KEC 2009

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PROCEEDINGS

KERALA

ENVIRONMENT

FOCAL

OF

CONGRESS

THEME

WATER RESOURCES OF KERALA

19 th , 20 th & 21 st August 2009 T h ir u v a n a n th a p u r a m

Organised by

CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

Sponsored by MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

2009

Kerala Environment Congress 2009

T hiruv anant hapuram

Proceedings of the Kerala Environment Congress - 2009 Editors Dr. Babu Ambat Dr. T.R. Vinod Dr. T. Sabu Dr. P.V. Karunakaran Smt. P.N. Syamala

Published by

Centre for Environment and Development Thozhuvancode, Vattiyoorkavu Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Pre-press Soft & Soft, Sasthamangalam Thiruvananthapuram Design Godfrey’s Graphics Sasthamangalam, Thiruvananthapuram Printed at GK Printers, Kochi ii

Kerala Environment Congress 2009

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Prof. M.K. PRASAD Executive Chairman and Director

FOREWORD Environmental management plays an important role in effecting a balance between the demands and resources available, thus keeping the environmental quality at a satisfactory level. Healthy environment is the most critical component essential for the well being of a society and the foundation for a sustainable and strong economy.

This includes natural resources such as fresh water, oceans, air, forests, grasslands, agro-ecosystems and so on. The World Summits on Environment and Development have helped in bringing the nations closer and unitedly face the challenges in protecting the environment from further degradation and also for a scientific environment management. As a follow up many nations formulated national strategies and policies as a step towards achieving the objectives of these summits. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement brought out by India in 1992, which was revised in 2006 as the National Environmental Policy (NEP-2006) was also in accordance with our national commitment to a clean and healthy environment, mandated in the Constitution and further strengthened by judicial pronouncements from time to time. It is now well recognised that maintaining a healthy and clean environment is not the State’s responsibility alone, but also that of every citizen.A spirit of partnership should thus be realised throughout the spectrum of environmental conservation and management not only in the country but also at the global level.

This is very important especially in the context of reducing climate change related issues at the global level. While the State must galvanize its efforts, each individual, institutions, and organisations also should shoulder the responsibility of protecting and enhancing the quality of the environment. Integrating the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programmes as well as at local level activities are very important in this context. It is in this context the relevance of the Kerala Environment Congress come in to focus.

The Centre for Environment and Development has initiated the Kerala Environment Congress in 2005 with the main objective of providing an annual platform for interaction between experts, scientists, policy and decision makers, institutions and organisations and discussing the major environmental issues the State is Sasthra Bhavan, Patt om P.O., Thiruv ananthapuram-695 004, Kerala St ate, I ndia.

Tel. 0471-2543701-05, Fax: 0471-2540085 e-mail:inf i i i o@kscs te.org Website: www.ks cste. org

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confronting.The last four Congresses Thiruvananthapuram and Trissur.

were

held

at

Kochi,

Kozhikode,

Water is the most distributed resource in our planet: in different amounts it is available everywhere and plays an important role in the surrounding environment and human life and it cannot be substituted by anything. Water Resources Management plays a pivotal role in the planning process. Water is one of the few natural resources which is abundantly found in our State in the form of a large chain of backwater bodies and wetlands, rivers, large number of tanks, ponds, dug wells, springs etc.The State is getting an average of around 300cm of rainfall. Inspite of all these, many parts of Kerala is facing partial or full water scarcity in many months of the year. At the same time, the supply and demand of water for different end uses is increasing day by day.

Hence, it is important and essential to have a more scientific planning for a proper area wise utilisation of all the available water resources and their sensible management at State and local level.

Documentation of information related to various aspects of water resources in the State along with the formulation of strategy for scientific utilization and management is the need of the hour. The growing awareness about the role of water resources in maintaining the utility and environmental functions has highlighted the need of the conservation and proper management of the water resources in the State. It is highly appropriate, therefore, that this Environment Congress has taken up ‘Water Resources of Kerala’ as the focal theme. I congratulate the Centre for Environment and Development for bringing this important subject for discussion and action. I hope that the papers presented at the Congress and in this Proceedings and the discussions in the sessions will help in evolving viable strategies for conservation and sustainable management of water resources in Kerala.

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KERALA ENVIRONMENT CONGRESS 2009 The Kerala Environment Congress was initiated by the Centre for Environment and Development (CED) in 2005 with the objective of creating a platform for interaction between senior and junior researchers as well as policy-decision makers and also institutions and organisations for sharing expertise and experience in subjects of relevance to the sustainable development of the State.

CED established in 1993 with its Headquarters at Thiruvananthapuram is an independent Research, Training and Consultancy organization focusing on environment and sustainable development. It is the Centre of Excellence on Water Management of the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India and also the Regional Resource Agency of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. CED tries to work in the Science and Society Interface by providing scientific and technical support in the form of research, training,capacity building and extension and consultancy services. The major Programme Areas are (i) Natural Resources Management, (ii) Water, Environmental Sanitation and Health, (iii) Climate Change and Energy Studies, (iv) Coastal Systems Research, (v) Information and Knowledge Management and (vi) Policy Studies and Institutional Design. CED has established its Eastern Regional Centre at Bhubaneswar, Orissa and has a Regional Centre at Kochi and eight Project Offices in Kerala with around 300 multi-disciplinary staff. CED has also established a Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre at Kalyasseri, Kannur and also managing the Solid Waste Processing Plant of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation.

During the last 16 years, CED has completed 75 R&D, Consultancy and Training Projects supported by various International and National Agencies like the World Bank, UNDP, JBIC, RNE, IDRC, ADB, Commonwealth Local Government Forum, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Department of Science & Technology, Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Ministry of Rural Development, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology & Environment, Local Self Government Department, Kerala, Forests and Wildlife Department, Kerala, Planning and Coordination Department of Orissa, etc. The Centre is also coordinating the National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC) of MoEF in Kerala and Lakshadweep Islands. CED has also involved in many research and consultancy programmes in States like Gujarat, Orissa,West Bengal and Assam.The Centre has involved in many projects in Orissa such as Preparation of District Plans for Jajpur and Jagajitpur districts, supporting the project on PAHELI survey on Human Development for all the 30 districts of Orissa and many training programmes.

The first Kerala Environment Congress was held at Kochi on 6th & 7th May, 2005 with v

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the focal theme “Coastal and Marine Environment-Issues, Problems and Potentials”.

The second Congress was held at Kozhikode on 15th &16th December, 2006 with the focal theme “Forest Resources of Kerala”. The third Kerala Environment Congress was organized from 8th to 10th of May 2007 at Thiruvananthapuram with “Wetlands of Kerala” as the focal theme.The fourth Congress was organized on 22nd to 24th April, 2008 at Trissur with the focal theme “Environmental Sanitation,Health and Hygiene” in association with Kerala Institute of Local Administration (KILA).

The Congress generally includes invited paper presentations, as well as paper and poster presentations for Young Scientist Award. Since one of the major objectives of the KEC is to promote young researchers (age 35 and below), we have instituted a Young Scientist Award. One of the major attractions of the Congress is the Open Forum where not only the researchers but also the local government functionaries, officials, NGOs and other social group members, media persons, etc., will be participating to discuss a topic of local relevance or common interest leading to some action programmes.

The fifth Kerala Environment Congress (KEC-2009) is being organized from 19th to 21st August, 2009 at Thiruvananthapuram, with the focal theme “Water Resources of Kerala”. This is a highly relevant topic in the present context and CED has pioneered many studies related to river basins, wetlands and watershed management and also being involved in design and other engineering support for many urban and rural water supply, storm water drainage and waste water management projects in Kerala. As one of the Centre of Excellence established by Ministry of Urban Development, GoI, CED is focusing on Water, Waste Water Management and Solid Waste Management.

More than that, Water Resources is a highly relevant topic to be discussed in the context of Kerala. The presentations and discussions in this Congress will focus on subjects like integrated river basin management, hydrogeology, traditional water sources of Kerala, water policy, irrigation management, water and natural disasters, water and health, watershed management and so on. The Open Forum will discuss on the “Strategy and Methodology for Waste Water Management in Urban areas of India with pilot studies in Thiruvananthapuram Corporation and Palakkad Municipality”.

This proceedings volume contains full papers of invited and other presentations. We hope that the deliberations in the Congress and the papers published in the Proceedings will help to evolve a strategy to formulate action plan for the sustainable development and management of Water Resources in Kerala. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, is kind enough to sponsor this National Workshop and their support is gratefully acknowledged. On behalf of CED, we take this opportunity to place our sincere gratitude to all the distinguished participants and other invitees who have supported us to make this Congress a success.

Dr Babu Ambat Executive Director, CED vi

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Contents Keynote Presentation 1.

Integrated Management of River Basins with Special Reference to Kerala State James E J

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Invited Presentations 2.

Hydrogeology of Kerala – An Overview Balakrishnan K, Mini Chandran and Thambi D S C

3.

Traditional Water Resources in Kerala Kamalakshan Kokkal and Aswathy M V

4.

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Watershed Development and Management Premachandran P N, Roshni G C and Thomas Cherian

5.

33

63

Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Water Resources Development and Management in India

6.

7.

Ganesha Raj K

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Water and Health Biju Soman

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Water Quality Status of Kerala with special reference to Drinking Water Harikumar P S

8.

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Kerala Water Policy 2008 - An Evaluation Ajayakumar Varma R

9.

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Irrigation Management in Kerala George Chackacherry

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10. Perspective for Decentraliazed Water Sources Planning in Kerala – A Case Study of Thiruvananthapuram

District

Nair A S K

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11. A New Scientific and Management Approach to Water Related Natural Disasters Nair A S K

143

12. Water Literacy Prasad M K 13. Pricing of water in Kerala Girijavallabhan V K

163

14. Governance of Drinking Water in Kerala: Analysis of Recent Institutional Changes Narayanan N C and Mohammed Irshad S

171

15. Perspectives and Strategies for Waste Water Management (An initiative in the context of establishment of Centre of Excellence on Waste Water Management in CED) Karunakaran P V, James E J and Babu Ambat

186

16. Assessing Canal Seepage and its Impact on Ground Water Regime - A Case Study of Valapattanam River Basin Abdul Hameed E and Mahesha A

202

17. Water Balance Studies of Valapattanam River Basin using Bhiwa Model Anitha A B, Dinil Sony C and Jayakumar K V

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18. Status of Household Drinking Water Sources, Water use and its correlation with Water-borne disease in Rural Kerala Jayakrishnan T and Thomas Bina

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19. A Solution to the Problem of Ground Water Shortage in the Midlands of Kerala Nair K M

224

20. Drinking Water for Thiruvananthapuram District : A Vision for 2025 Sandhya S Nair, Nanda Mohan V and Nair A S K

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Young Scientist’s Award Presentations 21. Prevalence and enhanced survival of indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens in Kumarakom region of Vembanad lake Abhirosh Chandran, Hatha A A M, Sherin Varghese and Thomas A P

245

22. Landfill Leachate and its Impact on the Ground Water Quality of Vadavathoor, Kottayam – A Case Study Arun Babu V, Rakesh P S, Thomas A P and Ramasamy E V

255

23. Comparison of Floral Diversity in Fresh Water and Salt Water Wetland Sacred Groves of Kannur District Deepamol P C and Khaleel K M

261

24. Watershed Management of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary - A Geospatial Approach Magesh G and Menon A R R

265

25. Heavy metal content in the water and aquatic macrophytes of lower reaches of Periyar river Toms Augustine, Mahesh Mohan, Thomas A P and Ramasamy E V

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Integrated Management of River Basins

James E J

Keynote Address

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Centre for Environment and Development

Integrated Management of River Basins

James E J

Integrated Management of River Basins with Special Reference to Kerala State James E J Director, Water Institute, Karunya University, Coimbatore (Former Executive Director, CWRDM, Kozhikode)

INTRODUCTION The last few decades have witnessed the recognition that the Earth’s resources are finite and call for implementation strategies which ensure the maintenance of these resources for future generations. At the same time, development is undoubtedly a desirable economic and social objective which achieves or maximizes a number of attributes such as: increased income, improvements in health and nutrition status, educational advancement, access to resources and a ‘fairer’ distribution of income (Pearce et al., 1990). The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) acknowledged that ‘development and conservation are equally necessary for our survival’ (IUCN, 1980).

The strategies outlined by WCS include: (i) the maintenance of essential ecological processes within ‘life support ecosystems’ such as agricultural land and soil, forests, and coastal and freshwater bodies; (ii) the preservation of genetic diversity; and (iii) the promotion of sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. The concept of ‘ecodevelopment’ advanced by the WCS was brought into the realm of political development by the establishment of the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1983. The Commission’s report Our Common Future renewed the debate over sustainable development, defining it as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

Several new paradigms are being propounded to achieve the goal of sustainable development of natural resources, one such being ‘ecosystem’ approach. The concept of a ‘holistic approach’ is relatively easy to preach but difficult to practise, mainly because it encompasses not only the domains of physical and natural sciences but also that of social sciences. To achieve success in natural resources management for sustainability, it is necessary to carefully plan for bringing together the two important components, namely (i) the complex web of interactions in nature, and (ii) still more complex web of interrelationships among human needs, expectations and value systems.

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In such an approach, sustainability calls for due consideration of economic, social, environmental and institutional aspects.

It is worthwhile to note that the UN General Assembly held in June 1997, while examining the progress on sustainable development, made a call for the formulation and implementation of policies and programmes for integrated watershed (basin) management. In such a river basin management, it is essential to ensure the involvement of all stakeholders, encourage the public participation, raise public awareness, build capacity and develop appropriate institutional structures. All these will help in building a consensus and resolving conflicts of interests; such exercises are essential for effective natural resources management (Anon., 1997).

NEED FOR INTEGRATED RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT In line with the recommendations of the International Conference on Water and Environment (ICWE) held in 1992 at Dublin, Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 of Rio Conference stressed the need for integrated water management. The emphasis was also on the need for water resources assessment, protecting freshwater from overexploitation and pollution, improvements in drinking water supply and sanitation, impact of urban development, water for food security and implications of climate change.

The integrated water resources management is based on the concept of water being an integral part of an ecosystem, a natural resource and a social and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilization (UN, 1992). The World Bank (1996) states that degrading the quantity and quality of water in rivers, lakes, wetlands and aquifers can inextricably alter the water resources system and its associated biota, affecting present and future generations. The holistic management of freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national and international economic and social policy, are of paramount importance to ensure sustainable use of water.

The inter-connected nature of river systems means that successful water management requires the adoption of methodologies which consider all the activities within an area instead of focusing on only one or perhaps a small number of limited objectives. The river basin provides the natural unit for such an approach. According to Young et al.

(1994), the fact that water interacts with and, to a large extent, controls other natural components within a basin such as soils, vegetation and wildlife suggests that human activities, which are so strongly influenced by water availability and quality, might best be coordinated within administrative structures which reflect river basins. This management approach should enable the incorporation of both upstream and downstream considerations into decision making and subsequently the management of water resources. It should also help to avoid the problems associated with the isolated, often short-sighted, use of water-land resources in one area which often have knock on impacts elsewhere within the river basin.

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In the context of a river basin, it is a natural integrator of all hydrologic processes within its boundaries, and therefore, a rational and ideal unit for soil, water and biomass management. These resources are closely linked and can be rightly designated as a ‘trinity’ in the context of a basin/watershed. If one among this trinity, namely, the bioresources is overexploited by deforestation, more soil erosion and degradation will take place; this in turn will have its impact on water balance and flora and fauna as such.

Water resources and river basin management in Asia can be viewed at a range of scales. Some of the local level water management practices followed for hundreds of years includes:  Small dykes with simple sluice gates covering 2-4 ha of rice fields in the mangrovesof Vietnam;  Lined tanks of Thar Desert in India and the ‘kundi’ consisting of a tank surrounded by hardened surface with mud that funnels rainwater;  Contour bunds constructed in the hillslopes at different parts of India, especially in Kerala; and  Wells dug in the downstream portion of the bunds to provide water for the livestock; etc.

These types of local scale integration rarely grew into river basin scales in Asia, though several major hydraulic structures were constructed in the latter half of the twentieth century.

One of the attempts made in Philippines to achieve basin-wide management is worth mentioning. The National Power Corporation of Philippines is in full control of Angat River Basin, and has succeeded in achieving multiple objectives. These include:(i) maintenance of the watershed’s capacity to support and sustain the generation of electricity by maintaining adequate forest cover and minimize, if not control, soil erosion; (ii) regulating land use activities and controlling exploitation of forest resources; (iii) improving socio-economic conditions of human population within the river basin and ensuring their participation in watershed management and protection; and (iv) generating income from agricultural plantations to partially subsidise the cost of watershed management and development.

Another attempt towards achieving integrated river basin management in Asia has been done in the Mekong basin of 795000 sq km area; the river is the longest in South East Asia and twelfth longest in the world. The six riparian countries of the river include China, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Myanmar. The governments of Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam gave birth to Mekong Secretariat. In 1995, an international agreement was signed by the lower riparian countries, brokered by UNDP. The Council of Ministers of Mekong River Commission is supported by senior water officials in a Joint-Committee, who are in turn, aided by experts and technical staff of the Mekong River Commission Secretariat. The diagnostic study carried out has helped in coming out with Mekong Basin Development Plan.

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Though integrated river basin management and formation of River Authorities have been talked about in India right from the time of First Irrigation Commission and the target year for achieving this was fixed at 1980, the country has not succeeded in implementing these plans. The Government of Kerala was also making attempts to achieve integrated management of river basins with the formation of River Authorities.

In fact, a basic document was prepared for the Government, and certain details on the constitution and functions of such bodies brought to the notice of the authorities (James, 2005). However, much progress has not been made in this direction. It is understood that a mechanism devised by the Government of Kerala to implement the Pampa Action Plan is also not functioning satisfactorily. In the background of all these, there is a need to look in to the various issues pertaining to integrated water resources management, especially river basin management in the context of Kerala.

WATER RESOURCES OF KERALA: UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS Rainfall Distribution Kerala State is situated in the humid tropics with two predominant rainy seasons caused by the south-west monsoon (June-August) and the north-east monsoon (SeptemberDecember). On an average, the State receives 3000 mm annual rainfall, of which 65 per cent is obtained during the south-west monsoon, 20 per cent during the north-east monsoon and the remaining during the so called summer (January-May) (James, 1985).

Not only in time but also in space the rainfall varies (Fig. 1).

For example, while Wayanad and Idukki areas receive 5000 mm of average annual rainfall, Palakkad and certain areas on the eastern side of the ghats receive only 2500 mm. There are some areas in the Attappady valley with only 600 mm annual average rainfall. Generally, the high ranges receive more rainfall than the other zones, mainly due to a phenomenon termed as ‘orography’ – influence of hills on rainfall (Sreedharan and James, 1986). Areas on the eastern side of the Western Ghats have less rainfall and are rightly called ‘rain-shadow’ areas. The rainfall in regions close to the gaps, such as Palakkad, is also comparatively less due to the escape of moisture-laden clouds through the gaps. It is also worthwhile to note that the south-west monsoon is more vigorous in the northern part of Kerala and the north-east monsoon in the southern part and also in the basins of east-flowing rivers of Kerala. While the temporal distribution of rainfall depends on the monsoon winds to a great extent, the spatial distribution depends on the configuration of land, especially the undulating topography of the ghats. The flora and fauna of Kerala very much depend on the rainfall pattern and availability of water either as direct rainfall or as stream flow, soil moisture and groundwater.

Geomorphology and Geology Another factor which has a great impact on the hydrology as well as on the other related environmental factors is the unique physiography of the region. The average width of the State is about 70 km and three distinct parallel physiographic zones with more or less the same area are visible: (i) highland (above 75 m from sea level), (ii) 6

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Fig. 1 Isohyetal map showing the spatial distribution on annual rainfall in Kerala (after CWRDM, 1995)

midland (between 7.5 and 75 m) and lowland (between mean sea level and 7.5 m) (CWRDM, 1995). The lowland is more or less a plain terrain with sediments of recent and sub-recent origin. This area is characterised by a number of estuaries, the west coast canal and typical low-lying areas. Most of the wetlands of the State are in this physiographic zone. Kerala has a thickly populated coastline of about 600 km and around half of her shoreline is prone to coastal erosion. The major crops of this thickly populated lowland are rice and coconut. The areas lying below the mean sea level, especially Kuttanad and Kol lands, are also falling within this physiographic zone.

The midland is characterised by low hills and valleys, forming the unique watersheds or ‘elas’ of Kerala with streams flowing through the valley portion. The lateritic hills and alluvial valleys are representative of these ‘elas’ of midland (CWRDM, 1990).

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The valleys of the ‘elas’ are cultivated with rice and hill slopes with coconut, arecanut, plantains, etc. The highlands are characterised by crystalline rocks of Archaean age with a number of mountain streams. The forests are mainly in the highlands. There has been considerable depletion of forest areas during the past few decades. The land use in this area has considerably changed; plantation and spice crops have replaced large areas of forests. The studies show that the mono-cropping system in the high ranges has considerable environmental consequences (CWRDM, 1981).

Sources of Water There are 44 rivers in Kerala of lengths more than 15 km; 41 of them flow towards the west and the remaining 3 flow to the east. Most of these rivers are ephemeral because the only input of water is from rainfall, mainly during the monsoons. It is important to note that these rivers are short and their basin areas are comparatively very small (James and Padmini, 1983). The annual discharge from all the rivers of Kerala is estimated to be around 78000 million cubic meter, of which 70000 million cubic meter is the contribution from the sub-basins in Kerala. It is worthwhile to note in this context that a single river like Godavari in Andhra Pradesh has an average annual discharge of 105000 million cubic meter (Rao, 1979). The utilisable surface water is estimated at around 40000 million cubic meter (PWD, 1974). The ground water potential of the State is estimated to be around 8000 million cubic meter, of which more than 1000 million cubic meter is the present draft (CWRDM, 1995). However, there are diverse views even on the calculation of the utilizable potential. There are more than 6 million open wells in the State. Apart from these sources, there are several traditional sources like springs in the highland and tanks in the midland and lowland areas. The ‘surangams’ or the so called horizontal wells are popular in Kasaragod and even pockets of Kannur districts. Wetlands such as Sasthamcotta in the lowland belt of Kollam, Vellayani in the midland belt of Thiruvanathapuram and Pookot in the highland belt of Waynad are potential sources of fresh water in the respective areas of the State (James and Padmini, 1993). It is worthwhile to note that the transpiration from the natural plants and trees of uncultivated areas is estimated to be very high in Kerala (James, 1989a).

MAJOR LIMITATIONS IN FORMULATING WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT PLANS FOR KERALA Limitations Defined The water resources development and management strategies of the State have not yielded anticipated results, mainly because of the following three factors: (i) Sufficient data on hydrologic and other related parameters were not available and wherever available or could have been estimated using certain techniques, necessary attention was not given to this basic input for planning in the State (James, 1983); (ii) Integrated river basin plans were not formulated and projects were taken up in an adhoc and arbitrary basis, and the case was not different in connection with small watersheds also (James, 1988); and 8

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(iii) Most of the projects formulated and executed did not give due consideration to social, economic and environmental factors (Nambudripad and James, 1989).

The limitations stated above are illustrated with some examples from the region.

Absence of Hydrologic Data Base Most of the major/medium irrigation and hydroelectric projects of the State were planned and executed in the absence of sufficient data on stream flow (James, 1983).

For formulating at least some of them, reliable rainfall data from the catchments were also not available. The methods and techniques used to derive stream flow information from rainfall were crude (James and Mohan, 1986; Kandasamy et al, 1989; Sreedharan and James, 1993; Sreedharan and James, 1994). As a result of these, some of the projects were either over-designed or under-designed. Moreover, in the absence of proper data, attempts were made to exaggerate the benefits for justifying the cost and for showing returns. These exercises have been perhaps responsible for future augmentation schemes, additional works, etc (James and Anitha, 2001: Anitha, et al, 2003)). Proper operation rules could not be evolved in the absence of sufficient information. In the whole process, one may find that not only hydrological but also socio- economic and environmental aspects, which are vital for such projects, have been overlooked. The Central machinery was also perhaps not looking in to the merit of the project and their benefits. Sustainability was not at all a criterion in the earlier water resources development ventures in the State. The ill-effects of these decisions have now been recognised by almost all concerned, including the public (James, 1984).

The effective participation of people could not also be ensured in any one of these water resources development projects.

Lack of Basin Plans Lack of integrated basin plans and management practices have lead to a number of problems which have bearings on sustainability and environmental safety. A basin plan is one in which upstream and downstream availability and demand are given due consideration, and also water quality aspects are given due importance (James, 1998).

The basin is considered as a system and different scenarios are simulated. Even for one project, a number of alternate plans are worked out and the optimal one selected considering all relevant aspects. These exercises were not carried out in the planning stage of most or the projects in the State. A typical example is that of the Periyar, which is discussed in detail elsewhere in this paper.

Socio-economic and Environmental Factors Overlooked Regarding the social factors, fragmentation of agricultural lands due to certain legislative measures as well as partitioning of properties among family members, especially in the context of joint families, brought in several limitations to agricultural practices. The use of farm machinery and mechanisation has been almost impossible.

The small-size of land holdings did not present an ideal situation for rice cultivation most of the major/medium and even minor irrigation projects were originally meant for irrigating only rice. Small-size farms could not provide for the livelihood of families, Centre for Environment and Development

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and therefore, most of the farmers went for other occupations and agriculture became a part-time occupation for many of them. The thickly populated State required large areas of land for housing. Most of the people in the area had a tendency to go for houses in independent plots. This resulted in increase in land value and large-scale reclamation of rice fields. Under such circumstances, irrigation projects meant exclusively for rice had no relevance and meaning. Water resources development for irrigation did not attain envisaged goals. Moreover, the entire hydrologic regime got affected by the drastic changes in land use and cropping system.

Some of the major/medium irrigation projects have now started catering to the plantation crops also. The achievements in the command areas of major/medium projects were not to the expectations due to lack of participatory irrigation management.

The Thannermukkom barrage, constructed to prevent salinity intrusion into the Kuttanad belt, adversely affected the backwater fisheries, and also contributed to the environmental degradation of the area both due to intensive application of agrochemicals and lack of flushing (James, 1997). In an area, where agriculture and fisheries co-existed, these two interests became conflicting. The wise-use of this wetland was not achieved.

Socio-economic factors were not fully considered in other sectors also, such as hydroelectric power generation, fisheries, inland navigation, tourism, etc. No environmental impact assessment was carried out in the case of most of the existing water resources development projects. This has lead to several adverse impacts, and even some of these projects are not sustainable. It is in this context that the water related environmental problems of Kerala region have to be addressed.

CHALLENGES TO MANAGEMENT OF WATER-ENVIRONMENT OF KERALA Problems in Nutshell The important water related environmental problems of Kerala are listed below (James, 1997): 

Frequent floods and droughts

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High rate of erosion, and debris flow

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Salinity intrusion into rivers and groundwater aquifers

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Water logging in a few command areas

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Pollution of surface and groundwater sources

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Coastal erosion

Floods, Droughts, Erosion Tendencies and Debris Flow Though it may not be possible to change certain factors contributing to frequent floods and droughts, like spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall, geology, geomorphology 10

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etc, it is definitely possible to have a planned land use as well as development and conservation activities. If proper planning is done with regard to land use, soil conservation and developmental activities in a river basin, it may be possible to a great extent to control floods, droughts and high rate of sediment transport.

It is reported that during the 1924 floods, most of the areas in the erstwhile Travancore and Cochin States came under water, either under flood water or sea water. The rain continued for 9 days, leading to deaths of hundreds of people and thousands of cattle and other animals. Most of the deaths were reported from the high ranges. The year 1961 witnessed not only a long duration flood but also an intensive one, caused by heavy rainfall for 7-10 days in the last week of June. The annual rainfall in 1961 was 56 per cent above the annual mean. The maximum daily rainfall values recorded in 1961 at Calicut, Cochin and Trivandrum are: 234 mm, 186 mm and 136 mm respectively. The highest daily rainfall values recorded in the history of rainfall data collection at Calicut, Cochin and Trivandrum are: 470 mm (May 19, 1992), 240 mm (April 3, 1991) and 400 mm (October 18, 1964) respectively. In the 1961 floods, the worst affected basin was that of the Periyar. Most of the roads were submerged. More than 100 deaths were reported from different parts of the State. Over 50000 houses were damaged and over 50000 ha of land seriously affected. During the 1992 floods, maximum rainfall was recorded on October 10, 1992 at Punalur (270 mm). The floods took away about 100 lives, and 7500 houses were washed away. The total loss to the State due to this flood is estimated to be above Rs 10000 million. On July 10, 1997, 279 mm of rainfall was recorded in 24 hours in Calicut city, which lead to severe floods in the city. The flood routing studies were carried out for Kerala by Sreedharan and James (1995).

Though the existing reservoirs are not originally intended to contain floods, they can be operated in such a manner that they contain at least a small portion of flood waters during critical times. In any case, the tendency to open the reservoirs during the periods of heavy rainfall has to be avoided as far as possible by following scientific operation rules. Certain multi-purpose projects with capabilities to contain floods also may be planned for future, upstream of highly flood-prone areas, especially cities.

The Western Ghats region, especially Idukki and Wayanad districts, are more prone to debris flow or the so called ‘landslides’ or ‘urulpottal’. On an average, 5 people die every year due to debris flows (CWRDM, 1990a). Some of the debris flows in the 90s include those in Ilappilli (October 1991) and Adimali (July 1997) in central Kerala and Padinjarathara (June 1992), Pazukadavu (June 1992) and Adakkakundu (June 1993) in northern Kerala.

The water shortage in summer is generally designated as ‘droughts’ in Kerala; it is mainly indicated by dry rivers and lowering of water table. This adversely affects the drinking water sector. During the drought years, 15-20 per cent of the homestead open wells dry up, affecting about 3 million people. Most of the larger water supply schemes to the urban areas depend on surface water sources. When these sources either dry up or do not yield water to the requirements, most of the drinking water supply schemes fail to cater to the requirements of the people. In addition, it has an impact on agriculture Centre for Environment and Development

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and to some extent on hydroelectric power generation also. Not only rice crop but also plantation and spice crops of Kerala get affected during dry years; in some cases, perennial crops totally perish. The drought conditions in the Bharathapuzha basin during 1983 and 1987ended up in a crop loss worth Rs 350 million and Rs 700 million respectively in Palakkad district alone.

Fig 2 gives a histogram of stream flow at a site in Thalassery river; it is seen that the summer flows are considerably less than the monsoon flows. This is the trend in all the rivers of the State (CWRDM, 1987). A flood frequency curve was evolved for the State (James et al., 1992); the return periods can be estimated from this. There has been considerable reduction in the capacity of the reservoirs of irrigation and hydroelectric projects, due to sediment deposition (James et al., 1990).

Fig. 2 Monsoon and summer flows (million cubic meter) for different years: Thalassery river (summer flows on the left of monsoon flows)

Salinity Intrusion The State of Kerala with an average width of about 60 km has 44 rivers, of which 41 originate from the Western Ghats and flow to the Lakshadweep Sea. These short, fastflowing, monsoon-fed rivers often encounter salinity intrusion into their lower stretches during the summer months. When the fresh water flow reduces, two major problems are encountered in these water bodies: (i) salinity propagates more into the interior of the river, and (ii) flushing of the system becomes less effective. Both these aspects have an impact on irrigation, drinking and industrial water supply schemes situated in 12

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the downstream reaches (James, 1996). Detailed investigations have been carried out to understand the mixing and circulation at the river mouths in south west India (James, 1989). The coastal belt is the most thickly populated area on this coast with the density in certain pockets reaching up to 5000/sq km. Important cities like Greater Cochin, Calicut, etc are situated in the coastal belt, on the banks of estuaries.

Based on the studies conducted with the help of mathematical models, it is found that the salinity in the Beypore estuary propagates to a distance of 24 km upstream, thereby creating problems to the water supply scheme to the Calicut Corporation area (James and Sreedharan, 1983); the flushing time in summer from a distance of 20 km from the mouth is 20 days and more, creating pollution concentration in the lower stretches.

These problems are acute in some of the estuaries near to important cities and industrial complexes. Problems of salinity intrusion are also encountered in the Periyar, Meenachil and Kuttiyadi rivers, which have been studied in detail.

The present measures for preventing salinity intrusion into the intake points of drinking water supply schemes is by the construction of temporary barrages, which prevent the flow and create ecological problems, especially concentration of pollutants upstream of the obstruction. Areas upstream of Thanneerrnukkom barrage in the Vembanad and Pathalam barrage in the Periyar are typical examples (James, 1996).

It has also been observed that over-exploitation of ground water in certain coastal stretches has contributed to the intrusion of salinity in to the coastal aquifers from the sea. Though this tendency is mainly observed during the summer months, when recharge is practically zero, there is a possibility for perpetuation of the problem due to increase in withdrawal rate to cater to the requirements of dense coastal population.

Waterlogged Farm Lands Waterlogged farm lands in the commands of major/medium irrigation projects are a common sight and this is considered as a global problem. In a country like India, 6 million ha is waterlogged while the irrigation potential created is only 56 million ha.

Though a reliable estimate on waterlogged areas in the commands of major/medium irrigation projects in Kerala is not available, it has been observed that around 400 ha of land in the commands of Malampuzha and Kuttiyadi irrigation projects are waterlogged; this is based on one of the research projects carried out in the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management. The problem as such is not very severe at present. In a State like Kerala, with dense population and high land value, problems associated with impoundment has to be given due attention (CWRDM, 2002).

Waterlogged areas are formed in the commands of irrigation projects due to: (i) high intensity of irrigation, (ii) wrong and defective methods of irrigation, (iii) improper maintenance of natural channels, (iv) hydraulic pressure from saturated areas at higher elevations, (v) heavy seepage losses from canals, (vi) absence of drainage canals in irrigated areas, (vii) silting of canals and vegetal growth.

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Pollution of Surface and Groundwater Sources The Periyar, one of the largest river systems of Kerala, is highly polluted with effluents discharged from major industries located on the banks. These industries discharge hazardous pollutants like phosphates, sulphides, ammonia N, flourides, heavy metals, and insecticides into the downstream reaches of the river. Apart from the effluents from the major industries, domestic and urban waste water also add to the pollution problems in the Periyar estuary (CWRDM, 1988). A temporary barrage is constructed in summer at Pathalam in one of the branches of Periyar to prevent salinity intrusion into the upstream reaches. The enormous quantities of wastewater discharged daily into this branch of the river are not flushed out, leading to stagnation and pollution build-up to high toxic levels. This water is found to be highly acidic (pH 1.9), resulting in massive fish kills.

The Vembanad backwater system is a receptacle of a large variety of industrial effluents, domestic sewage from Cochin and a string of small towns nearby. Cochin alone generates 2550 million litres/day of waste water that directly enters into the backwater untreated. Total dissolved solid content of water in this zone is as high as 53750 mg/ litre during summer and comes down to 160 mg/litre during the rainy season, when the flushing is much better. The existing sewage treatment plant in Cochin covers only a small fraction of the population. The pollution load from Cochin Corporation and Alappuzha town are 195547 kg/day of BOD and 64237 kg/day of BOD respectively.

Annual fertilizer consumption in Kuttanad is: 8409 tonnes of N, 5044 tonnes of P and 6786 tonnes of K. Pesticides/fungicides are applied to the tune of about 500 tonnes/ annum. The observations in the Vembanad backwater system indicate that faecal coliform bacteria are very high. The quality of water is very poor near Alappuzha ammonium concentration goes up to 2 mg/litre and nitrate values up to 30 mg/litre (James et al., 1997). The other water bodies in the State have also started showing symptoms of pollution. The Sasthamcotta wetland and Pookot lake also need systematic monitoring and adoption of measures to prevent pollution.

The pollution of groundwater sources are reported from certain urban areas in Kerala.

Once polluted, it will be very difficult to improve the quality of groundwater sources.

Apart from salinity and iron contamination, fluoride contamination is also observed at Alappuzha and certain pockets of Palakkad. The studies carried out by CWRDM (2005; 2006) for the Water and Sanitation Project on the request of Government of Kerala show that around 85 % of open wells in Kerala are bacterially contaminated.

Coastal Erosion Out of the 560 km straight stretch of Kerala coast, about 370 km is subject to coastal erosion of various magnitudes. Comparison surveys for 36 km length of shore in two particular sections show that there is consistent retrogression of shoreline during the past one and a half century, which works out to a yearly rate of 5.2 m at Chellanam and 3.1 m at Thottappilly; seasonal change of shoreline is also observed (PWD, 1974).

Erosion is generally observed during May-September - littoral transport being from north to south during this period; this is followed by a period of accretion.

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Coastal erosion is due to the material energy imbalance caused by various forces, natural and artificial, in action on the coast. The causes of severe coastal erosion in Kerala are due to one or a combination of the factors: (i) early onslaught of monsoon and subsequent high and steep waves and rise in water level; (ii) turbulent zones near Lakshadweep; (iii) geological factors; (iv) sea level rise (v) level of backshore; (vi) lack of littoral supply; (vii) laterite cliff erosion; (viii) reaction of beach to protection works, etc The erosion tendencies may increase with man-made activities, such as urbanisation, construction of dams, prevention of soil erosion in the midland and highland belts, development of harbours, etc (Baba, 1979).

The mudbanks play a decisive role in the stability of Kerala shore: (i) trapping the littoral material and erosion of the down-drift region; (ii) accretion in the mudbank area; and (iii) refraction and diffraction on its sides (Kunhimamu and James, 1999). It is observed that the areas seriously subjected to erosion are those adjacent to the mudbanks IMPACT OF EXPLOITATION OF ECOSYSTEMS ON WATER RESOURCES Forest Ecosystem In order to understand the role of forests in maintaining the hydrologic regime, a detailed study was carried out in three catchments at each of the three sites in different stretches of the Western Ghats in Kerala (James et al., 1987). At each site, one dense catchment - canopy of more than 60%, one partially exploited catchment – canopy between 30 and 60 %, and one fully exploited catchment – canopy of less than 30 % were selected for the study. Each catchment had an area of around 2 sq km. The salient findings of the study are furnished below: i)

One-hour unit hydrograph of dense forest catchments of 2 sq km area has a lag time which is 35% more than that of exploited catchments and this indicates that soil moisture and groundwater storage in the initial period of a storm is high in forest catchments; ii) The behaviour of hydrographs also establishes that the vegetal growth and other soil conditions of the forests smoothen the peak flow, thereby taming the flash floods; iii) The stream flows in dense forest catchments of 2 sq km area were found to be perennial, while in the partially exploited catchments the flows stopped in February and in fully exploited ones in December; iv) The soil moisture attained its maximum value during north-east monsoon period, especially in the month of November, which finding is corroborated by maximum values of runoff coefficients in late November; v) The role of vegetation in recharging ground water table also has been observed; and vi) The observations on sediment yield have brought to light that the sediment yield from dense forest catchments is only one-sixth of that from fully exploited catchments.

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The studies in Silent Valley show a good correlation of rainfall and runoff (Murali et al, 1997) and that density of stream channels is less in thickly vegetated areas (Venugopal et al., 1996).

The results of studies show that forests have a major role to play in controlling floods and sediment yield from the catchments, and also in maintaining ground water level and soil moisture content. The studies also throw light on the interception losses for typical forest areas in Kerala; about 10% of rainfall is lost as interception – the evaporation of rainwater from leaves/canopy.

Cultivated Watershed Ecosystem The high rate of sedimentation from the highland and midland belts of Kerala is mainly due to the changes in vegetation pattern and various developmental activities, such as construction of buildings, roads etc. From the studies conducted, it is indicated that the average sediment yield from the catchments in the Western Ghats is 15-20 t/ha/ year (CWRDM, 1991). Similarly, considerable changes in the hydrologic regime are also observed. An integrated watershed management practice may be one of the solutions to conserve soil and water in the hilly terrains of the State (James, 1999).

River Ecosystem The anthropogenic activities like urbanization, construction of roads and buildings, erection of hydraulic structures, deforestation, reclamation of wetlands including rice fields, destruction of hills and landforms, overall changes in land use and cropping pattern are all contributing to the degradation of the river basins and ultimately the river ecosystem. It is worthwhile to note that rivers provide connectivity and facilitate transportation of water, sediments, nutrients, pollutants and anything suspended or dissolved in water. Even rivers are used by certain agencies to flush out large quantity of sediments accumulated in the reservoirs. The large-scale sand mining from the river beds, especially from the lower reaches of rivers, has posed several problems related to river mechanics, salinity intrusion, ground water depletion and overall ecosystem degradation (James, 1997).

Ground Water Ecosystem It has been reported that over-exploitation of groundwater in certain hydrogeological zones has contributed to permanent lowering of water table and salinity intrusion into coastal aquifers. The midland and lowland belts have an average of 200 open wells or more per square kilometer. The surveys show that there are more than 6 million open wells in Kerala (CWRDM, 2005; 2006). There are some areas in Kerala where bore wells withdraw water directly from the water table because of improper construction procedures. This has been observed from some areas in Calicut Corporation, resulting in excessive lowering of groundwater table. Apart from problems associated with iron and fluoride contamination, the study conducted by CWRDM (2005; 2006) has shown that around 95 % of open wells are bacterially contaminated. The wells in the coastal belt are under the threat of salinity intrusion.

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Wetland Ecosystem Wetlands help in controlling floods, recharging ground water and maintaining water quality. Considering the role of wetlands as source, sink and transformer, these are called the ‘kidneys of nature’. Ditching and draining are hydrologic modifications of wetlands, specifically carried out to dry them out. Reclamations destroy or change the character of most of the wetlands of Kerala. Canals and ditches are dredged for three primary purposes: (i) flood control, (ii) navigation and transportation, and (iii) industrial activity. Large-scale reclamation works are mainly for human settlements, cultivating plantation crops and construction of roads and industrial complexes. Other human activities also have caused significant changes to wetlands. These changes lead to land clearing and subsequent erosion, through hydrological modifications such as stream channelization and dam construction. Increase in erosion in the uplands leads to increased deposition of sediments in the wetlands, such as forested swamps and coastal marshes. This increased accumulation of sediments can cause increased bio-chemical oxygen demand and can alter the hydrologic regime of the wetlands over a relatively short time. Stream channelization and dams can lead to a change in the flooding frequency of many wetlands and thus alter the input of nutrients. Dams generally serve as nutrient traps, retaining materials that would otherwise nourish downstream wetlands.

Impoundments upstream reduce the downstream flows considerably during the summer months and enhance the salinity intrusion problem. In some areas, stream channelization has lead to stream down-cutting that ultimately drains wetlands.

Most of the rice fields in Kerala are reclaimed for settlements, industrial purposes and cultivation of plantation crops. Around 30 per cent decrease in the area of rice fields is observed during the past one decade and half. The present trends indicate that there will be a total disappearance of rice fields within the coming two decades, if the laws enacted by the Government are not strictly implemented.

The case study of Vembanad backwater may serve to illustrate the reclamation tendencies of wetlands in Kerala (James et al., 1997). Shrinkage of Vembanad wetland to 37 per cent of its original area due to land reclamation has been the most important environmental consequence of human intervention in this water body. About 23105 ha land has been reclaimed from the backwater during the period from1834 to 1984. It is estimated that 21 per cent reclamation took place during the span of last 15 years. The depth reduced by 40-50 per cent in all zones, except between Aroor and Wellingdon Island and the Cochin port zone. The water carrying capacity of the system reduced to 0.6 cubic km from 2.4 cubic km; this has an adverse impact on the flood containing capacity of the wetland.

RELEVANCE OF BASIN PLANNING IN THE CONTEXT OF KERALA ILLUSTRATED THROUGH EXAMPLES Case Study of Periyar The largest area of a single river basin in Kerala is that of Periyar. More than 90% of the area of Periyar basin of 5398 sq km is within the State. The river is considered to be the longest with 244 km. In the initial stages of development of this basin, the Centre for Environment and Development

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downstream quantity and quality requirements of water were not considered. In fact, concepts of basin planning and integrated management of water resources were not either popular or not considered important by the professionals and decision-makers.

An attempt is made to analyse various problems caused due to the absence of a basin plan and lack of integrated management of river basin.

More than a century ago, based on an agreement between the erstwhile Travancore State and the then colonial government, the water from the Mullaperiyar sub-basin located on the south east of Periyar basin was transferred to the east of the Western Ghats; this transfer is of the order of about 28 TMC. Later in 1970s, for generation of hydropower, about 55 TMC of water is being transferred to Moolamattom power house situated in the Muvattupuzha river basin, thereby further depriving the lower reaches of the Periyar basin. Around 11 TMC of water is transferred from the north east of Periyar for the Parambikulam-Aliyar Project.

All these have caused shortage of water for purposes of drinking and industries in the downstream reaches. In fact, barrages were constructed at Manjummel and later at Pathalam and Manjali to prevent salinity intrusion in to the upstream reaches, where the intake points for the water supply schemes to Alwaye and Greater Cochin and also to the industrial complexes in Udhyogamandal and other upstream areas are situated.

To add on to the problem, the partly treated industrial effluents discharged downstream of the barrages are not flushed out from the estuarine belt. This has been to some extent responsible for the pollution of ground water in the downstream reaches, especially in the small islands in the water body.

The dredged material from the river bed has been used in the past to construct the barrage. Immediately after the monsoons, the barrages are breached and the soil spreads in the water body, which along with sand mining adversely affected the natural river regime. While the salinity levels increased at the downstream reaches of the barrages in summer, the stagnated fresh water body upstream of the barrage encouraged accumulation of pollutants and nutrients and uncontrollable weed growth. The estuarine and fresh water fauna also got affected by these processes caused by human interventions. In return to further allocation of water to a public sector undertaking, some funds were received for constructing regulator-cum-bridges across the downstream southern branches of the Periyar. In this case, the enthusiasm was for constructing the bridge and not for a scientific solution to the water shortage and quality problems downstream.

Several litigations were going on mainly because of the complaints received from the NGOs and panchayats of the region. But, unfortunately, all of them were focusing only on some specific problems, which affect them or in which they have a special interest. They were not often pointing out the necessity for integrated management of the water resources for the health of the ecosystem and the sustainability of the resources.

Apart from the above mentioned interventions, there are about four more hydroelectric projects and two major/medium and lift irrigation projects in addition to several drinking water sources. There are also several farmers involved in illegal lifting of water from the river. It is seen that there is no coordination among the different departments/ 18

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agencies involved in the water management of the basin. For example, the sediment accumulated in one of the hydroelectric schemes in the basin was flushed out to the river system, thereby creating problems to those dealing with water supply.

There has been no scientific operation policy developed for the projects in the basin considering the various uses, which policy would have perhaps maintained the required environmental flows downstream. A study by Kerala Engineering Research Institute highlights that a minimum of 16 cubic meter of flow per second may be capable of arresting salinity propagating upstream during the summer months (PWD, 1974).

However, sufficient investigations to determine the quantum of environmental flows to be maintained in the downstream reaches have not taken place. Therefore, there is a case for a detailed system study to come out with a basin plan, considering all the existing schemes; this will help in operating and managing the system scientifically.

Simultaneously, necessary regulatory mechanisms may be formulated and also organizational and procedural changes brought about, wherever necessary.

Case Study of Bharathapuzha After the Periyar, the Bharathapuzha has the largest area under one basin in the State.

Of the total basin area of 6186 sq km of the Bharathapuzha, 4400 sq km is within Kerala State. About 80% of Palakkad district falls within the Bharathapuzha. It is estimated that the surface water potential of the basin is 3349 million cubic meter and ground water potential 834 million cubic meter. Present utilization for major/medium irrigation projects, minor irrigation, drinking water and inter-basin transfer are 2213, 183, 175 and 142 million cubic meter respectively. Future water needs for irrigation including that for plantation crops (ultimate), drinking water, industrial, and arresting salinity work out to 4684, 58, 13, 686 million cubic meters respectively. The estimates made by CWRDM (1991) show that the basin within Kerala has a deficit of 1257 million cubic meter. In a State, which depends considerably on hydropower, Malabar region has very limited installed capacity. There is a great need to work out the water allocation based on a detailed study of spatial and temporal potential and demand.

The basin contains the ‘rice-barn’ of the State and there are about 7 major/medium irrigation projects of live storage of about 350 million cubic meter. More than 200 million cubic meter of water is transferred from the basin for Parambikulam-Aliyar Project and there are certain complaints that the water to be made available as per the PAP Agreement is not received or not received when needed. Because of the upstream interventions in the Bhavani and the requirements downstream in the basin, it has not been possible to get more water for irrigation in the Bharathapuzha after power generation at the proposed Kerala Bhavani project. The Kuriarkutty-Karappara Project, which envisaged irrigation in around 12000 ha within Bharathapuzha also could not be realized in spite of the fact that there has been a positive response from the Committee constituted by the Government of India to look in to the environmental aspects. Due to several environmental reasons, the Silent Valley Project and also the run-of-the-river project proposed downstream of Silent Valley also could not be taken up.

In this background, there is a need to study the spatial and temporal water availability and demand in the basin and to come out with a sustainable plan to solve the problems Centre for Environment and Development

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of the people, especially that of the agrarian community. Finally, environment friendly projects have to be designed and executed with the participation of people. The coordination among all stakeholder departments/agencies is to be ensured. A model River Authority may be constituted as recommended by CWRDM (1985a); the model may be useful for other river basins also.

Case Study of Kabbini-Kuttiyadi River System Kerala could not make use of more than 3% of the total waters of Kabbini basin in Kerala after the formation of the State. The view of the Centre and also the State was that it is situated in a river basin under inter-state dispute. Since the formation of the Cauvery Tribunal, Karnataka had brought under irrigation almost around 1 million ha utilizing the waters of this basin. The Government of Kerala proposed 12 major/medium projects including one multi-purpose and one hydroelectric project in Kabbini basin in Kerala. The proposals of these projects filed before the Tribunal had several limitations: availability and demand of water were not properly assessed; locations of projects were not often properly demarcated and stage-capacity curves were either not available or not reliable. In nutshell, most of these projects were not technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally safe. The Expert Witnesses of Kerala informed the Tribunal that the proposals will be fine tuned and environmental impact assessments carried out immediately after the Award was given. Though not for all, the Tribunal allocated water for most of the projects, subject to certain stipulations.

More than two years have passed since the Award came. Kerala Government went to the Supreme Court against the Award of the Tribunal but did not do much to fine tune the original project proposals and implement them. There has been a tendency to go for litigation and sensationalism without focusing on the solutions to the field problems.

This tendency may not take Kerala anywhere near integrated management of its water resources.

The availability of water could not be estimated scientifically in the case of original Kuttiyadi irrigation and hydroelectric projects. Therefore, two of the generators were idle most of the year and water could not be conveyed to the entire command area for irrigation. The hydroelectric project was enhanced stage by stage. The Banasurasagar project was constructed, thereby making it possible to bring water from the east-flowing Kabbini river to the west-flowing Kuttiyadi basin. This was meant to enhance the power generation and also to augment the availability of water in the irrigation reservoir from which it is expected to supply water for domestic purpose in Calicut and adjoining panchayats. Unfortunately, the Tribunal was not in favour of this project. It is also to be pointed out that there were references in the Tribunal that Kerala had not shown in their proposals how they are going to utilize the entire water after power generation.

Kerala had mentioned about some irrigation requirements downstream on the west coast without sufficient supporting data and documents. There was a proposal projecting the domestic and industrial water requirements to be met from the project. The only document which really helped was a report on a systems study carried out for the Kuttiyadi - Kabbini river systems by CWRDM for the Ministry of Water Resources, 20

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Government of India (James, 2001). All these point to the necessity for formulating river basin plans and implementing them with the support of a proper organizational and procedural mechanism.

River Basins Draining in to Vembanad-Kol Wetland System The wetlands are integral parts of the river basins and there is a need to manage the river basins in relation to the wise use of wetlands. Hydrology is the single most important factor responsible for the formation and sustenance of a wetland. In fact, the hydroperiod is the signature of a wetland. Hydrology is all the more important because the transport of various bio-geo-chemicals such as sediments and nutrients, waste materials and pollutants, and suspended and dissolved materials into and out of the wetlands will depend on the dynamics of water.

A case study of Vembanad-Kol wetland system along with their river basins was conducted for UNEP and Wetlands International (James et al., 1997). Some of the important management strategies recommended are given below: Developing and implementing scientific operation rules for the upstream reservoirs giving due importance to the requirements of the downstream stretches; Reservoirs upstream to operate in a multi-purpose mode considering the drinking water requirements of the wetlands and adjoining areas;  Bringing down the intensity of floods downstream by adopting catchment treatment, clearing drainage channels, enhancing the storage upstream during the monsoons and providing appropriate outlet points from the wetland; Following a scientific dewatering schedule and application of modern technologies in the construction of dykes for the cluster of rice fields; Ensuring proper operation and maintenance of salinity control structures; Controlling reclamation of wetlands for different purposes;  Augmentation of lowflows by introducing scientific operation of existing and future projects; Probing the possibilities for ‘one fish and one rice a year’, a concept which may avoid conflict of interests;  Providing sanitation facilities and treating the urban waste water discharged into the wetland; Introducing eco-tourism in its true spirit and restricting the tendencies for commercializing the activity; 

Developing National Waterway 3 giving due importance to the ecosystem after carrying out a sound EIA exercise;

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Conserving the mangroves and also creating a healthy environment essential for a wetland of great value from the point of view of biodiversity.

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This case study has been furnished to highlight the importance of integrated management of the river basins draining in to a wetland in relation to the wise use of the wetland (James, 1994; 1995).

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF RIVER BASINS IN KERALA STRATEGIES Introductory Agenda 21 of Rio Conference suggests four principal objects which should be pursued in relation to water resources management, such as (i) promotion of a dynamic, interactive and multi-sector approach to water management; (ii) planning of sustainable and rational utilization, protection, conservation and management of water resources; (iii) design, implementation and evaluation of projects and proposals; and (iv) identification and strengthening or development of the appropriate institutional, legal and financial mechanisms.

No attempt has so far been made to prepare integrated river basin plans considering the availability of water, its demand as well as socio-economic and environmental factors. There has been no co-ordination in the water related activities of a single basin, thereby depriving certain reaches of the river basin of either required quantity or quality of water. Most of the major/medium projects have been executed without carrying out detailed environmental impact assessment.

A series of approaches and actions can be adopted in order to most appropriately integrate river basin management. These include: 

Integrated land and water management in river basins

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Resource identification and evaluation

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Multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approaches to management

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Comprehensive EIA and CBA (including SEA, EIA of projects and policies, EIA of early stage of project or policy development cycle, economic cost and benefits of EIA recommendations, risk and sensitivity analysis)

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Identification of current and future water resources scenario

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Identification of water related problems

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Economic incentives for sustainable management

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Involvement of stake-holders, encouragement of public participation and public awareness creation

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Greater institutional capacity and appropriate institutional structure for river basin management

Data Requirements Necessary data on hydrologic and other related parameters, especially water quality status, are not available for proper planning and management of the water resources of the State.

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The major data requirements for scientific planning and management of water resources may be classified under: (i) physical system, (ii) biological system consisting of aquatic and terrestrial subsystems, and (iii) human system consisting of production and sociocultural subsystems (James, 1991). All the data collected from the field and generated by mathematical models are to be made use of to develop a Geographical Information System (GIS) in order to achieve proper planning and management of water resources systems.

Water Resources Development Development Principles While developing the water resources of the State, estimation of actual demand and availability based on reliable data are extremely essential. Wherever necessary, hydrologic models also will be useful. Basin plans for integrated management of water resources, both surface and ground water, have to be evolved following a systems approach. The allocation of water for different purposes has to be made considering the actual demand and availability. While proposing the development projects, social, economic and environmental aspects have to be given due importance for attaining sustainability. From single sector approach, the State has to move towards multiobjective and multi-purpose projects. Not just one proposal but a series of alternate proposals have to be formulated from which the best has to be identified for implementation by the decision-makers. From a single function investment, one has to move to asset management planning, catchment management planning, land use planning and control and integrated catchment planning to achieve development of water environment. Along with hydrologic, hydraulic and structural tools, management tools with special reference to institutional structure and procedural mechanisms have to be employed. Economic instruments, especially environmental economics have to be made use of. Objective environmental appraisal and EIA exercises have to be carried out before the implementation of the project. For sustainability, it is essential that participatory planning, implementation and operation and maintenance are ensured.

In fact, awareness generation has to form an integral part of project formulation and implementation. Though all these are possible in a literate and comparatively prosperous State like Kerala, the attention of policy-makers, administrators and technocrats has not turned in this direction.

Water for Domestic Purposes The drinking water and sanitation sectors deserve immediate concern from the point of view of a clean environment. About 70 per cent of the population of Kerala depend on homestead open wells for drinking water. There were around 4.5 million open wells in Kerala during 1991, which number increased to more than 6 million in 2006.

There are over a dozen corporations/municipalities/ townships in the State with water supply levels below 70 litre per capita per day (KARMA, 1994). Out of the 9763 rural habitats, 228 are classified as Not Covered, 7444 as Partially Covered and 2091 as Fully Covered by pipe water supply. The estimates show that large number of habitats is Partially Covered and some are Not Covered. Many of the Partially Covered habitats Centre for Environment and Development

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are only nominally covered. If the State moves in the same pace, it will take more than 50 years to provide safe drinking water for the entire population, for which it will cost not less than Rs 35000 million at the present rate. Considering these aspects, it is suggested that safe drinking water may be provided only in areas where available well water or traditional sources are not capable of catering to the needs. In areas with wells which dry up in summer, water supply can be restricted to only summer months.

Areas requiring immediate attention can be made out from the records pertaining to lorry supply of water. The projects are to be repaired and maintained by ensuring user participation. Enhancing the capabilities of a scheme, mostly to upgrade from one level of supply to another (stand pipes to yard pipes or yard pipes to house connections), has to be done by the people themselves. The selection of a sustainable source, whether it is a well, stream, spring or tank, has to be done after scientific investigations. Existing two dozen or so reservoirs, meant for irrigation and hydropower generation may also cater to a part of the drinking water requirements, though they have not been originally designed for this. The purpose should be to provide water to more people than to a few at a higher level of supply. Therefore, the priority of the government should be to provide water to weaker sections living in the coastal belt or at the top of hills or mountains, who do not have access to good quality water. This can be done within the shortest possible time utilizing the available resources and through the participation of people. It is observed that lack of sanitation measures in Kerala is responsible for contamination of many a drinking water source. According to a study conducted by CWRDM (2005, 2006), an average of 85% open wells in Kerala are bacterially contaminated. The effort should be to sanitize these wells at the earliest since these are the sources of drinking water for more than 70% of the population in the State. The strategies to provide safe drinking water for all, therefore, call for integrated water resources management.

Water for Agriculture The live storage of major/medium irrigation projects of Kerala is about 1500 million cubic metre, which is only less than 4 percent of the estimated utilizable yield and slightly over 2 percent of the total surface water yield from the catchments of Kerala.

During the past three decades, there has not been much change in this figure. The Malampuzha, Peechi and Neyyar projects are already catering to domestic water requirements of the nearby cities/towns and adjoining panchayats. The performance evaluation of Pazhassi irrigation project brought to light that several people in Kannur and adjoining panchayats benefit from the ground water recharge due to the flow in the canals and irrigation in some parts of the command area. However, this benefit was not included in the original proposal of the project. Most of the population residing or having land on the sides of the canal bund roads claim that the value of their property has gone up due to the transport facility offered by these bund roads. At the Cauvery Tribunal, several questions were raised by the Senior Counsels of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu about the official publications of the Government of Kerala stating that the irrigation projects have not helped in increasing the production of rice in the State.

However, the Tribunal in its Award quoted the deposition of the Expert Witness of 24

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Kerala that in areas with irrigation facilities, the production of rice has gone up (Depositions and Award of the Cauvery Tribunal). This has been the basis for the Tribunal to allocate water for the irrigation projects of Kerala in the Cauvery basin.

The net area irrigated in Kerala is estimated to be 381041 ha, of which only 104967 ha is by canals of major/medium irrigation projects. Remaining area irrigated in the State is through minor lift irrigation (7557 ha), tanks and ponds (49972 ha), wells (115703 ha) and other sources (102842 ha). It is worthwhile to note that 0.25 million ha of existing wetlands and 0.5 million ha of garden lands are deprived of irrigation. It is to be recognized that most of the perennial crops in Kerala depend on rainfall, and better yield can be expected with irrigation. One of the estimates made by CWRDM shows that 0.1 million ha of garden land can be brought under irrigation by implementing minor projects through community participation. It is time that the State relooks at its water potential and irrigation demand and take some proactive steps to save the farmer community and sustain agriculture in the State. However, the shifting paradigms in the sector, especially those evolved at the Dublin Conference, have to be kept in mind while formulating new projects.

Water for Energy Due to non-availability of other sources and certain social causes, the State depends mainly on its water resources for power production. In spite of the fact that the State Water Policy (2007) recognizes that hydroelectric energy is comparatively cheap, clean, affordable and highly suitable for meeting the peak demands of the State, there are several oppositions from the public in implementing these projects, some of them rational and others emotional. The live storage capacity of the reservoirs owned by the Government is around 3500 million cubic metre; annually, these reservoirs help in utilizing 10000 million cubic metre of water for power generation. This also includes the re-utilization of the tail-race. A study being carried out in CWRDM shows that the water released from these reservoirs in summer months is of great use for lift irrigation, water for drinking and industrial purposes downstream and to maintain minimum environmental flows in rivers like Periyar, Muvattupuzha and Chalakudy. The total hydroelectric power potential of the State is presently estimated at 5000 MW. Most of the basins are yet to be investigated to ascertain their potential. There is a need to accurately assess the hydroelectric potential of the State and take up those projects which are technically feasible, economically viable and environmentally safe. This has to be done on a priority basis since people of the State are suffering for want of power for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. Even pumping at the drinking water supply schemes does not take place on time due to non-availability of power.

Water for Industry, Navigation, Fisheries, Recreation and Tourism Purposes Integrated water resources management calls for estimating the demand of water for various purposes; proper projections have to be made to meet the future requirements and thereafter allocation of the available sources made considering the interaction among various natural resources and also among the human aspirations. It may not be possible to meet all human aspirations with the limited resources, and therefore, allocations have to be made considering technical feasibility, economic viability and Centre for Environment and Development

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environmental soundness of the project in the framework of the basins in the State. In all these processes, due care should be given to sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation.

