardhanan K, 1988. Effect of distillery effluent on seed germination and early seedling growth of Soyabean, Cowpea, Rice and Sorghum. Seed Research, 16, 173-177. Renu Rani, Srivastava M M and Sazena I P, 1990. Effect of distillery waste on seed germination of Pisum sativum, L. Ind. J.Environ. Hlth., 32(4), 420-422. Sheela D and Soumya Das M, 2004. Effect of K.S.D.P. effluent on Abelmoschus esculentus, L. Geobios, 31,155-157. Vinod Sharma, Rajeev Sharma and Sharma K D, 2002. Distillery effluent effect on seed germination, early seedling growth and pigment content of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris, Linn.var. Mezzanau-Poly).J. Environ. Biol., 23(1), 77-80.

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STRESS TOLERANCE IN FENVALERATE-EXPOSED AIR-BREATHING PERCH: THYROIDAL AND IONOREGULATORY RESPONSES

Peter M C S*, Anand S B**, and Peter V S** *

Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, ** Department of Zoology, Fatima Mata National College, Kollam, Kerala.

INTRODUCTION Studies on aquatic pollution all too often address the toxic effects of pollutants on the aquatic fauna including fish. Extensive investigations have proved beyond doubt that toxicants of various origin including pesticides disturb physiological processes of fish. The sensitivity of aquatic organisms to toxicants is closely related to disruption of water and ion regulation in these animals (Engelhardt et al., 1981; Snell and Persoone, 1989). It is clear that pyrethroid insecticides exert extreme toxicity in fish (Khan, 1983, Prasad et al., 1995). Branchial epithelia possess high levels of Na+, K+-ATPase activity residing in a well developed mesh of plasma membrane invaginations. Consensus exist that high levels of branchial Na+,K+-ATPase actvity are required to guarantee water and ion homeostasis in fish. Extensive studies on fish reveal that chemical pollutants impair water and ion balance (Heath,1995; Lawrence et al., 2003). For example, Peter and Anand (2004) studied the effect of malathion on the dynamics of branchial Na+,K+-ATPase in perch suggesting that chemical stress demands operation of sodium pump activity to regain the disturbed homeostasis of ions. Implicated to osmoregulation, thyroid hormones (THs) appear to influence branchial sodium pump activity in tilapia (Peter et al., 2000). Studies on thyroid responses, however, in relation to environmental pollutants are rather limited (Brown, 1993; Wendelaar Bonga, 1997). In this study, the thyroidal and ionoregulatory responses of air-breathing perch (Anabas testudineus) to fenvalerate exposure were investigated to evaluate the physiological mechanism of stress tolerance in fish. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two experiments were carried out in healthy adult perch weighing 45-50g. Experiment I analyzed the dose-dependent effect of fenvalerate. Thirty-two fish were divided into 4 groups of eight each. Group 1 fish kept in freshwater served as the control. Fish in 294

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groups 2, 3 and 4 were exposed to 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0ppm fenvalerate respectively. The experiment II tested how fenvalerate could influence the hypothyroid and hyperthyroid axes and osmoregulation. Three batches of fish each comprising two groups; one control group and a test group were held. All batch treatments were done simultaneously to avoid interaction of environmental variables. Fortyeight fish were divided into 6 groups of eight fish each and were placed in separate 36 L glass aquaria. Each fish in groups 5 and 6 received 2 mg.g-1 bw of propylthiouracil (Sigma) alternatively over a period of twenty days. On day 21, the fish in groups, 1, 2, 5 and 6 received an injection of hormone vehicle (saline) and groups 3 and 4 were given 80ng.g-1 of T3 (Sigma). On day 22 fish in all groups were exposed to concentration of 0.5ppm fenvalerate for 24h. Twenty-four h after fenvalerate exposure, blood was drawn by caudal puncture and the fish were then killed by decapitation. The gill and kidney tissues were quickly removed and kept in cold SEI buffer (pH.7.2) Plasma T3 and T4 levels were measured by enzyme immunoassay (EIA; magnetic solid phase) with serozyme (Guidonia Montecelio, Italy) kits as has been reported earlier (Peter and Anand, 2004). The specific activity of ouabain-sensitive Na+,K+-ATPase was determined in the tissues as described previously (Peter et al., 2000). Plasma concentration of Na+, Cl-, K+, was measured with a flame-photometric Auto Analyzer. Plasma Ca2+ measured using Sigma Diagnostic kits. In all experiments, differences among groups were tested by means of one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) follwed by Dunettâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s multiple comparison test. Significance between groups was accepted if P<0.05. Values (n=8 for all groups) are depicted as mean Âą standard error of the mean (S.E.M). RESULTS Exposure of perch to fenvalerate significantly reduced plasma T3 level but elevated plasma T 4 level Fig.1. Renal and hepatic Na+,K +-ATPase activities decreased significantly following fenvalerate (0.25, 0.5 and 1.0mg/L) exposure, though branchial enzyme activity remained unchanged. After fenvalerate exposure, plasma Na and Ca levels declined and K increased significantly leaving Cl level unaffected. Fenvalerate exposure reduced plasma T3 level in hyperthyroid fish, but did not change its level in hypothyroid fish. Plasma T4 level remained unaffected in both hypo- and hyperthyroid fish. Fenavalerate exposure in hypothyroid or hyperthyroid perch showed a similar decline in renal and branchial Na+,K+-ATPase activity as seen in euthyroid. The ionoregulatory response of hypo- or hyperthyroidic perch to fenvalerate was not different from the euthyroid control. DISCUSSION Exposure of perch to fenvalerate at various concentrations resulted disturbances in the osmoregulatory machinery in the perch as evident from the changes in plasma and tissue parameters studied. A decreased ionoregulatory peformance was found in perch 295

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N a + ,K + A T P a se 10

S ta tu s c o n tro l F e n v a le ra te

G ill L ive r K id n e y

) -1 6

(u m o l P i/m g /h )

3 m o l.L P la sm a T (n

0 E u th y ro id

H y p o th y ro id

H y p e rth y ro id

C o n tro l

2 50

5 00

1 00 0

F e n v ale ra te C o n c e n tra tio n

B ra n c h ia l N a ,K A T P a s e

45 40

) -1

S ta tu s C o n tro l F e n v a le ra te

35 30

C o n tro l F e n v a le ra te

14 12

/m E g /h u m o l P

( n4 m o l.L P la s m a T

20 15 10

8 6 4 2

E u th y ro id

H y p o th y ro id

H y p e rth y ro id

X D a ta

Fig. 1 Test Resutls following exposure to fenvalerate as reflected by renal Na+,K+-ATPase activity. The significant fall in plasma Na+ level after expsoure further substantiate the declined sodium handling ability by this pyrethroid pesticide. Fenvalerate resulted changes in thyroid axis suggesting its endocrine disruptive ability. The reduced plasma levels of Na+ associated with reduced activity of Na+,K+-ATPase may attribute to a decreased uptake of these ions after fenvalerate intoxication. Studies have shown that a number of compensatory mechanisms involve in branchial ion transport during heavy metal contamination (Mc Donald and Wood, 1993). Organocholrine pesticides al., and polycholrinated biphenyls are shown to inhibit Na+,K+-ATPase acvity in rainbow trout (Davis et al., 1972). Damage of gill structure due to toxicants is often mentioned to explain these decreases in Na+,K+-ATPase activity. The disturbance of hydromineral homeostasis of perch after fenvalerate exposure indicates stress response and the changes in the thyroid states seem to have negligible effect on ionoregulation. Involvement of THs in ionic regulation in perch has been documented earlier (Peter and Anand, 2004). Further, it has been shown that in freshwater tilapia THs increase the ion transporting capacity of the gills by expanding the area of chloride cells as well as Na+,K+-ATPase activity ( Peter et al., 2000). The resultant reduction in hepatic Na+,K+ ATPase actvity after fenvalerate exposure suggests some disturbances in Na+ handling in hepatocytes due to xenobiotic 296

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metabolism. Such reduction in hepatic Na+,K+-ATPase activity further emphasize a declined energy demand during fenvalerate-induced stress, as this enzyme also reflects the status of ATP utilization and energy metabolism in active metabolic tissues (Ismail Beigi, 1993). It is known that in freshwater fish, Ca homeostasis depends on gill functions as this tissue is the primary site for Ca uptake from the water (Flik et al., 1985). Hypocalcaemia seen in fenvalerate-exposed perch appears to be a direct consequence of an impaired branchial Ca exchange. It is argued that the observed fenvalerate-induced disturbance in Ca balance in all perch with altered thyroid status could be an independent pesticidal effect where thyroid status may not have any contributory role. It is well known that exposure of fish to toxicant especially heavy metals like cadmium resulted in hypocalcemia (Giles, 1984, Flik et al., 1984). Stressors of chemical origin resulted in hypocalcemia as part of stress responses in fishes (Li et al., 1998; Verbost et al., 1994). Similarly, the responses of plasma ions to fenvalerate in hypothyroid and hyperthyroid perch further indicate that the pesticide exerts its action through a mechanism insensitive to the thyroidal involvement. REFERENCES Brown J A, 1993. In: Fish Ecophysiology. Ed. J.C. Rankin and F.B. Jensen. Chapman & Hall, London. pp.276-296. Davis P W, Friedhoff J M and Wedemeyer G A, 1972. Bull. Environm.Contam. Toxicol. 8: 69-72. Engelhardt F R, Wong M P and Ducy M E, 1981. Aquat. Toxicol. 1: 175-186. Flik G, Wendelaar Bonga S E and Fenwick J C 1984. III. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 79B:521-524. Flik G, Van Rijs J H and Wendelaar Bonga S E, 1985. J. Exp. Biol. 119: 335-347. Giles M A, 1984. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41: 1678-1685. Heath A G, 1995. In: Water pollution and fish physiology. Second edition. Ismail- Beigi F, 1993. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 4: 152-155. Khan N Y, 1983. In: Pesticide Chemistry: Human welfare and the environment. Vol. 3 edited by J. Miyamoto & P. C. Kearney (Pergamon Press, New York). 437. Lawrence A J, Arukwe A, Moore M, Sayer M and Thain J, 2003. In: Effects of pollution on fish. (Ed.: Lawrence, A. J. and Hemingway, K. L.). Blackwell Publishing Company. Li J, Quabius E S, Wendelaar Bonga S E, Flik G, and Lock A C, 1998. Aquat. Toxicol. 43, 1-11. McDonald D G and Wood C M, 1993. In: Fish ecophysiology. Fish and fisheries series 9. (Eds. : Rankin, J. C. and F. B. Jensen). Chapman and Hall, 297-321. 297

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Peter M C S, Lock R A C and Wendelaar Bonga S E, 2000. Gen. Com. Endocrinol.120: 157-167. Peter M C S and S B Anand, 2004. Proc. Natl. Con. Zool. Zoological Society of India (in press). Prasad V V S, Nazir Z, Mansuri A P and Ramamurthi R, 1995. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 33: 300-302. Snell T W and Persoone G, 1989. Aquat. Toxicol. 14: 81-92. Verbost P M, Schoenmarkers Th J M, Flik G and Wendelaar Bonga S E, 1994. J. Exp. Biol. 186: 95-108. Wendelaar Bonga S E, 1997. Physiol. Rev. 77, 591-625.

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RESPONSE OF BLACKGRAM (VIGNA MUNGO L.) VARIETIES FOR TOLERANCE TO TEXTILE DYE INDUSTRY EFFLUENT

Sundaramoorthy P, Sankar Ganesh K and Rajamohan S Department of Botany, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution has become an important global phenomenon which has demanded attention from all countries. The increasing industrialization, urbanization and developmental activities to cope up with the population explosion have brought inevitable waste crisis. The discharge of industrial effluents into the natural waterbodies cause severe water pollution. Alteration in the chemical composition of a natural aquatic environment by industrial effluents usually induce changes in the aquatic ecosystem. Tiruppur, a small city near Coimbatore has many small scale textile dyeing units. Dyeing industry is one of the major water consuming and high polluting industries in India. A variety of dyes used in such industries, plays an important role in creating water pollution by discharging partially treated or untreated coloured effluent into nearby waterbodies. In order to recommend this wastewater for irrigation, an attempt has been made to screen tolerant varieties for suitability for irrigation. MATERIALS AND METHODS The effluent samples were collected from textile dyeing industry as well as from the outlet of Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP). They were analysed to findout their physico-chemical properties (APHA, 1998). Six varieties of blackgram seeds (ADT-5, CO-2, CO-5, CO-593, LBG-20 and T9) were collected from Pulses Research Station, Vamban, Tamil Nadu. Germination studies were conducted with six varieties with different concentrations (control, 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) of both these raw and treated effluent. Seed germination percentage, growth and seedling dry weight were taken on 7th day seedlings. These parameters were taken into consideration for this varietal screening experiment. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The physico-chemical analysis of both raw and treated effluents are given in Table 1. It has dark bluish colour with high amount of solids which results in high BOD and 299

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COD levels. The values for raw effluent are higher than those for treated effluent, perhaps due to the physical and chemical treatments given in CETP. Table 1. Physico-chemical characteristics of raw and CETP textile dyeing industry effluent Parameters

Raw effluent

Treated effluent

Bluish violet

Bluish

6.84

6.71

24,700 mM homs

10902 mM homs

Temperature

34째C

29째C

Suspended solids

915

300

17620

9745

Biological oxygen demand

242

54.4

Chemical oxygen demand

520

Carbonate alkalinity

450

300

Chloride

2030

3760

Calcium

169.60

280

192

199.68

Colour pH Electrical conductivity

Total solids

Magnesium

Potassium 80.4 62.4 All parameters except colour, pH, EC, temperature are expressed in mg/l.

The seed germination percentage, growth and dry weight of blackgram grown under raw and treated textile dyeing effluent are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Seed germination and growth are vital for seedlings and extremely vulnerable to environment stress due to the presence of polluting agents in the environmental especially during seed hydration period. It is very important for initiating and triggering the nitrate sequence of metabolism essential for germination and growth of seedlings. The six varieties of blackgram were screened for their tolerance to effluent treatment. Marked differences were observed in germination studies (Tables 2 and 3). The seed germination percentage, growth and dry weight gradually increased at lower concentrations upto 10% of raw effluent and 25% of treated effluent. A similar trend was reported in blackgram (Nandi et al., 1995; Uma Maheswari, 2003) maize and wheat (Mishra and Bera, 1995; Vasanthy and Lakshmanaperumalsamy, 1998). The increase in the seed germination parameters at lower concentrations of effluent may be due to the presence of plant nutrients and trace elements which are essential for plant growth. The seedling stage is the most sensitive stage in the life cycle of a plant. The seedling growth and dry weight decreased at higher concentrations of effluent. The observations 300

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Table 2. Germination studies of blackgram grown under raw effluent Name of blackgram varieties

Effluent concentrations Parameters

ADT-5

CO-2

CO-5

CO-593

LBG-20

SG %

88.00 ± 1.70

92.00 ± 1.84

87.00 ± 1.74

91.00 ± 1.82

97.00 ± 1.94

99.00 ± 1.98

SLG

15.0 ± 0.3

14.20 ± 0.284

15.40 ± 0.308

18.20 ± 0.364

23.0 ± 0.46

25.00 ± 0.5

SLDW

1.00 ± 0.0

1.120 ± 0.022

1.110 ± 0.022

1.098 ± 0.0219 1.180 ± 0.0236

SG %

90 ± 1.80

95.00 ± 1.90

88.00 ± 1.76

93.0 ± 1.86

98.00 ± 1.96

99.00 ± 1.98

SLG

172.0 ± 0.344

18.40 ± 0.368

17.00 ± 0.34

20.40 ± 0.408

26.0 ± 0.52

28.0 ± 0.56

SLDW

1.480 ± 0.029

1.160 ± 0.0232

1.320 ± 0.0264

SG %

56.00 ± 1.12

64.0 ± 1.28

60.0 ± 1.2

72.0 ± 1.44

75.02 ± 1.5

78.0 ± 1.56

SLG

13.40 ± 0.268

14.0 ± 0.28

12.80 ± 0.256

17.20 ± 0.344

21.20 ± 0.624

23.0 ± 0.04

SLDW

0.690 ± 0.013

0.760 ± 0.015

0.720 ± 0.0144

0.850 ± 0.017

1.010 ± 0.0202

1.180 ± 0.0236

Control

10%

25%

1.128 ± 0.0225 1.230 ± 0.0246

1.190 ± 0.0238

1.420 ± 0.0284

No germination was recorded beyond 25% effluent concentrations ± Standard deviation SGP – seed germination percentage; SLG – seedling growth; SLDW – seedling dry weight.

Table 3. Germination studies of blackgram grown under CETP effluent Effluent concentrations

Control

10%

25%

50%

75%

Name of blackgram varieties Parameters

ADT-5

CO-2

CO-5

CO-593

LBG-20

SG %

89.00 ± 2.22

93.00 ± 2.32

87.00 ± 2.17

91.00 ± 2.27

97.00 ± 2.42

99.00 ± 2.47

SLG

17.10 ± 0.513

18.52 ± 0.555

16.40 ± 0.492

21.30 ± 0.639

25.40 ± 0.762

26.00 ± 0.78

SLDW

1.144 ± 0.102

1.165 ± 0.214

1.132 ± 0.218

1.186 ± 0.198

1.210 ± 0.285

1.221 ± 0.30

SG %

90.00 ± 2.25

95.00 ± 3.325

88.0 ± 3.08

93.0 ± 3.255

98.0 ± 4.41

100.0 ± 0.35

SLG

18.60 ± 0.651

19.40 ± 0.485

18.00 ± 0.45

24.20 ± 0.605

29.10 ± 0.725

30.00 ± 0.75

SLDW

1.150 ± 0.402

1.170 ± 0.292

1.140 ± 0.399

1.195 ± 0.297

1.260 ± 0.315

1.430 ± 0.500

SG %

97.00 ± 3.094

96.0 ± 4.32

89.0 ± 4.005

94.0 ± 2.5

99.0 ± 3.465

100.0 ± 0.45

SLG

19.40 ± 0.485

20.20 ± 0.505

19.00 ± 0.665

25.60 ± 0.896

30.0 ± 1.05

31.00 ± 1.085

SLDW

1.160 ± 0.406

1.180 ± 0.245

1.150 ± 0.402

1.200 ± 0.300

1.380 ± 0.345

1.510 ± 0.528

SG %

57.00 ± 2.565

65.0 ± 1.625

60.0 ± 2.1

75.0 ± 2.625

80.0 ± 2.00

80.00 ± 2.00

SLG

14.00 ± 0.63

16.00 ± 0.56

13.40 ± 0.603

20.0 ± 0.904

24.00 ± 1.08

25.00 ± 1.125

SLDW

0.780 ± 0.273

0.800 ± 0.280

0.740 ±0.259

0.980 ±0.245

1.020 ± 0.255

1.210 ± 0.423

SG %

35.0± 1.225

50.0 ± 1.75

45.00 ± 2.025

50.0 ± 1.25

65.0 ± 2.275

70.0 ± 3.15

SLG

8.00 ± 1.20

8.0 ± 0.645

8.80 ± 2.00

10.80 ± 0.27

13.00 ± 0.325

14.00 ± 0.49

SLDW

0.460 ± 0.161

0.480 ± 0.120

0.410 ± 0.143

0.590 ± 0.147

0.720 ± 0.180

0.910 ± 0.318

No germination was recorded beyond 100% effluent concentrations ± Standard deviation SGP – seed germination percentage; SLG – seedling growth; SLDW – seedling dry weight.

are in confirmity with those of Balashouri and Prameela Devi (1994) and Swaminathan and Vaidheeswaran (1991). It has been reported that the growth alternation in certain physiological processes by a variety of pollutants individually or in association with each other. A similar type of varietal screening was carried out by Appala Raju (1986) and Sundaramoorthy and Lakshmi (2000). Among the varieties studied, T9 showed 301

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higher percentage of germination parameters for textile effluent treatment. The differences in the tolerance capacity of the six varieties might be due to differences in their ability to accumulate the elements, which might be a genetic factor (Appala Raju, 1986). On the basis of data obtained from germination studies, T9 exhibited more tolerance than the other varieties studied. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are Thankful to Dr. R. Panneerselvam, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Annamalai University, for providing laboratory facilities for conducting the experiments and to Dr. P. Lakshmanaperumalsamy, Professor and Head, Department of Environmental Science, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, for giving suggestions and encouragement. REFERENCES APHA, AWWA and WPCE, 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 18th edition, Washington. Appala Raju P, 1986. Alum factory effluent on soil characters and plant life with special reference to finger millet. Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra University, Waltair. Balashouri and Premeela Devi, 1994. Effect of tannery effluent on germination and growth of selected pulse and cereal crop plants. J. Exotoxicol. Environ. Monit., 4(2): 115-120. Mishra P and Bera A K, 1995. Effect of tannery effluents on seed germination and early seedling growth in wheat. Seed Research, 23(2): 129-137. Nandi S N, Mishra P and A K Bera, 1995. Effect of tannery effluent on seed germination and seedling growth in blackgram. Environ. Ecol., 13(4): 834-836. Sundaramoorthy P and S Lakshmi, 2000. Screening of groundnut varieties for tolerance to tannery effluent. Poll. Res., 19(4): 543-548. Swaminathan K and P Vaidheeswaran, 1991. Effect of dyeing factory effluent on seed germination and seedling development of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). J. Environ. Biol., 12(4): 353-358. Uma Maheswari S, Balamurugan V and Vijayalaxmi G S, 2003. Impact of textile mill effluent in germination and seedling growth of Vigna mungo. J. Excotoxicol. Environ. Moni., 13(1): 47-51. Vasanthy M and Lakshmanaperumalsamy P, 1998. Effect of untreated and carbon treated dye industry effluent on seed germination and biochemical parameters of maize. Poll. Res., 17(2): 173-176.

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UTILIZATION OF TEXTILE DYE INDUSTRY SLUDGE FOR THE GERMINATION STUDIES OF SOME TREE SPECIES

Rajamohan S, Natarajan S and Sundaramoorthy P Department of Botany, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution includes air pollution, water pollution and solid waste disposal. Solid waste is a general term used for discarded goods which have no economic value to owners. The disposal of industrial waste is one of the major problems in industrial area. The land application of industrial sludges for the crop production is one of the effective methods for industrial waste disposal. A large number of textile and dyeing industries are located in and around Tiruppur and they discharged a large amount of coloured water as effluent. The effluents were given coagulation treatment by adding lime in Common Effluent Treatments Plant (CETP). As a result, the solids are settled down as sludges which contain certain heavy metals and salts. A large amount of sludge are dumped as a huge mountain in the CETP premises itself. There are several reports regarding the utilization of sludge for the crop production (Wong et al., 1981; Rani et al., 1990; Sreeramulu, 1994; Radha and Panigrahi, 1998; Immanuel et al., 2001 and Radha et al., 2002). So, the present research work is needed to know the possibility of utilization of sludge by growing tree species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Textile dye industry sludge was collected from Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) Tirpur and they were analysed for their physico-chemical properties. The seeds of neem (Azadirachta indica) tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and (Samanea saman) were obtained from Forest Research Station, Coimbatore. The healthy seeds were selected and used for this germination studies. Germination study was conducted in plastic cups with three tree species. The sludge was mixed with sludge (T1), sludge + garden soil (T2), sludge + garden soil + coir waste (T3), sludge + garden soil + vermicompost (T4), sludge + garden soil + fertilizer (T5), sludge + garden soil + biofertilizer (T6), sludge + garden soil + cowdung (T7) and they were filled in plastic cups (1:1:2 ratio). Ten seeds were sown in each plastic cups. The seedlings grown in garden soil was treated as control. Irrigation was done 303

Azhadirechta indica

T1 sludge + garden soil

T2 sludge + vermicompost

T3 sludge + cowdung

T4 sludge + garden soil + fertilizer

T6 sludge + garden soil + coirwaste

Tamarindus indicus

5.2 (± 0.468)

7.8 (± 0.702)

0.11 (± 0.0099)

6.0 (± 0.34)

11.5 (± 1.035)

0.52 (± 0.0468)

7.2 (± 0.648)

11.8 (± 1.062)

0.70 (± 0.063)

6.5 (± 0.585)

9.0 (± 0.810)

0.28 (± 0.0251)

7.2 (± 1.0648)

13.8 (± 1.242)

0.68 (± 0.0612)

9.8 (± 0.882)

13.5 (± 1.215)

0.88 (± 0.0.792)

7.3 (± 0.657)

10.2 (± 0.918)

0.32 (± 0.0288)

9.8 (± 0.882)

15.0 (± 1.350)

0.72 (± 0.0648)

11.5 (± 1.035)

15.5 (± 1.395)

0.96 (± 0.0864)

9.5 (± 0.855)

12.8 (± 1.152)

0.52 (± 0.0468)

11.0 (± 0.990)

16.3 (± 1.467)

0.90 (± 0.0810)

13.2 (± 1.188)

18.2 (± 1.638)

1.5 (± 0.1350)

10.8 (± 0.972)

14.2 (± 1.278)

0.68 (± 0.0612)

12.8 (± 1.152)

18.5 (± 1.665)

0.98 (± 0.0882)

14.8 (± 1.332)

23.5 (± 2.115)

1.98 (± 0.1782)

12.4 (± 1.116)

18.0 (± 1.620)

1.0 (± 0.0900)

15.4 (± 1.386)

20.8 (± 1.972)

1.5 (± 0.1350)

16.2 (± 1.458)

25.2 (± 2.268)

2.0 (± 0.1800)

Thiruvananthapuram

T5 sludge + garden soil + biofertilizer

Samanea saman

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Table 1. Effect of textile dye sludge on seedling growth of some tree species

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with taop water never. The germination percentage, seedling growth their dry weight of three tree species were measured and recorded. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The textile dye industry sludge contains mostly heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni, Fe and Zn. It may be due to the types of salts and chemicals used in the textile and dyeing units and also the chemicals used in CETP. In the present study, the reduction in seed germination percentage, seedling growth and dry weight of all three tree species were recorded in the seedlings grown in sludge. Further increase in germination parameters was noticed in other seedlings grown in sludge mixed with garden soil, vermicompost, coir waste, biofertilizer, fertilizer and cowdung (Table 1). The utilization of industrial sludge such as pharmacological sludge on blackgram (Immanuel et al., 2001), chloroalkali factory sludge on rice (Radha et al., 2002) and distillery effluent sludge on blackgram (Mishra and Pandey, 2002) were already reported. The reduction in germination parameters may be due to the presence of heavy metals present in the sludge. Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd in toxic concentrations have been reported to interfere with biochemical reactions of germinating seeds in various plants. The inhibition of germination and growth may be due to the accumulation of heavy metals at the time of soaking. As the solid wastes contain heavy metals, it should be treated to be below the toxic level of plants so that the growth of tree species is not much affected. Considering the fact of environmental pollution by dumping of solid wastes, application to tree species at a suitable level is a good alternative which favours safe disposal and beneficial reuse. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are Thankful to Dr. R. Panneerselvam, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Annamalai University, for providing laboratory facilities for conducting the experiments and to Dr. P. Lakshmanaperumalsamy, Professor and Head, Department of Environmental Science, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, for giving suggestions and encouragement. REFERENCES Immanuel R, Ranganathan G and Ganapathy M, 2001. Studies on utilization of pharmaceutical industry sludge as an organic manure in crop production (riceblackgram). Proceedings of the National Seminar on Environmental Management and Pollution Abatement. Department of Civil Engineering, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, p. 80-85. Mishra, V and S D Pandey, 2002. Effect of distillery effluent and leachates of industrial sludge on the germination of blackgram. Poll. Res., 21(4): 461-467. 305

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Radha S and A K Panigrahi, 1998. Toxic effect of solid waste of chloroalkali factory on morphological and biochemical changes in a crop. J. Environ. Biol., 19(4): 333-339. Radha S, Raju C V and Panigrahi A K, 2002. Toxic effect of solid waste from chloro alkali factory on pigments and photosynthetic rate, respiration rate in rice seedlings. Poll. Res., 21(3): 315-318. Rani R, Saxena M M and Saxena I P, 1990. Effect of distillery waste on seed germination of Pisum sativum. Ind. Environ. Hlth., 32: 420-422. Sreeramulu U S, 1994. Utilization of sewage and sludge for increasing crop production. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 42(4): 525-532. Wong M, W M Lan and Yip S W, 1981. Effect of sludge extracts on seed germination and root elongation of crop. Environ. Pollut., (Ser A) 25: 370-372.