Controlling Salinity Intrusion The salinity intrusion into the lower reaches of the west-flowing rivers during the summer months causes problems to irrigation, drinking water and industrial water supply. It will be ideal if flows are maintained in summer by natural or artificial means to reduce this problem. The present practices of constructing temporary barrages, obstructing the flows and also limiting the downstream flows needed for flushing are not desirable. If required, submerged barrages or regulators with gates can be adopted to control salinity intrusion problem. If river basin plans are evolved considering the downstream water requirements, the salinity intrusion can be checked to a great extent.

Necessary provision for maintaining environmental flows also may be incorporated right at the planning stage. The groundwater sources in the coastal belt also may be utilized very carefully so that salinity intrusion problem does not crop up in this thickly populated belt.

Preventing Coastal Erosion It is estimated that 370 km of the coast of Kerala is vulnerable to erosion. Though structural measures have helped in preventing coastal erosion to some extent, a few limitations are pointed out. These include removal of sand through backwash from the beach in front of the seawall undermining the sand from the bottom of these structures, and damage to armours by breaking of waves over the seawall.

There is a need to assess the performance of existing coastal protection works, especially since a few of them have served for more than 60 years; some have failed within a short period; and some others are reported to cause problems to the coastal belt. These structures are highly expensive, and therefore, economical designs will have to be evolved causing minimum problems to the coastal environment. Studies may also be carried out to find out methods and techniques which are inexpensive, simple and which may require only local materials for construction. The performance of biological barriers for coastal protection may also be evaluated along with artificial nourishment of beaches.

The coastal zone management strategies have to be formulated with a view to reduce the losses due to erosion. The possibilities for sea level rise also may have to be kept in mind while formulating management plans.

Management of Wetlands The wetlands are mainly put to use for the following purposes in the State: (i) Agriculture (ii) Pisciculture (iii) Reclamation for housing and industrial purposes (iv) Disposing of waste materials 26

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(v) Discharging industrial eff1uents and municipal wastewater (vi) Wood seasoning (vii) Feeding waters for ducks (viii) Dumping dredged spoil (ix) Coir retting (x) Tourism (x) Recreational purposes such as boating, hunting and fishing.

The wetland management so far concentrated only on the water body as such. The need for integrated management, considering the river basins, has been recognized (James, 1994). Only such an approach can lead to the wise use of these important water bodies of Kerala. A management strategy should be developed for the wetlands such that there is a control over discharging industrial effluents and municipal wastewater and disposing waste materials into the wetlands. Reclamation of wetlands for industrial, settlement and plantation crop cultivation purposes should be restricted by strict licensing measures. Dredging of wetlands should not be encouraged.

The action plans for wetland ecosystem, recommended by the National Wetland Management Committee, include: (i) survey and documentation; (ii) weed control; (iii) notification of the wetland as an ecosystem selected for conservation and development; (v) erosion control- catchment area treatment, check-dam construction, limited dredging, regulation of inflows and outflows; (v) pollution control from habitats, industry and agriculture; (vi) limiting the fish catch; and (vii) awareness creation.

Watershed Management Programmes A watershed is a natural integrator of all hydrologic processes within its boundaries, and therefore, may be considered as the logical physical unit for planning optimum development of soil, water and biomass. The lack of such a planning is reflected in many of the watersheds of Kerala, which has been responsible for several socioeconomic and environmental problems. Therefore, an integrated watershed planning combined with coordination among all concerned agencies are called for.

Since more and more stress is on micro-level planning and small water resources development projects, there is a need to view small watershed management with relevant objectives (Chow, 1964), such as: (i) protecting the land against all forms of soil deterioration; (ii) rebuilding eroded and depleted soils; (iii) building up soil fertility; (iv) stabilising critical runoff and sediment producing areas; (v) conserving grasslands, woodlands, and wildlife lands; (vi) conserving water for beneficial use; (vii) providing needed drainage and irrigation; and (viii) reducing flood and sediment damage.

Several field applications, which can be followed in agricultural watersheds, include: (i) Terraces and diversions, (ii) Grass covered water ways, (iii) Graded stabilization structures, (iv) Farm and estate ponds, Centre for Environment and Development

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(v) Structures for temporary flood water storage, (vi) Channel works, (vii) Drainage practices, (viii) Subsurface dams, etc (Department of Agriculture, 1990).

The choice of the management practice will depend on the information on different phases of the hydrologic cycle. A coordinated effort by engineers, agronomists, silviculturists, farmers, geologists, hydrogeologists and economists is called for an integrated management venture.

Environment Impact Assessment and Cost Benefit Analysis The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a method of identifying (i) the impacts of human activities on human and natural environment; and (ii) option to reduce or mitigate adverse impacts. The main objectives of EIA are: (i) to disclose significant environmental effects to the decision-makers and public; (ii) to identify ways to avoid or reduce the damage; (iii) to prevent environmental damage by requiring implementation of feasible alternatives or mitigation measures; (iv) to disclose to the public reasons for agency approval of projects with significant environmental effects; (v) to foster inter-agency coordination; and (vi) to enhance public participation. The EIA now includes also social impact assessment, and risk analysis and a broader consideration of environmental management relevant to the project. Two questions deserve consideration in the Indian context: (i) who are all responsible for the implementation of EIA recommendations? (ii) Can an impartial outside agency carrying out the EIA know all the implications of the project? Kerala has been hesitant to accept the Notification of Government of India pertaining to EIA; this was communicated to Government of India much after the Notification came into effect.

EIA exercise was not carried out for any of the projects proposed by the State in the Cauvery basin and this was pointed out several times by the Cauvery Tribunal.

Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a tool for calculating the net impact of the project on society and economic welfare by measuring all costs and benefits of the project. It is broader than a Financial Appraisal (FA), which identify the commercial return from the project. The results of CBA are almost always expressed in monitory terms. Most of the earlier water resources projects of Kerala were cleared by the Government of India considering the social benefits, presented in a qualitative manner in the proposals.

In some cases, the command area of irrigation projects were exaggerated; later, it was found that water does not flow to some parts of these added on command areas mostly at a higher elevation.

It is essential that the complementary nature of EIA and CBA is recognized: EIA is an integral part of the decision-making process; CBA includes cost and benefits of environmental impacts and options for mitigation. The decision-maker requires an analysis of the economic, environmental and social costs and benefits of policy and project options. The elements of such an integrated assessment are: (i) cost benefit 28

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analysis from the national perspective; (ii) cost benefit analysis from the regional perspective; (iii) environmental impact analysis; and (iv) social impact analysis.

EIA has to be carried out at both the policy and project level. At the policy level, it is often referred to as Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).

Public Participation and Awareness Generation Integrated river basin management calls for planners and environmental managers to work with, and for, the entire community of water users in the basin. To achieve this, one has to move away from past management structures and plans, which were meant to benefit limited population of the basin. In Kerala, several attempts were made to ensure greater role for the public through the local self governments. The participants may include catchment management groups, environmental and conservation groups and other local community organizations. Participatory approach is not much reflected in the water resources sector. For example, Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) is much talked about in the State and not practised. The pilot studies on PIM carried out in one specific distributory of Malampuzha and another of Neyyar by CWRDM were not followed up in right earnest by the Government of Kerala.

Public awareness programmes should target at the general public, NGOs, government departments and others responsible for river basin management.

Institutional Mechanisms The present institutional structure and procedural patterns of the departments and agencies have to undergo a sea change to introduce integrated water resources management in Kerala. A proposal was given to Government of Kerala in 2005 to constitute River Authorities for at least some larger rivers like Bharathapuzha, Periyar, Chaliyar, and Pampa (James, 2005). It was also suggested that Authorities can be formed for clusters of small river basins of the State. The formation of an Authority for Pampa to implement the Action Plan does not seem to be a well thought out move from the government and it has not yielded the desired results. The constitution of the River Authority to coordinate and integrate the activities of different stakeholder departments and agencies as well as the R&D institutions, experts and NGOs was furnished in the proposal along with the detailed functions of the Authority. A part of the funds collected by the Revenue Department from those involved in sand mining in rivers would be sufficient to initially meet the day-to-day expenditure required for the functioning of the Authority. In fact, another proposal for the formation of a River Authority for Bharathapuzha was submitted to the government by CWRDM way back in 1985. Even if the Authorities are not constituted, the present institutional mechanism in the water sector has to undergo drastic changes for achieving sustainable development of water resources in the State.

Policies and Legal Framework Kerala was one among the first States to come out with a Water Policy in 1992; the draft policy statement was prepared by CWRDM. The need for revising the Policy of 1992 was recognised and CWRDM came out with a draft in 2003, which was adopted Centre for Environment and Development

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by the present government after incorporating some cosmetic changes. The document clearly states the steps to be taken to achieve sustainable water resources development and also the path to be followed to introduce integrated water resources management in the State. However, the government could not make much headway in this direction, in spite of the fact that water comes in the State list.

The State has made several attempts to bring out legislation on various aspects of water resources development and management. Important among them are: Irrigation and Water Conservation Bill, 2003 with subsequent amendments; Kerala Groundwater (Control and Regulation) Act, 2003 with subsequent amendments; Kerala Water Supply and Sewerage (Amendment) Bill, 2002; and Kerala Conservation of Paddy and Wetland Bill, 2007. It is time to assess the efficiency with which these laws are implemented.

The State hesitated to accept a draft Notification on EIA of the Government of India.

Kerala was the only State, for which the draft Notification for wetland conservation of Government of India was not acceptable. These attitudes may not go hand in hand with the aspirations of the State to achieve sustainable water resources development and management.

It may be difficult, if not impossible, to prescribe a single legal framework for integrated river basin management. However, water and environmental laws should: (i) base water management on river basins; (ii) incorporate sustainable management principles; (iii) require integrated water and environmental management planning; (iv) prevent fragmented departmental water allocation and use decisions; (v) ensure integrated economic and environmental policy and project appraisals; (vi) establish water management institutions as outlined in this paper; (vii) and establish enforceable incentives for environmentally sustainable water use.

REFERENCES Anitha A B, Nambudripad K D and James E J. 2003. System simulation for reservoir operation in the Kuttiyadi schemes of Kerala. Proc. International Conference on Hydrology and Water Resources in Asia Pacific Region, APHW, Kyoto, Japan.

Anon. 1997. Wetlands and integrated river basin management: Experiences in Asia and the Pacific. UNEP/Wetlands International – Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur.

Baba M. 1979. Impact of coastal and harbour structures on the coastal environmental of Kerala. Proc. Seminar on Status of Environmental Studies in India, Trivandrum.

Chow V T. 1964. Handbook of applied hydrology, Mc-Graw Hill Book Company, New York,USA. CWRDM. 1981. Towards the establishment of a hydrologic data bank at CWRDM. Technical Report, Surface Water Division, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 1985. Integrated development and management of Bharathapuzha basin. Technical Report, Surface Water Division, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 1987. Water resources development of Bharathapuzha basin - a status report.

Prepared by E J James, Surface Water Division, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 1988. Environment of Kerala coast and its management. Status Report, Prepared for State Committee on Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala.

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CWRDM. 1990. Hydrology of cultivated watersheds of midland Kerala. Final Project Report, Surface Water Division, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 1990a. Studies on landslides and landslips in the Waynad district of Western Ghats region. Final Project Report, Submitted to Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

CWRDM. 1991. Hydrology of Deviar watershed of highland Kerala. Project Report, Submitted to Department of Agriculture, Government of Kerala.

CWRDM. 1992. Sedimentation studies in the catchments of reservoirs of Western Ghats. Final Project Report, Surface Water Division, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 1995. Water Atlas of Kerala, Kozhikode.

CWRDM. 2002. Identification of waterlogged areas arising out of selected irrigation projects of Kerala. Project Report, Submitted to Indian National committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Ministry of Water resources, Government of India.

CWRDM. 2005&2006. Annual Report. Kozhikode.

Department of Agriculture, Kerala. 1990. Soil and water conservation techniques adopted for Kerala. Soil Conservation Unit, Kerala.

IUCN, UNEP and WWF. 1980. The World Conservation Strategy. WWF, Geneva, Switzerland.

KARMA. 1994. Civic amenities in Calicut Corporation -findings of a social survey. Kozhikode Area Resource Mobilization Agency, Kozhikode.

James E J. 1983. Establishing a hydrometeorological data bank at CWRDM. Proc., Workshop on Scientific Methods for Collection and Documentation of Hydrologic Data, Kozhikode.

James E J. 1984. Impact of interbasin transfer of water on estuarine processes. Proc. National Workshop on Interbasin Transfer of Water, Kozhikode.

James E J. 1985. Meteorologic features of south-west coast of India. Proc. Workshop on SoilWater-Crop Compatibility, KREC, Surathkal.

James E J. 1985a. Problems in estuarine management: south-west coast of India. Proc. V World Congress on Water Resources, Brussels.

James E J. 1988. Integrated planning and development of river basins. Central Board of Irrigation and Power Publication, New Delhi.

James E J. 1989. Dynamics of circulation and mixing in the Beypore estuary of Malabar coast of south west coast of India. Proc. 23rd IAHR Congress, Vancouver.

James E J. 1989a. Evapotranspiration losses with studies from Kerala. Proc. Workshop on Evaporation from Open Water Surfaces, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Vadodra.

James E J. 1991. Management of river basins and watersheds. Proc. Regional Workshop on Environmental Impact Assessment for Water Resources Projects, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Calicut.

James E J. 1994. Hydrologic considerations in the management of wetlands and their watersheds.

Key Note Address, UNEP/ AWB Scoping Workshop on Asian Wetlands in relation to their role in watershed management, Kuala Lumpur.

James E J. 1995. Managing the wetlands and their watersheds. In: Yojana – Republic Day 95 Special, January 1995.

James E J. 1996. Salinity intrusion into rivers and its impact on drinking water schemes -case studies from south west India. Proc. 3rd National Water Congress, New Delhi.

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James E J. 1997. Water related environmental problems of Kerala. The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF, Trivandrum.

James E J. 1998. Integrated river basin management. Policy Statement, Capacity 21 Project, UNEP, MoEF, IGIDR, Mumbai.

James E J. 1999. Management of river basins and watersheds: Equation for life issues on sustainable development of water resources. In: Books for Change, Bangalore.

James E J.2001. Affidavit of Expert Witness before the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal. On Behalf of the State of Kerala, James E J. 2005. Recommendations for Establishing River Authorities in Kerala. CWRDM Report, Submitted to Government of Kerala.

James E J and Anitha A B. 2001. Systems approach for river basin management – case study of Kabbini and Kuttiyadi basins. Proc. International Workshop on Integrated Water Management, Bangalore.

James E J, Anitha A B, Nambudripad K D, Joseph E J, Nandeshwar M D, Nirmala E , Padmini V, Unni P N and Venugopal M R. 1997. The Vembanad-Kol wetland system and river basin management, In: Wetlands and Integrated River Basin Management, UNEP/WI, Kaula Lumpur.

James E J and Mohan R. 1986. Regional monthly rainfall-runoff model for the Chaliyar basin.

53 rd R&D Session of Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Bhubaneswar.

James E J, Nambudripad K D and Sreedharan K E. 1990. Sedimentation survey of Kuttiyadi irrigation project. CWRDM Report, Sponsored Project of Kerala State Electricity Board, Kozhikode.

James E J and Padmini V. 1983. Quantitative geomorphologic studies of the Kuttiyadi river basin on the Malabar Coast. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 63, CI 5.

James E J and Padmini V. 1993. Hydrology of Pookot lake ecosystem of Western Ghats region.

Proc. International Symposium on Hydrology of Mountainous Areas, Simla.

James E J, Pradeep Kumar P K, Ranganna G, Nayak I V and Ravi T B. 1987. Studies on the hydrological processes in the forest basins of the western ghats of India. In: Forest Hydrology, IAHS-AISH Publication No 167, Wallingford, U K. James E J, Ranganna G and Mohan M R. 1992. Regional flood frequency curves for Kerala.

Proc. 5th International Meeting of Statistical Climatology , University of Toronto, Canada.

James E J. and Sreedharan K E. 1983. Exchange of fresh and salt waters in the Beypore estuary on the Malabar coast. Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India), Vol. 64, C I 1.

Kandasamy L C, James E J, Nagarjukumar C, Suresh Rao H and Elengo K. 1989. Rainfall runoff modeling for mountainous river basins. Proc. 55th R&D Session of Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi.

Kunhimamu P and James E J. 1999. Impact of mudbanks on the shore stability of south west coast of India. Proc. Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering in Developing Countries, Cape Town, South Africa.

Murali A K, Sreedharan K E and James E J. 1997. Rainfall-runoff model for Silent Valley catchment of Nilgiri Bioshere reserve. Proc. Indian National Science Academy, 63 A, No. 5, pp 4

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Hydrogeology of Kerala - An Overview

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Invited Presentations

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Hydrogeology of Kerala - An Overview

Balakrishnan et al.

Hydrogeology of Kerala – An Overview

Balakrishnan K1, Mini Chandran1 and Thambi D S C2 1

Scientist B, 2Regional Director Central Ground Water Board, Kerala Region, Thiruvananthapuram 695 004

INTRODUCTION Groundwater is being increasingly recognized as a dependable resource of supply to meet the demands of domestic, irrigation and industrial sectors all over the world.

The need for increasing the food production, combined with rapid industrialization has been putting a severe stress on the limited groundwater resources of our country.

Sustainable management of available resources has thus become vital for prevention of overexploitation and pollution of groundwater. The awareness among the public about the importance of groundwater has increased during the recent years. The need for groundwater being felt by all sectors because of the shortage of surface water sources to mitigate the growing needs of the society.

Kerala, the Gods Own Country is blessed with green vegetation, rivers, back waters and many other natural resources. Kerala State is a narrow stretch of land covering 38863 sq.km. area bordering the Lakshadweep sea on the western side, Tamil Nadu State on the eastern side and Karnataka State on the northern side. The length of the State from north to south is 560 km and the average width is 70 km with maximum of 125 km. It lies between north latitudes 08°18' and 12°48’ and east longitudes 74°52' and 77°22'. Ground water is the prime source for domestic water needs in the State.

Traditionally almost every household in Kerala have own dug wells. Due to the large scale development and the change in lifestyle the domestic water requirement, even rural areas of the State have increased considerably. The State is blessed with two predominant rainy seasons. At the same time Kerala is facing severe water scarcity between February and May every year. This has resulted in affluent people going in for other assured sources of water supply, the easiest alternative being the deeper fractured aquifers in the midlands and highlands. However, in the coastal region underlained by Tertiary sediments, the groundwater extraction is mainly by government agencies and industries as the common public can ill afford the high investment and the technical know-how required.

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Also there is considerable imbalance in the distribution of fresh water through out the State. Central Ground Water Board, Kerala Region jointly with State Ground Water Department has estimated the ground water resources of Kerala as on March 2004 and has identified 5 over exploited blocks, 15 critical blocks and 30 semi critical blocks out of a total of 151 blocks assessed. There is a spurt in the ground water development through out the State over the last 10 years. Kerala is drained by 44 rivers of which, 3 are east flowing and the rest west flowing. The east flowing rivers are all tributaries of Cauvery river.

HYDROGEOLOGY Geologically 88% of the State is underlain by crystalline rocks of Archaean age. All these formations are intruded by dykes of younger age. The sedimentary formations of Tertiary age are seen along the western parts of the State. The crystalline and tertiary formations are lateretised along the midland area. Alluvial deposits of recent origin are seen along the coastal plains and river banks (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 The Hydrogeological map of Kerala

The ground water conditions in different formations are described briefly in the following paragraphs.

Geological set up The crystalline complex of Kerala, which is a part of the peninsular shield is composed of Khondalites charnockites, gneisses, schists, migmatites and rocks of the Wayanad 36

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supracrustals. Along the western portion of the State the crystalline rocks are overlain by the sedimentary formations of Tertiary age and Recent alluvial formations. The Tertiary sequence of formations have been divided into four beds viz. Aleppey, Vaikom, Quilon and Warkali, the age of which ranges from Eocene to Lower Miocene. Laterites of Sub-recent age derived from the crystalline as well as sedimentary formations are seen all along the midlands. Along the coastal plains, the sedimentaries and laterites are overlain by alluvium of Recent age.

Exploaratory drillings carried out by the Central Ground Water Board and the Public Health Engineering Department (Presently Kerala Water Authority-KWA) of Kerala State has thrown much light on the Tertiary sediments of Kerala. The total thickness of the sediments exceeds 600 m in the central portion of the basin between Kattoor and Trikunnapuzha in Alappuzha district. The basement was not touched in this area upto 600 m and also towards south upto Karunagapalli where the exploration was done upto 300 m. The sediments rest over a westward dipping basement rock with a depression between Kochi and Kollam.

Occurrence of Ground water The geological formations ranging in age from Archaean to Recent within the State can be broadly classified into two categories viz. (1) fissured and fractured crystalline formations (hard rocks) with secondary porosity and (2) porous granular formations (soft rocks) with primary porosity. Ground water occurs in the porous granular formations such as alluvium, laterite, the Tertiary sediments (soft rocks) and weathered and decomposed crystalline rocks as well as in the fissures, joints and fractures in the fresh crystalline rocks (hard rocks). The aquifers in the State can be grouped into four distinct geological formations in which they occur viz Alluvial aquifers, Laterite aquifers, the Tertiary sedimentary rock aquifers and crystalline aquifers (Table 1).

Table 1 Geological Succession of Kerala

Age Recent

Formation Alluvium

Sub -Recent Tertiary

Laterite Warkali Quilon Vaikom Alleppey Intrusives Wayanad group Charnockites Khondalites

Undated Archaeans

Lithology Sand, clay, riverine alluviumetc and flood plain deposits of Kuttanad area Derived from crystalline and sedimentaries Sandstone, clays with lignite seams Limestone, marl and clay Sandstone with pebbles and gravel beds, clay and lignite Carbonaceous clay and fine sand Dolerite, gabbro, granites, quartzofeldspathic veins Granitic gneiss, schists etc Charnockites and associated rocks Khondalites suite of rocks and its associates.

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Crystaline Aquifers: (Hard rock aquifers) On the basis the depth of occurrence the potential aquifer in the crystalline formation can be classified into shallow aquifers and deep aquifers.

Shallow aquifers The shallow aquifers of the crystalline formations in the State occur generally within a depth of 20m. They are made up of highly decomposed weathered zone and partly weathered and fractured rock occurring just below the weathered zone. The nature and thickness of these aquifers depend on the mineralogical composition and structural characteristics of the parent rock as well as topography and drainage conditions of the terrain and hence show very wide variations in their water yielding capacity. Almost the entire area of the State is under humid tropical climate and hence the chemical weathering predominates over physical weathering, which in turn depends on the mineralogical composition of the parent rock. The khondalites are more susceptible to weathering followed by migmatites and charnockites are least susceptible to weathering. Hence the thickness of weathered zone is maximum in the area underlain by khondalites. But the khondalites on weathering give rise to more clayey material and hence form relatively poor aquifers. In charnockites and migmatites thickness of weathered zone is generally low and often gets desaturated with the onset of summer.

The joints and fractures are the main structural controls for ground water movement.

Inter connected joints, fractures and foliation planes induce secondary porosity and permeability to the crystalline formations, which are otherwise massive and impermeable. Hence, wherever the crystalline formations have undergone intense structural deformations they form potential aquifers. The configuration of the water table in the shallow aquifer generally follows the topography. Due to this the ground water moves towards the valleys, topographic lows and other depressions. Hence, the wells located along valleys and topographic lows generally yields more water compared to those on the high grounds and slopes.

Ground water is extensively developed by means of dug wells in the shallow aquifers.

The premonsoon depth to waterlevel in these aquifers varies from 1.14m (Vandenmedu, Idukki district) to 17.70m bgl (Meppady, Wayanad, district in April, 2006. In the postmonsoon period (August 2006) the DTW ranges 0.24 m (Punjar, Kottayam district) to 13.06 m bgl (Neyyattinkara, Thiruvananthapuram district). In the hilly areas the dugwells are generally confined to valley areas and hence the DTW is generally shallower. The fluctuation of waterlevel ranges from 0.39 to 5.21m. The depth of dugwells ranges from 2.48 to 21.00 m bgl. The yield of dugwells ranges from 5 to 25 m3/day upto winter period and it reduces to less than 1m3/day to 10 m3/day in summer.

Many of the dugwells in hilly areas and uplands dries up in peak summer.

Deep fractured aquifer The post crystalline tectonic deformations have developed deep seated fractures in the crystalline rocks and such zones form potential aquifers. To find out the depth and thickness as well and their hydraulic properties exploratory drilling and pumping tests were carried out. The exploration was carried out to a maximum depth of 300m.

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Two hundred and eighty exploratory bore wells were drilled in the state as on 31.03.2007. Apart from exploratory borewells observation wells were also drilled wherever high yield was obtained to monitor the water level and to collect aquifer parameters and also study the anisotropy of the aquifer. The exploratory drilling revealed that the thickness of fractured zones varies from place to place and the fracture zones have been encountered intermittently at different depths. This indicates that deep seated fractured rocks occur in the form of vertical to subvertical narrow linear zones of restricted width as well as horizontal zones of varying thickness alternating with massive rocks. The vertical fracture zones help infiltration and down gradient movement of recharged water, where as the horizontal fracture zones provide hydraulic interconnection of fractures enabling the development of the fractures.

The fractures occur down to a depth of around 240 m in khondalites and around 200 m in charnockites and migmatites. In the intrusives fractures are generally in shallower depths. The thickness of potential fracture zones encountered in the boreholes ranges from almost nil to more than 100 m. The fracture zones were seen sandwiched between the massive rock. A perusal of the data indicates that maximum thickness of potential fracture zones are in charnockites-terrain (more than 100m) followed by migmatites and the least in khondalites with a maximum thickness around 30 m. The thickness of overburden is more in khondalitic terrain compared to charnockites and migmatites.

The depth of casing in khondalite terrain ranges from 3.4 to 63.4 m, in charnockites and migmatites ranges from 1.5 to 36.60 m.

Effects of lineaments on Yield of Borewells An analysis of the yields of two hundred and eighty exploratory borewells drilled indicates that the yield of borewell ranges from less than 1lps to more than 30 lps.

About 50% of the borewells yield is in the range of 1-5 lps.

The exploratory wells drilled in crystalline formations have been analysed with reference to the lineament direction. It is seen that 2/3rd of the exploratory borewells in the state yield more than 1 lps (3600 lph). The borewells drilled in certain lineament directions yielded higher than those on other lineament directions. It is observed that EW is the most potential lineament direction. About 85%of the borewells drilled in these lineament direction yielded more than 1 lps discharge and 50% of the borewells yielded more than 5 lps discharge. About 30% of the high yielding borewells (discharge more than 10 lps) drilled are also falls in E-W lineament direction. The next potential lineament direction is NE-SW. About 70% of the borewells drilled in these directions yielded more than 1 lps and more than 40% of the borewells yielded more than 5 lps discharge. About 28% of the high yielding borewells (discharge more than 10 lps) was drilled in NE-SW lineament direction. In the NNW-SSE lineament direction also good success rate in yield of borewells are encountered. Borewells drilled without consideration of lineaments often yielded poor discharge.

Sedimentary (soft rock) aquifers The sedimentary formations of Kerala is of Tertiary to Recent age. As per the available literatures the Tertiary formations of Kerala are made up of two distinct beds known Centre for Environment and Development

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as Quilon bed (Early Miocene) and Warkalai bed (late Miocene to Early Pliocene).

The exploration carried out by CGWB has confirmed the existence of two older beds underlying the Quilon beds. They are named as Vaikom and Alleppey beds.

Of the four Tertiary beds (Alleppey, Vaikom, Quilon and Warkalai), the two beds viz. the Vaikom and the Warkali form potential aquifers. The oldest Alleppey beds contain brackish water as inferred from electrical logs, whereas, the Quilon beds are poor aquifers. The Vaikom aquifer is seen all along the coast between Kollam and Ponnani and the piezometric head ranges from 1 to 18 m above msl. The aquifer is extensively developed between Kollam and Kayamkulam. The annual flow in the aquifer is computed as 43 MCM (1988), of which 10 MCM is brackish. The Warkali aquifer is seen south of Kochi. The piezometric head in the aquifer varies from 2.6 m above msl. to 10 m below msl. The aquifer is largely developed in and around Alapuzha town and also between Kollam and Cherthala. The annual flow in the aquifers is computed as 63 MCM and the draft is around 22 MCM (1988).

The Vaikom aquifers are fresh south of Karuvatta in Alappuzha district and the Warkalai aquifers are fresh South of Arthungal (Cherthala) in Alappuzha district. Isolated pockets of fresh waters are seen in Vaikom aquifers in Njarakkal, Subhash Park, Wellington Island (Ernakulam district), Udayanapuram (Kottayam district) and in Vayalethur ( Malappuram district).

Laterite aquifers These are the most wide spread and extensively developed aquifer in the state. Majority of the laterites are derived from Archaean crystalline rocks by the process of lateritisation but in some areas in the western part of the state laterite was also derived from Tertiary formations. Small isolated tertiary laterites are seen all along the western part of the state. Laterites widely vary in their physico chemical characteristics. A well developed laterite is highly porous and is more ferruginous and hard and strong. The laterite is generally underlain by thick lithomargic clay which is the primary lateritisation front. The thickness of lithomargic clay varies from less than 0.5m to 5m at places.

Due to the porous nature of the laterite, the dug wells tapping laterite get recharged fast in the initial stages of monsoon showers itself. However the water escapes as subsurface flow and the water level falls quite fast especially in wells located on topographic highs and slopes. Laterite forms potential aquifers along valleys and topographic lows where the thickness of the saturated zone is more than 3 m and can sustain large diameter open wells for domestic and irrigation use. The premonsoon depth of dug wells ranges from 2.80m to 26.2m bgl. The depth of water level ranges from 1.40 m (Konnakuzhi, Thrissur district) to 26.6 m (Sasthanagar, Kasargod district) in April 2007 and 0.38 m (Kannankara, Kozhikode district ) to 23.4 m (Poovar, Thiruvananthapuram district) during August 2007 (Post monsoon period). The seasonal water level fluctuation ranges from 0.86 to 6.0 m.

The yield of dug wells ranges from 10-50 m3/day upto winter period and the yield considerably reduced in summer (1 to 10 m3/day).

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Alluvial aquifers This is the most potential phreatic aquifer especially along the coastal area and is extensively developed by dug wells and filter point wells for domestic and irrigation needs. Alluvium is also found along river banks and in lowlying areas. The maximum thickness of alluvium was found to be 101 m around Kattoor in Alappuzha district.

The water table is 1 to 6 m above msl and the depth of of wells in alluvium ranges from 2.40 m to 11.0 m bgl. The depth to water level in alluvium ranges from 0.72 m (Trikkunnapuzha, Alappuzha district) to 8.30 m bgl (Kollam, Kollam district) in April 2007 (premonsoon period) and 0.02 m (Nedumudi, Alappuzha district) to 7.35 m (Kollam, Kollam district) during August 07 (Post monsoon period). The seasonal fluctuation of water level ranges from 0.68 m to 4.36 m. The yield of shallow dug wells ranges from 15 to 50 m3/day.

Filter point wells are feasible in alluvium wherever the saturated thickness of sand exceeds 5m. The filter point wells are constructed to the maximum depth of 12 m bgl.

The yield of filter point well ranges from 20 to 60 m3/day. The areas feasible for the filter point wells are Poonthura- Veli, Kazhakuttom, Kaniyapuram (Thiruvananthapuram district) Iravipuram, Panmana, Chavara, Karunagapalli, Oachira (Kollam district) Kayamkulam, Haripad, Arattupuzha-Trikkunnapuzha belt, Thottapalli, Purakad, Ambalapuzha,Alappuzha, Aryad, Mararikulam, Kanjikuzhi, Cherthala, Pattanakkad, Chandirur, Aroor (Alappuzha district) Vypin, North Parur (Ernakulam district) Eriyad, Kodungalloor, Perinjanam, Vattika, Valappad, Chavakkad (Thrissur district) Ponnani, Purathoor, Mangalam, Chamravattom, Tirur, Tanur, Parappanangadi, Kadalundi nagaram (Malapuram district) Koyilandi, Badagara, Thikkodi, Kottakal, Mukkali (Kozhikode district) Dharmadam, Ramanthali, (Kannur district) Padne, Edayilakkad, Nileshwar, Kanhangad, Bekal, Kudlu, Uppala andKunathur (Kasargod district).

GROUNDWATER REGIME Evaluation, development and management of groundwater resources of any area is often handicapped for want of historical water level data to assess the changes in the storage and changes in quality of ground water in response to natural phenomenon to study the past trends and forecast the future also requires such historical data. Further, changes in chemical quality regime of ground water of any terrain have to be examined based on the trends and behaviour of water table and piezometric surface with trend of rainfall for the same period. Thus, the groundwater regime studies form integral part of the Hydrogeological studies pertaining to development and management of groundwater resources.

A total number of 864 operational Ground Water Monitoring Wells (GWMW) are covering various Hydrogeological environments in Kerala. Out of these, 592 are dug wells tapping phreatic zones. These GWMW are spread over in all the physiographic divisions of the state. About 62% of the GWMW fall in the midland region, 18% in coastal plains, 15% in highlands and 5 %in Plataeu region. Among the GWMW tapping phreatic aquifer, 65% are tapping laterite, 17% tapping weathered and fractured crystallines, 15% tapping coastal alluvium and 3% tapping riverine alluvium. The Centre for Environment and Development

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data of these GWMW were analysed to understand the depth to water level scenario in the State, annual fluctuation in the water levels due to monsoon recharge and long term trend in water levels.

Water level fluctuation (2007-08) The depth to water level was monitored from 864 monitoring wells distributed through out the state during the months of April, August, November and January. The water level measured during the months of April is taken as pre-monsoon water level and the data of August and November are taken as post-monsoon water level depending on the rainfall distribution.

The depth to water level mostly depends on the Hydrogeological conditions of the area as well as topography, rainfall pattern etc. In coastal plains the depth to water level is generally restricted to 6 m bgl. In midland areas, where the undulating topography is seen, the depth to water level generally varies from near ground level to 25 m bgl. The variation is mostly due to topographical variations, thickness of lateritic over burden etc. In areas where laterites are underlain by sedimentary aquifers of Tertiary age, the water level goes very deep, even to the extent of 55 m bgl (Pulluvila, Thiruvananthapuram district). In highlands the depth to water level is in the range of few cm to 10 m bgl depending on the topography and thickness of overburden (weathered zone).

Depth to water level during April 2007 The pre-monsoon water level in Kerala State as measured from Ground Water Monitoring Wells (GWMW) during April 2007 is widely ranging from 0.60 to 25.00 mbgl. But most parts of the State are falling in the range of 0.60 to 20 metres below ground level as represented by 99.3% of GWMW. Shallow water level in the range of 0.6-2.0 mbgl is seen in coastal tracts of Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam districts and also in certain pockets of areas in high ranges of Palakkad and Wayanad districts. The major part of the midland region of the State show ground water level in the range of 2-10m, except in Kasargod and Kannur districts. In certain pockets of areas in Kasargod, Kannur, Wayanad, Malappuram, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram districts where thick laterite over burden is seen, water level is deep in the range of 10-24.10 mbgl. Water level in the range of 20.0-24.0 mbgl is seen in Kasargod Block of Kasargod district.

Depth to water level during November 2007 Depth to water level in Kerala State varies widely from near ground level to 22.5 metres below ground level during the month of November 2007 but mostly falls within the range of 0-10 mbgl as shown by about 93.5% of Ground Water Monitoring Wells (GWMW). Shallow water levels of less than 2 mbgl is seen along the coastal tracts of Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam and Thrissur districts, in midland areas of Palakkad district and also in the north eastern parts of high ranges in Idukki district. The midland areas show water level in the range of 2-10 mbgl. In central parts of Kasargod and 42

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Hydrogeology of Kerala - An Overview

Balakrishnan et al.

northern parts of Kannur districts show water level in the range of 10-20 mbgl. In the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram water level is deep in the range of 10-55.45 mbgl where thick laterite overburden is seen.

Long term water level trend The analysis of long term water level data of the period 1980 – 2008 indicates that the change in water level is mostly restricted to the range of +0.05 to -0.05 m/yr indicating a negligible change in long term water level in most parts of the state. Falling trend in the range of 0.05 to 0.20 has been indicated by only 8.5% of the monitoring wells for the analysis of pre monsoon water level and 8.8% of monitoring wells for the analysis of post monsoon water level. However the analysis of water level trend for the last decadal period (ie 1997-2008) indicates that 25% and 36% of monitoring wells are showing declining pre monsoon water level, have an almost steady post monsoon water level trend, indicating the increase in ground water recharge to recoup to the original level.

GROUND WATER QUALITY The quality of ground water in general is of excellent nature except along certain pockets. Sporadic and isolated incidence of brackish water is seen along the coastal area especially close to backwater channels. Inland salinity is seen in some pockets in Palakkad districts. The Vaikom aquifers are brackish north of Karuvatta and the Warkali aquifers are brackish north of Arthungal (both in Alleppey district). Flouride is seen above permissible limits in the shallow and deeper aquifers along the eastern parts of Palghat district and in the deeper aquifers in and around Alleppey urban area. Higher incidence of Nitrate is noticed in the eastern parts of Palakkad district and Iron in excess is seen in almost all districts along certain pockets. Due to the thick population bacteriological contamination is seen in all the places.

GROUND WATER RESOURCES ESTIMATION Periodic assessment of ground water resources are needed for formulating various developmental activities and also to control the over draft and other environmental hazards.

The estimation of the ground water resource of the state is made by Central Ground Water Board and the State Ground Water Department and a Committee chaired by Secretary, Water Resource Department, Government of Kerala with members from allied departments and the Member Secretary of the Committee is Regional Director, CGWB. The latest assessment was done as on March 2004 by the Committee as per the Ground Water Estimation Committee (1997) Regulation of Government of India.

In Kerala the estimation was made block wise. Since data in water shed was not available the blocks are categorized as follows: The units of assessment are categorized for ground water development based as two criteria: Centre for Environment and Development

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(a)

Stage of ground water development which is the percentage of existing gross ground water draft for all uses with net annual ground water availability and (b) Long term trend of pre and post monsoon water levels.

There are four categories based on the above norms.

1. ‘Safe’ area which have ground water potential for development.

2. ‘Semi critical’ areas where cautious ground water development is recommended.

3. Critical areas and 4. ‘Over-exploited’ areas where there should be intensive monitoring and evaluation and future ground water developed be linked with water conservation studies.

Criteria The dynamic ground water resources of Kerala as on March 2004 is as follows 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Annual replenishable ground water resource Net annual ground water availability Annual ground water draft for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses Stage of ground water development Categorisation of Blocks Total assessment units Safe Semi critical Critical Over exploited

: : :

6841.33 mcm 6229.55 mcm 2920.01 mcm

:

46.88%

: : : : :

151 101 30 15 5

The ground water resource potential of Kerala as on 31.3.2004 in million cubic metres (MCM) district wise is given in Table 2.

Ground Water Legislation and Regulations Based on the orders passed by the Supreme Court of India, Government of India has constituted Central Ground Water Board as an authority under “Environment (Protection) Act 1986 for the purpose of regulation and control of ground water management and development. By transferring the powers to state government in 2002, the Kerala Ground Water (Control and Regulation) Act was enacted and constituted the Kerala Ground Water Authority with the Secretary to Government in the Water Resources Department as the Chairman. Kerala Ground Water (Control & Regulation) act is intended to conserve groundwater, regulate and control its extraction and use, prevent indiscriminate extraction and consequent undesired environmental impacts.

Specific Ground Water Governance issues for Kerala Though the state is endowed with an average annual rainfall of 2600 mm spread over both the south west and north east monsoons unlike rest of the country, the ground water availability during the peak requirement period (Dec-April) has been found to be meager for domestic and agricultural purposes. This is mainly on account of the 44

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Table 2 District wise Ground Water Utilisation and Stage of Ground Water Development Kerala State

Hydrogeology of Kerala - An Overview

Centre for Environment and Development Balakrishnan et al.

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large dependence on ground water in rural areas (>40 per cent of the net ground water availability) and the resultant high well density, where the spacing between pumping wells is less than 50 metres. Further, as the major geographical area is underlain by crystalline rocks with very thin unconsolidated phreatic aquifer with steep hydraulic gradient from east to west, the groundwater runoff from the phreatic aquifer is appreciable on account of the unique geomorphic and hydrogeological set up of the state. Hence ground water governance to ensure equity, efficiency and sustainability should focus on suitable water harvesting and artificial recharge techniques with optimum ground water arresting sub surface structures. Large scale dependence on ground water for irrigation and industrial needs, tapping the shallow phreatic aquifer are not feasible; and for the above purpose, the unconsolidated deep confined aquifers in the coastal area would have to be tapped with suitable management measures. Ground water markets prevalent on a large scale during the last five years have resulted in lowering of ground water levels and carrying out many pockets of critical (dark) and over exploited areas. The recommendations recently made to the state government by the Expert Committee for enforcing strict regulation and control by suitably amending the existing Ground Water Legislation Act with mandatory registration for all new pumping ground water extraction structures with the State Ground Water Authority would aid in proper governance and ensure sustainability of this precious resource, warding off possible ecological degradation and imminent water scarcity.

CONCLUSION Kerala even though has very high rainfall, scarcity of water is experienced in many parts of the state. Out of the 151 blocks 5 are over exploited, 15 critical, 30 semi critical and the remaining are safe blocks. There is good scope for development of the safe blocks. The deeper fractured aquifers are potential and give very good yield especially along the central and northern parts of the state. Deeper sedimentary aquifers are potential along the coastal area especially in the Kollam and Alappuzha districts.

Barring isolated pockets the quality of ground water is excellent in the State.

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Traditional Water Resources in Kerala

Kamalakshan Kokkal1 and Aswathy M V2 1

Principal Scientific Officer 2Project Information Officer ENVIS Centre, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION The water resources development of Kerala essentially consists of development of surface water, ground water and rain water potentials available in the state. Though protected drinking water supply is available in selected cities, a large number of rural and urban populations depend on the ground water as their drinking water source and adopted a variety of structures for water harvesting. Among the ‘Traditional ‘ sources of drinking water, open dug wells, ponds and springs constitute the major types of extraction structures in Kerala especially in terms of number of users and geographic area coverage. The estimated annual total ground water recharge in the state is 6841mcm while the net annual ground water availability is worked out to be 6230 mcm. It is observed that there has been a spurt in the ground water development during the last decade (CGWB, 2005-06).

As per the 1992 estimation of ground water development in all blocks in the state revealed that they belong to the safe category. In 1999, the situation was changed and reported that three blocks were categorised as over exploited, six critical and six semi critical. In 2004 the number of such blocks were increased to 50 consisting of 5 over exploited, 15 critical and 30 semi critical blocks. It indicates that the ground water extraction in the state is showing an increasing trend resulting in depletion of ground water table.

Geographically Kerala is longitudinally divided into lowland, midland and high land.

The low land consists of coastal areas having elevation less than 7.6 m while in midland elevation ranges from 7.6 m to76 m and high land constitute areas having elevation >76m. The geology and hydrologic conditions of the above and types are different. The high land comprises of Precambrian rocks consisting of Gneisses and Schists. In the midland laterite constitute the dominant aquifer. The low land consists of sands, alluvium, shale, sand stone and lime stone.

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Wells of Kerala The common ground water extraction structures in Kerala are open dug wells. It is estimated that there are about 45 lakh open dug wells exist in Kerala and their population is steeply increasing over the last decade.

There are many types of dug wells consisting of masonary wells, Kutcha wells, well with pervious lining, well with impervious lining, well in rocky hard substratum, infiltration gallery, bore wells and tube wells depend on the local hydrogeologic conditions (Fig.1).

Fig. 1 Different type of wells 48

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Trad itional water resources

Kamalakshan Kokkal & Aswathy

Tube wells/bore wells are also used for water extraction. The tube wells are found in the alluvial set up of coastal regions and bore wells are found in hard rock areas and highland regions.

More than half of the rural population (nearly 70%) of Kerala depend on wells as their only source of drinking water. Most of the wells in Kerala are owned by individual families. Open dug wells are generally being used over an average period of 50 years. These dug wells have maximum depth of about 15-20 m with a diameter of about 1 to 2 m in coastal region and 2 to 6 meters in the mid land and high land. The open well density in Kerala is perhaps the highest in the country – 200 wells per sq.km in the coastal area, 150 wells per sq.km in the midland and 70 wells per sq.km in the high land (SoE, 2005).

It has been reported that ground water tables are depleting in many parts of the state.

This has resulted in the drying up of perennial wells during summer period. The people have to resort to construction of bore wells which are made within the open dug wells or separate. This is a common observation in many parts of the State. The population of bore wells are increasing in many districts over the open dug wells. The situation is very alarming in Kasaragod district where the average annual rain fall is highest in the districts. Besides, the district is blessed with nine river basins out of the 44 river basins of Kerala. Inspite of the above the water table of Kasaragod Block panchayat area is reported to be depleted up to 4 m, during the last decade. The water rights in India is vested with property owners and unregulated exploitation of ground water through motorised bore wells is common. The problem is very serious as reclamation of wetlands, which are recharging source of ground water and large scale removal of hills and reclamation of low lands, sand mining etc. Kerala has brought out ground water regulation policy framework with initiative in registering existing wells and more strenuous efforts is needed for the strict compliance.

Ponds of Kerala Ponds are common in Kerala. Ponds were widely used as source of drinking and domestic purposes, in many parts of Kerala. Ponds helped to maintain the ecological balance – as reservoirs of rainwater and collection points of groundwater which feed springs, and recharging ground water. Ponds were used as irrigation water source and provide habitat for fresh water lives. It has been reported that Kerala has approximately 995 tanks and ponds having more than 15000 Mm3 summer storage (SoE, 2005). More than 50 % of Centre for Environment and Development

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these water bodies are on the verge of extinction. There has been a trend to reclaim these water bodies for developmental activities. Each panchayat/urban local body has number of both public and private ponds and tanks the details of which is given in Table 1. A general classification of ponds in Kerala indicates that maximum number of ponds is in Thiruvananthapuram and Trissur in second place (Table 2).

Table 1 Detail of Ponds, tanks and other small wetlands of Kerala Number of Ponds No

District

1

Panchayat ponds

Private ponds

Public ponds

Quarry ponds

Irrigation tanks

Holy ponds and streams

Thiruvananthapuram

1633

171

00

06

34

69

2

Kollam

581

825

503

82

17

188

3

Pathanamthitta

390

456

654

138

06

59

4

Alappuzha

340

11400

00

04

03

303

5

Kottayam

226

1641

491

84

75

208

6

Idukki

66

558

77

19

47

23

7

Eranakulam

732

3450

296

164

72

204

8

Thrissur

984

5861

182

43

213

258

9

Palakkad

633

3070

242

134

61

314

10

Malappuram

555

3632

245

145

45

272

11

Wayanad

29

1489

01

16

61

03

12

Kozhikode

94

855

110

33

24

284

13

Kannur

292

626

470

25

35

301

14

Kasaragod

265

1858

86

11

145

148

TOTAL

6820

35892

3357

904

838

2634

( SoE, 2007) Table 2 Empirical classification of ponds Title

Size,ha

Depth, m

Location

Nature

Relation to water table

Private

Small, <1.0

Shallow, <1.0

Highland

Ephemeral

Influent

Temple

Intermediate, 1.010.0

Medium , 1.1-2.0

Midland

Perennial

Effluent

Community

Large, >10.0

Deep, >2.1

Lowland

(Ecological Traditions of Kerala, 2006)

Vast majority of ponds in Kerala belongs to the category of small ponds. Physiographic settings of Kerala afford a large number of medium and deep ponds (Prof.Thrivikramji.K.P, 2006). Theppakkulams are temple ponds, belongs to temples along with other assets like land and gold. In general such ponds are perennial and water loss is chiefly by evaporation.

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Sacred groves and sacred ponds These are miniature of evergreen forests within areas of human settlement nurtured by tradition and sustained by belief. These groves helped in reducing runoff and in maintaining soil moisture. Most of these mini-forests are niches of biodiversity. Sacred groves vary in size from a few trees to dense forest covering over vast tracts of land.

There are about 17,000 known sacred groves in different phyto-geographical regions and forest types of India. In Kannur and Kasaragod district their distribution extends from coast to the foothills of Western Ghats.

The first documented study of sacred groves in Northern Kerala is by Unnikrishnan in 1990who recorded 62 sacred groves in Kasaragod and 57 in Kannur district.

Ramachandran and Mohanan provided a data of about 600 sacred groves in Kerala.

In a comprehensive study Jayarajan (2004) reported 578 sacred groves in Kasaragod and Kannur districts of Kerala. There may be about 2000 sacred groves in Kerala (Bijukumkar, 2006) at a higher side of projection. These groves are important today as they are banks of genetic and plant diversity, which have disappeared from the region outside the groves. The sacred groves are water reservoirs which provide adequate water and fertility to the soil. Most of the sacred groves may have water bodies likes springs, ponds, lakes and streams. The thick forest and litter cover in the groves ensure water retention, effective root networks and transfer of heat. They also act as a micro watershed of fresh water systems used by the local communities.

Springs of Kerala Origin of springs A spring or seep occurs when groundwater emerges naturally on the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface by either gravity or artesian pressure. Springs commonly occur along hillsides and in low areas where porous soils or fractured rock formations allow water to flow onto the ground surface. Springs can occur at a single point or over a large area, called a seep. A slow hillside seep or trickle where no visible water flow is observed should not be considered as a true spring. A spring should have water flow year-round and have at least Centre for Environment and Development

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a one-gallon per minute discharge to be considered worthwhile for development. The springs located on hillsides often have sufficient slope to deliver water by gravity to the location where it is used. This configuration can result in significant savings, as there are no electricity or pumping costs. Springs developed in low areas generally require a source of power and a pump to lift the water to its point of use.

Natural springs are abundant in Kerala especially in the hilly areas. While most of them are perennial, a few of them may dry up completely during summer months. In many undeveloped areas where isolated communities in the hilly tracts use springs as the only source of drinking water. The physical/structural features in the hilly tracts are favourable for the occurrence of springs. Based on a survey conducted by CWRDM a total of 236 springs were identified in the state (Table 3). Fig. 2 shows the density of springs identified in the state. About 80% of spring is located in the eastern side of the Western Ghats belt of the state. It has also reported that the coastal districts of Alleppey and Ernakulam do not have any prominent springs. The study noted that over 15 percent of the springs have more than 100 litres per minute discharge capacity and can be exploited not only to meet drinking water requirements but also for minor irrigation purpose. The majority of springs of Kerala have a discharge of 10 to 99 l/m. (Springs in Kerala, An inventory, 1988). The basin wise distribution of springs is given in Table 4.

Table 3 District wise population of springs in Kerala

No

District

Name codes

Number of springs located

1

Kasaragod

KD

8

2

Kannur

CN

34

3

Wayanad

Wy

24

4

Kozhikode

KK

46

5

Malappuram

MP

26

6

Palakkad

PG

18

7

Trissur

TC

8

8

Kottayam

KT

22

9

Idukki

ID

18

10

Kollam

QN

2

11

Thiruvananthapuram

TR

30

Total

236

Springs in Kerala , An Inventory, 1988 52

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Source : Springs in Kerala an Inventory, 1998 Fig. 2 Density of identified springs of Kerala

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Table 4 River basin wise distribution of springs Sl. No

Name of River Basin

Number of Springs Located

1

Chandragiri

6

2

Karingote

2

3

Kuppam

5

4

Valapattanam

15

5

Telichery

14

6

Kabbini

24

7

Kuttiyadi

29

8

Korapuzha

2

9

Chaliyar

15

10

Kadalundi

16

11

Bharathapuzha

23

12

Keecheri

3

13

Chalakudy

5

14

Periyar

10

15

Muvattupuzha

3

16

Bhavani

5

17

Meenachil

20

18

Manimala

7

19

Kallada

1

20

Ithikara

1

21

Vamanapuram

2

22

Neyyar

6

23

Others (Coastal,Kayal,etc)

22

Total

236

Springs in Kerala, An Inventory, 1988

Spring development Springs are traditionally been used by people and livestock as they provide direct access to the water at spring site. Springs are easily susceptible for contamination with livestock manure and become mud holes from livestock traffic. Spring development involves physical protection of the spring and its water quality from environmental damage and contamination, as well as improving access to the water for all its intended uses. Springs are less costly to develop than wells and dugouts. However, before a spring is developed, it is essential to check both the quantity and quality of the spring water because springs are highly susceptible to contamination and seasonal changes in discharge of water.

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CWRDM undertook a project on “Development of Decentralised Community Drinking Water Supply Schemes”. As a part of this programme, six springs located in different agroclimatic and hydrologic set up were developed for drinking water supply to the communities around. They are as follows:1. Spring at Chaikottukonam It is situated at Chaikottukonam in Kollayil Panchayat of Neyyatinkara Taluk in Thiruvananthapuam District. Water storage capacity created was 4600 litres. About 20 families are benefited.

2. Spring at Kallillakkavala It is situated at Kallillakkavala in Teekoy panchayat of Meenachil Taluk in Kottayam District. Water storage capacity created was 4000 litres. About 15 families are benefited.

3. Spring at Kolani It is situated at Kolani in Melukavu panchayat of Meenachil taluk in Kottayam district, very close to Idukki district border. Water storage capacity created was 7500 litres. About 250 families are benefitted.

4. Spring at Rehmania It is situated at Rehmania in Thachampara panchayat at Mannarkkadu taluk in Palakkad district. Water storage capacity created was 5400 litres. About 20-25 families are benefited.

5. Spring at Parambukavumala It is situated at Parambukavumala in Chittariparamba panchayat of Thalassery taluk in Kannur district. Water storage capacity created was 5000 litres. About 50-60 families are benefited.

6. Spring at Nayakkayam It is situated at Nayakkayam in Belur panchayat of Hosdurg taluk in Kasargod district. Water storage capacity created was 5000 litres. About 40-50 families are benefited.

Surangams of Kerala Kasargode district in North Kerala has over 1000 special kind of water harvesting structures called Surangams. The terrain in the district is such that there is high discharge in rivers in the monsoon and low discharge in the dry months. People depend on groundwater, using a special water extraction structure called Surangam especially in midland and highland consisting of laterite aquifer.

The word ‘surangam’ is derived from a Kannada word for tunnel. It is also known as thurangam, thorappu, mala, etc, in different parts of Kasaragod. It is a horizontal well mostly excavated in hard laterite rock formations. The excavation continues until it cut across the ground water table and good amount of water is struck. Water seeps out of the hard rock and flows out of the tunnel. This water is usually collected in an open pit constructed outside the surangam. CWRDM has documented about 600 surangams existing in the Kasaragod district and their utilization for agriculture and domestic Centre for Environment and Development

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purposes (Jayakumar and Raghavendra Prasad 1991). In 2001 CGWB published a report which basically given a picture on draining of ground water from surangams and their controlling measures (Nayak, 2001). In another study, Dr.Kokkal has documented all the existing surangams in the Kanhangad Block panchayat, evaluated their hydrogeological status, estimated water resources potential and water quality, sustainability of surangams in terms of change in landuse, socio economic analysis among surangam holders, ownership pattern of surangam, cost benefit analysis, technology of construction and explored the scope of community based surangam on priority basis in the areas. He has identified 472 surangams in 35 wards of five panchayat of Kanhangad Block.

He has reported maximum number of surangams in Kodom- Beloor panchayat.

Though rectangular, circular and irregular shapes of surangams are existing in the area, the former type is common. One dug in the hill slope are more frequent than in well type. Locating of surangams are being mostly done through unscientific methods, which resulted in a fairly high amount of failure rates. In many instances surangams are found to be draining the aquifers and regulation of the yield of water from surangams may be thought off. Water quality is generally found to be good. Limiting the utilization of surangam water for drinking purposes alone for community requirement has to be thought off. The large scale lowering of regional ground water table is deathblow for this traditional water harvesting structure and the problem to a large extent can be solved by adopting stringent measures. By providing trained construction workers in every panchayat and adoption of scientific methods for locating surangam along with the help of geobotanical indicators would reduce the failure rate considerably. Financial assistance from banks and institutional support shall promote the general development of surangams in the area. There is a need of conducting awareness programmes on water management on a sustainable basis and the present system of flooding and agriculture land with copious water has to be controlled and reduced to a greater extent. Development of new surangams is beyond the scope in the area and proper maintenance of existing surangam is to be given importance.

Surangams are similar to qanats which once existed in Mesopotamia and Babylon around 700 BC. By 714 BC, this technology had spread to Egypt, Persia (now Iran) and India. In 2002 the initial cost of digging a surangam was Rs 100-150 per 0.72 m dug, as it hardly requires any maintenance. Traditionally, a surangam was excavated at a very slow pace and was completed over generations.

A surangam is about 0.45-0.70 m wide and about 1.8-2.0 m high. The length varies from 3-300 m. Usually several subsidiary surangams are also excavated inside the main tunnel. If the surangam is very long, a number of vertical air shafts are provided to ensure atmospheric pressure inside. The distance between successive air shafts varies between 50-60 m. The approximate dimensions of the air shafts are 2 m by 2 m, and 56

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the depth varies from place to place. The discharge of 26 selected surangams was recorded and it is shown in the Table â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5. Discharge characteristics of surangams in the study area shows that only those surangams belong to higher midland region can meet the domestic and irrigation demands throughout the year. In pre-monsoon season on an average the discharge is about 200 l/hr. Only a very few surangams are successful in the highland region especially in the Balal panchayath.

Table 5

No

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

Discharge through selected surangams in the study area in l/day

Name of sutrangam

the

owner

of

Chandukutty clayikode M. Narayanan Nair C.H.Ahmad kunji Jayakrishnan Papachan Ambalath Vijayakumar Achuthan Yennapara K.V.Muthani V.J.Kuryan Muthu.P T.K.Balakrishnan Devasy, kalikkadavu Gopalakrishnan, Parakkalai P.Mohammad Kallar Estahppan, kottakkandam Sindhu chako kottakandam Thampan koluthungal Mundathu kunjiraman Maniyani govindan, Eriya Mootahdy Krishnan, Eriya M.Chathu Laloor Marshal P M Kodoth Kunjikkanan Nair Padappil Ashari Appa Laloor T.K.Balakrishanan, kalikadavu Raveendran Attakandom

Average discharge Pre-monsoon

Post- monsoon (2000)

7542 5760 10611 5520 7200 3600 10284 30240 14160.84 74592 4312 4680 3600 5580 36216 8226.84 10800 2467.0 2640 9384 5256 3636.6 1279.92 1800 669.84

112320 14400

21600

NR

8640 33120 9600 NR 86400 23604 NR 5760 3312 2880 NR NR NR NR NR 26742.72 14400 0 5333.28 34560 4800 6912

(CGWB report, 2002) Centre for Environment and Development

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Subsurface dam – A conservation structure It is a ground water conservation structure, constructed across gently sloping bottle necked valleys. A subsurface dyke is a structure that is built in an aquifer with the intention of obstructing the natural flow of ground water. This will block the baseflow and raise the groundwater level resulting in augmentation of ground water. A subsurface dyke can be constructed in narrow valleys. A trench is excavated down to the hard rock and an impermeable wall is built in the trench, which is refilled. CGWB developed this type of conservation structures successfully in Babaji nagar, Eruthiampathy panchayat, Palakkad and Alanallur, Sadanandapuram in Kollam District. In the upstream side of the dykes wells or any extraction structures can be constructed.

The availability of modern and conventional water supply, extensive deforestation, developmental pressure and degradation of catchment areas has resulted in the decline of these traditional sources.

Water wheel Treading water wheel or ‘chakram chavittal’ is an agrarian activity essentially connected with the rural culture of Kerala. In traditional farming, farmers had to irrigate their paddy fields by treading a large wooden wheel over a small stream that could be directed to the field. The farmer used to sit on a wooden platform to tread the wheel. A simple device usually made of teak, has seven or more planks fixed on a circular framework.

Rotating larger Chakrams require two or more people.

Traditional way of water resource management Kenis – shallow wells in Wayanad. The material used for construction is Panamkutty.

The water in the Kenis is of good quality.

Valkinar is a special type of well with a slopping walkway up to the water table on one side of the well. These wells are usually dug for irrigation purposes. More or less similar types of structure used in Palakkad, is locally known as Kokkarni.

Oorani- It is a ground water extraction system, consists of larger pond for collection of rainwater. Wells are dug slightly away from the main pond and which are recharged from the pond. This type of structure is very common in Tamilnadu while a few instances are noticed in Palakkad district.

Mathakkom – Traditional rainwater harvesting structures in Kasaragod. The water from surangams also collected in the Mathakkoms act as percolation tanks.

Different types of Checkdams (i) Kattas – Temporary check dams in Kasaragod 58

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(ii)

Anicut – a type of check dam in Palakkad district constructed across rivers or streams using stone boulders and a material called ‘Kara’ and ‘Soorki’. (iii) Sub-surface check dams – In this type of dams water is drained from the aquifer through a gravel portion along the dam to a series of large diameter collector wells and used for irrigation.

Chirakkandom – Commonly known as ‘Thalakkulam’, from which water is let into the paddy fields in the downstream as and when required. The elas or small watersheds of Kerala had a pond or kulam at the upstream or higher elevation known as thalakulam, which not only facilitated gravity flow to the lower elevations and valleys but also helped in recharging the groundwater and maintaining the soil moisture. These thalakulams are seen even today in certain parts of Wayanad and Palakkad district Water Diversion Methods Mathavus are controlling structures constructed at the downstream side of a farm pond/tank (yeri) seen in Palakkad district.

Mathum Poottum is a water controlling system installed in a chira to deliver water according to requirement.

Pulikannu is also a water controlling system.

Kalpathi is a water diversion and conveyance structure present in Wayanad district. It is made out of granite stone.

Irrigation Kaalathekku (Kavala Kinar) – collects and store rainwater Round Kavala – it is a type of Kavalakinar.

Etham or Thulan – is a water-lifting device used to irrigate coconut and arecanut plantations, vegetables and sometimes, paddy fields also.

Thekkukotta or Kayattukotta – is a concial shaped basketlike vessel used for lifting water from shallow ponds or channels.

Veth – is an effective and simple traditional irrigation method used to lift water from shallow ponds streams or channels to fields.

Kaipola – is a water-lifting device similar to veth. It is used to irrigate betel leaves and banana from small water pits and channels.

Kakkotta – is used for carrying water from the Valkinar for irrigating betel leaves.

Chakkram (Chakkram and Ara)- is used to drain the fields. Chakram and Ara are two integral parts.

Petti and Para – is a system of low head, high discharge pumping to dewater the padashekharm in the Kuttanad-Kole wetland area.

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Veeshu maram – is a method used for cleaning the wide wells using bullocks.

Pitcher irrigation – is an indigenous drip irrigation method.

Akampadam – is a small pit made in the middle of paddy fields under the cultivation of pea, gram, etc. Water from that pit is used to irrigate pea and gram.

Splash irrigation – is done for plantation crops, mainly arecanut, in Kasargod district in areas where water cannot be diverted.

DISCUSSION All the reported traditional water resources extraction structures like surnagam, springs and ponds etc are tapping the ground water resources available in the state. Hence the problems which are associated with ground water resources in the state are affecting the sustainability of the traditional water resource harvesting structures. In Kerala ground water occurs under Phreatic (water table), semi confined and confined (piezometric) conditions. Though ground water resources are largely concentrated with the sedimentary aquifers of the coastal regions, their occurrence in the mid land lateritic areas and high land area provide the source of water for the people inhabited in such areas. The traditional water extraction structures are widely used in the midland and high land areas. It has been reported that Kerala has ground water resource of 6841Mm3. But the ground water availability is 6229 Mm3 (CGWB, 2005). Hence the gross ground water draft is 2920 Mm3 and the net ground water availability for future is 3221 Mm3. District wise analysis of ground water resources of Kerala indicates that Palakkad has the highest potential of ground water recharge (12%), followed by Thrissur (11%), Ernakulam (9%), Kannur (8%), Kottayam (75), Alleppey (6.8%) and Thiruvananthapuram (4%). The stage of development of ground water is highest in Kasragode (79%) district and lowest in Wayanad (25%). The overall stage of development in the state is 47%. It is observed that there has been a spurt in the ground water development during the last decade. All developmental blocks in the state were in the safe (white) category in 1992 and the situation changed during 1999 when three blocks were categorised as over exploited, 6 critical and 6 semi critical.

The situation again changed in 2004when such blocks were increased from 15 to 50 (5 over exploited, 15 critical and 30 semi critical) indicating that the ground water extraction in the state is showing an increasing trend (CGWB, 2005). It implies that ground water resource in the state is under severe stress and irrecoverable ground water depletion was reported from the districts like Kasaragode, Kannur, Palakkad, Thrissur and Trivandrum. The prevailing stress on ground water resources and resulting depletion of ground water table directly affects the survival of traditional water resource extraction structures reported above. It even adversely affects the survival rate and sustainability of dug wells, which are the commonly used extraction structures prevailing in the state. As a result people depend on bore wells and dug cum bore wells, which itself can create an environmental disaster in districts like Kasaragode. Though the ground water regulation act was imposed in the state, the practice of adopting bore wells as a solution for ensuring the availability of sufficient ground water are being continued. People are not concerned with consequences of such practices and it will 60

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result in the ultimate encroachment of sea water in the shallow ground water domains.

Hence ground water recharge measures have to be resorted.

It is an irony that districts receiving copious rainfall like Kasaragod, showing depletion of ground water tables & rising stress on groundwater resources. Hence the people have to be educated that bore wells are not the ultimate panacea for the problem.

Because of the prevailing above mentioned problems, the traditional ground water extraction structures are also facing various levels of challenges. Hence suitable water conservation measures have to be employed in the identified localities with the help of experts. So as to rejuvenate the ground water potential of the catchment area of the extraction structures. It is to be noted that all type of traditional groundwater extraction structures cannot be made in all the areas. The surangams can be making only in laterite inherited areas characterized by its own geology and hydrologic conditions.

Surangams are very successful in certain panchayaths like Kodom-Beloor in Kasaragod districts, while number of problems are encountered in their sustenance. Rainwater harvesting pits are not favourable for the areas with land slopes more than 200 . Planting trees and house based rainwater harvesting structures, other artificial recharging measures must be constructed suitably. Large number of failed bore wells can be used as conduits for recharging the ground water using rainwater by suitable modification of the mouth of the bore wells. Use of subsurface dams, check dams etc also can be employed depending on the geologic condition for arresting the underground flow of water. It is also to be explored the dual system of providing treated water for drinking purpose and untreated water for other domestic purposes from locally available water sources. So as to minimise the wasteful expenditure in the water sector. Large scale awareness by experts on water resources and their conservation must be given to the public. By careful implementation of appropriate scientific techniques, the traditional ground water extraction structures can be revived and used as a decentralized location specific structures for water. From the above discussions it is clear that revival of the ground water extraction structures is the need of the time and any challenges for their survival must be dealt carefully.

REFERENCES CGWB. 2002. Studies on development of surangams as a non conventional water resource in the Kanhangad Block Panchayat, Kasaragod, CGWB Tech. report , March 2002 CGWB. 2004. The dynamic groundwater resources of Kerala as on March 2004, CGWB Tech.report series No. 7/ICR/CGWB/05.06, Central Ground Water Board.

CPREC. 2006. Ecological Traditions of Kerala. C.P.R.Environmental Education Centre, Chennai CWRDM. 1988. Springs in Kerala. Centre for Water Resources and Development Management, Kozhikode CWRDM. 1992. Demonstration of spring development for community drinking water supply.

Centre for Water Resources and Development Management, Kozhikode James E J. 2006. Protecting natureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gifts traditional practices, Kerala Calling, May 2006 Jayakumar N S and Raghavendra Prasad P M. 1991. Surangams of Kasaragod- An unconventional water harvesting mechanism Centre for Environment and Development

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Jithesh Maniyat. 2004. Vanishing Sacred Groves. Kerala Calling July 2004 KSCSTE. 2004. Fresh water Resources of Kerala, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram.

KSPB. 2004. Economic Review, 2004. Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram PASSS. 1993. Rural water supply programme through development of Natural springs, Pazhakulam Social Service Society, Adoor.

SoE. 2005. State of Environment Report-Kerala 2005. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram SoE. 2007. State of Environment Report-Kerala 2007. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$Department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex4595

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Watershed Developm ent and Mangement

Premachandran et al.

Watershed Development and Management

Premachandran P N, Roshni G C and Thomas Cherian Soil Survey Organization, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION The developmental activities in the country from 1951 onwards were taken up in a haphazard way fixing the area and funds as target. Though the works were completed and amount spent, the impact of development was not felt by the people. The farmers were not happy with the soil and water conservation works since it was not treated well on watershed basis. The concept of development on watershed basis has been accepted by all and is catching up well nowadays in all places.

Watershed development and management is an integration of technology within the natural boundary of a drainage area for optimum development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic minimum needs of the people in a sustained manner.

A comprehensive watershed management programme should address the issues like drinking water, agricultural productivity, irrigation, poverty, deforestation, sedimentation, biomass generation, perennality of river &flooding. Hence watershed management projects are complex intervention that require effective multidisciplinary collaboration, commitment by the Governments and local communities and sustained effort.

WATERSHED AS A UNIT OF DEVELOPMENT Identification of the planning unit for development is as important as the development process itself. With emphasis on micro level planning, the panchayats have been catapulted to the centre stage of administration. However the distribution of land, water and biomass is governed by natural principles and are system bound.

A watershed is a natural geo-hydrological unit of land which collects water and drains it through a common point by a system of streams.A watershed may be only a few hectares as in the case of small ponds ,or hundredsof square kilometers as in the case of rivers or big reservoirs.For convenience watersheds are classified in terms of size into basins, catchments, subcatchments,watershed,subwatershed, mini and micro watersheds.

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Watersheds are logical planning and management units from the environment point of view, whereas administrative boundaries are logical from the political point of view..

To harmonise environmental protection and development the above two points of view have to be integrated in an operational context. A hierarchy of mass and energy distribution may be visualized from micro watershed to a macro watershed such as river basin. Recognising the reality of the panchayat system and the grama sabha in rural areas, the micro watershed may be taken as the planning and operation unit, wheras panchayats, grama sbhas or neighbourhood groups can be delivery unit.

The watershed can be demarcated from the topo sheet. But for a small (micro) watershed a detailed topographical survey has to be made and a contour may have to be prepared.

The ridge points are marked and the area below the ridge line is known as the watershed area. This contour map can be imposed with the village over the ridge point.

WHY WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Growing population pressure,higher demand for food, fodder and fibre coupled with impact of rapidly changing socio economic conditions have resulted in degradation of the natural resources along with deterioration of ecological balance. The piecemeal approaches such as contour bunding or terracing on individual holdings or a group of farms only marginally benefit as they are done ignoring to what happens to other areas which are influencing the hydrological characteristics. Such sporadic actions generally fail to, attract farmers as they do not yield benefits proportional to the efforts and investments made. Thus, for maximizing the advantages all developmental activities should be undertaken in a comprehensive way on a watershed basis.

Watershed management has therefore emerged as a new paradigm for planning, development and management of land water and biomass resources with a focus on social and institutional aspects apart from biophysical aspects following a participatory bottom approach. A large number of projects for productivity enhancement are being implemented on watershed approach. Watershed management becomes increasingly important as a way to improve livelihood of people while conserving and regenerating natural resources. community participation plays a significant role in ensuring the success and sustainability of watershed management.

CONCEPT OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT There have been variations in conceptual models, objectives and implementation models of watershed programmes. The initial protection oriented approach got enlarged to restoration of degraded areas and then to protection-cum-production oriented objectives of related natural resources and eco-restoration. Watershed management is a single window, integrated, participatory and sustainable area development programme.

Watershed concept is an integrated approach of harmonized use of natural resources like land, water, vegetation, livestock, fisheries and human resources so s to achieve higher production sustainably without causing any deterioration in the resource base or causing no ecological imbalances. The concept assumes more importance in the contxt of planning and sustained development. The watershed development aim at 64

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preventing watershed degradation that results from the interaction of physiographic features, eliminate unscientific land use, in appropriate cropping pattern, oil erosion thereby improving and sustaining productivity of resources leading to higher income and living standard for the inhabitants in the watershed area.

The most important factors which affect the watershed behavior and which need to be studied for developing a management programmes are (a) Size and shape, (b) Topography, (c) Soil and their characteristics, (d) Precipitation, (e) land use and (f) Vegetative cover including forest trees. The varieties of data necessary for planning are (a) Hydrology, (b) Soil and land use and (c) Economic and social. To implement the programme, it requires expertise in a variety of fields, namely forestry, hydrology, agricultural and socio economic and community development aspects and all the works should be implemented in a holistic manner.

Watershed management involves understanding the basic features of the land unit, selection of suitable interventions for land, water and biomass conservation and quantifying the impacts due to interventions.

OBJECTIVE OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT The objectives of the watershed management are:  Utilizing the available land to its maximum productivity by adopting various / suitable measures according to the land capability and without any environmental degradation.  Maximizing productivity per unit area, per unit time and per unit of water to meet the food, fodder and fuel requirements of the people living in the watershed.  Conserving as much rain water as possible in the place where it falls and also increasing the ground water level to get water throughout the year and maintaining it for sustainability.  Preventing soil erosion by means of suitable soil and water conservation measures.  Draining the excess water safely and avoiding gully formation and flooding the areas.  Maximizing the water storage capacity in the watershed, both in the soil and storage structures.  Improving the infra structural facilities in the watershed.  Increasing the level of income and status of the people living in the watershed.

PRINCIPLES OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Participatory approach for empowerment of community Peoples participation not only ensure long term sustainability of the watershed development process through ownership of the programme by local communities but also empower the watershed community to initiate activities on their own and take optimal advantage of the other ongoing development programmes of the central and state governments.

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Implementation of the watershed project though watershed community Watershed community should be entrusted with the planning and execution of the development works .They should be informed of the financial resources available to them and educated on the mode of its expenditure.

Role of Project Implementation Agency Overall facilitation, coordination,and supervision of the whole programme, motivate grama panchayats regarding implementation of watershed programme, organize watershed community at village level, train office bearers and other community members on technological, management as well as accounting aspects (capacity building), carry out PRA (Participatory rural appraisal) exercises for preparation of watershed plan, inspect and authenticate project accounts during implementation phase, arrange for post project maintenance of asset created under the project, assist community organizations in forging functional linkages with panchayats, credit institutions research organizatinsand ongoing programmes of line departments.

Selection of PIA The selection of PIA would be through a process by which potential PIAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s would be required to prepare project reports/feasibility studies of identified watersheds.

Project proposals to be demand driven and reflect felt needs of the community Project proposal should be prepared with the active participation of the watershed community . They should be exposed to the various technological options giving stress to indigenous innovations. Community organizations may be closely associated with and accountable to grama sabhas in project activities.

Reflection of successful watershed development projects Action plans prepared by the community after exposure to successful watershed development projects would incorporate elements of their demonstrated successes thereby ensuring a higher likelihood of sustainability.

Development of common property resources Of the net Proceeds 10 percent may be deposited in the village development fund of the panchayat.15 percent be deposited in the watershed development fund of the watershed committee to meet the future needs of maintenance of the CPRs Development of forest lands in watershed areas The forest lands forming part of the watershed should be treated simultaneously as per the existing guidelines by obtaining technical sanction of the Divisional Forest Officer concerned which should be in conformity with the Forest Conservation Act. Linkages of the watershed community with panchayat raj institutions Linkages with credit institutions Promoting equity for resource poor and women 66

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Monitoring and Evaluation Social Audit The activities undertaken in watershed development should be subjected to social audit.

COMPONENTS IN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT In order to achieve the objectives of watershed management, the following activities are to be taken up depending upon the different soil conditions, topography, rainfall pattern, socio-economic condition, etc. A watershed development plan should be prepared based on these factors and implemented with the cooperation of the people/ community in the watershed.

Land development    

Contour ploughing Land leveling wherever necessary Contour bunding / graded bunding compartmental bunding Terracing in steep slopes

Water resources development       

Construction of earthen embankments Construction of check dams – Temporary & Permanent Construction of Sub surface dams at suitable places.

Construction of farm ponds Construction of percolation tanks Providing drainage to remove excess rain water Conveyance of water by pipe lines

Erosion control devices  Contour stone walls  Contour and staggered trenching  Gully control structures/ Sunken pits  Construction of silt detention tanks  Providing vegetative and stone barriers  Providing relating walls  Preventing stream bank erosion Agricultural development Improved dry land (Rainfed) farming techniques Suitable crop selection Centre for Environment and Development

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Agro forestry techniques Introducing Horticultural and Plantation crops Providing protective irrigation

In Situ moisture conservation techniques   

Micro catchment Basin/ furrow farming Broad bed and furrows

 

Tie ridging/ random tie ridges Water spreading

   

‘V’ Ditch forming Tie Ridging Catch pits Deep pitting

Integration and coordination of activities of development departments like Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, Minor Irrigation, Animal Husbandry, Rural Development, Soil Conservation, Horticulture Mission, Kudumbasree mission, etc.

Livelihood programmes Effective participation of NGOs having good track record in undertaking developmental activities.

RECENT TRENDS IN WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT Common guidelines for watershed development projects The watershed development programmes have been hitherto implemented in a fragmented manner by different departments/agencies through rigid guidelines of their own without any well designed plans prepared on watershed basis and without properly involving the watershed community. Watershed programmes were implemented in the country through different programmes such as the Drought Prone Area Progamme (DPAP), Desert development programme (DDP), Integrated Wastelands Development Project (IWDP), Hariyali, Western Ghat Development programme (WGDP), National Watershed Development Programme for Rain-fed Areas (NWDPRA) and implementation of River Valley Projects.

At the advent of the Eleventh Plan Period the main challenge is to give more attention to the 85 million ha of the rainfed areas neglected in the past. The challenge in rainfed areas is to improve the rural livelihoods through participatory watershed development with focus on integrated farming systems for enhancing income, productivity and livelihood security in a sustainable manner.

For the coordination of the Watershed Development Programmes at the Central Government level, a National Rainfed Area Authority has been set up in November 68

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2006 keeping in mind the need to give special thrust to the rainfed areas of the country.

Subsequently during March 2008 in coordination with the Planning Commmission a new Common Guidelines for Watershed Development Projects has been issued in order to have a unified perspective by all Ministries. These guideleines are applicable to all watershed development projects of all Departments/ Ministries of Government of India. These guidelines broadly indicate a fresh framework for the next generation watershed programmes.

The key features of the new unified approach are 1. Delegating powers to state.

2. Dedicated institutions.

3. Financial assistance to dedicated institutions.

4. Enhanced duration of the programme.

5. Livelihood orientation.

6. Cluster approach.

7. Scientific planning.

8. Capacity building 9. Multi tier approach The new watershed projects in all the states should be implemented in accordance with these common guidelines with effect from 1st April 2008. Already sanctioned and ongoing projects will follow previous guidelines.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF THE NEW COMMON GUIDELINES 1. Equity and gender sensitivity.

2. Decentralization 3. Facilitating Agencies 4. Centrality of Community participation 5. Capacity building and technology inputs.

6. Monitoring , evaluation and learning 7. Organizational restructuring In tune with the establishment of the National Rainfed Area Authority established at the Centre, all State Governments should constitute a State Level Nodal Agency (SLNA) for issuing approval and coordination of watershed development projects in the state.

The SLNA will sanction watershed projects for the state on the basis of approved state perspective and strategic plan as per procedure in vogue and oversee all watershed projects in the state within the parameters set out in the common guidelines.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN KERALA The 9th Five Year Plan in Kerala opened the way for decentralized planning with peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation at the LSGs and has been functioning since then. In order to re-enforce the ongoing local level development in the LSGs (Grama/Block Panchayats), Centre for Environment and Development

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preparation of a â&#x20AC;&#x153;Block Level Master Plan for Watershed Based Development (BMPWD)â&#x20AC;? has been formulated during the third year of the decentralized planning programme. This programme was executed in six phases in which the first phase was devoted to participatory planning to identify local needs and building up grass root level instiutions followed by second phase where Development report was prepared as presented in the development seminar. The third phase was the setting up of task force for project formulation and preparation of shelf of projects whereas fourth phase was training of elected representatives for the formulation of grass root level plans.

The fifth phase was for the preparation of higher tier plans of the block and district panchayat and the sixth phase was to identify technical corps for appraisal of the plans submitted by LSGs. After this the decentralized planning became an administrative responsibility of the LSGs. Integration of projects on watershed basis had been proposed from the inception of the Peoples Plan Campaign (PPC).

In Kerala, Soil and Water conservation programmes were implemented since 1962 through the Department of Soil Conservation. Subsequently the Integrated Wasteland Development Programme and Hariyali programmes sanctioned by the Ministry of Rural development were implemented through Rural Development Department. The Western Ghat Development programme (WGDP) is now being implemented through Grama panchayat and NGOs as PIAs under the control of the District Collectors in each district. The NWDPRA scheme sanctioned under macro management programme is now being implemented in the state by the Soil Conservation Department .The Department of Soil Conservation is also implementing soil and water conservation programmes in selected watersheds through NABARD assistance under RIDF scheme.

The soil and water conservation schemes under the Kundha River Valley Projects has been carried out by the soil conservation departments under the RVP programme.Now, the implementation of the soil and water conservation programmes in the Kabini project area under the RVP programme is in progress in Wayanad district. Rain water harvesting techniques are also in implementation in various watershed development programmes. The watershed development programmes are also taken up by NABARD through NGOs and Grama panchayat in the three distress districts of Palakkad, Wayanad and Kasargod.The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is now being implemented in all the grama panchayats under the Rural Development Department through the NREG Mission.

For the convergence of all the watershed development schemes being implemented in the State, a nodal agency has to be constituted by the State Government with a multidisciplinary professional support team. Accordingly a State Level Nodal Agency has been constituted by Government of Kerala for the sanction and approval of the watershed projects in the State. A high level committee under the chairmanship of Chief Secretary has also been constituted for the inter departmental coordination in implementation of the various developmental programmes taken up under the watershed development projects.

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PRIORITIZED MICROWATERSHED ATLAS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A READY RECKONER FOR WATERSHED IDENTIFICATION The importance of watersheds as a developmental unit is gaining prominence among the farming community. In this context, publication of Watershed Atlas containing delineated, codified and prioritized watersheds in each district becomes significant.

The three primary steps in characterization of a watershed are delineation, codification and prioritization. Presently, developmental programmes are being undertaken mainly on the basis of microwatersheds having an area of 500-600ha.

To facilitate identification of watershed for various watershed development programmes in the state on a scientific basis, Soil Survey Organization has prepared Prioritized Micro Watershed Atlases of 14 districts of Kerala. Prioritization is a measure of fragility of the area to degradation and represents the sequence in which the tract is to be taken up for management. The watersheds which are highly fragile where immediate intervention is required should get top priority for management. The Prioritized Micro Watershed Atlas are available in the concerned District Soil Survey Offices for reference.

CONCLUSION The watershed development project can be successful only if we emphasis peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s participation in all the works including planning, implementation and maintenance in order to get results in the programme. We must also carefully analyse three aspects of cost, return and risks as these are very important in every project. In order to achieve the goal and to fulfill the aspiration of the people, we should have inter-disciplinary watershed management agency in each Region / State/ District. This agency should be responsible to formulate the projects incorporating various land development/ rural uplifting activities, exercise and coordinate development works in the State.

Convergence of the different programmes should be ensured for overall development of the area. This will help in achieving the watershed development objectives in a holistic manner.

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Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Water Resources Development and Management in India Ganesha Raj K Scientist SG. EOS/NNRMS & Programme Manager, VRC (E&M) ISRO Headquarters, Antariksh Bhavan, Bangalore 560 094 E mail: ganeshraj@rediffmail.com

INTRODUCTION Exploration of natural resources is vital for the socio-economic development of any country. The state-of-the-art technology of space based earth observation systems offers timely and accurate information on various natural resources such as land, water, forests, mineral etc. Though the potentials of orbiting space platforms were realized at the time of launching of the very first satellite, the Russian “Sputnik” in 1957, the remote sensing application especially for earth resources came into its own from 1972 with the launch of “Earth Resources Technology Satellite” later renamed as Landsat

by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of United States of America (USA). The various application studies carried out in India and elsewhere in the world proves beyond doubt that remote sensing is a powerful tool for mapping/ inventorying, monitoring and managing of natural resources due to the inherent advantages of synoptic viewing, repetitive imaging, capability to study inaccessible areas, stereo view, multispectral imaging, relatively low cost and near real time availability of data.

Remote sensing is mainly concerned with the measurement or acquisition of information about an object without being in physical contact with the object under study. The term remote sensing is restricted to methods, which use electromagnetic energy as the means for collection of information about the object. Depending on its physical features and properties, the earth’s surface reflects or reradiates or emits different kinds and amounts of electromagnetic energy in various wavelengths. The measurement of reflected or radiated or emitted electromagnetic radiation forms the basis for understanding the characteristic of Earth’s surface features. In passive remote sensing system, the sensors operating in different selected spectral bands onboard the airborne/ space borne platforms measure the naturally radiated or reflected energy from the earth’s surface features. An active remote sensing system supplies its own source of energy to illuminate the objects, and measures the reflected/ back-scattered energy returned to the system. Remote sensing is being extensively used to study various aspects of water resources development and management. Large number of projects 72

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carried out in the country and abroad has proved the potential of remote sensing beyond doubt.

Geographic Information System (GIS) which comprises both spatial (maps etc) and non-spatial data of a given area helps in (i) Logical integration/analysis of data, (ii) Model development (iii) Selection of suitable sites for dams, reservoirs, groundwater recharging/exploration (iv) Updation/correction of data (v) Assessment of zone of influence, alignment of canals, command area studies etc (vi) making available data through web etc. Information derived from remote sensing data and other sources are integrated in GIS environment for arriving at various decisions.

REMOTE SENSING IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT One of the first applications of remote sensing in water resources area is for surface water inventory. Presently remote sensing data are being used for number of applications viz Irrigation Water Management, Command area surveys/monitoring/management, Dam/reservoir site assessment, Canal Alignment, Flood Mapping and Damage Assessment, Snowmelt Runoff Forecasting, Snow/Glacier studies, Watershed Development Planning /Management/Monitoring, Surface water bodies mapping/ monitoring, River/water body pollution assessment, Drought assessment/monitoring/ mitigation Reservoir sedimentation/siltation assessment & Capacity evaluation, Ground water prospect/recharge zone mapping, Water Quality Mapping and Monitoring. Some of the major applications are described briefly below.

Irrigation Water Management Management of water supplies for irrigation in command areas requires information on total demand and its distribution. The current satellite remote sensing capabilities for irrigation water management include end-of-season evaluation of canal command areas at the disaggregated level and diagnostic analysis of problem distributaries to enable follow-up corrective management.

Satellite remote sensing has been used for base line inventory of irrigated area, cropping pattern, crop condition and productivity assessment in irrigation systems, monitoring irrigation status through the season, optimum design of crop cutting experiments etc.

Simultaneous monitoring of crop performance through the irrigation season is a critical element in effective water management in the irrigation projects. Monitoring of crop condition is essential to ensure that the irrigation requirements are adequately met by canal releases. The five days repetitive coverage of WiFS sensor provides the necessary surveillance capability across the command area through the season. The inventory capability is significantly enhanced with the higher spatial resolution offered by LISS III sensor and the additional SWIR band improved crop condition assessment. WiFS sensor (with 188m resolution) helps in concurrent monitoring during the irrigation season, generating near real-time information on the sowing progress and crop condition for appropriate irrigation water delivery. Data from the Advanced WiFS (AWiFS) data with 56m resolution from IRS P6 has further improved this activity. The stereo coverage from PAN/Cartosat sensor providing contour maps of 10 m interval or better, Centre for Environment and Development

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helping in preliminary analysis of canal alignment and land/infrastructure development.

The 1m and higher resolution data is used for delineating details of canal network and field level crop inventory.

Studies carried out using high resolution satellite data for assessment of irrigation potential created through mapping of irrigation infrastructure (consisting of canal network, cross drainage and other related irrigation structures) for Upper Krishna and Teesta Projects demonstrated the utility of high resolution satellite data for monitoring the progress of ongoing irrigation projects. 53 irrigation projects funded under Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programs (AIBP) have been studied using CARTOSAT -1 data to assess the Irrigation Potential of 54.5 Lakh ha across 18 States in India.

Under Phase-II, 50 more projects will be taken up.

Command Area Development Command area development is an area where remote sensing contributes significantly.

To monitor the impact of Command Area Programme (CAD) implementation on major irrigation projects since 1985, at the behest of Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR); satellite based Inventory, monitoring and performance evaluation of Irrigation systems of 14 selected irrigation projects (covering a total Cultivable Command Area (CCA) of 3.3 mha) in 5 states were carried out. The irrigation project performance with respect to Rabi/Summer season crop productivity was evaluated using satellite data of threetime period scenario (e.g., 1986-87, 1990-91, 1998-99). Thirteen CAD projects namely, Upper Tapi, Purna, Jayakwadi, Krishna, Girna and Bhima in Maharastra, Chambal (Kota) in Rajasthan, DVC System, Mayurakshi and Kanshabati command in West Bengal, Sriram Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh, Jamuna in Assam have been studied.

Many irrigation projects in India and elsewhere suffer from adverse impacts of excessive irrigation and poor drainage. Satellite remote sensing has helped in mapping areas affected by salinity/alkalinity and water logging. In many irrigation projects in India, the aerial extent and severity of water logging and salinization have been mapped. The severity of such soil limitation can be either directly detected through remote sensing or seen by the impact on crop productivity.

A project on assessment and monitoring of salinity and waterlogged areas in major and medium commands in the country has been carried out by ISRO at the behest of Central Water Commission (CWC). In this project, all the major and medium command area maps (2421 number) are generated at 1:50,000 scale. The study showed that out of 8,88,956 sq. km area under command areas, salt affected area is 10345.41 sq. km and waterlogged area is 17192.79 sq. km Flood Mapping and Damage Assessment Remote sensing provides comprehensive, reliable and timely information on flood inundated and drainage congested areas, extent of damage to crops, structures etc., river configuration, silt deposits and vulnerable areas of bank erosion and flood risk zone mapping. However comprehensive flood monitoring would call for integration of ground measurements and remote sensing data and flood plain characteristics 74

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including topography. The flood risk zone maps are updated with high spatial resolution data and digital elevation models based on close contour information. Flood damage vulnerability analysis requires integration of the information on satellite derived physical damage and socio-economic data. Since 1987, all major flood events of the country have been mapped in near real time and statistics on crop area affected and number of marooned villages generated. Near real time flood monitoring is being carried operationally in Brahmaputra (Assam), Kosi/ Ganga (Bihar), Indus (J & K), Godavari (AP) and Mahanadi (Orissa) river basins using optical and microwave data. Studies have been carried out for delineation of flood risk zone in Bramhaputra and Kosi river basin.

However, presence of cloud cover during the flood-monitoring period is a limitation for optical remote sensing data. In this case, microwave data from ERS1/2 and Radarsat satellites are effectively supporting the study in the persistent cloud cover during the flood events. The WiFS/AWiFS sensor with 5 days repetitivity on board in IRS 1C/D/ Resourcesat satellites, provide unique opportunity to map and monitor flood events frequently over large river basins. The detailed impact assessments in larger scale are being implemented through LISS III/IV, PAN sensors. The availability of very highresolution data (1m and better) helps in studying the flood at cadastral level.

Snowmelt Runoff Forecasting Snowmelt runoff modeling in different Himalayan basins is being routinely carried out using satellite data. NOAA/AVHRR have been used in 23 large river basins for real time mapping and monitoring of snow cover.

Advance information on inflows into Bhakra reservoir due to snowmelt in summer months is immensely useful for effective planning and efficient management of these water resources. The Bhakra reservoir waters are shared by five states, namely, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Delhi. Advance information is very critical as it helps Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) to finalize water sharing among these states and allocation for power and irrigation. Since 1994, seasonal snowmelt runoff for the Sutlej river basin forecasting is being operationally provided to Bhakra Beas Management Board by 1st week of April every year based on analysis of dailyobserved NOAA satellite AVHRR data from February to June period and subsequent updating. The forecast is obtained with an error of maximum Âą10% with respect to actual measured inflow.

Snow and Glacier Investigations Snow and glacier investigation through satellite data has been carried out in the Himalayan region. Snow cover in parts of Himalayas has been monitored using high repetitivity AWiFS data at regular 5-day interval. Retreat of eight glaciers of Basapa valley has been studied using PAN stereo data. Map showing crevasses of Siachen Glacier using PAN data at 1:15,000 scale is being prepared. High resolution data (better than 1m) is very useful in detailed study of snow and glaciers.

A major project has been launched by MOEF and DOS to study the Snow and Glaciers in the country (includes glacial inventory of entire Himalayas on 1:50,000 scale, snow Centre for Environment and Development

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cover monitoring on 1:250,000 scale every 10 days and glacier retreat & mass balance studies for selected glaciers).  Glacier and Snow Cover Inventory of the entire Himalayas at 1:250,000 scale and for the Sutluj, Dhauli Ganga and Tista basins at 1:50,000 scale has been carried out. Moraine-dammed lakes were also mapped. 2322 glaciers, glacieret and snow (2697 sq km) are present in the Satluj basin. A study is ongoing in Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra basins. 5 snow cover atlases covering 28 sub basins in Central and Western Himalayan river basins such as Indus and Ganga were prepared. Snow cover maps and statistics of snow cover accumulation and ablation has been generated for year 2004 and 05. The data is analysed for year 2006-07, atlas for the Ganga basin prepared and for Indus basin is under preparation.  Hydropower potential estimation of 68 basins under Chenab is in progress. 5-years WiFS data is being analysed for snow cover estimation and estimates are completed for 5-basins. GIS database is being prepared. Weekly monitoring of seasonal snow cover in Basapa basin is in progress and Himalayan glacier information system comprising 36 parameters has been developed. Hydropower potential of 70 small and medium size streams is being carried out in Chandra and Bhaga river basin.   The study on mass balance of glaciers is being carried out using satellite photogrammetry based processing of IRS 1C PAN & Cartosat-1 stereo data for Himalayan glaciers. DEM has been generated using stereo data for the glaciers namely Hamta, Sakcham, and Chota Shigri and Sara Umga of Chandra river basin (Himachal Pradesh).  The retreat of Himalayan glaciers and loss in areal extent was monitored in selected basins in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Sikkim (in Parbati, Alaknanda, Gauriganga and Tista basins), using satellite images and the results of the study show a reduction in aerial extent of the glaciers to the tune of 5%, 9%, 6% and 6% respectively. It is observed that number of glaciers with higher areal extent is reduced and lower areal extent is increased between the periods. Small glaciarates and ice fields have shown extensive deglaciation, possibly due to small response time.

Watershed Planning and Management Judicious management and conservation of soil and water resources on watershed basis is perquisite for sustaining the productivity. Characterization and prioritization of watersheds are essential steps towards the integrated management. Watershed characterization involves measurement of parameters of geological, hydro geological, geomorphological, hydrological, soil, land cover /land use etc. Remote sensing viz aerial and space borne sensors can be effectively used for watershed characterization and assessing watershed priority, evaluating problems, potentials and management requirements and periodic monitoring. Remote sensing data greatly facilitates mapping of land use/cover, geology and soils over watershed, which would assist in the study 76

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of land use pattern, watershed potential, degradation etc. This along with ground based information can be used for assessing the land capability classes, irrigation suitability classes, potential land uses, suitable water harvesting measures, monitoring the effects of watershed conservation/development measures, correlation of run off and sediment yields from different watersheds and monitoring land use changes and land degradation.

Remote sensing based Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) project, based on integration of various themes and collateral information, carried out in about 84 million ha in 175 districts of the country has been successful in certain areas towards improving the ground water level, increasing the cropping intensity along with the net returns from the fields and finally conserving the land and water resources. Under National Watershed Development Programme for Rain fed Areas (NWDPRA) 20 watersheds in Karnataka and 110 watersheds throughout the country were monitored to assess the impact of various developmental programmes, which had been undertaken in those watersheds.

Under the World Bank aided Sujala Watershed Development Programme (SWDP) of Watershed Development Department, Govt. of Karnataka action plans for watershed development, monitoring and evaluation of 77 sub-watersheds (854 micro-watersheds) in 5 districts (Kolar, Tumkur, Chitradurga, Dharwad & Haveri) have been carried out.

Based on the success of this project similar works have been launched in many parts of the country.

Remote sensing techniques are also providing significant information inputs towards calibration, validation and use of various hydrologic models like Soil Conservation Service (SCS) model for rainfall run-off prediction, Sediment Yield Index (SYI) and Universal Soil Loss Equation for prioritization of watersheds, etc.

Drought Assessment and Monitoring The periodic droughts are very common in India due to failure or irregular onset of monsoon as the Indian agriculture is mostly dependent on rainfall with an estimate of around 94 million ha rain fed area out of 142 million ha arable land. Therefore, the drought combating strategies like drought prone area programmes have been taken up and showing encouraging results. In this context ISRO has developed a national/regional system for assessment and monitoring of agricultural drought using satellite databased vegetation index to provide timely information on drought severity. Towards this, National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Monitoring System (N-ADAMS) have been launched in 1987 to characterize the severity of drought in the country. Since then, N-ADAMS Bulletins on monthly and seasonal crop conditions depicting agricultural drought condition are issued near real time assessment of agricultural drought at district level for 9 states and sub district level for 4 states, in terms of prevalence and severity during kharif season (June-Nov) and submission of monthly drought reports to the Ministry of Agriculture and State Departments of Agriculture and Relief of different states.

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Reservoir Capacity Evaluation Storage capacity of the reservoir decreases due to periodical deposition of sediment discharge, which causes reduction in irrigation intensity in a command area. Information on sedimentation process is vital for taking up appropriate measures in controlling the sediment inflow and judicious management of the available storage in the reservoir.

The reduction of storage capacity of a reservoir due to sedimentation is indicated by the reduction in contour area at a given elevation. Monitoring the changes in water spread, which is nothing but contour area at different operating levels of the reservoir will help to assess the quantum of sediment load that had settled down in the reservoir.

Remote sensing satellites, which provide data on water spread at regular intervals of time, could be used successfully, for estimating the water spread and monitoring the seasonal changes in water spread. The reservoir sedimentation study in terms of storage loss estimation of some reservoirs namely; Bhadra, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Krishnarajasagara, Mahi Bajajsagar, Hirakud, Ukai-Kadana, Idukki, has been carried out using digital analysis of multi-date satellite data. Recently a major project has been carried out to estimate the capacity loss due to sedimentation of 19 reservoirs in the country.

Ground Water Prospect Zone Mapping Remote sensing data helps in delineating the potential ground water prospect zone with less time and cost effective manner than the conventional methods. The thematic layers on geology, geomorphology, drainage, soil and land use generated from satellite data, are essential in identifying the ground water prospect zones. Remote sensing technology has been used for preparation of hydrogeomorphological maps of the entire country on 1:250,000 scale using satellite images under the National Drinking Water Mission, launched by Government of India in 1986 as an effort to provide sources of safe drinking water to 1.6 lakh problematic villages. Under this mission, broad groundwater prospective zones have been delineated for further follow-up through hydro geological and geophysical methods to provide potable drinking water to the problematic villages. Subsequently, under Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM), launched in 1999, preparation of ground water prospects map is being carried out on 1:50,000 scale using high resolution satellite data (IRS LISSIII data).

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Chattishgarh and Rajasthan states are covered in phase -I and Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Gujarat states have been covered under phase-II. The main objective of this project is to enable scientific source finding of drinking water for all the non-covered (NC) and partially covered (PC) habitations (around 4 lakh) and to identify suitable recharge structures.

Around 2500 maps have been prepared so far and have been submitted to Department of Drinking Water Supply of Ministry of Rural Development and the State Ground Water and other related departments. Under Phase IIIA&B -10 states viz Andhra Pradesh (Western Part), Assam, Jammu & Kashmir, Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal (6 dists.) and Uttar Pradesh (14 dists) are being covered.

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So far (till July 2009) around 2,75,551 wells have been drilled with about 90% success in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Chattishgarh and Rajasthan, HP, Gujarat and Orissa states. Around 7500 recharge structures also have been built in these states. The remaining states will be covered under Phase-IV. Water Quality Mapping and Monitoring Surveillance of water quality is an important activity for multiple uses such as irrigation, water supply, etc., and also for the protection of aquatic and shoreline environment.

Water bodies are polluted through sedimentation, industrial effluents, municipal sewage, agricultural run off, eutrophication and oil pollution. Remote sensing of water quality can complement ground efforts in mapping and monitoring point and non-point pollution sources, the influx and dispersal of pollutants in the aquatic environment and consequent impact such as algal blooms and weed growth. Growth of aquatic weeds and algal blooms indicating the eutrophication status of water bodies can be mapped from satellite data. Aquatic weeds are responsible for deterioration of water quality and reduction of aquatic life. A number of tanks in India infested with aquatic weeds have been mapped using satellite data. High resolution data from Resourcesat, IKONOS, Quick Bird and hyper spectral data from MODIS are found to be useful in assessing the water quality.

Information on structures (faults/fractures/joints etc.), lithology (rock types), landforms, land use/cover, slopes, terrain, soils, settlements, rainfall etc. are derived using satellite data in conjunction with collateral data and field observations. This information is integrated to assess (i) the groundwater recharge prospects/suitable recharge structure and (ii) the suitability of the sites identified for setting-up chemical industries such as distilleries, development projects etc. from groundwater pollution angle.

Environmental Impact Assessment Satellite remote sensing provides the synoptic overview to generate objective base line information for proposed projects, and in evaluating impact in the case of existing projects. Analysis of time series of satellite data enables monitoring changes before, during and after implementation projects like dams, reservoirs etc. Inventory of land cover/land use in the reservoir submergence area, particularly the forest and agricultural cropped areas has been carried out using satellite data. Irrigability, mapping of command area, through integration of satellite derived and ground measured data, would help in appropriate allocation and application of water to minimize water logging and salinisation. In India, satellite data is used potentially in environmental monitoring of Idduki hydel project, Kerala, Western Ghat areas including Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, large-scale river valley projects of Narmada and the Tehri dam in Himalayas. The satellite remote sensing survey in these regions clearly brought the degradation of vegetation cover due to biotic interference as well as long spells of adverse climatic condition. High-resolution data is of tremendous help in assessing the impact before during and after the dam/reservoir/canal etc.

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Water Resources Information System (WRIS) – Entire Country WRIS is envisaged to be the repository of spatial databases such as hydrology (drainage network, irrigation details, surface water bodies, groundwater, snow cover), thematic layers (land use/ cover, hydro-geomorphology, geology, soil, waterlogged areas, salt affected areas, flood prone zones, land degradation, drought prone areas), watershed and non-spatial data viz., meteorology (air temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, evaporation, sunshine), and socio-economic data. The spatial data, in 1:50,000 or better scale will be generated/ sourced from available sources. The non-spatial and attribute data would be collected/ provided by CWC. The data layers, which are not available/ generated hitherto, will be freshly generated.

CONCLUSIONS  The studies have shown that Remote Sensing provides valuable data/information for better management of water resources.  The availability of very high-resolution data from satellites like Resourcesat, Cartosat, IKONOS, Quick Bird, Orbview, Geoeye has improved the scope of applications in the field of water resources many fold. It is possible to go to cadastral level with this type of data which will help in a big way to get the information required for detailed planning in dam/reservoir site selection, command area planning, canal alignment etc. Airborne Laser Terrain Mapper (ALTM) with about 15cm resolution will provide very detailed information on canal alignment and other related activities.  The availability of data from Resourcesat with three sensors Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) with 56m resolution and 700km swath, LISS-III with 23m resolution and 140km swath and LISS-IV with 5.8m resolution and 23km swath provides a unique combination for studying regional to local level. The Cartosat1/2 has further enhanced the application potential.  Remote sensing will provide vital inputs for the proposed Inter Linking of Rivers project also.

REFERENCES Manavalan P and Adiga S. 1996. Remote Sensing in Water Resources Management; Proc.

Golden Jubilee Symposium on Present and Future Scenario of Geoinformatics, NIE, Mysore.

Ganesha Raj K. 2005. Proc. of the IV SERC School on Mathematical Modelling of Groundwater Quality and Pollution’; May 2-29, 2005. Centre for Advanced Studies in Fluid Mechanics, Bangalore University.

Ganesha Raj K. 2009. “Remote Sensing in Groundwater and surface Water Pollution studies” Proceeding of Workshop on Ground Water Scenario, Water Quality and Enhancement of Water use efficiency in Karnataka & Goa. February 25-26,2009 CGWB, Bangalore Nijagunappa R, Joshphar Kunapo and Ganesha Raj K. 2005. Remote Sensing in Structural Mapping and its Applications in Mineral Oil and Ground Water Exploration, Vinana Ganga.

Gulbarga Uni. Research Journal. Vol. 4, 2005 pp 6-17 80

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Water and Health

Biju Soman Associate Professor, AMCHSS Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences & Technology Thiruvananthapuram- 695011 Email: bijusoman@sctimst.ac.in

INTRODUCTION Water is the basis of life on earth. All living beings use this wonderful entity which is present in abundance in all its three forms, viz liquid, solid and gas in the world. At normal atmospheric pressure, water remains as liquid at normal temperatures, solidifies at zero degree Celsius and boils at 1000 Celsius. These properties and the fact that it has high heat holding capacity are of immense importance in sustaining life, both inland and aquatic, on earth. It helps to safeguard and distribute heat energy received from Sun, across day and night, warm equator regions to cold polar regions, etc so that Earth upkeeps her warmth. Water helps to protect aquatic life by distributing warmth into the depths of ocean, even in the Polar Regions, where temperature often falls at subzero levels. Water has a unique property of having highest density at 40 Celsius, which is in the liquid form, so in the polar region, very thick ice blocks (lighter than water) floats and covers the water surface, protecting the warmth of water below and thus its aquatic life.

There is a total of 16.29 Ă&#x2014; 1020 liters of water in the world, of which only 0.2 % of fresh water (Wallace, 2007). The quantity of fresh water is dynamically maintained by the hydrologic cycle, wherein fresh water runs into the sea and becomes saline, water gets evaporated from the sea and gets precipitated over land, forming an eventual cycle. On human civilization angle, there is an escalated demand for fresh water, often referred to as the water crisis, due to increase in population and resultant urbanization. The importance of fresh water in the maintenance of health and well being of the community has been recognized by human civilizations from time immemorial (Valiathan, 2003); actually all our civilizations have developed along the shores of important rivers like Ghaggar-Hakkra river basins in Indus valley civilization, Tigris and Euphretis river basins in Mesopotamian civilization, etc.

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WATER AND HEALTHY LIVING As water is instrumental in the origin and sustenance of all forms of life on Earth, it is quite natural that this unique gift of nature is of paramount importance in the health of individuals and community. Water is very important in up- keeping good health and in preventing many diseases, but water should be valued in its totality, rather than shrinking it to just drinking water, which would be de-meaning to water! Only the blind cannot but see the importance of water across many other spectra of human life.

The notion of water supply as drinking water supply is due to our myopic understanding of water and its importance in human life and is a term which might have originated from the narrow thought process of an urban planner. It is high time that we rejuvenate the wholesome meaning of water supply and strive for providing potable water to all rather than confining to the narrow limits of drinking water. Such a conceptual change is essential to streamline collection and distribution of water for urban populations.

We need to realize that only 20-40% of the water in any supply scheme is used for real domestic purposes(only 5-10% of domestic supply is used for drinking/cooking purposes), a sizeable portion of water goes for urban irrigation, and other non-domestic uses (Meinhasdt, 2007). However water is essential to fulfill many critical functions of human communities as listed below.  Drinking and food preparation  Personal hygiene activities including bathing and laundering  Keeping cattle and other livestock.  Residential and commercial heating and air conditioning  Urban irrigation and street cleaning  Recreational venues including swimming and wading pools, water parks, hot tubs and spas  Amenity purposes like public fountains and ornamental ponds  Power production from hydropower and steam generation Commercial and industrial processes including bottled water and food production  Residential and commercial fire protection  Agricultural purposes including irrigation and aquaculture  For carrying human and industrial wastes from all manner of establishments and community facilities.

ETHICAL ISSUES The quantity and quality required for each one of these activities vary widely although many societies are following the conventional system of having a single water supply mechanism to address all these varied requirements. It is possible to have dual supply of water, one for drinking purposes (potable water) and other for non-potable purposes, although only a few places like in Colorado Springs, Pomona and Irvine, St. Petersburg etc in the United States have successfully tried out these options.(Meinhasdf, 2007) According to United Nations Economic and Social Council, “No higher quality water, 82

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unless there is a surplus of it, should be used for a purpose that can tolerate a lower grade.â&#x20AC;? (Anon, 1958) However in the absence of alternate options, people, especially in cities will be forced to use potable water (disregarding the exorbitant expenses with which it is purified) for non-potable purposes. This is the situation not only in our place but all over the world and is justified to some extent as these usages are also for legitimate purposes.

There is a hidden equity issue here as in any society water usage rate shows a positive correlation with affluence and water scarcity has a negative correlation with affluence.

On analyzing the per head water consumption, we can see lot of urban-rural, poor-rich discriminations like 30-50 liter per head per day for rural folk, 300-500 liters per head for city folks and 3000-5000 liters per head per day for guests in five star hotels (Meinhasdt, 2007). Studies have shown that in any situation of relative water scarcity, poor people would be the worst affected, not even having enough water for drinking.

Studies done in Indian cities of Mumbai and Kolkatta has shown that poor slum dwellers have to pay for water at exorbitant rates, even three to four times the rate at which people in the affluent areas are getting water (Kasan and Hasada, 2002). This will have serious impact on their health and overall well being of the nation.

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF WATER IN THE BODY Water constitutes roughly 60% of an adult human body weight and its percentage is even higher in children and infants. As with the hydrologic cycle in nature, water content in human body is kept in dynamic equilibrium, maintaining its unique ionic proportions in various tissue compartments in the body. Water is ingested into the body through food and drinks and normally given out through urine, sweat, respiratory and gastro-intestinal secretions. Two third of body water remains within cells and rest is in the extracellular milieu, mostly in the interstitial (between cells) space. Only a fourth of water in the extracellular compartment remains inside blood vessels as plasma.

(Vasan and Seshadi, 1998). Water moves freely across all cellular membranes in the body maintaining a narrow and unique osmolality1(285-295 mOsm/l) across intracellular and extracellular compartments. On a day body losses around 10002000 ml through urine, through faeces, diffusion and perspiration through skin, evaporation through lungs etc and the bare minimum amount required for the kidneys to wash out all the daily solutes is 500 ml(Vasan and Seshadi, 1998). So an adult healthy individual requires 1000-2000 ml of water per day and it shall vary according to the climatic conditions and nature of physical work. A change in osmolality of extracellular fluid, due to loss of water or solute, results in net movement of water into or out of all cells in the body and if the change is sudden, it can cause catastrophic health impact due to sudden cellular shrinkage or acute cellular swelling, depending on the site and tissue involved. However water content in the body is tightly regulated by protective mechanisms like thirst, ant diuretic hormone (ADH) released from posterior pituitary gland inside brain and the kidneys. They mainly function by moving the major positively charged ions (Na+ in the extracellular compartment and K+ in the intracellular compartment) in or out of the cells with the help of Na+ or K+ pumps and the Na+ K+ ATPase enzyme in the cellular membranes. One or more of these mechanisms Centre for Environment and Development

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will ensure normalcy in case of gradual and transient change in osmolality but when it occurs suddenly or persistently, even a small tilt in this dynamic equilibrium of fluid balance can cause serious health effects and often it could turn fatal. This is why although humans can survive without food for 2-3 weeks without having much constraint to his/her function humans cannot survive beyond two-three days without water. The quantity, quality and characteristics of water ingested (especially over a long time period) are also important in this process. In the event of increasing environmental pollution due to increase in urbanization and industrialization, we have to tighten the quality standards to avoid, or even to keep at status quo, the water related morbidity that is the cause of 60-80% of all diseases in a developing country context (Anon, 2004).

DOMESTICATION OF WATER AND WATER RELATED DISEASES Our ancestorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; approach to water was like any other animals; they used to hunt for water whenever they felt the need for that, mainly for drinking and washing purposes.

Sometime down the history humans started to appreciate the value of water as a commodity to be carried with them and fetched into their living place. This has really helped them to come together, starting cultivation of edible crops and initiated communal living and resultant modernity. At the same time it has increased the proximity of contaminants, both natural and man-made, near to the water sources. Increase in population means more organic pollutants like human excreta, agricultural revolutions brought in more agro-chemicals and developing industry contributed more chemical effluents into the water source offsetting its natural cleansing mechanisms.

Water related morbidity can broadly be classified into that of infectious etiology and those caused by chemicals. Diseases of infectious etiology are conventionally grouped into four as (i) water borne, (ii) water washed, (iii) water based and (iv) water related.

Water borne (Faeco-oral) Truly water borne infections occurs when the person gets infection by drinking water that contained the pathogen. Many classical infectious diseases like cholera, typhoid, infective hepatitis (Hepatitis A), many diarrheas and dysenteries fall under this category.

This group is called faeco-oral infections as people get these infections through contaminated food, hands or drinking water which takes human faeces into the mouth of a new host. Preventive strategies against this category should be targeted to improve the quality of water that is used for drinking purposes.

Water washed These types of diseases are caused by lack of hygiene as good hygienic practices prevent or reduce many intestinal, ophthalmic and skin infections. Adequate quantity of water is a pre-requisite for keeping hygiene. Scabies, skin infections due to bacteria, virus and fungus, eye infections due to trachoma etc flourish in low hygienic environments especially in hot climates. Increasing quantity of potable water and ensuring access to water in sufficient quantities especially for the most needed ones in the lower socio-economic strata should be the strategy to wade of such menace.

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Water based Here the causative agent spends at least part of its life cycle inside an aquatic animal.

The infective forms get into new persons through skin penetration or ingestion of contaminated water. Usual ones are helminthes parasites like schistosomiasis and Guinea worm. Avoidance of fecal contamination of water and reduce the need to contact with infected water are the best strategy.

Water related Mostly vector borne diseases wherein vector insects either breed on or frequently feed on (bite) people who move in or around water sources/collections. Malaria, Filariasis, Dengue fever, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, river blindness, etc are examples of water related vector borne diseases. Improving surface water management, removing breeding sites of insects and decreasing the need to visit breeding sites are the strategies to reduce these problems along with adoption of personnel protective mechanisms like mosquito nets and repellents.

Chemical cause for water related morbidity gets manifested in an insidious way on ingestion of the contaminated water for long periods over months or years. Arsenic and Mercury are the most important industrial pollutants of drinking water. Arsenic is a potential carcinogen for skin and lung cancer if the contaminated water is ingested for many years. Symptoms of chronic Arsenic poisoning include skin lesions, muscular weakness, etc. Pollution with Mercury occurs exclusively from industrial wastes that contaminates water bodies and is taken up by phyto-planktons and zooplanktons present in water which in-turn get ingested by fish and other sea foods ingested by man(Anon, 2004). This sort of bio-magnification leads to neurological disorders like numbness, speech impairment, paralysis, renal impairments, teratogenic effects on growing fetus etc. Minamata tragedy in Japan in 1956-59 and birth of children with neurological defects years after the tragedy are telling stories of mercury poisoning.

Nitrates and Flourides are examples of naturally occurring contaminants of water causing health problems. Nitrates come from agricultural fertilizers, manure, animal dung etc and can cause defects in blood cells (methemoglobinemia) in infants and are often gets converted into nitrosamines in the intestines which are carcinogenic. Fluorine is essential for mineralization of bones and teeth and formation of dental enamel (Dhaar and Robbani, 2008) Long-term ingestion above the permissible level of 0.5-0.8 mg mg per litre give rise to dental fluorosis manifested by mottling of teeth and higher exposures give rise to skeletal fluorosis, a crippling disease whereas prolonged intake below optimal levels leads to dental caries (Park, 2003).

Drinking water can get contaminated with surface run-off carrying residues of pesticides/insecticides which can result in subsequent contamination of food, water, soil, animal products, human milk etc. Industrialized countries have already reported higher body concentrations of DDT which might increase the breast cancer risk in women.

Other minerals of toxic potential are chromium, cadmium, lead etc. Similarly radiologic contaminants can occur as a natural pollutant or man-made product of nuclear testing, Centre for Environment and Development

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effluents from nuclear power plants, indiscriminate disposal of radio-active materials, etc. Radon is prevalent in almost all ground water sources (Meinhardt, 2007). So public water supply systems should ensure that chemical composition of the source of drinking water is within safe limits for prolonged human consumption and should periodically monitor them with the help of competent agencies.

INDIVIDUAL SUSCEPTIBILITY This is often forgotten in the discussion of drinking water and health discourses. We often consume sub-standard water as it is difficult to distinguish safe/ unsafe drinking water. Books on tropical disease cautions us that â&#x20AC;&#x153;dangerously polluted water may appear sparkling clear, contaminated food may be free of objectionable odour and taste, and apparently clear hands may carry and transmit diseaseâ&#x20AC;? (Lucas and Gilles, 2003) However not everyone will get disease by drinking these apparently clear water as it depends on the pathogen load as well as the susceptibility (chance for getting a particular disease on exposure to it) of the individual. Exposure to smaller doses of pathogen over prolonged period will ensure a sort of protection to that person from acute hazardous side effects in case of infectious pathogen. But remember that it could be deleterious to the health of the person as in case of chronic malaria or mercury poisoning.

Young children and very elderly are more susceptible to water borne illnesses as their immune system is either under-developed or in the waning state. Another risk category related to water borne illness is pregnancy in women as many water related diseases like Malaria, Hepatitis E, etc often have a fatal course on them compared to milder attacks to the non-pregnant women. In addition to these demographic risk groups, there are many social groups who are at risk of water borne diseases. People living in compromised conditions, travelers, sanitary workers, etc are mainly at risk of waterborne infections.

PRECAUTION IN SPECIAL SITUATIONS A definite risk group is people estranged in the aftermath of natural disasters like floods, draught, earthquakes etc. These situations are prone to diseases for many reasons like, disruption of the normal supply mechanism due to breakage of pipes and resultant cross contamination, disruption of water treatment and storage facilities, overcrowding and increased demand for water supply and sanitation in the temporary rehabilitation camps and hospitals, increased chance of infection due to overcrowding, open wounds, decaying carcasses dead bodies and laxity of personal hygiene, high stress on immunity of individuals due to increased physiological stress, increased pathogen load due to close mix up of people, animals and vectors from different strata and localities, disruption of usual healthcare services and sick role luxury etc. Bitter experiences following Indian Ocean Tsunami waves and hurricane Katrina tragedies, many guidelines are brought in to safeguard health of people afflicted with natural disasters. Provision of sufficient quantity of drinking water, immunization against certain diseases like measles, prophylactic treatment for certain diseases like leptospirosis, etc are among salient recommendations. In most post-disaster situations, 86

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almost all water sources are unsafe for drinking, most containers are contaminated, latrines are inadequate, and there would be a real scarcity of safe drinking water.

Thrust should be on the adoption of water discipline in these circumstances (Anon, 2005). Frequent small drinks are of more value than occasional long one Getting water should be the NUMBER ONE priority in emergencies and it should be done before exhausting the existing supply.  It is important to filter and purify all water before drinking it, even if the water looks clean.  In the absence of other viable alternatives, one can filter water through thick clothes/ canvas bags and sterilize with water purification tablet (1 chlorine tablets for 1 litre of water) or boiling for 5 minutes before ingestion.  In case of severe shortage of water, there are some techniques to conserve body water as given below a.

Avoid exertion

b.

Do all tasks slowly to reduce expenditure of energy and water

c.

Keep clothing (of light shades) to reduce fluid loss

d.

Do not smoke or drink alcohol as both induce dehydration.

e.

Keep cool, stay in the shade, but not lie on the ground or heated surfaces

f.

Limit talking; breathe through nose and not through mouth.

 If we have to get water from natural sources like streams, river, lakes, ponds etc always go for the following characteristics a.

Fast flowing water coming from high elevations

b.

Water should look clean without discolorations, strong odours, foam or bubbles, oil slicks on the surface, etc

c.

Water with fish, frog, insects and other vertebrate life

d.

Always filter and purify before use

 Along with these efforts care should be given to normalize sanitation and other basic services to the extent possible.

Another grave area of concern is the threat posed by biologic warfare or bio-terrorism threats to water supply mechanisms. Storage tanks of treated water are an easy target for terrorists as often there will not be security protection for these storage tanks and this water will not be further filtered or purified before it reach the consumers.

Organisms of potential threats include Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Vibrio cholera, Cryptospridium parvum, Clostridium botulinum, Noro virus etc, mostly affecting the gastro-intestinal system. Presence of residual chlorine in adequate quantity Centre for Environment and Development

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is the only safeguard against most of these organisms as chlorine will prevent survival and multiplication of these pathogens in the water.

WATER AND HEALTH IN KERALA Serious steps should be taken to safeguard abundance of this natural gift in Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Own Country. As stated before water should be valued for its entirety and coordinated action from all stakeholders like healthcare providers, local and national public health authorities, water supply engineers, water quality monitoring officials, environmental scientists and engineers, basic science researchers and the people, the consumers.

Department of Drinking Water Supply under Ministry of Rural Development is doing credible job in this line and Kerala should continue to tap all avenues and resources laid out in its flagship program named Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission to educate all its various stakeholders on water conservation and optimal use (Anon, 2009).

People in Kerala do keep their hygiene to some extent but they misuse water a lot compared to people from other states. We should urgently educate ourselves on watersaving techniques like usage of ultra-low flush toilets, low flow showerheads or encouraging people to bathe using bucket and cup instead of showerheads, closing water taps while shaving and brushing teeth, using full kitchen basin to wash dishes, taking water in buckets than using hose with shut-off nozzle for watering garden and washing car etc (Meinhandt, 2007).

A look at the trends of water borne diseases shows quite seasonality in Kerala (Fig. 1) which means that our water supply mechanisms are not really serving the purpose of providing safe drinking water to everyone in the society. It is a shame for Kerala to report 1-3 cases of deaths due to Cholera in its epidemic reports every year in spite of the near total literacy and rich natural resource of water that we have!

Fig. 1 Seasonal trend of Leptospirosis in Source : Kerala 88

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REFERENCES Anon. 1958. Water for Industrial Use Report No. E-3058 ST/ECA/50. United Nations Economic and Social Council, New York.

Anon. 2004. Implementation manual on NationalRural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Surveillance programme. Dept. of drinking water, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India: New Delhi. 18-35.

Anon. 2005. Health Guidelines for Tsunami disaster relief areas. (cited; Available from: http://centurionsafety.net/attachments/171759_healthguidelines.pdf).

Anon. 2009. India G.o. Department of Drinking Water Supply. (cited; Available from: http:// www.ddws.nic.in/.)

Dhaar G and Robbani I. 2008. Fundamentals of Community Medicine. 2nd ed. Elsevier Noida: 441-470.

Karn S K and Harada H. 2002. Field survey on water supply, sanitation and associated health impacts in urban poor communities - a case from Mumbai city, India. Water Science and Technology, 46(11-12): 269-275.

Lucas A O and Gilles H M. 2003. Short Textbook of Public Health Medicine for the Tropics.

4th ed. Arnold London.

Meinhardt P L. 2007. Water Quality Manangement and Water Borne Disease Trends, in MaxcyRosenau-Last Public Health & Preventive Medicine, Wallace R B (ed), Mc Graw Hill Medical, New York. 863-900.

Park K. 2003. Parkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine. M/s Banarsidas Bhanot Jabalpur 423-426.

Valiathan M. 2003. The Legacy of Caraka. Food and drinks. Orient Longman Private Ltd. Chennai: 110-141.

Vasan R S and Seshadri S. 1998. Textbook of Medicine. Fluid and Electrolyte Disturbances.

Orient Longman Limited, Chennai 65-73.

Wallace R B. (ed). 2007. Maxcy-Rosenau-Last Public Health & Preventive Medicine. 15th ed.

Mc Graw Hill Medical, New York.

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Water Quality Status of Kerala with special reference to Drinking Water Harikumar P S Scientist, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode 673571 E mail : drpshari@yahoo.co.in

INTRODUCTION Human life is dependent on the presence of fresh water. Of the approximately 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of our planet’s water supplies, fresh water makes up less than three per cent. Most of this is tied up in glaciers, ice caps and snowfields, particularly in Antartica. Although water is a renewable resource, the many demands for water of a desired quantity and quality in a particular place require careful husbandry of the supply. After reaching the surface of the Earth as rain, water enters a supply system by either penetrating the ground or moving through subsurface channels, known as aquifers, or through runoff into streams and rivers. Only a tiny fraction of the earth’s fresh water reservoirs is easily accessible for human use. Lakes, wetlands and rivers, however, do not comprise the remaining major fresh water compartments. The continents of our planet are blessed with more than thirty times as much ground water as surface water.

Public opinion, however, is very often preoccupied with the more obvious ‘visible’ surface water sources when it comes to water pollution, counter - measures and restoration. Pollution, however, is more than the presence of mere impurities. Water pollution is defined as any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.