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ADSORPTION OF HEAVY METALS ON AGRICULTURAL MATERIALS

Shukla S R, Roshan S Pai and Amit D Shendarkar Department of Fibres and Textile Processing Technology Institute of Chemical Technology, University of Mumbai, Matunga, Mumbai

INTRODUCTION Nowadays environmental pollution and its abatement have drawn keen attention. Pollution caused by heavy metals is a worldwide phenomenon. Among the many heavy metals, lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, chromium, zinc and copper are of most concern. The problem of metal ion pollutants from water and wastewater has intensified with rapid industrialization. Heavy metals are toxic to living organisms and are present in the waste water streams of many industrial processes, such as colourants, mining and metallurgical engineering, electroplating, nuclear power operations, semiconductor, aerospace, battery manufacturing processes, etc. All of them have faced increasing pressure regarding environmental and waste-related concerns as a result of the quantity and toxicity of generated wastewaters. The waste generated in large volumes is high in pollutant load and must be cleaned before it is released to various water streams. The metals enter the environment wherever they are produced, used, and ultimately discarded. Heavy metals are very toxic because, as ions or in compound forms, they are soluble in water and get readily absorbed into living organisms. After absorption, these metals can bind to vital cellular components such as structural proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids, and interfere with their functioning. In humans, these metals, even in small amounts, can cause severe physiological and health disorders. The presence of heavy metals in some water bodies used for human consumption and in industrial wastewater has been the cause of great concern and call for development of several new materials with potential to treat such waters for heavy metal removal. Many techniques have been used to remove heavy metals from the effluent, namely, membrane filtration, coagulation, adsorption, oxidation, ion exchange, precipitation, etc. Among these processes, membrane separation, ion exchange, adsorption on granular activated carbon are costly. Hence more attention is given towards adsorption of heavy metals on biological waste and agricultural waste, which is very cheaply available. The agricultural waste products/by-products of cellulosic origin such as tree bark, peanut skin, rice straw, sugarcane bagasse, etc. have been tried, which are available at little or no cost. 307

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The present work reports the results on adsorption of copper, nickel, lead and ferrous ion from their aqueous solution by different cellulosic substrates such as coir, jute, sawdust and groundnut shell. These substrates possess both cellulose and lignin as major components, which have been shown to adsorb metal ions from their aqueous solutions. Also, these substrates were loaded covalently with a reactive dye of specific structure to enhance their adsorptive capacity. EXPERIMENTS Materials Four different cellulose containing and cheap agricultural products, coir, jute, teakwood sawdust and groundnut shells procured locally, were used as adsorbent after thorough cleaning with soap boil followed by washing with water. Coir and jute fibres were cut into approximately 1 cm long pieces. Sawdust and crushed groundnut shells were sieved to 40 and 20 mesh size, respectively, for uniform size. These substrates were also loaded with a reactive dye for their use as adsorbents. Chemicals CuSO4.5H2O, FeSO4.7H2O, Pb(NO3)2, NiSO4.XH2O (X = 6-7) were of Analytical Reagent grade supplied by Merck (India) Ltd. Demineralised water was used for the entire experiments. A monochlorotriazine type reactive dye, C.I.Reactive Black 5 was used for dyeing in its commercially available powder form. The structure of this dye is given in Fig. 1 OH Na O3SCH2CH2O2S

NaO3S

NH2 N

SO2CH2CH2OSO3Na

SO3Na

Fig 1. Structure of C.I Reactive Black 5

METHODS Dye Application to Substrates One gram of the dye powder was dissolved in 100 ml of warm water in order to prepare stock solution of the dye. Each of the substrate, 100 g was added to solution containing 50 ml of stock solution of the dye at room temperature and the temperature was slowly raised to 60o C. The material to liquor ratio was kept at 1:40. After working out for about 20 min, 65 g/lit of Glauberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s salt was added in two lots in 10 min for 308

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improving the dye uptake and continued for another 30 min. For covalent fixation of the dye, 15 g/lit of soda ash was added to the same bath. The treatment was then continued at 60o C for further 45 min. In the end, the substrate was filtered, washed thoroughly with hot water, soaped at boil for 20 min using 2 g/lit non-ionic detergent followed by thorough washing with water. The substrate was then dried in an oven at 50o C overnight and used as adsorbent. Adsorption Studies Batch experiments were conducted using aqueous solutions of different salts such as those of Copper, Nickel, Lead and Iron with low to high concentrations of cations, subjected to adsorption on dyed as well as undyed substrates. 1 g of the substrate was immersed in 50 ml of aqueous solution of a metal salt with known cation concentration contained in a flask. The flask was maintained at constant temperature and was shaken for a period of 2 h. on a flask shaker. The substrate was then filtered and the metal ion in the filtrate was estimated using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model 932 Plus, GBC Australia). The difference in the initial and final concentration gave the amount of metal cation adsorbed on the substrate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Physical and chemical characteristics of the substrates used as adsorbent in the present study are given in Table 1. Cellulose is one of the major components in all these substrates. Further, coir, jute and sawdust also contain substantial amounts of lignin. Cellulose is rich in primary and secondary hydroxyl groups whereas lignin contains a network type of structure with majority of methoxy and free hydroxyl groups. Metal ion adsorption capacity is owed to both these chemical entities (Masri et al., 1974). The adsorption of metal ions on these substrates has been shown to be of ionic nature (Shukla and Sakhardande, 1990) and even dilute acids are capable of desorbing the metal ions fully. The specific nature of the dye selected should have the characteristics of binding firmly with the substrate, at the same time capable of forming chelate with the metal ion. Table 1. Characteristics of the substrates Substrate Coir fibres Jute fibres Sawdust Groundnut shells

Major chemical constituents (%) Cellulose - 43.44 Lignin - 45.84 Cellulose – 72 Lignin – 13 Cellulose- 52 Lignin – 31 Cellulose- 65.7 Carbohydrates-21.5 Proteins-7.3

Moisture Regain (%) 9.85

Dimensions

8.19

0.0144 mm

7.86

40 mesh

9.50

20 mesh

0.1104 mm

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The selected reactive dye contains an azo linkage along with the groups like â&#x20AC;&#x201C;OH in favourable positions (o,oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;) to the azo linkage (Fig. 1). Due to this specific structure, the metal ion can form a stable six membered ring chelate (Fig. 2). Such a complex needs stronger acidic conditions to break the metal ion from the dyed substrate. M CELLULOSE

OCHCHOS 2

N N NaO S 3

SOCHCHSONa 2 3 2

SONa

M- metal ion Fig 2. Dye reacted with Cellulose and forming chelate with Metal Ion

The moisture regain values of these substrates are a measure of their accessibility, which relates to the outer surface of the substrate plus the surface of the crystallites present within the substrates and are given in Table 1. Thus, coir fibres, and next to that, the groundnut shells, should possess maximum physical accessibility to the metal ion penetration among the substrates selected. Jute fibres and sawdust should follow coir and groundnut shells in accessibility. All the substrates were cut/crushed to finer size and the average values of their physical dimensions are also reported in the Table.1. Table 2 gives the adsorption data of copper ion from copper sulphate solution. Among the undyed substrates, jute gave the highest metal ion adsorption in all three concentrations of copper ion. When dyed substrates were used for adsorption, highest metal ion uptake was observed with dyed Jute when 29.19 ppm of Copper ion concentration was used. When concentrations of 94.58 and 289.1 ppm of copper ion were subjected to adsorption, dyed sawdust showed the maximum adsorption. In all the cases, it was found that the dyed substrates showed higher adsorption than respective undyed substrates. The results of adsorption of nickel ion from nickel sulphate are depicted in Table 3. Among the undyed substrates, jute gave the maximum uptake of nickel ion. In the case of dyed substrates, maximum adsorption of 96.67 %, 75.25% and 43.58% was observed with dyed groundnut shells when solutions of 29.64 and 90.43 and 285.65 ppm of nickel ion concentration were used, respectively. In all the cases, except in the case of coir when highest concentration was used, it was found that the dyed substrates showed higher adsorption than respective undyed substrates. The results of adsorption of ferrous ion from ferrous sulphate are summarised in Table 4. Among the undyed substrates, jute gave the maximum uptake of metal ion irrespective of the initial metal ion concentration as observed in the earlier cases. Among the dyed 310

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Table 2: Copper Ion adsorption from Copper Sulphate Solution

Substrate Coir

Jute

Sawdust

Groundnut shell

Initial 29.19 94.58 289.1 29.19 94.58 289.1 29.19 94.58 289.1 29.19 94.58 289.1

Cu2+ Conc., ppm Final Undyed 2.49 21.18 194.80 1.43 19.88 108.1 3.72 39.42 117.1 5.23 36.19 124.3

Adsorption (%) Dyed 1.15 7.14 95.30 0.82 9.45 97.6 0.91 6.67 73.80 0.98 8.21 126.0

Undyed 91.49 77.60 32.29 95.11 78.98 62.61 87.27 58.32 59.50 82.07 61.73 20.63

Dyed 94.86 92.45 67.04 97.20 90.00 66.24 96.87 92.95 74.47 96.65 91.31 56.45s

Table 3: Nickel Ion adsorption from Nickel Sulphate Solution Substrate Coir

Jute

Sawdust

Groundnut shell

Initial 29.64 90.43 285.65 29.64 90.43 285.65 29.64 90.43 285.65 29.64 90.43 285.65

Ni2+ Conc., ppm Final Undyed Dyed 3.62 2.43 46.74 29.27 184.35 186.65 1.07 0.84 37.52 30.73 172.20 165.40 8.32 1.18 52.13 30.53 202.00 168.25 7.136 0.39 50.73 22.38 195.25 161.15

Adsorption (%) Undyed 87.77 48.31 35.46 96.39 58.50 39.71 71.94 42.35 29.28 75.92 43.89 31.64

Dyed 91.79 67.63 34.65 97.17 66.01 42.09 96.02 66.24 41.09 98.67 75.24 43.58

Table 4: Ferrous Ion adsorption from Ferrous Sulphate Solution Substrate Initial Coir

Jute

Sawdust

Groundnut shell

26.75 96.00 280.0 26.75 96.00 280.0 26.75 96.00 280.0 26.75 96.00 280.0

Fe2+ Conc., ppm Final Undyed Dyed 2.16 1.36 65.28 8.48 226.90 123.66 2.03 1.25 52.30 20.85 220.13 73.50 2.68 0.83 74.80 10.04 235.00 108.98 4.64 1.59 76.30 16.00 243.20 132.36

Adsorption (%) Undyed 91.93 32.00 18.96 92.40 45.52 21.38 89.99 22.08 16.07 82.66 20.52 13.14

Dyed 94.92 91.19 55.83 95.33 78.28 73.75 96.90 89.54 61.07 94.06 83.33 61.78

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substrates, when the lowest concentration of 26.75 ppm of ferrous ion was used, sawdust showed a maximum uptake of metal ion. At a higher concentration of metal ion of 96.00 ppm, dyed coir gave the maximum adsorption. At the highest concentration of 280.00 ppm of metal ion concentration, dyed jute showed the maximum uptake. In all the cases, it was found that the dyed substrates showed higher adsorption than respective undyed substrates The results of adsorption of lead ion from lead nitrate are given in table 5. Among undyed substrates sawdust showed 100.00% adsorption when initial concentration used was 28.35 ppm. For two higher concentrations viz. 97.11 ppm and 283.6 ppm coir showed maximum adsorption. Among dyed substrates, for lowest concentration of 28.35 ppm both Jute and Sawdust showed 100.00% adsorption. At higher concentration of metal ion of 97.11 ppm and 283.6 ppm, dyed sawdust showed maximum adsorption. In all the cases, except in case of coir when lowest concentration of 28.35 ppm was used, and in case of coir and jute when medium concentration of 97.11 % was used, it was found that dyed substrate showed higher adsorption than respective undyed substrate. CONCLUSION The differences in physical characteristics and chemical composition of different cellulosic substrates chosen are responsible for differences in adsorption levels. However, the physical structure does not seem to play any major role, but the presence of various types of functional groups affects the adsorption levels significantly. Lignin seems to adsorb more as compared to cellulose and thus, jute gives maximum adsorption in all the cases. Thus, it may be concluded that different cheap cellulosic substrates possess capacity to adsorb copper ion and dyeing them with a small amount of a specific dye can enhance the capacity significantly. Table 5: Lead Ion adsorption for Lead Nitrate Solution Substrate Coir

Jute

Sawdust

Groundnut shell

Initial 28.35 97.11 283.6 28.35 97.11 283.6 28.35 97.11 283.6 28.35 97.11 283.6

Pb2+ Conc., ppm Final Undyed 0.16 0.12 9.48 0.17 0.22 13.45 0.50 24.75 5.74 4.50 30.30

Adsorption (%) Dyed 0.41 0.25 7.00 0.48 6.47 0.123 2.57 0.32 0.68 7.23

Undyed 99.44 99.88 96.65 99.41 99.77 95.26 100.00 99.48 91.27 79.75 95.36 89.32

Dyed 98.54 99.74 97.53 100.00 99.51 97.72 100.00 99.87 99.09 98.86 99.29 97.45

REFERENCES Masri M S, Reuter F W and Friedman M J, 1974. Appl. Poly. Sci., 18, 675-681. Shukla S R and Sakhardande V D, 1990. Amer. Dyest. Rep. 41, 38-42, 2655-2663. 312

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IMPACT OF CHROMIUM ON GERMINATION, GROWTH AND BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN SOYBEAN (GLYCINE MAX (L.) MERR.)

Sankar Ganesh K, Selvaraju M and Sundaramoorthy P Department of Botany, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu

INTRODUCTION Air, water, biomass and soil are the most precious natural resources for the sustenance of life on earth. The non-judicious use of natural resources has resulted in environmental pollution. Among all kinds of pollution, heavy metal pollution is a world wide problem. Heavy metals are present in industrial wastewaters and are toxic to plants when used for irrigation. Heavy metals are the chemical elements with specific gravity at least 5 times that of water. Chromium, cadmium, nickel, lead, zinc etc. are some of the metals. Almost all metals are toxic at higher concentrations. Some metals are severely poisonous even at very low concentrations. Chromium is one of the most important essential element for plants and animals. Chromium is released from electroplating, leather tanning and textile printing industries. The effluent from the above industries disposed of into nearby waterbodies adversely affect plant growth and development when used for irrigation (Prasad, 1995). MATERIALS AND METHODS Soybean (Glycine max L.) seeds were obtained from Shakthi Soyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (P) Ltd., Coimbatore. The healthy seeds were surface sterilized with 0.2% mercuric chloride solution for two minutes and then were thoroughly washed with tap water to avoid surface contamination, if any. The seeds were treated with different concentrations of the chromium solution (0, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 mg/l). The 7th day old seedlings were analysed for various morphological parameters such as germination percentage, root length, shoot length, fresh weight and dry weight. The biochemical parameters like chlorophyll (Arnon, 1949), amino acid (Moore and Stein, 1948), protein (Lowry et al., 1951) and sugar (Nelson, 1944) were estimated in both the control and in treated soybean seedlings. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the present study, the increased concentrations of chromium resulted in significant reduction in germination percentage, root length, shoot length, fresh weight and dry 313

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weight of soybean seedlings (Table 1). Similar results were obtained while studying the effect of chromium on tomato and brinjal (Shalini Purohit et al., 2003), chromium and phosphorus on wheat (Dahiya et al., 2003) and chromium on blackgram (Lakshmi and Sundaramoorthy, 2003). The observed reduction in germination parameters at higher concentration of chromium treatment may be due to the deleterious effect of the heavy metal on the hydrolytic enzymes present in the storage organs as suggested by Dua and Sawhney (1991). The biochemical analyses like chlorophyll, protein, amino acid and sugars reduced with the increase of chromium concentration. Similar results were noticed in blackgram (Lakshmi and Sundaramoorthy, 2003), paddy (Hsu and Kao, 2003) and algae (Rai et al., 1992) due to chromium treatment (Table 2). The reduction in chlorophyll content may be due to interference of heavy metals with pigment metabolism (Muthuchelian et al., 1988). Table 1. Effect of different concentrations of chromium on germination of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Chromium concentrations (mg/l)

Germination percentage

Root length (cm/seedlings)

Shoot length (cm/seedlings)

Fresh weight (g/seedling)

Dry weight (g/seedling)

Control

95 ( 8.55)

5.86 ( 0.5274)

11.68 ( 1.0512)

3.267 ( 0.2940)

0.453 ( 0.0407)

90 ( 8.10)

5.16 ( 0.4644)

10.06 ( 0.9054)

2.492 ( 0.2242)

0.345 ( 0.0310)

85 ( 7.65)

4.58 ( 0.4122)

8.28 ( 0.7452)

1.963 ( 0.1766)

0.336 ( 0.0302)

75 ( 6.75)

3.68 ( 0.3312)

7.02 ( 0.6318)

1.778 ( 0.1600)

0.299 ( 0.0269)

70 ( 6.30)

2.54 ( 0.2286)

5.38 ( 0.4342)

1.527 ( 0.1374)

0.256 ( 0.0225)

100

50 ( 4.50)

2.08 ( 0.1872)

3.05 ( 0.2745)

1.212 ( 0.1090)

0.220 ( 0.0198)

200

25 ( 2.25)

1.48 ( 0.1332)

1.86 ( 0.1674)

0.978 ( 0.0880)

0.162 ( 0.0145)

The production of the amino acid and protein content is gradually reduced with gradual increase of chromium concentration. Since nitrogen content of plants get reduced by metal stress, ultimately the amino acid content reduced (Crooke and Inkson, 1955). The hexavalent chromium causes deleterious effects in the normal protein function (Rai et al., 1992). The sugar content is gradually decreased with progressive increase in chromium concentration. It may be due to imbalance which might eventually lead to depletion of carbohydrate reserve (Murata et al., 1969). CONCLUSION The adverse effect of chromium was observed in the form of reduction in germination, root and shoot length, fresh and dry weight of seedlings. The biochemical contents such as chlorophyll, amino acid, protein and sugar content were also found to be 314

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Table 2. Effect of different concentrations of chromium on biochemical studies of soyabean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) (mg/g fresh wt. basis) Chromium concentrations (mg/l)

Total chlorophyll

Amino acid

Protein

Sugars

Control

0.0523 ( 0.0047)

3.484 ( 0.3135)

6.484 ( 0.5835)

10.6708 ( 0.9603

0.0506 ( 0.0045)

2.573 ( 0.2315)

6.039 ( 0.5435)

8.7764 ( 0.7890)

0.0436 ( 0.0039)

2.243 ( 0.2018)

4.485 ( 0.4036)

7.104 ( 0.6393)

0.0365 ( 0.0032)

2.038 ( 0.1834)

2.891 ( 0.2601)

6.0532 ( 0.5447)

0.0285 ( 0.0025)

1.844 ( 0.1659)

2.239 ( 0.2015)

5.5204 ( 0.4968)

100

0.0157 ( 0.0014)

1.531 ( 0.1377)

1.204 ( 0.1083)

4.0848 ( 0.3676)

0.883 ( 0.0794)

0.539 ( 0.0485)

2.072 ( 0.1864)

200

0.0074

( 0.0006)

Standard deviation. No germination was observed beyond 500 and 1000 mg/l.

reduced with increase of chromium concentration. So, it is necessary to reduce the heavy metals present in the wastewater. Industrial wastewaters should be properly treated before they get discharged into the nearby waterbodies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to Dr. R. Panneerselvam, Professor and Head, Department of Botany, Annamalai University for providing laboratory facilities. REFERENCES Arnon D I, 1949. Copper enzymes in isolated chloroplasts polyphenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiol., 24: 1-15. Crooke W M and R H E Inkson, 1955. The relationship between nickel toxicity and major nutrient supply. Plant Soil, 6: 1-15. Dahiya D S, Kumar N, Bhardwaj J, Kumar P, Nandwal A S and Sharma M K, 2003. Interactive effect of chromium and phosphorus on growth, dry matter yield and their distribution in wheat shoot. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 8(2): 129-132. Dua and S K Sawhney,1991. Effect of chromium on hydrolytic enzymes in germinating pea seeds. J. Environ. Exp. Bot., 31: 133-139. Hsu Y T and C H Kao, 2003. Changes in protein and amino acid contents in two cultivars of rice seedlings with different apparent tolerance to cadmium. Plant Growth Regulation, 40: 147-152. 315

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Lakshmi S and Sundaramoorthy P, 2003. Effect of chromium on germination and biochemical changes in blackgram. J. Ecobiol., 15(1): 1-11. Lowry O H, Rosebrough N J, Farr A L and Randall R J, 1951. Protein measurement with folin-phenol reagent. J. Biol. Chem., 193: 265-275. Moore S and Stein W H, 1948. Photometric method for use in the chromatography of amino acids. J. Biol. Chem., 176-388. Muthuchelian K S, Maria, Victoria Rani and Paliwal K, 1988. Differential action of Cu2+ and Cd2+ on chlorophyll biosynthesis and nitrate reductase activity in Vigna sinensis L. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 31(2): 169-173. Murata T, Eastein F A, Haskins C, Sillivcan Y and Van Barvel C H M, 1969. Physiological aspects of crop yield. Amer. Soc. Agro and Crop Science Soc. Society of America, Madison, Wiscosin, p. 239-259. Nelson N, 1944. A photometric adaptation of the Somogyiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s method for the determination of reducing sugar. Anal. Chem., 3: 426-428. Prasad M NV, 1995. Inhibition of maize leaf chlorophylls, carotenoids and gas exchange functions by cadmium. Photosynthetica, 31: 635-640. Rai V N, Tripathi R D and Kumar, 1992. Bioaccumulation of chromium toxicity on growth, photosynthetic pigments, photosynthesis, in vitro nitrate reductase activity and protein content in a chlorocoaeleam green algae Glancolystis aostochinearum. Chemosphere, 25: 1722-1732. Shalini Purohit, Varghese T M and Kumari M, 2003. Effect of chromium on morphological features of tomato and brinjal. Indian J. Plant Physiol., 8(1): 17-22.

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STUDIES ON SIMULTANEOUS DEGRADATION OF PHENOL AND 3- CHLOROBENZOATES BY AXENIC AND MIXED BACTERIAL CULTURES

Jayachandran V P* and Manonmani H K** *Department of Biotechnology, Sree Buddha College of Engineering, Pattoor, Alleppey **Department of Fermentation Technology and Bioengineering, CFTRI, Mysore.

INTRODUCTION Phenol and chloroaromatics which are a part of industrial effluents, contribute a formidable bulk to the chemical pollution that has adverse effects on biota. In environmental remediation, biological methods have the advantage of reduced capital and operating costs compared to other methods, and they are ecofriendly. As a general rule, most of the halo aromatics are degraded through the formation of the respective halocatechols, the ring fission of which takes place via ortho mode (Reineke, 1984; Chaudhary and Chapalamadugu 1991) where as most of the non halogenated aromatics are degraded through meta pathway (Murray et al. 1972, Bayly and Wigmore 1973, Dagley and Gibson 1965, Engelhardt et al., 1979). Ortho pathway is the most productive mode for organisms as it involves less expenditure of energy. Pseudomonas stutzeri SPC-2 is the first pseudomonas to be reported to degrade phenol through ortho pathway in contrast to the usual meta pathway generally followed by many pseudomonas. Degradation by microbial communities in heterogeneous mixtures are found to be effective compared to single strains, because there are chances of exchange of genetic material among different organisms in pursuit of novel biodegradative enzymes/ pathways (Saxena and Ashok, 1995). The problems that arise in simultaneous degradation can be due to incompatibility and toxic effects. The intermediate metabolite of 3-CBA degradation, chlorocatechol, have been shown to inhibit the meta cleaving enzyme (Bartels et al. 1984). The degradation of mixtures of chloro and non chloro aromatics would be more productive via the ortho pathway, where suicide mechanisms could be avoided. Schmidt et al. (1983) tried a defined mixed microbial community in the degradation of a mixture containing phenol, acetone, alkaloids plus 4chlorophenol or a mixture of isomeric chlorophenol. Babu et al. (1995 a) reported efficient degradation of phenols/ cresols and 3-CBA mixtures by a defined mixed culture of two strains of Pseudomonas at proper inoculum ratio. Pseudomonas sp. CP4 used by them degrades phenol through a metacleavage pathway but not 3-CBA and Ps. aeruginosa 3mT degrades 3-CBA through a modified ortho-pathway forming 3-chlorocatechol as an intermediate but not phenol (Babu et al 1995 b). The present 317

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investigation was initiated with a view to develop a stable mixed culture system for the simultaneous degradation of 3-chlorobenzoates and phenol. The bacteria selected for the studies were Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3 mT ( degrader of 3- and 4chlorobenzoates via modified ortho pathway), Pseudomonas stutzeri SPC-2 ( degrader of phenol through ortho pathway), Pseudomonas sp. SoPC-5 ( degrader of phenol through meta pathway). This is undertaken from a practical point of view, because chloroaromatics such as CBA are generally degraded through the formation of chlorocatechols as intermediates which retard or inhibit the ring cleaving enzymes. As contaminated sites most often contain mixtures of phenolic and chloroaromatric compounds at varying concentrations, it is imperative to have a stable and biochemically compatible mixed culture for remediation. MATERIALS Chemicals: Phenol of analytical grade procured from Qualigens Fine Chemicals, Bombay, India, was purified by distillation. 3-chlorobenzoate was purchased from Sigma Chemical Co., MO, USA. All bacteriological media components and other chemicals were of analytical grade and of the highest purity. Microorganisms: Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3 mT, Pseudomonas sp. CP4, Pseudomonas sp. SoPC 5, Pseudomonas stutzeri SPC-2 were laboratory isolates. All enrichments were done in a mineral salts medium containing (in grams of ingredient per liter) KH2PO4, 0.675; Na2HPO4, 5.455; NH4NO3 ,0.25; MgSO4.7H2O 0.200,Ca ( NO3)2 0.100, trace minerals , 1.0 ml (consisted of g/l FeSO4.7H2O, 1.0; MnSO4.H2O, 1.0; Na2MoO4.H2O, 0.25; NH4NO3, 0.1; Co(NH3)2.6H2O, 0.25; NiSO4.6H2O, 0.1; Conc.H2SO4, 5ml). The mineral medium was maintained at pH 7.2-7.5. METHODS The phenol degrading Pseudomonas isolates and 3-CBA degrading Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3mT were maintained on mineral salt agar slants containing phenol and 3CBA (200ppm). The seed inoculum was prepared by growing the bacterial isolates in respective substrates in mineral salts medium. After incubation for 48 hours, cells were harvested and resuspended in known volume of mineral salts medium. The cells were suspended in mineral salt agar medium containing respective substrate (2mM). Incubations were done at 30oC. Biomass was measured spectrophotometrically ( Shimadzu UV-160A, Japan) at 600 nm. Catechol was determined by Arnowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s method (1937). Residual phenol and 3CBA were determined by HPLC (Shimadzu LC10A , Japan) using water : methanol mixture (60:40) plus 0.1 % acetic acid as mobile phase. Detection was done at 235 nm (3-CBA) and 280nm (phenol). A quantitave determination was done by comparing the peak area of samples with peak areas of standards of known concentrations. 318

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Degradation Studies Degradation of phenol and 3-CBA (2mM) individually and in combination were tried by using combinations of (i) Ps. aeruginosa 3 mT + Ps. stutzeri SPC-2 and (ii) Ps.aeruginosa 3 mT + Ps. sp. SoPC-5 . The initial OD600 of all the inocula were adjusted to 0.1 and the inoculum ratio of the two cultures were maintained at 1:1 and the substrate ratio(2mM each) were also maintained at 1:1(2mM each). The incubated samples were analysed at regular intervals (0,3,6,12,18,24,48,72 hours) for biomass, catechol and residual substrates (Table 1). Table 1. Parameters taken into account in the present study GROWTH ( OD 600 ) RESIDUAL PHENOL (mM) RESIDUAL 3-CBA (mM) CATECHOL (mM) CHLORIDE RELEASED (mM)

Degradation of phenol 3-CBA mixture were studied at 2 mM and 4mM. 3mT and SPC-2 combination was used here. Substrate mixture at a ratio 1:1 and 1:2 in mineral salts media, were inoculated with 1ml each of the inoculum. The incubated samples were analysed for biomass, catechol and residual substrate at regular intervals. Degradation studies were also carried out by changing the ratio of 3mT and SPC-2 (1:1, 2:1 and 1:2) in a combination of phenol and 3-CBA (1:1) and analyses were done as before. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained in the degradation of phenol + 3CBA mixture using two mixed cultures (i) Ps. aeruginosa 3mT + Ps. stutzeri SPC-2 and (ii) Ps. aeruginosa 3mT + Ps. sp. SoPC-5, as follows (Fig. 1 and 2): (1) When phenol + 3-CBA (2 mM each) were used both the microbial combinations efficiently degraded both the substrates. But the rate of degradation was faster in case of the culture (i). When the substrates were used at a ratio of 1:2, the mixed culture (i) (equal amounts), 3-CBAand phenol were degraded within 48 and 72 hrs respectively. (2) When phenol and 3-CBA ( 2:1) were used, the mixed culture (i) degraded phenol by 72 hour and 3-CBA by 48 hour. (3) When the substrate ratio was altered 1:2 or 2:1 accumulation of auto oxidized and polymerized catechol was observed indicating that the concentration of both the substrates should be more or less the same when the inocula ratio is 1:1. 319

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7 GROW TH ( OD 600)

6 5

RESIDUAL PHENOL

4 3

RESIDUAL 3CBA

CATECHOL

1 0 -1 0

(a)

100

CHLORIDE RELEASED

(b)

Fig. 1. Effect of varying concentration of Phenol and 3-CBA on the degradation by mixed culture 3mT and SPC-2. (a) Phenol : 3-CBA = 1:1 (b) Phenol : 3-CBA = 1:2 (c) Phenol: 3-CBA = 2:1 (c)

6 4 2 0 -2

100

CHLORIDE RELEA SED

T im e ( Ho ur )

(a)

GROWTH ( OD 600) RESIDUA L PHENOL RESIDUA L 3-CBA CA TECHOL

(b)

Fig. 2. Effect of inoculum ratio on the degradation of Phenol and 3-CBA ( 2mM each) by mixed culture (3mT and SPC-2). Ps.aeruginosa 3mT: Ps. stutzeri SPC-2 (a) 1:1 (b) 1:2 (c) 2:1 (c)

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(4) When the inocula ratio of the culture (i) were altered ((a) 1:2and (b) 2:1) keeping the substrate ratio constant at 2mM, both the substrates disappeared within 48 hour. But in the second case (b) the medium turns slightly brownish. This shows for an efficient degradation of both the substrates more of SPC-2 cells are required. Further detailed enzymological studies are required to explain the exact physiological basis of simultaneous degradation of 3-CBA and phenol by the mixed culture, viz., Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3 mT which degrades 3-CBA through a modified ortho path way and Pseudomonas stutzeri SPC-2 which degrades phenol through an ortho pathway. REFERENCES Babu K S, Ajith Kumar P V, Kunhi A A M, 1995 a. Simultaneous degradation of 3chlorobenzoate and phenolic compounds by a defined mixed culture of Pseudomonas spp. World J. Microbiology Biotechnology, 11: 148-152. Babu K S, Ajith Kumar P V, Kunhi A A M, 1995 b. Mineralisation of phenol and its derivatives in Pseudomonas spp. Strain CP4. World J. Microbiology Biotechnology , 11: 661-664. Bartels I, Knackmuss H J and Reineke W, 1984.Suicide inactivation of catechol 2,3dioxygenase from Pseudomonas putida mt-2 by 3-halocatechols. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 47: 500-505. Bayly R C and Wigmore G J, 1973. Metabolism of phenol and cresols by mutants of Ps. putida. J. Bacteriol. , 113: 1112-1120. Chaudhry G R and Chapalmadugu S, 1991. Biodegradation of halogenated organic compounds. Microbiol . Rev . , 55: 59-79. Dagley S and Gibson D T, 1965. The Bacterial degradation of catechol. Biochem. J., 95: 466-474. Engelhardt G, Rast H G and Wallnofer P R, 1979.Cometabolism of phenol and substituted phenol by Nocardia sp. DSm 43251. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 5:377383. Murray K, Dugglelby C J, Sala-Trepat J M and Williams P A, 1972. The metabolism of benzoate and methyl benzoate via the meta-cleavage pathway by Pseudomonas arvilla mt-2. Eur. J. Biochem., 28: 301-310. Reineke W, 1984. Microbial degradation of halogenated aromatic compounds . p. 319-360 in Gibson, D. T . (ed.) Microbial Degradation of Organic Compounds. Marcell Dekker Inc. , New York. Saxena and Ashok, 1995. Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. J. Sci. Ind Res., 54:443-451. Schmidt E Hellwing M and Knackmuss H J, 1983 . Degradation of chlorophenol by a defined mixed microbial community. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 46: 10381044. 321

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STUDIES ON THE REMOVAL OF BENZOIC ACID BY USING FLYASH - ACTIVATED CARBON BLENDS