There has always been a natural influx of pollutants into water. Human activities, however, have always led to fresh water pollution. Pollution is simply a question of the degree of dilution. Any substance can become a pollutant threatening an ecosystem if its concentration is too high.

Drinking water quality can be ascertained through determination of different physical, chemical and biological characteristics. As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, the source has to be tested for different characteristics and has to be compared with the standard guideline values. The guideline values are based on certain undesirable effects outside the desirable limit either due to aesthetic problem or based on health reasons.

Water pollutants may originate from a point source or from a dispersed source. A 90

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point-source pollutant is one that reaches water from a single pipeline or channel, such as a sewage-discharge or outfall pipe. Dispersed sources are broad, unconfined areas from which pollutants enter a body of water. Surface runoff from farms, for example, is a dispersed source of pollution, carrying animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, and silt into nearby streams. Urban storm water drainage is also considered a dispersed source because of the many locations at which it enters local streams or lakes. Point-source pollutants are easier to control than dispersed-source pollutants, since they flow to a single location where treatment processes can remove them from the water. General types of water pollutants include pathogenic organisms, oxygendemanding wastes, plant nutrients, synthetic organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, sediments etc.

Water associated health problems can arise due to the following categories: ď&#x201A;ˇ Biological ď&#x201A;ˇ Chemical Biological: Intake of water contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, is the major cause for the spread of bacterial diseases like, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, gastro-enteritis,etc.

Chemical: Above a certain level, some chemical pollutants (e.g. nitrates, fluoride, lead etc) may constitute a direct toxic hazard when ingested in water. Many of the organic micro contaminants found in drinking water are carcinogens. Some other contaminants are suspected to cause depression of CNS functions, liver and kidney damage, and eye and skin irritation. Certain toxicants are also known to interfere with the metabolic pathways crucial to the survival of plants and animals. Well water, contaminated by nitrates, poses a hazard to health, particularly for infants In Kerala, 71.06 percent of the total population has access to drinking water as at the end of March 2008 (Economic Review, Govt of Kerala 2008). The total number of rural people having accessibility to drinking water is 156.32 lakh, which constitutes coverage of 66.31 percent to the total rural population. Similarly, 84.60 percent of urban population has drinking water facilities and the total number of urban people having such a facility is 69.94 lakh (Economic Review 2008). As per National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3) 2005-06 only 69.1% households in Kerala use an improved source of drinking water.

SURFACE WATER QUALITY The short, fast-flowing, monsoon-fed rivers of Kerala often encounter salinity intrusion into their lower stretches during the summer months. When the fresh water flow reduces, two major problems can occur in these water bodies: (i) salinity propagates more into the interior of the river and (ii) the flushing of the system becomes less effective. The pollution of the rivers is more severe in downstream. Majority of the Rivers in Kerala has Biochemical Oxygen Demand within 10 mg/l. Bacteriological contamination is one of the major water quality problems of the Kerala Rivers The water quality condition of selected individual rivers are explained based on water quality index, biological index, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) classification based on best designated use Centre for Environment and Development

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Water Quality Index The water quality index is a number between 1 and 100, which can be used for categorization based on the best available information, expert judgment, and the public’s expectations of water quality. Because of the nature of the index, it is impossible to determine from an index range whether the ranking is due to extreme excursions in one variable, or frequent small excursions in one or more variables. Once the WQI value has been determined, water quality can be ranked by relating it to one of the following categories: Excellent: (WQI Value 95 - 100): water quality is protected with a virtual absence of threat or impairment; conditions very close to natural or pristine levels.

Good: (WQI Value 80 - 94): water quality is protected with only a minor degree of threat or impairment; conditions rarely depart from natural or desirable levels.

Fair: (WQI value 65 - 79): water quality is usually protected but occasionally threatened or impaired; conditions sometimes depart from natural or desirable levels.

Marginal: (WQI Value 45 – 64): water quality is frequently threatened or impaired; conditions often depart from natural or desirable levels.

Poor: (WQI Value 0 – 44): water quality is almost always threatened or impaired; conditions usually depart from natural or desirable levels. (http://www.ec.gc.ca) Eventhough many water quality indices have been reported, what is discussed here is the report of the water quality status of the rivers using CCME Water Quality Index (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment) Periyar River basins Water quality analysis indicates that iron, alkalinity and phosphate are on a higher side in the downstream reaches of the river. The DO values varied from 6.27mg/l to 8.47 mg/l. BOD varied between 0.34mg/l & 2.07 mg/l. Bacteriological analysis confirmed the presence of total coliform and E.Coli in almost all the samples. Biological analysis showed high nutrient enrichment in the downstream towards the Manjummal region (according to the chlorophyll value), and comparatively high pollution index value (Palmer’s pollution index) was recorded in the downstream reaches. The most pollution tolerant genera and species of four groups of algae were recorded from three sites of the river. Nygaard and Palmer’s biotic indices were used for the assessment of quality of the river CCME Water Quality Index of Periyar river was calculated (SOE, 2007) for 34 stations during the four seasons (post-monsoon-2005, pre-monsoon-2006, pre-monsoon-2007 and post- monsoon -2007). Fifteen parameters namely pH, turbidity, colour, total dissolved solids, alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate-N, sulphate, iron, total coliforms and faecal coliforms and dissolved oxygen, were used for the calculation.

The index values of most of the stations are in the range of 65-79, which indicates that the upstream part of the River stations have fair water quality, which means that they are occasionally threatened. However, six stations in the lower reaches showed marginal water quality, which indicate that they are frequently threatened.

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Discoloration in the downstream is reported occasionally in Periyar River. The emergency survey done during August 2006 and February 2007 as part of the reported water quality issues of Periyar River showed that the problem is concerned with excess iron (max 17 mg/l). Discoloration occurred at Paathaalam Bund near Eloor which houses the Udyogamandal Industrial Estate. It was reported that colour, turbidity and iron were present in excessive concentration. The coloration might have occurred due to the presence of iron particles in the samples. The problem had occurred due to the discharge of untreated effluents from some of the industries, which contain ferrous salts.

Best Designated Use The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) established in 1979 a scheme for classification and zoning of water bodies. Based on this, any water body can be designated for some particular best use which is termed as designated best use. The water quality criteria for this classification include parameters like pH, DO, BOD, MPN of coliforms/100ml, free ammonia-N, EC, Sodium Absorption Ratio and Boron.

Classification of different stations in Periyar River reveals that most of the stations fall under class C, which implies that the water in these stations can be used as drinking water with conventional treatment and disinfection. About 13 stations are in class E, and water can only be used for irrigation, industrial cooling and waste disposal.

Sediment Characteristics Down core, variation of heavy metals in three sediment cores from Cochin estuary was studied (Nasir and Harikumar, 2008). The average concentration of iron, manganese, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury in each slices of sediment was determined. Quality of the sediments was evaluated based on Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQG), Pollution Load Index (PLI), and sum of Toxic Units (â&#x20AC;&#x153;TU) and with ERL/ERM and TEL/PEL values of EPA guidelines. The degree of contamination (Cd) for each station was determined. The results of the study revealed higher concentration of trace metals in surface layers than in deeper ones. The concentration of trace elements in some stations exceeded the ERM levels, which represents a probable effect range within which adverse biological effects frequently occur. The spatial variation of trace metals showed more contamination in the downstream reaches at Pathalam industrial site. Statistical analysis showed that the correlation among different parameters differs with respect to stations. The present study highlighted severe trace metal contamination of Cochin estuary with increased rate of deposition.

Bharathapuzha River The chemical quality of water revealed the intrusion of saline water up to Chamravattom, 6 Km upstream of the river mouth station. The CPCB classification of the River based on best-designated use indicate that Malampuzha station comes under the quality classA, except during post monsoon of 2007 i.e., the source can be used for drinking purpose without conventional treatment, but after disinfection. Thrithala, Ottapalam, Meenakshipuram, Alathur, Kollengodu, Shornur, Chamravattom etc came under quality Centre for Environment and Development

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class B in different seasons based on Total Coliform, pH and DO. In 2007 (post monsoon), most of the stations came under class D or C (the water can be used as drinking water source with conventional treatment followed by disinfection).

CCME Water Quality Index revealed that all the stations are in the quality range of ‘Marginal’. This indicates that these stations face frequent threats or impairment with respect to water quality. The problem is mainly due to bacteriological contamination.

Biological analysis indicates that Kalpathipuzha and Pattambi had high value of Palmer’s Pollution Index, which indicates problems due to organic contamination.

Salinity intrusion and high concentration of anionic concentration was reported in the lower reaches of the river.

Valappatnam River The impact of mangroves on the estuarine ecosystem of Valapattanam and Thalassery river basins was reported (CWRDM, 2001). Temporal variations in water quality, sediment, chlorophyll content and productivity were studied in comparison with a control, i.e. a non – mangroves area. In Mangrove areas of both Valapattanam and Thalassery river basins, TDS, Ca, Mg, Na, sulphate, and chloride contents in water were very high during pre-monsoon. Coliform contamination was high during monsoon and the presence of E. Coli was detected in the pre- monsoon as well as monsoon seasons in both the river basins. The phytoplanktons were mainly represented by Bacillariophyceae and Zooplankton by Protozoan. The macroplanktons were dominated by Arthropods. The benthic fauna was represented by Annelids. High productivity was observed during the pre-monsoon period. The water quality characteristics of the area are influenced by salinity intrusion. A rich biodiversity of mangrove vegetation is seen in the mouth of Valapattanam river near the sea – estuary.

High concentration of minerals seen in a majority of the samples is due to the ingress of saline water. This is reflected from high concentration of sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphate etc. Water samples collected from the mangrove vegetation area indicated high concentration of nutrients.

Muvattupuzha River The water quality assessment of Muvattupuzha River had indicated the following observations (CWRDM, 2007):  A considerable deterioration of water quality was observed at the Murinjapuzha station.  Koloth Canal is a canal carrying waste effluents from the industries to the river. It opens to the river approximately 500m upstream of Vettikkattumukku Bridge.  At Thodupuzha, a drain is found to be the major source of pollution that carries wastes from meat market and hospital in addition to municipal waste discharged directly into the river.  Microbiologically the samples are contaminated and observed a seasonal trend.

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Post-monsoon samples showed maximum contamination level.  Water quality was comparatively better in upstream portion as there is no direct discharge of industrial or municipal effluents.  From Palamkadavu downstream, the river receives effluents from industries and municipal wastewater.  The salinity intrusion observed was on the higher side at Ithipuzha branch.  As per CCME WQI, the station Velloor pipeline discharge point is found to be poor in quality compared to all other stations.  High values of chloride, magnesium and TDS were observed at the sampling station at Muringhapuzha bridge and Ithipuzha-Vembanad mixing point.  The present flow of 45-55 m3/sec should be maintained to keep the Muvattupuzha River under the CPCB classification of “A” or “C”. Moreover, a decrease in flow to 25 m3/sec may result in intrusion of salinity from Vembanad estuary and deterioration of water quality. It is suggested to maintain the present flow of fresh water in the River using partially the water from the tailrace of Idukki reservoir.  All the drains discharging into Muvattupuzha River may be treated to achieve the BOD of 30mg/1 and DO of 4 mg/1 for the effluents before discharging into the River.

Anjarakandy River The water quality analysis of the Anjarakandy River reported (CWRDM 2008) that water quality problems in the downstream reaches, especially near the Kannavam Bridge and around Vengad Regulator. Bacteriological contamination is the major threat to the river. Salinity is found to intrude into the river in the lower reaches. BOD was more than 3 mg/l near the Regulator.

Kadalundi-Tirur River The river is susceptible to pollution problem mainly due to domestic sewage. The high value of MPN may be because of the fact that people living by the bank, directly dispose off their wastes into the river (Jisha et al., 2008). Compared to water quality of Kadalundi River, Tirur River is highly polluted. DO was found to be less in the downstream area of the River due to waste dumping, leakages from wood industry, hospital waste disposal etc. The factors contributing to pollution include discharge of untreated municipal wastewater, coconut husk retting, lime shell mining etc.

Pamba River Sabarimala, a pilgrimage centre which attracts more than 50 million people in a year is in the Pamba River basin. The pollution of Pamba around this region is a major environmental concern. Pollution at Pamba-Thriveni, the confluence of the streams of Kaki and Kochupamba is noticed during the Sabarimala pilgrimage season in OctoberJanuary every year. The bacteriological pollution noticed in the River is reported and Centre for Environment and Development

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by applying Qual 2E Model, the assimilative capacity of the river at various discharges was simulated. To bring down the observed coliform count (46000 MPN/100 ml) to the CPCB maximum permitted level of 500/100 ml, the discharge in the main stream has to be increased from an observed value of about 4 m3/sec to the order of about 2835 m3/sec (Harikumar and Madhavan 2006). If this may not be practically possible, the assimilative capacity of the river should be enhanced by implementing appropriate sewage treatment methods and sanitation facilities especially in the pollution prone areas of Pamba River.

Kabbini River Kabbini River, one of the three east flowing rivers of Kerala, is an important tributary of the river Cauvery. Kabbini and its tributaries constitute a powerful river system in the landscape of Wayanad CCME WQI for Kabbini River indicates that none of the samples come under ‘Excellent’ water quality (95-100) (Preethi, 2007). Thirteen samples had values between 80 and 94 reflecting only minor degree of threat or impairment. Eight samples had CCME index between 65 and 79 indicating occasional threat or impairment through anthropogenic activity. The WQI indicated that Panamarampuzha, Kabbinipuzha, Byrakkuppa, Choottakadavu Valliyurkavu and Banasurasagar reservoir had minor degree of threat or impairment. At these stations, the Kabbini River receives untreated domestic or municipal effluents Neyyar Neyyar, the southern-most river of Kerala, originates from Agasthyakudam Hills, flows through Neyyattinkara Taluk and joins Arabian Sea near Poovar. It has a total length of 56 kms.

CCME water quality index indicates that 69% of the sampling stations are in ‘Good’ category. Four sampling stations came under the classification Fair ie, samples from Pantha, Spillway, Neyyattinkara-1 and Mavilakadavu. Of these, in Pantha and Spillway, the rates of flow were very low. Spillway is a bathing and washing area. Neyyattinkara1 is a waste dumping site and in addition, activities such as bathing and washing take place. Salinity intrusion and faecal contamination are the major problems faced by Mavilakadavu. Two downstream stations (Arumanoor & Poovar Bridge) come under the class Marginal. This is due to salinity intrusion. Near Poovar Bridge, sand mining and faecal contamination due to sewage are the major environmental problems. Poovar Pozhikara-I (bathing and washing) &II (tourism) are under the class Poor. Salinity intrusion is the common problem in these areas.

BIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS The biological quality of one east and one west flowing river in Kerala State with reference to phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic macro-invertebrates was studied

by CWRDM (Sreejith et al., 2009). The dynamics in the structure and composition of the biota over different seasons is a key to the prevailing ecological and environmental status of the water body. The biological water quality of the water was ascertained 96

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through diversity index, Palmer’s Pollution Index,Family Biotic Index and Genus Richness at various levels. It was observed that the streams receive considerable stress from sewage and organic effluents. More anthropogenic impacts are reflected by the biota in river Neyyar, which is a west flowing river, than in Kabbini, which is east flowing.

One of the major environmental problems faced by rivers of Kerala is due to the disposal of untreated municipal sewage. This may result in the organic pollution of the rivers. All the calculated indices report organic pollution in the rivers considered. The algal community structure and their seasonal dynamics indicated pollution enhancement in rivers after the onset of monsoon rain. In the post-monsoon season, the runoff from tributaries and canals joining the river bring organic matter in adequate amounts. The sewage channels also contribute to the organic pollution load in the river. The study points out that Neyyar is more prone to organic pollution compared to Kabbini. Neyyar is connected with an elaborate network of canals like Vandichirathode, Kulathoorvaliathode, Maruthurthode, Athiyanurthode, Thalayilthode, Kottukalthode and Venganurthode, flowing through residential areas and substantial inflow of organic matter is obvious as reflected by different levels of biota present in the river. Whereas Kabbini is relatively virgin, and it takes more time for the organic contaminants to concentrate in amounts as reflected by the biota. The seasonal variation in the water quality is better affirmed by a biological angle of investigation, and it is proved that biotic indices like Diversity Index, Palmer’s Algal Genus Index, and Family Biotic Index, perform more consistently in assessing the quality status of lotic system like river. As per the Palmer’s Algal Genus Index, a score of 20 or more for a sample is an indication of organic pollution, while a score of 15 to 19 is taken as probable evidence of high organic pollution. Lower figures indicate that the organic pollution is not high or the sampling has not been representative.

Spatially and temporally, certain plankton genera are present in common which include Chlorophyceae like Cosmarium, Ulothrix, Arthrodesmus, Coelastrum, Scenedesmus, Ankistrodesmus, Chlorella, Pediastrum, Selenastrum, Myxophyceae includes Oscillatoria, Microcystis, and Bacillariophyceae Synedra, Pinnularia Melosira, Cyclotella, Navicula and protozoans like Difflugia. Among them, Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Nitzchia, Microcystis, Oscillattoria indicates organic pollution. Palmer’s Algal Genera Pollution Index varies between 2 and 22, which indicates organic pollution in some stations. Some have probable evidence of high organic pollution and some have lower figure, which indicates less pollution.

WATER QUALITY OF RESERVOIRS Any surface water impoundment is bound to inflict considerable impact on the water quality status. The major effects are thermal stratification, increase in the nutrient lock up, changes in self-purification capacity and dissolved oxygen.

Water quality studies of major reservoirs of Kerala (CWRDM, 1990) indicated that from the physicochemical point of view, quality of water in all the reservoirs is good during monsoon. During summer, the water in the reservoirs of Bharatapuzha and its tributaries was very hard. Water quality status of the seven reservoirs of Bharatapuzha Centre for Environment and Development

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River (CWRDM, 2009) indicated that low pH, high turbidity, excess colour, bacteriological contamination are some of the water quality related issues. The manganese concentration of Chulliar, Pothundi, Mangalapuzha and Malampuzha were beyond the BIS prescribed limit. High concentrations of iron and manganese were detected in sediment samples.

Hardness is practically negligible in Pazhassi, Kuttiyadi, Peechi, Neyyar, Pampa, Periyar, Chalakudi and Kallada (CWRDM, 1990). Concentration of iron exceeded the recommended value for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes in all the reservoirs.

Studies on the physicochemical characteristics of water in the Kuttiyadi show distinct variations in temperature, dissolved oxygen, phosphate and iron content in different strata of reservoir water. The reservoir became thermally stratified during post and pre-monsoon periods. During pre-monsoon period, dissolved oxygen depletion in the hypolimnia region was observed. The concentration of iron in lower layers exceeded the permissible limit for drinking water purposes. The concentration of iron varies between 0.035-0.12mg/l, 0.014rng/l-1.75mg/l and 0.011-3.l mg/l in surface, middle and bottom layers respectively. The overall range of nitrate in the reservoir is 0.060.05 (surface), 0.06-0.08 (middle) and 0.07-0.13 mg/l (bottom). In the reservoir water, it was observed that the total bacteria count was high and that Escherichia coli was present during pre-monsoon, indicating the requirement for prior treatment for domestic/drinking purposes.

WATER QUALITY OF LAKES Pookot Lake Among the fresh water lakes of Kerala, Pookot Lake is the one which has been well studied. Pookot Lake in Western Ghats is optimum for a productive lake, which could be utilized for fish culture and recreational purposes. The physicochemical parameters are within the standards recommended for domestic use. Electrical conductivity was in the range 26.7-63.1 micro S/cm. Total hardness varied between 12 mg/l and 33.3 mg/l. Nitrate and nitrite varied in the range 0.01mg/l-0.5mg/l and 0.001-0.004 mg/l.

Seasonal variations of trace metals like aluminium, magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, iron and copper, showed that their levels were below the permissible limit for potable and agricultural waters (CWRDM, 1988). Total coliform count also confirmed the presence of bacteria, which is due to human and animal origin. Bacteriological analysis indicates that 24% of samples have MPN index ed 2400 and 36% samples had coli forms. E-coli were present in 65% of samples.

Vembanad lake Vembanad Lake is the largest backwater system on the southwest (Kerala) coast of India, extending 80 km in a NWâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;SE direction from Munambam in the north to Alapuzha in the south. Pollution in the Vembanad estuary is attributed to industrial and urban effluents from the city of Kochi and adjoining areas. As a major port and industrial center, this region is subjected to heavy anthropogenic pressure. An estimated 3.5 98

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billion liters of domestic sewage is produced daily in the urban areas of Kochi.

Approximately 90 percent of this sewage is untreated and discharged into surrounding bodies of water. High concentrations of phosphates, nitrates, and ammonia are causing eutrophication of the Vembanad Lake.

The environmental status study of this wetland, including the water and sediment quality, had been carried out with special reference to salinity intrusion during postmonsoon season and the variation of physico-chemical parameters along the core sediment (Harikumar, 2008). The study revealed that the source of cations (mainly Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and the anions like Cl- and SO42- to the lake is mainly from the saline water mixing through Thanneermukkom bund. The anions like CO32- and the nutrients like NO3-, PO4- in the lake are being contributed by the urban wastes discharging through two canals (Boat jetty and Chunkam thodu) of Alappuzha.

Dissolved oxygen content and Biological Oxygen Demand were found to be within the desirable limits. Most of the stations were found to be microbially contaminated.

The isotope data shows the dynamic nature of the lake with respect to both stations and seasons. The salinity intrusion into the southern region of the lake was confirmed by 채18O & 채D values. For the sediment core, from surface to bottom there is gradual increase in the pH. A gradual decrease in the organic carbon from top to bottom was also noticed. Heavy metal deposition in the lake is found to increase. An increase in the concentration of calcium, magnesium, sulphate and phosphate was noticed towards the surface. The sedimentation rate of the lake was calculated and is found to be 0.51cm/ year.

The eutrophication of the Vemband Lake was determined to be mainly phosphorous limited. The lake is infested with phytoplankton growth especially during pre-monsoon and beginning of monsoon months. In addition to the nutrient load received by the lake due to point sources, the lake is also polluted in the southern, eastern and western parts by diffuse pollutants such as agricultural and municipal effluents. The simulation analyses of the lake predicted eutrophication of the lake with high concentration of phytoplankton growth and decrease of clarity indicated by lower Secchi depth. The simulation also indicated that, the total phosphorous load to the lake might be reduced to 12.5 % to the present phosphorous load, which is being received by the lake, to change it to oligotrophic level.

Sasthamkotta and Vellayani Lakes These two major wetlands are important sources of drinking water. The major environmental threats faced by the lakes are by urbanization, reclamation and siltation.

Bacteriological contamination is the major water quality problem. No substantial chemical contamination has been noted in the lakes.

Coastal Pollution The main driving forces of coastal pollution are pollution owing to population, followed by discharge of industrial effluents, indiscriminate use of agricultural chemicals damaging the quality of river water and adding to marine pollution, oil pollution, and air pollution. According to KSPCB, in Kerala about 3000 medium and large scale and Centre for Environment and Development

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about 2000 small scale industries are discharging effluent directly into saline/ fresh water bodies. About 1,04,536 m3 of treated effluents per day is being discharged into the back waters or sea in the coastal zone of the State. The extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides/fungicides etc. results in undesirable residues causing considerable damage to the quality of water in rivers ultimately adding to the marine pollution problems and seriously affecting human beings as well as aquatic life. The operation of large scale oil tankers and other activities connected to handling of oil add to the problem of marine oil pollution by way of oil spills and use of motorized boats. Air pollutants such as suspended matters, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur and carbon monoxide which are emitted from power generation stations, industrial plants and construction projects, discharges from automobiles and solid waste disposal operations reach the sea through rain water and atmospheric transport of particulate matter (Source : State of Environment Report 窶適erala 2007- Vol.IV- Environmental Indicators.).

GROUNDWATER Kerala is one of the most thickly populated States in the country and many people depend on homestead open wells for domestic purposes. The density of open wells is very high in Kerala, with an average of 200 wells /km2. Even in the urban areas, more than 50% of the population depend on wells.

In Kerala, groundwater occurs under phreatic, semi-confined and confined conditions.

The groundwater resources are largely concentrated in the sedimentary aquifers of the coastal regions. The groundwater resources are tapped mainly for drinking and irrigation purposes. The groundwater potential of Kerala is very low as compared to that of many other States in the country.

Generally, the localised groundwater problems in Kerala are due to the presence of excess salinity, iron, fluoride, hardness, and coliforms. Seawater intrusion, domestic sewage, mineralogical origin, agricultural and industrial activities are the major causes.

Low pH, high iron content, high hardness, high TDS, and salinity are common quality problems in the coastal areas. Excess chloride concentration is reported from the coastal zone.

Natural Pollution Problems Fluoride problems have been reported from Palakkad and Alappuzha districts. The permissible concentration of fluoride in drinking water, according to Bureau of Indian Standards, is 1 mg/l. If high fluoride containing water is ingested for a long period, it may cause health problems such as dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis. In the deeper aquifers tapping Warkalli formations in Alappuzha town, fluoride content of 1.5 to 2.6mg/l is observed. Fluoride content higher than 1 mg/l is reported from 11 KWA wells which pump drinking water to Alappuzha Muncipality.

Some of the deep wells in Palakkad district in Chitoor Taluk and a few wells in Kanjikode area and Muthalamada and some of the other eastern parts have fluoride concentration greater than 1 mg/l.

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Salinity Problems Salinity, low pH, hardness, and iron content, have been reported from some of the coastal wells of Kerala. Investigations also indicate a definite relation between water level and salinity as well as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and chloride. Lowering of groundwater table is associated with increase in salinity.

The water quality problems in the coastal areas are mainly because of the presence of excess chloride. The chloride concentration >250 mg/l was detected in the well water samples of Azhikode, Kakkathuruthi, Edathinjil, Kadalundi, Anjengo, Chellanum, Nallalam and Mankombu (CWRDM, 1983). The wells at Aiyur (near Mahe River), Payyoli and Chaliyam have high concentrations of iron and TDS. At Chaliyam, calcium exceeds the permissible limit. Groundwater in places like Tikkodi beach, Meladi and Kadalur becomes alkaline in summer whereas in places around Tiruvangur and Korapuzha, the wells become alkaline and ferric (Fe>1) during summer. Some of the bore well samples collected from KSRTC bus stand near Kozhikode city was reported to contain high concentration of chloride (20200 mg/l), iron (0.40-0.90 mg/l), total hardness (9000 mg/l-10600mg/l) and sulphate (2200 mg/1-2300 mg/l).

Man Made Pollution Problems Groundwater Contamination due to On-site Sanitation Kerala has the largest coverage of individual household latrines in India. Out of the 65.95 lakh households in the State 57.17 lakh (86 per cent) have sanitary latrine facilities. Though the sanitation coverage is relatively high, there is general lack of awareness on the potential health risks from unhygienic latrine, (which is estimated to account for over 60 per cent of the total household latrines) when located close to unprotected open dug wells.

Safe drinking water and better sanitation are essential requisites for healthy and sustainable life for human beings. In spite of many initiatives to provide protected water supply, the rural section depend on open dug wells or other ground resources.

Preliminary investigations suggested that single pit/double pit latrines and even sometimes unscientifically constructed septic tanks, are not safe enough to prevent contamination of open well. CWRDM had carried out a study (CWRDM, 2006) to examine the bacterial contamination in drinking water wells in rural Kerala by selecting 936 sites distributed in the 13 Agro- ecological zones across the State.

Wide variations in the level of faecal coliforms (FC) and faecal streptococci (FS) were observed both spatially and temporally. During the period of observation (2005) faecal coliforms ranged from 1 to 240000 MPN/100 ml and faecal streptococci ranged from 1 to 1100 MPN /100 ml of the water sample. High level of contamination of >10000 MPN was recorded for both Faecal Coliforms (FC) and Faecal Streptococci (FS) to the tune of 3.9 and 2.6 % of the samples analysed respectively. High values of the order of MPN > 1000 were observed for over 19 % and 17 % of the samples for FC and FS, respectively. Overall results indicated that around 82 % of the samples showed E.coli positive. Presence of E. coli indicates recent contamination. Seasonal trends indicated that 85.9 %, 82.6 % and 77 % of the observation wells revealed the Centre for Environment and Development

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presence of E. coli during monsoon, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons respectively. Parapet walls (no platform) around open wells significantly reduce contamination compared to without them. Distance between wells and latrines is highly significant; reduction in contamination level increases with distance in the case of FC. The wells near double pit latrines and septic tanks exhibited lower levels of FS than wells near single pit latrines. In case of both FC and FS, turbidity level and pH appear to increase the levels of FS contamination. Sanitary survey results indicated that only inadequate drainage at the site in which water stagnates near a well contributes significantly. Higher population density in Grama Panchayats increases the FC level.

Industrial Pollution Groundwater contamination due to industrial pollution has been reported from places of Kochi (eastern parts of Aluva), Palakkad and some parts of Kollam, Kozhikode and Kannur (CWRDM, 2005). The analysis of groundwater samples from the Kochi industrial area (Ambalamedu and Eloor) indicated that more than 60% of the samples were polluted with excess concentration of heavy metals, nitrate or fluoride. In Kochi, 78% of the samples were acidic and 74% were moderately hard or hard. Heavy metals like chromium and lead were reported to be very high in the samples. In the samples from areas near the industrial sites of Kozhikode and Kannur, excess nitrate, hardness, sulphates and chloride were reported.

Pesticide Pollution Pesticides such as Aldrin, Dieldrin, DDE, DDD, Endosulphan-alpha, Endosulphanbeta and Lindane were analysed in the selected groundwater samples collected from Idukki district. Aldrin and Dieldrin were detected in all the four samples. The other pesticides were absent in the samples collected from Kattappana Panchayat. The range of concentration of Aldrin detected was 1.32 mg/l to 0.104 mg/l. Some of the samples collected from Wayanad and Kasargode districts also reported endosulphan residues.

Pesticide residue was absent in other groundwater samples collected from various districts.

Problems due to Municipal Landfills and Burial Grounds The municipal and industrial landfills operating in various parts of Kerala is causing great concern in respect of quality of ground water. Site selection for landfills had little or no regard as to their location, construction and operation, and for the potential impact of leachate generated within the landfill on groundwater quality.

The results of analyses of groundwater samples near burial grounds indicated that pH, nitrate, calcium, total hardness and coliforms are present in excess concentration. The samples collected from the burial ground in Kochi area near the Corporation burial ground contained calcium and total hardness at concentrations higher than the permissible limit prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards. Out of the 15 well samples collected, six were found to be bacteriologically contaminated. All the samples were hard to very hard. Nitrate and phosphate were found to be at high concentrations, when compared to those of well water samples, which were taken as controls. Nitratenitrogen as high as 26.8 mg/l and phosphate concentration of 0.55 mg/l were detected in the wells of Kochi and Pathanamthitta areas.

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Analyses of the samples from the municipal landfill sites indicated that eighty percent of the samples were bacteriologically contaminated with coliform densities as high as 11´105. Other pollutants were nitrate, chloride etc., which exceeded the permissible limit in most of the samples. Pollution was observed upto a distance of 300 m.

Domestic Sewage A study on pollution of ground water due to domestic sewage was undertaken by CWRDM (CWRDM 1997) in five Taluks of Palakkad district, viz. Palakkad, Ottappalam, Chittoor, Alathur and Mannarghat in 1996-97. The study revealed that over 50% of the wells studied were bacteriologically contaminated. There had also been a high incidence of waterborne diseases in the district The major observations of the studies on the dispersion of domestic effluents on the groundwater quality of Palakkad district are reported below:  Chloride concentration was found to be 650 mg/l in some of the wells of Chittoor Taluk  High concentrations of iron (>0.34 mg/l) and calcium (>300 mg/1) were found in areas of Kuzhalmannam, Kanjikode, Mundur, Paralam and Alathur.  With respect to fluoride, values ranging from 0.29 - 1.8 mg/l were noticed, and the highest concentration is reported in Kozhijanpara and Attapady regions.  The coliform count was found to be beyond the permissible limit in areas of Karimba, Kannadi and Vadakkencheri.

There has also been a high incidence of waterborne diseases in the district. The pollution sources identified were: animal feedlots, septic tanks, garbage, kitchen waste, and storm runoff. In 8% of the wells surveyed, nitrate concentration was above the permissible limit of 45 mg/l for drinking water. High nitrate concentrations were observed in biologically polluted wells.

A water quality assessment of groundwater sources of Calicut City drinking water was undertaken by CWRDM (2004). Only 35% of samples had desirable range of pH, 6.5 - 8.5. Around 10% of samples had pH less than 5. Most of the wells in this area were grossly contaminated with faecal coliforms. Hardness is a problem observed in the shallow aquifers of certain coastal areas of Calicut Corporation. The open groundwater samples collected from Calicut Corporation area were determined to be bacteriologically contaminated and mainly faecal in origin. E.coli was present in all samples except in a sample collected from Marikunnu region, an elevated area. The general guideline of 15 meter separation between septic systems and water supply have been applied and found to give inadequate protection from pathogens, especially in permeable aquifers Coir Retting/Coir Based Industries The results of the study in and around the coir retting/coir based industries indicated that, colour, taste, presence of sulphide, salinity, faecal contamination, etc; are some of the water quality problems in the groundwater samples (CWRDM, 2007).

Problems Related to Excess Iron In many parts of Kerala, especially in laterite and areas near the paddy fields, during summer period, water quality problems due to excess iron is reported. The soluble Centre for Environment and Development

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ferrous iron is oxidized on contact with air to form insoluble ferric iron which is seen as brown or reddish precipitate. A scum from iron bacteria is also seen on the surface of the contaminated well as an oily layer.

CONCLUSION The lower reaches of the rivers in Kerala face considerable water quality problems.

These rivers come under the classification of “B” or “C” due to faecal contamination.

The organic load to the Rivers is comparatively low. The upper reaches of the rivers have fair water quality, which means that they are only occasionally threatened.

However, stations in the downstream reaches showed marginal water quality, which indicate that they are frequently threatened. The pilgrimage stations near the rivers indicate pollution due to organic contamination. The short, fast flowing, monsoon fed rivers of Kerala often encounter salinity intrusion into their lower reaches during the summer months. When the fresh water flow reduces, two major problems are encountered in these water bodies (i) salinity propagates far into the interior of the river (ii) the flushing of the system becomes less effective. Both these aspects have an impact on drinking water supply and other schemes in the downstream reaches.

Reclamation is one of the major problems faced by the backwaters of Kerala.

Indiscriminate discharge of municipal waste, agrochemicals, oil from ships and fishing vessels are contributing to the pollution of the backwaters. Pollution due to industrial wastes is considerable in some backwaters. Coir retting processes result in release of polyphenols along with hydrogen sulphide creating anoxic conditions in many of the backwaters.

Groundwater quality problem of Kerala is mainly associated with bacteriological contamination, which is found to be in more than 90 % of the open wells, and is due to the interference of man. Untreated sewage load and solid waste are also contributing to the pollution of groundwater. Other localized water quality problems are associated with excess iron, chloride low pH and excess fluoride. In the shallow aquifers of some coastal areas, salinity problems are reported. Problems due to industrial effluents, burial grounds, municipal landfills, municipal sewage etc are seen in a few locations of the State.

Managing and protecting surface and groundwater is essential for sustaining life. A continuous water quality monitoring program and proper water safety plan are essential to the preservation and improvement of the water quality.

REFERENCES CWRDM. 1988. Management and Conservation of Pookot Lake Ecosystem of Western Ghats, Final Project Report, submitted to MoEF, Govt of India CWRDM. 1990. Quality of Irrigation Waters of Kerala, Final Project Report submitted to CBIP, Govt of India.

CWRDM. 1994. Water Quality of Bharathapuzha River for finalizing treatment process for Pavaratty water supply scheme, Final Project Report submitted to Kerala Water Authority 104

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CWRDM. 1997. Pollution of Ground Water Due to Domestic Sewage, Final Project Report submitted to RGNDWM, Govt of India.

CWRDM. 2001. Impact of Mangroves on the Estuarine Ecosystem of Valapattanam and Thalassery River Basins, Final Report submitted to STEC, Govt of Kerala CWRDM. 2004. Integrated Development Plan for Calicut City, Final Report submitted to MATURE/DST, Govt of India CWRDM. 2005. Effect of Industrial Effluents on Groundwater Quality, Final Report submitted to STEC, Govt of Kerala CWRDM. 2006. Study to assess the groundwater contamination due to onsite sanitation, Final Report submitted to Govt of Kerala.

CWRDM. 2007. Water Quality assessment of Alappuzha District with special reference to coir related activities, final report submitted to Coir Board, Govt of India.

CWRDM. 2007. Assessing Pollution Prevention Program of Muvttupuzha River, Final Report submitted to Research Council , CWRDM. CWRDM. 2008. Water Quality Monitoring Programme for the Kerala State, Interim Report submitted to KSCSTE. CWRDM. 2009. Compilation of water quality information of Periyar and Bharatapuzha Rivers, Interim Report, Plan Fund, CWRDM. Economic Review. 2008. Govt of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram.

Harikumar P S, Nasir U P and Madhavan K. 2008. Environmental Assessment of Vembanad Lake in the Southwest Coast of India, 12th International Conference on Integrated Diffuse Pollution Management (IWA DIPCON 2008), Khon Kaen University, Thailand ; 25-29 August 2008.

Harikumar P S and Madhavan K. 2006. Estimation of Water Pollution and Assimilative Capacity of River Pamba, Kerala, Pollution Research 25(4), pp 707-710.

Jisha T S, Prajitha K and Harikumar P S. 2008. Water Quality Assessment of Kadalundi-Tirur Basin, Proc. 18 th Swadeshi Science Congress, RGCB, Thiruvanthapuram .

Nasir U P and Harikumar P S. 2008. Geochemistry of Core Sediments and Study of Sedimentation Rate of Vembanad Lake Proc. XX Kerala Science Congress, Thiruvananthapuram NEERI. 2000. Carrying Capacity Based Developmental Planning for Greater Kochi Region, final report submitted to MoEF, Govt of India.

Preethi T K, Roshni L T, Deepa C K and Harikumar P S. 2007. Water Quality Assessment of Periyar River Using Water Quality Index, Proc. of the XVII Swadeshi Science Congress, Kozhikode, November 6-8.

Sreejith K P, Rajeesh Kumar MP, Kamalakshan Kokkal and Harikumar P.S. Comparison of water quality status of east and west flowing river basins of Kerala employing plankton and benthic analysis, Indian Journal of Environment and Eco planning (in press) State of Environment Report â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Kerala. 2007. Vol â&#x20AC;&#x201C; IV Environmental Indicators (Forest and Bio-diversity, Water Resources & Coastal and Marine Environment), Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram.

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Kerala Water Policy 2008 - An Evaluation

Ajayakumar Varma R Executive Director, Suchitwa Mission, Government of Kerala Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION Globally, the population that will not have access to safe drinking water will increase to 230 Crore in AD 2030 from the 1990 figure of 190 Crore. The conflicts linked to water availability, quality and sharing is increasing at the local, national and international level. According to UN Agencies, India will also figure in the list of water starved countries by the year 2010. In Kerala, though the average annual rainfall (3070 mm) is comparatively high, the spatial and temporal variation in rainfall leads to severe shortage of water during summer months. Generally, 85% of the rainfall occurs within six months from June, especially in the northern districts. However, there are serious lacunae in preparedness for facing the situation. The increasing population, changes in water use pattern, degradation of water sources, increasing level of pollution, migration to water stress areas etc is causing serious reduction in per capita water availability. Though, 70% of the population of the State depends on dug wells for their water needs, the reports that 90% of such sources have serious pollution problems is a matter of serious concern.

The water conflicts at Plachimada, Mulla-Periyar, Pamba etc and numerous minor conflicts at the local level are indicators of the gravity of problems. It highlights the societal responsibility for ensuring water security. It is pertinent to note that the Government of Kerala has brought out its water policy at this juncture which needs to be considered in proper perspective. In order to facilitate this, a socio-economic and environmental analysis of the policy is attempted in this paper.

WHY THE WATER POLICY It has been realized that sustained water availability is an essential requisite for maintaining the socio-economic achievements of the State. But, the manifold increase in water consumption, changing water use pattern, issues linked to water quality, water related environmental problems etc are emerging as serious hindrances. There emerged 106

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an urgency to prevent the tendency of considering water as a trading commodity and protect the right to water for basic requirements of every citizen. Considering the decentralized nature of occurrence of water resources, the participation of people for maintaining this national resource is unavoidable. However, the State is not making use of the provisions of decentralized governance adequately to conserve water, upgrade water environment and achieve equity, participation and sustainability in water management. The Government of Kerala, in 1992, brought out the first State Water Policy, but the policy statements were mostly not acted upon. Considering the typical issues in water sector of the State, there have been renewed efforts to declare a water policy in the light of National Water Policy 2002. Accordingly, a draft water policy was prepared in 2006 which was subjected to an expert consultation where the consensus was to draft a new water policy statement. In these backdrops, it is important to note that the State Water Policy-2008 is drafted as a means for ensuring sustainability of water resources by consider it as part of the local ecosystem.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES The policy accepts water as a public property and access to water as a human right. It bestows the responsibility for regulated use and accelerated conservation of water on every citizen and community of the State considering the resource as a common heritage having economic value. It provides entitlement to individuals, communities and service providers to use water without owning it ensuring State ownership on water. More importantly, the policy accepts the framework of micro watersheds as the basic unit and river basin as an integrated unit of micro watersheds for conservation and management of water as well as for defining water rights and regulating water use. It enables resource based approach, user participation and prevention of discrimination to marginalized/vulnerable groups to access water and also address the issue of sustainable and equitable water resource management. However, it is saddening to note these progressive policy statements are not supported with assertions on the rights and responsibilities of local governments in water sector, especially in a State like Kerala. It will be a serious impediment for implementation of the policy.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE APPROACH, STRATEGIES AND OBJECTIVES The policy envisages a framework to create an enabling environment for equitable, sustainable and productive management of water resources for reducing poverty, improving public health, promoting growth and minimizing regional imbalance. The statement brings out a very progressive vision. The promise on the restructuring of roles and relationships of the State and water users for promoting efficient and productive use of water gives hope, though it lack clarity and the procedure will be complex. The idea of new institutional mechanism at the State and river basin levels to guide and regulate water use and management and decentralize the responsibility for water resource planning, development, management and operation and maintenance to the river basin and micro-watershed institutions will be unavoidable for responsible water governance. However, without the inclusion of local governments in the picture, Centre for Environment and Development

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these progressive steps will be void. The statement on promoting and supporting new and appropriate technologies provides hope on ensuring sustainability.

There is no doubt that the proclaimed objective of the policy to consider water resources on the basis of micro-watersheds and river basin will provide better opportunity for conservation and sustainable use which, in turn, will enable conflict resolution in water sector. The objectives for enacting appropriate legislation and enabling rules and reorganizing institutional set up should be seen as very important and right steps towards operationalizing a State water resource plan evolved by upward integration.

DISCLOSURE The policy document refutes the myth about water abundance of Kerala. It discloses the severity of environmental issues of water resources, imbalance in availability and distribution of drinking water, snag due to inadequate technical support at the grassroot, danger of sidelining the traditional water sources, concern on increasing pollution issues and fast declining assimilative capacity, inconsonance in agricultural and irrigation sectors, inadequacy in promoting minor irrigation schemes, difficulty in lifting the scope of participatory irrigation management (PIM) beyond experimentation etc.

It brings to focus the lack of institutional systems for caring and sharing water at the watershed, sub-basin and river basin level.

PRIORITIZATION Prioritization of water use is the crux of a water policy. Considering the geophysical, social and environmental setting of the State and the present resource scenario, it would have been a landmark decision to allocate adequate water for ecosystem use prior to assigning water for conventional purposes. This would have given a fillip to insitu water conservation activities and prevented the death of our streams and rivers.

Though it is stated that the prioritization will be primarily based on the integrity of ecosystem, it may not be of practical significance in water allocation. The policy accepts the concept of watershed and the inevitability of water conservation and management on its basis for maintaining riverine ecosystem. This will open up scope for local actions and assisting vulnerable groups.

WATER RIGHT The statement â&#x20AC;&#x153;absence of clear and enforceable water entitlements at all levels causes service shortcomings, water use inefficiency and conflictsâ&#x20AC;? is a realization that gives immense scope. Though it is affirmed that the State shall establish a well-defined transparent system for water entitlements according to the guidelines and prescriptions made and accepted by the public at large, the lack of suggestive guidelines for evolving water entitlement criteria is a severe shortcoming of the policy. Similarly, the lack of consideration of the inalienable right of grama sabha and local governments on water is also a serious deficiency of the policy. The acceptance of water as a community resource and the precedence of public interest on water over individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest are laudable.

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PLATFORM OF ACTION The policy deals in detail as to how the planning and implementation of various water resource schemes will be dealt with. The categorical statement that the priority will be to complete the existing schemes is anticipated from a responsive government. The policy meaningfully highlights the necessity of strengthening the activities of Dam Safety Authority, implementing â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Polluter pays Principleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, ensuring water quality surveillance, recycling waste water, gathering and disseminating scientific information on water, widening the scope of research and development and enlarging the reach of training. It envisages a comprehensive master plan for water resource conservation, development and management to be evolved at the micro-watershed, sub-basin and river basin level and their integration into a state level plan. The operational aspects of this proposition should have been given specific importance.

WATER SHARING The policy intends to bring in transparency in inter-state water sharing as evident from the statement that no further water sharing agreement will be taken up without the consent of the State legislature. Though there is commitment on periodic evaluation of performance of all inter state water sharing arrangements, it is not convincing in the absence of the ways and means details.

CONCLUSION The policy aims at financial sustainability of operational systems by ensuring the collection of operation and maintenance costs. It also aims at citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s charter for ensuring transparent, responsible and efficient service delivery in drinking water supply and irrigation sector. The policy also highlights the significance of women in water resource sector. While assuring comprehensive evaluation and corrective measures to various acts, rules and regulations linked to water resource sector, the policy promises water resource conservation and management ensuring human rights on water. In general, the Kerala Water Policy-2008 is characterized by a professional approach. It can be made more progressive through a strategy that enable watershed based action plans and their integration at respective river basin levels and an implementation plan making use of the potential of democratic decentralization.

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Irrigation Management in Kerala

George Chackacherry Scientist & Officer in Charge, CWRDM Sub Centre, Thiruvananthapuram E mail: chackacherry@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION Kerala State is one of the smallest states of India located at the southernmost tip of the Country, with a geographical area of 38,863 km2. The State is a narrow stretch of land 566 km in length. Although Kerala accounts for only 1.18% of the land surface of the country, her water potential accounts for 5.4%. The State receives an average annual rainfall of 3,000 mm; it is bestowed with 44 rivers and several lakes and ponds.

However, 60% of the rainfall in this humid tropical region is received during the southwest monsoon (June-August), 25% during the north-east monsoon (SeptemberDecember) and the rest 15% during the non-monsoon period (January-May). The water resources of Kerala are greatly influenced by the unique rainfall pattern, geomorphology, geology, landuse, vegetation and soils of this humid tropic region. The management of water resources has to take into consideration the environmental, social, economic and cultural factors of this geographical area. The total population of Kerala is about 318 lakh, with a density of 819 persons per km2 (national level it is 324 persons).

Women outnumber men in the State. The sex ratio is 1058 females per 1,000 males.

Literacy rate of the State is high compared to other states of India. When the national literacy rate is 65%, in Kerala it is 91%. Striking difference is not found with regard to the literacy rate of male and female; it is 94% for male and 88% for females; whereas it is 76% (male) and 54% (female) in the national level (Census Report, 2001).

The problem of fragmentation and subdivision of land, contributed by the high population pressures combined with the State Land Reforms Act, is a very serious problem in Kerala (ETS, 1996). As a result, farming may not be the major income source for many farmers. Majority of the farmers are part-time in cultivation, and therefore, they have to engage in some other vocation for their livelihood. The average land holding size in Kerala is only 0.33 ha, whereas it is 1.68 ha at the national level.

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More than 90% of all the holdings are below half hectare in size. In the irrigated agriculture sector the average land size is only about 0.13 ha. However, Kerala is predominantly an agriculture state where more than 60% of the population is engaged in farming and processing of agricultural produces. For India, Kerala is the main producer of perennial crops such as coconut, rubber, black pepper and areca.

IRRIGATION PROJECTS AND POTENTIAL CREATED Due to the spatial and temporal variations in the water availability in the rivers of Kerala, the State has constructed a number of dams and reservoirs in various river basins for utilizing the monsoon flows for irrigation and other purposes. As shown in Table 1 and 2, Kerala has 14 completed, three partially completed and 12 ongoing major/medium irrigation projects (CADA, 2007). A portion of the potential surface runoff in the drainage system of the State is being utilized for irrigation through diversion (VCBs and check dams) and lift irrigation schemes. About 8400 surface flow irrigation schemes, and about 52,000 lift irrigation schemes, spread over various districts, are established in the State. Source-wise net area irrigated as on March 2008 is shown in Table 3.

Minor irrigation sector received considerable attention from the VII th Plan onwards and got a considerable boost during the IX th Plan period consequent to the enhanced flow of funds from the grant in aid of the local bodies as well as special support received from external agencies like European Union (Kerala Minor Irrigation Project), Dutch Government (Kerala Community Irrigation Project), and assistance under RIDF of NABARD. With the introduction of decentralized planning, all minor irrigation works (having cultivable command area upto 2000 ha) were vested with the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs). But by the enactment of the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act, 2003, the definition of minor irrigation has been changed and works benefiting an area less than 15 ha only come under the category of minor irrigation and are vested with PRIs. All other works having cultivable command area greater than 15 ha have been taken over by the Water Resources Department as medium irrigation. Construction of check dams, Vented Cross Bars, weirs, tanks, etc. are the various works executed under minor irrigation Class â&#x20AC;&#x201C; I and II (SPB, 2009). In the case of major/medium irrigation projects, delay in completion is more the rule than an exception in Kerala. Long gestation period and cost escalation most often question even the relevance of the irrigation systems. As seen from the Table 4, the cost escalation of the Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigation Project which started in 1974 is of the order of 1550%. The case of Kallada Irrigation Project, which was started in 1972, is not an exception; though it is considered as completed recently, completion report is yet to be brought out. Muvattupuzha, Kallada, and Karapuzha irrigation projects are included under the Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) introduced by the Government of India for completion of irrigation projects. Muvattupuzha and Centre for Environment and Development

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Table 1 List of Major/Medium Irrigation Projects in Kerala with details of ayacut area

No.

Name of Project

Ayacut area in hectares Net Gross

Completed 1. Malampuzha 2. Walayar 3. Pothundy 4. Gayatri 5. Mangalam 6. Peechi 7. Vazhani 8. Cheerakuzhi 9. Chalakkudy 10. Neyyar 11. Chitturpuzha 12. Kuttiyadi 13. Periyar Valley 14. Pamba 15. Kanhirappuzha (partially) 16. Pazhassi (partially) 17. Kallada (partially) Ongoing 18. Chimony 19. Idamalayar 20. Muvattupuzha 21. Karappara-Kuriarkutty 22. Chaliyar 23. Kakkadavu 24. Karappuzha 25. Attapady 26. Banasurasagar (Kuttiyadi Augmentation) 27. Vamanapuram 28. Chamravattom (Regulator-cum-bridge) 29. Meenachil

20733 3878 5465 5465 3440 17555 3565 1620 19690 15380 15700 14569 32800 21135 14569 11525 61630

42330 6476 10930 10930 6880 28080 7130 3240 39380 23470 31400 31161 85600 49456 31161 23050 92800

13000 14393 17737 15132 73235 13986 4650 4347 2800 8803 3106

25000 43190 34730 32980 108035 41760 9300 8378 3300 18014 9659

9960

1451

(Source: Annual Report 2006 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 07, CADA, Kerala) 112

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Table 2 Year of Commencement and Completion of Irrigation Projects

No. Name of Project

Year of commencement

Year of first commissioning

Year of completion

1.

Malampuzha

1949

1955

1966

2.

Walayar

1953

1956

1964

3.

Pothundy

1958

1968

1971

4

Gayathri: Stage 1 : Stage 2

1956 1961

1960 1966

1964 1970

5.

Mangalam

1953

1956

1966

6.

Peechi

1947

1953

1959

7.

Vazhani

1951

1957

1962

8.

Cheerakuzhy

1957

1968

1968

9.

Chalakudy

1949

1952

1966

10. Neyyar

1951

1959

1973

11.

1963

1972

1993

12. Kuttiyadi

1962

1973

1993

13. Pamba

1961

1993

1993

14. Periyar Valley

1956

1990

1993

15. Kanhirapuzha

1961

1980 (Partially)

-

16. Pazhassi

1961

1979 (Partially)

-

17. Kallada

1972

1986 (Partially)

-

Chitturpuzha

(Source: Annual Report 2006 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 07, CADA, Kerala)

Table 3 Source-wise net area irrigated in hectares, as on March 2008

No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Source Government canals Private canals Tanks Wells Other sources Total

200304 94859 5754 47856 109360 123469 381298

200405 101397 4729 43983 108445 134802 393356

200506 104669 4965 45062 110000 135227 399923

200607 98664 4300 42064 114477 125900 385405

200708 88318 4324 41580 131002 122321 387545

(Source: Economic Review, 2008)

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Table 4 Progress of implementation of ongoing projects as on March 2008 No. Name of Project

Year of start ing

Origi nal estim ate (lakh Rs.)

Revi sed estim ate2008 (lakh Rs.)

Cost Expendi Target area to be escal ture upto irrigated (ha) at March ion 2008 Net Gross (%) (lakh Rs.)

Physical achievement as on March 2008 (ha) Net

Gross

1.

Muvattupuzha 1974 4808 79300 1550

66600 19237 37737 14972 29346

2.

Idamalayar

1981

12881 14394 29036

3.

Karapuzha

1979

904 60000

-

-

8721

-

-

2800

4740

-

-

3170

4344

-

-

3500

7000

-

-

5221

4.

760 49800 6453 25946.6 Banasurasagar 1999 1137 12700 1017 2165.22

5.

Chamravattom 1983 7000 11349

6.

Palakkappandy 2004

910

62 744.87 1367 50.22 826.72

(Source: Economic Review, 2008) Karapuzha irrigation projects are expected to be completed during the 11th Plan period.

Based on the report of the CAG (slow achievement of physical target and undue delay in commissioning the projects), the Government have directed to complete the Muvattupuzha Valley Irrigation Project by 2011 (CWC, 2008).

Except Kallada Irrigation Project, all other major/medium irrigation projects were designed for irrigating wetland crops, mainly rice. However, the area under upland (garden land) cultivation under irrigation is increasing tremendously in almost all the irrigation projects. For example, in the Neyyar Irrigation Project, it is estimated that more than 70% of the irrigated command area is occupied by upland crops (GoK, 1990). Most of the lands here have been reclaimed to cultivate coconut and build buildings/houses. Within a period of 15 years from 1980-81, the proportion of area under rice declined from 27.79% to 16.51%. During the same period, the area under coconut increased from 22.58% to the 29.88% (Thomas, 1999). A recent study shows that during the span of 10 years (from 1995 – 96 to 2004 – 05), there is an overall decrease of 38.5% paddy grown area in the State. During the year 1995 – 06, the ratio of irrigated and un-irrigated paddy area was 50:50, whereas the ratio in 2004 – 05 was 63:37 (GoK, 2006).

As per the recent statistics (as on March 2008) of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, the net area irrigated in the State is 3.88 lakh hectares and the gross area is 4.55 lakh hectares. Among the crops, coconut tops the major crop supported by irrigation (Table 5). It accounted for about 38% followed by paddy (33%), banana (9.35%), arecanut (7.49%) and vegetables (3.72%) (SPB, 2009). A total of 24% of the culturable area is only irrigated in the State and the potential created could not be fully utilized. The main reasons for not fully utilizing the potential created are, since the systems are old, and the tail-end portions are not getting sufficient water, and lack of funds for maintenance (CWC, 2008).

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Table 5 Gross area irrigated (crop-wise)

No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Crop 2003-04 Paddy 169829 Tubers 1020 Vegetables 9657 Coconut 159113 Arecanut 32990 Nutmeg/clove 2884 Other spices & contiments 3245 8. Banana 28100 9. Betel leaves 947 10. Sugarcane 3567 11. Others 15413 Total 426765 (Source: Economic Review, 2008)

2004-05 183601 2253 14274 157768 36858 6285

2005-06 174600 2958 25075 158630 35131 6913

2006-07 173068 5158 24434 177734 34625 10527

2007-08 154400 7281 16924 171336 34090 10155

3403 30265 891 1630 18163 455398

3788 33730 850 2000 21070 464745

4312 40852 590 1156 17552 490008

6431 42116 435 2361 9781 455310

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT In each Plan, priority in allocation was given for the development of major and medium irrigation projects. Out of a cumulative expenditure of Rs. 4241.35 crores, Rs. 2992.01 crores (71%) is invested for major and medium irrigation. During the Tenth Five Year Plan period (2002 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2007) against the agreed Plan outlay of Rs. 930 crores, an amount of Rs. 816.63 crores was budgeted and the expenditure came to Rs. 866.82 crores. A major portion (74%) of the outlay on water resource sector was budgeted for major and medium irrigation sector and the expenditure recorded for the major and medium for the 10th Plan was 77% of the total expenditure. Over and above, the State Plan outlays a substantial amount for minor irrigation and flood management from the schemes of the Local Self Governments. However, the public investment in irrigation has fallen significantly over successive Plan periods. This is largely due to resource constraints faced by the governments both at the Central and State. At the All India level, there is decline in the percentage of funding for irrigation. The percentage of funding which was 23% in the Vth Plan has declined to 20.85% in the VIth Plan and further to 15.9 % in the VIIIth and IXth Plans. In Kerala, the percentage outlay for the sector which was 6.38% in the IXth Plan has decreased to 3.88% in the Xth Plan. This has adversely affected the completion of the major projects thereby increasing the spill over costs of the ongoing projects (SPB, 2008). AIBP was introduced by the Government of India for providing assistance to acceleration of irrigation projects.

The pattern of assistance was revised in 2006 and as per the revised pattern the central government will provide 25% as grant and the loan component has to be raised by the states. Central assistance is given to those projects having investment clearance by Centre for Environment and Development

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Planning Commission. The State Government may either provide a budgetary provision or borrow from the open market. Therefore, the funding pattern is not beneficial to the Government. Compared to other states, the release of central assistance to Kerala under AIBP is very low. As shown in Table 6, there has been decreasing trend in the funding during the last few years and there was no funding during 2007 – 08 (SPB, 2009).

Table 6 AIBP funding to various states

Year 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Total

Andhra Pradesh 95.020 281.660 33.186 205.530 87.540 311.382 843.422 987.769 2845.51

States Karnataka 171.000 492.500 620.850 266.478 396.290 140.776 160.373 349.900 2598.17

Kerala 22.400 11.275 5.665 31.000 49.440 9.359 16.647 145.79

Orissa 100.320 168.475 179.570 154.685 24.230 151.374 133.885 624.359 1536.9

Total 1856.200 2601.981 3061.704 3128.501 2867.300 1900.314 2301.972 5445.705 23163.677

(Source: Economic Review 2008)

The cost of providing irrigation water includes a fixed cost of operation and maintenance and a variable cost, which depends on the quantity of water supplied. Irrigation water charges in most states are not even adequate to meet O&M costs. In addition there is a capital cost of constructing a project. The per hectare cost of creating irrigation potential in the major and medium irrigation sector has been increasing steadily from about Rs. 1500/- in the first Plan to between Rs. 1,75,000 and Rs. 2,50,000. In Kerala, the water rates (Rs. 37.05 – Rs. 99) now collected are based on the estimates of 1974.

The rates are very low compared to the costs of maintenance of major/medium projects.

Though the returns from the irrigation supply have improved over the years, even then it is only about 1/10th of the maintenance expenses. During 1999 – 2000 the maintenance cost was Rs. 2177 lakh, where as the receipt was Rs. 70 lakh (3.4%). During 2002 – 2003 the cost was Rs. 1614 lakh and receipt was Rs. 102 lakh (6.3%) and during 2003 – 2004, the cost was Rs. 1401 lakh and receipt was Rs. 157 lakh (11.2%) (SPB, 2008).

In fact the water rates collected in the State are based on the estimates of 1974. There is no irrigation service fees concept formulated in Kerala to support O&M. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN KERALA There is a general consensus among engineers, agronomists, administrators, and policy-makers in the State and elsewhere in the country that the irrigation systems need to be better managed. This view point has emerged from the realisation that adequate investigation has not been conducted in the initial phase; tools of management are not made use of at the construction stage to achieve better results; 116

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the system is not properly operated and maintained, and more significantly involvement of farmers in the management still remains a dream. In our systems, there is no concern for outputs as evidenced from the fact that there is hardly any instance of evaluation of the performance of the system. There is often neither participation of farmers nor feedback from them on the systems almost exclusively meant for them. This leads us to the conclusion that our systems are administered; they are never evaluated since they are not properly managed (James, 2002). The major issue in irrigation management in Kerala raised by the farmers at Neyyar, Chalakkudi and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects, during a study, is lack of supply of irrigation water as per their requirements (Table 7). According to officials, the outstanding problem they see in irrigation management is the defective distribution system. When the responses are compared, it is evident that both farmers and officials have come to a consensus on the defective distribution system and the resultant inadequacy of water supply. However, the normal tendency of farmers to blame officials, and vice versa, is evident here also. Farmers blame officials for not giving necessary guidance in irrigated agriculture and also for the defects in the distribution of incentives. On the other hand, officials blame farmers for their non-cooperation, lack of interest in farming (farmers also agree that their interest in agriculture is declining), and negligence in utilising water effectively (CWRDM/CADA, 2001).

According to Mr Vasudevan, ‘Karshaka Thilothama Award’ winner and farmer association leader of Chittoorpuzha Project command, during one of the focus group discussions, opined that shortage of labour, and the resulting high labour cost, is the major problem faced by irrigated agriculture in Kerala. More than 55% of the total investment in farming is for labour charge alone. During one of the discussions at Neyyar command, the farmer leaders pointed out that many owners of the paddy land are not cultivating their land, instead they give it on lease. Those who take the land on lease have only one aim, to get maximum benefit out of the land from their efforts within the time limit of their lease agreement. They are not bothered about the irrigation structures and their protection. The owner of the land is also not bothered, as he is interested only in the income he derives from the lease. This problem also constrains effective management of irrigation systems (CWRDM/CADA, 2001).