Kannan N* and Xavier A** *Research centre and post graduate Department of Chemistry, ANJA College, Sivakasi – 24, Tamil Nadu **Post Graduate Department of Chemistry, The Madura College, Madurai, Tamil Nadu

INTRODUCTION Activated Carbon (AC) adsorption has been widely employed as a water and wastewater treatment technique (Cheremisinoff and Ellerbusch, 1979). Despite its prolific use in water and wastewater industries, AC remains an expensive material. This has led to a search for cheaper alternative materials as adsorbents (Kannan et al., 1998). Although far more attention has been paid to studies on the removal of heavy metal ions by lowcost adsorbents like natural, waste and carbonaceous materials, the attention paid to the studies on the removal of carboxylic acids with mixed adsorbents like fly ash blends has been inadequate. Mention may be made on the studies on the removal of Chromium (VI) and Copper by fly ash - Wollastonite blends (Pande et al., 1984; Khare et al., 1987) dye and hexavalent chromium by mixed adsorbents viz.,AC and sand (Bandyopadhyay and Biswas, 1998). Hence, the titled study was made. MATERIALS AND METHODS Fly ash was procured from Thermal Power Plant, Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), acid treated, washed, and thermally activated at 120°C for 5 hr in an air-oven (to get the ACs such as wood carbon (WC), ricehusk carbon (RHC), coconut shell carbon (CSC), groundnut shell carbon (GNSC) and bamboo dust carbon (BDC) raw materials were collected locally, carbonised (300°C), steam digested (900°C ), acid treated, and washed. The ACs thus produced and CAC (E Merck, India) were activated at 120°C for 5 hr in an air oven. The materials were sieved to discrete particle sizes, and blended in 50/50 weight ratio - which was found to be optimum composition of the fly ash - AC blends for the removal of aromatic carboxylic acids (Xavier, 2000). AnalaR Benzoic acid (BA) supplied by BDH (India) was used as an adsorbate. Analytical grade chemicals and double distilled water were employed for preparing all the solutions and reagents. Adsorption studies were made as per the literature methods (Xavier, 2000). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The effect of initial concentration of benzoic acid on the amount of acid adsorbed on 322

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the various fly ash - AC blends has been studied. The amount adsorbed exponentially increases while the percentage removal exponentially decreases with increase in initial concentration of BA. This indicates that there exists a reduction in immediate solute adsorption owing to the lack of available active sites on the adsorbent surface, compared to the relatively large number of active sites required for the high initial concentration of acid. Similar results have been reported in literature on the extent of removal of acids (Ramu et al., 1992). The order of adsorption capacity of the various flyash - AC blends is as: FA -CAC > FA-WC > FA-RHC > FA -CSC > FA-GNSC > FA -BDC The equilibrium data for the removal of BA by adsorption on various fly ash AC blends at 30 Âą 1Â°C were used in Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms (Pande et al., 1984). The isotherm parameters along with the correlation coefficients (r-values) are presented in Table 1. The results of the linear regression analysis (r-values close to unity) reveal that these two adsorption isotherms are applicable (Table 1). The separation factor RL has been calculated using the equation (Xavier, 2000): RL = 1/(1 + bCi), where, Ci is the initial concentration of acid (in ppm) and b is the Table 1: Adsorption Isotherm parameter for BA-Fly ash and AC blend systems

Langmuir constant (in g dm-3). The separation factor RL indicates the shape of isotherm and the nature of the adsorption process as unfavourable (RL> 1 ), linear (RL =1), favourable (0 < RL < 1) and irreversib1e (RL = 0). In the present study the values of RL (Table 1) for various mixed adsorbents indicate that the adsorption process is favourable. 323

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Kinetics of adsorption In order to study the kinetics and dynamics of the adsorption process under consideration, the following kinetic equations were employed with the adsorption data obtained from contact time variation (Kannan et al., 1998; Pandey et al., 1984; Xavier, 2000). The values of log (Ci / Ct), log (qe - qt) and log (1 - U (t)) were linearly correlated with time (t). The results of the linear regression analysis (Table 2) were found to be statistically significant, indicating the applicability of these kinetic equations and the first order nature of the adsorption process. The model for intra-particle diffusion is: qt = kpt1/2 + C where qt is the amount of acid adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent (in mg g-1 ) at time t, and kp and C are the intra-particle diffusion rate constant and the intercept. The correlation analysis of values qt with â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; resulted in linear relations as evidenced by the r-values (Table 2 ) which indicate the existence of intraparticle diffusion process (Xavier, 2000). The calculated values of kp for FA - CSC is maximum (2.169) and for FA-CAC is minimum (1.486), which indicate that the intraparticle diffusion process is more significant in FA-CSC system than in FA-CAC system. The values of intercept (C) give an idea of boundary layer thickness, i.e., the larger the intercept the greater the boundary layer effect. Further confirmations of the occurrence of intraparticle diffusion were obtained from the linear correlation of the values of log (% adsorbed) and log (time). The divergence of slope values from 0.5 indicates that besides intra-particle diffusion process, there may be other processes controlling the rate of adsorption, all of which may be operating simultaneously. T a b le 2 : S t a t is t ic a l r e s u lt s f o r t h e a p p lic a b ilit y o f v a r io u s a d s o r p t io n is o t h e r m a n d f ir s t o r d e r k in e t ic e q u a t io n s

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The percentage of removal of acid (not shown) exponentially increases with the increase in the dose of adsorbent. This may be due to the increase in availability of active sites owing to the increase in the effective surface area resulting from the increase in dose of adsorbent and conglomeration of the adsorbent, especially at higher adsorbent doses. The relative percentage removal of BA is found to be insignificant after a dose of 20 g dm-3 for the various fly ash blends, which is fixed as the optimum dose of adsorbent. The amount of acid adsorbed was observed to vary exponentially in accordance with a fractional power term of the dose of adsorbent, i.e., (dose)n where n = fraction (â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;nâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; value for fly ash-AC blends: CAC = 0.908, WC = 0.894, RHC = 0.893, CSC = 0.908, GNSC = 0.892 and BDC 0.886). The values of log (% adsorbed) and log (dose of adsorbent) were found to be linearly correlated with r- values very close to unity ( FACAC = 0.999, FA-WC = 0.999, FA-RHC = 0.999, FA-CSC = 0.999, FA-GNSC = 0.999 and FA-BDC = 0.999). It can be observed that the amount of acid adsorbed increases with the decrease in particle size, owing to the increase in the availability of the active sites. CONCLUSION The removal of BA by adsorption on fly ash - AC blends from aqueous solution has been studied in order to explore the sorption potential of fly ash blends. The percentage removal of acid increased with the decrease in initial concentration of acid and particle size and increased with the increase in contact time and dose. The adsorption process is first - order with intra-particle diffusion as the rate limiting step. Fly ash-AC blends may be used for effective and economical removal of acids. The adsorbent material being cheap needs no additional investment and the treatment process can be easily carried out. The acid loaded adsorbents can be regenerated, recycled, reused and can also be used as filler materials. The data will be helpful in designing cost-effective water and wastewater treatment plants. REFERENCES Bandyopadhyay A and Biswas M N, 1998. Removal of hexavalent chromium by synergism modified adsorption, Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 18 (9) 662- 671. Cheremisinoff P N and Ellerbusch F, 1979. Carbon adsorption hand book. Ann Arbor Sci. Publ., Michigan. Kannan N, Srinivasan T and Dhandayudhapani P, 1998. Natural adsorbents for water and wastewater treatment - A review In Ecotechnology for pollution control and environmental Management, Ed. R.K. Trivedy and Arvind Kumar Enviromedia Pubi., Karad, pp. 291-310. Khare S K, Singh V and Srivastava R M, 1987. Mixed adsorbent for colour removal from aqueous solutions, Pertanika, 10(3): 341-347. Pande K K, Prasad G and Singh V N, 1984. Removal of chromium (VI) from aqueous solutions by adsorption on fly ash-wollastonite, Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology,34(A) 367-374. Ramu A, Kannan N and Srivathsan S A, 1992. Adsorption of carboxylic acids on flyash activated carbon, Indian Journal Environmental Health, 34(3) 192-196. Xavier A, 2000. Studies on the dynamics of Adsorption using Fly ash blends, Ph.D. thesis Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai. 325

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SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERISATION AND APPLICATION OF PHENOL - FORMALDEHYDE RESIN BLENDED WITH SULPHONATED ACHYRANTHES ASPERE AND TERMINALIA BELLARICA CHARCOAL

Kannan N* and Seenivasan R K** * Dept of Chemistry, ANJA college, Sivakasi **Dept of Chemistry, KLN College of Engg., Pottapalayam, Sivagangai

INTRODUCTION The development of indigenous low cost materials for the water and wastewater treatment is essentially needed in developing countries like India, because the commercially available materials such as the ion exchange resins (IERs) for metal ions are costly. Heavy metal ions are highly toxic especially to the aquatic animals and plants and therefore, they are to be removed from water. Most of the currently used commercial IERs are derived from petroleum products. There is an urgent need to develop low cost IERs or to identify suitable substitutes, which could wholly or partly replace the polymeric content of the existing IERs, without affecting the properties of the parent IER to a large extent. Attempts have been made in the past to economise the IERs, but the scope for minimizing the cost of IERs by the substitution of sulphonated charcoal derived from plants is still open. Mention may be made on the earlier work carried out with sulphonated coke (Sharma et al., 1976), saw dust charcoal (Padma Vasudevan and Sharma, 1979), coal from Assam mines (Sharma and Padma Vasudevan, 1980), charcoal derived from â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Cashew nut husk (Shaw and Bafna, 1953), spent coffee (Mohan Rao and Pillai, 1954), curcuma longa (Kadiresa Pandian and Krishnamoorthy, 1991), rice husk (Ramachandran and Krishnamoorthy, 1984), coconut fibre (Duraisamy and Krishnamoorthy, 1987), Bombox malabarica fruit shell (Shaw and Bafna, 1953), and groundnut shell (Chandrasekaran and Krishnamoorthy, 1987). Results revealed that the sulphonated charcoal derived from the materials could be substituted up to 2030% in phenolic cationities. The substitution did not produce any drastic change on the properties, especially on cation exchange capacity(CEC) , and in addition, the composites obtained were found to be macroporous. Based on this, the present work is an attempt to prepare and study the properties of sulphonated phenol-formaldehyde cation exchangers substituted partly by sulphonated charcoal (SC) derived from the plants Achyranthes asphere (Nayurivi) (SAAC) and Terminalia bellarica (Thandrikai) (STBC) 326

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EXPERIMENTS Phenol and formaldehyde used were Fischer reagents. Concentrated sulphuric acid used was of LR grade with a specific gravity of 1.82. Dry stems of the Terminalia bellarica and Achyranthes asphere were locally collected, cleaned, dried and cut into small pieces before use. Phenol (10ml) and conc. H2SO4 (12.5ml) were mixed slowly with constant stirring by placing it in an ice bath at 0 - 50C. The mixture was heated to about 70°C in a hot air oven for 3h, then cooled immediately in ice-cold water and kept overnight. Plant materials viz., Achyranthes asphere and Terminalia bellarica (300g) were carbonized and sulphonated by adding conc. H2SO4 and kept at room temperature (30 ±10 C) for 24 h and heated to 90° C in a hot air oven for 6 h. The materials were washed several times with water and finally with double distilled water(DD) to remove free acid (tested with BaCl2 solution) and dried at 70°C for 12h. Calculated quantities of STBC and SAAC were added to phenol sulphonic acid, so as to keep the percentage (W/W) of the substituted SAAC and STBC, respectively at 0,10,20,30 and 40. These samples labeled as A,B,C, D and E as given in Table- 1. Each mixture was polymerised with formaldehyde (11.5ml) at 70°C and cured at this temperature for 3h to yield a dark brown chunky mass, which was ground, washed, dried and preserved for further studies. Separate samples of SAAC and STBC (sample F) were also subjected to the characterization studies. Table 1. Amount of Reagents used and Yield of the composites substituted with SAAC & STBC S a m p le A B

% o f S C * in PFR (T h eo ritica l) 0 10

C D E F * % of SC = %

P h en o l (m l) 1 0 .0 1 0 .0

A m o u n t o f R ea g en ts u sed ‘g ’ F o r m a ld eh y d e C o n .H 2 S O 4 (m l) (m l) 1 1 .5 1 2 .5 1 1 .5 1 2 .5

20 1 0 .0 30 1 0 .0 40 1 0 .0 100 -(W /W ) o f S A A C an d S T B C

1 1 .5 1 1 .5 1 1 .5 --

1 2 .5 1 2 .5 1 2 .5 --

Y ield (‘g ’)

0 .0 0 1 .8 9

1 6 -1 7 1 8 -1 9

% o f S C in PFR (O b serv ed ) 0 .0 0 9 .9 – 1 0

4 .2 5 7 .2 9 1 1 .3 3 --

1 9 -2 1 2 3 -2 4 2 7 -2 8 --

1 9 .5 -2 0 .5 3 0 .3 -3 0 .5 3 9 .9 -4 0 .3 100

The physico-chemical properties such as density, percentage of swelling and percentage of attritional breaking of the samples A-F were studied by the literature methods cation exchange / column exchange capacity (CEC) of some selective metals like Na+, Fe2+, Cu2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data given in Table 1 indicate that the experimental and theoretical percentage of SAAC and STBC (%W/W) in the sulphonated phenol - formaldehyde cation exchangers are in good agreement with each other which indicates that this method could be adopted 327

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for the synthesis of pure resin (A) and composite resins (B-E). The details about overweight or losses in IER due to substitution in the IER could be understood from the values of theoretical and observed of SAAC and STBC in the resin. The properties of pure IER (sample A) and composites IERs and pure SAAC and STBC are listed in Table 2. It is seen that the porosity and polarity are greater in the pure/unsubstituted resin (A). The percentage swelling value for pure resin is 85.56, and it decreases with the increase in the % (W/W) of SC in the IER samples. It indicates that the values for pure IER and composite IERs are not as high as compared to conventional gel type IERs, indicating rigidity in the matrix and theefore the pores of the composites the non-gel type and macroreticular character of 10. The decrease in the absolute densities (g/ml) from pure resin (A) to composite resins (B-E) indicates that the pure resin(A) is more closely packed than that of the samples (B-E) substituted with SAAC and STBC. The percentage attritional breaking of different samples, decreased from sample A to sample F, and this is due to the formation of the resin in the capillaries of SC particles. The physical properties of the composites decrease with the increase in the %(W/W) substitution of SC (SAAC and STBC). This observation is found to be in harmony with the earlier literature reports on the IERs substituted with various sulphonated charcoals. These results indicate that SPFCE is found to be macro-reticular and macro porous in nature. Table 2. Physico Chemical properties of IERs

Sample

% of SAAC in PFR

A B

0 10

100

Density (g mL-1)

Percentage(%)

Wet

Dry

Swelling

Attritional breaking

2.01 1.66 (1.93)* 1.21 (1.90) 1.05 (1.77) 1.00 (1.51) 0.84 1.23

2.066 1.35 (1.93) 1.29 (1.85) 1.20 (1.78) 1.17 (1.66) 0.96 (1.32)

85.56 73.21 (76.17) 68.85 (64.23) 56.15 (59.50) 50.24 (52.15) 36.35 (45.06)

8.00 8.91 (10.89) 9.00 (11.00) 11.58 (11.89) 13.63 (15.00) 21.78 (22.77)

* values in parenthesis shows STBC

The chemical stability of IERs are obtained by testing their solubility in a few selected solvents like alcohols (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, iso propanol, n-butanol, diethyl ether, CS-2and other aliphatic and aromatic aprotic solvents. It was noted that they are insoluble in these solvents. However, the composites are partially soluble (5-10 %)in 20%(W/W) NaOH solution. This is because these samples have phenolic groups in it 328

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and hence could not be used as IERs in strongly basic medium. This observation also indicates a high degree of cross-linking in all the samples (A-E), i.e. the molecular weight of polymeric unit is very high because of high degree of cross-linking and they are macro-reticular in nature. Hence, the samples could be used to make ion exchange columns to treat industrial effluents. The apparent column exchange capacities(CECs) for the exchange of H+ ions with metal ions like Na+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Fe2+ and Cu2+ ions are presented in Table 3. The data indicate that the CEC of composites decrease with the increase in SC content (% by weight) in the IER. The order of CEC of the ion exchangers for the exchange of divalent metal ions is of the order: Cu2+eÂ&#x201D; Mg 2+>Ca2+>Fe2+>Na+ for SAAC Mg 2+>Ca2+> Cu2+ > Fe2+>Na+ for STBC This may be due to the selectivity of the IERs for these metal ions (Harland, 1994). Also, it is noted that the condensates up to 30% (W/W) of SC retains nearly 70.7684.53% of CEC, while 20% (W/W) substitution of SC in pure IER retains nearly 74.6190.01% of CEC, for any given metal ion. Hence, it is concluded that the SC could partly replace up to 30-40% (W/W) substitution in the phenol-formaldehyde cationic resins. The substitution by SC has a lowering effect on the CEC values, but still they could be used as IERs. The substitution by SC up to 20-40% (W/W) will certainly reduce the cost of IERs by atleast 20-40%. This will be highly economical in water treatment process with these substituted IERs. This observation is also in line with the earlier reports available in literature on substitution of IERs with carbon prepared from various plant materials. Table 3. Cation exchange capacities of h+ form of the iers

Sample

% of SC in PFR

Column capacity ( m. mol g-1) - 0.1M Effluent Na+

0.822

0.654 B 10 (0.798)* 0.601 C 20 (0.754) 0.587 D 30 (0.726) 0.563 E 40 (0.711) 0.302 F 100 (0.377) values in parenthesis shows STBC

Fe2+

Cu2+

Ca2+

Mg2+

1.624

1.835

1.644

1.816

1.075 (1.350) 1.030 (1.300) 0.975 (1.250) 0.900 (1.150) 0.600 (0.680)

1.490 (1.555) 1.382 (1.415) 1.290 (1.305) 1.220 (1.160) 0.685 (0.770)

1.363 (1.565) 1.298 (1.505) 1.208 (1.446) 0.976 (1.351) 0.452 (0.562)

1.464 (1.735) 1.355 (1.636) 1.285 (1.535) 1.095 (1.369) 0.571 (0.559)

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When this IER is used for the removal of Cu2+ from electroplating effluent, effective removal of copper (II) ions was noticed. Hence, it could be used for the treatment of industrial effluents, especially for the removal of metal ion. The results of the present study conclude that STBC could be used as a substitute to SAAC to indigenously prepare low cost IERs for the removal of metal ions from water. SC (SAAC/STBC) could be partly replace up to 20-30% (W/W) substitution in phenol-formaldehyde cationic resins without very much affecting its CEC and other properties. This will roughly reduce 20-30% of the cost of production of IERs. Thus, this study results in the development of strategy for the production of low cost IERs. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors thank the Principal and Management of their colleges for providing facilities and encouragement. REFERENCES ChandrasĂ¨karan M B and Krishnamoorthy S, 1987. J. Indian. Chem. Soc., 64, 134. Duraisamy N and Krishnamoorthy S, 1987. J. Indian. Chem. Soc., 64, 701. Kathiresa Pandian D and Krishna moorthy S, 1991. Indian. J. Technol., 29, 487. Mohan Rao C J and PiIlai S C, 1954. J. Indian. Inst. Sci. Sec A., 36, 70. Padma Vasudevan and Sharma N L N, 1979. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 24, 1443. Ramachandran S and Krishnamoorthy S, 1984. J. Indian. Chem. Soc., 61, 911. Sharma N L N and Padma Vasudevan, 1980. J. Indian. Chem. Soc., 57, 191. Sharma N L N, Mary Joseph and Padma Vasudevan, 1976. Res. Ind., 2, 173. Shaw H A and Bafna S L, 1953. J. Appl. Chem. (London)., 3, 335.

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STUDIES ON THE REMOVAL OF LEAD IONS BY COCONUTSHELL AND DATESNUT CARBONS

Kannan N and Balamurugan J Department of Chemistry, ANJA College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION Heavy metal ions like lead(II) ions are highly toxic, non-biodegradable and accumulate into the food chain. Hence, lead(II) ions are to be necessarily removed from water and wastewater. The excess lead(II) ion level will cause many ill-effects such as lung cancer, reduced enzymatic activity, genetic recessiveness etc. Activated Carbon (AC) adsorption is being widely used in effluent treatment. Because of high cost of commercial AC (CAC) and difficulty in its procurement, low-cost adsorbents alternative to CAC are to be developed from abundant agricultural wastes (Pollard et al., 1991). This has necessitated the titled investigation to find out the suitability of coconut shell (CSC) and datesnut (DNC) carbons for the removal of metal ions like lead(II) ions. The objectives of this study are to indigenously prepare ACs (IPACs) from coconut shells and dates nuts, to study the effect of various process parameters on the extent of removal of lead(II) ions and to model the adsorption data with Langmuir isotherm, Lagergren equation and intra- particle diffusion model. METHODOLOGY Coconut shells and dates nuts were locally collected, cut in to small pieces, washed, dried and carbonised at 300째C in a muffle furnace. The carbons were sieved (90 micron), activated by acid digestion (4 N HNO3; 2hrs at 80째C) and dried in an air oven (at 120째C for 2hrs). Batch type adsorption studies were carried out (Kannan, 1991) under various experimental conditions. The lead(II) ion concentrations were estimated titrimetrically (Jeffery et al., 1991). Experimental conditions: Initial concn.(Ci) = 400 - 1400 ppm; contact time = 5-35min; dose= 5-35 g L-1 and pH= 18. Percentage removal and amount adsorbed (q in mg g-1) were calculated using the standard equations (Kannan and Xavier, 2001). The data were modelled with Langmuir isotherm, Lagergren equation and intra- particle diffusion model (Balamurugan, 2003). The average values of duplicate runs were used for data analysis, and correlations were made with the help of PC employing the methods of least-squares. 331

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results on the extent of removal of lead(II) ions under various experimental conditions are given in Table 1. The percentage removal (% R) decreased with the increase in initial concentration, due to the limited number of available active sites on the surface of CSC and DNC to accommodate higher concentration of lead ions (Nagesh and Krishnaiah, 1981). The % R increases with increase in contact time due to more amount of lead(II) ions removed due to effective contact and due to the availability of active sites (Namasivayam and Senthilkumar, 1997). The % R increased with increase in dose of adsorbent owing to the increase in surface area and number of active sites for the adsorption of lead(II) ions or due to the conglomeration of carbons at higher doses (Nagesh and Krishnaiah, 1981). The q values decrease with increase in dose of IPAC, as expected (Namasivayam and Senthilkumar, 1997). The q value varies with fractional power term of dose as : q = [dose]-n+ C (Where n = -0.705 and -0.789, C= 2.33 and 2.38 and r= 0.996 and 0.999 for CSC and DNC, respectively). The values of log (%R) are found to be linearly correlated with log (dose) values (r=0.997 and 0.998 for CSC and DNC, respectively). This suggests that the adsorbed lead(II) ions may either block the access to the internal pores of carbons or may cause particles to aggregate and thereby minimize the availability of active sites for adsorption (Nagesh and Krishnaiah, 1981; Namasivayam and Senthilkumar, 1997). As initial pH increases, the extent of removal (both % R and q) of lead(II) ions increases, reaches a maximum value and then decreases due to the nature and charge on the lead(II) species available and surface functional groups and charge (zero point charge pH zpc) of the carbons. Table 1 – Effect of process parameters on the extent of removal of lead(II) ions by CSC and DNC at 30°C. Parameter

Range

Initial concn (ppm)

400 - 1400

Contact time (min.)

5-35

Dose of adsorbent (gL-1)

5-35

Initial pH

1-8

Values given in parentheses are q values (in mg g-1)

Percentage Removal CSC DNC 64.2-38.6 74.4 – 44.4 (13.5 – 28.3) (15.6 – 32.6) 44.8 – 63.2 38.7 – 69.4 (15.7 – 22.1) (13.6 – 24.3) 44.9 – 72.1 47.9 – 72.4 (62.5 – 14.5) (67.1 – 14.5) 38.7 – 57.1 38.7 – 69.4 (13.6 – 20.2) (13.6 – 24.2) 1

The optimum conditions fixed for the effective removal of lead(II) ions are: Ci = 700ppm ; contact time = 30min. dose = 20g L-1 and pH = 5.9 at 200 rpm speed at 30°C. Adsorption data were fitted with Langmuir isotherm (Kannan and Meenakshi Sundaram, 2001) by carrying out the correlation analysis using the following equation: 332

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Langmuir isotherm: (Ce/qe) = (Ce/Qo) + (1/Qob), where, Ce = equlibrium concentration of lead(II) ions (ppm), qe = amount of lead(II) ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at equilibrium, Qo = monolayer adsorption capacity (mgg-1), and b = Langmuir constant related to the energy of adsorption (Lmg-1) The results are given in Table 2. The observed r- values are close to unity (r = 0.936 and 0.961) which indicate the applicability of Langmuir isotherm. CSC possesses more adsorption capacity than DNC, as evidenced from Qo (monolayer adsorption capacity, in mg g-1) values. The values of separation factor RL, obtained from the equation: RL = 1/ [1+ bCi], are found to be fraction (0> RL <1), which indicate that the adsorption process is favourable on CSC and DNC. The first order kinetic equation viz., Lagergren equation (Kannan and Rajkumar, 2002), was applied to the adsorption data (Table 2) using the following equaiton:

Table 2 - Results of correlation analysis of adsorption data. S.No 1.

Model / Parameter Langmuir isotherm Qo (mg g-1) b (Lmg-1) r – value RL -value Lagergren eqn. 102 k(min.-1) r – value Intra – particle diffusion model kp (mg g-1 min.-1/2.) Intercept (c) r – value

CSC

DNC

0.181 1.619 0.961 0.001

0.079 0.633 0.936 0.002

7.10 0.999

7.51 0.982

1.747 12.09 0.987

2.88 7.45 0.997

Lagergren equation : Log(qe – qt) = log qmax – (k / 2.303) t, where, qe = amount of lead(II) ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at equilibrium, qt = amount of lead(II) ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at time t (min.), qmax = maximum amount of lead(II) ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1), k = first order rate constant for adsorption process (min.-1), and t = time (min.) The r-values (close to unity) indicate the applicability of the Lagergren equation and the first order nature of adsorption of lead(II) ions on CSC and DNC. The rate of adsorption of lead(II) ions is higher in DNC (0.078) than in CSC (0.072). The presence of intra- particle diffusion as the rate limiting step was tested by applying the intraparticle diffusion model (10): qt = kp t1/2 + c., where, qt = amount of lead(II) ions adsorbed/ unit mass of adsorbent (mgg-1) at time t (min.), kp = intra-particle diffusion rate constant (mgg-1 min.-0.5), t = time (min.), and c = intercept 333

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The higher value of kp for DNC (2.88) than for CSC (1.75) indicate that DNC is highly porous in nature than CSC. The value of intercept (c) gives an idea about the boundary layer thickness, i.e., larger the intercept (c values: CSC = 12.09; DNC = 7.45), greater is the boundary layer effect (Hall et al., 1996). The values of log (%R) are found to be linearly correlated (r=0.997 and 0.998 for CSC and DNC, respectively) with log (time), with slope values greater than 0.5 (5.77 and 3.36 for CSC and DNC, respectively). This indicates that besides the intra- particle diffusion, there may be other processes controlling the rate of adsorption, all of which may be operating simultaneously. The results of the present study conclude that CSC and DNC could be used as low- cost adsorbents alternative to CAC in effluent treatment, especially for the removal of lead(II) ions. REFERENCES Balamurugan J, 2003. Studies on the removal of copper and lead ions by adsorption onto coconut shell and dates carbons, M.Phil. Dissertation, ANJA College, Sivakasi. Hall K K, Eaeton l C, Activas A and Vermeulen T, 1996. Ind Engg. Chem. Fund., 5, 212. Jeffery G H, Bassett I, Mendham J and Denney R C (Eds.), 1991.Vogelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Text Book of Quantitative Chemical Analysis, ELBS, Longman, London, p. 689. Kannan N and Meenakshi Sundaram M, 2001. Dyes & Pigments, 51, 25. Kannan N and Rajakumar A, 2002. Fres. Env. Bull., 11, 160. Kannan N and Xavier A, 2001. Toxicol. Env. Chem., 74, 95. Kannan N, 1991. Indian J. Env. Prot., 11, 514. Nagesh N and Krishnaiah A, 1981. Indian J. Env. Prot., 9(4), 301. Namasivayam C and Senthilkumar S, 1997. Chemosphere, 34, 357. Pollard S J T, Fowler G D, Sollars C J and Perry R, 1992. The Sci Total Env. 116, 31.

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Environmental Policy and Institutional Aspects

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GLOBALISATION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT: AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF NATURAL RESOURCE DEGRADATION IN KERALA

Sreelakshmi K*, Muraleedharan P K** and Mini K*** *

Economics Division, Rubber Research Institute of India, Rubber Board PO, Kottayam-9 ** Forestry and Human Dimensions Division, KFRI, Peechi *** Vegetable and Fruit Promotion Council, Cochin

INTRODUCTION Kerala, which lies in the southern part of India, is endowed with a unique environment, encompassing a wealth of natural resources, which have been subjected to indiscriminate exploitation and unsustainable management. More often than not, researchers, social activists and policy makers tend to link environment degradation solely with poverty, which per se becomes satirical in reality. Kerala has achieved the highest decline in poverty levels (- 55.08%) next only to Punjab (-60.54%). Also its relative standing among the States has improved significantly to seventh position from a low of twentyfirst over the past 3-4 decades. Paradoxically, the forest cover of the state has decreased from 33 per cent to about 13 per cent over the same period. This questions the highly proclaimed poverty-environment degradation-nexus, and hence the present study argues that poverty cannot be adjudged as the single major reason for natural resource (forest) degradation, particularly in Kerala. This argument can be further cemented if we consider the Human Poverty Index (HPI) constructed using the UNDP methodology (Index of survival deprivation, deprivation of education and deprivation in economic provisioning with respect to safe water, health services and undernourished children) which is just 0.15 for Kerala, whereas it is 0.367 for the whole country. Similarly, the Human Development Index (1995) (Index of life expectancy, educational attainment and income) for Kerala has been calculated as 0.628 whereas it is only 0.451 for the whole country (Indira Hirway and Dev, 2000). This clearly indicates that high economic development is not a panacea for environment conservation. While poverty drives people near the forest to depend on resources for livelihood, the poor in urban areas prefer other alternatives, indicating that poverty becomes the sole cause of natural resource degradation only when the opportunity costs of labour is nil (Poverty-Environment-Trap). This does not satisfy the question as to why people above poverty line depend on the resource. Undoubtedly, issues other than economic development and poverty, rule the resource extraction scenario viz., consumerism, and market, institutional and policy failures. 337

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Consumerism, bolstered by globalization is market driven and is a ConsumeristEnvironment-Trap. The market, institutional and policy failures can be termed as Governance-Environment-Trap. The paper conceptualizes this theory and attempts to delineate these three drivers of natural resource degradation in the context of forests, in Kerala. The main objectives of the study were; 1) to assess the causes and implications of resource uses driven by poverty, consumerism and governance failures and 2) to conceptualize the natural resource degradation scenario in Kerala. STUDY AREA, DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY The study was carried out in Peechi Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary; which hosts many endemic species and is subjected to indiscriminate exploitation by the stakeholders living in and around the Sanctuary. Since Peechi reservoir, which satiates the water need of majority in Thrissur District, lies within the sanctuary, the forest/ catchment users directly and indirectly affect the dam, which in the long run will threaten the very existence of the society. For the purpose of the study, both primary and secondary data were employed. Percentage analysis, Analysis of Variance and correlation were used appropriately. A supply function was fitted to estimate the price elasticity of Non-wood Forest Products (Gujarati, 1995). Elasticity of demand for NWFPs is estimated using the model; Y = b0+b1X where Y=quantity of NWFP supplied(kg) X= price(Rs.) b0 and b1 are coefficients Elasticity is arrived at by using the formula;

X η p = b1 x   Y  where η p = price elasticity X = average price in the sample (Rs.) Y = average value of the quantity in the sample (kg)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The magnitude of resource extraction from the forest was estimated and it was observed that there is dependence on the resources for timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants etc.; of which, medicinal plants, fodder, and fuelwood were highly subjected to extraction by the stakeholders (Table 1). The non-wood forest products extracted from the forest, projected that NWFP species worth around Rs. 2 062 500 lakhs are being extracted from the forest (Sreelakshmi, 2004). This points to the high level of pressure on the forest ecosystem. In order to assess whether species specific exploitation takes place in the forest, the price elasticity of different selected species was worked out (Table 2). 338

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Table. 1 Magnitude of resources extraction from the Sanctuary Resource Timber Wildlife Fish Medicinal plants Fuelwood Fodder Poles

Intensity of Extraction Low Low Medium High High High Medium

Table.2 Estimated supply function and price elasticity of selected NWFPs Species Holostemma adakodien Raovolfia serpentina Acacia concinna Acacia caesia Strobilanthes ciliatus Curcuma aromatica Acacia pennata Sida rhombifolia Pseudarthria viscida Hemidesmus indicus Desmodium velutinum Myristica dactyloides Apies sp Canarium strictum Piper longum

Supply function Qs=-1645 + 143.2P Qs=2456.49 + 231.59P Qs=-232.33 + 0.99P Qs=-2893.04 + 560.13P Qs=69873 + 16237.21P Qs=54319.37 + 10915.25P Qs=268.90 + 299.75P Qs=-2228.25 + 449.05P Qs=-1725.80 + 195.44P Qs=14233.25 + 53.01P Qs=-1249.75 + 186.52P Qs=13239.49 + 371.59P Qs=1232.55 + 144.93P Qs=2204 + 234.44P Qs=2143 + 356.21P

Price elasticity ηp=1.06 ηp=1.43 ηp=0.65 ηp=0.34 ηp=0.71 ηp=1.33 ηp=1.32 ηp=0.70 ηp=0.83 ηp=1.58 ηp=0.45 ηp=1.43 ηp=1.14 ηp=1.53 ηp=1.06

The species with a price elasticity above one are more prone to species specific exploitation since they show high responsiveness to market forces, which has serious ecological and economic repercussions. This market driven specificity in resource extraction culminates in ecological extinction of species. With the ecological extinction, the rate of extraction of the resources becomes prohibitively high which will lead to economic extinction of the species underscoring the existing ecology-economy linkage. The findings on species-specific exploitation and the ecology-economy linkage emphasize that market forces play a major role in forest degradation. With a view to understanding the different drivers of forest degradation in Kerala, the study attempted to assess the linkage between poverty and forest resource extraction of the stakeholders. The frequency of forest entry and the economic status were estimated and are presented in Table 3.

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Table 3. Frequency of forest entry vs. economic status of the stakeholders

Income class

Frequency*

Less than 10000 10000-15000

10 10

15000-20000 8 20000-25000 5 More than 25000 1 *Frequency is the number of visits per week It was observed that frequency of the forest entry decreased with an increase in the income (r = -0.79; P < 0.01). The ANOVA results projected that there is significant difference between the different groups in their frequency of forest entry (P < 0.002). These findings highlight the fact that lower income groups enter the forest more frequently than the higher income groups, which shows poverty is one of the drivers of resource degradation and can be hopefully mitigated once they are economically uplifted. This indicates that with a higher income, the frequency of forest entry reduces but, ironically, it does not mean that the quantity of the resources extracted and consumed decreases.(Table 4). Table. 4 Quantum of resources collected vs. economic status of stakeholders Income class

NWFPs Fuelwood kg/household/annum kg/household/annum

Less than 10000 8000 More than 25000 6800

6500 5800

Fodder kg/household/annum 6000 5170

This is a very important observation in the context of poverty being considered the important driver of forest degradation. Contrary to the belief, the resource extraction per household between the higher income and lower income class further projected a significant difference with the former extracting relatively higher quantum per visit than the latter (P<.001). This underscores the theory propounded by the study that there is a Consumerist-Environment-Trap in the forests of Kerala, which is one of the major drivers of natural resource degradation. With the advent of globalisation, the consumer society is expected to grow, which will exacerbate the current scenario. This Consumerist-Environment-Trap is the outcome of institutional failure, which is ineffective in enforcing stringent regulations. Correcting institutional failures and providing alternatives sources of income to uplift the poor will definitely change the resource extraction scenario beneficially and natural resource degradation can be mitigated. Besides, there are other factors which act as drivers of forest degradation. They are the regulatory mechanisms/policies conceived by the institutions, which are not peoplefriendly. This has resulted in antagonistic feelings among stakeholders resulting in 340

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intentional setting of fires, wildlife attacks and destruction of flora, which poses threat to the regeneration of the species, wildlife stock and sustainability of the ecosystem (Table 5). Table.5 Rate of governance driven forest degradation Problems

Per cent*

Remarks

Forest fire

Intentional

Wildlife destruction

Intentional

Destruction of flora

Intentional

This supports the hypothesis of existence of Governance-Environment-Trap, which confirms that unless and until the policies are people-friendly the strategies will backfire, and forms a driver of forest degradation creating a trap. This is attributed to the different institutional, policy and market failures existing in Kerala vis-Ă -vis natural resources. The different activities, which degrade the forest, are classified into the causes and sources, which explain what prompts the resource users to extract resources, and what are the drivers of these resource extraction behaviour (Table 6). Table. 6 Categorization of forest degradation drivers Activities NWFP extraction

Fuelwood Fodder/grazing

Timber

Forest encroachment Forest fires

Threat to wildlife

Causes Livelihood Commercial Medicinal Self use Commercial Household level

Household use Agriculture Commercial Old New Intentional Natural calamity Agriculture Intentional Survival strategy Commercial

Drivers Policy failure Institutional failure Policy failure Policy failure Institutional failure Policy failure Institutional failure Market failure Policy failure Institutional failure Policy failure Institutional and market failure Institutional & Policy failure Institutional failure Institutional and Policy failure Institutional failure

These uses can be effectively controlled once the institutional, policy and market failures are corrected. Institutional failures are those strategies by the concerned authority to regularize and effect stringent measures to annihilate the drivers of forest degradation. The market failure occurs when the actual value of the forest is not reflected in the society due to absence of markets for the functional benefits of the forest, as in the case of grazing where the fodder grazed by the livestock is unaccounted for and is considered a free good. It was estimated that on an average, Rs.145,728 per annum 341

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was benefited indirectly through grazing by the sample, which is accounted for by neither the people nor the institutions involved in forest management (Sreelakshmi and Muraleedharan, 2002). The policy failures are those myopic policies conceived by the government, which drive the people to degrade the forest. For instance, the wildlife protection enforces severe punishment with a fine upto Rs 10,000 and jail imprisonment of three to seven years, but do not provide any options for rescuing the people from wildlife threats, nor does it provide any security for the agricultural crops destroyed by wildlife attack (GOI, 2002). In such situation of policy failures, people-wildlife conflicts become severe, and this leads to forest resource degradation. The forest encroachment that happened in olden days can be attributed to the policy failures which never defined the boundaries and user rights concretely. The new encroachments are definitely the outcome of institutional and market failures, where the institution fails to detect and prevent encroachment in the starting stage, and lack of awareness among the people regarding the social benefits at stake with forest degradation, which is the outcome of market failure. CONCLUSIONS In Kerala, as a matter of course, natural resource degradation is the result of myopic policies and institutional ineffectiveness along with market failures. The major reasons why sustainable resource use becomes a critical issue of natural resource management in Kerala are : a) the allocation of scarce resources requires trade-offs which become increasingly difficult as the demand for and supply of resources change and b) shortterm personal gain wins out over long-term social needs or benefits. Economic upliftment of the poor is an option only where the sole driver of forest degradation is poverty. But, poverty is not the sole cause in Kerala, as evident from the study and the other major drivers viz., consumerism and governance failure need to be tackled effectively by timely enforcement of laws and proper monitoring of natural resources. REFERENCES GOI, 2002. Wildlife Protection Act. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India. Gujarati N D, 1995. Basic Econometrics. McGraw Hill Inc. Economic Series. Singapore: 838p. Indira Hirway and Mahendra Dev S, 2000. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Eliminating Poverty in India: Exploring Possibilities; NGO â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Academic Paper on Poverty in Indiaâ&#x20AC;?, Centre for Development Authorities. Sreelakshmi K, 2004. Resource use conflict and stakeholder diversity in valuing the forest benefits: An assessment of diverse benefits of the forest ecosystem in Kerala. Unpublished Ph.D Diss. Forest Research Institute, Deemed university, Dehradun: 212p. Sreelakshmi K and Muraleedharan P K, 2002. Biodiversity loss and the socio- economic root causes, a case study of Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Proceedings of National Seminar on Current Environmental Problems and Management, Irinjalakuda, 1-3 August: 253-260. 342

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AN APPRAISAL OF NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA STATE

Kamalakshan Kokkal, Gopan Mukkulath and Krishnan K R S Kerala State Council For Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION The need for a comprehensive policy statement on environment in India has been felt for some time now. There are many sectoral and cross-sectoral approaches to environmental management and a holistic picture of these is required. It is also necessary to review the earlier objectives, policy instruments, and strategies. The National Environment Policy (NEP, 2004) has been formulated with these concerns in mind. The directive principle of National Environment Policy has been articulated by Constitution in Articles 48 A introduced by 42nd Amendment in 1977 and 51 A (g), strengthened by judicial interpretation of Article 21. In addition by Article 51 (A), it is recognized that maintaining a healthy environment is not the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility alone, but also that of every citizen. National Environment Policy briefly describes the key environmental challenges currently and prospectively facing the country, the objectives of environment policy, normative principles underlying policy action, strategic themes for intervention, broad indications of the legislative and institutional development needed to accomplish the strategic themes, and mechanisms for implementation and review. In this paper an appraisal of the National Environment Policy is made with special context to Kerala. THE OBJECTIVES OF NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT POLICY The objectives are related to the current perceptions of key environmental challenges. The principal objectives of this policy includes the following. i. Conservation of Critical Environmental Resources: ii. Intra-generational Equity: Livelihood Security for the Poor: iii. Inter-generational Equity: iv. Integration of Environmental Concerns in Economic and Social Development: v. Efficiency in Environmental Resource Use: vi. Environmental Governance: vii. Enhancement of Resources for Environmental Conservation:

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PRINCIPLES EVOLVED FOR FRAMING OF NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT POLICY

The above objectives are to be realized through certain principles, which, would guide the activities of different actors in relation to this policy. Each of these principles has an established genealogy in policy pronouncements, jurisprudence, international environmental law, or international State practice: The principles evolved are: i.

Human beings are at the Centre of Sustainable Development Concerns

ii.

The Right to Development

iii. Environmental protection is an integral part of the development process iv.

The Precautionary Approach

Economic Efficiency • “Polluter Pays” • Cost Minimization

vi. Entities with “Incomparable” Values vii. Equity viii. Legal Liability • Fault based liability • Strict liability ix. Public Trust Doctrine x.

Decentralisation

xi. Integration xii. Environmental Standard Setting xiii. Preventive Action xiv. Environmental Offsetting SALIENT FEATURES OF THE POLICY Its diagnosis of environmental problems in India contains a fair assessment of the Institutional, policy, and other failings that have brought about these problems. For instance, it rightly points to the fact that the government has been responsible for the alienation of tribal and other communities from their common lands, thereby undermining the sophisticated traditional systems of resource management that these communities practiced. It points also to macro-economic policies, such as subsidies on chemicals that cause ecological damage. Some aspects are missing from this diagnosis (e.g. the dominance of powerful urban and industrial sections in decisionmaking, and the increasing role of wasteful consumerism by the rich in cities and 344

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villages), but overall, it goes beyond most previous governmental statements on the subject. It points to the need for a flexible, and evolving environment policy, with periodic reviews of its implementation as also of its basic structure. The policy shows a welcome shift from man-excluded approach to man-centered approach in environmental conceptualization. The present approach is logical and realistic. It lays out a number of critical principles for dealing with the environment, including: integrating environmental thinking into all sectors of development, using the Precautionary Principle to take action even in the absence of conclusive scientific proof of environmental damage, the need for equity in the way benefits are derived from natural resources, the imperative of decentralised, participatory processes, and the doctrine of Public Trust by which the government is not the absolute owner of natural resources but is holding it in trust for public good. Several important strategies are laid out, including review of economic policies that underlie environmental destruction, stronger regulatory mechanisms, partnerships between communities, official agencies, NGOs, and private parties, safeguarding ecosystems and species that are considered to be of â&#x20AC;&#x153;incomparable valueâ&#x20AC;?, promoting organic farming, using economic instruments to rein in polluting and destructive activities, integrating the economic value of natural resources into budgets and plans, etc. The NEP proposes to further strengthen the initiatives of Central Statistical Organization for incorporating Natural Resource Accounting into the System of National Accounts. The approach relies heavily on economic valuation of environmental resources and the use of environmental accounting practices and benchmarks in the financial audits. Additionally, financial institutions will be encouraged to adopt appraisal practices that examine environmental risks adequately, while financing projects. As a large number of environmental rules exist at present, the policy must restrict further increase of environmental rules while finalizing the policy. Some welcome steps are included in the draft Environmental Policy. For example in the policy measures, a provision is available for reviewing the provisions of the existing Coastal Zone Regulation Act and preparing Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan. Such people friendly provisions are very relevant for a coastal state like Kerala. MISSING ISSUES The draft NEP, 2004 also shows a lack of attention towards key areas like wetland management, grazing and fodder management, desertification, forest fires, island and marine eco-systems. Critical environment interface areas that have largely been untouched by the draft policy include trade and environment as well as women and environment. As far as river waters are concerned, the key issue of inter-linking of 345

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rivers finds no mention at all in this document. It is important for the final document to include these key areas after due consultative process. An alternative model (or models) of development, that puts the natural environment and people at the centre: The draft NEP does not challenge the fundamental nature of the current model of ‘development’, even though it is now widely recognised that this model is at the heart of environmental destruction. This model makes a holy cow of unlimited ‘economic growth’ (instead of more holistic human welfare and well-being), and in the process treats nature (and people) as a commodity, does not recognise nature as the basis of all human activities, and relies on essentially technological solutions to problems that are more fundamentally social or political in nature (e.g. increasing food production through artificial inputs when the real problem is not quantum of food produced but the unequal control over its production and distribution). The draft does talk about ‘mainstreaming’ environment into economic planning, but without fundamentally challenging the model of development (including in its “globalisation” form, and of the wasteful consumerism that it perpetuates), this would amount to some minor tinkering. What is needed is at least a vision that puts nature and overall human well-being (cultural, spiritual, material, intellectual) at the centre of a process of development, and from which would emanate the core principles and strategies for ecologically sustainable development models. A national (and local/state) land/water use plan: An overall long-term plan for the use of India’s land and water resources, has been a dire necessity for decades. (the draft NEP does talk about areas of “incomparable value”, but does not place such areas into an overall land/water use plan). A model for governance of natural resources: At various places, the draft NEP implies that the current way of governing our natural resources has failed. But it does not, from this diagnosis, come out with a bold new alternative. At various places it talks of decentralisation, of “partnerships” amongst various parts of society, and of specific elements like public access to information. But what is needed is an overall vision of how natural resources will be governed, who at what stage should be taking the decisions, how will current institutions of governance change. As mentioned above, the draft asserts the doctrine of “Public Trust” in which the state does not own the resources, but holds them in trust for the public. Unfortunately, this bold principle is not followed up to its logical conclusion, which would be to vest far greater powers in village and urban communities, and to work out a decision-making structure that emanates from this basic ground-level of governance. A holistic view of man’s relationship with nature and natural resources, which includes ethical, cultural, spiritual, and material dimensions: Other than the material, all other dimensions are missing from the draft NEP. This is strange, given that these dimensions have been such an integral part of all Indian traditions, such a core part of how we have related to nature. The draft displays an extremely human-centred, materialist view of the environment, which is seriously inappropriate for the Indian context. 346

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Assertion of the fundamental human right to a healthy environment: The draft NEP lays emphasis on the critical role of the natural environment in human economic activity. It does not, however, assert that a healthy environment (including access to fresh air, clean water, healthy food, and natural surrounds) is or should be a fundamental human right. Such a right is increasingly being recognised in many countries, and in international circles, and India too should be at the forefront of asserting it. Decentralized management of resources at the community level, with Grama Sabhas having adequate powers and rights for decision-making, implementation and consequent participative monitoring of environmental impacts, should be the thrust of such a policy. This is glaringly absent in the draft policy. There is no recognition in the NEP, of the conservation challenges of riverside and coastal-marine biodiversity or fishery sector. The policy needs of the marine protected areas also find no mention anywhere in the document. The poor environmental conditions adversely affecting the health of the living beings. Sporadic diseases caused due to mal-nutrition, polluted drinking water, unhygienic surroundings are examples of this. Definite guidelines must be included in the Environmental Policy for avoiding such situations. At the same time, a monitory fund for meeting the incremental cost for preserving the environmental quality must be initiated. This may be done following the model of Global Environmental Facility (GEF). This fund may be utilized for preventing environmental degradation and subsequent ill effects. CONCLUSION The NEP presents a new direction to environmental policy and conservation strategy by seeking to give primacy to economic instruments and supporting such an approach by facilitating economic valuation of environmental resources and services. If the challenge is to provide credible policy directions for recasting biodiversity conservation and environmental protection as a true multi-stakeholder endeavour, then much rethinking is needed on the approach propounded. Given the history of conservation ethics of the diverse communities in the country and the current state of scientific knowledge, the environmental policy must be firmly rooted in stakeholder-based biodiversity conservation and sustainable development

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SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT

Elangovan T National Transportation Planning and Research Centre (NATPAC) Sasthra Bhavan, Pattom Palace P.O., Thiruvananthapuram 695 004

INTRODUCTION A well-developed transport system promotes economic growth by allowing efficient trade and commerce, attracting new business activity, and providing residents with access to all daily requirements. It opens up hitherto undeveloped or underdeveloped areas for economic development. However, the present course of transport development â&#x20AC;&#x201C; over-dependence on motor vehicles and petroleum oil â&#x20AC;&#x201C; is leading more and more cities into crisis. Increased use of motor vehicles, especially in areas unable to afford proper facilities, comes at both economic and environmental cost. Many cities have already begun to feel the adverse effects of rapid motorization, congestion, higher fuel cost, increased levels of air pollutants and environmental degradation. The motor vehicle, which is hailed as a boon to mankind, now turns out to be the worst offender in spoiling the environment and its natural beauty. TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS Traditionally, most cities respond to transport shortfalls and deficiency by expanding the road network. Although the development of road network is important, roads comprise only one component of the entire transport system. Focusing on only a single system component rather than the system as a whole leads to piecemeal solutions, with system growth easily overwhelming individual component progress. Such approaches lead to unsustainable transport system. The energy intensity of various transport modes is a key factor in determining transport related environmental impacts. Energy consumption per passenger km by bus is the least and is highest for car among the road based personalized vehicles. Table 1 shows the energy efficiency of various modes of transport. On an average, a car consumes six times more energy than a bus, while two wheelers consume 2.5 times and three wheelers 4.7 times more energy. In terms of fuel cost per passenger a three-wheeler is about 67 times costlier than a bus and two-wheeler is at least twice as costly as bus. This 348

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indicates that bus transportation is not only favourable in terms of environmental consideration but also in terms of energy efficiency and effective use of road space in urban areas. Table 1: Energy efficiency of various modes of passenger transport Mode

Fuel type

Fuel efficiency (Km/litre)

Operating energy Relative energy intensity Litre/km) efficiency

Bus

Diesel

4.30

0.006

1.00

Two-wheeler

Petrol

44.40

0.015

2.50

Three-wheeler

Petrol

20.00

0.028

4.70

Car

Petrol/diesel

10.90

0.038

6.30

Source: Urban Transport Journal, Vol.2 No.1, March 2001

TRANSPORT EMISSIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Vehicle exhaust emissions are the source of the most serious environmental impacts of road transport. Transport emissions commonly include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and suspended particulate matter (SPM). Air pollution impacts occur at three levels: local or urban, regional and global. Local impacts include the health effects on human beings and pet animals, damage to buildings, plants and water bodies. Health hazards range from increased incidence of asthma, bronchitis, allergy, skin diseases, corneal problems and cardio-vascular diseases. Regional impacts are mostly climatic changes such as formation of fog, smog, dust storm and damages to green belts/wildlife. Global level effects are atmospheric changes like global warming and depletion of ozone layer. SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT MODE In many parts of India, people still walk or bicycle for work, education and shopping purposes, while goods are transported using hand-drawn or animal-powered carts. Walking and bicycling have negligible environmental effects. They are, however, affected by the environmental impacts of motorized transport. The sprawling cities are unfriendly to walkers, cyclists and cartman. Even countries where the bicycle has long been a major form of urban transportation, have seen a continuous decline in its transport share. Human-powered transport needs to be included in urban mobility planning if it is to become an effective alternative to motorized transport and retain its presence in rural areas, where it is often the only affordable means of transport for vast majority of people. A sustainable transportation system will require more than controlling air emissions, traffic congestion or fuel use; it must balance the present and long-term needs for the 349

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environment, economic growth and equity; the “three Es” of sustainability. The ultimate goal of transport is to provide mobility to people and access to goods and services. Telecommuting, walking and cycling and mixed land use are among the potential strategies to improve access without increasing traffic. Paradoxically, improvements to traffic and mobility can reduce access, as when increased vehicle traffic degrades the pedestrian environment. SUSTAINABLE FUEL FOR TRANSPORTATION Transport sector is the major consumer of petroleum products and is totally dependent on petroleum oils. According to an estimate, the oil wells in India would go dry in another 10-12’ years time. Already there has been 40% deficit in supply of petroleum oils, and the country has been importing petroleum products at huge cost. While demand for mobility continues to grow rapidly, fewer and fewer sources of fossil oil deposits are being discovered. The mobility of people and goods must, not therefore, be allowed to depend exclusively on crude oil. Future scenario shows that in the short and medium term, the present propulsion concepts of petrol/diesel engines will continue to dominate the road transport sector. New systems using bio-fuel, propane, hydrogen, fuel cells etc., will gain importance in the long term only. Alternative sources of fuel There are several alternative fuels available for transportation which include bio-diesel, gaseous fuel (CNG, LPG, Propane, hydrogen etc.), alcohol fuel (ethanol, methanol), solar power, fuel cells and electricity. LPG or CNG are used as transport fuel mostly in major cities where its availability is assured by the suppliers. Ethanol is produced from distillation of sugar cane or wheat. Methanol is derived from plentiful hydrocarbon reserves like coal, natural gas, heavy oils etc. These fuels can be used in low-level blends with gasoline in existing engines without modification. One of the advantages is that it eliminates the smoke emission. Hydrogen poses difficulty for use with I.C. engines designed for petroleum fuels. One possible solution is to develop new engines designed specifically for use with hydrogen. Energy crops as bio-diesel Recently, the idea of obtaining fuel oil from shrubs was revived and several latex producing species were identified. The oil of Jatropha curcas could be substituted for diesel engine fuel. Most of these species grow in dry and arid regions. The raising of these plants on large scale will help to eliminate poverty in villages that are surrounded by arid and semi-arid lands. There are more than 175 million hectares of wasteland in India, which are lying barren on account of high salt content, rocky nature, wind and water erosion. It is estimated that even if 20 % of the total wasteland is utilized, it will provide about 7.0 million tonnes (MT) of liquid fuels per year.

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Use of alcohol as fuel Ethanol, produced from sugarcane, is cheaper as compared to diesel oil. It has only 60% of the heat value of diesel but its low price makes it a good economical substitute for diesel. It is possible to substitute 15% of diesel with methanol or ethanol through a dual-fuel tank in buses and this results in 30 to 35% reduction in smoke emission. This means a major reprieve for the environment of Indian cities. Hydrogen as automobile fuel Hydrogen is a clean-burning gaseous fuel. To date, its use has been primarily experimental in space vehicles and rockets. Hydrogen is made cheaper with fossil fuel such as natural gas. Cost competitive technology for producing hydrogen from water through electrolysis is being developed. Field trials indicate that a two-wheeler can run 100 km with just 200 to 300 gm of hydrogen. The advantage is that it is abundant in water and solar energy. Petroleum fuel contains carbon which pollutes the atmosphere, whereas hydrogen as a fuel does not produce carbon residue. Not only is this fuel eco-friendly with zero pollution, but also, it helps in scaling down the oil deficit. Hydrogen has great potential as an alternative transportation fuel, which would eventually replace fossil fuel (oil, gas and coal). Use of electricity in vehicles Use of electricity in vehicles can come either from energy stored in a battery or from the conversion of chemical energy in a fuel-cell to electricity. Future holds good for fuel-cell technology with many advantages like energy security and environmentalfriendliness. As fuel cells contain no moving parts, and no combustion takes places during the process, they have less vibration. There is a re-awakening of interest in old established transport system like electric trolley buses to reduce air pollution and noise levels in city centres. Recently, battery operated vehicles have come into the focus because of their oil-free and pollution-free transport operation. This may serve effectively as a city bus-like service in busy commercial areas, loading/unloading operations and towing operation in warehouses, railway stations, airports and big factories. The batteries can be recharged at night. Incentives like cheaper power tariffs during off-peak hours and night time could encourage the use of such vehicles. Gas powered vehicles The over-dependence on petroleum fuel for urban transport has forced the authorities to probe the efficacy of alternative fuels like ultra-low sulphur diesel, CNG, LPG, ethanol, methanol, propane and bio-diesel. It is necessary to experiment different technologies available and address the whole issue of energy security so that the dependence on imported crude oil is minimized.

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Solar energy has not been used widely in transport sector except for demonstration projects. Solar panel fitted on vehicle rooftop can be used for propulsion of vehicles. The problem with solar powered vehicle is that it is very expensive and inconvenient during operation. As such, the operating cost of this mode is not available for comparison with other alternative fuels. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN TRANSPORT SECTOR Several measures can be thought of to reduce fuel consumption and traffic congestion in road transport sector. These include: encouraging the use of public transport system to reduce the dependence on private vehicle, changes in pricing policy of fuel, control of vehicular growth by restraint measures and increasing the share of fuel efficient vehicles. Phased introduction of eco-friendly transport system such as electricity/battery operated vehicles and gas powered vehicles should be undertaken. The following suggestions are made for sustainable development in transportation sector: l

Recycling of existing pavement to be encouraged

Popularise non-motorised modes of transport like walking and cycling

Encourage use of mass transport system like bus, suburban train and water transport.

Curtail non-essential trips by telecommuting, e-shopping, e-mailing/web-searching etc.

Strategies to foster environment sustainability shall include integrated transport policy with optimal inter modal mix, land use policy obviating the need for unnecessary transport effort, use of cleaner fuels, promoting use of non-motorised transport, where possible and encouraging public transport system. Concerted efforts in R&D in alternative fuels should gradually eliminate the import of crude oil to the country and turn the road transport sector from most atmospheric polluting one to the most clean, safe and dependable mode of transport. These actions can make oil uncompetitive even at low prices, before it becomes unavailable even at high prices. Over the coming decades, fossil-oil can become no longer worth extracting, but good to preserve them in the ground because we will have better and cheaper fuels to do the same tasks.

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENT SCHEMES FOR CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICTS

Vijayakumar N and Sindhu N T NATPAC, Kozhikode, Kerala

INTRODUCTION The impact of transport sector on urban environment is closely related with the infrastructure developments, transportation planning and technology innovations. Environment Improvement Assessment is a logical first step in the process of constructing or developing roads in a CBD as part of planning, because it represents the opportunity for a decision maker to consider the effects of actions. A case study was carried out for the CBD of Kozhikode on the theme. The objectives of the study were: l

To assess the functional and aesthetic qualities of urban environment

To analyze the level of air pollution and noise pollution in the urban area, and

To develop an urban environmental improvement strategy related to traffic and transportation planning.

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY The quality of the environment was assessed through Sieve Analysis technique, air quality monitoring and noise level monitoring in the major urban corridors. Sieve Analysis Technique was adopted to assess the functional and aesthetic qualities. The land use control, bus stops, highway amenities, visual interference with criss cross wires and telephone posts and pedestrian interference were taken as the major elements in the assessment. The analysis was conducted for roads like: l

Wynad Road (NH-212) - one of the major corridors in the city whcih extends between Eranhipalam junction and Mananchira within the CBD.

Mavoor Road- This 1.15 kilometre length of urban road has been divided into two homogeneous sections viz. NH 212 junction to Rajaji road junction and from Rajaji road junction to Arayidathpalam junction.

Beach Road- Out of the total length of10 kims, nearly 2 kms fall within CBD.

Madhavan Nair Road- This 600-meter intermediate road starting from Pushpa junction, to Thali road junction comes under CBD of Kozhikode. 353

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East - West Axis-This urban road has a total length of 2.2 kilometers. Commissioning of Vellayil ROB in the city has necessitated opening of an East â&#x20AC;&#x201C; West Corridor in the city and development of MCC cross road towards Mini bye pass is inevitable in this context.