It is established that one of the important factors responsible for the ‘below normal’ performance of the irrigated agriculture sector is the unwieldy and inefficient bureaucracy spread over different departments operating within the grip of complex departmental procedures and minimal interaction with farmers. Inadequate irrigation system reliability is the major bottleneck in improving the agricultural productivity and income. This constraint weakens the credibility of irrigation agency among its farmer clients. The coordination and interaction among farmers and officials are the most important factor deciding the success of the involvement of farmers in irrigation management. As the priorities of the irrigation officials and those of the farmers most often differ, closer interaction may bring their perception closer. Many a time, farmers Centre for Environment and Development

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Table 7 Problems faced in irrigated agriculture/irrigation management

Rank 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Farmers

Officials

Water not received as per requirements Lack of proper maintenance of distribution system Lack of necessary guidance from officials Defective distribution of incentives/ Low income from farming Declining interest of farmers in agriculture

Defective distribution system/Lack of proper maintenance Non-cooperation of farmers Lack of interest of farmers in agriculture Negligence of farmers in the proper utilisation of water Lack of sufficient staff in the Irrigation Agencies

feel that the officials are not supportive to their needs. According to them, their interest mainly confines to fulfilling targets and not in ensuring productivity by sustained participation of farmers (Chackacherry, 1993a). Though irrigation and agriculture are inseparably inter-related, there is very little or no co-ordination presently existing among Irrigation and Agriculture Departments.

COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT The Command Area Development Programme was launched with the main objective of bridging the gap between the irrigation potential created and utilized and improving the agriculture production and productivity in the irrigation canals. Accordingly Command Area Development Authority (CADA) was constituted in Kerala during 1985. As per the CAD Act 1986 (GOK, 1986), the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;beneficiaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; farmers of one or more outlets, ordinarily an extent of about 40 ha of command area, have to form together a beneficiary farmer association for looking after the operation and maintenance (O&M) of sluices and field channels, and distribution of water to the command area. CADA had the mandate to involve farmers in the management of irrigation systems below outlets, where from water is released to the fields. For this purpose, CADA has instituted a three-tier system with farmer associations at the base level, canal committees at the middle, and the project committee at the upper level. Till March 2003, CADA activities were carried out in 16 irrigation projects.

Consequent to the decision of the Central Government during April 2004, CAD programmes were restructured and renamed as Command Area Development and Water Management (CADWM). The CAD activities at 12 projects in Kerala were closed in 2004, and the activities are continued under CADWM at four projects namely, Pamba, Periyar Valley, Kanhirappuzha, and Pazhassi. Later, Kallada Irrigation Project was added to this (CADA, 2006). A total of 4126 farmer associations were formed in all the 17 irrigation project commands, as on 31 March 2007 (CADA, 2007).

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Even though the general condition of distribution of water in the command areas has been improved through the activities of CADA, it could not ensure adequate and timely supply of water to the farmers. This is the general condition of CADA activities at the National level also. The major reasons for the shortfalls of CAD activities in the national level are: (i) inability to achieve adequate, reliable and equitable distribution of water; (ii) failure to ensure participation of farmers in the management of the irrigation systems; (iii) inadequacy of existing organisational set up; (iv) limiting the concept of CADA to a field channel construction programme; and (v) lack of coordination among the Irrigation Department and CADA, and also among various disciplines of CADA. Kerala also followed the same line (Chackacherry, 1993). At the Project level, it is expected to prepare an operation plan every year, depending on the availability of water, crop calendar, etc. But, due to several constraints the crop calendar could not be followed. Studies have pointed out that in most cases, the water release schedule, if at all it is there, is not followed. The study conducted at Neyyar Irrigation Project for three years found that though operation plan was made, it was not followed (Chackacherry, et al, 1993), thereby the very purpose of irrigation is questioned. As a result, a cropping pattern based on the irrigation supply, which is the most important prerequisite for improved productivity, could not be adopted in the command areas (Chackacherry, 1993a).

PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT Kerala has no rich tradition in the management of irrigation systems by farmers, though farmer-managed traditional systems are present in various parts of the country, for hundreds of years. This may be due to the better availability of water resources in Kerala in the past, which might not have encouraged community action for irrigation management (Chackacherry, 1995). The Operational Research Project (ORP) carried out by CWRDM in the command area of Kuttiyadi Irrigation Project during 1980 – 88 could be cited as the earlier effort of PIM in Kerala. Under ORP, several farmer associations were formed by CWRDM for looking after operation and maintenance of the field channels and implementing federated farming (group farming). However, the concept of community participation in irrigation management got momentum in the State after the setting up of CADA in 1985. Other than the efforts of CADA, much advancement in transferring irrigation management responsibilities to farmers could be obtained in the minor irrigation sector, and several community irrigation systems have already been transferred to farmer associations since 1994, in projects carried out through international funding. However, the first organised effort in the minor irrigation sector in Kerala to have farmer management was initiated in 1986, under ‘Community Irrigation Scheme’ of the then State Government. Efforts of the Kerala Community Irrigation Project (KCIP) which was implemented in Thrissur District and funded by the Netherlands, and the Kerala Minor Irrigation Project (KMIP) which was implemented throught out the State and funded by the European Union, have now brought several minor irrigation systems under farmer management. Many of the irrigation systems commissioned under these projects are working. An ongoing evaluation study being carried out by CWRDM has found that most of the KCIP systems Centre for Environment and Development

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work well, even after about 15 years of their existence. An earlier analysis has found that the factors contributed for the success of KCIP systems were, (i) farmer initiative approach of the project and true involvement and empowerment of farmers; (ii) socially viable groups; (iii) definite rules and roles; (iv) economic self-sufficiency; (v) involvement of women; and (vi) less interference of the Government (Chackacherry, 2000).

Though there have been more than 4100 farmer associations formed in the irrigation commands of the major/medium irrigation projects by CADA, most of them are nonfunctional. Studies have shown that most of these organisations are either defunct or mal-functioning. 25 – 30% of them are only functional (Chackacherry, 1995; CWRDM, 1999), and they could not play a significant role in the irrigation management processes.

The main reasons identified for the non-functioning of farmer associations are: (i) the associations were organised on a war-footing through ‘government order’ ignoring the farmer initiatives; (ii) non-availability of water in their areas at required time; (iii) discontentment of the farmers, as they lost faith in the officials who promised assured water, but failed to ensure it; (iv) weak farmer-officer relations; (v) lack of incentives; (vi) political interference; and (vii) insignificant role of the farmer organisations. It has been observed during the earlier detailed studies in selected projects (Chackacherry, 1993) and also during CWRDM and CADA study (2001) that neither the Project Committee, nor the Canal Committees meet regularly. The decisions of the committees, if at all they meet, are not implemented, and not followed up. Therefore, the contribution of farmer associations and canal committees to bear responsibilities of irrigation management is considerably less. It has been felt that no part of the irrigation system can be handed over to these organisations, if at all they are functioning, as they are not socially capable of taking over the tasks assigned to them (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2006). On the other hand, the government agencies concerned are neither physically nor socially conducive for taking up joint management of major/ medium irrigation systems, without a change (CWRDM & CADA, 2001). Therefore, for evolving a strategy for the implementation of PIM for the State and for demonstrating it, two pilot projects were implemented by CWRDM (2004 – 2007), in association with Irrigation Department, CADA, and Agriculture Department, at Neyyar and Malampuzha Irrigation Projects. The programme envisaged under the pilot projects was to transfer the operation and maintenance of one branch canal each at Neyyar Irrigation Project (Olathanni branch canal – 6.41 km length, 501 ha of ayacut area with garden land crops) and at Malampuzha Irrigation Project (Kuthannur branch canal – 14.63 km length, 1664 ha of ayacut area with rice crop) to farming community, through process approach.

Since the existing farmer organization structure and government set up are not congenial for the implementation of PIM, changes are brought in. Three-tier system with outlet/ sluice based Water User Associations (Sluice WUAs), branch/distributary level WUAs (Branch WUAs), and project level Project Management Council (PMC) are the structure tried in the farmer organization set up. Overseer, Assistant Engineer/Assistant Executive Engineer, and Executive Engineer, respectively, are attached as competent authority 120

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to these associations to help them in implementing their decisions. Works in the irrigation systems were identified, prioritized and implemented by the WUAs. The competent authority rendered technical advice and ensured that the works were carried out as per technical specifications. During turn-over of operation and maintenance to WUAs, the WUA concerned and the Irrigation Department have entered into a MoU, which clearly mentioned about the commitments of both parties. Encouraging group farming, bringing women to the mainstream of irrigated agriculture, establishing relations with panchayats, creating opportunities for coordination among the departments/agencies concerned, mobilizing tie-ups with marketing establishments, etc. were other allied activities carried out. The introduction of Competent Authority concept is a new experience in the Irrigation Agency set up. People who have involved only in works are now associated in the formation of WUAs, attending their meetings, and discussing with them about operation and maintenance of the irrigation system, are all new experiences. It took some time for the officials to digest the concept of joint walk through with farmers, prioritization of works by them, and the Branch WUA issuing the administrative sanction for carrying out the rehabilitation work. In fact, the officials concerned were initially reluctant to entrust the rehabilitation works with the WUAs. Joint Bank System, in which the Competent Authority and the President of the Branch WUA jointly operate a bank account, and pay the bills through cheques singed by both of them were new to the Irrigation Agency. It took some time to convince the concerned officials to execute a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with BWUA. Unlike the situation in other States, the most important peculiarity of the PIM model evolved in Kerala (Fig. 1) is the provision that the spouses of the owners/land holders are automatically be eligible for membership in the Sluice WUA. In addition, at all the levels of the WUAs, one third of the leadership positions are reserved for women.

This gives vast opportunity for women to come forward to irrigated agriculture and to involve in the management of irrigation systems. Constitution of the General Body of Branch WUA, with all the office bearers of Sluice WUAs, is different from other States. The importance given to group farming, due to high rate of fragmentation and subdivision of land, and high labour cost, is also a difference. However, the reorganisation of the beneficiary farmer associations to Sluice WUAs, and motivation of the farmers require constant and concerted efforts. Moreover, officials, who are competent authorities, will have to be in close contact with the WUAs concerned, not only dealing with the technical matters, but dealing with organizational matters also.

Follow up activities, such as capacity building, performance monitoring, motivational activities, etc., are required to sustain PIM. BETTER IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN KERALA: CONTRIBUTING AND HINDERING FACTORS It is no longer possible for the Government and Irrigation Department to continue with management of the systems by themselves. PIM, which is the central point and the key stone of water resources management reforms going on in around 60 countries Centre for Environment and Development

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Fig. 1 Organisational Structure of PIM Model Evolved for Kerala

around the world, is the only option now. In fact, PIM is considered worldwide as a strategic intervention to improve the irrigation sector and mitigate the existing problems of farmers, water managers and government. Though the ultimate aim of PIM is to attain maximum crop production and productivity from farms, it offers several other benefits such as: better water supply; more area under irrigation; better operation and maintenance of irrigation systems; improved cropping intensity; improved involvement of farmers in irrigation management; better farmer-officer relations; better coordination between and among departments/ agencies; and reduction of disputes. It has been observed that there are several contributing and hindering factors for better management of irrigation, especially through PIM (Chackacherry & Madhavachandran, 2007; Chackacherry, 2009).

Contributing Factors ď&#x201A;ˇ ď&#x201A;ˇ

ď&#x201A;ˇ 122

Better education status of farmers which capacitates easy communication and understanding Experience gained from Decentralisation: Since PIM enunciates user management at the local level, the existing climate of democratic decentralization could also stimulate PIM. Experiences of CAD and Irrigation Management Transfer in Minor Irrigation: Centre for Environment and Development

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Even though CADA could not yield the expected outcome, it provided a platform for change in the outlook of farmers and officials towards a decentralized and democratic system of irrigation management (Chackacherry, 2007; 2007a). The success of community systems in the minor irrigation sector is a positive aspect.

Efforts to catalyze farmers will definitely stimulate their initiatives further. 





Scope for Group Farming: If farming to be made economical, consolidation of land and collectivization of the farm operations are essential. The efforts made to carry out group farming in the Neyyar and Malampuzha have kindled interest of farmers.

Scope for Women Involvement: Experiences in Kerala in bringing women to the mainstream of irrigated agriculture, both in the major/medium and minor irrigation sector, have shown significant scope, though agriculture remains as a ‘male subject’. Studies have shown that men generally welcome their women manage their land (Chackacherry, 1997). In the pilot projects on PIM, women are members of sluice WUAs as spouse, if not landholders. 40 – 45% of the office bearers of sluice WUAs are women. 1/3rd of the leadership positions in the branch WUAs are women. In most of the training programmes, main participants are women.

All these have great significance, especially when men tend to neglect farming in their small pieces of land.

Replenishment of Open Wells by Canals: About 79% of the households of Kerala depend on open dug wells (average density of wells in the State is 220 per km2) for their drinking and domestic water demands, though public piped water supply is there to about 67% of the households (SPB, 2006). Though the State gets high rainfall, as it is spatially and temporally uneven, many of the dug wells dries during summer season (February – May). Discharge through the canals during water distribution often helps to recharge these open wells. Therefore, the people need the canal system, at least for recharging the groundwater source and will have to show interest in irrigation management.

Hindering Factors 

Part-time Farming



Lack of Political and Administrative Orientation: In order to adopt PIM, it is necessary that the political, administrative and irrigation agency leadership has to take interest in it. It has been reported that though the administrative and technical personnel had satisfactory level of perception regarding participation, attitude towards the same was below minimal desirable level. Government staff working with command area development programmes, community irrigation projects, and even with the pilot projects on PIM found problems in adapting to the concepts and requirements of the programmes with a clear social dimension.

This difficulty to accept social dimensions precludes effective coordination among the staff drawn from different disciplines. There is also considerable reluctance,

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if not opposition, from the operational staff of irrigation agencies to involving users in management. 

Motivational Gaps: It has been reported that in most of the States of India and in Pakistan, the main problem in irrigation management is the momentum of present management and unwillingness to move towards decentralised, democratised, and privatised irrigation, or to treat it as a public utility funded by and accountable to the users (Maloney and Chackacherry, 1994). In fact, there is no incentive structure for the officials to go for PIM. It is a fact that farmers will generally come forward to act in unison, only in situations where they perceive that collective effort can have a control over the problematic water supply. This is also linked to a feeling of ‘ownership’ over the water supply (Madhavachandran and Chackacherry, 2008). However, the farmers have no confidence that they will get water when they need and there is no penal measure, if water is not delivered on stipulated dates.



Paucity of Funds for System Rehabilitation: The paucity of funds and resultant deferred maintenance has caused serious defects in the canal system.



Lack of Coordination and Interaction



Insufficient Legislative Backing: While most other States have enacted exclusive PIM Acts with all necessary details for the implementation of PIM, Kerala has only a chapter on PIM included in the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act 2003. There is only one tier organization mentioned in the Act, namely, WUAs at the sluice level. Transfer of the irrigation system, agreement between Government and WUAs, etc. are not mentioned. Therefore, PIM can not be implemented in the State effectively without improvements/ changes in the Act, or bringing out a separate Act for PIM (Chackacherry, 2004). Most important issue now faced in the sustenance of PIM and the interventions instituted in the pilot project is that the Competent Authorities concerned are not giving sufficient importance to play their new roles for want of necessary legal support.

CONCLUSION It is high time for us to seriously take a stock of the performance of the irrigation projects of the State. The CAD activities were started at a time when the irrigation productivity was affected by the unattended situation of the filed channels which took water from the sluice gates to the farmers’ fields. Till then the thrust of the Government was to supply water at the branch canal/distributary level, and the farmers were expected to take water to their fields. In fact, the main task of CADA was to construct field channels and manage these “no man’s lands”. But now, as the CAD programmes were closed in 12 projects in the State five years back, field channels are now unattended.

In many cases they are silted up and damaged. Sluice shutters are broken and water distribution is affected. Farmer associations formed by CADA are not functional in most cases. Though farmer associations had agreed to take care of O&M of these systems, they are not doing it. Officials are not there to motivate them and facilitate 124

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some action. The WRD is operating at the Main System level and the field channels do not include in their mandate. Now we have almost reached a ‘before CADA situation’, and the field channels have again become as “no man’s land”. This is a grave situation and a serious challenge to irrigation management in Kerala. If this condition continues for long, it will affect the whole irrigation projects of the State.

This kind of a situation demands an immediate change, and PIM, which is nothing but joint management of irrigation systems by the Government Agency and farming community, is the only option now with us.

The revised State Water Policy 2008 has pointed out that “in order to analyse and improve the performance of all water resources projects, bench marking exercise shall be undertaken and completed in a time bound manner. Considering the nagging issues of time and cost overruns of major and medium water resources projects, priority shall be given for completion of pending projects by stipulating cut off dates, pooling and allocating resources and constructing special task forces for close monitoring and public accountability. Short-term (annual) and long-term (five year) management plans shall be prepared for all the major/medium irrigation and drinking water systems using modern scientific tools. In all irrigation projects, PIM shall be implemented. In order to ensure efficient implementation of PIM, an exclusive legislation shall be enacted and necessary organizational and procedural changes shall be effected”. Along with these positive statements in the Water Policy, it is indeed gratifying to note that the committee constituted by the Government to suggest amendments in the Kerala Irrigation and Water Conservation Act, 2003 has accepted the PIM model evolved under the leadership of CWRDM, and recommended to incorporate it. This may possibly save the irrigation sector in Kerala from uncertainties and mismanagement.

REFERENCES CADA. 2006. Annual Report 2005 – 2006, Command Area Development Authority, Kerala.

CADA. 2007. Annual Report 2006 – 2007, Command Area Development Authority, Kerala.

Census Report. 2001. Government of India.

Chackacherry George. 1993. Farmer Participation in Irrigation Management (PhD thesis), Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala.

Chackacherry George. 1993a. Farmer Associations and Utilisation of Water: A Case Study from Kerala state, India. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmentally Sound Water Resources Utilisation, Bangkok, Thailand.

Chackacherry George. 1995. Trends in Decentralisation in Water Management in Kerala, Proceedings of the International Conference on Water Management (Water 95), Chennai, Confederation of Indian Industry. pp17-184.

Chackacherry George. 1997. Bringing Women to the Mainstream of Agriculture: A Strategy, Kerala Sociologist, 25 (2): Chackacherry George. 2000. Results of the Experiments on Participatory Irrigation Management in the Minor Irrigation Sector in Kerala, Proceedings: Kerala Science Congress 2000, Idukki, Kerala, pp: 801-804.

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Chackacherry George. 2004. Participatory Irrigation Management: Legal Arrangements in Kerala State, in Proceedings of Indian Environmental Congress 2004, Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, pp: 381-385.

Chackacherry George. 2007. Experiences of the Implementation of Pilot Projects on Participatory Irrigation Management in Kerala, in Selected Papers of National Workshop on Sharing of Experiences of the Implementation of Participatory Irrigation Management in India, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, pp: 4 – 17.

Chackacherry George. 2007a. Status of Participatory Irrigation Management in India, in Rao, Sitapati and Y D Sharma (ed.), PIM in India, Indian Network on Participatory Irrigation Management, New Delhi,pp: 146 – 156.

Chackacherry George. 2009. Experience of Participatory Irrigation Management Efforts in Kerala State, Proceedings of National Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, Aurangabad, Maharastra.

Chackacherry George and Madhavachandran K. 2006. Improving irrigation efficiency in Kerala through participatory irrigation management-an analysis, in The State of Indian Economy, Serials Pub., Vol III, ISBN 81-8387-046-5.

Chackacherry George and Madhavachandran K. 2007. Driving and Restraining Forces in Implementing Participatory Irrigation Management in the Literate State of India, in Proceedings 4 th Asian Conference and 10 th International Seminar on Participatory Irrigation Management, Iran, pp: 126 – 135.

Chackacherry George and Sudhamony K L. 1995. Involvement of Women in Agriculture: Experiences from Kerala State, India, International Congress of Agrarian Questions, Netherlands.

Chackacherry George, Nazimuddin M and Varadan K M. 1994. Impact of Command Area Development Authority: A Case Study from Kerala, Proceedings of the Southern Regional Workshop on Integrated Development of Irrigated Agriculture, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, India.

CWC. 2008. Implementation of Irrigation Projects in Kerala – Points for Discussion. Report submitted to the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Water Resources, Cauvery and Southern Rivers Organisation, Coimbatore, Central Water Commission.

CWRDM. 1999. Evaluation of Beneficiary Farmers Associations under Command Area Development Programme in Kerala. Final Report submitted to INCID, New Delhi.

CWRDM and CADA. 2001. Implementation of Participatory Irrigation Management in Kerala.

Final Thomas P M. 1999. Agricultural performance in Kerala, in Prakash, BA (ed.). Kerala’s Economic Development: Issues and Problems, Sage Publications.

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Pers pective for decentraliaz ed water sources planning in kerala

Nair A S K

Perspective for Decentralized Water Resources Planning in Kerala â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Case Study of Thiruvananthapuram District

Nair A S K Scientist, Centre for Earth Science Studies Thiruvananthapuram 695 031

INTRODUCTION Water Resource Management plays a pivotal role in the planning process. Inspite of receiving an average rainfall of around 300 cm, the State faces shortage in water supply during the summer months. Water is one of the few natural resources which is abundantly found in the State of Kerala in the form of a large chain of backwater bodies and wetlands, rivers and river basins, large number of temple tanks, ponds, dug wells, tube wells, bore wells, springs and many small and big reservoirs. However, the water level in the rivers lowers substantially for about six months in a year, only few reservoirs get filled up in the State even in the monsoons and a large number of wells dry up during summer months which ultimately results in a fall in the ground water table. The supply and demand of water for different end uses such as, drinking water supply, sanitation, irrigation, industries, power generation, fisheries, navigation and recreation is ever increasing due to the increase in human and animal population. The water which was once regarded as a free gift of nature has now become more and more scarce economic commodity. Hence it is important and essential to have a more scientific planning for a proper area wise utilisation of all the available water resources and their sensible management at State/District level. In order to achieve the said objective, it is important to have the baseline data of all the 14 district of Kerala on all the available water resources both surface and subsurface. The annual yield of the river basins in the State is found to be 78,401 million cubic meters (MCM) of which 70,323 MCM is available for the State. Most of the Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rivers are perennial but with accompanying deficit during lean seasons. The annual utilisable yield from 44 rivers is 49, 286 MCM forms about 70% of the total yield with the State share being 87% is about 42,772 MCM (Anon, 2009).

The occurrence of groundwater in Kerala is under phreatic, semi-confined and confined conditions. This resources are largely concentrated in the sedimentary aquifers of the coastal regions. The groundwater potential of Kerala is very low as compared to that of many other States in the country. Kerala has a replenishable groundwater resource Centre for Environment and Development

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of 6,841 MCM. The net availability is 6,229 MCM. The groundwater draft is 2,920 MCM and the net ground water available for future use is 3,221 MCM. A district wise analysis of groundwater resources of Kerala reveal that Palakkad has the higher potential for groundwater recharge of 12% followed by Thrissur with 11%, Ernakulam with 9%, Kannur with 8%, Kottayam with 7%, Alleppey with 6.8% and Thiruvananthapuram with the lowest of 4%. The state of development of groundwater is the highest in Kasargod district of 79% and the lowest is in Wayanad with 25%. The overall stage of development in the State is 47% which is greater than the national level. As per the latest groundwater estimation carried out by the Central Ground Water Board, Government of India and Groundwater Department, Government of Kerala based on Groundwater Estimation Committee norms, out of 152 blocks in the State, 15 blocks fall under over exploited, critical and semi-critical categories and 33 blocks show more than 70% development (CGWB, 2005).

PEOPLE’S PLANNING CAMPAIGN The People’s Planning Process in Kerala is a decisive departure from the district based planning tradition., taking the planning process to the grass root level and empower the Local Self Government Institutions (LSGIs), so that they “function as institutions of self-governments” (Article 243G). 35 to 40% of the annual plan is currently being formulated by the LSGIs through the given financial autonomy. The unique feature of the Kerala experiment is the high level of autonomy granted to the local bodies to determine their own priorities and draw up its plans within some broad guidelines issued by the LSG Department of the Government of Kerala. Planning is conceived as a genuine bottom up approach starting from grassroots with maximum involvement of masses. Ordinary people of the local body are encouraged to actively participate in identifying their own problems (felt needs), finding solutions and formulating specific projects. We have now accumulated wealth of 12 years of experience. Resource based development has been mainly approached through Commodity Producing Sectors and Infrastructure which includes - Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, Industry, Co-operation, Urban Development, Energy, Transport and Communications and Finance; whereas Social and Special Sectors includes Health, Drinking Water and Sanitation, Housing, Education, Social Welfare, Culture, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Development; and Gender Analysis. It is becoming evident that economic development has to be harmonised with environmental resource base for which watershed based development is a viable alternative.

DECENTRALISATION PLANNING AND DRINKING WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS The percentage of the rural population in Kerala covered by the Piped Drinking Water Supply is only around 46% despite a number of schemes which have been implemented over the years by the KWA. The Government of Kerala considered that the efforts of one agency alone may not suffice to meet the drinking water needs of the population, especially in the rural areas. The need to draw upon small drinking water schemes to meet the local requirements of the community has been engaging the 128

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attention of the Government. The elected local bodies have identified drinking water supply schemes as one of the most important sectors for initiating schemes under decentralised planning. In 1997-98, it has been found that 8.7% of the total plan grant-in-aid to the local bodies constituting a corpus amount of Rs.65 crores have been allocated for drinking water supply schemes. In addition, substantial proportions of the local bodies own funds and other resources have been earmarked for this vital sector. On analysing the proposals framed by the local bodies for their drinking water supply projects, it is found that they can be classified into two categories, (a) schemes which can be taken up by the local bodies directly and (b) schemes which can be taken up on behalf of the LBs by the KWA as deposit works each costing Rs.55 lakhs and above. The Government of Kerala, vide G.O.(MS) No.29/98/IrD., dated 19th March, 1998; issued a historically significant order delineating guidelines for the LBs participation and Implementation on Water Supply Projects. The Government of Kerala, vide G.O.(MS)No.125/98/Ir.D, dated 23 rd November, 1998, through the Irrigation (WSC) Department, issued another order on the guidelines for Decentralisation Planning of Local Bodies, their Participation and Implementation in Water Supply Projects. The highlights of the order revealed that: 1. Small schemes within the boundary of one Panchayat presently under the control of KWA can be transferred to that local body thereby further guidelines have been issued for the transfer of 1050 existing stand alone projects to the respective Local Bodies.

2. The Panchayats will be eventually responsible for running, maintenance, quality control, repairs, augmentation and improvements of the schemes thus undertaken and will meet all expenditure thereupon from their own resources by modifying the tariff structure in accordance with prevailing rules.

3. Technical advice whenever required will be extended by the KWA. Any other modification or improvements to the schemes will be under taken by KWA as deposit work of Panchayat.

4. Staff working exclusively in the scheme are to be eventually transferred to the Panchayat to facilitate smooth transfer. An operator per scheme can be transferred after getting option from the incumbent concerned.

5. If sufficient staff could not be deployed by the KWA, the Panchayat can engage technicians in accordance with agreed procedure.

6. The control over the components with reference to such water supply schemes will stand vested with the Panchayats and they can collect water charge from the users of street taps also at rates to be locally decided.

7. The valuation of assets to be handed over shall be done by the KWA and the total value shall be adjusted against the amount due from the KWA to Government.

8. The KSEB connection if any provided shall be transferred in the name of Secretary, Grama Panchayat as successor in office.

9. The transfer is proposed to be effected in two stages. The Panchayat which are willing to take over the schemes would be considered for the first instance.

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10. As an experimental measure a set of schemes (66 Nos.) in the Malappuram District will be handed over on priority basis.

11. The concerned Executive Engineer of the Kerala Water Authority will take up the matter with the concerned Panchayats and get their written willingness to take over the schemes immediately for effecting the formal handing over.

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY IN KERALA Before the decentralization planning introduced in 1997, Kerala Water Authority (KWA) was the sole agency responsible for the drinking water distribution in Kerala. Now with 73rd and 74th amendment of Constitution, the responsibility of drinking water supply was entrusted to Panchayath Raj Institutions (PRIs) also. Accordingly, changes were also effected in the Kerala Water Supply act, Municipality Act and Panchayat Act, thus enabling the PRIs to implement water supply schemes of its own. As a result, there was a considerable reduction in the budget allocation in the water supply sector earmarked for KWA. In Kerala, at present in urban area, there are 65 existing schemes and in rural areas there are 952 Comprehensive Water Supply Schemes and 878 single Panchayat Water Supply Schemes, through which KWA effects drinking water supply. As per the 2003 survey, there are 12,165 habitations in rural sector out of which 3,886 habitations are fully covered (FC) with 40 lpcd supply level and 8,059 habitations are partially covered (PC) and 220 non covered (NC) habitations as on 31-08-2006. From the above statistics, it is evident that only 32% full coverage has been achieved in rural sector. In the midst of green valleys, a large number of Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scenic villages face acute drinking water shortage. As per the 2001 data, access to safe drinking water in households in Kerala through taps, hand pumps, or tube wells was limited to as low as 23.4 % against an all India coverage of 77.90 %. The availability for rural house holds was 16.90 % against all India coverage of 73.20 % and Urban 42.8% against all India average of 90 %. At present, there are 41 urban ongoing water supply schemes and 513 on going rural water supply schemes being implemented by KWA under various categories. It is estimated that about Rs.1590 cores is required for the completion of the above schemes.

As per GOI vision, full coverage in rural sector has to be achieved by 2008-09. This target can only be achieved if the ongoing schemes are completed within the targeted period. Hence, increased allocation in the State plan budget is imminent. Due to the continuous migration of the rural population to urban area in search of better living condition and increase in population, the waste water generated in the municipalities and other urban areas have been increased considerably. Accordingly, the waste water generated is also increasing at an alarming rate, causing contamination of the ground water especially open wells.

At present, there is centralized collection and safe disposal only at Thiruvananthapuram ( Partial) & Kochi ( very small portion). No other Municipalities and city corporations are provided with sewerage systems. The coverage of sewerage system considering the whole State is less than 5%. Therefore to preserve the ground water source and 130

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create a healthy environment, centralized collection, treatment and disposal of waste water should be implemented.

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS IN THE ELEVENTH (XI) PLAN The major objective during the XIth plan period is to provide all habitations of Kerala with protected piped water supply facilities. It is also targeted to cover the entire urban population with adequate water supply facilities. As per the Bharath Nirman programme of Government of India, 100% coverage of rural habitations with 40 lpcd has to be achieved by 2008-09. Also, all the rural schools have to be provided with drinking water. Action plan has been formulated to achieve the above objective in the plan period. During the plan period, earnest effort will be taken to provide sewerage facilities to the five Corporations and 31 Municipalities. Top priority will be given to quality-affected areas, coastal areas and hilly areas. It is also proposed to promote rainwater harvesting especially where other sources are weak. Ground water recharging shall be taken up on priority. New schemes to improve the supply level of major cities and new schemes to supplement the demand of domestic/non domestic and industrial purpose shall be formulated and implemented. Preservation and protection of drinking water sources and establishing its ownership is targeted. State level quality monitoring and surveillance programme will be implemented. The existing rural schemes shall be renovated and handed over to the local bodies. Also new schemes will be implemented, and handed over to local bodies after successful commissioning. In order to achieve these targets, the resource management groups shall be formulated. Centrally sponsored schemes implemented by Kerala Water Authority include: (a) Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme; (b) Submission Scheme; (c) Swajaldhara Scheme and (d) Accelerated Urban Water Supply Scheme As per the present pattern of allocation of Government of India, it is expected that only Rs. 250 crore will be allocated for centrally sponsored scheme for the next 3 years. The balance required 980 crores has to be found out for the timely completion of these schemes. Hence high priority should be given to increase the allocation in the State plan budget for the centrally sponsored schemes during the XIth plan period.

Many programmes are proposed to enhance the efficiency of the water supply activities in the State.

A technical consultancy wing is proposed to provide technical support to various water supply agencies and local bodies. It is also planned for a full-fledged training centre to ensure capacity building to PRIs. IT master plan covering the entire State shall be implemented to make the establishment more efficient and consumer friendly. All attempts will be made for better consumer satisfaction and financial management for attaining 100% revenue collection. Advance techniques will be adopted to reduce unaccounted for water (UFW) and transmission losses. The present organisation set up will be re-oriented to attain maximum manpower utilisation Initiative will be taken to co-ordinate the programs with other agencies and departments dealing with water supply. As a part of National Rural Drinking Water Quality Surveillance programme, Government of India has allowed a Referral Institute for each State. The regional Centre for Environment and Development

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water quality lab of KWA at Aluva will be upgraded as State Referral Institute for water quality during this plan period.

NEED FOR A NEW APPROACH The scenario of water resources of Kerala is not really appealing to safeguard the interest of public at large at least to provide minimum requirement unless new approaches are visualised, planned and executed systematically on a specified time frame. It is reported that 71.06% of the total population has access to drinking water as at the end of March, 2008 (Anon, 2009) needs more serious and truthful examination. This supply of drinking water is through the centralized KWA supply network. However, there are large number of decentralized efforts which had taken place in the State under the decentralised planning wherein many new experiments successfully catered the needs of the people through large number of Local Self Governments through their plan programs in the last 11 years in the drinking water and irrigation sectors. Identification of locally available water resources, their quality and sustainability at least over nine months in a year found a place for standalone drinking water projects in the respective LSGs which really helped the rural population in a large way. Isolated experiments through financial assistance of some institutions could find some solutions to the drinking water problems in Kasargod, Kollam, Kozhikode, Palakkad, Malappuram, Kannur etc. A program was piloted by the state Planning Board through the State Decentralised Planning Cell under “Drinking Water for Everybody” in 2000 in Thiruvanthapuram and Trissur districts which also didn’t result in a satisfactory manner. All these efforts basically suggest the need of a new approach under the decentralised planning programme for drinking water sector.

This new approach is briefly described for the Thiruvananthapuram District as a case study.

DRINKING WATER FOR EVERYBODY – A CASE OF THIRUVANANTHAPURAM DISTRICT All the 78 Grama Panchayats in this district experience water scarcity in varied magnitudes.The maximum utilisable annual total water resources in the Thiruvananthapuram district is 793 mm3 with surface water contributing 664 mm3 (83.7%) and ground water contributing 129 mm3 (16.3%). A general idea about the availability of water resources in a block can be obtained from the characteristics of drainage system of that particular block (George & Nair, 2000). Out of the 12 blocks in the Thiruvananthapuram district, Vamanapuram block is the one with highest drainage density of 3.43 km/sq km whereas Kazhakuttam block is the one with lowest drainage density of 0.59 km/sq km. People at large in the district depend mostly on dug wells for drinking water purpose, however, about 34% of the population residing in the city region of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation and other Municipalities, a very small percentage uses wells, ponds, springs, lakes and streams are brought into limited use.

Urbanisation, unscientific interference by man and population explosion has destroyed many water resources of the district. Habitation in water scarce areas, deforestation and subsequent soil erosion has been affecting many streams adversely. Sand mining in rivers of Neyyar, Karamana and Vamanapuram have reduced considerably the water flow into the wells in adjacent areas. The destruction of the forest that checked the 132

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terrestrial water flow and controlled ground water movement naturally has resulted in floods and droughts. Uncontrolled drilling of bore wells for varied purposes has decreased salinity of the wells in the coastal belt. Depositing waste in the fresh water resources like ponds and rivers by channelling the waste from hostels, industries and other uses make them poor in quality for human use.

Status of Water in Thiruvananthapuram District All the 78 Grama Panchayats in the district experience water scarcity in varied magnitudes (Appendix 1 & 2). Given below is a brief appraisal of the situation in Varkala, Kilimanoor, Chirayinkeezhu, Kazhakkuttam, Vamanapuram, Nedumangad, Thiruvananthapuram Rural, Vellanad, Nemom, Athiyannoor, Perumkadavila and Parassala Blocks.

Varkala Block Chemmaruthy, Edava, Elakamon, Manamboor, Ottoor, Cherunniyoor and Vettoor are the seven Grama Panchayats in the Varkala Block situated at the northern end of the district has an area of 86.67 sq km. Chemmaruthi and Vettoor Grama Panchayats face acute scarcity of water. 80% of the families in Chemmaruthy Grama Panchayat experience a scarcity of water related to the peak times of summer. On the other hand Vettoor Grama Panchayatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s half of the total families experience shortage of drinking water throughout the year followed by Cherunniyoor and Elakamon Grama Panchayats.

It may be noted that the small quantity of water available in Vettoor is either saline or contaminated. Ottoor Grama Panchayat is the least affected one in the Varkala Block.

The dug wells in Chemmaruthy, Elakamon, Manambur, Ottoor and Cherunniyoor Grama Panchayats are drying up during summer. Drought prone areas like Edava Grama Panchayat rely mainly on public distribution networks. The problem of salinity/ contamination is also present in lesser dimension in Elakamon, Manamboor and Ottoor Grama Panchayats.

Kilimanoor Block Kilimanoor, Pazhayakunnummel, Karavaram, Madavoor, Palickal, Nagaroor, Navaikulam and Pulimath are the eight Grama Panchayats in the Kilimanoor Block has an area of 179.77 sq km. Of these, only in Karavaram Grama Panchayat, about 57% of the families face water shortage. 48% of the families in Nagaroor and 44% in Pazhayakunnumel Garama Panchayats are the least affected ones. About 10% of the families in Pazhayakunnummel, Nagaroor and Pulimath Grama Panchayats and 3 % of the families in Karavaram Grama Panchayat experience drought for all the twelve months. It is very important to note that majority of the Nagaroor Grama Panchayat population experience dry season for 9 to 10 months in a year. On the otherhand, Madavoor Grama Panchayat experience the same for just over three months. Lowering of ground water sources is the main reason for the water scarcity in this block. It is sad to note that few families are forced to live with no water potential in some of the hilly terrains of Karavaram, Nagaroor, Pulimath and Pazhayakunnummel Grama Panchayats.

It is also found that high ore content is present in the available water in the Karavaram Grama Panchayat. The inadequacies of the existing water distribution system for Centre for Environment and Development

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drinking water also intensifies this problem in Pazhayakunnummel, Karavaram, Nagaroor and Pulimath Grama Panchayats.

Chirayankeezhu Block This block has an area of 86.64 sq km with seven Grama Panchayats â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Azhoor, Anjuthengu, Vakkom, Chirayinkeezhu, Kizhuvilam, Mudakkal and Kadakkavoor.

Kizhuvilam and Anjuthengu Grama Panchayats are the worst affected areas in this block where 65% and 48% of the families experiences shortage of drinking water respectively. Water scarcity in the Kadakkavoor, Chirayankeezhu, Vakkom and Azhoor Grama Panchayats are bad. Mudakkal Grama Panchayat is a comparatively well off region. However, even there 24% of the families experience water scarcity for about six months in a year. In Anjuthengu and Chirayankeezhu Grama Panchayats, the problem is mainly cuased by the lack of the natural resources. In the rest of the Grama Panchayats the drying up of the water resources increases the salinity of water. It may be noted that the public water distribution system is uniformly poor throughout the block; it is pathetic in the Kadakkavoor Grama Panchayat. However, Mudakkal Grama Panchayat has succeeded in keeping the water scarcity at bay owing to the propoer functioning of two of the fresh water distribution schemes under the decentralised planning program.

Kazhakuttom Block This block is in the coastal belt of Thiruvananthapuram District with an area of 123.38 sq km. Andoorkonam, Kadinamkulam, Kazhakuttam, Mangalapuram, Pothencode and Sreekariyam are the six Grama Panchayats in this block. Almost half of the families of Kadinamkulam (45%), Sreekariyam (44%) and Mangalapuram (43%) Grama Panchayats are affected the scarcity for drinking water atleast six months in a year. About 15% of the families of Pothencode Grama Panchayat suffer for shortage of drinking water throughtout the year. Kazhakuttom Grama Panchayat with 6% of the population affected for just about three months is one of the least affected panchayats of the block. The scarcity of drinking water is due to drying up of water sources, saline intrusion and ore blending in the water, inadequacies of the distribution networks and water pollution. Clay mining in Andoorkonam and Mangalapuram Grama Panchayats are also aggravates the issue.

Vamanapuram Block This is the largest Block in Thiruvananthapuram District with an area of 421.2 sq km and eight Grama Panchayats. Kallara, Nellanad, Pullampara, Vamanapuram, Pangode, Nanniyode, Peringamala and Manickal are the Grama Panchayats in this block. In general scarcity for drinking water is relatively less, however, 67% families of Manickal, 34% familes of Pangode and 22% families of Vamanapuram Grama Panchayats affects the shortage for drinking water. 5% families of Nanniyode Grama Panchayat is the least drought prone area in the block. The water sources that remain dry for about six months are the main reason behind the water scarcity in the block.

Nedumangad Block Anad, Aruvikkara, Panavoor, Karakulam and Vembayam are the five Grama Panchayats spread over 123.5 sq km of this block. 45% families of Aruvikkara Grama Panchayat, 134

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where the major reservoir is located, affects water scarcity of which 19% suffers throughout the year is the worst hit area in this block. Anad with 33% of families of which 7% and Karakulam with 12% of families of which 17% suffers throughout the year for scarcity of drinking water. The main causes for the problem are the drying up of the water sources, pollution and failure of the public distribution system for many of the areas.

Thiruvananthapuram Rural Block Kudappanakunnu and Vattiyoorkavu are the only two Grama Panchayats in this block covering an area of about 22.8 sq km, lays importance to the centralised public distribution system since it is located in the periphery of the city. Kudappankunnu and Vattiyoorkavu are the two Grama Panchayats where the natural water sources remain dry for about 4 to 6 months aggravates the problem for drinking water.

Vellanad Block Aryanad, Poovachal, Vellanad, Vithura, Uzhamalackal, Kuttichal, Tholicode and Kattakada are the eight Grama Panchayats in the Vellanad Block covering an area of 372.12 sq km tops the list in tribal habitation with least problem on drinking water.

30% families of Poovachal and Aryanad Grama Pachayats are affected shortage for drinking water. However, 10 % families of Aryanad, Poovachal and Vellanad Grama Panchayats are affected for the scarcity of drinking water throughout the year due to the drying up of the water sources.

Nemom Block Balaramapuram, Pallichal, Maranalloor, Malayinkeezh, Vilappil, Vilavoorkkal and Kalliyoor are the seven Grama Panchayats in this block covering an area of 123.59 sq km. 32% families of Pallichal and 6 % of Malayinkeezh Grama Panchayats are the least hit area. It may be noted that there are no area in this block with a drought period extending over six months in a year. However, 5% families of the Maranalloor Grama Panchayat do suffer due to the scarcity of drinking water throughout the year. Drying up and ore contamination are the main problem in this block.

Athiyanoor Block Athiyanoor, Kanjirakulam, Karumkulam, Kottukal, Vizhinjam, and Venganoor are the six Grama Panchayats in this block covering an area of 73.73 sq km. This is one of the worst hit blocks in the district and the State. More than 50% families of the five of the six Grama Panchayats suffer acute shortage of water for domestic use â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Vizhinjam (95%), Kottukal (92%), Kanjiramkulam (86%) and Athiyanoor (69%) Grama Panchayats. Of these, 20% families of Athiyanoor and Kanjiramkulam Grama Panchayats suffer throughout the year. About 22% families suffer for 8 to 9 months in a year in the least affected area of Karumkulam Grama Panchayat. The drying up of natural water sources during summer, proximity to the sea resulting saline intrusion, pollution and failure of the public distribution system are the main reasons for the water scarcity in this block.

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Perumkadavila Block Perumkadavila, Kollayil, Ottasekharamangalam, Aryancode, Kallikkadu, Kunnathukal, Vellarada and Amboori are the eight Grama Panchayats, covering an area of 304.29 sq km is another less affected block in Thiruvananthapuram District. However, 87% families of Amboori and 65 % families of Vellarada Grama Panchayats are affected by shortage of drinking water. Kunnathukal and Ottasekharamangalam Grama Panchayats are also affected by drought. Though, water scarcity is milder in the rest of the Panchayats, 15% families of Kallikadu Grama Panchayat do face a problem. The water sources start drying up as soon as the rain cloud retreat from the skies.

Parassala Block Chenkal, Karode, Kulathoor, Parassala, Thirupuram and Poovar are the six Grama Panchayats in this block, covering an area of 82.21 sq km located at the southern most part of the Thiruvananthapuram district suffers acute shortage of water for domestic use. Of these 81% families of Chenkal, 75 % of Parassala, 68% of Kulathoor Grama Panchayats tops the list. Among this, 58% families of Kulathoor Grama Panchayat suffers throughout the year and the worst hit area. 35% families of Poovar and 12% families of Thirupuram Grama panchayats suffers round the year and is also the worst drought hit area in the block. The main cause for the problem is the drying up of the local water sources.

ANALYSIS OF WATER SCARCITY IN THE THIRUVANANTHAPURAM DISTRICT A close look at the above detailed twelve Block level information, it can be understood that Thiruvananthapuram district experiences a dry period for about six months in a year due to the quick drying up of the natural local water sources. Saline intrusion, ore contamination and other liquid/solid pollutants prevents the available water sources from domestic use. Of the total affected families, about 57% suffers the drought for three to six months, 11% for three months, 14% for more than six months (8 to 10 months) and 18% for the whole year. Of the drought-hit families in the district; 8% resides in area with less natural water sources, 73% are affected by drying up of water sources, 9% are affected by saline intrusion/ore contamination, 8% are affected by the failure of the public distribution system whereas 2% are suffering from pollution. The names of Grama Panchayats which come under the first ten grades of severity are given in Table 1. It may be noted that most of the areas identified in this list are densely populated panchayats in the coastal belt. It has been revealed that about 50% of the Grama Panchayats are falling within this grade which shows the gravity of the water scarcity experienced by the Thiruvananthapuram district (Nair and George, 2001).

NATURAL WATER SOURCES A systematic field survey with the peoplesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation revealed that the main source for fresh water in Thiruvananthapuram district is the large number of wells of which 68% population depend either on dug wells or bore wells for domestic use of water.

However, the Thiruvananthapuram Rural Block mostly found to be depended on public distribution system. Out of the 3135 dug wells and 1047 bore wells all over the 136

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Table 1 Drinking water scarcity Grama Panchayat

Severity*

Grama Panchayat

Severity*

Vizhinjam

1

Vellarada

9

Kadakampally

2

Anad

10

Kulathur

2

Aruvikkara

10

Vetoor

4

Aryanad

10

Manickal

5

Cheruniyoor

10

Anjuthengu

5

Elakamon

10

Azhoor

5

Kadakkavoor

10

Poovar

5

Kadinumkulam

10

Thiruvallam

5

Kollayil

10

Aryankode

6

Kudappanakunnu

10

Nagaroor

6

Kunnathukal

10

Perumpazhathoor

6

Mangalapuram

10

Andoorkonam

7

Nellanad

10

Chirayankeezh

7

Ottasehkahramangalam

10

Thiruppuram

7

Pallickal

10

Amboori

8

Panavoor

10

Chemmaruthy

8

Pangode

10

Chenkal

8

Pazhayakunnumel

10

Kanjiramkulam

8

Poovachal

10

Kottukal

8

Pulimath

10

Karavaram

9

Sreekariyam

10

Kizhuvilam

9

Tholikode

10

Parassala

9

Venganoor

10

*Note on severity grade: (1) Scarcity affected population >75%; About half or more of them having 12 months scarcity; (2) Scarcity affected population between 50% and 75%; About half or more of them having 12 months scarcity; (3) Scarcity affected population >75%; About half or more of them having 6 months scarcity; (4) Scarcity affected population between 50% and 75%; About half or more of them having 6 months scarcity; (5) Scarcity affected population between 25% and 50%; About half or more of them having 12 m scarcity; (6) Scarcity affected population between 25% and 50%; Abut half or more of them having 6 m scarcity; (7) Scarcity affected population < 25%; About half or more of them having 12 months scarcity; (8) Scarcity affected population < 75%; About half or more of them having 3-6 months scarcity; (9) Scarcity affected population between 50% and 75%; About half or more of them having 3-6 months scarcity (10) Scarcity affected population between 25%&50%;About half or more of them having 3-6 months scarcity.

Thiruvananthapuram district, 372 and 682 wells respectively are out of use.

Perumkadavila block leads the list both in the number of wells and in the number of abandoned wells. The block has in total 519 wells of which 123 are abandoned.

About 10,447 families utilise water from these wells. It may be noted that maximum Centre for Environment and Development

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number of the public wells is found in the Parassala Block with 219 wells serving 11,836 families. The highest density of wells has been found to be of 2.69 wells per sq km in Athiyannoor block following 2.66 well per sq km in the Parassala block.

Vamanapuram block has the lowest density of wells, however Thiruvananthapuram Rural Block has the lowest number of public wells of 82 usable ones. Kilimanoor block has the largest number of usable bore wells (62), Chirayankeezh block has the least (3) and Vamanapuram block has the largest number of unusable bore wells (128).

The 682 unusable bore wells of Thiruvananthapuram district needs immediate replacement of rusted iron casing pipes with PVC pipes. A total of 8875 families are depended on the bore wells for water in the district.

There are about 2,90,000 private wells in Thiruvananthapuram district. Kilimanoor block has the highest number of private wells and Varkala block has the lowest. Nemom block has the highest density of private wells (257 wells per sq km). There are practices of using terrestrial water sources like pond, tanks, streams, springs and rivers for water.

People in the mid and high land panchayats where there is an acute shortage of water in the Thiruvananthapuram district do utilise these terrestrial water sources many time without assessing their quality. The block wise distribution of public and private wells is given in Table 2. The General Description of the Ground Water Assessment Unit of Kerala as on 31-3-2004 for Trivandrum District (Table 3) and Categorization for Ground Water Development of the assessment unit as on 31-3-2004 for the Trivandrum District (Table 4).

Table 2 Drinking Water Sources Other than piped Water Supply Schemes - Block wise Block

Public Open Wells

Public Bore Wells

Private Open well

User Families

User Families

Density

520 18

12265

141.5

92

40289

224.1

40

1

19419

229.4

387

128

35461

84.2

116

537

65

37403

100.5

1.5

128

342

96

22519

182.3

1.2

87

1065

48

25566

191.7

21

1.9

14

219

4

866

20.1

2561

15

1.5

53

154

30

34574

256.9

519

10447

123

1.3

133

1330

97

32185

105.8

Athiyannur

250

7680

52

2.7

85

612

72

13518

183.3

Parasala

222

118836

3

2.7

64

2108

31

13837

168.3

District Total

3135

69504

372

1047

8875

682

287902

Total No.

User Families

Unused

Density

Total No

Varkala

177

5187

6

2.0

54

Kilimanoor

271

5568

21

1.4

154

1561

Chirayinkeezh

212

4992

14

2.3

4

Vamanapuram

378

7963

66

0.7

155

Vellanad

416

5773

23

1.1

Nedumangad

206

3379

24

Kazhakoottom

168

2568

4

Trivandrum-R

103

1550

Nemom

213

Perumkadavila

138

UnUsed

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Table 3 General Description of the Ground Water Assessment Unit of Kerala as on 31-3-2004 Sl. No

Name of Block

Type of GWAU (Block)

Type of Rock Formation

1 2

Areal Extent (Sq Km)

Varkala

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium

87

87

Kilimanoor

Block

Laterite, Riverine Alluvium & Crystalline

180

180

3

Vamanapuram

Block

Laterite, Riverine Alluvium & Crystalline

421

421

4

Chirayinkil

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium & Crystalline

85

85

5

Kazhakootam

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium & Crystalline

133

133

6

Nedumangad

Block

Laterite & Crystalline

124

124

7

Vellanad

Block

Laterite & Crystalline

372

372

8

Thiruvananthapuram

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium & Crystalline

112

112

9

Nemom

Block

Laterite

135

135

10

Perumkadavila

Block

Laterite & Crystalline

304

304

11

Athiyannoor

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium & Crystalline

74

74

12

Parassala

Block

Laterite, Coastal Alluvium & Crystalline

82

82

2109

2109

Total GWAU

Total

Non-CPA

*NCPA â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Non Cammand Potentail Area (CGWB 2005)

Panchayat Level Schemes Though stress is given to various aspects change according to local demands and conditions, the activities suggested for the inclusion in the action plan from a general outlook are as given below: 1. New local water source may be identified and their sustainability may be ascertained.

2. Such sources may be made use for making new dug and bore wells.

3. Renovation of the existing public wells and bore wells.

4. Funding for the digging as well as renovation of private wells.

5. Small scale drinking water distribution schemes originating from wells, bore wells, ponds, tanks, streams, springs and rivers.

6. Renovation and extending the networks of the existing drinking water distribution schemes.

It is necessary that along with the development and enhanced consumption of the Centre for Environment and Development

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Table 4 Categorization for Ground water Development of the assessment unit as on 31-3-2004 Sl No

District/Assessment Unit

Stage of Ground Water Develop-ment

Is there a signi. decline of pre monsoon water table levels (Yes/No)

1 2 3 4

Is there a signi. decline of post monsoon water table levels (Yes/No)

Categorization for future ground water development (Safe/Semicritical/Critial/Overexploited )

Varkala

80.76

Yes

No

Safe

Kilimanoor

78.60

Yes

Yes

Semi- Critical

Vamanapuram

33.90

Yes

Yes

Safe

Chirayinkil

119.97

No

Yes

Critical

5

Kazhakootam

84.22

No

No

Safe

6

Nedumangad

73.35

No

No

Safe

7

Vellanad

32.00

No

Yes

Safe

8

Trivandrum

75.37

No

No

Safe

9

Nemom

91.70

No

Yes

Semi- Critical

10

Perumkadavila

57.99

Yes

No

Safe

11

Athiyannoor

112.80

Yes

Yes

Over Exploited

12

Parassala

106.90

No

No

Critical

water resources according to the Panchayat level action plan, steps should be taken to rejuvenate these water resources. Hence nurturing the ground water, maintaining and improving the terrestrial water resources should also be done along with these action plans. Actions in this direction are required for maintaining the consistency of the development programme meant for the water resources. No significant step has been taken for improving the availability of water (through rain water, harvesting, check dams, etc ). These too must be initiated at the block level given the success with such experiments elsewhere. It is more convenient at the block level to think of the small dams as part of the watershed based development programs (Nair, 2005).

Panchayat Level Action Plan for Drinking Water It is evident from the earlier discussion in this text that dug wells and bore wells with less capacity and poor quality along with a faulty distribution network is the root cause of the drinking water problem in Thiruvananthapuram district. Hence it is important to plan a pilot program of people friendly â&#x20AC;&#x153;Panchayat Level Action Plan Program for Drinking Water Supply Project (PLAP-DWSP)â&#x20AC;?. Resource persons from ward level, people representatives and residence association representatives may be grouped and trained for data collection in a suitably designed format in the ward level.

This data may be analysed in association with the working group of Water Resources of the respective Panchayat along with the respective line department officials for development of plans with detailed design and estimate. Block level evaluation and district level consolidation of these plans may be made forming part of annual schemes of the Local Self Governments (Grama, Block and Zilla levels).

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CONCLUSION The Government of Kerala, vide G.O.(MS) No.29/98/IrD., dated 19th March, 1998 and G.O.(MS)No.125/98/Ir.D, dated 23rd November, 1998, through the Irrigation (WSC) Department ; issued two historically significant orders delineating guidelines for the Local Body’s participation and Implementation in drinking water supply projects. Water is one of the few natural resources the State of Kerala is blessed with. A systematic field evaluation with peoples’ participation revealed the sad and pathetic situation of drinking water status in the different panchayats of Thiruvanathapuram District. This has resulted in a detailed examination of the issue resulting for “Panchayat Level Action Plan Program for Drinking Water Supply Projects”. It is important that this experiment could be extended to all the remaining 13 districts of the State for reaping tangible results.

REFERENCES Annon. 2005. The dynamic groundwater resources of Kerala as on March, 2004; CGWB, Kerala Region, Trivandrum, 118p.

Annon. 2009. Economic Review 2008, State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram, pp.112-142.

George R and Nair A S K. 2000. Drinking Water, in Development Perspective, State Planning Board, Kerala, pp.393-415.

Joji V S and Nair A S K. 2005. Sustainability of Land Resources of Vamanapuram River Basin, S Kerala, India. Geographical Review of India, V.66, No.2, pp.153-162.

Joji V S and Nair A S K. 2002. Significance of Fourth order sub-basins of Vamanapuram River Basin, Southern Kerala, India. Proc. of XII Swadeshi Science Congress, Thiruvananthapuram, pp.352-358.

Joji V S and Nair A S K. 2002. Surface water potential in the Vamanapuram River Basin, Southern Kerala, India. Proc. of XII Swadeshi Science Cong., Thiruvananthapuram, pp.359-364.

Joji V S and Nair A S K. 2002. The study of Fourth order Sub-basins of Vamanapuram River Basin, S.Kerala, India. Ind. Jour. of Geomorphology, 7, 1&2, pp.37-48.

Joji V S and Nair A S K. 2002. Water quality of selected dug wells in Vamanapuram River Basin, Southern Kerala, India. Proc. of XII Swadeshi Science Congress, Trivandrum, pp.346-351.

Joji V S and Nair A S K.2002. The sustainability of water resources in Vamanapuram river basin, S.Kerala, India. Ind. Jour. of Geomorphology, 7, 1&2, pp.99-110.

Joji V S, Nair A S K and Changat M. 2003. Ground Water Resource Potential of Vamanapuram River Basin, Kerala. Geographical Review of India, Vol.65, No.1, pp.56-65.

Joji V S, Nair A S K and Changat M. 2001. Morphologic analysis of fourth order sub-basins of Vamanapuram river basin, South Kerala, India, Indian Journal of Geomorp.,Vol.6, No.1&2, pp.59-74.

Joji V S, Nair A S K and Changat M. 2001. Rainfall-Discharge relationship analysis of Vamanapuram river basin, South. Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Geomorphology, Vol.6, No.1&2, pp.145-156.

Nair A S K. 2005. Resource Mapping- A Practical tool for the Plan Formulation of Local Self Government through Decentralised Planning in Kerala, IMG/IP, pp.1-7.

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Nair A S K. 2005. Water Conservation and Organic Farming. Proce. Of the National Conference on Promotion of Organic Mission, CAPART & MITRANEKETAN, pp.13-17.

Nair A S K and George R. 2001. Unfinished tasks in the People’s Plan Campaign-Drinking water and Wastershed based development. J.Marxists Samvadam,Vol.6, No.21/22, pp.316-323.

Nair A S K. 2002. A Revised Approach to the Watershed Based Development for Kerala State.

In:Watershed Based Development and Management (ed.) S M Vijayanad IAS, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram, pp.92-110.

Nair A S K. 2004. Recharge structure through rain water harvesting, in “ Water resource development through rain water harvesting”, (Ed.) S.M.Vijayanand, Western Ghat Cell, Planning and Economic Affairs Department, Government of Kerala, pp.223-228.

Nair A S K. 2004. Status of drinking water in Thiruvananathapuram District and intervention possibilities (in Malayalam) (Ed.) S.M.Vijayanand, Western Ghat Development Cell, State Planning Board, Govt. of Kerala, pp.30-36.

Nair A S K. 2005. Wetlands of Kerala and their Role in Maintaining State’s Groundwater Potential, in selected topics of training course on “Numerical Simulation of Groundwater Flow and Mass Transport for Effective Mangement of Aquifers”, DST/CESS, pp.481-492 Nandakumar D, Chattopadhyay S, Krishnakumar P, Soman K and Nair A S K. 2000. Biophysical Resources, in Development Perspectives, State Planning Board, Kerala, pp.38-91.

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A New Scientific and Management Approach to Water Related Natural Disasters

Nair A S K Scientist, Centre for Earth Science Studies Thiruvananthapuram 695 031

INTRODUCTION Physical vulnerability relates to the physical location of people, their proximity to the hazard zone and standards of safety maintained to counter the effects. For instance, some people are vulnerable to flood only because they live in a flood prone area.

Physical vulnerability also relates to the technical capacity of buildings and structures to resist the forces acting upon them during a hazard event. The extent to which a population is affected by a calamity does not purely lie in the physical components of vulnerability, but is contextual also to the prevailing social and economic conditions and its consequential effect on human activities within a given society. Research in areas affected by floods indicates that single parent families, women, handicapped people, children and the aged are particularly vulnerable social groups. The continent of Asia is particularly vulnerable to disaster strikes. Between 1991 and 2000, Asia has accounted for 83% of the population affected by disasters globally. While the number of people affected in the rest of the world were only 1,11,159, in Asia the number was 5,54,439. Within Asia, 24% of deaths due to disasters occur in India, on account of its size, population and vulnerability. Floods and high winds account for 60 per cent of all disasters in India. While substantial progress has been made in other sectors of human development, there is need to do more towards mitigating the effect of disasters.

The geophysical setting with unplanned and inadequate developmental activity is a cause for increased losses during such disasters. In India, the contribution of overpopulation to high population density, which in turn results in escalating losses, deserves to be noted. This factor sometimes tends to be as important as physical vulnerability attributed to geography and infrastructure alone.

Many parts of the Indian sub-continent are susceptible to different types of disasters owing to the unique topographic and climatic characteristics. About 54% of the subcontinentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes while about 4 crore ha is vulnerable to periodic floods. The decade 1990-2000, has been one of very high disaster losses Centre for Environment and Development

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within the country, losses in the Orissa Cyclone in 1999, and later, the Gujarat Earthquake in 2001 alone amount to several thousand crore of Rupees, while the total expenditure on relief and reconstruction in Gujarat alone has been to the tune of Rs 11,500 crore. The dimensions of the damage, emphasize the point that natural disasters cause major setbacks to development and it is the poorest and the weakest that are the most vulnerable to disasters. Given the high frequency with which one or the other part of the country suffers due to disasters, mitigating the impact of disasters must be an integral component of our development planning and be part of our poverty reduction strategy.

Disaster is a general term used for events which cause widespread destruction as “a grave occurrence having ruinous results”. It is also defined as “a crisis event which outstrips the capacity of a society to manage or cope with it, at least for a time”. World Health Organisation (WHO) defines disaster as “any occurrence causing damage, ecological disruption, loss of human lives, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to warrant any extraordinary intervention from outside the affected community”. In general, the disasters could be classified as natural and man-made.

Natural disaster as a “catastrophic consequence of natural phenomenon or a combination of phenomenon resulting in injury, loss of life or input in a relatively large scale and some disruption to human activities”. Disasters also qualify to be of (i) widespread destruction of human life and infrastructure; (ii) usually sudden occurrence with low predictability of the event and (iii) Need for large-scale interventions following the event.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTERS Disasters may be classified broadly into Natural disasters and Man-made disasters.

Natural Disasters are those which are caused by various “natural” processes occurring on the earth. These may be further classified into three types based on their origin; (i) Geological Origin – Earthquakes, Volcanic eruption, Landslides and Avalanches, etc.; (ii) Meteorological and Climatic Origin – Cyclones, Floods, Droughts, Heat and Cold Waves; and (iii) Biological Origin – Widespread pest infestations, etc.

Man-made disasters are those caused by human activities or negligence including industrial accidents, deliberate forest fires, fires in residential and commercial places etc. Epidemics, though, have biological origins, are also often regarded as man made disasters. Disasters are also classified into Major and Minor disasters based on the extent of damages caused by them. Earthquakes, floods, cyclones, droughts are generally classified as major natural disasters, however, landslides, heat and cold waves and fires usually cause damages at a lesser scale and are classified as minor disasters.

Based on the period of the onset of disasters, they could be classified into: (i) Sudden onset with 0 to 2 hours (earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, industrial accidents, etc); (ii) Intermediate onset with one to seven days (cyclones, floods, etc ) and (iii) Long onset with several weeks to a month (droughts, climatic changes, global warming, etc.).

DEFINITIONS The international Strategy for Disaster Reduction concepts – Natural Hazards, Vulnerability and Risk.

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Natural Hazards Comprise phenomena such as earthquakes; volcanic activity ; landslides ; tsunamis; tropical cyclones and other severe storms; tornadoes and high winds; river floods and coastal flooding; wildfires and associated haze; drought; sand/dust storm; etc.

Vulnerability Disasters is a function of human actions and behavior.The degree of vulnerability is determined by a combination of several factors including hazard awareness, the condition of human settlements and infrastructure, public policy and administration, and organized abilities in all fields of disaster management. Poverty is, also one of the main causes of vulnerability in most parts of the world.

Natural Disaster Is to be understood as the consequences of the impact of natural hazard on a socioeconomic system with a given level of vulnerability which prevents the affected society from coping adequately with this impact. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Natural hazards and related technological and environmental disastersâ&#x20AC;? describes situations where natural disasters have been compounded by the occurrence of technological and environmental damages.

Risk The risk of a disaster is the probability of a disaster occurring. The evaluation of a risk includes vulnerability assessment and impact prediction taking into account thresholds that define acceptable risk for a given society.

TYPES OF DISASTERS They are (i) Neither anticipated nor expected, (ii) Anticipated but not expected and (iii) Anticipated and also expected.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT Little attention has been given to disaster preparedness, mitigation and risk reduction that could reduce future impacts and lessen the need for government intervention.

Due to this emphasis on crisis management, society has moved from one disaster to another with little reduction in risk. However, now it is well accepted that proper planning can help to reduce the impacts of disasters. Hence it is important to understand the disaster management cycle to minimize losses and impacts. Disaster management necessarily include planning for all the three phases associated with a disaster, i.e before, during and after the disaster. There are five phases in the disaster management cycle and they are (i) Response Phase, (ii) Recovery Phase, (iii) Development Phase, (iv) Prevention and Mitigation Phase and (v) Preparedness Phase.

RISK ANALYSIS One of the important tools that helps to prepare a society to reduce the impacts of a disaster is Risk Analysis. This includes the identification of undesired events that lead Centre for Environment and Development

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to the development of a hazard, the analysis of the mechanisms, the estimation of the extent, magnitude and likelihood of any harmful effects. Risk analysis includes hazard assessment and mapping, vulnerability analysis, and mapping of population and infrastructure prone to hazards.

WATER-RELATED NATURAL DISASTERS Water-related natural disasters are common in the world and their effects are devastating but vary from region to region with the geographic location and the geomorphologic and structural features of the region. Such water-related disasters include tropical cyclones, floods, water-induced mass movements, drought etc.

Floods Flood is the most common water-related natural disaster in the world. A simple definition is â&#x20AC;&#x153;a flood is when inundates land which is normally dryâ&#x20AC;?. It can also be defined as too much water at the wrong place, or more water than can be handled by the drainage of an area. Floods have affected almost every corner of the earth and are, along with droughts, the most recurring disasters (CEE, 2004). Flood is an abnormal rise of the water level of a stream that may result in the overflow of the normal levee of the stream with the subsequent inundation of areas that are not normally submerged.

Floods include coastal and riverine floods. Their occurrence is usually in the aftermath of meteorological events that include: (i) intensive and prolonged rainfall, and (ii) unusually high coastal and estuarine waters due to storm surges, seiches etc. Floods are also caused indirectly by seismic activities, landslides and other uneven disturbances of the geomorphology of an area. Coastal areas are particularly susceptible to flooding due to tsunamis (seismic sea waves). To a certain extent, astronomy-influenced phenomena such as high tides coinciding with heavy rainfall frequently cause flooding.

Floods may cause serious damage to prime agricultural lands and major government infrastructures such as roads, bridges, irrigation dikes and flood control structures.

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Table 1 Disaster related fatalities (source: Red Cross 2002) Total number of people killed

Africa America Asia Europe Oceania

1982 – 1991

575 160 60 147 328 886 40 577 1 130

1992 – 2001

40 076 79 293 463 681 35 994 3 319

Causes of floods Floods usually occur due to natural causes, however, over period of time human activities on the land have substantially increased resulting damages due to floods.

Hence now we have two categories of flood as (i) floods due to natural causes and (ii) floods due to man made.

Natural Causes There are five natural factors which causes flood, they are: 1. Heavy rainfall – flooding occurs when there is more rain than the landscape can take.

2. Bursting of river banks – this can happen due to rapid snow melts or heavy rainfall, causing increase in the level of water in a river.

3. Storm surges and rainfall during a cyclone.

4. Landslides that block a river valley or create a dam to form a lake which if it bursts, can cause flooding 5. Natural disturbances of Geomorphology of riverine system.

Floodplains of rivers are the areas most vulnerable to floods, however from time immemorial, floodplain have been the places where great civilizations survived which attracted large number of human settlements. The fertile soil supplemented with easy availability of healthy water in these regions helped agriculture which encouraged humans to settle. It is only true that even today, industries and urban settlements which need large quantum of water, often locate themselves in floodplains. It is important to note that even these floodplains also have the maximum chances of floods making these settlements and infrastructure vulnerable to floods.

Human-made Causes Man-made activities on the terrestrial earth have often increased the incidence and effects of floods. Demand for land for agriculture and urban or industrial uses leads to clearing of vegetation. There are many factors behind Human-made causes for floods, however the following six factors are very important, and they are; Centre for Environment and Development

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Deforestation – the run-off is considerably increased because of lowered absorption of water by land and vegetation. The water also carries large amount of soils/sediments which has been eroded from the barren, tree-less land. This silt accumulates on the river bed, raising its level, thereby reduces the waterholding capacity of the river channel. The less the water a river channel can hold, the greater the chances of a river overflowing its banks and flooding the surrounding areas.

Change in Land-use – Occurrence of floods and the destructions caused thereby are related to land use patterns and planning. Urban development encroach more and more area from floodplains.

Wetland/Paddy field reclamation – these are the storehouse of huge quantity of rainwater or excess water from rivers and behave like good natural mechanism to function as buffer zones during the floods. In down stream areas, crops and property are thus protected from flood damage. However, by emergence of new residential and commercial establishments built by reclaiming the wetlands/paddy fields, chances of flooding are increasing with a substantial reduction in ground water recharge resulting lowering of ground water table.

Pollution effects – Changes in weather patterns and rise in average temperature of the earth due to pollution have also been implicated for increase in floods.

Demolition of hillocks resulting changes in normal water flow – Large scale demotion of laterite hillocks changes the micro-watersheds normal water flow regime results floods in new areas.

Spillage/bursting of dams and reservoirs – Increased rainfall keeps the large number of people in the down stream side of the major dams and reservoirs in anxiety on the spillage as well as chances for bursting of these artificial structures resulting floods.

Inadequate storm water drainage system – Due to the faulty town planning, colonies come up in low lying areas which are frequently submerged even in moderate rains in the absence of proper storm water drainage system.

Impact of Floods Large scale floods which cause enormous and widespread damages, occur mostly when flood waters from rivers inundate large areas. Statistics reveal that the damage due to floods is more than that caused by any other disasters in India Types of Floods In general, there are thee types of floods – Coastal flooding, Urban flooding and Riverine flooding.

Coastal Flooding The coastal areas frequently flood in the vicinity of the estuaries, the back swamps, delta and coastal plains. Highly affected areas are adjacent and/or near the mouth of 148

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these rivers and their tributaries. Urban and rural areas located in the River delta are prone to coastal flooding. Areas near the banks and along the flood plains of the rivers in the coastal areas are also prone to riverine flooding. The coastal lowlands along the mouths of the rivers are prone to flooding. The regions located near the banks of rivers and Creek are also known to flood. The eastern coast is prone to frequent coastal flooding. The eastern coastal region is situated in a typhoon belt.

Urban Flooding The urban flooding area has been found to be increasing in number in Kerala as well as many other States particularly due to the increased urbanization. The general topography of the urban areas are rapidly changed for different developmental needs without seriously examining the Environmental Impact Assessments resulting the urban flooding. Care needs to be put in for designing required storm water drainage system so that this urban flooding could be effectively contained.

Riverine Flooding Flood-prone areas in the low lying parts of the area prone to riverine flooding. This triggers flash floods in the downstream section of the Rivers with flood waters rising 2 m at the peak of the flood. These areas were almost totally inundated between the early fifties and the early eighties when the NIA diversion dams and irrigations canals were not yet installed. At present, some portions of these are still inundated specially those that are close (10 m to 1 km) to River and its tributaries. The urban area suffers the most damage when the River overflows. During this time very limited area only is considered free from flooding. Flood water height ranges from .5 meters to 5.0 meters during rain showers in the upstream areas aggravated by inaquate canal lining, dikes and box culverts. For urban areas along both banks of creeks at the center of the town proper usually experience flash floods during periods of high precipitation or storm.

Floodwaters in these areas could easily rise by two meters. The low-lying areas in the estuarine, especially between the coastal portions of the town proper suffer most if the water current is very high due to the added tidal influence.

Water-Induced Mass Movements Water precipitating on hillslopes as rain is part of the hydrological cycle. When the amount of rainfall is so great that the infiltration capacity of the soil exceed, overland flow occurs. Most often, such overland flow carries with it soil or rock or both. This leads to the occurrence of water-induced mass movement. Mass movement occurs in a great variety of materials, on slopes with varying gradients, with an according variety of types of movement. In view of its variability, only the most common one, i.e. the landslide, is discussed hereafter.

Socio-Economic Impact of Floods Floods have a tremendous socio-economic impact. The main effect of floods is to retard development. A flood-stricken area must first be restored to normalcy before any development activity can be carried out. Restoration can take time. Flood damage Centre for Environment and Development

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is incalculable. Floods usually occur in association with other destructive natural phenomena. In addition to the directly determinable losses the indirect potential losses may be added. These result from unproductively in many areas, e.g. in business and trade, commerce and in other sphere as well.

GEOHAZARD SURVEY AND RISK ASSESSMENT Kerala is prone to various types of geologic hazards that include landslides, floods, earthquake, ground subsidence, saltwater intrusion, groundwater lowering, desertification, and coastal erosion. The geohazard survey and integrated risk assessment would generate geoscientific data and provide monitoring networks to determine geological changes and behavioral patterns. The program would help provide a scientific basis for integrated land use planning. At present, the DENR capability to produce effective and integrated geohazard zonation maps and risk mitigating measures is hampered by the lack of high-resolution geoscientific data and inadequately trained technical manpower. To develop modern and sophisticated knowledge and technology for a geo-environmentally sound development in the country, the following project components have to be undertaken: (a) Baseline data sourcing and generation; (b) Regional reconnaissance and geohazard surveys; (c) Site-specific geohazard surveys coupled with multi-disciplinary risk assessment, and (d) Modelling, prediction, monitoring and evaluation with the application of Geographic Information System (GIS)-based hazard zonation schemes.

INTEGRATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT MEASURES In the light of the many major disasters experienced during the past decade, it would be desirable to review the disaster management practices already carried out. The experiences gained should be used as a basis to assist further evolution of disaster management practices, especially in those areas where implementation practices could be improved. Wholesale changes do not appear warranted but adjustments to the existing approach would achieve:  further mitigation of disaster damage to existing development;  control over the future growth of potential disaster losses.

In order to achieve these objectives, there appears to be a case for the adoption of a system which could be effectively implemented as part of the disaster strategies. After examining the available information on the status of disaster management in Kerala and Indian in general, it is apparent that integrated approach for disaster management need to be adopted for achieving fruitful results. The preferred disaster management system should integrate the following elements:  the individual management measures;  the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders;  the disaster management plan and the disaster emergency plan;  the resource management considerations and programmes;  where applicable, the concept of comprehensive land-use planning based on total 150

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watershed management principles.

The objectives of the overall management system should ensure that:  disaster management matters are dealt with having regard to community safety, health and welfare requirements;  public information is freely available on the likely extent and nature of possible future hazards;  all reasonable measures are taken to alleviate the hazard and damage potential to existing properties at risk, and there is no significant growth in future hazard and damage potential resulting from new developments;  appropriate forecasting and warning systems exist, and emergency services and government assistance are available in the event of future disasters;  the disaster management system is managed having regard to social and economic costs and benefits to individuals as well as the community at large.

An integrated approach is required to bring together these diverse issues, which are usually fragmented over a number of different authorities. This can be achieved through greater cooperation amongst the agencies, authorities and individuals involved in all aspects of disaster prevention and preparedness. The extent to which the integrated approach can be achieved relies on a number of factors, including the management of natural resources and the strength of existing legislation. As a general principle however, the overall coordination of disaster management plans should be vested in a single organization, preferably operating at the national level, which assumes responsibility for legal, administrative and financial matters relating to the management of natural disasters. The ultimate goals of integrated disaster management should be to limit the hazards and damages to socially acceptable levels, to promote environmental enhancement and to provide disaster warning, response, evacuation and recovery from the onset to the aftermath of the disaster.

A NEW SCIENTIFIC AND MANAGEMENT APPROACH TO WATER RELATED NATURAL DISASTERS - WATERSHED-BASED APPROACH TO REDUCE RISK A watershed can be defined as the drainage basin or catchments of a particular stream or river. It refers to the area from where the water to particular drainage system, like a river or stream, comes from. People and their environment are independent. Any change in the surrounding environment directly affects the people living therein. A degraded environment results in a degraded quality of life of the people. Thus efforts to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of the people must aim in bettering the environment they live in. The environment does not recognize the man made administrative boundaries. A watershed provides a natural environmental unit for planning a developmental initiative. Watershed development refers to the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of all the natural resources (land, water, plants, animals and human) within a particular watershed. Watershed management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the environment between natural resources on the one side and human and other living beings on the other side. Human resource Centre for Environment and Development

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development (Community Development), Soil and Land Management, Water Management, Crop management, Afforestation, Pasture/Fodder Development, Livestock Management, Rural Energy Management and Farm and non-farm value addition activities are the major components of watershed development. All these components are interdependent and interactive (Nair, 2001, 2002 & 2003; Varma et al. 2000) The environment is a living space available to the community which depends on the very same space for its livelihood. When the economic condition of a community deteriorates it leads to over-exploitation and degradation of natural resources which, in turn, further exacerbates poverty. It is thus necessary for people to see the relationship between their poverty and the degraded environment they live in. Thus, just as human beings and their activities are the cause of environmental degradation and destruction, it is only they who can restore the health of the ruined environment. Hence there can be no Sustainable Natural Resource Management, unless it involves the active participation of all the inhabitants of the concerned environment – the watershed.

Thus watershed development is a program that evolved over a period of time and now identifies the integrated interaction between various Natural Resources belonging to a watershed, which is a natural phenomenon given rise to and generated by the flowing water. There are many watershed development programs undertaken in different parts of India and Kerala in particular, under the Western Ghat Development Program (WGDP); National Watershed Development Program for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA), Drought Prone Areas Program (DPAP), National Wastelands Development Board (NWDB), etc (Nair & George, 2001).

GUIDING PRINCIPLES Sequence of activities and their operational modalities may vary from situation to situation and the guidelines are flexible so that the desired modification may be considered at different levels. Conservation of natural resources, integrated development of natural as well as social resources, in-situ moisture conservation, sustainable farming system, adoption of ridge to valley approach, due emphasis on production enhancement activities for land owners and livelihood support for landless families, democratic decentralization in decision making, transparency in transactions, mobilization of community at the village level, direct funding to the community, emphasis on “Government” participation in “Community’s” plans, contributory approach to empower the community, building upon indigenous innovations, initiatives and ideas; equity for resource-poor families and empowerment of women, moving away from subsidy oriented development to self reliant development, convergence of activities/schemes of government and non-governmental organisations, etc (Anon, 2008).

WATERSHED It is a geo-hydrological unit with third dimension (height or depth), draining at a common point by a system of streams. All land everywhere is part of some watershed.

Essentially, a watershed is all the land and water area which contributes runoff to a 152

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common point. It is a land area that captures rainfall and conveys the overland flow and runoff to an outlet in the main flow channel. It is a topographically delineated area draining into a single channel. The term “watershed” strictly refers to the divide separting one drainage basin from another. Watersheds of the small streams are the sub-watersheds of the watershed of the larger stream. Watersheds may be nearly flat (watersheds of coastal districts; especially low land area of Alappuzha, Ernakulam and Trissur districts) or may include hillocks or mountains (watersheds of mid and upland areas). Each and every water and land area is a part of one watershed or the other and the people, animal and the biotic system are part of the watershed community (Rajora, 1998).

CLASSIFICATION OF WATERSHEDS IN KERALA Menon & Pillai (1992) classified the watersheds in Kerala in to Macro Watersheds, Sub Watersheds, Milli Watersheds, Micro Watersheds and Sub Micro Watersheds based on their areal extent (Table 2). Among these classes a Micro Watershed with an average basin area of 500 Ha (5 sq km) is the ideal unit at which its inhabitants are capable of face to face communication and management of their affairs. This goes well with the concept of People’s Plan Campaign where local people use functional gramasabhas (GS) and neighbourhood groups (NHG) as the initiating point for planning.

DISASTER MITIGATION IN MICRO-WATERSHEDS Geographically a micro watershed will be of about 5 to 6 sq km in area which may contain about five to six wards of a grama panchayat sharing about half of that panchayat area. Each panchayat, by now have generated their own resource maps which essentially gives an idea about the topographic situations (elevation and slope), different land forms, streams of different orders with their flow regimes, ground water conditions, vegetation pattern, soil nature, etc . With these information, it is quite possible to delineate different types of possible “natural hazards zones” in the micro watershed area and special care could be taken in the different climatic conditions. With the added administrative and other facilities which are entrusted in the “Disaster Management Bill 2005” can substantially supplement the efforts taken by the Local bodies and the Micro Watershed Committees (WC) in the mitigation measures as and Table 2 Classification of Watersheds in Kerala State

Sl. No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Type of Watershed

Area (in Ha)

Macro Watershed (River Basin) Sub Watershed Milli Watershed Micro Watershed Sub Micro Watershed

Number

>50,000 44 10,000 to 50,000 151 1,000 to 10,000 960 100 to 1000 around 7000 1 to 100 Not estimated

(Modified after Menon & Pillai, 1992) Centre for Environment and Development

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when disasters takes place. Micro Watershed units could be the ideal units for taking necessary steps on disaster awareness, preparedness and responses. With this approach, it is desirable to have a close understanding on the National policy on disaster management along with other disaster related terminologies and the types of disasters often seen around us in our State.

CONCLUSION Disaster is a general term used for events which cause widespread destruction as “a grave occurrence having ruinous results”. In recent days it has become important to understand the disaster management cycle to minimize loses and impacts. It is equally important to note that these disasters usually confined to space and time. Disaster Management Act 2005 of India has helped the Nation in a large way to contain different disasters. However, an examination on the outcome of the disaster management in general in the LSGs reasonably suggest to plan these activities on a micro watershed basis where with certain amount of training to the members of the watershed committees (WC), the disaster management can effectively contained. This is a new approach which we may be able to examine on containing the different types of disasters, especially floods and flash floods, occurring in Kerala year after year. If the Watershed Committees (WC) are trained in such a manner to deliver the necessary help required as and when this disasters happens, the exercise will be of worth examining in adding one more unique activity of micro watershed development in our country. Flood – route-management for each flooding areas needs to be developed for effectively containing the different types of floods on a micro-watershed basis. Such a scientific and technical approach is required to find a satisfactory solution for management of any terrain which floods periodically.

REFERENCES Anon. 2000. WARSA – NWDPRA, Government of India, New Delhi.

Anon. 2000. Watershed Based Development – A Handbook for Preparation of Master Plan, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram, 96p.

Menon A G G and Pillai G B. 1992. Soil Conservation, Kerala Language Institute, Trivandrum, 67p.

Nair A S K. 2002. A revised approach to the Watershed based Development for Kerala State in Watershed based Development and management, Western Ghat Cell, Planning and Economic Affairs department, Government of Kerala, pp.92-110 Nair A S K. 2003. Process of preparation of master plan for watershed based development and management in Kerala under the 9th Plan through People’s Participation, Paper presented in the Workshop on the Preparation of Handbook for Integrated District Development Plan (IDDP) and Local Development Plan (LDP) held at KILA, Trissur on 7th April, 2003, Department of Town Planning, Government of Kerala, 14p.

Nair A S K. 2005. Cliff slumping of permeable Cliffed Shorelines,in “Landslides” (ed.)

Dr.G.Victor Rajamanickam, Sasthra University, Thanjavur, pp.81-88.

Nair A S K and George R. 2001. Unfinished tasks in the People’s Plan Campaign – Drinking Water and Watershed Based Development, Marxists Samvadam, V.6, No.21-22, pp.316-323.

Rajora R. 1998. Integrated Watershed Management, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 616p.

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Water Literacy

Prasad M K

Water Literacy

Prasad M K Executive Chairman and Director, Information Kerala Mission, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION â&#x20AC;&#x153;Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider societyâ&#x20AC;?

(UNESCO 2004). In modern times literacy is seen as a social problem to be solved through education.

The idea behind the current effort is to examine the role of literacy in conserving water resources of the world. The precarious status of our water resources and the way we are handling it makes one wonder whether we are literate or illiterate in this matter.

We have been boasting of our ancient Indian wisdom about water.

Let us for a moment look into the water wisdom in different ancient cultures.

WATER WISDOM IN DIFFERENT ANCIENT CULTURES Joicy James (2001) has given the following account of Water from the Sacred Books: The Vedas, Upanishads and epics are considered to be the Sacred Books in India. The period of the earliest of the 4 Vedas, namely the Rig Veda, is attributed to be from 1500 to 1000 BC. The brahmanas including the Upanishads, belong to 800 - 600 BC. The epics, written not later than the 4th century BC, took their present form by the 4th century AD. The importance given to water by the Indians is evidenced from references in these ancient works.

Of the 31 rivers of the sub-continent mentioned in the Vedic texts, 21 are mentioned in the oldest of Vedas, namely the Rig Veda. The initial habitat of the Aryans in India has been the basins of the seven rivers or the Sapta Saindhava, these rivers being the Indus (Sindhu), the 5 rivers of the Punjab, namely Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipas (Beas), Satudru (Sutlej),and Saraswathi (Max Muller 1860:12); the latter one, not included among the 5 rivers of the Punjab, is believed to have been Centre for Environment and Development

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buried due to certain geomorphological changes in the region. The Saraswathy eventually died as its feeders, belonging to Jamuna and Sutlej were taken over by other rivers. The names of Ganges and Jamuna are also mentioned in the Vedas. The river hymn of Rig Veda mentions as many as 10 sacred rivers to whose fertilizing waters the country owes so much of its economic development. The net-work of these rivers covered the entire Indo-Ganjetic plain, which was the habitat of the Aryans in India in the early periods.

A hymn on Creation in the Rig Veda gives precedence to water over everything: ‘…….what covered all? What sheltered? What concealed? What is the water’s fathomless abyss? …….Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled; In gloom profound, and water with out light’ (Max Muller 1860: 564).

This may be compared to the folk song of the ancient tribals of India: ‘In the beginning there was nothing but water, water, water’ A hymn from the Rig Veda runs thus: ‘…..He who also created the bright and mighty waters …..Who is the God to whom we shall offer all sacrifice?

One finds several rain-charms in the Rig Veda (I, 7.101-103); One such charm runs thus: ‘may this song be in the heart of Prijenya, may it delight him! May ours be rain, bringing prosperity, and fruitful plants guarded by the gods’ The earliest of the Vedic singers had recognized the paramount importance of this natural resource, namely water. The concern for timely rainfall, especially in a country depending on the erratic monsoons, is reflected in the rain-charms of the Rig Veda.

The Rig Veda also highlights the hydrological cycle thus: “the water which gets divided in minute particles due to the heat of the sun is carried by wind and after the conversion into cloud it rains again and again” Likewise the Yajur Veda (X-19) and the Sama Veda (VI-607) clearly speak about the hydrological cycle.

The Chandokya Upanishad gives a vivid picture of this cycle, perhaps the first mention of it with accuracy. “The rivers…all discharge their waters into the sea. They lead from sea to sea, the clouds raise them to the sky as vapour and release them in the form of rain”.

These references make it abundantly clear that the ancient Indian was well aware of the different components of the hydrological cycle, the role of solar energy in sustaining the process, and also the general distribution pattern of water.

The oldest of the epics, the Ramayana, mentions about the technology for constructing tanks.

The early Jain scholars have contributed much to the field of meteorology. The Prajnapana and Avasyaka Curnis provide information on the erstwhile knowledge of different types of wind.

The Sangham literature of the Tamils, belonging to the first centuries of Christian era, states that though the cultivation depended on water from rain and rivers, later they learnt to divert the river water through canals for the purpose of irrigation.

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The Indus Valley Civilisation (3000-1500 BC) bears witness to several water management and sanitation techniques. This civilisation flourished mainly in the basin of the Indus and its tributaries, which flow down the Himalayas and join the Arabian Sea, after traversing about 3200 kms. The river, which carry’s and deposits considerable mineral-rich sediments in the plains, often gives birth to fierce floods, and the GreecoPersians rightly called the Indus a “Lion”. Dholavira, an important site of the civilization, had several reservoirs to collect the monsoon runoff. The major contributions of the Harappans, of the same civilization, has been the construction technology of wells, the archaeological excavations have brought to light that every third house had a well. They also had practised canal irrigation.

The Arthasastra authored by Kautillya, the Minister of Chandragupta Maurya (321297 BC) gives the description of Rain Gauges used in India at that time. According to Anil Agarwal (1997) these were the first rain guages of the world. Kautilya writes: “in the magazine, the (Director of Stores) should place a basin with a mouth of one aratni (in width) as a rainguage”. Kautilya has also mentioned about the rainfall in drona measure, in different parts of the country.

Kautillya gives a vivid picture of the rudiments of a Water Law which reads: “He should build irrigation systems with natural water sources or with water to be brought in from elsewhere. To others who are building these, he should render aid with land, roads, trees and implements and also give aid to the building of holy places and parks.

If one does not participate in the joint-building of an irrigation work, his labourers and bullocks should be made to do his share of work and he should share the expenses but will not receive any benefits from it. The ownership of the fish, ducks and green vegetables in the irrigation works should go to the king”.

This is the marvelous ancient wisdom and knowledge we boast of. But what is the present state of affairs?

In 2004 Maude Barlow and Tony Clarke in Blue Gold wrote: “Suddenly it is so clear: the world is running out of fresh water. Humanity is polluting, diverting, and depleting the wellspring of life at a startling rate. With every passing day, our demand for fresh water outpaces its availability and thousands more people are put at risk. Already, the social, political, and economic impacts of water scarcity are rapidly becoming a destabilizing force, with water related conflicts springing up around the globe. Quite simply, unless we dramatically change our ways, between one-half and two-thirds of humanity will be living with severe fresh water shortage within the next quarter-century” RED ALERT We would like to believe that there is an infinite supply of water on the planet, and many of us have used water as if it would never run out. But the assumption is tragically false. Available fresh water amounts to less than one-half of one per cent of all the water on earth. The rest is sea water, frozen in the polar ice, or water stored in the ground that is inaccessible to us. The hard news is this: humanity is depleting, diverting, and polluting the planet’s fresh water resources so quickly and relentlessly that every Centre for Environment and Development

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species on earth – including our own – is in mortal danger. The earth’s water supply is finite. Not only is there the same amount of water on the planet as there was at the time of its creation; it is almost all the same water. Only a small amount may enter our atmosphere in the form of “snow comets” from the outer parts of the solar system. But even if the snow comet theory is correct, the speculated amount of water involved is so modest, it would do nothing to alleviate the shortage crisis.

The amount of fresh water on earth is approximately 36 million cubic kilometres, a mere 2.6 per cent of the total. Of this, only 11 million cubic kilometres or 0.77 percent, counts as part of the water cycle in that it circulates comparatively quickly. However, fresh water is renewable only by rainfall. So in the end, humans can rely only on the 34000 cubic kilometres from the “runoff” that goes back to the oceans via rivers and ground water. This is the only water considered “available” for human consumption because it can be harvested without depleting finite water sources.

Multiple threats All our water sources are being taxed to their limits for multiple reasons: 1. The world’s population is exploding. Ten years from now India will have an extra 250 million people and Pakistan’s population will almost double to 210 million.

In 5 of the world’s “hot spots” of water dispute – the Aral Sea region, the Ganges, the Jordan, the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates – the population of the nations within each basin are projected to climb by between 45 and 75 percent by 2025.

By that year China will see a population increase greater than the entire population of the United States, and the world will house an additional 2.6 billion people. To feed these people agricultural production will have to increase by 50 percent. In such a scenario, demand for fresh water will explode. Further more, increasing number of people are moving to cities, where dense populations place terrible strains on limited water supplies and make delivery of sanitation services next to impossible.

2. As a result of many factors, per capita water consumption is exploding. Global consumption of water is doubling every 20 years more than twice the rate of human population growth.

3. Industry claims the next big chunk of the world’s fresh water supplies, at 20 to 25 percent, and its demands are dramatically increasing. Industrial use of water is predicted to double by 2025 if current growth trends persist. Many of the world’s growing industries are water intensive.

4. Irrigation for crop production claims 65 to 70 percent of all water used by humans.

While some of this water is for small farms, particularly in the Third World, increasing amounts are being used for industrial farming, which notoriously overuses and wastes water.

5. Massive pollution of the world’s surface water systems has placed a great strain on remaining supplies of fresh water. Global deforestation, destruction of wetlands, the dumping of pesticides and fertilizers into waterways, and global warming are all taking a terrible toll on the earth’s fragile system.

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Depleting ground water In the wake of the destruction of world’s surface fresh water supplies, communities, farmers, and industries are now aggressively seeking out the water supplies running free under the earth’s surface or held in deeper aquifer reservoirs. About one-quarter of the world’s total population now depend on ground water for their drinking water.

Massive groundwater over pumping and aquifer depletion are now serious problems in most of the world’s most intensive agricultural areas and they are reaching critical levels in many of the world’s large cities.

According to the United Nations, 31 countries in the world are currently facing water stress and scarcity. Over one billion people have no access to clean drinking water and almost three billion have no access to sanitation services. By the year 2025 the world will contain 2.6 billion more people that it holds today, but as many as two-thirds of those people will be living in conditions of serious water shortage, and one third will be living with absolute scarcity. Demand for water will exceed availability by 56 percent.

RIGHT TO WATER There is simply no way to overstate the fresh water crisis on the planet today. The alarm is sounding. Will we hear it in time?

Water is a limited natural resource and fundamental for life and health. In 2002, the World Health Organisation estimated that 1.1 billion people (17% of the global population) lacked access to improved water sources, and 2.6 billion people (42% of the global population) lacked access to improved sanitation. Every day, 3,900 children under the age of 5 die from water-related diseases (eg. diarrhoea). The lives of these people, often among the poorest on our planet, are devastated by this deprivation.

Lack of access to water also impedes the enjoyment of health and other human rights (eg.right to education, right to adequate standard of living, right to food). So, the right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity, but often denied in developing as well as developed countries. The UN General Comment No.15 on the Right to Water, which was adopted in 2002 has contributed to clarifying the scope of the right to water and stimulated legislative recognition of the right to water in a small number of countries and significant action of civil society. In practice, however, even though a legal framework may exist, the right to water is often not applied for a variety of reasons: lack of resources, absence of political will, or simply people and governments are not aware of the existence of the right or they don’t know how to implement it. It is the responsibility of everybody to make sure that the essential needs for water and sanitation of everyone, particularly those who are most in need and those who are excluded, are met. The implementation of the Millennium Development Goals should contribute to satisfying these needs.

A human right to water only gained explicit expression in two UN human rights treaties:  The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (1980)  The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) As well as in one regional treaty: the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Centre for Environment and Development

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Child (1990). The Geneva Conventions (1949, 1977) guarantee the protection of this right during armed conflict. In addition, the right to water is an implicit part of the right to an adequate standard of living and the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, both of which are protected by the International Covenant on Economics, Social and Cultural Rights (1966). However, some States continue to deny the legitimacy of this right. In light of this fact and because of the widespread non-compliance of States with their obligations regarding the right to water, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights confirmed and further defined the right to water in its General Comment No.15 General Comment No.15 clearly states that the right to water emanates from and it is indispensable for an adequate standard of living as it is one of the most fundamental conditions for survival. “The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.

An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, reduce the risk of water related disease and provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements”.

Commodification of water Faced with the now well-documented fresh water crisis, governments and international institutions are advocating a “Washington Consensus” solution: The privatization and commodification of water, Price water they say in chorus; put it up for sale and let the market determine its future. For them, the debate is closed. A human need can be supplied in many ways, especially for those with money. But no one can sell a human right.

When water was defined a commodity at the second “World Water Forum” in The Hague in March 2000, government representatives at a parallel meeting did nothing to effectively counteract the statement. Instead, governments have helped pave the way for private corporations to sell water, for profit, to the thirsty citizens of the world. So a handful of transnational corporations are now aggressively taking over the management of public water services, dramatically raising the price of water to the local residents and profiting especially from the Third World’s desperate search for solutions to its water crisis. So far, most of this activity has taken place without public consultation or public input. No one has given the world’s citizens a real opportunity to debate the hard political questions about water:  Who owns it?  Should any one own it?  If water is privatised, who will buy it for nature?  How will it be made available for the poor?  Who gave transnational corporations the right to buy whole water system?  Who will protect water resources if they are taken over by private sector?  What is the role of government in the stewardship of water?

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  

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How do those in water-rich countries share with those in water-poor countries?

Who is the custodian of Nature’s lifeblood?

How do ordinary citizens become involved in the discussion?

WATER LITERACY Agenda 21 (UNCED) Chapter 36 dealing with promoting education, public awareness and training for Sustainable Education asserts that “there is still a considerable lack of awareness of the interrelated nature of all human activities and the environment, due to inaccurate or insufficient information. ….There is a need to increase public sensitivity to environment and development problems and involvement in their solutions and foster a sense of personal environmental responsibility and greater motivation and commitment towards sustainable development.”

The relevance of water literacy becomes clear in the above context.

The single most important tool for a water secure world is conservation of the world’s fresh water supplies and the reclamation of polluted water systems. “This will require a change in attitude towards water that will be a challenge to those working for water security. Simply put, humans have to stop thinking that there is an endless supply of water that can be used to attend to our every need and desire. We have to begin changing our ways, in order to meet our water needs with what is available. Humanity needs to double water productivity, and soon. That is, we have to get twice as much benefit from each litre of water we remove from rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers if we are to have any hope of providing water for the 8 to 9 billion people who will need it in the next several decades. With technologies known and available today, agriculture could cut its demands by up to 50 percent, industries by up to 90 percent, and cities by one-third, with no sacrifice of economic output or quality of life” (Barlow and Clarke 2003).

Campaign for Water Literacy A national campaign for water literacy is required to spread the message that water is a very precious natural resource, with a value system that makes water everybody’s business, and which inspires people by disseminating information about success stories.

The campaign should also make “water professionals” and policy makers aware of the social and ecological contexts, the realities of water management and the relationship between water use and total biomass production within a village ecosystem.

The campaign must not only make people aware of what works but also make them conscious of the ecological and economic changes that pose a threat to future water availability in terms of quantity and its quality.  Children should taught to estimate their own daily water use, their family’s everyday water use and compare with their entitlements.  Simple techniques of testing water quality  Simple methods of groundwater recharge.

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 

Recycling used water.

Also about rainfall - Factors that affect rainfall–monsoons–climate change, Global warming etc.  Use all forms-print, verbal, electronic media – folk theatre to create public awareness.  We must repeat the BGV Jatha with water as the main theme – an All India Jatha.  Mobile Train exhibition etc.etc.

NGOs have to put in patient and sustained efforts to bring about participatory planning in Government programmes of water harvesting through watershed development.

REFERENCES Barlow M and Clarke T The Blue Gold: The Fight to Stop the Corporate Theft of the World’s Water. ISBN: 978-1-56584-813-9, The New Press, New York.

UNESCO. 2004. The Plurality of Literacy and its Implications for Policies and Programmes.

Position paper http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001362/136246e.pdf

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Pricing of water in K erala

Gir ijavallabhan

Pricing of Water in Kerala

Girijavallabhan V K Former Accounts Member & Managing Director, Kerala Water Authority Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION This paper addresses the need for pricing of water generally, and role of pricing in water and wastewater conservation. An attempt is made to understand the water pricing strategies to be used for both stimulating conservation and for raising revenue to meet clean water needs. To understand the concept better, an attempt has also been made to share the practical experience of the Government of Kerala, which recently rationalized the drinking water tariff in the State.

The most frequent economists’ response to the imperatives of environmental protection and resource conservation is to use the price more strategically. “Full costs” refers to the complete societal costs (environmental, social and actual) that pertain to the production and consumption of a good or service. Economics shows us that social welfare is maximized when all costs are reflected in prices. This is sometimes referred to as “full cost pricing” or the “polluter pays principle.” Only then do our production and consumption decisions take into account all costs to society, resulting in the most appropriate balance of supply and demand. When prices are artificially low, we tend to consume too much. When prices are artificially high, we tend to consume too little.

The “polluter pays” principle is enormously popular among economists but it is important to emphasize that it usually suggests only a theoretical optimum. For political and social reasons, it is rare to see an “externality” fully priced and charged. This would mean identifying all the environmental effects of the product or processes at each stage in the economic cycle from production to waste, assigning those effects a monetary value and using the tax system or other authorities to add this total monetized value to the price. For full internalization, the technical and political obstacles can be formidable. More often than not, some “directionally correct” price change is suggested.

European countries are further along in implementing these kinds of price changes, alternately called “price correction,” “ecological tax reform” or “green fees”. In most of the advanced countries; approximately one-third of the electric utility companies Centre for Environment and Development

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practice a form of demand management via “peak hour pricing” of electricity. By pricing electricity in order to encourage consumers to modify their levels and patterns of electricity consumption, these participating electric utilities were able to save 4% of the total peak load in the United States. (Energy Information Administration, 1996) As with many other resources, it is unlikely that water and wastewater prices will ever fully reflect the “full cost” or “internalization” approach favoured by environmental economics, but there are some “directionally correct” pricing structures designed to encourage conservation.

From an environmental economics perspective, pricing can be an extremely valuable public policy tool. Prices can be more than a means of meeting revenue requirements or even turning a profit. Environmental economists have long advocated bringing the price mechanism more fully in line with “full costs” so that “users” might respond to “market signals” – reflecting the true and full costs of production and consumption.

Since water is basic to life, and certainly to our quality of life, the pricing of water can be a powerful means of signaling this importance and scarcity to water users, most of whom experience very little connection between their water usage and their total bill.

In our current era in which water demands are increasing while water supplies are constant or diminishing, it is important to apply economic tools to communicate the true value of fresh water.

Issues regarding low pricing of water, inability to direct subsidy to the deserving, and lack of demand management, are issues which are prevalent in the drinking water sector in the entire country. However, the Government of Kerala, while rationalizing the drinking water tariff in the State, has attempted to introduce solutions to these issues. The process followed by the State in rationalization could be a good sample for others to replicate or adopt after suitable modifications to suit their requirements in accordance with the policies of their Governments.

PRICING WATER IN THE STATE OF KERALA Statutory Provisions and Accepted Policies According to Section 23 of the Kerala Water Supply and Sewerage Act, 1986, the Authority shall not, as far as practicable and after taking credit for any grants or subventions or capital contributions or loans from the Government carry on its operations under this Act at a loss, and shall so fix and adjust its rates of taxes and charges under this Act so as to enable it to meet as soon as feasible, the cost of its operations, maintenance and debt service, and where practicable, to achieve an economic return on its fixed assets. Thus, it is mandatory on the part of the Government that either the water tariff is revised periodically or else the non-plan assistance to the Authority is revised to ensure that the Authority is run on a no profit or no loss basis.

It is also laid down in the Act that the Kerala Water Authority shall revise the water tariff only with the prior approval of the Government. Thus it is the Government’s prerogative to decide whether the drinking water supply should be managed by charging water charges directly from the users or through indirect subsidy through general taxation, which affects the non-users too.

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Historical Background Until the formation of the Kerala Water Authority in 1984, the drinking water and sanitation sector in the State was decentralized with the local bodies having the responsibility of providing the services. The Public Health Engineering Department was more or less a bulk water provider for the local bodies. However, in 1984 as a national policy for autonomous organizations in the water supply sector, the Kerala Water & Waste Water Ordinance, 1984, was enacted to establish an autonomous authority for the development and regulation of water supply and waste water collection and disposal in the State of Kerala, as well as matters connected therewith, and the Kerala Water Authority came into existence on 1st March 1984 by converting the erstwhile Public Health Engineering Department of the Government of Kerala. Unlike other States in the Republic, the Constitutional Amendment decentralizing the sector has had not much effect in the State and KWA continues as the major single agency providing drinking water services in the State. However, after the recent reform initiatives of the Government of India, the local bodies are being empowered to render the services and the role of KWA is being redefined making them responsible to render quality services to the local bodies. At the time of formation of the Kerala Water Authority (KWA), the water tariffs were very low and were also varying from 75 paise to Rs 1.50 per KL in different places. There was also a system of free allowance in Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and a few other places. In several places, PHED was supplying water, but water charges were being collected by the local body. With a view to unifying and suitably revising the water tariff, the Government issued orders on 14-10-1991, prescribing a new tariff structure for the entire State with effect from 1-10-1991. The minimum charge was fixed at Rs.10/- up to 10,000 liters per month.

The system of allowing large quantities of water as free allowance was withdrawn completely. The water tariff was subsequently revised thrice with effect from 01-041993, 01-06-1994 and 01-04-1999. Though the Government had ordered, vide GO MS No.45/93 LAD, dated 13.3.1993, that KWA can increase water charges at 15% per annum KWA, has been seeking prior approval of Government based on provision of clause (iii) of sub section (2) of section 15 of the KWSS Act 1986, presumably because of the politically sensitive nature of such revisions. Such proposals for tariff revision submitted by KWA since 2000 had not been acceded to by the Government till September 2008.

Financial Position The finances of the KWA were in a pretty bad shape till recently. The previous water tariff revision in Kerala Water Authority was done in the year 1999, and since then, the power tariff had been revised four times and the revenue - expenditure gap in KWA had widened gradually. The non-plan grant assistance of the Government compensates the KWA to a certain extent, but still, there was a wide gap between revenue and expenditure, and therefore, KWA was not paying power charges since 2003. As on 31.3.2008 the accumulated arrears stood at Rs 774 crores. Due to serious financial crisis, in addition to non-payment of power charges, KWA had to often divert capital Centre for Environment and Development

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plan funds for revenue purposes. The diversion of capital funds had seriously affected the plan schemes, causing cost and time over- run.

Preâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Tariff Rationalization Corrections The KWA and the Government of Kerala took note of the situation and took a series of steps to improve the performance of the organisation. The Government decided to waive the accumulated interest of Government loan amounting to Rs 1006 crores, and agreed to convert outstanding loan amounting to Rs 854 crores into interest-free fund.

Recently, the Government has ordered to settle the Rs.774 crores power charges arrears by a one time settlement by paying Rs 250 crores. The Government also came forward to complete the long pending water supply schemes through a one time arrangement availing loans from NABARD. KWA, from their side, took several initiatives including management improvements, computerization, claim settlement mechanisms, providing metered connections, billing and fixing responsibilities to employees. From all the efforts taken up by Government and KWA, the revenue collection went up to almost 100% within a short span of four years. In recognition of the special efforts taken up by the KWA, the Government of India had selected the organisation for the National Urban Award 2008. But these efforts, though commendable, did not generate sufficient funds to meet the ever increasing obligations of the Authority.

Immediate Reasons for Tariff Rationalization The financial situation of the KWA being what it was (Sec. 2.3), with an ever-widening revenue-expenditure gap, something drastic had to be done, and urgently. Moreover, from 1.4.2008, due to their own constraint, the Kerala State Electricity Board had begun to disconnect water supply schemes of KWA for non-payment of power charges.

As there were no other options in front of the Government, it was decided to rationalize and has actually revised the KWA water tariff with effect from 1.9.2008 to cover the revenue gap. While rationalizing the water tariff, the Government had followed few well thought out guidelines.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES Normally, the Water Charges shall be fixed in such a way that it guarantees not only a stable source of funds sufficient to cover their costs of operation (including treatment, storage, and distribution costs), but also funds for infrastructure investments.

The charges customers are asked to pay for any commodity or service sends a signal to them about the value of the product or service they are purchasing. Fees and other charges that reflect the full cost of water service will help customers to recognize the value of that service and to become more aware of how much water they use and how they use it.

While there is a need for cost recovery, it cannot be expected in a democratic society that every citizen has to pay the same. Poorer sections of the society have to be provided drinking water either free or at low subsidised rates. However, this subsidy on water rates to the disadvantaged and poorer sections of the society has to be well targeted and transparent.

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Wherever, cross subsidy is proposed, it should not be so excessive as to drive away high end users (who are after all the water utilityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best customers as they are the easiest to collect from), or induce them to shift to other sources of water, such as freely available but only partly renewable (deep aquifer) groundwater (industries).

Wherever the Government, as a policy, wants to offer special concessions to certain classes of population like Below Poverty Line (BPL) families, then, instead of cross subsidization, the Government may resort to direct assistance to the service provider.

While fixing tariff, similar rates shall be fixed for high end users in different categories to discourage miss-classification of users and consequent loss of revenue.

As per norms prescribed for designing water supply schemes, the maximum water that can be provided to a four member family in rural areas works out to 5000 to 10000 liters and in urban areas 10000 to 20000 litres per month. In the normal course, any consumption beyond these limits would result in deprivation of water to residents who live at elevated localities or are at the farthest end of the water supply network. Thus, while fixing water tariff, this fact should be given utmost importance and slabs and rate shall be so fixed that the consumers who use more water have to pay high rates so that they will be discouraged to use water beyond their permissible limits.

While fixing rates for different slabs, the social/cultural background of the citizens in the State which has a direct influence on the present higher consumption pattern shall also be considered to avoid a steep increase for consumers who are just above the capacity constraint of the system. The gap has to be reduced gradually.

RATIONALIZED TARIFF The pre-revised tariff and tariff after rationalization are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Pre-revised and Rationalized Tariff Cate gory/ Con su mption Level Domes tic 0-5 KL*** 5-10 KL *** 10-20 KL 20-30 KL 30-40 KL 40-50 KL 50 KL + Non -Dome stic 0-15 15-50 KL 50 KL + In du strial

Tariff Before , Rs .

Tariff Afte r, Rs.

Fixed - Nil, 20 (min Rs 20) 20 20 +3 / KL > 10 50 + 3 / KL > 20 80 + 5 / KL > 30 130 + 5 / KL > 40 180 + 7.5 / KL > 50

Fixed - Nil 20 (Min. Rs 20) 20 + 4 / KL >5 40 + 5 / KL > 10 90 + 6 / KL > 20 150 + 10 / KL > 30 250 +14 / KL > 40 390 + 25 / KL > 50

Minim um 100 Rs 7.35 KL 110.25 + 7.35 KL 368 + 10.6 / KL Minim um 200 10.6 / KL

Minim um 125 Rs 10.00 150 + 14 KL >15 640 + 25 / KL> 50 Minim um 250 25 / KL

***No water charges will be collected from BPL families who consume up to 10,000 liters per month. The water charge arrears of BPL familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s up to 31.8.2008 will be written off.

The water connection charges for BPL families will be reduced to 50% of the existing rate.

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RATIONALE FOR FIXING TARIFF FOR EACH GROUP/CATEGORY Domestic Consumers Up to 5000 liters – these consumers were paying Rs 20/- even before tariff rationalization. After rationalization too, they continue to pay Rs 20/- only. There are around 13% of the consumers who fall in this category. The tariff rationalization has no effect on this group.

From 5001 to 10000 litres – For every additional litre, this group has to pay Rs 4 per 1000 litre. Earlier, there was no incentive for saving water, as they were allowed to consume up to 10000 litres for Rs 20/-.

From 10001 to 20000 litres – The increase is slightly steep as this consumption group is beyond the design capacity of the water supply scheme. Maximum consumers of KWA fall under this category. Though it is beyond the capacity of the water supply scheme, penal tariff is not applied considering the social/cultural background and the prevailing high consumption pattern of the population.

From 20001 to 30000 litres – This consumption group is very much above the present capacity of the water supply scheme and also beyond the capacity designed for future population. Non-domestic tariff should have been made applicable for this group.

However, again, considering the present consumption pattern, a controlled increase has been adopted here.

From 30000 to 40000 litres – No normal household would consume so much of water.

Thus to avoid misuse or careless wastage of water, non-domestic tariff at Rs 14 per 1000 litres was initially adopted for this group. However, there was much protest from public for the sudden jump from Rs 6/- to Rs 14/- between two consecutive slabs, and the sudden jump had adversely affected the expected revenues of the KWA. A new slab was introduced fixing Rs 10 /KL for consumption beyond 30,000 litres up to 40000 litres.

Beyond 50000 litres – This category has to be penalized for exorbitant consumption.

Therefore, industrial tariff at Rs 25 per 1000 litres is adopted.

Non-domestic Consumers Up to 15 000 litres – The minimum water charges has been increased marginally to aid small offices, schools, clinics, hospitals, places of worship, etc.

From 15000 to 50000 litres - This is a new consumption slab introduced to avoid exorbitant increase to medium hotels, hospitals etc, which would have indirect impact on the common population.

More than 50000 litres – This category has to pay high rates as the water supply schemes are not designed to cater to the requirements of this group. However, the rates are not increased beyond a limit to avoid these consumers adopting alternative sources at the cost of the environment Industrial Consumers The Tariff has been fixed at Rs 25 per 1000 litres. The number of industrial consumers 168

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is very low. The rate has been kept lower than the neighboring States as it would help the industrial policy of the State and also avoid the industries adopting alternative sources for their water requirement at the cost of the environment.

BPL (Below Poverty Line) Families The concession to BPL families, offered as part of Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Water Policy, is designed to target the subsidy component directly to the most deserving group of the Society. Another important point to be noted is that the subsidy has been offered directly by Government without cross subsidization to other categories of consumers.

OUTCOME After Tariff Rationalization, KWA should be able to match their revenue and expenditure subject to continuance of the present Government non-plan assistance intended to compensate KWA towards the deficit in revenue for the water supplied through street taps at below cost, and repayment of institutional loans.

CHALLENGES The main challenge that may arise is the reduction in present consumption and consequently on revenue as a result of higher tariff for higher consumption. There should be a tendency on part of the consumers to save water and therefore, in the absence of controlled production and distribution, KWA may have to increase its consumer base to obtain the anticipated revenue.

As there has been no considerable revision in the minimum rates, the tariff is mainly dependent on recording the correct consumption. Therefore, the fitness of the meters is of prime importance. At present, non-working meters vary from 15% to 25% in different divisions. To recover the anticipated revenue, the meters have to be kept working and timely meter reading and billing has to take place.

The meter reading and demand raising efficiency of KWA has to improve. The shortage to meter readers and billing clerks has a direct impact on the revenue generation. The arrangement made with Kudumbasree for meter reading and ABACUS (Advanced Billing Accounting and Collection Utility System) now running on pilot basis at Thiruvananthapuram has to be rolled out to all billing centers.The level of outstanding debt has to be brought down through intensive collection drive. The cost of water supply could be considerably reduced by reducing the non-revenue water and KWA has to expedite the initiatives already in place to reduce it.

RECOMMENDATIONS There is always reluctance on the part of the policy makers to increase the water tariff.

The main reason is the criticism that would arise from the media and general public.

Therefore, most of the policy makers, are averse to touch the drinking water tariff.

The resistance or reluctance to pay, or charge the cost of water to the users, has systematically deteriorated the sector, or has become the major bottleneck in the development of the sector. The drinking water sector as a whole has been always on Centre for Environment and Development

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the declining trend in coverage and also services, though much money is being pumped into the sector year after year. As a result of inadequate returns on investment, the private sector would shy away from venturing into the sector. As had been done in the electricity sector and other sectors, a Regulatory Body for the water sector would go a long way in improving and sustaining the sector, which would ensure potable water supply to all.

Another major issue is the system of free sewerage services in the State. The State has no city with a proper sewerage and sewage treatment system except Thiruvananthapuram, where it is only a collection facility (no scientific treatment) and Kochi, where it covers only 5% of the population. There is no system of collecting sewerage cess or charges from users except a one time connection fee of Rs 500/-.

Unless a system of collection of sewerage charges is introduced to recover at least the operating cost the sector would never improve, and the cities would become uninhabitable with ground water pollution and other health hazards. The Government of Kerala had a proposal to collect 60% of the water charges as sewerage charge in the year 2000, and again in 2003, it had also advised the Authority to fix sewerage charges by a notification in accordance with Section 32 of the Kerala Water Supply and Sewerage Act, 1986. However, no steps have been initiated to put the system into practice. Unless steps are taken to introduce user fee for recovering operating expenses immediately, chances are that the State would be deprived of the investments in the sector as the investments are available only on the condition that the operating and maintenance costs are recovered from users. From the ever-worsening public health point of view, there is an urgent need for providing sewerage systems in the cities and towns in the State which calls for huge investments.

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Governance of Drinking Water in Kerala

Narayanan and Mohammed Irshad

Governance of Drinking Water in Kerala: Analysis of Recent Institutional Changes Narayanan N C1 and Mohammed Irshad S2 1 2

Associate Professor, IIT-Bombay PhD Scholar, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION In current discussions, at the broadest level, governance is the way society as a whole manages the full array of its political, economic and social affairs (McGinnis, 1999) and often includes the normative notion of the necessity of good governance. By ‘structure of governance’ we designate the wide range of institutions, organizations, policies and actors - among which is the government - that shapes policies and the production of their related outcomes. The shift from ‘government’ to ‘governance’ has been associated with the dilution of the role and importance of the State: the State progressively lost some of its central functions to other spatial levels such as the supranational and infra-national levels, and to non-State institutions such as private companies and voluntary organizations (Jessop, 1994). Thus governance becomes a social-political-administrative sharing process where State, market and civil society have their own roles without the State having a central role since no single sphere has sufficient knowledge to dominate a governing model (Rhodes, 1997). In this liberal version of governance, institutions are created for coordination among different members of the society, and to prevent conflicts of interests by defining the rules of the game (Gorringe, 1997). Hence, governance incorporates a notion of public action where “participation by the public in the process of social change” (Dreze and Sen, 1989) is demanded. It represents a rediscovery of civil society and of the role that institutions in that sphere can play in promoting collective, private and public ends (Mackintosh, 1992). We shall attempt to question this liberal version of governance in this paper: what is the character of the ‘civil society’ and what is the relative role of the State vis-à-vis other actors?

This study examines Kerala’s recent experience of drinking water governance, especially the institutional shifts with some foreign assisted projects for the provision of drinking water. The inquiry presumes that such interventions induce governance changes, especially the waning role of State in the provision of vital services like Centre for Environment and Development

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drinking water. Kerala has the history of a vibrant public space and institutions and hence development NGOs traditionally has a minor role unlike their counterparts in many other parts of the country. However, recent changes saw the emergence of Parastate bodies and Govt organised NGOs in the provision of water services. The study raises the question whether such a process will lead to a weakening of the public institutions responsible for drinking water provision that might have differential impacts for various societal groups regarding access and control over water.

The deteriorating financial position of Kerala Water Authority that led to the foreign assistance is done by analysis over the secondary data in the last two decades (last ten years in some cases due to non availability of data) after the formation of KWA. The background with a brief historical analysis of the evolution of water supply and the recent institutional changes is done from available literature and key informant interviews. Third section discusses the history of Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public sector water provision and the financial crisis that compelled the Kerala Water Authority to go for foreign assistance. The subsequent sections deal with the resulting institutional changes and its implications.

KERALA WATER AUTHORITY: STATE TO PARA-STATE AND CONTINUING FINANCIAL CRISIS State to Para-state The erstwhile princely state of Travancore initiated theWillingdon Water Works in 1931 to provide water supply to Trivandrum city for a prospective population of 175000.

The project was named after Lord Willingdon then viceroy and Governor General of India on whose name the scheme was named. The project was implemented through the Water Works and Drainage Engineering Department at a capital cost of Rs.56 Lakhs with the Trivandrum Municipality contributing annually towards the working expenses, which the municipality met by levying a water-tax (Pillai, 1946). After independence, the service was made part of the Public Health Engineering wing was formed under the Public Works Department (PWD) under the direction of Government of India. A major trigger was the realization that 55-60% of diseases are water borne/ transmitted due to lack of proper sanitation facilities. In April, 1956, a new department of Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) was formed under the Health Department as per another instruction of the Government of India. After the formation of Kerala state in November 1956, public health divisions were formed in all districts.

In 1971, the administrative control of PHED was transferred from the Health Department to the Local Administration Department. The Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) initiated large scale piped water schemes in Kerala. In 1982, PHED was brought under the newly formed Water Resources Department and converted into an autonomous organization called the Kerala Water and Waste Water Authority under the Water Resources Department in 1984 by an ordinance of Government of Kerala. Kerala Water Authority (KWA) was formed through the Kerala Water Supply and Sewarage Act of the state legislature on July 29, 1986. The major objective of forming such an autonomous body was to ease the financing and management of water 172

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supply and sanitation related activities. These shiftss could be related to the changing policy of the Union Government favouring transformation of public sector enterprises to autonomous entities and a World Bank loan that was the first foreign aid to KWA. Financial and Administrative changes of KWA KWA is the only public sector organisation engaged in the harnessing and distributing piped drinking water in Kerala with a huge installed capacity. It also claims of a history of sustainable utilisation of the available surface water sources and of a technical expertise to extend new services at reliable costs. Yet, this built in capacity of the authority seems to be under stress since like other public sector concerns the KWA is also reeling under a financial crisis.

Graphic presentation in Fig. 1 is an attempt to assess the financial health of KWA with four components â&#x20AC;&#x201C; interest payment by KWA, revenue receipts, GoK grants to KWA and capital expenditure by KWA. Since 1993-94, interest payment incurred by KWA is higher than the other three components and the capital expenditure is the least with all the four components increasing at higher rate from 2003-04. The trend of capital expenditure of rural and urban water supply projects is on the decline as shown in Fig. 2, which raises question mark on the sustainability of infrastructure. Higher interest payment reflects the higher debt profile of KWA. Hence, every additional investment necessarily leads to further borrowing undermining the institutional capacity of the authority.

160000

140000

120000

100000 Interest Payment by KWA Revenue Receits of KWA GoK Grant to KWA Capital Expenditure by KWA

80000

60000

40000

20000

0 1993-94 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07

Source: Annual Accounts of KWA. Fig. 1 Financial position of Kerala Water Authority

Further, the urban water supply investment is less than that of rural since 1985-86 except in four years. Form 2003-04 onwards, urban expenditure began overtaking the rural expenditure. Moreover, it shows that between the periods 1985-86 to 1997-98, the rural capital expenditure had been higher than that of urban capital expenditure.

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1400000000

1200000000

1000000000

Value

800000000 Urban Rural 600000000

400000000

200000000

0 1985-86 1986-87 1991-92 1992-93 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 Year

Source: Annual Accounts of KWA.

Fig. 2 Capital expenditure of urban and rural water supply project

assistance exclusively for the rural sector. In general, the financial status of public sector enterprises in Kerala is in a dismal state. The financial problems have pushed KWA to a position where the organisation had to approach WB and JBIC seeking loans for extending access to new consumers and maintaining the present infrastructure.

However, the contested question remains given Keralaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s present socio economic state, whether water could be considered an economically viable commodity. This does not warrant an argument that KWA has to continue the present dismal economic performance.

The production, consumption and variable costs incurred by KWA were analysed The fact that the miniscule share is spend for maintenance and the higher share of depreciation reflects the diminishing importance given to the sustainability of the infrastructure created and lowering of institutional capacity (See Table 1).

Table 1 Production, Distribution and Leakage in Piped Water in Kerala (1999 to 2006)

Year

Potential Capacity (MLD)

Production (MLD)

Distribution (MLD)

Unaccounted for Water-% to production (ie.leakages)

1999

--

1030-1050

770-800

25-30

2000

--

1030-1050

770-800

25-30

2001

1200-1300

NA

1000-1100

20-25

2002

1700-1800

NA

1400-1500

17-22

2003

1720-1820

1260-1360

756-856

37-40

2004

1720-1820

1583.60

1219.37

23

2005

1720-1820

1617.13

1245.78

22.96

2006

1720-1820

1635.00

1259.00

23

Source: Economic Review Government of Kerala 2006 and KWA Budgets Note: MLD- Million Littre per Day

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Table 1 show that the installed capacity of KWA has increased substantially over the last ten years. However, there is a clear discrepancy between production and distribution showing a huge amount of water (the actual figure is more than 37% although the average reported here is 25%) is wasted by leakage that substantially cuts into the efficiency of water distribution. This is also reflected in the wide disparity between the revenue receipts and income (see Fig. 3). Leakage is a contested term which is quintessentially the unaccounted water. Studies elsewhere have shown that these massive quantities of unaccounted water are actually appropriated by big user consumers like industries and service stations (Bhaduri and Kejrival, 2005) Fig.3 illustrates the wide disparity in the water selling income of KWA. Though the revenue receipts of KWA are on the rise, the income from water supply has been lesser to total revenue since 1995-96. The gap was moderately widening upto 1997-98 and since then income from water (plan fund+loan+grant+aid) has been lower compared to total revenue. The water tariffs in Kerala are very low compared to the costs of maintenance of major schemes. The cost per kilolitre of water is Rs. 7.39 that is indefensibly high in comparison to the selling price of Rs 2.