The ambient air quality was monitored with high volume sampler for three days at 3 major locations in the CBD for 8 to 24 hours on a normal day. Ambient level of Sulphur dioxide, Oxides of nitrogen and Suspended particulate were monitored at Palayam in NH-17, Arayadathupalam in Mavoor road and Bank road junction in NH212. These three locations help to portray the ambient air quality within CBD. The noise level survey was conducted at Arayidathupalam, Eranhipalam, Bank Road Junction and Palayam. A continuous monitoring of the sound level in the junctions was done for four peak hours. The noise level monitored on these corridors along the footpath, which are approximately 7 m away from the median. The effect of traffic noise towards the edge of the road, where human activities are concentrated was calculated using the equation. L2 = L1-10 log (R2/R1)-AE Where, R1 = Distance at which the sound level is monitored, R2 = Distance at which the sound level is to be estimated, L2 = Sound level at the point R2, L1 = Sound level at the point R1, and AE =Attenuation OBSERVATIONS Results of Sieve analysis, Ambient air quality and Noise level monitoring are presented below: Sieve Analysis Sieve Analysis was conducted for all major traffic corridors in the CBD. Two results are shown here. Mavoor road l

Commercial activity is the main land-use along this road.

It has 4 - lane carriageway with a central median of 1.0m to 1.5m width. The concealed drainage of 3.5 m to 4.0 m width is used as footpath.

The presence of two bus stands (KSRTC and Mofussil) both these sections attract / produce high volume of pedestrian interference and parking of auto rickshaws resulting in reduction of travel speed during peak hour.

The existing bus stops, on both sides of the road, near the bus stands are not maintained properly. The tin sheet roof waiting sheds on the foot paths disturb pedestrian flow during peak and non-peak hours.

The volume / capacity ratio of this road is between 1.4 and 2.0, but the percentage composition of fast vehicles to slow vehicles is less than 5% of the total traffic.

Absence of traffic control devises at Rajaji road junction produces congestion and

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delay at this point. l

Frequent criss-crossing of overhead wires, such as electric, telephone and cable lines on the section between Rajaji road and Arayidathpalam junction has reduced the aesthetic quality of this road section.

Advertisement hoardings, absence of roadside plantation, etc. further lower the aesthetic quality of the road.

Major intersections along this road are not properly designed.

East - West Axis road l

Institutional and residential activities are identified along this urban and semi-urban road.

Inadequate cross-sectional components such as right- of- way, carriageway, shoulders, drainage etc. reduce the functional quality of this road.

Peak hour traffic volume on this road varies from 300 PCU’s to 700 PCU’s only, but travel speed reduced to 15-kms/hr to 26-kms/ hr due to poor sight distance.

Pedestrian crossing is seen only at MCC cross road during morning and evening peak hours due to the presence of institutional activities.

There is no control on visual intrusion. The frequent criss-crossing of overhead wires, advertisement boardings etc. further lower the aesthetic quality of this road.

Roadside plantation is seen only on the section of K.P Chandran road.

The riding surface quality of Balan K Nair road was found to be poor.

Ambient air quality monitoring The results obtained from the ambient air quality monitoring and the corresponding traffic volumes are presented in Fig. 1, and the ambient air quality results obtained for Arayidathupalam and Bank road junction in Table 1.

POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION (µg/m3)

TO TAL VEHIC LES O PERATED VS PO LLUTANT C O NC ENTRATIO N LEVELS AT PALAYAM DURING PEAK HO URS (MO RNING 08.00-12.00 & EVENING 03.00-07.00) 100 80

NOx

SO2

SPM

20 0 1610

2220

2962

2449

1882

2966

2888

2642

T OT AL VEHICLES OPERAT ED (PCU)

Figure 1 Relationship between the Pollutant Concentration level and total number of vehicles 355

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Table 1 Observed Pollutant concentration levels at two major junctions in CBD Pollutant Arayidathupalam (24 hours) Bank Road Junction (4 hours) CPCB standard (24 hours)

NOX 137.69 (5.73/h) 81.37 (20.34/h) 120 (5.0/h)

j SO2 144.22 (6.01/h) 76.46 (19.12/h) 120 (5.0/h)

j SPM 268.03 (11.17/h) 44.10 (11.03/h) 500 (20.8/h)

It is noted that at Arayidathupalam, the NOX, SO2, and SPM levels were 137.69, 144.22 and 268.03 µg/m3. The values are on a higher side compared with CPCB values. At bank road junction, the values were found to be 81.37, 76.46 and 44.10 µg/m3 for NOX, SO2, and SPM respectively. The values show higher side trend compared with the CPCB norms. At Palayam the average value of the SPM in the morning is 66.74µg/m3, and in the evening 76.52 µg/m3. The average values for SO2 during morning and evening hours are 47.54 and 61.79 µg/m3 respectively. The average amount of NOx collected during morning and evening peak hours is 43.16 and 52.45 µg/m3 respectively. The traffic volume and the corresponding ambient levels are found to be closely related. The present situation in the Palayam is found to be very high necessitating urgent attention. The concentration levels of the three major pollutants show high values during morning 10.00-11.00, and evening 04.00 - 05.00. In the evening peak hours, the pollutant levels are significantly high perhaps owing to congestion and delay due to overflow of vehicles, pedestrian interference; meteorological conditions also may have influenced dispersal of pollutants. In the evening, ambient level of pollutants, which is found to be significantly high, can result in severe public health issues since more people get exposed to the high levels of pollutants. With the increasing trend in the number of vehicles, the ambient air quality deterioration can reach serious dimensions. An attempt was made to find the correlation between the concentration of pollutants in the ambient level and corresponding traffic volume count. Comparative analysis of number of vehicles with ambient NOx, SO2 and SPM gave correlation coefficients of 0.9147, 0.9348 and 0.8058 respectively. The results are presented in Figure 2. The graphs clearly point out that the pollutant levels and number of vehicles operated are closely interrelated. A strong linear relation is not observed as ambient air quality is dependent also on other factors such as emission rate of vehicles, fuel quality and emission control technologies in the vehicles, traffic flow, vehicle type, model split, age of vehicles, maintenance status etc.

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SO2 VARIATION vs TOTAL NUMBER OF VEHICELS DRIVEN

NOx VARIATION vs TOTAL NUMBER OF VEHICLES DRIVEN 80

y = 0.0332x - 26.739 2

CONCENTRATION ((µg/m3)

80 y = 0.0254x - 14.392 R2 = 0.8368

60 50 40 30 20

R = 0.8739

60 50 40 30 20 10

10 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

500

1000

TOTL VEHICLES (PCU) NOx Linear (NOx)

1500 2000 2500 TOTAL VEHICLES (PCU)

SO2

3000

Linear (SO2

SPM VARIATION vs TOTAL NUMBER OF VEHICLES DRIVEN

CONCENTRATION ((µg/m3)

100 90

y = 0.0193x + 24.336

R = 0.6494

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

TOTAL VEHICLE (PCU)

SPM

Linear (SPM)

Figure 2 Relationship between pollutant concentration levels and vehicles operated Noise Level in CBD Area The values shown in table 2. revealed that from the median up to 15 meters along the side shoulder, at maximum time, noise level always exceeds the safe limit prescribed by the CPCB. After that, due to the consecutively arranged buildings and the attenuation caused by them the effect reduces and the levels are under the limit prescribed.

Table 2 Noise Level Equivalents (L) At Various Distances in Urban Centre Stations Arayidathpalam Bank Road Junction Palayam Eranhipalam

7m 83.01 83.28 83.81 85.31

10m 81.46 81.73 82.26 83.76

Distances 15m 79.70 79.97 80.50 82.00

25m 72.48 77.75 73.28 87.89

50m 69.4661 74.7382 70.27 70.97

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Improvement Strategy Sieve Analysis draws that, in case of Mavoor road, major intersections of Bank road junction and Rajaji junction need to be redesigned. A Flyover at Arayidathupalam is also suggested. The urban segment of Beach road from Gandhi road junction to Francis road needs proper road marking and signage. The level of service in Madhavan Nair road is poor and the road needs to be widened and strengthened. Pedestrianisation of heart of the CBD like SM Street is an option. Completion of NH-17 bye pass and re routing of long distance buses towards North through Markaz road from Moffusil bus stand directly to Mini Byepass will reduce the traffic operation in the NH segments in the city. The estimated emission load reduction with these two projects is presented in Tables 3& 4. Table 3. Pollutant Load (Kg/day) exerted in the CBD with Existing and Proposed Conditions-Rerouting of long distance buses Conditions

NOX

SO2

TSP

Existing Route

42021

11109

56269.5

9007.95

14997.15

Proposed Route

1302

420

2492

522.2

869.4

% Reduction

96.90155

96.21928

95.57131

94.2029

Table 4. Pollutant load exerted in the CBD area with existing and proposed conditons - Bye pass Conditions

Without Bye Pass (Kg/day) 9139.78

NOX

SO2

SPM

1612.59

394.7

112.635

433.901

With Bye Pass (Kg/day)

7065.36

1342.2

360.972

106.681

412.474

% Reduction

22.7

16.8

8.5

5.3

4.9

CONCLUSION As transportation remains contributor in air pollution and noise pollution in the city, technology and management (T&M) options have to be integrated with traffic and transportation as a remedial measure. Introduction of clean fuels like CNG or LPG and management options of improving public transportation system including dedicated bus lanes can provide more benefits. Roadside arboriculture remains as a promising option in reducing air pollutant concentration and noise pollution. An environmental improvement strategy integrated with proper traffic and transportation system to keep the CBD aesthetic and hygienic is essential.

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ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF PROCESS INDUSTRIES A CASE STUDY ON IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIENCES IN GUJARAT

Joshi P A and Dutta S M Department of Chemical Engineering; Government Engineering College, Sector-11;Gandhinagar, Gujarat

INTRODUCTION Gujarat State has experienced rapid industrial growth in recent past, especially in the field of chemical and allied products. Along with the benefits of industrialization, severe problem of pollution has also surfaced. The environmental pollution problems have the potential to destabilize the entire society by damaging the ecosystem. Gujarat State has a large number of industries spread all over the state. It requires a joint effort by the government as well as the industry to protect and preserve the environment. In view of the violation of the pollution control norms by industries on a large scale and inability of the enforcement agencies to monitor the entire industry due to various limitations, the Honorable High Court of Gujarat in the interest of justice introduced the Environmental Audit Scheme where qualified technical professional would become a link between the individual industries on one hand and Gujarat Pollution Control Board (GPCB) and other public authorities as well as the association of industries on the other hand, with the added vital elements of accountability and transparency. The scheme in its present form is implemented by GPCB. It recognizes the eligible auditors and prepares the format of audit report. The scheme classifies the industries that come under the purview of scheme. The scheme also envisages penalty for failure to comply the required audit norms for industries and furnish incorrect information on part of the auditors. ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT SCHEME IN GUJARAT The Honorable High Court of Gujarat introduced the Environmental Audit Scheme in its order dated 20/12/1996 with a view to: i) Enforcing discipline amongst the industries, ii) Arming GPCB as well as the Association of Industries in the concerned area with the necessary information and, iii) Doing regular monitoring of different industries scattered in entire state of Gujarat from different aspects/angles. 359

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Applicability of the Scheme: The scheme is applicable to almost all the industrial units manufacturing and/or processing chemical and allied products. The industries have been categorized as Schedule-I and Schedule-II on the basis of their potential to pollute the environment, which is based on their product and manufacturing process/route. The Schedule-I (highly polluting) category includes industry manufacturing dyes and dyes intermediates (naphthalene based), pigments, distilleries, fertilizers, oil refiners, caustic soda, thermal power, cement, Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) and others. The ScheduleII (less polluting) category includes industry manufacturing dyes and dyes intermediates (benzene and aniline based), other pigments, textile processing units, stainless steel rolling units and others. GPCB reviews the list from time to time. Environmental Auditors: During initiation a two-tier system comprising of internal and external auditors was proposed. The environmental auditors are selected and approved from amongst the government or private organizations in environmental, chemical and allied engineering fields. GPCB publishes lists of recognized environmental auditors from time to time. Each team of auditors is required to have at least four members possessing degree in either environmental, chemical, chemistry/environmental science or microbiology/ biochemistry. Out of the four members, two members should have a minimum experience of one year in the field of environmental management system (EMS) in a chemical industry. The function of the internal auditor mainly includes i) Preparation and submission of audit reports on the EMS of individual units manufacturing /processing specified products ii) Make recommendations as they think fit for improvement of the existing EMS. The function of the external auditor mainly includes scrutiny and inspection of audit reports of all industries falling under the purview of environmental audit. Content of the Report: The report highlights the adequacy and efficacy of the EMS of the unit for its products in the light of: i) Statutory requirements as under a) b) c) d) 360

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981; The Environment Protection Act, 1986; The Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989.

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e) The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rule, 1989; and f) The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991. ii) The terms and conditions of the letter of consent/provisional consent/NOC issued by GPCB in favor of the unit and other conditions which GPCB may stipulate by any general Order or Circular or in any special Order for a class of industries or for the particular industrial unit concerned. iii) Relevant literature published by National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Central Pollution Control Board, GPCB and other authoritative literature on the subject; iv) Inspections and monitoring made by the auditors, composite samples collected by the auditor for running batch/batches and samples collected on surprise visits including samples collected at different stages of effluent treatment and their analysis reports prepared by the Auditors; v) Quantity of production of final products, by-products, solid wastes etc. Quantity of raw materials, water, electricity, fuel etc consumed. vi) Complaint, if any, received by the GPCB or the auditor or the coordinating committee appointed by Honorable High Court regarding the pollution being caused by the unit. vii) Orders, if passed by the court, in respect of any specified industry or class of specified industries. Time Schedule and frequency of submission: The audit reports shall be submitted by each specified industry as per the time-schedule given in format prepared by GPCB through the internal auditor. The Schedule-I industries were supposed to submit three reports in a year with the exception of CETP, which was supposed to give monthly reports. The Schedule-II industries were supposed to submit report twice in a year. Action by GPCB upon filing of Audit Reports: Upon the audit reports prepared by the internal auditors being submitted to the GPCB, the GPCB get the report inspected by external auditors. The external auditors inspect the manufacturing processes and the EMSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s of the specified industry and take samples from the industries for analysis and verify the reports of the auditors. It is open to the external auditor to make recommendations as it may deem fit for the purpose of improvement / upgradation of EMS and also in manufacturing plant / facilities / processes in order to improve the performance of the unit in the matter of achieving the prescribed norms for control of pollution. Consequences of Failure to file Audit Report: If any specified industry does not submit its first or periodical audit report as per the 361

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time schedule prescribed in the Scheme, it shall stop all manufacturing and processing activities and Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation (GIDC) / Ahmedabad Electricity Company (AEC) / Gujarat Electricity Board (GEB) shall disconnect the supply of water and electricity to such a unit. The GPCB shall intimate the particulars of such defaulting units, including address and electricity meter number to the GIDC/ AEC/GEB within two weeks from the date of expiry of the time limit stipulated for filing of the first/periodical environment audit report. The GIDC/AEC/GEB shall comply with such intimation and disconnect water / electricity supply within one week of receipt of such intimation. Actions/Directions upon filing of Audit Reports: Where the audit report of a particular unit indicates that the industry does not meet with the requirements as prescribed by or under the aforesaid statutory provisions, and that the industry has not complied with the terms and conditions of the Consent / Provisional Consent / No Objection Certificate (NOC) and those contained in any general or special circular/order of GPCB, the industry shall be liable to be subjected to appropriate directions including direction for closure and/or payment of compensation for affected people and area, betterment of environment and general monitoring subject to appropriate directions of the Court and of all statutory authorities. GPCB shall place this fact before the Court by producing a report to the effect that industry shall be liable to be subjected to appropriate directions including direction for closure and/or direction for payment of compensation. Modification of the Original Scheme: The Honorable High Court modified the Scheme in 1999 and instead of categorizing the auditors as internal and external auditors, GPCB published separate list of authorized auditors for Schedule-I and Schedule-II industries respectively. The frequency of submission of report was also amended. The units falling under Schedule-I category are supposed to submit report once in a year with the exception of CETP, which is supposed to submit report twice a year. The units falling under Schedule-II category are supposed to submit report once in a year. EXPERIENCES IN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SCHEME The industries have given mixed response to the scheme. Some industries particularly in the small and medium scale; have shown concern about the additional financial burden involving fees to the auditors, GPCB monitoring charges and expenses towards the preparation of audit report. It is being perceived as additional legal compliance over and above the existing compliance requirements. There is also a tint of fear among them that environmental audit will bring out lapses in compliance of various environmental acts. However, there are segments of industries, which have welcomed the scheme and adopted with willingness. They have realized the benefits of the scheme. The findings pertaining to the utilization of resources and consequent savings in the 362

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consumption of raw materials, energy and water can lead to cost reduction, enhancement in efficiency and overall improvement in the environment protection. These benefits can be several times greater than the expenses involved in carrying out audit. There has been extensive cooperation from industries with progressive management in conducting audit and there are several cases where industries got benefits running in lakhs of rupees. BENEFIT TO THE INDUSTRY The introduction of environmental audit made the industry to look seriously at the environmental and pollution aspects. As it has been made mandatory, the industry instead of avoiding and suppressing pollution problems has started to think of the root causes and take proactive measures. Now the industries along with the auditors attend the pollution issues head-on and more directly. The industry has also realized that instead of going for end-of-pipe solution, they have to think of other ways of curbing pollution. This has lead to a change in mindset of the industry. The pollution problem is now open and the industry is no more hesitant to come forward and discuss the pollution problem. They are also interested in adopting latest techniques like Cleaner Production Techniques that help them in resolving pollution problems and achieve the stipulated norms. The auditors, instead of criticizing the industry after observing and studying the process, help them with creative solutions. The solutions that are cost effective and technically viable are adopted without resistance. Now, the industries have started developing and maintaining green belt in and around their units, regularly dispose of the solid wastes to secured land fill sites, carry out the proper treatment of effluents, maintain regular records of EMS, utilize the resources and utilities optimally etc. They also give more emphasize on the process parameters thus improving the yield and reduction in energy consumption. All these have benefited the industry in financial terms. The industry earns credit using eco-friendly processes, which helps them in gaining high market share globally by meeting export norms. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION Based upon the past seven year experience and the response of the various stakeholders it is felt that the scheme has a great potential in curbing environmental pollution and in conserving valuable resources. In the existing system, there is no effective mechanism for monitoring the quality of work of the Schedule-I and Schedule-II auditors. The system may give better result, if once again the two-tier system of internal and external is reintroduced. This will help the existing Schedule-II auditors to get business from Schedule-I industry also and the external auditors will monitor the quantity of audit work of internal auditors. The focus of the auditors should be on optimum material, energy and water utilization, in order to conserve the valuable resources and consequently bringing cost effectiveness for the industry. This will encourage the industries to take audit more willingly and seriously instead of accepting it as a mandatory exercise by compulsion. It is felt that the Scheme should be extended and implemented in all the States of the nation so as to bring sustainable development in the field of chemical and allied products. 363

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DOCTRINE OF PUBLIC TRUST

Ganapathy Venkatasubramanian S* and Lakshmanan T V** *Professor, Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai 600 025 ** Advocate, Honourable High Court of Madras, Chennai

INTRODUCTION Managing the Commons is one of the Central themes of environmental management and the law. The influential writing of Garret Hardin “The Tragedy of the Commons” (Sanker, 2001) provided the argument for privatisation of the commons. According to him, there are negative and positive components , from the rational individual’s point of view. He gives an example of imaginary pasture open to all. Herdsman using the pasture, acting as a rational individual, would try to increase his herd. The positive aspect of this is that he gains advantage of + 1 animal. The negative aspect is the destruction of pasture because of grazing by this additional animal. But from the individual’s point of view the advantage totally works to his favour while other herdsmen share the disadvantage. If every herdsman follows this approach it will result in complete destruction of the pasture itself. However, the individual advantage gained is much more than disadvantage. He assumes the common resource to be finite. According to him, there are several options of solutions. The commons can be sold as private property or kept as “public property, but allocate the right to enter them”. In the context of pollution he calls for redefinition of property rights. He advocates coercive laws or taxing devices that makes it cheaper for the polluter to treat his pollutants than to discharge them untreated. It is this line of approach, which has found favour with advocates for privatisation of the commons and ground that such privatisation alone would protect the environment. Of course, this is not the end of Hardin’s famous essay. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DOCTRINE IN AMERICA At the other end of the spectrum lies the doctrine articulated by Sax (1970). The major premise of Hardin is that once privatised the individuals, while using the property, will be directly affected by the negative and positive effects of over exploitation. However, as observed by Wilkinson (2002), “Hardin’s concerns about over-exploitation of commons are resolved by privatisation if, and only if, holders of private property think it worth while to engage is sustainable practices”. According to Sax (1970), 364

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after analysing American case laws and taking into account Roman Law and English Common Law, the public property had two aspects: Certain interests, such as navigation and fishing are to be preserved for the benefit of the public and the sovereign could not routinely grant to private owners and Certain common properties, such as seashore highways, running water where perpetual use was dedicated to the public the right of the public, could be infringed. The public trust doctrine as applied by the American Courts related to the first class of rights. What can be stated as definition of public trust doctrine was articulated by the Supreme Court of United States as “when a State holds a resource which is available for the free use of the general public, a court will look with considerable scepticism upon any governmental conduct which is calculated either to relocate that resource to more restricted uses or to subject public uses to the self-interest of private parties” (Illinois Central Railroad Co. v. People of the State of Illinois. 1 146 US 387 : 36 L Ed 1018(1892)). Further the Court said “ The State can no more abdicate its trust over property in which the whole people are beneficially interested…than it can abdicate its police power” The content of public trust doctrine as developed and expanded pursuant to American Case Law. While in Illinois Central Case it was states power to grant submerged lands to a private company, in other contexts it involved conversion of unspoiled natural forest into a public park (Gould Vs. Greylock Reservation Commission 350 Mass 410 (1966)), filling a great pond to relocate part of State Highway (Sacco Vs. Department of Public Works, 532 Mass 670), converting wet lands for highway use (Robins Vs. Department of Public Works 244 NE 2d 577). Professor Sax argued that apart from conventional interests public trust doctrine would be applicable in a wide range of situations in which “defused public interest need protection against tightly organised groups with clear and immediate goals”. In extending the doctrine, even lands under lying non navigable tidal lands (Philips Petroleum Co. Vs. Mississippi 108 SCt 791 ( 1988)). California Supreme Court in the famous “Mono Lake Case” stated the doctrine as, “Thus, the public trust is more than an affirmation of State power to use public property for public purposes. It is an affirmation of the duty of the State to protect the people’s common heritage of streams, lakes, marshlands and tidelands, surrendering that right of protection only in rare cases when the abandonment of that right is consistent with the purposes of the trust…”(National Audubon Society Vs. Superior Court of Alpine County33 Cal 3d 319). PUBLIC TRUST DOCTRINE IN INDIA The Supreme Court of India in M.C.Mehta Vs. Kamal Nath (1997) 1 SCC 388) after elaborately discussing the writing of Sax and U.S. decisions, held that Public Trust Doctrine is part of our legal system and the State is the trustee of natural resources 365

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which are by nature meant for public use and enjoyment and the beneficiary is the public at large. The State as a Trustee is under a legal duty to protect those natural resources and these resources could not be converted into private ownership. Supreme Court once again traced Public Trust Doctrine to Article 21 of the Constitution of India (M .I. Builders Pvt.Ltd. Vs. Rajdhey Shyam Sahu, (1999) 6 SCC 494). In Kamal Nath’s case, the State Government permitted Span Motels Pvt. Ltd., with which a Central Minister was closely associated to promote Resorts on the Banks of River Beas. The River shifts its course in different seasons. To protect the buildings of the Motel, the company constructed barriers that affected the natural course of the River. Only in this context the Supreme Court applied the Public Trust Doctrine stating that “the notion that the public has a right to expect certain lands and natural areas to retain their natural characteristic is finding its way into the law of the land” (at para 23, id fn 10). Again in M. I. Builders Pvt.Ltd. Vs. Radhey Shyam Sahu, case, the Lucknow Nagar Mahapalika permitted construction of underground shopping complex in the Jhandewala Park at Aminabagh Market, Lucknow. Taking into account the historical importance of the park and also that as a consequence of construction plantation was lost making it a “Terrace Park”, the Supreme Court prohibited construction of the market. The Supreme Court held that even though the master plan of the City classified the area as commercial that would not mean that park would be utilised as commercial purposes. However, the direct application of Public Trust Doctrine in India in the absence of precedent has its critics (Divan and Rosencranz, 2001). While it can be stated that applying a principle evolved in another judicial system for similar situations in India is not uncommon, it is not that Indian Legal System does not have necessary elements for the application of Public Trust Doctrine. As stated above the Doctrine involves the approach of the authorities in respect of certain inalienable aspects of public property. It imposes three restrictions, namely: Such property must not only be used for a public purpose, but must be held available for use by the general public. The property may not be sold. The property must be maintained for particular types of cases. In its application, it has procedural and substantive aspects. Sax says the Doctrine could be applied to non-conventional public trust cases where governmental permits are required. In this regard, in India, the Supreme Court, over the years, has found Article 14 as adequate protection against arbitrary exercise of Governmental authority. Even in contractual sphere, the State is expected to act in a fair and reasonable manner. When rights of public are involved, then the standards of reasonableness and fairness 366

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would be more rigorously applied. In the landmark Airport Authorities case (R. D. Shetty Vs. International Airport Authority of India, (1979) 3 SCC 489), the Supreme Court recognised the application of Article 14 in a welfare state like India. One of the questions formulated was, “is the State entitled to deal with its property in any manner it likes or award a contract to any person it chooses without any constitutional limitations upon it?” The Supreme Court held that the discretion of the Government was not unlimited. The same standard can be applied in respect of inalienable public properties. This has been recognised as part of administrative law principles. It may be noted that the above case may also dealt with grant of permits in the context of mining as well as exercise of statutory powers by authorities. Thus, though the case was prior to judicial awareness of environmental principles it lays down adequate foundation for application of Public Trust Doctrine in all contexts. The procedural aspect involves the challenging of an arbitrary action by the Government. As far as India is concerned the Supreme Court has been pioneer in developing public interest litigation under the Constitution of India (Under Art 226 and 32) starting from Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra vs. State of Uttar Pradesh (AIR 1985 SC 652) and earlier cases. Therefore India has adequate legal principles to apply the Doctrine of Public Trust in respect of public properties where public has overriding rights. Apart from this there are regular statutory provisions in Civil Procedure Code (Order I Rule 8), Criminal Procedure Code (Section 133) and in environmental legislations (Section 33 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Section 43 Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981). Legislation-wise also, the legislature has framed legislation in line with it, eventhough unaware of the Doctrine. For example, the Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981 framed under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 lays down the procedure for dereservation of forest. In this regard Sec.2 of the Act stipulate that the State Government cannot dereserve a forest or use it for non-forest purpose or create private rights or clear the trees without the approval of the Central Government Sec.3 obliges the Central Government to constitute a committee to grant permission. Rule 5 while laying down the considerations for permission directs that the committee while tendering its advice shall have due regard to the matter that “whether the forest land proposed to be used for non-forest purpose forms part of a natural reserve, national park, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve or forms part of the habitat of any endangered or threatened species or flora and fauna or of an area lying in severely eroded catchment.” The committee is also obliged to take into account whether other alternatives have been considered and the required area is the minimum needed purpose. This approximates, if not fully satisfies, the requirements of the Doctrine. INTERNATIONAL LAW The commons is recognised in International Legal Sphere also in respect of natural resources and common spaces. The important factor for classifying living resources as common property is that the cost of asserting and defending exclusive rights exceeds 367

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the advantages to be gained (Birnie and Boyle, 2002). Apart from common property what is known as “common heritage” referring to all the living and non-living resources of nature or to the Global Environment as ecological entity is also recognised under 1979 Moon Treaty, and 1982 UNCLOS. These are developed applications of trusteeship or fiduciary relationship in environmental context. For this purpose, sovereign rights of the states have to be put under the agencies of International Management. The two most prominent examples are the International Sea Bed Authority and Antarctic Mineral Resources Commission. CONCLUSION Thus the Public Trust Doctrine is the crucial and important principle in environmental jurisprudence and management. Its application can regulate the exercise of power of authorities while exercising their power in respect of public properties including environmental issues. The doctrine has also its statutory support in the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 (Section 2 (a)) Under this Doctrine the State can be directed to discharge its duty even though Indian Constitution imposes a duty (Article 48 (A) of the Constitution of India under Directive Principles of State Policy) on the citizens to preserve and protect the environment. The solemn duty can be converted into a legal duty through this Doctrine. Again under this doctrine, action of individuals or otherwise, other than the action of State, can very well be brought by citizens, as the citizen has the duty and right with regard to environment right namely Right to clean and healthy Environment. The doctrine gives sufficient legal support for tackling environmental related cases. Also, India has adequate principles under Article 14 for applying this Doctrine. The Trusteeship offers sufficient guideline in managing the commons at International level also. Hence the Doctrine of Public Trust can very well be considered a strong jurisprudential principle and good judicial approach for environmental protection. REFERENCES Birnie P and Boyle A, 2002. International law & the Environment, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press. Divan S and Rosencranz A, 2001. Environmental Law and Policy in India, Cases Materials and Statutes, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press. Sankar U, 2001. Environmental Economics, Oxford University Press. Sax J, 1970. Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law : Effective Judicial Intervention”, Michigan Law Review, Vol (68) Part I p. 473 Wilkinson D, 2002. Environment and Law, Routledge

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EQUITY ISSUE IN WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT OF RIVERS

Murty Y S R Department of Civil Engg., Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women Vallam, Thanjavur-613 403, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION Water quality management in rivers and streams addresses both environmental quality and economic efficiency goals that are often conflicting in nature. One of the primary aims of water quality management is to arrive at point source regulation programs (Waste Load Allocation) for water bodies such that both economic and societal objectives are maintained at optimum levels. In this context, the societal objectives can include total pollution abatement cost minimization, equity maximization, administrative feasibility and maintenance of water quality at acceptable levels. Equity is often an important issue in waste load allocation problems as a result of unfairness in the distribution of treatment effort and the associated differential costs among the pollutant dischargers. The solutions to the cost-objective management model formulation may exhibit inequity among the different dischargers on a single stream, with one or a few dischargers bearing most of the cost of water quality improvements. Thus, the locations of the waste dischargers along the river, has a direct bearing on the equitable sharing of the overall waste load reduction burden. Therefore, it is necessary to address the issue of equity among the various dischargers within the water quality management problem. A variety of Equity measures were proposed by the earlier researchers and applied in different fields. The foundations of cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger, 1954) were based on exploring people’s perceptions fairness (equity) of rewards in exchange transactions. Geographers examined the equitable distribution of water rights in the Western States (Borland, 1987). Within the realm of management science, equity concepts have been considered in the analysis of risk, the design of transportation systems, and the modeling of facility location decisions (Marsh and Shilling, 1994), to name a few. Marsh and Schilling (1994) described different equity measures such as central, variance, mean absolute deviation, sum of absolute deviations, Gini coefficient, range, Hoover’s concentration index, Schutz index and Theil’s entropy coefficient and Variance of logs in facility location analysis problem. However, there has generally been very little work on comparison of alternative measure, or assessment 369