Table 2 explains the arrears pending to KWA. Local self-governments including Grama Panchayats, Municipalities and Corporations are the major defaulters to KWA accounting for almost 75 percent of the total arrears due to KWA with domestic consumers accounting for only 8.31 percent. In spite of reeling under financial crunch, KWA is the only para state body to address the growing demands as well as providing free drinking water to the marginalized sections who do not have the ability to pay through 197474 street taps.

Income from Water supply and revenue receipts

Rs in Lakhs

25000 20000 Income from Water 15000 Total Revenue Receipts

10000 5000 2004-05

2003-04

2002-03

2000-01

1998-99

1997-98

1996-97

1995-96

1994-95

1991-92

0

Source: Annual Accounts of KWA.

Fig. 3 Income from Water Supply of KWA to Total Revenue Receipts

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There is a growing supply-demand gap problem with a steady decline in the per-capita availability of water in Kerala. Although the unit land of Kerala receives 2.5 times more rain fall than the national average, the state has to support 3.6 times more population and per capita fresh water availability is less than the national average With added apprehensions about the depletion of basic sources. The institutional capacity of the authority in maintaining the services to consumers are built up on the pressure of supply driven state development interventions. Hence, the state government support is highly essential to carry over the policy of public initiatives to extend access to these resources, which is questionable as indicated in Fig. 4.

Plan and Non-Plan Expenditure of KWA from 1996-97 to 2005-06 35000

30000

25000

20000 Plan Non Plan 15000

10000

5000

0 1996-97

1997-98

1998-99

1999-00

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

year

Source: Annual Accounts of KWA

Fig. 4 Plan and Non-Plan Expenditure of KWA from 1996-2006

The plan fund allocation to KWA from the state government began to decline from 1998 with subsequent higher rate of increase in non-plan expenditure that forces KWA to seek alternate financial sources to meet the necessary investment including capital expenditure.

Table 2 Category-wise Arrears of Water Charge in Kerala Arrear Amount Category

Percentage (Rs. in Crore)

Domestic

60.82

8.31

Non-domestic

103.64

14.15

Industrial

24.70

3.37

Grama Panchayat

255.41

34.88

Municipality

153.95

21.03

Corporation

133.71

18.26

Total

732.23

100-

Source: Economic Review Government of Kerala

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Fig. 5 illustrates the growing disparity between GoK grants to KWA and domestic capital expenditure (which includes maintenance and repairing costs). Is this also the beginning or signs of a state retreat?

Source: Annual Accounts of Kerala Water Authority.

Fig. 5 Ratio of GoK grant to domestic capital investment of KWA

Summary of Financial Crisis  The trend of capital expenditure of rural and urban water supply projects of KWA is on decline, which raises question marks on the sustainability of infrastructure.

Higher interest payment reflects the higher debt profile of the organization.  Form 2003-04 onwards, urban expenditure began overtaking the rural expenditure.

Between the periods 1985-86 to 1997-98, the rural capital expenditure had been higher than that of urban capital expenditure. The decline of investments in rural drinking water schemes by KWA since 2000 is noticed to be due to the Jalanidhi project that mobilized massive foreign assistance exclusively for the rural sector.

The difference between the two is that the urban sector still follows the supply side state driven model and the rural sector has shifted to a ‘demand responsive approach’.  The installed capacity of KWA has increased substantially, but the discrepancy between production and distribution shows a huge amount of water (average of 37% percent) is wasted by leakage that substantially cuts into the efficiency of water distribution. This is also reflected in the wide discrepancy between the revenue receipts and income. Alternatively it has been suggested by many studies that what is accounted as ‘leakage’ in India is due to appropriation ‘ by bigger water consumers like industries (Bhaduri and Kejrival, 2005).

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 The current water tariffs are low compared to the costs of maintenance of major schemes. The cost per kilolitre of water is Rs. 7.39 that is indefensibly high in comparison to the average selling price of Rs 2 (domestic, non-domestic, industrial and street taps).  The major defaulter of payments due to KWA is the local self-government institutions (LSGs), which claim that the lion share of this is incurred for providing water through street taps to cater to the poor. Gram Panchayats have to pay Rs 1750 and corporations Rs 2628 for each street tap to KWA. This is being included in the tax paid to the concerned LSGs by all including the urban and rural poor.  The decline in plan allocation from the state government forces KWA to seek other financial sources to meet the necessary investment including capital expenditure.

FOREIGN ASSISTANCE AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES This section is describing the inflow of foreign assistance to KWA from its formation in 1984. The institutional changes that this assistance put across and the mode by which the assistance came into being are analysed.

Foreign Assistance (loans and grants) Table 3 explains the two decades of foreign assistanve flow to KWA. The World Bank (WB) was the first agency which gave aid to KWA in 1984. With an increasing trend up to 1993-94. The period 1994-95 witnessed the highest World Bank funding to KWA that declined steadily and ended in the year 2000. The Netherlands government was the largest bilateral aid donor to KWA that started in 1988-89 with the highest share in 1996-97 ending in 2003. DANIDA aid continued for ten years starting in 1988 and continued for ten years. The ongoing JBIC aid started disbursement in 200506. Except JBIC, all foreign aid has been meant for rural water supply. Another major WB aided project Jalanidhi has not been listed in KWA’s budget documents since 2001-02 indicating the withdrawal of the State. KRWSA project implemented through a network of NGOs (Support organizations) coordinated by a Government Organised NGO (GONGO) called the KRWSA (Kerala Rural Water and Sanitation Agency) that works on the principle of a decentralised demand driven water supply model managed entirely by beneficiary groups.

The foreign assistance to urban and rural sectors work on different philosophies and approaches - institution (KWA) driven urban water supply through JBIC assistance and community driven rural water sector (KRWSA) thrugh world bank assistance.

The underlying philosophy: supply-driven public provision of drinking water to the urban population and demand driven, community-owned water supply to rural areas.

The second model of KRWSA is clearly steered by non-State agencies like a GONGO called KRWSA and working through a net work of NGOs called supporting organisations (SOs) and local people’s groups called beneficiary groups (BGs). This signifies a clear state withdrawal from the rural areas, while continuing the supply driven conventional model in the urban areas. The rest of this study concentrates on the issues of rural water supply in Kerala.

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KeralaRuralWaterandSanitationAgency(Jalanidhi)

The World Bank assisted Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (Jalanidhi) was conceived in mid 1999. Project Implementation Plan was prepared and project appraisal done in mid 2000. The agreement with the World Bank was signed on 4th January 20011. The government has also created an autonomous project (GONGO) institution, the Kerala Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (KRWSA) to implement this project. According to Jalanidhi documents they adopt a demandresponsive approach to service delivery and participatory processes of design, implementation and maintenance. Thus there is a shift in the role of the government (at the state, district, and GP levels) from (a) direct service delivery to that of planning, policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation (M&E), (b) partial financial support and (c) partial capital cost financing. The total O&M costs are borne by the BGs. (www.jalanidhi.org). This in fact is a policy shift.

Regarding the flow of funds of Rs 381 crore, the Government of India borrows money for the Government of Kerala from World Bank (since the Reserve Bank of India does not have a mechanism to allow the states to directly receive foreign aid) that is transferred down to Jalanidhi. The implementation is done through an institutional structure totally new to the hitherto structure of water supply delivery in Kerala.

Organisational structure and functions.

The state government has floated a separate body called Kerala Rural Water and Sanitation Agency (KRWSA)- to implement the Jalanidhi project. Jalanidhi is a novel water sector intervention in Kerala through a Government Organised NGO (GONGO) to execute the programmes in a project mode. The role of such GONGO is to mobilise resources and ensure smooth functioning of support NGOs performing tasks like community mobilisation without the time and cost overruns of conventional governement programmes. KRWSA (Jalanidhi) qualifies as a GONGO for the following reasons- a) it is floated by the state government to operationlise the tasks in a project mode b) it does not have to undergo the cumbersome procedures of government bureaucracy c) it can recruit staff on project and consultancy mode; d) it is supposed to function with flexibility and acquire management acumen and operational efficiency of an NGO e) it has to imbibe the donor/lender approaches of demand responsive approach with the practice of cost sharing and community participation.

Jalanidhi invites application from NGOs that are Support Organisations (SO) and decides the selection and implementation of schmes. Jalanidhi conducts training for SOs with the help of World Bank officials including the project personnel. At the lowest level, the SOs are directly engaged with the planning and implementation of water supply schemes through a net work of Beneficiary Groups (BGs) that are comprised of households between the 34 to 55. Each household has to bear 15 percent of capital cost and 100 percent of the recurring expenditure of the schmes. The main objective of the training given to BGs is to internalise the project approach of cost sharing and ownership. The mode of state government involvement reflects the nature of GONGO-isation of the schemes with KRWSA entirely facilitating the scheme.

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Structure and informalisation The organisational and governing structure reveals institutional changes that KRWSA has brought about in the drinking water supply in Kerala. The 81 private on-contract staff working at the implementation level are the major players in Jalanidhi. In the post-implementation period, it seems the entire responsibility of sustaining the service rests on shoulders of BGs. Even the Panchayats have no responsibility. The future of the scheme is thus dependent on the collective capacity and economic ability of the BG members. The sustainability of the schemes is under question if the maintenance expenditure exceeds their capacity.

Table 3 illustrates the high O&M costs incurred by the BG members (most of them the rural poor) in a cursory study done to assess the burden of BGs. It is seen that BGs are paying nearly 5 to 6 percent of the average monthly household income for drinking water. This also poses a question mark to the sustainability of the schemes with the so-called ‘demand responsive approach’ that rests fully on the financial capacity of the BG members.

Table 3 Average Monthly Expenditure of Beneficiary Groups Sl No

Name of Village

No of BGs

Monthly Average O&M tariff/ house holds (Rs)

1

Kulathupuzha

55

45

Monthly average income of BGs 885

2

Thalavur

64

52

931

3

Vellarada

42

55

1080

4

Kulathor

55

67

1100

5

Mundathikode

62

59

834

Percentage of water expense to income (Rs) 5.084746 5.585392 5.092593 6.090909 7.074341

Intervention and influence at the level of idea.

The World Bank consultants and officials have direct association with KRWSA. For instance, a sustainability study earlier done by KRWSA was directly monitored by bank officials. The direct trainings offered to the project managers of KRWSA and SOs by World Bank officials indicates the degree of control and influence of World Bank. The procedure of the project has been capable enough to put in place a strong ideology of ‘demand driven approach’ in the water sector of Kerala imported as project philosophy. The discussions center on the binaries of the inefficiency of centrally planned supply driven (KWA) and, efficient decentralised demand driven (Jalanidhi) approach as articulated below Unlike the supply driven approach hitherto followed, this project will be implemented based on the need of the people. The Project will be introduced only in areas where interested groups of people show their willingness to participate in the project and 180

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abiding by the conditions of cost sharing. The group then gets a legal entity by registering themselves and only then proceeds with the rest of planning. The source selection, technology selection, purchase, contract and implementation is done by this registered body, the beneficiary group with technical help from support organisations.

This includes a sense of ownership in the people (ww.jalanidhi.org).

This idea of cost sharing is clear with 15 percent of the capital cost borne by beneficiary groups, 10 percent by Panchayats and 75 percent by Jalanidhi. The entire recurring cost is met by the beneficiaries, which is a departure from the state run water management system. Actually WB appropriated an indigenous model of community driven water supply scheme planned as part of the decentralized governance experiments in Kerala.

Role of Supporting Organisation-NGOs Jalanidhi project is designed with active NGO and private consuting firms with the following functions and responsibilities: NGOs (here SOs) and private sector consultants will play an important role in the projects There will be three categories of SOs. The first will support the GPs, BGs and beneficiary committees (BCs) on a day-to-day basis in planning and implementing the project’s activities, and providing brief support to BGs during post-implementation to stabilize scheme operations. The second will be a range of programs, or providing specialized assistance-such as preparing groundwater recharge schemes, water quality monitoring, or in developing strategy and materials for sanitation and hygiene promotion programs. The third category will be private sector consulting firms which would provide assistance in computerized financial management systems, audits and accounts, design engineering of multi-Panchayat water supply schemes, independent construction quality monitoring, management information systems (MIS) and M&E in statewide sector development activities (www.jalanidhi.org).

SOs will retreat after three months of completion of the project. The further expenditure and necessary maintenance work to keep the project active is the responsibility of BGs. The recurring expenditure (including power charge) should be met by beneficiary’s contribution (equal share). Remuneration of the SO has been fixed as Rs 3 million. In fact the SOs are initiating Jalanidhi in many Panchayats. In the post completion period BG member’s capacity becomes a crucial element of sustainability since inputs from experts and support from SO ends without any institutional safe guard.

Sustainability of new institutions This section discusses the issue of sustainability of schemes. The dependency on Consulting firm and participation of BG members to carry over the project are being analysed.

According to KRWSA’s status report (Jalanidhi, 2007), there are 170396 active households in the 4001 active BGs and 3772 schemes have been completed. The total World Bank loan is Rs 357.83 crore. As seen in Table 6, the Gram Panchayat shares 10% of costs, BG 15 % and WB (KRWSA) the rest 75%. The expenditure for Centre for Environment and Development

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maintaining the KRWSA with the foreign consultancy, training and other expenses (including maintaining the central office) is Rs 97.46 crore. When we add the core component of BG’s recurring O&M costs1, the question arises whether the project could have been conceived in an alternate manner without such huge centralized cost.

This is doubly relevant in the light of Kerala’s massive decentralization exercise (most vibrant during the Ninth Plan Period), which capacitated the panchayats on such activities of planning and implementation of projects at the local level.1 This squarely focuses the need for local coordination of BGs at least at a panchayat level since the localized BGs might lack the financial and technical expertise to sustain the schemes.

The coordination by panchayats is one way to escape the probable institutional vacuum likely to be created by the withdrawal of KRWSA after the project period.

DISCUSSION Cost Recovery Mode In the rual sector, the modus operandi of Jalanidhi project raise questions on the criticism of inefficiency of government system in comparison with GONGOs. The GONGO model initiated by Jalanidhi is an efficient mechanism owing to the unparalleled role of the community (through BGs) in carrying out the schemes with partial capital costs and full recurring expenditure. Hence the efficiency of the schemes rest primarily on the economic and managerial capacities of the BG members. However, sustaining the schemes will be difficult unless the micro level institutions meet the changing demands of O&M with the availability of water sources.

Policy Shifts KWA is a public sector organisation based on the conventional model of per-capita provision of water connections and public taps covering rural and urban areas. As mentioned in the third section there is a total withdrawal of KWA investment from the rural sector. The proposed second phase the project is supposed to be extended to new additional areas. Thus the whole rural water supply will eventually come under the ambit of Jalanidhi. This is the reason why the state government water policy documents categorically made it clear that water policy is ‘right and resource based’ rather than ‘supply management based’.

The continuation of state/supply-driven provision of drinking water to the urban population and policy shift of community-driven demand responsive schemes to rural areas is the new paradox that is emerging in Kerala. The second model is clearly steered by non-State agencies like a GONGO called KRWSA running Jalanidhi and working through a network of NGOs called supporting organisations (SOs) and local people’s groups called beneficiary groups (BGs). The way, by which Jalanidhi officials speak, bring out clearly the neo-liberal discourse, especially the contested terminologies such as ‘demand responsive approach’ and ‘water as an economic good’. These are passed on to the community through the training of BG members and thus carried to the local level3. This clarifies that policy change does not always happen through changes in policy documents, but through changes in practices in the ground. In such 182

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transformations, power of ideas is important, which is evident in the discourses within the GONGO-led rural water supply in Kerala.

Consequences for access and control of water for the rural poor.

There are reasonable increases in the access to water in rural areas by the schemes owing to the participation of BGs and willingness to meet the initial expenses and full O&M costs. However the sustainability is dependent on the ability of the BG members to meet any inflated hike in the O&M cost in future including the repair costs. In the urban sector, as mentioned in section 3, there has been no appreciable increase in access to drinking water. Future studies have to clarify the process of exclusion of sections who cannot ‘particpate’ to their inability to pay (as evidenced by Sampat (2007) in Rajastan).

Sustainability of the urban model There is a serious (source) resource constraint owing to the dwindling of the capacity of the reservoir in Trivandrum and objection by the Forest Department to expand the reservoir capacity due to reasons of forest loss. This poses a question mark to the perceived benefits of the augmentation plans in the present scheme in the capital city.

Demand management by consumers, proper monitoring of consumption by metering and charging penal charges for excess users, supply augmentation by compulsory rain water harvesting etc may be inevitable options for the future.

Summary of Discussion 

The mode of operation of JBIC project raises the question on technical dependency and institutional weakening of KWA. The heavy dependency on GONGOs leave additional economic burden on rural population. The efficiency of the schemes rests primarily the economic and managerial ability of the BG members.



Regarding policy shift the schemes made it clear that it envisages a clear state withdrawal from the rural areas, while continuing the supply driven conventional model in the urban areas.



At the level of ideas it is clear that the neo-liberal discourse, especially the contested terminologies such as ‘demand responsive approach’ and ‘water as an economic good’ are gaining currency within KWA, KRWSA and passed on to the BGs through SOs by the ‘capacity building’ exercises of lenders. This clarifies that policy changes do not always happen through changes in policy documents, but through changes in practices in the ground.

Concluding Observations In Kerala, foreign assistance played a crucial role in introducing policy and institutional changes in urban and rural water sectors. The foreign assistance to urban and rural sectors work on different philosophies and approaches such as institution (KWA) driven urban water supply through JBIC and community driven rural water sector (Jalanidhi) to World Bank assistance. This signifies a clear state withdrawal from the rural areas Centre for Environment and Development

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and jeopardise the supply driven conventional model in the urban areas owing to the over involvement of consultant. In rural sector, though the access to water for poor have increased, it simultaneously put additional economic burden on them with the inflated O&M cost, repair cost etc and the withdrawal of KWA from rural schemes.

The complete relegation of rural water services to BGs is unsustainable technoeconomically, socially and environmentally with respect to local sources. Technical and institutional hand holding by locally based NGOs or any civic organisations including linking BGs to Panchayat could be another role of civil society at the operational level at the strategic level a net work of such local NGOs /CBOs at the state level could facilitate policy advocacy for sustaining these efforts.

Even without issue of foreign funding, there are serious problems for the public utility of KWA. The state government’s approach towards KWA with the declining plan support and appropriate mechanisms to monitor costs led to the financial crisis. The State with the current mode of functioning cannot provide water services to everyone.

The effectiveness of public utilities like KWA has to increase with better work culture, accountability, transparency and participation in their functions. The modalities, roles and levels of public-public participation by an array of civil society organizations (voluntary, NGOs, citizen/neighborhood groups, other local organizations) with the State has to be specified. There should be informed public debate on water governance related issues like the demand, supply, costs, tariffs, cross subsidy to poor and state support to make the water services efficient, equitable and sustainable, ensuring of which is one of the major task of civil society organisations.

At the level of ideas, “demand responsive approach”, “water as an economic good”, and resulting “potential water business” generated by international financial institutions have to be re-examined, debated and contextually analysed with exploration of alternatives. The study also clarified that such changes in policies do not always happen through alteration of policy documents, but through changes in practices on the ground.

In such transformations, power of ideas is important and counter development of ideas could be another valuable role that civil society can play in democratizing water governance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank SaciWATERs, Hyderabad for the support of this study and also for the valuable comments by Prof. DN Dhanagre on the first draft. The usual disclaimers apply.

REFERENCES Anon. 2005. Association of public health engineer of Kerala News (1): 2 Trivandrum.

Bhaduri Amit and Kejrival Arvind. 2005. Urban Water Supply: Reforming the Rivers. Economic and Political Weekly, December 31, 2005.

Chandran Snehlata. 2001. Non-Governmental Oraganisations: Structure, Relevance and Function’ Kanishka Publishers, Distributors, New Delhi.

CWRDM. 2005. Water Resources of Kerala SOE Reporting, Kozhikode.

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Dreze J and Sen A. 1989. Hunger and Public Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Elamon, Joy. People’s Initiative in Water - Olavanna Village in Kerala, India. Reclaiming Public Water Shows; the Way, Achievements, Struggles and Visions from around the World: pp 44.

Gorringe P. 1997. The State and Institutions. The Treasury Wellington New Zealand. www.treasury.govt.nz/gorringe/papers/gp-1997.pdf (Viewed February 2004).

Hukka J J and Katko T S. 2003. Water Privatisation Revisited: Panacea or Pancake?

IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre Delft, the Netherlands.

Jessop B. 1994. Post-Fordism and the State’, In A. Amin (ed) Post-Fordism: A Reader, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Jones Tom. 2001. Institutional Evolution Toward Water Trading. OECD Environment Directorate, Paris, France.

Jalanidhi. 2007. Sustainability Evaluation Exercise–IV: Thrissur and Palakkad districts. Report on Jalanidhi (Kerala Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Agency) Trivandrum.

Mackintosh M. 1992. Introduction, In M. Wuyts, M. Mackintosh and T. Hewitt (eds) Development Policy and Public Action, pp 1-12. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Malama Albert and Barbara Mwila Kazimbaya-Senkwe. 2001. Privatisation from above and from below: A Comparative Analysis of the Privatisation of Water and Sanitation and Solid Waste Management Services in the City of Kitwe.

McGinnis M D 1999. Polycentricity and local public economies: Readings from the workshop in political theory and policy analysis. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.

Pillai Velu. 1946. The Travancore State Manual’ . Vol IV, Kerala Gazetters Department, Thiruvananthapuram, 1996 (reprinted in 1996), Rhodes RAW. 1997. Understanding governance. Policy networks, governance, reflexibility and accountability. Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Sampat Preeti. 2007. Swajaldhara or ‘Pay’-Jal-Dhara: Right to Drinking Water in Rajastan.

Economic and Political Weekly, December 29.

United Nations. 1977. Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, 14-25 March University Press. Vol. 21, No. 2, 273–282, June 2005.

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Perspectives and Strategies for Waste Water Ma nageme nt (An initiative in the context of establishment of Centre of Excellence on Waste Water Management in CED) Karunakaran P V1 , James E J2 and Babu Ambat1 1 2

Centre for Environment and Development, Thiruvananthapuram Water Institute, Karunya University, Coimbatore

INTRODUCTION The Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India has initiated many programmes in order to promote excellence in specific areas of urban management, project implementation and urban governance. One of the activities proposed under the Capacity Building Scheme for Urban Local Bodies (CBULB) is to set up Centres of Excellence in the country to create the necessary knowledge base for improving service delivery and management. The basic objectives of these Centres are to foster crosscutting research, capacity building and technical knowledge base in the area of urban development.

The major objectives of Centre of Excellence (CoE) of CED are: (i) To formulate strategy and methodology for waste water management including development of framework for waste water recycle and reuse in urban areas, pilot programmes in two selected cities and preparation of legislative framework to implement waste water recycle and reuse in cities; (ii) To carryout capacity building and training programmes for urban local bodies and also provide support to replicate the programme in other places in the country; and (iii) To function as a Knowledge Hub in the area of waste water management and solid waste management WHY WASTE WATER? The increasing significance of water scarcity worldwide and the need for increased integration and co-operation to ensure sustainable availability of drinking water is high on the UN Agenda. One of the Millennium Development Goal target is to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and sanitation by 2015. Addressing water scarcity requires a multidisciplinary approach to managing 186

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water resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. The lessons to be learned from the social, economic and environmental impacts of earlier water resources development and inevitable prospects of water scarcity calls for a paradigm shift in the way we approach water resources management. The well grounded rationales for water recycling and reuse are the principles of sustainability, environmental ethics and public participation In the last two decades, in India, although there has been significant increase in the coverage of drinking water as compared to other regions in the world, regional disparities still exist. India’s urban morphology is characterised by abnormal and unprecedented growth of ‘one lakh plus’ cities in the last few decades with more ‘sub one lakh’ towns adding to this list. While essential infrastructure systems have been put in most urban centres, their management and optimisation to meet growing demands are far from satisfactory. India’s urban water sector domain is characterised by increasing competing uses, allocation issues, declining sources and inconsistent supplies, service delivery gaps, insufficient models for sustainable urban water management, multiple institutional players, low sensitivity levels towards environmental safeguards, etc. With the cities promoting water-intensive developments, the need today is to treat urban water management on a wider canvas in contrast to conventional approaches.

Urban reuse of wastewater has proven the most effective way to reduce water resource consumption and the environmental dangers posed by the disposal of large quantities of insufficiently treated wastewater. Water reuse can be classified as potable which is defined as all water consumed for drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene and nonpotable such as (i) agricultural (ii) urban (iii) industrial or (iv) indirect potable reuse as infiltrated aquifer recharge. The commercial and residential structures that compose most urban development use in excess of 80% of their potable flow for non-potable, or “non-drinking” quality consumption, resulting in a costly, inefficient use of a limited resource. In select commercial applications, 75% or more of the domestic supply serves toiletry fixtures alone. Conservatively, 70% of the current urban water demand could be supplemented by reclaimed or reuse water technology.

Urban areas in India generated about 5 billion litres a day (bld) of wastewater in 1947 which increased to about 30 bld in 1997 (Winrock International India, 2007). According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), 16 bld of wastewater is generated from Class-1 cities (population >100,000) and 1.6 bld from Class-2 cities (population 50,000-100,000). Of the 45,000 km length of Indian rivers, 6,000 km have a biooxygen demand above 3 mg/l, making the water unfit for drinking (CPCB, 1998). An estimated 80% of wastewater generated by developing countries, especially China and India, is used for irrigation (Winrock International India, 2007). Strauss and Blumenthal (1990) estimated that 73,000 ha were irrigated with wastewater in India.

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However, Buechler and Mekala (2003) estimated that even just along the Musi River, that runs through Hyderabad, and the canals and tanks off this river, approximately 40,000 ha of land were irrigated with urban and industrial wastewater diluted with fresh river water especially during the monsoon season. More than 80% (only 4,000 Million Litres per Day (mld) of 17,600 mld wastewater generated in India is treated) of wastewater generated is discharged into natural water bodies without any treatment due to lack of infrastructure and resources for treatment (Winrock International India, 2007). Approximately 30,000 mld of pollutants enter into Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rivers, of which 10,000 million litres are from industrial units alone (CPCB, 1998). The Water Act covers industrial effluent standards, but ignores the domestic and municipal effluents even though they constitute 90% of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wastewater volumes (Sawhney, 2004).

The use of treated, partially treated and untreated urban wastewater in agriculture has been a common practice for centuries in developing countries which is now receiving renewed attention due to rapid urbanization. By 2015, 88% of the one billion-person growth in the global population will occur in cities; the vast majority of this growth will occur in developing countries (UNDP, 1998). An increase in urban water supply ensures an increased wastewater generation, as the depleted fraction of domestic and residential water use is only in the order of 15 to 25% (Scott et al., 2004). The growing wastewater volumes render a cheap and reliable alternative to conventional irrigation systems. In this context wastewater is a resource that could be of increased national and global importance, particularly in urban and peri-urban environment. Hussain et al. (2001) reports that at least 20 million hectares (ha) in 50 countries are irrigated with raw or partially treated wastewater. Strauss and Blumenthal (1990) estimated that 73,000 ha were irrigated with wastewater in India.

In India, though there are few isolated experiments and pilot models for waste water recycle and reuse for various non-potable purposes, it has not become part of the urban planning/management programme in most of the urban local bodies. In majority of the urban areas, the activities in the waste water sector are mostly for waste water disposal than recycle and reuse. Moreover, waste water recycle and reuse has not received much attention by the policy-decision makers. One major reason may be the lack of viable models with necessary research and technology support, strong policies and legal framework at the national and state level and lack of sufficient trained manpower in the urban local institutions.

The perspective of establishing Centre of Excellence is to address these issues through research and streamline the viable technology through implementation in selected areas.

It also envisages documentation of experiences and good practices in other places to establish a Knowledge Hub on Solid and Waste Water Management and capacity building and training and handholding support to replicate the experiences in other urban local bodies.

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RATIONALE AND BENEFITS OF WASTE WATER REUSE 

Wastewater recycling and reuse is definitely the one major way out visible to avert the looming global water crisis. Many factors like availability of water resources, the necessity to preserve rather than develop water resources, careful economic considerations, uses of the recycled water, the strategy of waste discharge and public policies that may override the economic and public health considerations or perceptions, etc., determine whether the recycling is appropriate for a given situation. It is an important water management option both to shore up conventional resources and to reduce the environmental impact of discharges.



Water reclamation and reuse allows for more efficient use of energy and resources by tailoring treatment requirements to serve the end-users of the water and reduces pollution.



Increasing water demands, water scarcity and droughts, environmental protection and enhancement, socio-economic factors, public health protection, etc., are the major factors driving the need for wastewater reuse.



Water recycling can decrease diversion of freshwater from sensitive eco-systems thereby enhancing conservation of fresh water supplies significantly. Recycled water could be used to create or enhance wetlands and riparian (stream) habitats.



Nutrients in reclaimed water may offset the need for supplemental fertilizers, thereby conserving resources. If this water is used to irrigate agricultural land, less fertilizer is required for crop, thus by reducing nutrient (and resulting pollution) flows into waterways, auxiliary activities such as tourism and fisheries could be enhanced.

CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN WASTE WATER RECYCLING Choosing the most appropriate treatment technology for water reuse is a very complex process. The cascading methodology of recycling water from one source and using it for another destination process must consider multiple source processes with varying outlet utilities, different contaminants, several destination processes with well-defined water quality standards and a large number of applicable treatment technologies. Some of the crucial challenges to be addressed while adopting wastewater recycling and reuse are, (i) water recycling and treatment techniques to be employed can be quite complex and site specific, (ii) technical feasibility, cost and public policy acceptance remains a major challenge, (iii) the broad spectrum of pathogenic micro-organisms present in high concentrations in wastewater may pose potential health risks to the workers or adjacent residents who may be exposed to wastewater recycling activities, and to the public who may consume wastewater irrigated crops or recreate on wastewater irrigated lawns or lakes and (iv) in the case of recycling for potential domestic use, the Centre for Environment and Development

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organic and inorganic toxic chemicals and micro pollutants from industrial and domestic sources are a cause for concern.

Some of the factors associated with waster reuse and recycling are (i) the need of centralized wastewater treatment systems, its location, availability of space in and around cities for the treatment plants and topography â&#x20AC;&#x201C; all of these factors restrict the use of wastewater to certain areas and for specific purposes, (ii) the high transportation costs of the wastewater from treatment plants to the point of use may encourage use of existing infrastructure (like irrigation canals) so that wastewater is increasingly used in agriculture or on market gardens in the peri-urban areas of the city, rather than in households or by industry, (iii) the ownership of wastewater such as water authority or local bodies and the necessity of dual reticulation system, and (iv) the positive (environmental benefits from reduced discharge of saline wastewater into natural water bodies) and negative externalities (potential groundwater pollution and increase in soil salinity if used for irrigation and potential unknown ill effects on human health) associated with wastewater recycling.

IMPLICATIONS OF WASTEWATER REUSE There are both positive and negative implications of wastewater reuse. The positive implications include: employment generation, food security for urban and peri-urban poor farmers, reliable supply of irrigation water and the recycling of nutrients in wastewater. Since wastewater is available round the year, the urban poor farmers and migrant laborers are assured of employment throughout the year. In the peri-urban areas along Musi, Hyderabad, it was found that wastewater-irrigated paddy contributes almost 43% of household food consumption (Buechler and Mekala, 2005). The high nutrient content of the wastewater helps farmers save on the fertilizer costs and its reliable supply helps increase the cropping intensity. Wastewater can also have a positive or negative impact on the property values. In Haroonabad, in Pakistan, the wastewaterirrigated land has a higher value than the canal-irrigated land (Hussain et al., 2001).

On the other hand, because of the partial or no treatment of wastewater, it endangers the very livelihoods it generates over the long term. Long-term use of wastewater for irrigation increases soil salinity, accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, and finally breakdown of the soil structure. Ample evidences are available which show that the groundwater in all wastewater irrigated areas has high salt levels and is unfit for drinking.

Further, high groundwater tables and water logging are also common features of these areas. Wastewater contains a number of pathogens of which human parasites such as protozoa and helminth eggs are of special significance which can cause diseases in user communities and consumers. Further, wastewater containing a high level of nutrients may cause eutrophication and cause imbalances in the ecology of the water bodies it is released into.

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BOX 1. SELECTED CASE STUDIES FROM INDIA Waste Water for Irrigation Project, Hyderabad Musi river is located in Andhra Pradesh and it is a tributary of the Krishna river and flows to the Bay of Bengal. This river is used in the upstream of two cities for paddy cultivation and for other crops. The remainder flows into a reservoir located upstream of Hyderabad and is used for supply of drinking water. At Hyderabad, the river receives sewage water from the system as well as from outside the system. It joins the Krishna river in Nalgonda district. However, due to upstream wastewater use, the Musi is usually dry by the time it reaches the Krishna river except when rainfall exceeds normal rates.

This flow in the Musi is perennial due to urban domestic and industrial discharge.

Wastewater released into the river is untreated or partially treated; most of it is released from the two wastewater treatment plants operating in the region. One of these plants has primary and secondary treatment, while the other just has primary treatment facilities.

According to estimates, only 40 percent of the sewage is removed before it is drained into the river. Around 16,000 ha. are irrigated with the wastewater of the Musi River.

Most of the wastewater discharged into the Musi (around two-thirds of the total discharge) is channelled via open sewage drainage canals. The remaining one-third is channelled through the sewage system to either of the two treatment plants, from where the partially treated wastewater is channelled downstream via a canal used for agricultural irrigation.

In absence of freshwater supplies, wastewater was the only alternative source available for the farmers.

Waste Water Management at East Kolkata Wetlands The East Kolkata Wetland System is one of the systems where the waste water is managed through natural process. Kolkata is the only metropolitan city in the world where state government has introduced development controls to conserve the wetlands, which doubles up as waste treatment system through recycling process. The wetland is largely manmade, comprising inter tidal marshes including salt marshes, salt meadows with significant waste water treatment areas like sewage farms, settling ponds, oxidation basin is one of the rare examples of combination of environmental protection and development management where a complex ecological process has been adopted by the local farmers by mastering the resource recovery activities. It is the largest ensemble of sewage fed fish ponds in the world in one place. The Kolkata Municipal Corporation area generates roughly 600 MLD of sewage and wastewater and more than 2,500 metric tons of garbage.

The wastewater flows through underground sewers to pumping stations in the eastern fringe of the city, and is then pumped into open channels. Thereafter, the sewage and wastewater is drawn into the fisheries of the East Kolkata Wetland by the owners of the fisheries. A network of channels is used to supply untreated sewage and to drain out the spent water. In the 1930s sewage-fed fish farming started in the extensive pond system.

The fisheries developed into the largest single excreta-reuse aquaculture system in the world with around 7,000 ha in the 1940s, supplying the city markets with 10-12 tons of fish per day. Today the Kolkatta Wetlands using wastewater both in agriculture and in aquaculture covers an area of about 12,000 ha, known as the Waste Recycling Region.

Wastewater-fed aquaculture systems like the Kolkatta Wetlands represent control-lable public health risks. This is due to a combination of long retention times, high temperatures, high solar irradiance, high natural microbiological activity, and adequate personal hygiene and food handling.

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Wastewater Recycling Initiatives in Chennai Chennai is one of the metros in India which faces chronic water shortage with a complete dependency on ground water for water supply. The city with an area of 181.06 sq. km has a population of 4.34 million as on 2001 and the water supply in 2001 was 250 million litres per day for a demand of 600 million litres per day. Various programmes have been initiated by both Chennai City Corporation and industry players for reclamation of waste water. This becomes particularly significant considering the fact that Chennai is one of the most water scarce cities in India getting rain for only 10 days on an average a year.

Industry Initiatives: Three major industries such as Madras Refineries Limited (MRL), Madras Fertilizers Limited (MFL) and GMR Vasavi Power Corporation Limited are reclaiming about 35 MLD water. The treatment scheme followed by these industries includes the biological treatment to remove the residual BOD in the incoming sewage, chemically aided settling, pressure sand filtration, ammonia stripping, carbonation, break point chlorination, multimedia filtration, dechlorination, cartridge filtration, and pressurized by high pressure pumps, and the delivery to three Reverse Osmosis (RO) units for desalination before reuse. The use of highly treated waste water into the environment reduces the contamination of surface and ground water, uneven distribution and exploitation of water resources.

Grey water for gardening: Finding water for gardening in Chennai has been a difficult proposition in recent years with dipping groundwater levels and the increasing demand for drinking water. Chennai Corporation recently launched a drive to source recycled grey water for watering avenue trees and plants in parks and other gardening use and several residents in the city have started turning to â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;grey waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, to meet their gardening needs.

The local body recommends a simple two stage recycling technique which includes creating a primary treatment pit consisting of charcoal and blue metal (which is used for construction) and a secondary pit that will just hold the water and help settle some of the smaller impurities. The outlet of water from kitchen and bathroom needs to be diverted to the primary pit. Recycled water can be pumped out from the secondary pit. Residents of Thiruvengadam Street in West Mambalam have been among the first to implement the recycling. The local Corporation engineers provided them with the basic design for wastewater treatment and, as a first step, the residents sourced grey water from a residential complex. Encouraged by the results, they now plan to source water from all the households in the street. It would of course be best if a separate pipeline is created for grey water from kitchen and bathrooms to the treatment pits at the time of construction itself.

Wastewater Recycling Plants in Bangalore The Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) have introduced 3 recycling treatment plants. The recycling projects are designed for Vrishabhavathy Valley, Yelahanka Satellite Town and Koramangala and Chellaghatta Valley, Vrishabhavathy Valley In May 2003, BWSSB commissioned a 60MLD tertiary treatment plant costing about 35 crores. Funds arranged through KUIDFC/HUDCO. Recycled water is to be supplied to Karnataka Power Corporation Limited, for power generation plants. Conventional Biofilter process will be used for the secondary treatment. This project is the biggest in the country in its size and technology.

Yelahanka Tertiary Treatment Plant It is a 10MLD plant with an estimated cost of 400 crores with support from KUIDFC/

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HUDCO commissioned in May 2003. Recycled water is proposed to be supplied to ITC, Wheel and Axle Plant and to the International Airport at Devanahalli. Yelahanka Treatment Plant consists of 3 stages, a primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment.

Filtration is the most important treatment in the final phase for removal of suspended solids. Chlorination of the treated effluent is done by saturation of treated water with chlorine followed by injection of the saturated solution into the effluent. Minimum chlorine contact time of 45 minutes is ensured. Chlorinated recycled water is pumped through pipe to the end users. The treatment of sludge:-Sludge treatment comprising of thickeners (thicken primary and biological sludge) continuously operate after dewatering. Dewatered sludge undergoes lime dosing before final disposal. The BOD and suspended solids of the treated water become less than 5 mg/l. The BOD of the raw wastewater is 380 mg/l and suspended solid is 480 mg/l.

Koramangala and Chellaghatta Valley Project This sewage treatment plant treats 136 MLD and the treatment process is the conventional activated sludge process. The average reduction of 8.8% of BOD, suspended solids of about 80% will be there in the treated effluent.

Grey water Treatment Plants in Ashram Schools, Madhya Pradesh Dhar and Jhabua are two districts of Madhya Pradesh in Central Province of India which suffers recurrent water quantity and quality problems. Lack of water is major reason for low sanitation coverage in schools. In many residential schools in Dhar and Jhabua Districts, limited availability of freshwater has prompted UNICEF, in collaboration with NEERI and other governmental and non-governmental partners, to explore the use of grey water for appropriate purposes such as flushing of toilets. A holistic water management is adopted in these schools by integrating different water usages and corresponding quality requirements. It has been found out in Ashram schools that water requirement is about 60-70 Litre per student per day as against drinking/cooking water requirement of 5 Litre per day. The grey water treatment plants have been constructed by providing treatment techniques such as screening, equalization, settling, filtration and aeration. This simple treatment has resulted in use of treated grey water in flushing the toilets. They have constructed six grey water treatment plants. The purpose of the plants was to make water available to flush toilets, to improve sanitation, to use treated grey water for gardening and for floor washing. The operation and maintenance of these plants are by students and Parent Teachers Association (PTA). Government of Madhya Pradesh will be funding regular maintenance of these plants. Performance evaluation of grey water treatment plant was undertaken by NEERI by collecting samples from seven treatment plants. The turbidity removal efficiency of 50% (<200 NTU) is observed in all the grey water treatment plants.

Considering direct correlation between turbidity and microorganism, it can be stated that microbial removal efficiency of these grey water treatment plants is also approximately 50%. To ascertain the level of microbial hazard, results of the microbiological analysis were compared to established guidelines for grey water outlined by WHO and the Government of India. The cost benefit analysis concluded that the cost of the system may be recovered in two years. Additionally, the system provides secondary benefit such as improved education, clean environment and time available for other activities.

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TYPES OF WASTE WATER RE-USE AND TREATMENT Wastewater is reused in many ways: direct reuse, indirect reuse, intentional direct reuse for non-potable purposes, unintentional indirect reuse, intentional indirect reuse for potable purposes etc. Direct reuse consists of treated waste water delivered to the user directly by pipe or through a reservoir. It is restricted to non- potable uses like industrial processes, recreational facilities, and irrigation in some countries. If untreated grey water is used for irrigation, toilet flushing, etc., it is unintentional direct use for non-potable purposes. When treated and untreated waste water is returned to a water body and is inadvertently taken for use, then it is indirect reuse and it commonly occurs in rivers. Unintentional indirect reuse happens when a source of drinking water receives the wastewater resulting in an uncontrolled and unplanned reuse. Intentional indirect reuse of reclaimed waste water for potable purposes include planned ground water recharge with extensively treated effluents from treatment plants after advanced treatment. Broadly, wastewater is treated to three levels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; primary, secondary and tertiary levels.

Primary treatment Treatment involving sedimentation (sometimes preceded by screening and grit removal) to remove gross and settleable solids. The remaining settled solids, referred to as sludge, are removed and treated separately.

Secondary treatment Generally, a level of treatment that removes 85% of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and suspended solids via biological or chemical treatment processes. Secondary treated reclaimed water usually has a BOD of <20 milligrams per liter (mg/L) and suspended solids of <30 mg/L, but this may increase to >100 mg/L due to algal solids in lagoon systems.

Tertiary treatment The treatment of reclaimed water beyond the secondary biological stage. This normally implies the removal of a high percentage of suspended solids and/or nutrients, followed by disinfection. It may include processes such as coagulation, flocculation and filtration.

SUGGESTED METHODS AND STRATEGIES The specific objective of the Centre of Excellence in the first phase is to develop Strategies and Methods for urban waste water management through adopting a practical approach for recycling and reuse. The water use for human life can be considered in three lines such as (i) uses which require treated water for drinking, cooking or similar purposes, (ii) uses which requires partially treated water and (iii) use for which untreated water can be utilized. The present trend of water use shows that treated water is used for all the purposes where untreated or partially treated water can be utilized. Another issue to be addressed is how the waste water can be utilized for purposes other than drinking through simple treatment. The Centre of Excellence on Water Management to be set up at CED will address these issues. The entire activities in the first phase of CoE will be carried out in the following six steps.

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Step I - Review and Experience Learning Step I will focus on review and experience learning of waste water management (specially recycle and reuse) at the national and global context. The activities include are review of waste water recycle and reuse in the Indian cities as well as other countries through secondary data (Fig. 1). The review will focus on: (i) Technical/ Technological - The technology used for treatment of waste water at various levels such as primary, secondary and tertiary level; the local availability of technology and its adaptation; availability of technical manpower, etc. (ii) Institutional - The institutional arrangement for the management of waste water recycle and reuse, role of ULBs, etc. (iii) Financial - funding possibilities, self financing options for small projects, private entrepreneurships, institutional projects funding, pricing if any, etc. (iv) Policy/ Legal frame work - review of policy and legal frameworks developed for the purpose, changes made in the building rules, etc.

The available DPRs prepared as part of JNNURM, UIDSSMT and plan programmes of ULBs and other departmental projects for waste water management will be reviewed

Review & Experience Learning on Waste Water Management Review of National level studies (Technical/techn ological, Financial, Institutional and Legal/Policy)

Review of available DPR (JnNRUM and other DPR)

Learning national level experience on waste water recycle/reuse (Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Nagpur, CEPT, Alandur, etc)

Interactions with MoUD and other Institutions (NEERI, CEPT, CPHEEO, CPCB, etc)

Output 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Concept Paper/Review Paper

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of activities involved in the review and experience learning

to get information about waste water recycle and reuse options included and also to identify the gaps if any in terms of technological, institutional, financial and policy/ legal framework. The authorities of the ULBs (e.g., Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, etc), institutions (e.g., NEERI) and other implementing agencies (e.g., CPCB, CPHEEO, etc) in India where similar exercise have been carried out will be consulted to collect their feed back on the process and mechanism involved in waste water management.

Once the review of the experience are completed, a concept paper will be prepared and followed by a national level workshop .

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Step II - Case Studies in Selected ULBs The primary objective of this strategy is to carry out a status survey on water and waste water use by different categories of users, like residential, (individual houses, apartments) public institutions, public places, public offices, public utility services like railway, transport corporations, commercial establishments such service stations, markets, restaurants and lodges, etc. The status of waste water generated, present management if any, etc., will also be documented. It is proposed to conduct the preliminary study in Thiruvananthapuram City Corporation and Palakkad Municipality owing to their characteristics.

The study will be carried out with the help of field tested well defined questionnaires.

The investigators will be given necessary training and a stratified sampling method will be adopted. It is suggested to concentrate on major users or sources for the survey.

The data collected will be analysed based on available model and quantification of waste water generation will be done. The final output of this step will be a status report on water use and waste water management of different category of users in the ULBs studied (Fig. 2).

Primary study in selected cities â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Thiruvananthapuram and Palakkad

Design of draft questionnaire and field testing

Brainstorming Workshop

Selection and training to the Investigator

Selection of samples (major users/ sources)

Conduct of survey

Focal Group Discussions

Output II â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Status on quantity and quality of water use and waste water

Fig. 2 The schematic representation of strategies involve in primary study stage

Step III- Implementation of Pilot Schemes Based on the review, experience learning and primary survey, an implementation plan for selected pilot schemes will be formulated (Fig. 3).

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Implementation of Pilot Scheme Identification of schemes/ activities to be implemented

Documentation of Technology studies and adaptation

Preparation of DPR (Technical/ Technological, Financial, Instit utional and Legal & Policy)

Consultation with: LSGIs; Private institutions; Public/ other private institutions for implementation arrangements

Participatory learning and Implementati on of Technology

Output III â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Documentation of Step III

Fig 3. Schematic representation of implementation strategy

The first process involved in the implementation is the identification of suitable schemes and agencies. Then the relevant technologies will be identified based on the implementation carried out in other cities and based on which DPR will be prepared.

Once DPR is ready consultation with various stake holders for implementation will be carried out. The groups include the ULB functionaries in 2 cities, public institutions, private institutions/ entrepreneurs who are willing to partner with the programme etc.

Different institutional models will also be tried out like public private partnership, public-public partnership, etc. The implementation of pilot scheme will be an opportunity for participatory learning also. Process documentation of the implementation, issues and constraints, feasibility in terms of technology, financial, institutional and policy/legal aspect will be assessed.

Step IV - Formulation of Strategy and Methodology Direction to Develop National Policy The fourth stage of the study is to develop directions for developing national policy for waste water management in the country. Integrating the experience from earlier steps will help in formulating directions to develop a national policy for waste water management. The specific activities include (Fig. 4) the revisit of the pilot implementation and DPR prepared for the same, and based on which draft strategy and methodology for facilitating national policy formulation will be developed. In addition to the regional experience, global initiatives will also be consulted. The draft will be discussed in a national level workshop. A draft tool kit for DPR preparation will also be prepared and vetted in the workshop. The outcome will be a paper on policy/legal framework with strategy of implementation of waste water management in India.

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Formulation of Strategies for direction to develop National Poli cy

National Workshop for review implementation experience and DPR

Draft strategies for facilitating Nati onal Policy formulation

Output IV – Tool kit for DPR preparation and D irecti ons to facilitate the formulation of National Policy

Review of Global experience

National workshop to discuss the draft strategies

Fig. 4 The schematic representation of activities involved in formulation of direction to develop national policy

Step V- Capacity Building, Training and Awareness Programmes Capacity building, training and awareness programmes are the key to the success of any novel activities. It will focus on three major aspects such as policy, DPR preparation and Implementation (which includes training on technology and technology transfer).

The major activities include training need assessment and Training Utility Index will be prepared. The need assessment will be in terms of technological, financial, institutional and policy. Initial capacity building will be given to the CoE personnel to internalize the programme, to provide leadership and implement the activities at various steps. Specific trainings include (i) training for the investigators to prepare status report of case study cities, (ii) technology training for pilot scale implementation in case study cities and (iii) training to prepare model DPRs (Fig. 5). Capacity building for functionaries of case study cities will be carried out in the following way;  Sensitisation/ Orientation training to elected representatives –focusing on policy perspective, institutional aspects, etc  Orientation training to senior officers of ULBs/ line departments–focusing on policy perspective, strategy and methodology, institutional, financial and policy/ legal frameworks, etc Technical training to Town Planning/ Engineering Department - policy perspective, strategy and methodology, technology options, DPR preparation and implementation planning  Orientation Training to implementation partners – ULB, private entrepreneurs, individuals, other agencies, NGOs etc.-Institutional, financial, technical including O&M, cost- benefit analysis, replication support etc  Orientation training for technology adaptation/ development for implementation to CoE personnel, planners and engineers, implementation partners, etc- mainly on technical and technological aspects 198

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

Awareness/ IEC programmes to different target groups like school children, working people and professionals, local community, etc- lecture classes, focus group discussions, workshops and seminars, school- based programmes, etc

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Focus programmes on Waste Water Management (Recycle & Reuse) at the national level through national media- dissemination of ideas, process and procedures through print and electronic media

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Finally capacity building and handholding support to other ULBs in India ; 2 – 3 persons from each State, focussing on perspective, technological, institutional, financial and policy/legal frameworks for waste water management in urban local bodies at the national level.

Capacity Building and Awareness Programme Internalisation of CoE personnel through interactions and brainstorming sessions

Training need assessment

Output V – Trained functionaries in ULBs of case study cities and Key Resource Persons at the States

Capacity building for ULBs functionaries of case study cities

Handholding support to other ULBs

Fig. 5 Schematic representation of Training and Capacity building programme

Step VI - Development of Knowledge Centre A Knowledge Centre will be developed as part of CoE to provide information support to the ULBs in the country. The Knowledge Centre will focus on water management (including solid waste and waste water management). The following activities will be carried out (Fig. 6). 

Collection and collation of data and information on water and waste water management available at various state and national institutions and also at the global level. The various national research laboratories working in water and sanitation sector will be contacted for this purpose.



Case Studies and pilot models on waste water management developed by various governmental and non-governmental institutions, local bodies in India and outside will be documented through secondary sources.

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

The experience from the CoE studies and pilot models will be properly documented including the process documentation.

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CED has already registered a CED Knowledge Portal and this will be the nodal point for information collection and dissemination.

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An e-discussion forum will be initiated through the CED Knowledge Portal.

Development of Knowledge Centre

Collection and collation of data – Literature based

Data collected through case studies

Output VI – Knowledge Centre on W ater Management and Solid Waste Management established

Registration and establishment of Knowledge Portal

e-Discussion Forum on urban water management and Solid waste management

Fig. 6 Activities included in establishing Knowledge Centre

CONCLUSION Waste water has been recognised as an important resource in both developed and developing countries where scarcity of water is apparent. There are many instances around the world where this resource has been effectively utilised for generating employment and economic development. Nevertheless with the growing population the volumes of urban wastewater have dramatically increased and the problem is further complicated with increased contamination with new chemicals (in shampoos, soaps, etc.) with changing lifestyles and the addition of industrial effluents. In order to make the recycling and reuse of waste water a success story several social and economic aspects such as perceptions of people regarding water, education levels, awareness towards the environment and the willingness and ability to pay to protect their environment to be carefully considered. In addition to this, the political will and institutional support are essential to make wastewater a safe asset for people in countries like India. With issues of climate change, increases in urban population and increased demand for water from competing sectors, wastewater recycling and reuse is becoming an important strategy to complement the existing water resources for the country and there are lessons, experiences, data and technology which can be shared for desired benefit.

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REFERENCES Buechler S and Mekala G D. 2003. Wastewater as a Source of Multiple Livelihoods? A Study in Rural Andhra Pradesh, South India. In: Devi, R.; Ahsan, N. (Eds.), Water and Wastewater: Perspectives of Developing Countries. London, UK: International Water Association.

Buechler S and Mekala G D. 2005. Household Food Security and Wastewater-dependent Livelihood Activities Along the Musi River in Andhra Pradesh, India. Internet publication. http://www.who .int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/gwwufoodsecurity.pdf CPCB. 1998. Water Quality Status of Yamuna River. Centre Pollution Control Board, New Delhi Hussain I, Raschid-Sally L, Hanjra M A and Marikar F van der Hoek W. 2001. A framework for analyzing socioeconomic, health and environmental impacts of wastewater use in agriculture in developing countries. IWMI Working Paper 26. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Sawhney A. 2004. The New Face of Environmental Management in India. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd..

Scott C, Faruqui N and Raschid-Sally L. 2004. Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Management Challenges in Developing Countries. In: Scott, C. A.; Faruqui, N. I.; RaschidSally, L. (eds.). Wastewater Use in Irrigated Agriculture: Confronting the livelihood and Environmental realities. IWMI/IDRC-CRDI/CABI, Wallingford, UK. Strauss M and Blumenthal U. 1990. Human Waste Use in Agriculture and Aquaculture: Utilization Practices and Health Perspectives. IRCWD Report 09/90. International Reference Center for Waste Disposal (IRCWD). Duebendorf, Germany.

UNDP. 1998. Global Human Development Report 1998. United Nations Development Programme. Oxford University Press, New York.

Winrock International India. 2007. Urban Wastewater: Livelihoods, Health and Environmental Impacts in India. Research report submitted to International Water Management Institute, Winrock International India, New Delhi.

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Assessing Canal Seepage and its Impact on Ground Water Regime - A Case Study of Valapattanam River Basin

Abdul Hameed E1 and Mahesha A2 1 2

M Tech Student in Water Resources Engineering & Management, and Technical Officer, CWRDM Professor, Department of Applied Mechanics & Hydraulics, NITK, Surathkal

INTRODUCTION Canal seepage is a major problem in irrigated areas and almost in all command areas.

Seepage refers to the process of water infiltration from a canal into and through the bed and side (wall) material. Most of the canals are earth structures which are lined, partially lined or unlined. Channels in permeable soils lose considerable amount of water through the bed and sides of the canal every year. A substantial portion of the total utilizable surface water resources is lost, affecting the system efficiency. The resulting high water table condition in the command area and water logging in the low lying areas create environmental problems affecting crop growth and leaving the areas unproductive and uneconomical. Conjunctive use planning cannot be advocated in all situations to tackle the issue, since it has its own disadvantages and limitations. But it is necessary to maintain the ground water reservoir in a state of dynamic equilibrium over a period of time and the water table fluctuations have to be kept within a desirable range in monsoon and non- monsoon seasons so that optimum utilization of the ground water resources is ensured throughout the year.

Seepage losses from canals often constitute a significant part of the total recharge to ground water system. Hence it is important to properly estimate these losses for the correct assessment of recharge to the ground water system. A number of investigations have been carried out in the past to study the seepage losses from canals, and a variety of methodologies, empirical formulae, analytical and analogue methods have been developed by various experts and organizations. A few methods are highlighted and discussed in this paper along with a case study using ground water extraction method carried out in the command area of Pazhassi Irrigation Project of Valapattanam River basin of North Kerala The Objectives of the study are: to enumerate various methods to assess seepage loss, to introduce ground water extraction method for estimation of canal seepage, to assess impact of seepage on ground water regime and to highlight canal seepage as a ground water related environmental problem.

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STUDY AREA Pazhassi Irrigation Project (PIP) is the major irrigation project in Valapattanam River Basin located in the eastern part of Kannur District of North Kerala. It is a partially commissioned irrigation project. The length of the main canal is 42 km and there are six branch canals and one distributary. The project could not achieve the target due to many reasons, such as cost overrun, time over run, change in land use pattern, environmental issues etc. The water is released to the canal during December to February for third crop. The location map of the study area is given in figure 1.

Fig. 1 Network of observation wells along the main canal of PIP

MATERIALS AND METHODS Field methods The seepage losses of the unlined canal may best be estimated by conducting actual tests in the field. The most commonly adopted methods in the field study are enumerated below: 1) Ground water extraction method In this method monthwise recharge to groundwater is computed from the ground water draft and by calculating the change in ground water storage. The draft calculation is carried out by actual field tests (CGWB, 1983).

2) Water balance method In water balance method, in addition to the above parameters, parameters like Centre for Environment and Development

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runoff, evapotranspiration and change in soil moisture content are also determined(CGWB, 1983).

3) Inflow-outflow method The inflow-out flow method consists in measuring the water that flows into and out of the section of the canal being studied. The difference between the quantities of water flowing into and out of the canal reach is attributed to seepage. This method is advantageous when seepage losses are to be measured in long canal reaches with few diversions.

4) Ponding method The ponding method consists in measuring the rate of drop in a pool formed in the canal reach being tested. Alternatively, water may be added to the pond to maintain a constant water surface elevation. The accurately measured volume of added water is considered equal to the total losses and the elapsed time establishes the rate of loss. The ponding method provides an accurate means of measuring seepage losses and is especially suitable when they are small (e.g. in lined canals) 5) Seepage meter method The seepage meter is the modified version of permeameter developed for use under water. Various types of seepage meters have been developed. The two most important types are seepage meter with submerged flexible water bag, and the falling head seepage meter. Seepage meters are suitable for measuring local seepage rates in canals or ponds and are only used in unlined or earth- lined canals. They are quickly and easily installed and give reasonably satisfactory results for the conditions at the test site but it is difficult to obtain accurate results when seepage losses are low.

Empirical Methods 1) The seepage losses can be calculated using the following formula Loss (cumecs/km) = C/200 (B+D)2/3 Where, B and D are the bed width and depth of the channel in (m) C is a constant 2) S = 1.25Q0.56 Where, S is the seepage loss in cusecs per million square feet of wetted perimeter and Q is the discharge (cusecs) carried by the channel In unlined channels, the loss rate on an average is, four times of this value.

3) USBR recommendation for computation of channel losses based on the channel material: Clay and clay loam 1.50 (cumecs/million m2) Sandy loam 2.40 ’’ Sandy and gravely soil 8.03 ’’ Concrete lining 1.20 ’’ 4)

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sand 1.8 to 2.5 (cumecs/million m2 of wetted area) b) For unlined canals in sandy soils 3 to 3.5 (cumecs/million m2 of wetted area) c) For lined canals, the seepage losses may be taken as 20% of the above values.

Other Methods Tracers, Electrical Logging, Resistivity measurement, Piezometric survey and remote sensing are some of the methods used for assessing canal seepage and its impact on ground water regime. However, the various guide lines for estimating losses in the canal system at best leads to approximate values. Thus, the seepage losses may best be estimated by conducting actual tests in the field (IGNOU, 1999).

CASE STUDY AT PAZHASSI IRRIGATION PROJECT AREA A study was carried out in the command area of Pazhassi Irrigation Project of Valapattanam River Basin of North Kerala in order to find out the canal seepage and its influence on the surrounding ground water system during the period 2006 – 08, as part of a research project of CWRDM on: “Management of Water Resources in the Coastal belt of Kuppam andValapattanam River Basin” RESULTS Twelve observation wells were selected on either side of the main canal for periodical water level monitoring. The water levels were observed once in 15 days during summer months. Out of the 12 observation wells, four are situated in canal embankment side. The water level recorded for the period 2007-08 shows that the seepage flow from the canal influence six wells and improve their water level. Four observation wells shows declining trend and these wells have no influence on canal seepage. The water levels of the other two observation wells neither improve nor decline.

Hydrogeology of the study area The command area of PIP is covered by phreatic, semi-confined and confined aquifers.

Ground water occurs under phreatic condition. In the deep seated fractured crystalline rocks, ground water occurs under phreatic, semi confined or confined condition depending up on the thickness and permeability of lithomargic clay formation. The average annual rainfall of the area is 3880mm. Ground water level fluctuation observed during the period of January 2007 to April 2008 from the network of observation wells along the main canal are given in Table 1. Two typical Hydrographs of these observation wells are shown (Fig. 2 &3). The water table fluctuation is in the range of 1.35m to 15.30m and the average water level is 4.64m (CWRDM).

Table 1 Ground water recharge in the command area of PIP (MCM) Canal season

Rain fall

Canal input

Total input

GW Draft

2007-2008

246.49

26.25

272.74

100.91

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Change in GW storage -20.62

Recharge

80.29

% recharge to total input 29.44

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Fig 2. Water Level Fluctuation in the observation wells along the canal stretch during 2007-2008 at Karingalkuzhi

Fig 3. Water Level Fluctuation in the observation wells along the canal stretch during 2007-2008 at Karingalkuzhi.

Estimation of Ground water recharge The canal recharge to ground water in the study area was estimated by ground water extraction method. Recharge to ground water was computed from the ground water draft estimate and change in ground water storage. The ground water draft calculations were adopted from the block wise data report on ground water estimation prepared by CGWB and was taken as 37%. The canal input was computed from the reservoir operation data register of PIP for the year 2006-07 and 2007-08 and taken as 26.25 MCM 206

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and Mahesha

The command area falling within Valapattanam River Basin is 42 % of the total command area of PIP. Hence the recharge may be taken as 33.72 MCM. Impact of seepage on ground water regime High water table and water logging conditions create nuisance to environment. It prevents safe disposal of excess rain water from land surface and soil profile. The high water table at close proximity to the root zone affects plant growth adversely and renders large areas unproductive.

Excess water fills all soil pores expelling soil air completely, which leads to deficiency of oxygen in the soil and disturbs root respiration and root growth of plants and crops.

Excess soil water condition prevents nutrient uptake. Destruction to beneficial soil structure and soil aggregates due to excess soil water conditions for a long period is one of the adverse impacts.

Under excess soil water conditions and in water logged soils, some nutrients like manganese and iron get reduced in the soil and their solubility increases. Their increased availability leads to their toxic uptake by plants.