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of their relative value, let alone any consensus on the best measure (s) to use in water quality management problem. The focus of this study is to explore the three different equity measures in a cost-equity multi-objective model setting for water quality management in rivers that works from within a simulation-optimization framework. Thus, the problems that seek to obtain the optimal waste load allocation in rivers are typically multi-objective in nature, that minimize (i) the total treatment cost; and (ii) the inequity among waste dischargers (for the defined equity measure). It can be perceived that these objectives are conflicting in nature. Moreover, these problems produce a highly complex search space. Thus, efficient optimization strategies are required that are able to effectively deal with the above issues. Traditionally, a number of Multiobjective (MO) methods (Cohon, 1978) such as objective weighting method, constraint method, method of distance functions and method of min-max formulation were used for solving this kind of problems. These methods are reported to have quite a few limitations (Deb, 1995). Recently, evolutionary algorithms are being used for solving complex MO optimization problems in various fields since they are able to capture multiple Pareto-optimal solutions in a single simulation run and may exploit similarities of solutions by recombination. Although the underlying principles are simple, these algorithms are known to be general, robust and powerful search mechanisms and offer flexibility and adaptability to the task at hand. The term evolutionary algorithm (EA) stands for a class of stochastic optimization methods that simulate the process of natural evolution. Two basic principles of evolution, namely, selection and variation are made use of in these algorithms. One of the pioneering studies on evolutionary multi-objective optimization emerged in the mid-1980s was that of Schaffer (1984); following which a few different MOEA implementations were proposed in the years 1991â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1994 (Fonseca and Fleming 1993; Horn et al. 1994; Srinivas and Deb 1994). Later, these approaches and variations of them were successfully applied to various multi-objective optimization problems. The reader is referred to Zitzler (1999) for an overview of the developments in this area. Some of the typical applications of MOEAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in civil engineering field are in design of ground water remediation systems, optimal reservoir operation, river basin management etc. MODEL FORMULATIONS The multi-objective optimal waste load allocation problem addresses minimization of the total treatment cost and minimization of the inequity among the pollutant dischargers, subject to constraints on satisfaction of a specified DO standard at all the check points located along the river (Brill et al., 1984; Burn and Yulianti, 2001, Murty, 2003). It is important to point out that each of the metrics attempted in this study, gauge the level of inequity, i.e. the greater the value, the less the equity. Therefore, equity would be maximized by minimizing the different measures. Model -1 The first equity measure used in the cost-equity model of this study is: the sum of the absolute deviations of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;ratio of the waste removal fraction at a point source to the 370

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average waste removal level” from the “ratio of the waste input at a point source to the average waste input” (Burn and Yulianti, 2001). The model specifies a DO standard to be met at all checkpoints along the river. Now, the MO formulation of the cost-equity model is as follows: NS

Minimize Z1 =

∑ c (x ) i =1

… (1)

Minimize Z2 subject to

∑

xi Wi − W i =1 x xi ∈ xsi DOj = f ( x, W, Q, T, K) DOj ≥ DOstd

… (2) ∀i ∀j ∀j

… (3) … (4) … (5)

f (.) in eq.(4) defines the water quality as a function of the waste inputs and stream conditions; xa = vector of waste removal levels corresponding to an arbitrary treatment; ci (xi), NS, xi, xsi are respectively, cost of the waste treatment at source i; number of point source locations; waste removal fraction at source i and set of all waste treatment options for source i. x, W, Q, T and K are respectively, vector of waste removal levels, vector of waste inputs to the point sources, vector of flow rates for main stream and tributaries within the river system, water temperature and vector of reaction rate coefficients describing the pollutant transport process. x = average waste removal level for the collection of NS number of point sources; Wi = waste input for source i; W = average waste input over NS number of point sources. Model-2 The second equity measure used in the cost-equity model of this study is: “the deviation of maximum treatment efficiency (xi)max and minimum treatment efficiency (xi)min among the waste dischargers”. The second objective function in the first model described in the previous section (Eq.2) is replaced with Eq. (6) keeping the rest of the equations same. The model specifies a DO standard to be met at all checkpoints along the river. Minimize Z2

= (xi)max – (xi)min

∀i

… (6)

Model-3 The third equity measure used in the cost-equity model of this study is: “the sum of the absolute values of the deviations of individual treatment efficiency (at a particular waste discharger) from the average treatment efficiency”. The second objective function in the first model described in the previous section (Eq.2) is replaced with Eq. (7) keeping the rest of the equations same. The model specifies a DO standard to be met at all checkpoints along the river. Minimize Z2

= ∑| x − x | 1

∀i

… (7)

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The optimal waste load allocation model framework developed consists of the multiobjective optimization model and the water quality simulation model embedded into it. The water quality simulation model that consists of two modules, namely, flow module and transport module is used to model the physical processes and transformations that describe the transport of BOD and DO in the river (Murty, 2003). This water quality simulation model consists of two modules, namely, flow module and transport module. The flow module is used to determine the gradually varied water surface profile and the corresponding flow cross-sectional area and mean velocity at various nodes in the river domain. The transport module gets the information regarding flow area and mean velocity from the flow module and uses them while solving the BOD and DO transport equations. The predicted DO concentration values at all checkpoints considered will be stored for further use in the optimization model. The multi-objective evolutionary algorithm, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Fast Elitist Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II)â&#x20AC;? of Deb et al. (2000) is used to generate the optimal trade-offs among the objectives described in the optimization model formulation. This algorithm overcome the drawbacks of the earlier non-dominated sorting based MOEAs, such as high computational complexity of non-dominated sorting, lack of elitism and the need for specifying a sharing parameter. HYPOTHETICAL RIVER SYSTEM FOR ILLUSTRATION In this study, the different equity measures described earlier are explored within the cost-equity optimal waste load allocation model using a hypothetical river system as shown in Fig. 1.

Main River

D22

10 11

14 15

55 km Check Point W Wasteload Discharge Point T Tributary 90 km

Fig.1 Hypothetical River System

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In this hypothetical river system, four waste discharge sites (D1, D2, D3 and D4) and two tributaries (T1 and T2) are considered. The details of hydraulic particulars and effluent flow data are given in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. The spatial variation of dispersion coefficient is determined using the Seo and Cheong (1998) equation. The de-oxygenation coefficient value is assumed as 0.2 /day whereas the reaeration coefficient values as a function of flow depth and velocity is estimated using the Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Connor and Dobbins (1958) equation. Fifteen checkpoints (C1, C2, â&#x20AC;Ś, C15) are considered along the hypothetical river system whose locations are presented in Table 3. The wastewater treatment cost data for the average influent flow rate, for different point sources is given in Table 4. Table 1: Flow and geometric data for the hypothetical river system Reach

Length (km)

Width (m)

Flow (m3/s)

Normal Depth (m)

D1-D2 D2- T1 T1-D3 D3-T2 T2-D4 D4-Z

15.0 12.5 12.5 15.0 15.0 20.0

60.0 60.0 65.0 65.0 70.0 70.0

0.035 0.050 0.050 0.060 0.060 0.040

0.000078 0.000160 0.000188 0.000273 0.000323 0.000144

34.970 35.702 42.696 43.570 54.061 54.661

1.659 1.676 1.694 1.710 1.770 1.780

In the application of the NSGA - II, each decision variable in a chromosome has 64 (between 98% and 35% treatment level) possible values and the total chromosome length for any decision vector of pollutant removal levels is 36 bits. In this study, a population size of 40 is decided after making a few trials within the range mentioned and this provided sufficient sampling of the decision space, while limiting the computational burden. Tournament selection procedure is used for creating one or more offsprings from a pair of individuals. The probability of crossover pc, and the probability of mutation, pm are 0.75 and 0.015, respectively. These have been chosen based on guidelines given by Goldberg (1989), and several sensitivity analysis runs performed by the authors. Also, it is observed from sensitivity analysis runs (Murty 2003) that the Pareto-optimal fronts do not differ significantly after 100 generations. Therefore, it is decided to adopt 100 generations as the stopping criterion for all the optimization runs. Table 2: Effluent data for the hypothetical river system Waste Discharge Site /Tributary

Location (km)

Effluent / Tributary Flow Rate (m3/s)

BOD (mg/l)

DO (mg/l)

0.00

0.247

1200

1.23

D2 D3 D4 T1 T2

15.0 40.0 70.0 27.5 55.0

0.732 0.874 0.600 6.994 10.491

950 800 400 115 80

2.40 1.70 2.16 7.5 8.5

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Table 3: Checkpoint locations along the example river system Check Point No.

Distance (km)

5.00

14.50

25.00

26.25

27.25

Check Point No.

C10

Distance (km)

32.00

37.00

42.00

47.00

53.75

Check Point No.

C11

C12

C13

C14

C15

Distance (km)

54.50

56.00

66.00

80.00

90.00

Table 4: Treatment cost data for various waste discharge sites Waste Discharge Site

BOD Loading (mg/l)

1200

950

800

400

Removal Fraction 0.35 0.67 0.90 0.98 0.35 0.67 0.90 0.98 0.35 0.67 0.90 0.98 0.35 0.67 0.90 0.98

Treatment Cost (Million Rupees) 7.68 12.18 20.54 40.26 6.08 9.64 16.26 31.87 5.12 8.12 13.69 26.84 2.56 4.06 6.85 13.42

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For each model formulated in the earlier section, optimization runs were made with three different preselected DO standards (6.0, 6.5 and 7.0 mg/l) specified at all the checkpoints in the hypothetical river system (Fig. 1) using the framework developed, assuming gradually varied flow (GVF) conditions to exist throughout the river system considered. These runs are made using the framework developed for the case of normal depth of 1.78 m (used in the transport simulator) as the control depth at the downstream boundary of the river system. The two extreme points (LCS, LIES) and the selected compromise solution (SCS) on the cost-equity trade-off curves for different equity measures and the corresponding vector of optimal fraction removal levels for three preselected DO standards considered (6.0, 6.5 and 7.0 mg/l), are summarized. The removal fraction levels at the four waste discharge sites corresponding to the nondominant solutions obtained are also presented. The Pareto-optimal fronts that describe 374

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the cost-equity trade-offs obtained for a typical DO standard of 7.0 mg/l, is presented in Fig. 2. 2.75 2.5 2.25

Inequity

Model-1

1.75

Model-2

1.5

Model-3

1.25 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 460

470

480

490

500

510

520

530

540

Treatment Cost (Rs. Million) Fig. 2 Comparison of cost-equity tradeoffs with different models (DO std = 7.0 mg/l)

It may be observed from Table 5 that for the low DO standard, there is a good spread of Pareto-optimal solutions in terms of treatment cost and inequity from the first model. The second model result a narrow range in the spread of Pareto-optimal solutions where as the third model is intermediate. It is obvious that in all the models, the treatment cost is increasing with the increase in DO standard. Moreover, the fraction removal level at the fourth waste discharge site is seems to be sensitive in Model-2 & 3. Furthermore, as the DO standard increases from 6.0 mg/l to 7.0 mg/l, this value is increased nearly up to the average removal level of the dischargers group and more or less uniform/equal treatment at all the waste discharge sites. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSONS Equity is often an important issue in water quality management problems in rivers as a result of unfairness in the distribution of treatment effort and the associated differential costs among the pollutant dischargers. An attempt has been made in exploring different equity measures in a cost-equity multi-objective model setting for water quality management in rivers that works from within a simulation-optimization framework. The transport simulator used has a gradually varied flow module and an AdvectionDispersion-Reaction based BOD-DO transport module. The multi-objective evolutionary algorithm, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Fast Elitist Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II)â&#x20AC;? of Deb et al. (2000) is used to generate the optimal trade-offs among the two objectives, namely, treatment cost and inequity among dischargers. The following are the conclusions of this study: 375

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(1) The set of Pareto-optimal (non-dominant) solutions obtained indicate the plausible spread of the compromise solutions and gives the decision-maker a leeway to select the most implementable Pareto-optimal solution out of the ones available. (2) As the DO standard increase from 6.0 mg/l to 7.0 mg/l, the treatment level at the fourth waste discharge site is increased nearly up to the average removal level of the dischargers group due to the backwater effect near the vicinity of second tributary (@ 56 km) and more or less uniform/equal treatment at all the waste discharge sites. (3) In general, the measures of equity will be useful in suggesting new management programs, in identifying critical waste dischargers, in suggesting zones for grouping dischargers, and for understanding given management programs. However, no attempt is made here to apply them in analytically determining the ‘best’ management program and is left for future work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Dr. N. Ramachandran, Principal, Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women, Vallam, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu for his encouragement and support in presenting this work REFERENCES Borland J J, 1987. “Marginal cost pricing: Is water different?”. Proceedings of the Water Resources Planning and Management Conference, Santa Barbara, pp 126-137. Brill E D Jr, Eheart J W, Kshirsagar S R, S R, and Lence B J, 1984. “Water quality impacts of biochemical oxygen demand under transferable discharge permit programs.” Water Resources Research, 20(4), 445-455. Burn D H, and Yulianti J S, 2001. “Waste-Load allocation using Genetic Algorithms.” Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, ASCE, 127(2), 121129. Cohon J, 1978. Multi-objective programming and planning, Academic Press, New York. Deb K, 1995. Optimization for engineering of design: Algorithms and examples, Prentice-Hall, New Delhi. Deb K, Agrawal S, Pratap A and Meyarivan T, 2000. “A fast elitist Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm for multi-objective optimization: NSGA –II.” KANGAL Report No. 200001, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India. Festinger L A, 1954. “ A Theory of social comparison process”, Human Relations, 7, pp 117-140. Fonseca C M and P J, Fleming, 1993. Genetic algorithms for multi-objective optimization: Formulation, discussion and generalization. In Forrest, S., editor, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms, pages 416–423, Morgan Kauffman, San Mateo, California. 376

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Goldberg D E , 1989. Genetic algorithms in search, optimization and machine learning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Horn J, Nafploitis N, and Goldberg D E, 1994. A niched Pareto genetic algorithm for multi-objective optimization. In Michalewicz, Z., editor, Proceedings of the First IEEE Conference on Evolutionary Computation, pages 82–87, IEEE Service Center, Piscataway, New Jersey. Marsh M T and Shilling D A, 1994. “Equity Measurement in facility location analysis: A review and framework”, European Journal of Operational Research, 74, pp 1-17. Murty Y S R, 2003. Optimal waste load allocation for water quality management in rivers. M. S. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India. O’Connor D J and Dobbins W E, 1958. “Mechanisms of reaeration in natural streams.” Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 123, 641-684. Schaffer J D, 1984. Multiple Objective Optimization with Vector Evaluated Genetic Algorithms. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Seo W and Cheong T S, 1998. “Prediction of longitudinal dispersion in natural streams”. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, ASCE, 124(1), 25-32 Srinivas N and Deb K, 1994. Multi-Objective function optimization using nondominated sorting genetic algorithms, Evolutionary Computation, 2(3):221– 248. Zitzler E, 1999. Evolutionary algorithms for multiobjective optimization: Methods and Applications. Doctoral thesis ETH NO. 13398, Zurich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Aachen, Germany: Springer Verlag.

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PRICE ELASTICITY OF WATER DEMAND

Satish S Bhatavadekar Process Engineer, Black and Veatch Consulting Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India

INTRODUCTION Water forms the lifeline of any society and plays critical role in any countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s welfare with pervasive linkages to most aspects of its economic development. Water constitutes one of the important physical environments of man and has a direct bearing on his health. WATER DEMAND Water demand is the actual water requirement by the consumers. For urban water supply, water demand is classified as domestic and non-domestic water demand. Water demand is probably the most critical factor that affects both the financial and economic viability/outcome of a water supply project. The experience of World Bank and others indicate that demand projections are often over-estimated. One of the factors probably not considered is price elasticity of demand. The water supply is given to the consumers at a highly subsidised rate. If realistic water supply tariff is implemented then probably it will have effect on actual water demand. (Cesti et al., 1996) WATER PRICE/WATER TARIFF The water price/tariff can be defined as the amount to be paid by the consumers for services availed by them. The water tariff is different for domestic and non-domestic needs. The water price is generally dependent on the following factors: a. Cost of water: This includes expenditure of water authority for supplying treated water to the consumers b. Subsidy given by the government c. Willingness to pay of the consumers 378

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d. Political pressure e. Unaccounted for water i.e. losses and thefts etc The water price must basically be of such a rate that everybody can afford it. Hence criteria for charging system couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be based on economics alone but on the social policy of governments. Differential slab system of water tariff for consumers can achieve social as well as economic objectives. PRICE ELASTICITY OF WATER DEMAND Price elasticity of water demand is generally defined as a degree of responsiveness of demand to change in water price. The price elasticity of demand is thus a measure of the relative change in amount purchased in response to relative change in price on a given demand curve. For metered water supply, theoretical price-demand relationship is Q = kPe, where Q = demand at price P per unit of consumption, k = constant for the particular units used, e = the coefficient which measures the elasticity of demand. The price elasticity of water demand is dependent on the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Number of substitutes Nature of commodities Number of uses Proportion of income spent Habits and conventions Range of change in price

Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised as an economic good (and social good as well). Managing water as an economic good is an important way to achieving conservation and protection of water resources. According to viewing demand from an economic perspective, demand for water from a particular source is based primarily on the value of water to the users, the userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income and availability and price of water from other sources. Effective demand is the result of interaction among these factors. The clearest measure of response is elasticity of demand in respect of changes in the price of water. The effective use of tariffs presumes that the consumers will respond to higher prices of water by consuming less of it. The effect of availability and price of water from other sources depends on relative values. The interaction of these factors in determining overall demand in many different cultural and national settings should be studied to establish magnitudes of price and income effects. These tend to vary between countries among user groups and within user groups (hence they are not fixed) (Suresh, 1998). 379

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The price elasticity of demand for water must be significant and greater than zero. In developed countries (for instance, in Australia, Canada, the UK, Israel and the USA), it has been shown that the price elasticity of household demand for water tends to fall in the range –0.3 to –0.7. This is consistent with the greater importance of the cost of water in the household budget, and the relative importance of some more substitutes for water use. Low price elasticity means that increases in tariff do not have a marked effect on demand, and as elasticity rises tariffs affect demand to a greater extent. In the case of developing countries, the view that demand for water is price-inelastic is based on the historical legacy of very low water charges, which leads consumers to disregard water as a noticeable cost. Where water prices have been raised, and tariffs structured in purposeful manner, demand has shown considerable elasticity in developing countries. In the case of water tariff increase beyond a certain level, consumers may go for other sources of water like groundwater (or buying water from tankers) or the consumers may use means like recycling measures or rainwater harvesting even in case of developing countries. CONCLUSION Domestic water demand will be more price elastic after adoption of realistic pricing policy in developing countries. Hence realistic water pricing policy can be used as a method of water conservation. REFERENCES Cesti Rita G, Yepes, A Dianeras, 1996. ‘Determinants of Urban Water Demand’, World Bank Suresh V, 1998. ‘Indian Experience in Urban water Supply and Sanitation’.

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PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT: LEGAL ARRANGEMENTS IN KERALA STATE

George Chackacherry CWRDM Sub Centre, Thiruvananthapuram - 695121

Irrigation Management is now looked upon more and more as an integrated sociotechnical enterprise, involving not only technical skills, but also managerial task relating to a system. The principal objective of irrigation management is to create water storage, and to allocate water from it adequately and equitably on a reliable basis to the farmers concerned. There is now a widespread acceptance about the need to improve management of irrigation systems so as to increase the efficiency of irrigated agriculture and improve productivity. Irrigation management in almost all countries has been undergoing a great change during the last two decades. Management practices that served a past era are no longer sufficiently cost-effective, efficient in water use, sustainable, environmentally sound, or in line with trends in many countries for decentralization, privatization and accountability to the users. Around the world, countries that once promoted more government involvement in irrigation management are adopting new policies that do just the opposite: creating incentives for farmers to take over the management of operations and maintenance, while government agencies focus on improving the management of water at the main system level. In fact, the irrigation projects, especially the major and medium projects, have not been able to generate the worth they are capable of, and have to face the criticism of planners, administrators and society at large. The crucial issue like wide gap between the irrigation potential created and utilized, low productivity, inequity in distribution, increasing ill-effects, lack of systems credibility and reliability and reducing revenue are hovering over the sustenance of irrigation and irrigated agriculture sector. The causes are more complex than the issues. One such cause for the under-performance of irrigation sector is well recognized as the lack of farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; or usersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in irrigation management. Hence Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) has attained a great priority. PIM is an attempt to increase farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; direct involvement in irrigation management, which ultimately results in the transfer of authority and responsibilities from governments, either in full or in parts, to farmer organizations. Many governments look at PIM as a means to relieve budgetary pressures, especially when the cost of deferred maintenance accumulates year after year. It is expected to improve system performance and productivity, and enhance sustainability and reduce detrimental environmental impacts. PIM, which is considered as a strategic intervention to improve 381

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irrigation sector, is the central point and the keystone of water resources management reforms now going on in some 60 countries around the world. The philosophy behind the changed management system is that farmer irrigators, who were previously treated as beneficiaries of irrigation development, should become partners in the planning, implementation and evaluation of irrigation development programmes. If the improvement of irrigation system management is to be truly achieved, institutional development is necessary. Efforts to implement PIM got momentum in this country when the Ninth Plan, as its strategy of irrigation development and management, has laid thrust on: ‘to promote Participatory Irrigation Management with full involvement of the water users community, which will be at the centre stage of the implementation of other strategies of Ninth Plan’. Several pilot projects on PIM were carried out in various states, in major/medium irrigation projects, as earmarked in the Plan. As a result of the efforts of the National Government, many of the States have taken serious steps to implement PIM. Andhra Pradesh took the lead in this affair. The AP Government enacted the Andhra Pradesh Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems Act in 1997, and started implementing PIM. Following the path of AP, states like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa, and Goa enacted their Farmers Management of Irrigation Systems Act, by 2002. Though the State Water Policy, which came into force in Kerala in 1992, does not spell out the farmer management of irrigation systems, the revised draft State Water Policy considers this matter, and points out that, “The government and non-government agencies as well as the entire stakeholders and users will be brought together in planning, implementing, operating, maintaining, monitoring and evaluating the projects. Necessary legislative measures will be enacted, wherever necessary, for ensuring participation. The local bodies and Water User Associations will be empowered to run the projects and systems at their level”. While other States have enacted exclusive PIM Acts with all necessary details for the implementation of PIM, Kerala has only a chapter on PIM included in the recently enacted Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act (2003). Many of the provisions required for the implementation of PIM are yet to be included in the Act. It seems that consultations were not made with the PIM Acts of other States, and even with the guidelines issued by the National Government in this matter. It is surprising that many of the provisions for farmer participation in irrigation management included in the Kerala Command Area Development Act 1986 have not also been incorporated in the chapter on PIM in the Act 2003. The model evolved by CWRDM and CADA for the implementation of PIM in the State, after a one-year long study, has also been ignored. This, in effect, reflects the lack of interest and/or reluctance of some players to accept the concepts of empowerment of farmers and PIM. Therefore, PIM can be implemented in the State effectively only when improvements/changes are made in the Chapter on PIM in the Act, or bringing out a separate Act for PIM. Some of the salient aspects which call for change in the Chapter on PIM are discussed below: 382

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1. According to Section 49 (Chapter XI: Participatory Irrigation Management) of the Act, Water User Associations (WUAs) are to be formed within an area of every 40 hectares benefited by an irrigation system. This shift of forming WUAs on geographical basis will create new issues in the farmer organization set up. Management of irrigation system and distribution of water will be effective only when they are carried out on a hydraulic basis, rather than on geographical basis. In fact, all the Beneficiary Farmer Associations (BFAs) under CADA (About 4000 BFAs are formed by CADA in 16 completed irrigation projects) were formed on hydraulic basis (According to Section 17 of the CADA Act 1986, farmers benefited by one or more pipe outlets in a major, medium or minor irrigation project may form an association). Since majority of the BFAs exceeds 40 hectares of ayacut area, it may be a very difficult task to restructure them. Moreover, in other States (eg: Andhra Pradesh, Madhy Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Tamilnadu) WUAs are formed on hydraulic basis. There a WUA may cover an ayacut area even upto 4000 hectare. Therefore, there is no need, or justification for the rigidity in stipulating 40 hectares as the operational area of a WUA. 2. In order to form WUAs as per the Act 2003, there is an urgent necessity for delineating the jurisdiction of the ayacut area and the ayacutdars of proposed WUAs. It is not possible to simply convert the existing BFAs to WUAs. One of the reasons is limiting the size of ayacut area to 40 hectare, as noted above. Another point is that all farmers in the jurisdiction of a BFA are, at present, not members in the BFA concerned (According to the Act 2003, all farmers having agricultural lands are expected to be members of WUAs). In the case of BFAs and their jurisdiction, there is no clear delineation of ayacut area and ayacutdars now. Besides all these, large majority of the BFAs are not at present working (75 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 80%). Therefore, almost all BFAs are to be reorganized/restructured, for which delineation of ayacut area and ayacutdars is inevitable. In all the States where PIM Acts are passed, they give priority for the delineation of ayacuts and ayacutdars before the implementation of PIM. Positively, the Act 2003, in its Sections 20 - 23, mentions about issuing a certificate to landholders showing the area of land and crop cultivated, based on which irrigation cess will be collected. Appropriate modification to these sections will be sufficient to carry out delineation of ayacut area and ayacutdars. 3. For effective implementation of PIM, total irrigation system may be brought under the PIM organization structure, as is done in other states and countries. But according to Act 2003, there is only one level, ie, Water User Associations at the outlet level. It is not sufficient. There may be organizations at the Branch Canal/Distributary level, at the Project level, and at the Apex level, similar to one in the PIM Model suggested by CWRDM-CADA study. In fact, the model suggested by CWRDM-CADA study is an improvement to the existing three-tier CADA structure â&#x20AC;&#x201C; BFA at the base level, Canal Committee at the Branch Canal level, and Project Committee at the Project level. Comparison of organization structure of other states, and the one proposed in the Act 2003, that instituted by CADA, and PIM model suggested as per CWRDM-CADA study are given in Table 1. 383

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4. The Act 2003 does not speak anything about the involvement of women in irrigated agriculture. Involvement of women, especially of the spouses of male farmers, is Table 1. PIM: Organisational Structure in Different States Kerala Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Tamil Nadu

Orissa

Karnataka

Irri.&Water Conservation Act 2003

CADA Act 1986

State Level Committee

Water Users Apex Level Federation

Nil

CADA

Project Committee

Water Users Project Level Federation

Nil

Project Committee

Distributary Committee

Water Users Distributary Level Federation

Nil

Canal Committee

Water User Association

Pani Panchayat

Water Users Society

Water Users’ Association

Beneficiary Farmer Association

Territorial * Constituencies

Chak

Apex Committee

* Territorial Constituencies • Upto 1000 ha • 1501 to 2000 ha

Nil

: 4 TC : 8 TC

Nil

1001 to 1500 ha More than 2000 ha

PIM Model (CWRDM & CADA)

PIM Implementing Agency (PIMIA) Project Management Council (PMC) Water User Association (WUA) Water Group (WG)

Nil

: 6 TC : 10 TC

inevitable for the sustenance of WUAs. Experiences from the Kerala Community Irrigation Project, etc. points out this. Due to fragmentation and subdivision of land, men are showing an increasing tendency to ignore irrigated agriculture. In this context, inductions of the spouses (most landholders are men) in WUAs as members, and exposing them to the management of irrigated agriculture will definitely pave way for a new culture in Kerala. Therefore, there may be provision in the Act to induct spouses also in WUAs, as mentioned in the PIM model suggested. 5. PIM may ultimately result to management of lower parts of the irrigation system (eg: branch canal/distributary/outlet) by the farmers, and the upper parts (eg: Dam, Main Canal) by the Government (Water Resources Department). In order to carry out the duties and responsibilities of both parties effectively, it is necessary to enter into a MoU by both the parties. Therefore, there may be a provision in the Act for entering into a MoU by WUA (secondary level WUA) and an official authorized by the Water Resources Department for joint management of the irrigation system, clearly mentioning the duties, roles and responsibilities of each party. 384

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6. According to Section 16 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 17 of the Act 2003, maintenance of the field channels and conveyance of water through them shall be the responsibility of the owners of land benefited by such channels, and every WUA shall be bound to maintain field channels. It is very difficult to operationalise this, because many field channels of the irrigation projects are damaged, which require rehabilitation. Since the Water Resources Department is expected to manage the water upto the distributary/branch canal level, field channels are not coming under their look out now (CADA has been withdrawn from all projects, expect four). Therefore, provisions are to be made in the Act to rehabilitate the irrigation system prior to implementation of PIM.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY ON WATER POLLUTION CONTROL LAWS, REGULATIONS AND ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN ASIA

Sunil Kumar Karn Senior Consultant, Tokyo Engineering Consultants Co. Ltd., Tokyo 100-0013, Japan

INTRODUCTION For the last few decades pace of urbanization and industrialization has accelerated at an unprecedented rate in the Asian region. Water pollution is yet an inevitable byproduct of development, which has had tremendous impact on natural resources, ecological biodiversity and public health. Pollution abatement and control is not possible without the establishment of adequate environmental legislation and institutional bases in the country. Share of experiences from other countries help devise effective policies curb the pollution at the least cost and time. Although environmental management is gaining increasing priority in Asian developing countries, there is lack of literatures depicting regional scenario comparatively. In this background, this paper aims to present the development and various features of water pollution control policies and instruments in South and East Asian countries. Data and information have been collected rigorously by numerous ways; referring country-wise literatures, international studies and reports and Internet. POLLUTION CONTROL APPROACHES AND INSTRUMENTS Measures taken against pollution abatement, control and management are generally classified under two categories: (i) Legislative and Regulatory measures (popularly known as Command and Control approach); and (ii) Economic instruments (also called Market-Based Instruments). There are, however, few measures such as Eco-labelling, public awareness and environmental education, and voluntary reduction of pollution, which can be placed separately as supporting measures to environmental conservation (Table 1). Legal and regulatory measures are the most traditional and conventional approach of pollution abatement and control all over the world. The underlying principle is to achieve environmentally responsible behavior and goal by enforceable laws, regulations and standards. Regulatory tools influence environmental outcomes

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Table 1. A Taxonomy of Instruments used for Water Pollution Control Type Legislation and Regulatory ( also called command and control approach)

1. 2. 3.

Economic Instruments (also called market-based instruments)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Direct Standards: Ambient water and effluents Permits (License) and nontradable quotas for effluents. Regulations or ban on use and handling of materials (hazardous substances) Pollution tax User/ Service charges Tradable pollution permits Deposit-refund system Performance bonds Strict Liability payment

1. 2. 3.

1. 2.

3. 4.

Supportive and other measures

1. 2. 3.

R&D of Eco technologies and goods. Public participation in decision making process Voluntary reduction of pollution

5. 1. 2.

Indirect Restrictions (on products, process and inputs) Industrial siting and zoning regulations Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) system and clearances. Taxes (on products, inputs, raw materials and business). Tax Subsidies (on products, equipment, raw materials; income tax, custom duty, excise, sales tax) Tax and price differentiation (public utilities) Financial incentives (Grants and soft loans) Creation of property rights Eco-labeling Information openness

by regulating processes or products, limiting the discharge of specified pollutants and by restricting certain polluting activities to specific times or areas. In water pollution control sector, some of the most common instruments adopted so far are ambient water quality standards (objectives), effluent standards, EIA of development projects and trade businesses, regulation on hazardous and toxic substances, land use zoning and industrial siting permits etc. The success rates of commend and control instruments largely depend on the enforcement capacity of the regulating agency and the economic and technological strength of the country. One of the drawbacks is that the cost of complying with the regulations is not usually known. Economic or market-based instruments, on the other hand, rely on market forces and changes in relative price to modify the behavior of public or private polluters in a way that supports environmental protection or improvement. The guiding principle is polluter pay the pollution. It supports the notion of environmental economics that the cost of pollution should be internalized. There are hundreds of economic instruments devised so far, but the principle categories can be pollution tax, tradable pollution permits, deposit-refund system, liability and subsidies (financial incentives). It is, however, often viewed as supplementary to regulatory system but not the substitution. FEATURES OF LEGISLATIVE AND REGULATORY MEASURES IN ASIAN COUNTRIES It barely goes earlier than 1950s that definite policies and enforceable laws on water pollution control could be observed in Asian countries. Even after that there are wide differences among countries when such laws were promulgated. In general it is 387

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perceived that the enforcement of environmental law is driven by an agent of the cause. Three distinct observations can be made in this regard. l

Economic development of the country has influenced the introduction of environmental laws. This is revealed from the fact that the country having higher Gross National Product (GNP) has enforced the pollution control laws earlier (Figure 1).

2000

# Laos Cambodia # # Nepal # Vietnam

1990

1980

1970

# Taiwan

# Pakistan Indonesia # China # # Bangladesh # Thailand # # India Malaysia Philippines #

# Korea 1960 # Japan

1950 100000

10000

1000

100

Per capita GNP, US $, 1998

Fig. 1. Enactment of Water Pollution Control Law in Asian Countries l

The promulgation or strengthening of water pollution control laws has been prompted by occurrence of some environmental disaster in the country. India (with Bhopal gas accident in 1984) and Japan (with Minamata disease incident in 1958) can be taken as an example under this category.

The formulation of environmental laws has been effected by the international treaties/convention made in this regard. Countries like India (1974), China (1979), Malaysia (1974), Thailand (1975), Taiwan (1974) and Philippines (1977) formulated water pollution control laws after United Nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Stockholm Conference (on human environment) in 1972. Furthermore, the latest breakthrough in promulgating environmental laws by much poorer and agrarian nations came upon historic Earth Summit (Rio Summit) of 1992. The countries in this category are understood as Nepal (1995), Vietnam (1993), Cambodia (1996) and Laos (1998) etc.

388

Cambodia

Indonesia

Malaysia

Myanmar

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

China

Japan

Korea

Taiwan

1977 1995(N)

1986

1995

1983 1997(N)

1996

1982 1997

1998

1974 1985 1996

1977

1999

1975 1992(N)

1993

1979 1989(N)

1967 1993(N)

1963 1971 1977

1974

1990

1964 1976

1976

1958 1970

1990

1974 1991(N)

1997

1994

1993

1998

1996

1993

Ad-hoc

1987 1990

Ad-hoc

1978 1996

Ad-hoc

1992

1994 1998

1971

1981

1994

1989

1999

1994 1995

1989

1990

1988

1982 1992

1971

1991

1986 1997

1997

1975

1990

1986

1967 1978 1990

1994

1995

1970 1999

1990

1985

Laos

Pakistan

Law on water pollution control

Nepal

India

Bangladesh Main Laws Basic law environmental protection

Other laws or regulations EIA (or IEE) system Hazardous/Toxic substance control

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Table 2. Formulation of Environmental Protection Laws and Regulations in Asian Countries (the figure in the Table shows the year it was instituted)

Standards Ambient water quality Inland surface (River and lakes)

1982

Ground water

1978

1995

1997

1990

Coastal or Marine

1990

1994

1995

1970

1990

1985

Industrial (general)

1997

1986

1984

1990

1988

1994

1979

1967 1978 1990

1976

1978 1996

1995

1982

1970

1971

1987 2000

Industry-based (categorical)

1997

1986

1988

1994

1977

1996

1982

1972

1977

1987 2000

1979

1985 1994

1997 STP

1986 STP

1970

Effluents

Municipal sewage

389

Multiple years denote major amendments held, X- Doesn't exist, N- New law, NR- Not required

STP- applicable to municipal sewage treatment plants

1987 2000 1977

1987 2000

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Sewage from commercial centers and large buildings

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The legislative and regulatory measures in Asian countries mainly comprises of environmental quality standards (water quality and effluent standards); regulations on hazardous and toxic substances (handling and disposal); EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) system for environmental clearances of development and business activities; licensing to pollution discharge and industrial siting; regulations on domestic and municipal sewage, night soil and solid waste disposal. However, a great variation exists among countries having one or more of these instruments and the degree of stringency in it. This generally correlates to the socio-economic development level of the countries. Details on various instruments adopted and history of enforcement in each country are presented in Table 2. In general, almost all the countries have adopted EIA system. In less industrialized countries such as, Laos, Cambodia and Nepal, EIA is serving as the backbone of environmental management. The second most common feature is the enforcement of effluent standards for industries. The control over municipal sewage, however, is limited to only developed countries such as Japan, Korea and Singapore. Among developing countries, Thailand and Malaysia have imposed standards on the effluent discharged from large buildings, business centers and institutions. Water quality standards have not been yet formed in Nepal, Cambodia, Laos, Pakistan, and Myanmar. In India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Malaysia, however, standards are given for surface waters but not to the ground or coastal waters. Regulation regarding control of hazardous and toxic substances has been formulated in many countries only after Basel Convention in 1989. Yet this doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t exist in many countries including Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. USE OF ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS IN ASIAN COUNTRIES Economic instrument, as it demands developed market and control mechanism, is much like introducing in Asian countries. Some details on various economic instruments used in Asian countries are presented in Table 3. Japan and Korea, being in developed category, have been applying to more diversified fields including deposit-refund system, product tax and effluent charges. However, none of the countries in Asia so far have gone with tradable permit system in effluent discharge. Among developing countries, China and Philippines have levied charge on effluents at limited scale. India has so far gone with only the tax subsidy related measures such as accelerated depreciation, income tax subsidies, investment allowance, rebate on custom and excise duty and sales tax pertaining to pollution control equipment (Mehta et al. 1997). Malaysia has also provision of similar incentives in terms of investment tax allowance for the company undertaking re-processing of certain agricultural and chemical wastes and exemption of import duty, sales tax and excise duty on machinery and raw materials to manufacture pollution control equipment. Likewise Thailand also provides exemption of import duty on pollution control equipment and provides soft loans and grants.

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•

• • • •

•

× ×

Japan

•

Korea

•

Singapore

•

China

Malaysia

• •

Philippine s Vietnam

Thailand

• •

Indonesia

Nepal

User Charge Royalty on water resource use Sewage (to sewer) disposal charge Pollution charge/ tax Industrial effluent Institutional/domestic Tax Products tax Sales tax Tax on raw material/ substitution Liabilities Compensation/ redressing Non-compliance fee Deposit-refund system Tradable pollution (effluent) permit Tax Subsidies/ Financial Incentives Rebate on custom/excise duty Accelerated depreciation Tax subsidy on products Grants/ soft loans On recycling activities Eco-labelling

India

Types of instrument

Banglades h

Table 3. Economic Instruments used in Water Pollution Control in Asia (• Yes; × No; vacant- no data)

•

• • •

• • • × ×

• •

•

• × × • •

•

• × ×

× ×

• × ×

•

• × •

• •

•

• × • •

KEY ISSUES AND SOME LESSONS FROM DEVELOPED COUNTRIES Major pollution of water bodies in the developing countries are arising from urban pollution sources viz. Municipal Sewage and Industrial Effluents (Karn and Harada, 2001). Thus pollution control measures should adequately address such need of the time. A few major aspects that require consideration are: l

Effective enforcement of existing laws and standards: This is the core issue for the success of command and control approach. Law executing authority’s weakness in enforcing pollution control laws are well documented elsewhere and these includes, inter alia, limitation in human and financial resources with such agencies. The other critical aspect is poor co-ordination among various line agencies working in this.

Progressive shift towards use of Economic Instruments: Considering the inherent drawback of Command and Control approach and recent global trend in pollution control strategies, a greater use of economic instruments could be more effective in curbing the pollution at least efforts and time.

Expansion of Sanitary infrastructure: Effluent standard for municipal sewage is 391

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virtually non-existent in the developing countries. The major obstacle seen is the little coverage of sewerage facilities and wherever it exists, lacks of functional sewage treatment plants. Moreover, the areas uncovered by sewerage facilities practice on-site sanitation like septic tanks or inferior type latrines. But very few countries have prescribed standards on such effluent and mode of disposal. As such sources are discrete and innumerable, monitoring by competent authorities are seldom done. It could be worthy to note that Japan, which enjoys most of her waters now relatively clean, has fought a long battle against water pollution. Not only various regulatory and market-based approaches of pollution control were adopted, environmental infrastructure was developed at great priority as a complement to pollution abatement efforts. Statistics reveals that Japan had only 6% of population covered by sewerage system (almost similar situation that of other developing countries in Asia now) in 1960 but grew up to 54% in 1996 (Kubo, 1991, Mitsumasa and Peterson 2000). Similarly, compliance rate to environmental water quality standards for BOD in rivers has been increased from about 45% in 1974 to about 75% in 1995 (Okada and Peterson 2000). The Korea, whereas it had constructed first publicly owned municipal sewage treatment plant in 1976 only, has achieved 31% population serviced by sewerage system in 1990 and further to 75% in 2000 (Fugie, 1995). REFERENCES Fugie Koichi (ed.), 1995. Assessment and Promotion of Human Resources for River Water Quality Management. United Nations Environment Program and Japan Society on Water Environment, 1995. Karn S K and Harada H, 2001. Surface Water Pollution in Three Urban Territories of Nepal, India and Bangaladesh. Environmental Management, Vol. 28, No.4, pp 483-496. Kubo Takeshi, 1991. Recent Developments in Wastewater Management in Japan. Water Science and Technology. 1991, Vol 23, pp 19-28. Mehta Shekhar, Mundle Sudipto and Shankar U, 1997. Controlling PollutionIncentives and Regulations. Sage publications, New Delhi, India. Mitsumasa Okada and Spencer A Peterson (ed.), 2000. Water Pollution Control Policy and Management: the Japanese experience. Gyosei, Tokyo, Japan.

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INTERNALISING EXTERNALITIES IN AQUACULTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sunitha Ninan, Shyam S Salim and Ganesh Kumar Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai-61

INTRODUCTION Fisheries sector plays a pivotal role in the national economy in view of its contribution to the food basket of the country, nutritional security, social objectives, sustainable large foreign exchange earnings, generation of employment and income besides stimulating subsidiary industries. Rapid growth of fisheries is essential not only for ensuring household food security but also for improving socio-economic conditions of fishers and to earn valuable foreign exchange through export of fish and fishery products. However, aquaculture and shrimp farming in particular, has been accused of causing many negative environmental and social impacts.Aquaculture activity got a boost in the early 1990â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in the coastal parts of India on account of economic liberalization policies initiated by the Government of India (GOI). The increased production was accounted with a result of increased area under expansion and increased productivity. Coastal aquaculture in India is mainly related to shrimp farming as it is a lucrative and commercial enterprise. This tremendous boom of aquaculture weathered instances of ecological damages and suffered a setback with the Supreme Court declaring it contrary to the CRZ notification and banning all aquaculture activities, except traditional and improved traditional within upto 500 m of the High Tide Line (HTL) in most coastal areas. The pattern of fisheries growth has brought in its wake, uneven development across geographic regions. Coastal waters of marine fisheries have been fully exploited and there are signs of some resources being over exploited. Diminishing natural stocks are threatening the income and livelihood of small scale producers, bringing about severe conflicts among the diffrent stakeholders. Only 30 per cent of the area suitable for freshwater aquaculture is presently under culture and productivity levels vary across different states and regions. In the case of brackish water aquaculture, only 10 per cent of the total suitable area is under farming. Shrimp farming which is the main stay of brackish water aquaculture has been facing disease outbreak, socio-legal complexities and environmental degradation problems. The major problems identified with the growth of the industry are conversion of farm and agricultural land into shrimp ponds,

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destruction of mangroves and wetlands, deterioration of water quality, incidence of disease and irrational use of chemicals and antibiotics. Due to pollution from industrial and domestic waste, availability of fish near shore is declining and the fishers are forced to fish in deeper waters resulting in decrease catch per unit effort (CPUE). Coastal bio-diversity is also depleting on account of the vast number of endangered and extinct species. OBJECTIVES The overall objective of the study is to address the different externalities, which are present in the aquaculture sector, and to suggest suitable measures to mitigate them. However the specific objectives are to l l l

To highlight the different externalities in aquaculture To internalize externalities in aquaculture for sustainable development To provide a conceptual framework for the sustainable development of the sector

EXTERNALITIES IN AQUACULTURE According to Nadkarni (1995),”Externalities are unreimbursed costs and uncharged benefits accruing to people as a result of someone else’s action.” Reciprocal externalities are generated during the use of common property resource. Here both the party/persons get affected and both are causal agents. Markets do not adequately account for externalities due to lack of information, well-defined property rights and other imperfections and distortions. The impact of shrimp culture on the environment depends on the type of culture adopted. The traditional extensive and modified extensive practices followed till the early 1990’s have had no adverse effect on the environment. But over the years the yield intensifying practices like intensive and super intensive cultures, stocking enormous number of seed and dumping in huge amount of aqua feeds into the water came into vogue. Though this yielded heavily initially, heavy organic load and environmental stress exposed the animal to conditions leading to heavy out burst of diseases. In India, shrimp aquaculture and its unregulated growth during the early nineties also resulted in the matter being taken to the Supreme Court as a public interest litigation (PIL). The Supreme Court directed all the respondent states not to permit the setting up of any industry or the construction of any type on the area at least up to 500m from the sea water at the maximum high tide. It was subsequently amended on March 3, 1995, directing the state to meticulously follow the (CRZ) Notification of February 1991 issued by the (MOEF). On the directions of the Court, the NEERI, Nagpur, submitted its reports on aqua farms in the coastal areas of the country. The Court in its hearing on May 09,1995, issued interim orders banning conversion of agricultural lands and salt farms into commercial aquaculture purposes and setting up of shrimp farms or any aquaculture farms in the area of dispute thereafter. 394

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The negative externalities as elaborated below include water pollution, destruction of wetlands, mangrove forests, large scale conversion of agricultural land to aquaculture ponds, biodiversity reduction, salination of fresh waters, displacement of artisanal fishermen and loss of access to fishing grounds by the artisanal fishermen. Water Pollution The untreated effluents discharged from shrimp farms directly or indirectly have polluted coastal waters, estuaries, creeks and backwaters. Residual chemicals, drugs, antibiotics, decomposed and unused artificial feeds contributed to toxic nature of the effluents. The heavy nutrient load in the water lead to hyper-eutrophication developing massive algal blooms and reduction of oxygen, over accumulation of detritus at pond bottom and poor quality of water leading to profusion of ciliates and other protozoan which cause respiratory and gill diseases in shrimps. Aquaculture discharges containing high amount of nutrients and solids were reported to cause itching, scabies and other health hazards to human beings. Pollution has led to the desertification of wetlands. It was estimated that, per day about 2.37 million cubic meters of effluents is being generated from aqua-farms along the East Coast of India alone affecting the environment adversely. Destruction of mangroves Due to the expanding shrimp culture, large areas covered by mangroves have been reported destroyed which resulted in ecological, economic and social consequences. Their removal has several implications on the sustainability of many coastal activities. The major effects are the coastal erosion, changes in pattern of sedimentation and shoreline configuration making coastal zones more vulnerable for storm erosion, salinity intrusion, loss of breeding and nursery grounds of fishes and crustaceans, decline of availability of larvae and post larvae, decline in traditional fish catches, reduction of fishery recruitment to sea, loss of filtration capacity of soil, changes in physio-chemical properties of water, reduction of biodiversity and disturbances in the ecological balance. Impact on coastal land use While development of shrimp culture increased the efficiency of utilization of coastal land (unutilized agricultural lands, derelict salt pans, deltaic regions, lake areas, mud flats traditional shrimp farms etc) leading to higher income generation. But the mass scale conversion of coastal agricultural lands to shrimp farms lead to the salinisation of soil and ground water leading to the desertification of adjacent productive lands. The Casuarinas and coconut plantations have been affected. Construction of pond lead to accelerated soil erosion. Sediments and silt got washed into coastal waters polluting them with heavy organic loads. After 5-10 years of intensified use, these shrimp ponds became useless for shrimp farming or for agriculture and hence became barren infertile lands. Change in land configuration led to entry of seawater and tidal waves into the coastal lands. 395

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Effect on natural resources Probably the single most important effect of aquaculture operations is that of a decline in local water quality. This decline takes a number of forms including acidification where acid sulphate soils are present, nutrient enrichment from fertilization and palletized feeds and increased organic loads in ponds in addition to salinity ingression. The differential effects on the natural resources include acidification, nutrient enrichment and high organic loading Effect of aquaculture on other coastal users Aquaculture may compete with the artisanal fishery; the collection of seed and brooders may disturb the traditional farmers, while decreased water quality and reduction of aesthetic sense may hamper the tourism point of view.Pre-emption of access either by design, congestion or by ignorance of local usage pattern is one of the major effects of aquaculture on the other users. Exclusive use of shoreline (foreshores) of estuaries and bays for aquaculture often leads to conflicts with the other users. Molluscan culture in the coastal waters may be seriously hampered because of the red tide formation triggered by effluents generated by the farms. The effect of aquaculture on the future users are often over looked in the impact analyses. Any allocation of land or water involves the choice. It involves the best use of a particular piece of water taking into consideration the total benefits that would have been attainable with some other future use of that water. This concept of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;opportunity costâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; can be applied to future uses of a particular area. Thus the benefits and costs of using a particular area for a particular purpose now must be considered against benefits and costs which are potentially attainable for a particular use of the area in the future. Thus the cost of forgoing future benefits need to be considered during aquaculture planning itself. Indirect effects on biota The indirect effects on biota include shading and night illumination, Noise and vibrations and introduction of exotic species, Indiscriminate use of antibiotic drugs and Effect of coastal mariculture. Aquaculture activities in the shoreline areas involving pumps and aerators produce tremendous noise and vibrations causing behavioral changes such as avoidance in locally resident or migratory species of invertebrates, fish, birds and marine mammals Socio-economic impact Shrimp farming surely increased the standard of living, income, land value and job creation. But, it created social unrest and displaced coastal communities and rural and weaker section of the people. This is mainly because, benefits of industrial aquaculture has been vested in the hands of large private companies. Of the best, some localized developments like laying roads and power supply were only realised. The small-scale 396

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land owing fishermen lost their land to the industrial culturist through influential politicians. Fishermen lost their access to the sea. Effluent discharge from farms caused decline in their traditional catches, the value of average shrimp catch dwindling by ten times after one year of aquafarming. Capture and destruction of wild seed aggravated this problem. Drinking water resources in the coastal areas decreased and ground water became saline. Flooding threats to villages became very common after the construction of long saline canals. Need for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;sustainable aquacultureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; A sustainable aquaculture system is an adaptable aquaculture production technology system whose ecological and economic viability can persist indefinitely.Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resources base, and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations. Such sustainable development conserves land, water, plant, and animal resources and is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Any aquaculture development should stick with all the above mentioned characteristics. The concept of sustainable development covers the economic dimension, but gives an equal footing to ecological, social and economic dimensions. Sustainable development = Ecological sustainability+ Social and Economic development

Three dimensions of Sustainable Development

Biosphere:

Form of society:

ecological sustainability

social development

Sustainable development

Mode of production: economic development

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Sustainable aquaculture enables to organise economic activities so as to promote economic development without unduly depleting the resources or wantonly destroying the environment. Conducting shrimp farming in the traditional way is a case in point. Community participation in the management of natural resources is an essential aspect of shrimp farming. There fore it is necessary to evolve a development process that would lead to greater equity, growth and sustainability. Precautionary principle and Polluter pay principle are also essential features of sustainability. The precautionary principle provides for the prevention of environmental degradation and the polluter pays principle provides compensation for the pollution affected people as well as the cost of reversing the damaged ecology. These two principles are stressed, as they are the most important adverse effects of aquaculture. INTERNALIZING EXTERNALITIES IN AQUACULTURE The important management measures for internalizing the externalities includes developing strategies to achieve sustainability include environmental management, aquaculture regulations, environmental impact assessment, effluent regulations, feed regulations, restrictions on importation of non native species, restrictions on use of chemicals and use of best management practices as discussed below. Aquaculture regulations The Coastal Zone Regulation Notification was issued in 1991 in India, under the EPA, 1986. The Notification aims at protecting and improving the quality of the coastal environment. The notification lays down certain prohibitions and also exceptions to prohibitions. Prohibited activities include setting up of new industries (except those which are directly related to the water front or which directly need foreshore facilities) and expansion of existing industries including fish processing units, manufacture, handling, storage or disposal of hazardous wastes and substances, discharge of untreated wastes and effluents and dumping of municipal wastes as landfills or otherwise. The Aquaculture Authority Bill floated by the Ministry of Agriculture was formulated with the objective to regulate shrimp farming activity in the coastal areas in an eco friendly manner by setting up an Aquaculture Authority. The Aquaculture Authority of India has been constituted through the Notification dated February 06,1997, under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and guidelines on sustainable aquaculture development for regulating coastal aquaculture have also been developed. Environmental management Aquaculture in brackish waters should be done only in small-holdings, not exceeding 10 ha each. It should not be high productive, but ecofriendly and sustainable. The farms should not be too clustered together, so that pollution of environment is avoided. Diversification from the prevailing tiger prawn farming to more suitable species and performance of crop rotation needs to be promoted. It must also be ensured that the 398

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collection of larvae from the wild does not affect adversely the species diversity of the waters. The unabated use of therapeutics like, broad-spectrum antibiotics must be prohibited and the use of ecofriendly prophylactics like immunostimulants and probiotics must be promoted. Ecologically sensitive coastal areas like the mangrove wetlands and coral reefs should not be destroyed any more for aquaculture practices. Further planting of mangrove buffer zones must be made to restore the already depleted mangroves and thus save further degradation of coastal zones. Laying of long distance pipelines for pumping in seawater, construction of jetties into the sea, indiscriminate usage of ground water and fencing of farms should be prohibited. Effluent treatment should be made mandatory. Abandoned or degraded aquaculture sites needs to be ecologically rehabilitated and the companies/industries, responsible for it bear the cost of rehabilitation. Prohibit the wholesale conversion of agricultural lands to aquafields. Integrated coastal management planning which includes the meaningful participation of all coastal user groups must be implemented. Educate the farmers and extending the scientific know-how from the lab to the land. A total review of the shrimp farming at village, district, and state levels ensuring that the developments are sustainable, socially equitable and ecologically sound needs to be performed. It must also be ensured that the multilateral development banks, bilateral aid agencies, the UNFAO and other relevant national and international organisations do not fund or otherwise promote aquaculture development inconsistent with the above criteria. Environmental impact assessment The study of environmental, social and biological impact assessment i.e. EIA, SIA and BIA respectively, prior to aquaculture development (during planning stage itself) and their continuous monitoring is mandatory which ensures that aquaculture development or operations do not affect the artisanal fishermen and dependent coastal communities and their access to community resources, including extensive, semiintensive and intensive aquaculture practices. Prohibit the use of genetically modified exotic organisms without proper studies of its impact on native species, also avoid the unscientific transplantation of exotic species to native waters. However, these policies should be based on reliable information and bans should not be imposed unless there is scientific justification for them. Strict guidelines for disease inspection of the imported species and quarantine should be established and enforced. The ecological view of sustainability focuses on the stability of the biophysical system. Of particular importance is the viability of sub systems (species, biotic components) that are critical to the global stability of the overall ecosystem. Protection of biological diversity is a key aspect. Further more, natural systems may be interpreted to include all aspects of the biosphere (including primarily man made environments like cities), with emphasis placed on preserving their resilience and dynamic ability to adapt to change, rather than conservation of some ideal static state.

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A framework for the sustainable development of the sector Economic

§ §

§ Social

Poverty Consultation/ Empowerment Culture/Heritage Biodiversity/

Efficiency Growth Stability

§ § §

Valuation Internalisation

Intragenerational equity Targeted relief/ employment

§ § §

Biodiversity/ Resilience Natural Resources Pollution

Intergenerational equity Popular participation

Environmental

The sociocultural concept of sustainability seeks to maintain the stability of social and cultural systems, including the reduction of destructive conflicts. Both intragenerational equity (especially elimination of poverty) and intergenerational equity (protection of the rights of future generations) are important elements of this approach. Preservation of cultural diversity across the globe, and the better use of knowledge concerning sustainable practices inherent in many indigenous communities, should be pursued. Modern society must encourage and harness pluralism and grass root participation in order to engender a more effective framework for making decisions. One useful practical approach to sustainable development that may be more comprehensible to policy makers and the public might be to maximize net benefits of economic and social development that may be more comprehensible to policy makers and the public might be to maximize net benefits of economic and social development, subject to maintaining the services from and quality of natural resources (especially scarce ones) should be used at rates less than or equal to the natural rate of regeneration and that the efficiency with which nonrenewable resources are used should be optimized ,subject to substitutability between resources and technological progress. Another requirement is that waste be generated at rates less than or equal to the assimilative capacity of the environment (to preserve resiliency) and that efforts be made to protect equity within and between generations. Finally, the implementation of sustainable development will require a pluralistic and consultative social framework that, inter alia, facilitates the exchange of information between dominant and hitherto disregarded groups- to identify less material and pollution intensive paths for human progress. 400

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CONCLUSION It is beyond doubt that the aquaculture development is quite suited for Asian countries, including India, because of the geographical location in the tropics, the vast resources, and apt climatic conditions. Returns from shrimp farming continue to be rewarding, benefiting small-scale farmers and coastal communities, as well as entrepreneurs engaged in seed production, farming operations or ancillary activities. But the development was unusually rapid and unscientific with utter disregard to environmental and socio-economic considerations. Unless externalities caused by aquaculture practices are curbed, the future of aquaculture seems to be meager. In the prevailing circumstances, the option for fisheries management in India is to promote the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC; precautionary approachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; for sustainable development in aquaculture. Sustainable utilization of available areas and infrastructure can lead to the development of under exploited resources with the potential of generating a large number of jobs and enormous social and economic benefits to the coastal regions of the country. Legal interventions have been sought to curtail shrimp culture, to preserve the coastal environment and the ecology. Though the polarization of opinion on the adverse impact of aquaculture in the nineties was very strong, there are signs of more tolerance to accommodate diverse views and opinions lately and allow development of shrimp farming in an environment-friendly and sustainable manner. What the aquaculture industry needs at this juncture is a comprehensive policy that can set right the stumbling blocks on the way towards a sustainable development. Further, the Government should invest in development of infrastructure facilities like organized saltwater irrigation system, shrimp health centers. On the other hand, the shrimp farmers and other industry players should also get more organized and strictly adhere to the government guidelines. In short, the future approach for sustainable development of this sector should be a broad-based one, encompassing all aspects of the sector like technology, research and development for increasing production, economic viability of farming, social issues and marketing problems. REFERENCES Nadkarni M V, 1995. Externalities, Lecture delivered to students of Natural Resource Economics, UAS, Hebbal, Bangalore 24.

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POLLUTION PREVENTION STRATEGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Senthil Kumaran D and Sambathkumar V Center for Water and Environmental Studies Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore 641006

INTRODUCTION The Product Life Cycle consists of four phases namely, Raw material, Manufacture, Use, and Disposal. Till late 1980s Manufacturing and Process Technologies have not bothered about the environmental burdens caused at each life cycle phase of any product. But they only concentrated about the wastes or effluents or emissions generated at the end of any process. On the contrary, pollution prevention (P2) looks pollution at every stage even the extraction of raw material from virgin forest and mines. From â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;cradle to graveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; all the possible environmental burdens are identified in advance and less damaging alternates for material, process, energy and transportation are prescribed as pollution prevention strategy. The following points will emphasize the need for environmental assessment of proposed development projects: l l l l l l l l l l

402

To ensure their sustainability, To assess their environmental impacts, To assess their health impacts, To analyze their social impacts, To assess their resource utilization aspects, To understand the human settlement issues and their impacts, To quantify the real economic development, To conduct the energy audit, To provide alternates for every impact quantified in all the stages, and To ensure an optimum balance between economic and environmental management.

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Environmental Assessment Tools There are many environmental assessment tools targeting specific issues of concerns with suitable methodologies. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the first specific management tools developed for the analysis and management of environmental impacts. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool to quantify all the environmental burdens caused throughout the entire life cycle of any product or project. However, a number of other tools, which constitute the tool-kit of processes/techniques for environmental management include: l l l l l l l

Design for Environment Environmental Audits Cost-Benefit Analysis Life Cycle Cost Analysis Environmental Product Evaluation Eco-labeling Total Cost Assessment

What is Clean Production? Industrial production systems require resources: materials from which products are made, energy, which is used to transport and process materials, as well as water and air. Present production systems are linear or cradle-to-grave, often using hazardous substances and finite resources in vast quantities and at fast rates. The goal of Clean Production is to fulfill our need for products in a sustainable way i.e. using renewable, non-hazardous materials and energy efficiently while conserving bio-diversity. Clean Production systems are circular and use fewer materials and less water and energy. Resources flow through the production-consumption cycle at slower rates. In the first place, a Clean Production approach questions the very need for the product or looks at how else that need could be satisfied or reduced. Clean Production implements the Precautionary Principle - it is a new holistic and integrated approach to environmental issues centered on the product. This approach recognizes that most of our environmental problems - for example global warming, toxic pollution, loss of biodiversity - are caused by the way and rate at which we produce and consume resources. It also acknowledges the need for public participation in political and economic decision-making. Steps towards Clean Production A Clean Production approach involves the following eight steps: 1.

Identify the hazardous substance to be phased-out on the basis of the Precautionary Principle. 403

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Undertake a chemical/material flow analysis. Establish and implement a time schedule for the phase-out of the hazardous substance in the production process, as well as its accompanying waste management technology. Implement existing and research new Clean Production processes and products. Provide training, technical and financial support. Actively disseminate information to the public and ensure their participation in decision-making. Facilitate substance phase-out with regulatory and economic incentives. Facilitate the transition to Clean Production with social planning, involving affected workers and communities.

Introduction to Zero Waste Concepts It is a philosophy and a design principle for the 21st Century. It includes ‘recycling’ but goes beyond recycling by taking a ‘whole system’ approach to the vast flow of resources and waste through human society. Zero Waste maximizes recycling, minimizes waste, reduces consumption and ensures that products are made to be reused, repaired or recycled back into nature or the marketplace. Zero Waste makes recycling a powerful entry point into a critique of excessive consumption, waste, corporate irresponsibility, and the fundamental causes of environmental destruction. Why Zero Waste? l

Redesigns the current, one-way industrial system into a circular system modeled on Nature’s successful strategies

Challenges badly designed business systems that “use too many resources to make too few people more productive”

Addresses, through job creation and civic participation, increasing wastage of human resources and erosion of democracy

Helps communities achieve a local economy that operates efficiently, sustains good jobs, and provides a measure of self-sufficiency

Aims to eliminate rather than manage waste

How Zero Waste? Zero Waste entails three important shifts: 1. It asks consumers, taxpayers and local governments to stop thinking of resources as garbage for which they have to pay to landfill or incinerate, but to maximize reuse, repair, recycling and composting instead. 404

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2. It asks business to seek out materials efficiencies; redesign products and packaging the community cannot reuse, repair, recycle or compost so that they can be handled that way; and extend their responsibility for the product and its packaging by establishing take-back, reuse and remanufacturing systems. 3. It asks senior levels of governments to shift economic incentives from virgin resources to renewable resources and to facilitate the growth of Zero Waste. Environmental Compliance Planning Environmental Compliance Planning is an earnest attempt to prepare the local industries, for meeting out the new challenges of various EM issues by providing awareness, training and expertise on required EM tools in a cost effective way. It is required very much as the order of the day because, l

To meet the national and international environmental regulatory requirements

To exclude toxic inventory usage and find substitutes of less toxic in nature

To reduce the consumption of non-renewable energy sources

To better manage the resources, waste and emissions

To eliminate unsafe technologies

To ensure a Sustainable Trade

CONCLUSION By keeping two major issues Energy and Waste as focal points both Industrial houses and Service sectors should act towards their environmental clean production such that they can be with a Sustainable Trade that is economically viable and environmentally least damaging.

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INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSE TO ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND CONTROL: ROLE OF JUDICIARY IN INDIA

Geetanjoy Sahu Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore

INTRODUCTION Over the years, there has been an increasing concern and consciousness among the people about the emerging environmental problems. Like any other social, economic and political problems, environmental problem has caught the attention of policymakers, intellectuals, environmentalists and research scholars. No modern nation can afford to ignore the emerging environmental problems such as depletion of ozone layer, acid rain, green house effect, soil erosion, deforestation, water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, etc. In this connection, the United Nations took the first initiative for the preservation of the environment. The U.N. Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm in June 1972 had evolved the principles and action plan for controlling and regulating environmental degradation. To achieve this objective, a number of actors have been involved such as international and national institutions, civil society, environmental groups and local people in the decision-making process relating to environment preservation. As in other parts of the world, concern for environmental problems in India had emerged in the seventies and has assumed public appeal in the subsequent years. India, as a signatory and participant to the Stockholm Conference, has enacted a number of environmental laws and employed a range of regulatory instruments to protect its environment. Initially the constitution of India did not contain any direct provision regarding the protection of natural environment. Only after taking note of Stockholm Conference and growing awareness of the environmental crises, amended it to add direct provisions for protection of environment (Bansal and Gupta, 1992). THE PROBLEM India has been employing a range of regulatory instruments to preserve and protect its natural resources. There are stated to be over 200 Central and State statutes, which have at least some concern with environmental protection, either directly or indirectly (Divan and Rosencranz, 2001). But, failure on the part of the government agencies to effectively enforce environmental laws and non-compliance with statutory norms by 406

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polluters has resulted in an accelerated degradation of the environment. Most of the rivers and water bodies have been polluted and large-scale deforestation is being carried out with impunity. There has also been a rapid increase in casualties due to respiratory disorders caused by widespread air pollution. Such large-scale environmental degradation and adverse effects on public health prompted environmentalists as well as non-governmental organizations, to approach the courts, particularly the higher judiciary, for suitable remedies (Dwivedi, 1997). This is precisely where the role of judiciary in controlling environmental pollution can be observed and needs to be examined. The role of judiciary in controlling environmental pollution can be seen in terms of judiciary intervention in the environmental policy making process as well as its role in the implementation of existing environmental laws and shaping its implementation process. The intervention by the judiciary in environmental cases has resulted in giving new lights to several provisions of the constitution, which earlier remained unnoticed. For example, the Court fortified and expanded the Fundamental Rights enshrined in Part III of Constitution. In the Deheradun Quarrying Case, the Supreme Court held that the fundamental right to a wholesome environment is a part of the fundamental right to life in Article 21 of the Constitution. In addition to this, in numerous environmental cases the Supreme Court is stepping into the shoes of the administrator, marshalling resources, issuing directions to close down factories, requiring the implementation of environmental norms, cutting through bureaucratic gridlock and so on. As a result of this kind of judicial intervention, hundreds of factories have installed effluent treatment plants and there is a heightened environmental awareness among administrators, the subordinate judiciary, police and municipal officials, all of whom are involved in implementing the courtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s orders. This paper focuses the role of judiciary in the Patancheru Industrial Pollution Case. STUDY AREA The study was undertaken in Patancheru Mandal, one of the most industrial polluted areas of India, adjacent to Hyderabad. It is situated in the Medak District of Andhra Pradesh. The rationales behind the selection of Patancheru are: First, Patancheru is one of the few cases to have caught the attention of the judiciary because of the active and consistent environmental movements against the industrial pollution. Patancheru environmental movement is also first of its kind in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Since 1986 environment movement has been playing an important role in influencing the judiciaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s decision. Secondly, Patancheru industrial pollution is important on the ground that it gives an opportunity to underline the executive functions that the courts have been assuming over the years through the medium of public interest litigation. Thirdly, Patancheru industrial pollution also acquired lot of importance as several institutions and agencies of the central and state such as Central Pollution Control Board, Andhra Pollution Control Board, Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation, District Administration, NGOs and so on have become the part of the 407

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case in the span of sixteen years of adjudication, where the case is yet to be disposed of. OBSERVATIONS Patancheru, in Medak district of Andhra Pradesh, is one of the major industrial estates in India. The industrial units are mostly owned by NRIs who were persuaded to invest in the state. The State extended several facilities including soft loans and infrastructure for the industrialists. Consequently, industries such as Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd. (BHEL), A.P. Scooters, Nagarjuna steels, Allwyn Watches etc. were set up in the late sixties and early seventies as part of efforts at industrializing the area and majority are pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Though this area is declared as industrial estate basic facilities including road, storm water drainage, pipes, water supply etc. appear to be inadequate (Rao, 2001). The effluents both treated and untreated are discharged outside the industrial premises on the road, into wells, polluting ground water as well as the natural watercourses. There are fourteen villages affected by industrial pollution in Patancheru (Sources: CPCB, 1998 report). But, neither the industry nor the bureaucracy thought of the disposal system for wastes that would be generated by the industrial activity. It was under such circumstances the people of Patancheru and adjoined villages protested against industrial pollution. . But to their unfortunate the institutions in-charge of pollution control paid no attention. Finding no other alternatives the people of Patancheru filed a write petition before the Supreme Court demanding compensation for the victims of pollution in Patancheru. The petition was filed in the year 1990 by Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Association on behalf of Patancheru industrial pollution affected people. DISCUSSION In response to this petition, the Supreme Court of India has delivered many judgements and directions covering wide range of issues related to Patancheru Case. Each judgment ran into at number of pages, some of the important judgments have been as follows: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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Ordered the industries to stop the discharge of effluents into water bodies immediately. Directed the State government to provide drinking water without any cost to the affected villages. Directed the APPCB to complete the remediation of 13 Cherus (Tanks) by 2000. Directed the APPCB for the rectification of CETP. Directed the District Medical Office to give medical care to pollution victims and conduct awareness programmes relating to environment regularly. Asked the APPCB to pursue the project for providing a wastewater pipeline of 18 km. from Patancheru to Amberpet by January 2001. Directed the district administration for the restoration of cultivable land by application of suitable conditioner and

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Appointed NEERI Committee in 1991 to submit a comprehensive report on the status of polluting industries in the area and suggest remedial measures to tackle hazards of pollution. In this way, the Judiciary has played an important role so far as the industrial pollution in Patancheru is concerned. The court acted as an executive authority from suggesting various measures, appointing different committees and closely monitoring the progress made by various agencies to its directions. The intervention of judiciary has resulted due to the active participation of the local people in the movement against industrial pollution in Patancheru as well as the role played by civil society in this area. However, Judicial response was only temporary and no permanent solution was provided to control pollution caused by the industries. The explicit drawback in the legislation for environmental protection is responsible for inadequacy of judicial action in India. The study has also found that our enforcement mechanism is very weak although the laws are very well drawn up. To cite few cases that the judiciary has given order to provide drinking water without any cost, but the State Government is charging 30 rupees per month in Patancheru and the directions of the Court for the remediation of the tanks are yet to be done. Similarly, in regard to provide health facility to all the affected villages has not taken seriously. Even after five years of Courtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s directions to give compensation the farmers are yet to get compensation. The Courtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s order after the joint action plan for providing a wastewater pipeline of 18 km. from Patancheru to Amberpet before January 2001 is yet to complete. Of course, adherence to legislation in the absence of effective implementation machinery naturally created a vacuum. While laws are enacted implementation remained a major flaw. The contractor-bureaucrat-politician nexus considerably watered down the legislative intent in the sphere of environment. The study found that the institutional responses to environmental problems are bleak and the role of judiciary is only reactive and not pro-active. The study also found that the other reasons for the lack of implementation of judicial decision are incapacity of the civil society in convincing the judiciary about the problem, lack of accessible of leaders to the decision-making process, inconsistency in the movement and politicizing the industrial problem etc. REFERENCES BansalV K and Gupta N K, 1992. Environmental Protection - A Constitutional Obligation, in Diwan & Diwan (eds.), Environment Administration, Law and Judicial Attitude, New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications. Divan S and Rosencranz A, 2001. Environmental Law and Policy in India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Dwivedi O P, 1997. Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Environmental Policies, Programmes and Stewardship, Great Britain: Macmillan Press Ltd. Rao, Kishan A, 2001. Patancheru: A Hell on Earth, Patancheru: A V R R Memorial Charitable Trust. 409

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Authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Index Abdul Hameed E 85 Abin Varghese 188 Abraham Samuel K 188 Ajaykumar Varma R 220 Ajith Mohan 49 Amit D Shendarkar 307 Anand S B 294 Anila P S 290 Anirudhan S 142 Anitha A B 36 Anuradha Krishnan 155 Arunkumar K S 75 Aswathy M V 166 Babu Alappat 201 Babu Ambat 104, 177 Balamurugan J 331 Beela G K 215 Bhaskaran C 113, 122 Bhavnani H V 90 Bhuvanendran C 229 Bijli B F H R 148 Bijoy Nandan S 60, 233 Bindu L 155 Celine George 101, 134 Chandramoni C M 142 Cheralathan M 281 Chitambaran P R 243 Chitra S 276 Cini A 239 Dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Souza R G 205 Datta J K 252 Dinesan V P 36 Dutta S M 359 Elangovan T 348 Ganapathy Venkatasubramanian S 364 Ganesh Kumar 393 Geetanjoy Sahu 406 Geetha G Nath 113 Gejo Anna Geevargese 104 George Abe 101, 134 George Chackacherry 381

Gopakumar R 36 Gopan Mukkulath 343 Gupta S 252 Harikuttan Unnithan C 229 Hideki Harada 54 James E J 11, 95 Jayachandran V P 317 Jayalakshmi S 209 Jobin Thomas 134 Joshi P A 359 Joy Elamon 177 Kadeeja Beevi M 233 Kamalakshan Kokkal 343 Kandeepan A 243 Kannan N 257, 262, 266, 271, 322, 326, 331 Karthikeyan G 257 Kazufumi Momose 54 Kennedy V J F 127 Krishnan M 343 Kumari Sushama N P 113, 122 Kurian P 188 Kuruvilla Varughese 120 Lakshmanan T V 364 Lal K B 276, 281 Lalit Agrawal 54 Lalitha C R 130 Lopamudra Ray 116 Mallick T 252 Mandal N K 252 Mani A G S 276 Manikandan N 81 Manonmani H K 317 Manuel Thomas 188 Martin Renold 155 Meenakshi Sundaram M 271 Mini K 337 Mishra A K 116 Mohan Kumar G 243 Mohan S 192 Muraleedharan P K 337 Murty Y S R 369 411

Indian Environment Congress 2004 Murugan M 134 Murugavel 271 Nagaraj B N 239 Nagarajan G 247 Narasimha Prasad N B 85 Natarajan S 303 Nazreen Hassan S 122 Padmakumar K G 155 Paramasivan K 276 Peter M C S 294 Peter V S 294 Phatta Thapa 54 Pradeep Kumar P K 95 Prakasam V R 183 Prasada Rao GSLHV 81 Radhakrishnan K 3 Raj S S 281 Rajakumar A 266 Rajamohan S 299, 303 Rajan M R 286 Rajendra Prasath B 247 Rajkumar Immauel S 127 Ramakrishnan B 116 Ramesh S T 192 Rao V R 116 Raveendran K 130 Ravindran K V 104 Roshan S Pai 307 Roy Chacko P T 49 Sabu Joseph 75 Saha R 252 Samantaray R N 116 Sambathkumar V 402 Sankar Ganesh K 299, 313 Saravanan N 247 Satheesh R 166 Satish S Bhatavadekar 378 Sayee Kannan R 262

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Seenivasan R K 326 Sejal H Trivedi 90 Selvaraju M 313 Senthil Kumaran D 402 Sharmistha Sinha 116 Sheela D 290 Shilja Joetreson 155 Shrihari 205 Shukla S R 307 Shyam S Salim 393 Shyni D S 177 Sindhu N T 353 Sinha P K 276 Sivaraj S 243 Sreedevi B G 69 Sreekumar S 233 Sreelakshmi K 337 Sudha E 262 Sudheesh M V 81 Suguna Yesodharan 196 Suja P Devipriya 196 Sujin J 49 Sukumaran V 209 Sumangala R K 281 Sundaramoorthy P 299, 303, 313 Sunil Kumar Karn 54, 386 Sunitha Ninan 393 Suvarna Kumari N 109 Tamil Selvan N 257 Taylor C W P 31 Thomas George 183 Unni P N 95 Vallinayagam P 257 Veeraraj 262 Vijayakumar N 353 Vijith H 166 Xavier A 322

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Brief Profile of Sponsors / Collaborators

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THE CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The Centre for Environment and Development (CED) established in 1993 with its headquarters at Thiruvananthapuram, and Regional Centres at Kochi, and Kozhikode, is an independent Research, Development, Consultancy and Training organization specialised in fields related to environment and development. The Centre’s primary objective is to carry out inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary research in environmental and developmental issues, based on crossfertilization of mono-disciplinary sciences. The research mandate of the Centre has been resolved into four Programme Areas viz. (i) Geo-Informatics and Applications (ii) Natural Resources and Environment Management, (iii) Water and Sanitation and (iv) Sustainable Livelihoods and Development. CED’s Core Competence • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Remote Sensing Application studies and Geo Information Technology Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Sanitation, Health and Hygiene Environmental Modeling Studies Environmental Impact Assessment Studies Participatory Resource Mapping, PRA Studies Biodiversity Studies, Eco-restoration Programmes Forestry and Wildlife Wetland Ecosystem Research and Management Developmental Communication – Preparation of Communication Software Hydrogeomorphological and Surface Water Studies River Basin Management and Watershed Studies Ecotourism Training and Extension Programmes on GIS, Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing, Environmental Friendly Habitat Design, Water Supply and Sanitation etc

Facilities • • • • • • • • •

Remote Sensing, Digital Image Processing and Geo-Information Laboratory with latest software and data products GIS based Application Software Development and Decision Support System Global Positioning System Design for Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering Environmental Monitoring Unit Environment Friendly Habitat Design Resource Mapping and Cartographic unit Education and Training Unit Documentation Centre 415

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Consultancy Services CED is providing Consultancy Services in the following specialized areas: • Remote Sensing and Geographical Information System • Information Communication Technology (ICT) • Water Supply Engineering • Wastewater and Sewerage Management • Solid Waste Management • Water Resources Development • Watershed Management • Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management • Forestry, Landscaping • Environmental Impact Assessment • Participatory Resource Mapping - Rural and Urban • Public Health Sponsors and Collaborators • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Japan Bank for International Co-operation World Bank United Nations Development Programme Royal Netherlands Embassy International Development Research Centre – PAN ASIA ICT R&D Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India Department of Science & Technology, Government of India Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Government of India Indian Space Research Organisation, Government of India Science, Technology & Environment Committee, Kerala Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, Government of India Rural Development Department, Government of Kerala Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India Harbour Engineering Department, Government of Kerala Kerala Forests & Wildlife Department Kerala Agricultural University World Wide Fund for Nature India, New Delhi State Panning Board, Government of Kerala

For details Executive Director Centre for Environment and Development, TC 9/2598, D1, Elankom Gardens, Vellayambalam, Thiruvananthapuram - 695010, Kerala Phone: +91- 471 – 2726793, 2726794 Fax: +91- 471 - 2726792 E-mail: ceddir@vsnl.com; URL: http://www.cedindia.org

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KERALA STATE COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT (KSCSTE)

In order to cope with the emerging scenario in the Science, Technology and Environment Sector, the Government of Kerala took a timely and pro-active step to replacing the erstwhile State Committee on Science Technology and Environment by Kerala State Council for Science Technology & Environment (KSCSTE). The council came in to existence on 21st November 2002 as a registered society under the Travancore - Cochin Literary scientific and Charitable Societies Registration Act 1955. The R&D Institutes namely, Center for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (RGCB), Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI), Centre for Water Resource Development and Management (CWRDM), National Transportation Planning and Research Centre (NATPAC) and Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), were amalgamated fully with the new Society for their integrated development. The Functions of the Society are (i) to advise Government on Science and Technology matters, (ii) to foster, promote and sustain a spirit of scientific enquiry, and innovation and entrepreneurship, (iii) to acquire and disseminate scientific and technological knowledge for the improvement of traditional industries, (iv) to train scientists and technologists to handle special problems in agriculture, industry and allied fields, (v) to monitor, guide and co-ordinate research activities etc., and (vi) to identify areas for application of science and technology to the development needs, objectives and goals of the State. The programmes undertaken by KSCSTE include Science Research Scheme, Selective Augmentation of R & D, Ecology and Environment Scheme, Encouragement for Engineering and Technology, Biotechnology policy and programmes, Biodiversity Action Plan, KSCSTE Research Fellowship, Sastraposhini â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a scheme for establishing model science laboratories in schools, Patent Information Centre, Seminar/Symposia/Workshop/Training Programme, GIAN Centre â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Kerala, Kerala Coastal Zone Management Authority (KCZMA), State of Environment Report for Kerala, Environmental Policy, Environmental Information System (ENVIS), and Wetland Management. The Council also conducts Science Popularisation Programmes such as Kerala Science Congress, National Science Day, National Technology Day, National Environmental Awareness Campaign, National Green Corps (NGC), World Environment Day, and Year of Scientific Awareness. For details Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE), Sastra Bhavan, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Tel: +91-471- 2543701, 2543702, 2543703, 2543704, 2543556 URL: www.kscste.org

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TOKYO ENGINEERING CONSULTANTS CO LTD (TEC), JAPAN Tokyo Engineering Consultants Co Ltd (TEC) was established in 1959 legally incorporated in Tokyo, Japan. The TEC is one of the pioneer consulting engineers in Japan exclusively in the field of water supply and sewerage, including urban drainage with related fields of work such as water resource development, water quality analysis and water pollution control program. The Tokyo Engineering Consultants has a total permanent staff of 351, of which some 245 are engineers, architect and other professionals. In Japan, the TEC has besides its headquarter at Tokyo, 4 regional offices and 11 branch offices spread throughout Japan. The Overseas Department carries out projects in foreign countries. So far, TEC has successfully accomplished projects in over 33 countries worldwide including South and East Asia, Middle East, Eastern Europe, Africa and Latin America. Currently, TEC has branch or liaison offices in Jordan, Cambodia, East Timor and India. Some of the major projects undertaken by TEC in India include: (1) OECF Funded- Study to Prioritize Sewerage Schemes in 15 Towns in the Yamuna River Basin (1991-1992); (2) JBIC Funded-Technical and Management Consultancy Services for Yamuna Action Plan (1995 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2002); (3) JICA Study- Water Quality Management Plan for Ganges River (2003-2005); (4) JBIC FundedKerala Water Supply Project (2003- on going); (5) JBIC Funded- Yamuna Action Plan Phase-II, Project Management Consultant, (2004 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ongoing) For details Tokyo Engineering Consultants Co Ltd (TEC), Fuji Building, 3-7-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0013, Japan Telephone: (03) 3580-2418 Facsimile: (03) 3591-0492 E-mail: overseas@tokyoengicon.co.jp

NIIT GIS LTD. (ESRI INDIA), BANGALORE ESRI India is a dedicated GIS and Photogrammetry products company. ESRI India started operations in 1996 with providing complete GIS and Image Processing Solutions to users in India and the subcontinent as its mission. ESRI India was formed as a strategic alliance between ESRI Inc. and NIIT Limited. ESRI India provides to its customers the complete range of GIS solutions from ESRI Inc., Photogrammetry solutions from BAE Systems, the world leader in Photogrammetry solutions well as the complete range of services required to successfully implement GIS including data, application and education services apart from support. ESRI technology is present far and wide in the Indian market and can be seen at various Govern418

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ment and Private Installations including Space Applications Centre, Forest Survey of India, and various educational institutions.

For details NIIT GIS Ltd. (ESRI India), Bangalore 39/2, First Floor, (Above Sagar Automobiles) Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore - 560 029 Tel : +91-(80)-26094052, 5501221/ 22/23 Fax:.+91-(80)- 5501220 E-mail: SatyanandaPMB@niit.com URL: www.esriindia.com

WTI ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY LTD., CHENNAI WTI Advanced Technology Ltd. (WTI) has been originally incorporated in 1987, as a joint venture between Westinghouse Electric Corporation – USA, Tata’s of India and International Finance Corporation, USA. Right from inception WTI has been closely associated with Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), the premier software consultancy house in India. This relationship is further strengthened with TCS acquiring the shareholding of Westinghouse’& IFC, thereby making WTI its wholly-owned subsidiary. WTI specializes in Geo-Spatial IT Services and Solutions, Engineering Services and Engineering Business Process Outsourcing. WTI’s major focus is in the area of Geo-Spatial IT services and solutions and has proven ability in addressing all the three major components of Geo-spatial IT system namely: (i) Data Creation, Maintenance and Management, (ii) Developing industry / business specific GIS applications and (iii) Integrating with Enterprise IT system For details WTI Advanced Technology Ltd., 98, Peters Road, Chennai 600 086, India. Tel: 91-44-2835 0541 / 2835 3401 / 2835 0178 Fax: 91-44-2835 2876 E-mail: info@wtiatl.com URL: www.wtiatl.com

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WILBUR SMITH ASSOCIATES PRIVATE LIMITED (WSAPL) Wilbur Smith Associates Private Limited (WSAPL), an affiliate of Wilbur Smith Associates (WSA) Inc., USA. is a full service professional consulting firm engaged in the planning and designing of public infrastructure and transportation facilities. The Companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s practice includes development of the entire spectrum of urban infrastructure, engineering, planning, economic analysis, strategy development and environmental studies for infrastructure utilities. Headquartered at Bangalore, WSAPL works closely with Government Institutions, International Development Agencies, and the Private Sector, providing engineering consultancy services on par with the best in the world. With a rare blend of innovation, rigorous implementation and outstanding customer service, a 225-strong dedicated capability building team consisting of technology groups, process experts, and a brand-building unit, boasting an international track record of expertise, build on the Companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s service offerings. For details Wilbur Smith Associates Private Limited TC 31/3772, Vivek Garden, Temple Road, Pipinmoodu, Sasthamangalam, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 010 Tel: +91 (471) 2727081/83 Fax: +91 (471) 2727079 Email: wsapl_tvm@asianetindia.com

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR HEALTH PROMOTION AND EDUCATION (IUHPE) The IUHPE is half a century old, and continues to be the only global organisation entirely devoted to advancing public health through health promotion and health education. The IUHPE is a leading global network working to promote health worldwide and contribute to the achievement of equity in health between and within countries. It draws its strength and authority from the qualities and commitment of its diverse network of members, and it has an established track record in advancing the knowledge base and improving the quality and effectiveness of health promotion and health education practice. Members range from government bodies, to universities and institutes, to NGOs and individuals across all continents. The IUHPE decentralises its activities through Regional Offices. It works in close cooperation with WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, and other major inter-governmental and non-governmental organisations to influence and facilitate the development of health promotion strategies and projects. IUPHE Kerala Chapter has been working for the last 15 years in Kerala organizing various IEC activities related to health and sanitation fields. 420

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For details IUHPE/SEARB - Kerala Chapter ‘Rahimayisha’, KRA # 3, Nalumukku, Thiruvananthapuram – 695024 Tel: 91-471- 2470824 E-mail: bbijli@yahoo.com

‘POABS’ COMMITTED TO VALUES The POABS group of concerns is primarily into organic farming, producing and exporting organic tea, green tea, organic coffee, organic cardamom, pepper, white pepper, and organic fruits and vegetables. Their plantation, located in the Nelliyampathy hills of Palakkad district (Kerala), is hailed as the largest certified multi-crop perennial mixed organic farm in the country; the plantation and produce are now certified for quality and safety by International Organic Certifying bodies. POABS organic farm is a unique demonstration centre of excellent soil and water management methods, with more than 50 check dams and ponds that meet all their water requirements, and also serving as fish farms. The entire manure required for the farm is prepared on site, partly with the cow dung from their 300 cattle, with milk as a by-product. POABS also own and operate the Thiruvananthapuram Solid Waste Treatment Plant using the city corporation waste, the largest plant in Asia. The converted rich organic bio-manure is made available to farmers, plantations, horticulturists, etc. For details Poabs Envirotech Pvt. Ltd., Vilappilsala P.O., Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India – 695 573 Tel: +91 – 472 – 2882696 Fax: +91 – 472 - 2882447

OTHER SPONSORS ELCOME TECHNOLOGIES PVT. LIMITED CENTRE FOR ACTION RESEARCH AND EXTENSION (CARE), KUZHITHURAI 421

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Organising Committee Chairman Vice Chairmen

General Convener Jt. Conveners

: Dr M K Ramachandran Nair, Hon. Vice Chancellor, University of Kerala : Dr C Sundaresan Nair, Dean, Kerala Agricultural University Dr C P Aravindakshan, Former Director, Sramik Vidya Peedh : Dr Babu Ambat, Executive Director, CED : Dr T Sabu, Asst. Development Officer, Rubber Board Ms Deepa Nair K., Fellow, CED

Technical Committee Chairman : Dr G M Nair, Director, TBGRI Convener : Dr V Sobha, Head, Dept. of Environmental Science, University of Kerala Jt. Convener : Dr T R Vinod, Fellow, CED Publication Committee Chairman : Dr T Elangovan, Director, NATPAC Convener : Dr C Bhaskaran, Professor of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University Reception Committee Chairman : Sri Jayachandran Nair, Chairman, Institution of Engineers (Kerala), Vellayambalam, Trivandrum Convener : Dr Roy Chacko, Professor, Dept. of Geology, University of Kerala Jt. Convener : Dr T Neelakantan, Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Geography, University College, Trivandrum Media & Publicity Committee Chairman : Sri Gouridasan Nair, Principal Correspondent, The Hindu Convener : Sri Sunil Hassan, Correspondent, Madhyamom Daily Jt. Convener : Sri Mathew Andrews, Kerala State Electricity Board Programme Committee Chairman : Sri K Balachandran Thampi, Addl. PCCF, Kerala Forests and Wildlife Department Convener : Dr George Chackachery, CWRDM-Subcentre, Trivandrum Jt. Convener : Sri Renjan Mathew Varghese, Associate Fellow, CED Finance Committee Chairman : Adv V Mohanachandran, President, Sports Council of Kerala Convener : Sri C V Surendran, Senior Advisor, CED Jt. Convener : Sri Renjith K K, Chartered Accountant Sponsorship Committee Chairman : Dr Ajay Kumar Varma, Director, Clean Kerala Mission Convener : Dr Manilal, Scientist, RRL, Trivandrum Jt. Convener: Dr Shaji, Scientist, ERRC, Trivandrum 422

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Inaugural Session: Welcome address by Dr Babu Ambat, Executive Director, CED

Minister for Water Resources and Parlimentary Affairs, Government of Kerala, Sri. Thiruvanchoor Radhakrishnan inaugurating the Congress

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Dr. M K Ramachandran Nair, Vice Chancellor, Kerala University & Chairman, Organising Committee, IEC 2004, delivering the Presidential Address

Keynote Address: Dr K Radhakrishnan, Director, INCOIS, Hyderabad

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A view of the audience

Paper Presentation

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Poster Presentations

Valedictory Session: Presidential address by Dr S C Gupta, Chairman, CED

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Sri. V. Ramachandran, Vice Chairman, State Planning Board, Govt. of Kerala, delivering the Valedictory address

Ms M V Aswathy (M G University) receiving the Best Paper Award in the Land and Water Resources Management sub-theme from Sri. V Ramachandran, Vice Chairman, State Planning Board, Govt. of Kerala.

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Smt. Shyni DS receives the Best Paper Award in ‘Environmental Sanitation and Health’ sub-theme

Mr Geetanjoy Sahu’s paper was adjudged the best in the Environmental Policy and Institutional Aspects

Indian Environment Congress 2004

Thiruvananthapuram

The ‘Thiruvathirakkali’, a part of the cultural evening

The Sponsors’ stall

Indian Environment Congress 2004

The Sponsorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stall

The Venue â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Maria Rani Centre

Thiruvananthapuram