Another important issue to be addressed is the malfunctioning of microorganisms.

Useful aerobic bacteria such as ammonifying, nitrifying and nitrogenfixing bacteria, cannot function well under oxygen deficiency. Decomposition and mineralization of organic matter, atmospheric nitrogen fixation and availability of nutrients to plants, are hampered. On the other hand, anaerobic bacteria are activated, causing loss of nitrogen as gas, production of harmful gases and appearance of plant diseases.

CONCLUSION AND REMARKS A substantial portion of the total utilizable surface water resources is lost through canal seepage every year all over the country. Though canal seepage often constitute a significant part of the total recharge to ground water system, it adversely affect the ground water ecosystem in terms of safe disposal of excess rain water, destruction to soil resources, physiological imbalance in plants etc. It is, therefore essential to properly assess canal seepage and recharge to tackle these ground water related environmental problems scientifically.

Various empirical and field methods have been introduced. Many of these methods are vague and location specific for estimation of seepage losses. The study carried out

by Central Ground Water Board at Noyil Basin of Tamil Nadu using ground water extraction method during the period 1976-1979 shows that recharge due to canal seepage ranges between 21.59 to 28.61 percent of the total input water. A study in similar lines was conducted at Pazhassi Irrigation Project in North Kerala, by Centre for Water Resources Development and Management. The result shows that the recharge due to canal water and rainfall is 29.44 percent of the total input.

As per the norms of the Ground Water estimation Committee, in hard rock areas (granitic terrains) with weathered and fractured formation, the recharge from rain may be taken as 10 to 15 percent of the rainfall. If that is the case, recharge due to seepage in the command area of PIP is about 15 %. This recharge rate is quite high and a huge quantity Centre for Environment and Development

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of water is being lost every year 33.72 MCM/Year within the command area of Valapatanam River Basin.The impact due to canal seepage on ground water aquifer system is under further investigation, other than what is indicated in this paper.

It is necessary to maintain the ground water reservoir in a state of dynamic equilibrium over a period of time and the water table fluctuations have to be kept within a particular range throughout the monsoon and non- monsoon season.

REFERENCES CGWB. 1983. “SIDA assisted Ground Water Project in Noyil, Ponnani and Amaravathi River Basin of Tamil Nadu and Kerala”. Tech. Report. pp. 138-141.

CWRDM. 2001. “Performance evaluation study of Pazhassi Irrigation Project”. Tech. Report CWRDM. Report 2009 “Management of Water Resources in the Coastal belt of Kuppam and Valapattanam River Basin”. Tech. Report IGNOU. 1999. “Principles of Engineering Management and Economics& System methods and Water Resources Planning - Land and Water Resources of India”. pp. 49-60.

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Water Balance Studies of Valapattanam River Basin using BHIWA Model

Anitha A B1, Dinil Sony C1 and Jayakumar K V2 1

Scientists, 2Executive Director, Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kozhikode -673 571 E mail: aba@cwrdm.org

INTRODUCTION The quantity and quality of available water resources have long been recognized as limiting factors in the development of a country. The economic growth and development, either at national or at regional level, depends solely on the effective management and utilization of its land and water resources. The time has come for efficient utilization of these scarce resources through scientific management practices. Water resources could no longer be taken as free commodity; it is limited and a valuable resource.

Nowadays the demand is coming close to and in some regions even exceeding the availability of water. This has necessitated the optimal utilization and conservation of available water resources.

A hydrologic model called, Basin-wide Holistic Integrated Water Assessment (BHIWA) developed in ICID for the integration of water and land resources for sustainable use (ICID, 2005a and 2005b; China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research 2004) was made use of for the present study. The forecasting of water demand is critical to those involved in water resources planning. These forecasts help managers to assess the adequacy of the present resources, to meet future demands (Steiner et al, 2000). However, because of the current uncertainty and magnitude of impact of the potential effect of climate change on resources, future water demand and water availability will be uncertain. Therefore, there is a need to quantify the risks of experiencing extreme droughts and pollutions. This study examines the water resources in the context of development and management of water, land and related resources, integrating the needs of various human uses including vital needs of terrestrial and aquatic eco-systems.

BHIWA model is applied to one of the main sub basin of Valapattanam, namely, Perumannu sub basin, which is an aggregation of ten land parcels representing different land use and coverage categories. The mathematical formulation is based on the mass balance principle, which is carried at the parcel level and then aggregated up to the sub- basin level.

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STUDY AREA AND DATABASE The Valapattanam river in Kerala, originates from the Brahmagiri Ghat Reserve Forest in Coorg district of Karnataka State, at an elevation of 1350 m above MSL. The river together with its tributaries and streams drain an area of 1867 sq km ,of which an area of 546sq km lies in Karnataka State. The main stream has a length of 110 km. Hydrometeorological data collected from different governmental agencies and departments were made use of in the study.

Rainfall and Streamflow Fig 1 shows the locations of raingauge and river gauging stations in Valapattanam river basin. These stations are maintained by Water Resources Department, Government of Kerala, except one river gauging station namely, Perumannu river gauging station which is maintained by Central Water Commission (CWC). The catchment area above the CWC gauging site is 1070 sq.km and 13 yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; streamflow data from this station has been made use of in the present study. The Southwest monsoon begins in June and ends in August contributing to about 75 % of annual rainfall. The Northeast monsoon is from September to November contributing about 17% of the total annual rainfall.

December to May is the dry months of the year and about 8% of the total rainfall is received during the period. The mean annual rainfall for the river basin is 3995 mm

Fig. 1 Locations of hydrometeorological stations in Valapattanam river

Climate Average monthly meteorological data such as temperature (maximum and minimum), humidity, wind speed and sunshine hours were collected from Panniyur Pepper Research Station of Kerala Agricultural University. These data are used for estimating the potential evapotranspiration using the software CROPWAT â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 8 developed by FAO. Landuse The landuse in the study area mainly comprises of forest, plantation and irrigated areas. Table 1 gives the landuse pattern of the Perumannu sub basin of Valapattanam river basin.

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Table 1 Landuse Classification of Perumannu Sub-basin in Valapattanam River Basin Code

Description

Area in Sq. Km

LP - 1

Forests

310.0

LP - 2

Waste and Fallow land

134.0

LP - 3

Land under Reservoir

36.0

LP - 4

Teak / Rubber Plantation

155.0

LP - 5

Rainfed Kharif Paddy

50.0

LP - 6

Rainfed Garden Lands

80.0

LP - 7

Irrigated Paddy in Kharif and Rabi

40.0

LP - 8

Irrigated vegetables in rabi and summer

20.0

LP - 9

Irrigated garden lands

200.0

LP - 10

Rainfed vegetables

45.0

Total for the Sub-basin

1,070.0

Domestic Water Supply The population of the sub-basin as per 2001 census is 10.77 lakhs, comprising of urban population of 3.27 lakhs and rural population of 7.5 lakhs. For estimating the domestic supply, in urban areas of the sub-basin , 160 lpcd and for the rural areas 70 lpcd and for the cattle population, 10 lpcd were considered.

METHODOLOGY The BHIWA model specifically addresses the present and future water scenarios for food and rural development, water for people as well as water for nature, in order to achieve sustainable development and use of the water resources. The model was designed to be simple and flexible. The model can be calibrated for the present conditions and applied to derive water fluxes for future scenarios at monthly intervals.

The basin can be divided into a number of sub-basins to allow the segregation of areas with similar hydrologic and water use attributes.

Input Data Required The various input required for the model are as follows: Hydrological - Monthly data on rainfall; reference evapotranspiration; runoff data at locations near sub-basin outlets; groundwater information on recharge; fluctuation;etc.

Landuse - Areas of forests; grasslands; barren and fallow lands; reservoirs and agricultural lands; the classification of land use parcels by the nature of evaporation .

Crop statistics - Gross and net areas under agriculture and irrigated agriculture; crop-wise compositions of both; cropping calendar; source- wise composition of irrigated area Centre for Environment and Development

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Agronomic data - Soil moisture capacities; K factors (crop coefficients); information about withdrawals and returns for irrigation use and domestic and industrial use; demographic information including growth rate, water development; surface storage changes, imports and exports; environmental; monthly flow requirements other parameters like proportion of excess flow to surface; index for soil moisture balance; recession coefficients of linear ground water reservoir; water use related parameters; irrigation system efficiencies for surface and ground water; distribution of return flows to swamp evaporation, surface and ground water Computation of actual evapotranspiration, excess rainfall, surface water runoff and ground water recharge Monthly data on reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0), crop coefficient, rainfall, and soil moisture capacity, exponential index that links actual ET, potential ET and water availability ratio are made use of to compute the monthly estimates of excess rainfall and shortfall to meet potential ET needs.

Four water situation indicators (Jianxin and Khan, 2006) propounded in the model to depict the level of water use (withdrawals) and potential risks (due to return flows) to water quality, are defined as follows: Indicator 1: Total surface water withdrawal / Total surface water inputs Indicator 2 Total returns to surface water / Total surface water inputs Indicator 3 Total groundwater withdrawal / Total groundwater inputs, and Indicator 4 Total returns to groundwater / Total groundwater inputs The indicators were further categorized into 3 to 4 classes each to represent the degree of water stress (Indicators 1 and 3) and the water quality threat ( Indicators 2 and 4) as shown in Table 2. Such indicators will enable better appreciations of the sustainability of a scenario of development envisaged.

SIMULATED RESULTS Based on the present condition and average rainfall, the model response for sustainable water use conditions is briefly described below: Surface Water Balance The annual total input to the surface water system is 3385 MCM in which surface water runoff due to rainfall contribute 2390 MCM (70 per cent of the total). It is to be also noted that surface water runoff due to rainfall takes place only during the six monsoon months of June to November. The return flow from water supplied for domestic use as well as base flow from groundwater system takes place during all 12 months of the year.

It is also seen that, the annual total yield from the surface water system is 3385 MCM (same as the input) with surface water withdrawal to meet irrigation use accounting 212

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Table 2 Description of the Water Situation Indicators

Indicators

Water source and type Surface water withdrawal

1 Surface water quality 2 Groundwater withdrawal 3 Groundwater quality 4

Category Very high stress High stress Moderate stress Low stress High stress Moderate stress Low stress Very high stress High stress Moderate stress Low stress High stress Moderate stress Low stress

Range >0.8 0.4-0.8 0.2-0.4 <0.2 >0.8 0.05-0.2 <0.05 >0.8 0.4-0.8 0.2-0.4 <0.2 >0.8 0.04-0.8 0.2-0.4

for 135 MCM (about 6 per cent of the total), and surface water flowing out of Perumannu sub-basin of Valapattanam River is 3080 MCM. Groundwater Balance The annual total input to the groundwater system is 950 MCM with groundwater recharge due to rainfall contributing 797 MCM (84 per cent of the total), return flow from groundwater supplied to meet domestic use contributing 65 MCM (7 per cent of the total), return flow from groundwater supplied to meet irrigation use contributing 27 MCM (3 per cent of the total). It is also to be noted that recharge due to rainfall takes place only during the six monsoon season months of June to November, return flow from water supplied for domestic use takes place during all 12 months of the year and return flow from water supplied for irrigation use takes place only during the six non-monsoon season months of December to May. The annual total output from the groundwater system is 950 MCM (same as the input) with groundwater withdrawal to meet domestic use accounting for 69 MCM (7 per cent of the total), groundwater withdrawal to meet irrigation use accounting for 60 MCM (6 per cent of the total) and base flow joining the surface water system accounting for the balance 826 MCM (87 per cent of the total).

Overall Water Balance The actual evapotranspiration from the watershed accounting for 1102 MCM (35 per cent of the total), in which 421 MCM (38 per cent of the total), 641 MCM ( 58 per cent of the total) and 40 MCM (4 per cent of the total) are the evapotranspiration losses for the nature, food and people sector respectively. Table 3 shows the status of the water situation indicators in Valapattanam river basin Centre for Environment and Development

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Table 3 Status of the Water Situation Indicators in Valapattanam River Basin

Indicators

Water source and type

Value obtained 0.30

Category

1 2

Surface water withdrawal Surface water quality

0.117

Moderate threat

3

Groundwater withdrawal

0.22

Moderate stress

4

Groundwater quality

0.34

Low threat

Moderate stress

The above values show that the Valapattanam river basin lies in moderate stress category at present. By managing the water resources optimally, this situation can be improved and made sustainable in future .

The simulated monthly streamflows by the model show a lower value compared to the observed values, but the variation is not very significant and is within acceptable limits.

Fig. 2 shows the observed and estimated monthly flows (starting from January).

1400 Flows, MCM

1200

Observed

1000

Estimated

800 600 400 200 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12

Months Fig 2 Observed and estimated flows at Perumannu sub basin of Valpattanam river basin

CONCLUSIONS BHIWA model was calibrated using average monthly flows at the lowest most gauging site of the basin. Application of this model in the Valapattanam river basin shows that this basin is facing moderate threat in its water resources. The model was able to provide current status of water availability and water use and it is also able to depict the interaction between surface and groundwater system. The model provided reasonable estimates for current water recharge to groundwater and potential for the sustainable development of surface and groundwater. However these values are not presented in this paper 214

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REFERENCES China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, 2004. Report of the Country Policy Support Programme for Chinese National Consultation, 2-3.August, 2004 ICID, 2005a. (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage), Water Resources Assessment of Sabarmati Basin, India CPSP Report 1, ICID, New Delhi,.

ICID, 2005b. (International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage) Water Resources Assessment of Qiantang River Basin China CPSP Report 5, ICID, New Delhi Jianxin M U and S Khan, 2006. Stochastic analysis of water supply and demand at the river basin level International Centre of Water for Food Security, Charles Sturt University, New South Wales, Australia Rajagopalan S P, N K Joseph , C Dinil Sony , Shahul Hameed and P Jayakumar, 2007. Water balance studies to evaluate the scope to meet the water demand of KINFRA Integrated Textile Park at Kanjikode in Palakkad district with surface water in Walayar and Korayar watersheds, CWRDM final report submitted to Kerala Industrial Infrastructure Development Corporation Steiner, RC, E R Hagen, and J Ducnuigeen, 2000. Report of water supply demand forecast and resource availability analysis, Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin, November 2000.

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Status of household drinking water sources, water use and its correlation with water-borne disease in rural Kerala Jayakrishnan T1 and ThomasBina2 1

Assistant Professor and 2Professor and Head Department of Community Medicine, Medical College, Kozhikode.

E mail: jayanjeeja@yahoo.co.in

INTRODUCTION Kerala is a State where majority of the populations use well water as the drinking water source. There are 65.95 lakhs households and 50 Lakhs wells enumerated in Kerala with density ranging from 120-150 wells per square km (SoE, 2005). According to the Minor Irrigation Census data by GoI from 1993 to 2001 in Kerala, an average 20,000 dug wells were constructed per year. Owing to the geoclimatic factors, the State is blessed with plenty of water. Even then, some parts of the State experience severe drinking water problems. The average rainfall in Kerala is 3000mm/year with 60% during southwest monsoon, 25% during northeast monsoon, and the rest during as summer rains.

Due to the increased house density, scarcity of land and proximity to household toilets (86%) most of the wells are contaminated. Due to structural problems and poor maintenance, many of the wells become polluted and unfit for drinking. Many of the published studies from rural (Rejith and Mohammed, 2008) (Nedumkandam Panchayat) and urban (Calicut City) areas of Kerala (Anjali et al 2008) reported that the well water was grossly contaminated by human activities with faecal coliform. In rural area, it is positively correlated with density of houses and in urban area it is positively contaminated by average rainfall (Rejith and Mohammed, 2008; Anjali et al 2008).

The level of contamination with E. coli was maximum in monsoon season (Thankappan, 2002). Corresponding to this, the seasonality of water- borne disease was very well documented.

In the last ten year period the prevalence of diahrroeal disease in Kerala, has been reported a reduction of more than 90%. Even then many sporadic out breaks were reported (KSSP, 2006). Many point source out breaks “ of water borne diseases reported recently from different parts of Kerala (Hepatitis A – Kunnamkulam 2005, Angadipuram 2008, Thrissur 2009) attributed to “well water “show the importance of the problem in the State.

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From the late nineties onwards the water supply and sanitation sector in the State have been witnessing increased level and extent of activities involving various externally aided projects and State and Centrally sponsored projects. This has led to a situation of multiple agencies with overlapping functions. For instance, World Bank assisted Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Centrally sponsored Total Sanitation Campaign, the Netherlands supported community based projects, UNICEF Cooperation Plan and Centrally sponsored IEC campaign are being implemented in the same operational area (MGP, 2003). Now many of the drinking water schemes like Jalanidhi bring piped water to the rural population at their premises, with the result that the people’s attitude towards their traditional water source is changing, leading to neglect of dug wells. When the public water supply system disrupts, the dug wells act as reliable sources of water. During the last 20 years, thousands of dug wells were abandoned by changing to tube well, leading to arsenic toxicity in India.

During the 11th Plan period (2007-12) the State Government gave undue importance to protect, preserve and renovate our traditional resources of well water (KSPB, 2008).

Safe drinking water is the basic element of “primary health care” which is the key to the attainment of “health for all” advocated by WHO (Alma Ata declaration).

Even though majority of the population is depending on well water, few studies on dug wells were done and data about the structure, status of wells were rarely available from the state.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE Water is not just an environmental component but an essential requirement for life.

Only 3% of water in earth is fresh .97% is in the oceans and 1% accessible to human.

India uses 90% of water for agriculture, 7% for industry and 3% for domestic purposes.

(Sunder lal, 2007).6% of DALYs lost in developing countries attributed to unsafe water (World health Report 2002).

According to the NFHS III data 88% of households in India have access to an improved source of drinking water, with access in urban areas being higher than in rural areas (95 percent and 85 percent respectively). An improved source of drinking water includes, in addition to water piped into the dwelling, yard or plot, water available from a public tap or standpipe, a tube well or borehole, a protected dug well, a protected spring, and rainwater. The most common improved source of drinking water for urban dwellers is piped water: 51 percent of households use water that is piped into their living area and 20 percent use a public tap. On the other hand, only 28 percent of Households in rural areas have access to piped water. Most people (53%)in rural areas obtain their drinking water from tube well or borehole; however, one in eight rural households get their drinking water from unprotected wells or springs. Half the households in India reported having drinking water on their premises, 37 percent of households do not have water on their premises (NFHS, 2007).

An open well is a pit dug out in the ground to reach the water level (Mahajan, 2005).

People had been using dug well as a source of drinking water for millennia. Our Centre for Environment and Development

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ancestors considered well as sacred and it was a place of social gathering . Even now village people love taste of well water and are adapted to it.

METHOD ADOPTED Study was conducted at Kozhokode district which has got 77 gramapanchayats. The areas selected was Mavoor panchayat situated in the mid land 20km away from the sea with total population of 27843 (2001 census). Kozhikode has a well density of 258 per square km with average withdrawal of 800 litre per day (SoE, 2005).

The data collection was done by house hold survey and conducting structured inspection and interview with the informants using a pre tested questionnaire. Total 330 houses were surveyed. The house holds are selected according to the house number in the ascending order.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Total survey was done in 330 house holds and 1756 members with average 5.3+2 members. (i) The source of drinking water In 3/4th of the house holds the source of drinking water was their own dug well.

Table 1. Sources of drinking water –Comparison with State situations

Kerala 1987* Kerala 1996* Kerala 2004* Kozhikode Mavoor

Own well 53.8 65.1 51.5 64.4 75.8

Public tap 8.5 7.5 9.3 17.4 13.3

Unsafe source 34.1 27.3 16.3 18.2 Public well -6.1 Others -4.8

* KSSP, 2006

Majority of the wells yield water through out the year. The river chaliyar is flowing through the area. It was reported that at Beypore estuary the salinity propagates 24 km through chaliyar (SoE, 2005) even then no house holds complaints about salinity. (ii) Toilet Kerala is now moving towards “total sanitation’’, more than 80% (n=826) gramapanchayats have so far received “Nirmal Puraskar” award from the Ministry of Rural Development for attaining target of 100% toilets ( Press 26/1/09). Compared to Kerala (91.9%) and Calicut (94.9), 96.4 % of the house holds are having there own toilets which are water sealed.

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(iii) Sanitary well A sanitary well is “one which is properly located, well constructed and protected against contamination to yield a supply of safe water”.

Location Located at higher elevation not less than 15 meters from likely source of contamination.

Eg: Septic tank, Cow dung pit, Waste dump pit etc.

Location of the well and Distance from the polluting source To prevent ground water contamination the well should be situated in higher geographical plane from other possible contaminating sources and must be away from them .The recommended distance is at least 15 meters. But due to decreased land availability and increased house density we can not keep the rule.

Septic tank 64.% of the wells are situated within 15 meter distance of septic tanks. The mean distance was 16.4 meters (95% CI 14.7 – 19.4).

Cow dung pit 48 houses are having cow dung pits with a mean distance of 17.8 meters (95% CI 10.1 – 25.4).

Compost pit /waste dumping area The mean distance was 12.8 meters( 95% CI 10.8 – 15.0).

Parapet Well water may be contaminated through seepage, poor maintenance of parapet(KSSP, 2006). Parapet also protect humans and animals from falling in the well.66.1% of the wells are having proper parapets and the rest are either having no parapets or are having ones with improper fencing.

Platform 50.9% of the wells are having proper parapet and others are without platforms leading to water stagnation and seepage in the well.

Inner lining 57% have inner lining to prevent water leaching from side walls and rest have no lining.

Covering Ideally the well should not be kept open and should be covered with covering.

Practically we suggest to put a net over the well to prevent surface contamination.54.5% of the wells are covered with net.

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80% of the wells are having buckets and coir and 42.4% keet it improperly in the soil.

Disinfection Ideally the well should be disinfected periodically using bleaching powder according to seasonality and presence of epidemics. 77% have chlorinated their well during the last one year period with mean time gap of 5 months (95% CI 4.6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 6.2) before the survey. (iv) Use of water Safe water produced cannot guarantee safe access. Even the safest water accessed at the household gets contaminated while handling and usage. Not only that sanitation need careful integration with water supply and use, it is also required that sanitation itself is addressed in its totality. Integrating personal hygiene, household sanitation, environmental sanitation and institutional sanitation is critical in achieving health and hygiene benefits to the community (MGP, 2003). (v) Drinking The basic physiological requirement of drinking water is estimated to be 2 litre per day. In India 40 liter per capita per day is the target to be achieved by the Government/ drinking water missions. Though the well water drawn from the depth of the ground which is free of human pathogens the contamination can not be rule out. So it is advisable to treat water before consumption either by boiling, using chemicals or mechanical methods like filtering.84% of the house holds drink water after boiling and only a few consume water without any treatment.

Table 2 Comparison of water treatment practice of Mavoor with India

Method Boil Use Alum Chlorine/Bleach Strain with cloth Ceramic/sand filter Electronic purifier No treatment

Mavoor 82.4 0 0 0 0 0 17

India Urban* 16 2.1 2.2 19.1 13.4 3.4 51.0

India Rural * 7.7 0.9 2.4 15.4 3.3 0.1 72.7

India Total* 10.4 1.3 2.3 16.6 6.6 1.2 65.6

* NFHS, 2007

Storage Usually water drawn from the well for drinking purpose after treatment like boiling is stored in vessels . 85 % of the house holds store it for maximum 1 day.

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Over head tank/ Storage tank Especially in motored wells the pumped water is stored in overhead tank for domestic purposes.82% of them are having storage tank at home and 67% are PVC type and 15% are concrete type. (iv) Water borne disease (WBD) Water borne diseases were reported from 76 families (23%) during last one year recall period. Total reported episodes of WBD were 138 hence the incidence was 78 per 1000 population /year. In a State wide study it was reported as 84 per 1000 (Jayakrishnan and Jeeja, 2006). The classification of water borne disease by WHO is given in table3.

Table 3 WHO classification of water borne disease

Type Remarks 1. water borne (Direct) Agent in water 2. water based

Diseases ADD, Dysentry,Cholera,Typhoid, Hepatitis, Leptospirosis. Amoebiasis.etc Schistsomiasis, guinea worm

The intermediate Host in water Vector breed in water Malaria,Dengue,Chickungunya Filariasis.

Water scarcity Scabies, Skin infection, Trachoma.

3.Water related 4.Water washed

Type of WBD among the house holds 23% of the families have reported any of the WBD during the last one year period.

Compared to APL families the disease incidence rate (19%)was higher in BPL families (31%) proving the socioeconomic determinants of morbidity. The most common diseases is ADD â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Diahrroea.17.% of the houses have incidence of Diahrroea the details are shown in the Fig .1.

20 18

17.6

Persentage Percentage

16 14 12 10 8 6 4

2.4

1.8

2

0.6

0.6

0 Diarrhea

Juandice

Typhoid

Dysentry

Lepto spirosis.

Fig.1 Distribution of reported water borne disease Centre for Environment and Development

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The drinking water source have statistically significant association with the prevalence of water borne disease (p =0.02); 16.8% for own well, 40% for public well and 41% for public tap. Those who are having own well have low incidence of WBD compared to those who are using public well or public tap. Those with drinking water scarcity the incidence is 50%, the factor have to be considered seriously by the policy makers.

Most of those affected with WBD belongs to children or younger age groups who spend most of the daytime away from home at educational /working place and consuming water and food from there. The probabilities of contracting disease from out side sources are high. The previous cohort study from Kerala reported that relative risk of out side food/eating and no hand washing after toilet use was more associated with diarrhea (Thankappan, 2002).

The association and correlation of water borne diseases with the important study variables are depicted in the Tables 4 & 5.

Table 4 Prevalence of water borne disease (WBD) – with variables & their Association and Risk estimation

Net Distance from Septic tank >15 meter Motorised well

20.9%

25.3% 0.521* 0. 789 (0.382 – 1.638)*

22.0% 20.16%

22.0% 1.00* Not done 21.05%0.286* 0.602 (0.274 – 1.324)*

2.Social,behaviour ,behaviour Boiling Chlorination <1 year Socioeconomic

14.3% 25.0% 0.406* Not done 18.8% 37.8% 0.671* Not done BPL 30.9 APL 19.3 0.095* Not done

# Significant. * Not significant.

Table 5 Details of attributes and their correlations with number of Episodes of Water borne diseases

No

Attributes

1

Distance of well To septic tank Distance of well 11 meters To Cow dung pit Distance of well 10 meters To waste dump area Time gap with well 4 Months Chlorination

2.

3.

4

Median IQR 50th Centile 25th -75th 15 meters 10 -20

Correlation Coefficient - 0.050

P value* 0.577

7.25 -20 - 0. 039

0.858

5 -15

- .0. 039

0.695

2-8

-0.090

0.329

* Correlation is significant at 0.05 level.

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USE OF ORS Water has got many medicinal values. It is used for constituting ORS to prevent dehydration . 68.4% of the diseased had used ORS during the episodes.

CONCLUSION Majority of the house holds have access to drinking water and the main source was dug well. The chances of contamination are high due to proximity of pollution sources.

While constructing well the concept of “sanitary well” should be included in the structure . Protection and maintenance of “dug well “should be the thrust area in IEC and BCC programmes. The structural factors of the well like parapet, platform, inner lining, net and the healthy behaviours like chlorination of well and boiling drinking water were found to have association with WBD and have got some protection from WBD. Since the strength of association was found to be less it is to be presumed that the place of acquiring WBD was out side home ; So the sanitation at public place have to be increased.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was done as a part of Environmental awareness campaign in the year 200708 by Ministry of Environment and forestry (MoEF) GOI, Supported by Centre for Environment and development (CED).

REFERENCES Anjali, Rajeena and Harikumar. 2008. Assessing ground water vulnerability and risk from on –site sanitation at Calicut city. Proc. Kerala Environment Congress 135-139, CED, Thiruvananthapuram Jayakrishnan T and Jeeja MC. 2006. Disease Burden of Kerala. Society for Social Health Action and Research. Kerala.

KSPB. 2008. Handbook for LSG Working Group;11th Five Year Plan. Kerala State Planning Board, Government of Kerala: 52-58 KSSP. 2006. Kerala Padanam . Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad , Thiruvananthapuram Mahajan,Gupta. 2005. Textbook of preventive and social medicine .Jaypee brothers .New Delhi : 34-38 MGP. 2003. .Water Resource Department of Kerala. Modernization of Government Programme, Government of Kerala.

NFHS. 2007. National Family Health Survey III round 2005-06. Govt of India.

Park J E, 2000. Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine 16th edition. Banarasidas Bhanot Publishers, Jabalpur: 482-87.

Rejith P G and Mohammed Hatha. 2008. Ground water quality of high land village of western Ghats in Kerala. Proc. Kerala Environment Congress 125-134, CED, Trivandrum SoE. 2005. State of Environment Report-Kerala 2005. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Thiruvananthapuram Sunder lal. 2007. Text book of community medicine CBS Publishers, New Delhi Thankappan K R. 2002. Incidence of diahrroeal diseases in Kerala. Discussion paper, CDS, Thiruvananthapuram Centre for Environment and Development

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A Solution to the Problem of Ground Water Shortage in the Midlands of Kerala Nair K M Asanparampil, Ramapuram, Keerikad, Alappuzha Dist, 690508 Email: geologistnair@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION Kerala is longitudinally divided into lowlands (10-7.5m), midlands (7.5-75m) and highlands (>75m) The midlands are characterized by undulating topography with alternating hills and valleys. The most widespread rocks of midlands are laterites of various types and thicknesses underlain by Precambrian high grade metamorphic rocks and a narrow, discontinuous zone of Tertiary sedimentary rock along the coast. The laterites range in thickness from 2 to more than15m. Generally the laterites are thin or absent along the hill crests and the lowest parts of the hill slopes and valleys. The hills are used for housing and raising crops like rubber, coconut and other trees. The valleys are wetlands under cover of water for 2 to 12 months. During SW monsoon the valleys are flooded and the water level rises by 1- 4 m depending on the order of drainage channels flowing through them.

Nearly half of the total population of over 12 million people of the State lives in the midlands. The housing units here are estimated to be about125, 000 numbers (State Planning Board, 2006). Each house has its own dug well to provide potable water. It is found by physical verification that about half of the dug wells go dry or yield insignificant/insufficient quantities of water during the dry months of January to May. This leads to recurrent and ever increasing outcries by local people. Attempts by Governmental agencies to provide piped water supply do not succeed due to the highly undulating nature of the terrain.

The State receives an annual rainfall of 200 to more than500 cm, which is among the highest in the world. It is intriguing that a State getting such a heavy rainfall should suffer from shortage of potable water tapped usually from the phreatic aquifers. In the midlands, the most significant rocks that form the phreatic aquifer are the laterites overlain by soils and underlain by weathered basement rocks. A literature search to find the hydrogeological reason for the problem proved futile except for sporadic attempts by Ravindran and Kittu 1981 and Narayanaswamy and Terry Machado 2006.

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This led the author to carry out two most significant preliminary hydrogeological investigations and a detailed study of a small area to understand the reason for the insufficient water in the phreatic aquifers provided by laterites. Presenting all primary data is far beyond the scope of this note. The salient points emerging from these studies are given and the need to take up the task of demonstrating the concept that evolved is highlighted.

Preliminary Investigation-1 In March 1994, just 2 days after a rainfall of 2cm, a newly opened 5m thick quarry section along the gentle slope of a hillock revealed that the water has not infiltrated below the top soil as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Water infiltration

Depth from surface

Lithology

Moisture content

10cm

Soil with pebbles

20%

50cm

Ferruginous clayey soil

35%

100 cm

Stiff ferruginous clayey soil

30%

150 cm

Ferruginous red clay

22%

200 cm

Vermicular laterite

10%

250 cm

Vermicular laterite

5%

300 cm

Vermicular laterite

3%

400 cm

Vermicular laterite

3%

500 cm

Vermicular laterite

2.50%

Note: The soil- laterite contact at 1.75m

This was followed by several such investigations, all providing the same conclusion.

This naturally led to the doubt about the porosity in laterites which prompted another investigation.

Preliminary Investigation-2 This was undertaken in April 1998 through a traverse along the total length of the State to find the effective porosity. Fifty samples from various localities and various positions in the laterite vertical profile were collected and their effective porosity was estimated. The results are given below: Lowest effective porosity ——————————— 12%  Highest effective porosity————————————50%  Mean effective porosity—————————————32%  Maximum moisture content —————————— 8% (This value is generally confined to the zone just below the more than 3m thick soil cover)

 Minimum moisture content —- 0.6% (2 m above the weathered zone) Centre for Environment and Development

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This proved that the laterites have enough effective porosity and permeability. Thus the enigma of water shortage continued. This led to taking up a systematic investigation of the problem in a compact area in the midlands where all diverse hydrogeological conditions exist.

Detailed Investigation The study was conducted in Thumpamon Grama Panchayat (Figure 1) and a small part of the Panthalam Thekkekara Panchayat contiguous thereto. Fiftythree dug wells were monitored for about 30 months. 26 of these wells were seasonal, drying up for 27 months/year and others were perennial (Perenniality could be partly due to less water usage). Care was taken to select the wells in various topographic and geological settings. Within 3m distance from 5 dug wells facing acute water shortage, 1.25 m deep rain water collecting pits lined by concrete rings were made and roof water from the houses nearby was directed to the pits. The pits near wells at the hill crests were found to raise the well water level in a few hours. Here the soil directly overlies the porous and permeable weathered zone. The rainwater collecting pits near wells which have penetrated more than 6 m thick vermicular laterite did not help to raise the water level in the wells. This observation was followed by drilling of 5-10 m deep bore holes in each of the rain water collecting pits. The wells along the hill crests showed a faster rise in water level; but the same went down fast. The most significant finding is that the rain water pits-borehole combination near the wells that have penetrated 6 m of vermicular laterite started yielding water and continued even during the peak dry months of February-March. Thus, these wells became perennial.

Fig. 1 Map of Thumpamon Grama Panchayat â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Area of detailed study 226

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The following are the salient conclusions of the study: The vermicular laterite constituting the largest rock mass has enough effective porosity to be used as an excellent ground water storage medium despite its low permeability.  The rain water that infiltrates the soil zone does not go down into the vermicular laterite to charge the water table. The water that seeps down the highly porous and permeable soil, 1 to 4m thick, on encountering the less permeable vermicular laterite is converted as through flow (Petts and Foster, 1985) flows down the slope escaping through surface discontinuities such as road cuttings and gullies or as base flow contributing to the natural drainage channels( Figure 2)  Contrary to the common knowledge, the ground water recharge in locations with over 4 m thick vermicular laterite takes place from below. The effect of water that enters the water table at the hill tops and lowest parts of the hill slopes during peak monsoon periods, is felt in the thick laterite sections much long after the rains are over and this explains the enigma of delayed response of water levels in the wells to the rain fall.  The harvested rain water should be directed to go down to the top of water table monsoon period or at least up to the vadose zone. · Shallow rain water harvesting pits do not help in recharging the phreatic aquifer except along hill crests where the raised water table goes down soon after the rains.

Fig. 2 Water flow pattern in laterite terrain Centre for Environment and Development

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The concept was explained in a public meeting organized by the Grama Panchayat.

But this did not make any difference among the common people. Therefore the only alternative is to demonstrate the technique through actual practice over a few small areas. If the technique is adopted over the entire area where the vermicular laterite is more than 5-6 m thick, it would not only solve the problem of potable water shortage in the area concerned, but also in adjacent areas including hill crests and river banks and other such problematic areas. More importantly, this technique has the potential to increase the water flow in the natural drainage.

CONCLUSION In areas of occurrence of thick vermicular laterite the water harvesting and aquifer recharge must be accomplished through a method of combination of rain water harvesting pits with boreholes drilled therein to direct the harvested water close to the phreatic water table top or vadose zone. Methodology now exists. A strong will to popularize the concept and implement the same across the state, it would save half of the Stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population from the recurrent problem of water scarcity during the months of January to May every year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author thanks Prof. B.E. Vijayam, Chairman, PROGRESS, Hyderabad for administering and guiding the project implemented at Thumpamon Grama Panchayat.

Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission funded the above project and the author expresses his sincere thanks on his behalf and on behalf of PROGRESS to this National organization.

REFERENCES Narayanaswamy and Terry Machado. 2006. Significance of Water Harvesting Structures in Lateritic Terrain: A case study from Amachal watershed region, Trivandrum. In: Compendium of research papers of projects under, WGDP. pp 34 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 38.

Petts G and Foster I. 1985. Rivers and Landscape, Edward Arnold, page 274 State Planning Board. 2006. Economic Review, 2006. Government of Kerala.

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Drinking Water for Thiruvananthapuram District: A Vision for 2025

Sandhya S Nair1, Nanda Mohan V1 and Nair A S K 2 1 2

Department of Futures Studies, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram - 695 034 Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam, Thiruvananathapuram - 695 031

INTRODUCTION Water is basic to man and his environment. It is neither infinite as is the popular belief in tropical and humid regions nor should be treated as a free gift of nature. Since water is essential for man’s survival and socio-economic betterment as well as for maintaining sustainability in the process of development, it is important that it is harnessed and managed in an integrated and equitable manner so as to meet the demands of competing water users and water use sectors. There is a close relationship between water, people and livelihood. Degradation and depletion of water resources will affect life and livelihood of all human being. Apart from the drinking requirement, water is needed for bathing, washing, laundering, heating and air conditioning, for irrigation, for industrial processes, for water power and steam power, for fire protection, for disposal of wastes, for fishing, swimming, boating and other recreational purposes, for fish and wild life propagation, for navigation and for engineering construction. Therefore, every activity of man involves some use of water. Water can thus be considered as the most important raw material of civilization since without it man cannot live and industry cannot operate. The Egyptians were the first people to record methods for treating water. These records date back more than 1,500 years to 400 A.D. They indicate that the most common ways of cleaning water were by boiling it over a fire, heating it in the sun, or by dipping a heated piece of iron into it. Filtering boiling water through sand and gravel and then allowing it to cool was another common treatment method.

KERALA WATER SCENARIO Kerala ‘The God’s Own Country’ is blessed with more fresh water sources and abundant rainfall compared to the other parts of the country. Average annual rainfall is 3000 mm. However, the state is frequently facing severe droughts followed in general by continuous and acute shortage of drinking water. Population of Thiruvananthapuram district is more than 32 lakhs with a drinking water scarcity of about 34.94% (George Centre for Environment and Development

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and Nair, 2000). If this situation continues for the next 20 years, considering the then population drinking water scarcity can rise to unpredictable level. Kerala accounts for 1.18 percent of India’s land area, which has about 4.8 percent of the country’s water resources. Water bodies of Kerala include 44 rivers (of which 41 rivers flows to the Arabian Sea and 3 to the Bay of Bengal) reservoirs, wells, backwaters and several springs. The annual yield of the river basins in the state is found to be 78401 million cubic meters.70323 million cubic meters is available for the state. Most of the Kerala’s rivers are perennial but with accompanying deficit during lean season. The annual utilisable yield from 44 rivers is 49286 million cubic meters (70% of the total annual yield) with the state share being 87 percent (42772 million cubic meters).

NEED FOR THE PRESENT STUDY As far as Kerala is concerned, in spite of the high water potential, there is scarcity of water in the last 10 to 15 years. As per KWA the total demand of water for both urban and rural population is 2600 MLD and the present production of water through piped water supply schemes is approximately 1008 MLD. In rural areas most of the people depends either open wells or bore wells, hand pumps, ponds, springs etc. for drinking water. In coastal areas during summer season water table level lowers and thereby reverse flow from sea to the well occurs and it becomes saline water - unsuitable for drinking purpose. In Kerala all the 14 districts are affected drinking water scarcity. In Thiruvananthapuram district mainly in urban area, KWA maintains water supply through Wellington water works, which is a very old water supply scheme introduced by Lord Wellington on Dec 11, 1933. Presently there is a huge demand-supply gap and as such KWA is not able to provide drinking water in the required quantity for all its customers in its urban and rural sector.

STUDY AREA In the present circumstance, it has been felt that it is important to develop an understanding on the futuristic situation on “Drinking Water” scenario for the Thiruvananthapuram District which is located between latitude of 8° 15’ N to 8° 50’ N and longitudes 76° 42’ E to 77° 12’ E, has a spatial extent of 2191 sq.km with 32 lakhs (census, 2001) people inhabiting in the four taluks of Thiruvananthapuram, Nedumangad, Chirayinkeezh and Neyyatinkara. The administrative capital of the state has 78 Grama Panchayats, 4 Municipalities and one Corporation. According to the census of 2001,this district has 10.91 lakhs of urban dwellers and 21.42 lakhs of rural population. People in the district depends mostly on wells for drinking water. However, of the 34% of the population residing in the city region of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation and other municipalities, a very small percentage uses wells. Ponds, streams, springs and lakes are brought to limited use. Urbanization, unscientific interference by men and population explosion destroyed many water resources.

METHODOLOGY To forecast the water demand for the year 2025 the methodology that can be followed is to extrapolate the population considering each five years starting from (2005 to 230

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2025). Amount of rainfall can be calculated based on the available data. We can ascertain the demand – supply gap from the above data. As a remedial measure various alternate sources such as Rainwater harvesting, rejunuvating unused lakes, springs, dugwells, bore wells, tube wells and other water streams can be made use of.

Database As per the methodology to determine the demand – supply gap of drinking water, data on drinking water supplied by KWA to the urban and rural sector is collected and analysed. KWA has made intensive efforts for providing drinking water not only to the urban dwellers but also to the rural folk. As a result, several water supply and augmentation schemes were started. The water supply schemes cover 83.86 per cent of the urban and 68.99 per cent of the rural population (KWA, 2004). The water, collected from surface or ground water sources, is conveyed to treatment plant for removal of impurities. The treated water after adding quality control contents is stored in clean water reservoirs and pumped to overhead tanks directly into the distribution system for supplying to the customers through individual connections. In addition, street taps are provided for domestic consumption. The main sources of water for distribution in the capital are Peppara and Aruvikkara dams. At present, one hundred and twenty schemes are in operation for providing drinking water to the rural areas and five in urban areas. In Thiruvananthapuram district the water supply divisions of KWA consists of four divisions i.e. Public Health Division – Thiruvananthapuram, Water Supply Division – Attingal, Head Works Division – Aruvikkara, Water Supply Division – Neyyattinkara. The quantity of water produced in million litres per day from each division is shown in Table.1.

Table 1 Revenue Collection – Target for 2004 Quantity Produced MLD

30% UFW

Supply Quantity MLD

P.H.Division, Trivandrum

232.13

69.64

Water Supply Division, Attingal

26.23

Head Works Division, Aruvikkara Water Supply Division, Neyyattinkara

Division

Street foundain

Revenue Local body LAKHS

Balance Quantity MLD

No

Qty MLD

162.49

U 1471 R 1342

8.52

62.46

153.97

7.87

18.36

U 498 R 2566

7.96

58.11

10.4

23.61

7.08

16.53

U 572 R 2713

8.66

62.64

7.87

39.86

11.96

27.9

U 446 R 4084

11.4

83.29

16.5

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Water supply schemes under Thiruvananthapuram division include Vilavoorkal, Vattiyoorkavu, Nemom, Pothencode, Kadinamkulam, Nemom and Thiruvallam. Under the Attingal Water Supply Division, Varkala and Attingal Municipalities are included in urban water supply schemes and rural water supply schemes consists of panchayats such as Elakamon, Edava, Sreenivasapuram, Chemmaruthy, Cherunniyoor, Manamboor, Ottoor, Vettoor, Karavaram, Pallickal, Navaikulam, Madavoor, Nagaroor, Thonnakal, Perumkuzhy, Kallara, Veilloor and Devasam.

The rural water supply schemes under Aruvikkara Head Works Division include Nedumangad, Kottamala, Erayamcode, Karakulam, Anad, Palode, Tholicode, Peringammala, Vithura, Vamanapuram, Manikkal, Pannikuzhi, Idinjar, Panavoor, Kanyakulangara, Ponmudi, Vilappil, Aryanad, Vellanad, Poovachal, Uzhamalackal, Kuttichal, Paruthippara, Navettikonam and Enchapuri. Neyyattinkara Municipality comes under the urban water supply scheme in Neyyattinkara and the rural scheme includes Balaramapuram, Olathanni, Marayamuttom, Maranalloor, Kattakada, Ottasekharamangalam, Malayinkil, Mookkunnimala, Chemboor, Pallichal, Poovar, Uchakkada, Athiyanoor, Kottukal, Venganoor, Thirupuram, Vizhinjam, Chowara, Parassala, Dhanuvachapuram, Aryancode, Kulathummel, Aruvippuram, and Pozhiyoor.

The quantity of water produced in different panchayats included in urban & rural supply scheme of four water supply divisions of Thiruvananthapuram District is shown in the Table 2.

Table 2 Quantity of water produced per day, Public Health Division, Thiruvananthapuram Sl.No.

Water Supply Scheme

Quantity MLD

Thiruvananthapuram Water Supply Scheme

218.00

Rural Schemes 1

RWSS to Vilavoorkal

3.50

2

RWSS to Vattiyoorkavu

3.00

3

RWSS to Nemom

4.40

4

RWSS to Andoorkonam

0.21

5

RWSS to Mangalapuram

0.11

6

RWSS to Pothencode

0.01

7

RWSS to Kadinamkulam

0.31

8

RWSS to Kalliyoor

2.00

9

RWSS to Nemom Portion

10

RWSS to Thiruvallam

Total

0.50

232.13

(Source: KWA,2004)

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The water supply connections can be categorized as domestic, non-domestic and industrial. Connections to supply water for domestic purposes such as households, residential flats etc. are categorized as domestic, connections other than domestic purpose come under non-domestic, supply of water for factories, railways, roadways are categorized as industrial connections. As per KWA the total number of domestic connections in Thiruvananthapuram district is 195239.The water supply division, Neyyattinkara have 28664 total domestic connections. 9260 connections are there in Aruvikkara division. There are 16416 domestic connections in urban and rural sectors of Attingal division. Water works division of Thiruvananthapuram has 140899 urban domestic connections. Among the water supply connections in the district domestic users are more compared to non-domestic and industrial users. According to the Kerala State Ground Water Department net annual ground water availability of Trivandrum District is found to be 278.03 MCM.Block-wise details shows that Vamanapuram block has higher Ground water resource potential of 49.24 MCM. The existing gross ground water draft for domestic and industrial water supply is 93.73 MCM and the existing gross ground water draft for all uses is 185.79 MCM.The overall stage of ground water development of Trivandrum District is 66.82 %. The block wise stage of development is maximum in Chirayinkil (119.97%) and minimum in Vellanad (32.55%).

The stage of development indicates that among the 12 blocks 9 of them are showing a development of more than 70% (KGWD, 2004). The Kerala State Ground Water Department recommends stopping all the ground water developments in the overexploited block. Micro-level studies are to be taken up in these blocks to evaluate the situation. In the critical and semi-critical blocks any development shall be done with caution. Micro level studies and construction of artificial recharge structures are to be taken up in these blocks.

PRESENT DEMAND-SUPPLY GAP As part of the analysis of collected data the demand - supply gap of both urban and rural areas of all the four water supply divisions were calculated. In Public Health Division, Thiruvananthapuram, under the urban water supply scheme there are 744739 domestic connections. This scheme mainly supplies drinking water to consumers in Thiruvananthapuram Corporation. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 150 litres per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 84.54 million litres per day, which can meet the need of only 563596 persons. The total population is 744739. The demand of water is 27.17 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 181143 persons. There is a demand-supply gap of 57.37 MLD. Under the rural water supply scheme there are 18925 domestic connections. The blocks that belong to the scheme are Thiruvananthapuram rural block and Kazhakuttom block.

Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 70 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 5.3 million liters per day, which can meet the need of only 75700 persons. The total population is 363458.The demand of water is 20.14 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 287758 persons.

Demand - supply gap is found to be 14.84 MLD. Centre for Environment and Development

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In Water Supply Division, Attingal, under the urban water supply scheme there are 10870 domestic connections. This scheme mainly supplies drinking water to consumers in Attingal and Varkala Municipality. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 150 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 6.52 million liters per day, which can meet the need of only 43480 persons. The total population is 77921.The demand of water is 5.17 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 34441 persons. There is a demand–supply gap of 1.35 MLD. Under the rural water supply scheme there are 5546 domestic connections. The blocks that belong to scheme are Varkala, Kilimanoor and Chirayinkeezhu. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 70 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 1.55 million liters per day, which can meet the need of only 22184 persons. The total population is 483935.The demand of water is 32.32 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 461751 persons. The demand – supply gap is found to be 30.77 MLD. In Head Works Division, Aruvikkara, under the water supply scheme there are 9260 domestic connections. The blocks that belong to scheme are Nedumangad, Vamanapuram and Vellanad. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 70 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 2.6 million liters per day, which can meet the need of only 37040 persons. The total population is 499638.The demand of water is 32.38 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 462598 persons. The demand – supply gap is found to be 29.78 MLD. In Water Supply Division, Neyyattinkara, under the urban water supply scheme there are 24929 domestic connections. This scheme mainly supplies drinking water to consumers in Neyyattinkara Municipality. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 150 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 3.74 million liters per day. There is a demand of 6.68 MLD of drinking water. With this 1127 domestic connections can be provided. The demand - supply gap is 2.94 MLD. Under the rural water supply scheme there are 3735 domestic connections. The blocks that belong to this scheme are Nemom, Perumkadavila, Athiyanoor and Parassala. Assuming that a family consists of 4 members and a per capita supply of 70 liters per day the quantity of that water can be supplied is found to be 1.05 million liters per day, which can meet the need of only 14940 persons. The total population is 536657.The demand of water is 36.52 MLD to meet the requirement of remaining 521717 persons. The demand – supply gap is found to be 35.47 MLD. The demand-supply gap of drinking water in Thiruvananthapuram district is shown in Table 3.

Demand of water for 2010, 2015, 2020 & 2025 The requirement of water for the year 2010, 2015, 2020 & 2025 has been calculated for both urban and rural sectors of Neyyattinkara, Attingal, Thiruvananthapuram and rural areas of Aruvikkara.The demand of water has been calculated based on the assumption that each family consists of 4 members in both rural and urban area and a per capita supply of 150 litres per day in urban and 70 litres per day in rural.

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Table 3 Demand-Supply Gap of drinking water in Thiruvananthapuram District

Water Supply Divisions

Demand

Supply *

Gap

P.H.Division, Thiruvananthapuram Urban Rural

27.17 20.14

84.54 5.3

+ 57.37 - 14.84

W.S.Division, Attingal Urban Rural

5.17 32.32

6.52 1.55

+ 1.35 -30.77

H.W.Division, Aruvikkara Rural

32.38

2.6

-29.78

W.S.Division, Neyyattinkara Urban Rural

6.68 36.52

3.74 1.05

- 2.94 -35.47

(in MLD) * inclusive of 30 % Unaccounted For Water (UFW)

The total requirement of water for both urban & rural area in Neyyattinkara for the year 2010, 2015, 2020 & 2025 is found to be 19053, 20039, 20951 & 21937 millionlitres/year. Under Attingal water supply division demand is calculated as 18871, 19710, 20659, 21535 millionlitres/year. There is a demand of 58400, 63620, 68730 & 73731 milloinlitres/year for the urban & rural sectors of Thiruvananthapuram water supply division. The rural water supply division of Aruvikkara requires 13870, 14418, 14965, 15414 milloinlitres of water each five years. The rainfall availability in millionlitres/year in these areas has been determined. While comparing the average annual rainfall in Thiruvananthapuram district and demand of water it could be seen that more than sufficient quantity of water is available. As such this rainwater should be made use of under scientific management. Table 4 shows the water requirement of urban and rural areas from 2005 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2025 and rainfall availability in millionlitres year.

DISCUSSION Augmentation proposed for the water supply divisions of Thiruvananthapuram District The results obtained by analyzing the data of both urban and rural water supply schemes of Kerala Water Authority, it is ascertained that rural sector faces acute scarcity of drinking water compared to the urban. About 71% of urban population is covered under the piped drinking water and merely 8% of rural population, under the piped water supply of KWA. The total quantity of water produced by KWA is 321.83 MLD. Owing to the high percentage of unaccounted for water (30%) available water for Centre for Environment and Development

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supply is 225.28 MLD. This loss can be minimized to a great extent by planned reduction in the share of unaccounted for water (UFW) for efficient use of treated water. In the urban area under Thiruvananthapuram water supply division there is surplus water of 27.17 MLD, which can be utilized for providing additional 45286 domestic connections. But in rural area there is a Demand-Supply gap of 14.84 MLD. The quantity of water produced is not sufficient to cater the needs of the total population.

By increasing the production, the demand of 20.14 MLD can be met with 71940 domestic connections. About more than half of the population is served by KWA in urban area of Attingal water supply division. Loss of water reduction can meet the demand of 5.17 MLD of water thereby providing 8610 domestic connections. In rural sectors there is a huge demand of 32.32 MLD. Connections can be increased by 115438.The rural areas under Aruvikkara division faces a demand â&#x20AC;&#x201C;supply gap of 29.78 MLD.With the present supply the needs of few population is met. By increasing the supply, 115650 domestic connections can be provided. In Neyyattinkara, the quantity of water produced per day is urban sector is not sufficient to satisfy all its consumers. There is demand of 6.68 MLD of water that can provide 11127 domestic connections. The demand - supply gap is very high in rural area. Additional 130429 domestic connections is possible with 36.52 MLD of water.

Solutions for bridging Demand - Supply Gap At present there is a demand of 160.4 MLD of water in the Thiruvananthapuram District and supply is 105.3 MLD. By 2025 demand increases to 1331.2 MLD. In order to bridge the demand - supply gap remedial measures are to be adopted. Some of the solutions include: Reducing the loss of water during supply, Rejunuvating unused ponds, wells and lakes, Desilting of Aruvikkara and Peppara Dams, Augmenting water supply schemes at Panchayat level and Adopting alternate sources of water â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Rainwater Harvesting.

Reducing the loss of water during supply The KWA manages the water distribution and sewer system of both the urban and rural sectors of Thiruvananthapuram District. Water Authority provides total connections of 218023, which includes domestic, non-domestic and industrial connections. When the KWA was built 72 years ago water resources were abundant and therefore little attention was paid to conservation. Since construction however the district has significantly grown and with it so has the demand for water. KWA is faced with high volume of Unaccounted for water loss (UFW). UFW is defined as the difference between water delivered to the distribution system and water sold. UFW includes two basic components: Physical losses and Commercial losses.

Physical Losses Physical losses represent water lost from pipe leaks in distribution systems in house connections, excessive water pressure, damage by external factors, corrosion and from overflows in distribution tanks. Commercial losses represent water used but not paid for (i.e. from illegal connections and inaccurate metering). The UFW in KWA is about 236

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30% of total water production. In general a 10 to 20% allowance for UFW is normal.

But a loss of more than 20% requires priority attention and corrective actions. However advances in technologies and expertise should make it possible to reduce losses and UFW to less than 10%. The primary cause of excessive UFW is often leaks. There are different types of leaks including concealed and exposed leaks. Exposed leaks can be easily detected and repaired. But concealed leaks even small ones can lead to large quantities of loss of water since these leaks might exist for long periods of time.

Detecting leaks is only the first step in eliminating leakage. Some of the methods that can be adopted for detecting leaks are direct observation by the public or by KWA, installing main water meters at the entrance of each locality and comparing the readings with the total of all consumers meter of that locality. The difference in the reading can be dealt with on a priority basis and performing a general survey of the system every 1 to 3 years using electronic leak detection equipment in suspected lines/localities.

Due to ageing scaling occurs by the deposition of chlorine on the inner walls of GI pipelines there by reducing the efficiency.

Commercial Losses Administrative or commercial water losses in meters can be defined as the quantity of water that is consumed by consumers but is not recorded by the meters. The inaccuracy of water meter is attributed to the following reasons. with passage of time, the meter may stop recording due to failure in its internal gears, meter accuracy is reduced over time due to scale deposits on the internal gears of the meters, water supplied to consumers is usually stored in rooftop tanks. These tanks lower the water flow through meters and since the ½â&#x20AC;? meter does not record any flow less than 3.4 liters/hour, a large quantity of water is not recorded. A simple method that can be used to detect the quantity of water losses in private meters is proposed as follows: Main standard meters are installed on different main lines supplying certain clusters of consumers. The losses due to inaccurate meter reading are figured out by comparing the total consumption recorded by private meters with that of the main meters. In order to detect illegal connections KWA implements an active policy with respect to illegal consumption where every meter reader is required to investigate the premises and to report any suspected consumption. If an illegal act has taken place, the connection will be removed and an estimated amount of water to cover the period since the last check will be charged to the consumer before his connection is restored.

IT Solutions Detecting leakages and breakdowns in time by monitoring the entire districtâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water distribution system may become possible if the KWA is able to build up its GIS (Geographic Information System). Mapping and related data about the entire water supply network can be incorporated in the GIS. It can help the engineers solve any problem related to unaccounted for water, pressure in the system and transfer of water from one area to another if needed. The GIS will provide micro-level data on the number of houses with water connections, streets and other properties as well as a detailed map of the water pipe lines criss- crossing the district. The volume of water Centre for Environment and Development

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used by consumers in a specific building or area water quality and optimum supply of water to each home can also be monitored. It also gives information on how water is sent to and transferred from reservoirs and their storage capacity at a given point of time.

Rejunuvating unused lakes, ponds, wells, springs and desilting of dams A lake is a low-lying part of the Earth’s surface in which rainwater, surface water runoff, outflow from a river, and water from other sources accumulates. Whether natural or manmade, all lakes are major sources of water. The majority of lakes receive a variable contribution of water and particulate matter from river systems and the catchments, which they drain. There are 34 lakes in Kerala out of which three of them are freshwater lakes. Vellayani lake of Thiruvananthapuram district in the low land, is one of the three rain fed freshwater lakes in Kerala, the other two being Sasthamcotta lake in Kollam district in the mid land and Pookkode lake in Wayanad district in the high land area. Vellayani lake may be considered as a major source of drinking water for Thiruvananthapuram city in coming years. A good spring is a sustainable source of fresh water. There are a number of perennial springs existing in the midland and highland regions of the district. The discharge from the spring is about 20 liters/minute and 100 peoples are benefited by this scheme. The quality of spring water is generally good for drinking. Many of these springs can properly harnessed in to mini drinking water supply schemes, especially in rural and remote areas. The cost of construction is comparatively very low compared with other conventional water supply schemes. In most cases, the distribution of water can be made through gravity supply, saving a lot of electricity. Proper maintennce and repair of these schemes can be ensured by handing over the schemes to the beneficiaries after imparting training and awareness to them to keep the scheme long lasting and sustainable.

Aruvikkara and Peppara dams are the main sources of water for distribution in Thiruvananthapuram district. The study done over many months had found that there is more than three lakh cubic metre of excess sand in the 25-acre Aruvikkara reservoir.

The study revealed that the silt is about three metres deep and that consequently, the reservoir’s storage capacity has been halved. A proposal has been drawn up by engineers of the Kerala Water Authority (KWA) in last year to desilt the reservoir of the Aruvikkara dam in order to enhance storage of water. The reservoir has never been desilted since its commissioning. At present, Aruvikkara has a capacity to store only enough water to serve the city for six days. The KWA maintains a ‘water head’ of 46 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL) to enable pumping to take place. If by any chance the water level goes below the 45m mark, the intake pumps would have to be shut. Given the present rate of usage of water-slightly more than 214 million litres a day (mld)-the fresh water storage tanks in the city would run dry within hours of cessation of pumping from Aruvikkara.

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The reservoir of the Peppara dam, the only source of drinking water to the city, is more silt-laden than Aruvikkara. Engineers of the KWA estimate that Peppara’s storage capacity too has been halved due to siltation. The Peppara reservoir had 36 million metric cubes (mm3) of water (103.6 m above MSL); enough, according to official estimates, to serve the city for about 120 days. Today, the level had come down to 103.4 m above MSL. However, no correct estimate of the dam’s capacity can be had due to heavy siltation in the reservoir. According to sources in the KWA, the water stored at Peppara now may only be enough for 60 to 70 days. The past records shows that the water level at Peppara would begin to dip sharply due to the increased usage of water by the city in the grip of the summer heat.The water level had fallen from 101.40 m above MSL to 97 m. Adding to the siltation-woes of the KWA is the fact that the Authority is yet to get the Central Government’s permission to down the radial gates at Peppara. Once these shutters are closed, the dam can store twice the amount of water it can now. This would come to about 70 mm3 of water-enough for about 250 days of usage. This would also mean that additional water can be made available to places in the city, especially the elevated areas, which are now experiencing shortage of drinking water.

Futuristic Vision on Adopting Alternate Sources of Water - Rainwater Harvesting Since time immemorial, people used to collect and store rainwater for their future use.

In many areas, these traditional systems of rainwater collection and storage are still in vogue. Since such rainwater harvesting systems are cost-effective, easy to build, operate and maintain by people/communities themselves, it serves as a substitute as well as is complementary to existing water supply systems. In recent years, rainwater harvesting including artificial recharge has been accorded high priority. Such rainwater harvesting schemes will not only be helpful in making sources sustainable and save systems from becoming defunct, but stored rainwater can be used to meet supplementary domestic requirement. This would ensure long-term sustainability of the sources.

Rainwater is generally a very pure form of water, having resulted from the process of distillation (evaporation and condensation). Nevertheless, cloud, droplets do react with other atmospheric constitutes such as carbon dioxide and naturally occurring oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. This results in natural rainwater being slightly acidic.

Disinfecting can be done either by boiling water in a vessel before consuming or by dissolving bleaching powder in required quantity to the water stored in the tank.

Thiruvananthapuram district receives an average annual rainfall of 2200 mm from two monsoons (June – August & October - December). Even then we are facing water scarcity for four months from January to April. If a portion of rainfall is properly conserved/harvested scarcity can be solved to a great extent. Rainwater harvesting is the appropriate and useful method to solve water crisis. Since the Water Authority could not cater to the full need with the present supply system on conducting a detailed study it is proposed for the Rainwater harvesting project to bridge the Demand – Supply gap.

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CONCLUSION Water resources are an integral part of our environment, which sustains life on earth.

Though Kerala is considered to be a water surplus State, the quantification of our resources and its comparison with other drought prone states have proved this to be a myth. Thiruvananthapuram district has been facing acute drinking water scarcity in the last 10 to 15 years. The present Demand-Supply gap of the district has been determined from the analysis of water supply details of Kerala Water Authority. The results of analysis of data show that the huge Demand-Supply gap is due to the loss of water (30%) during the supply. Under the P.H Division, Trivandrum there is a Demand - Supply gap of 57.37 MLD and 14.84 MLD in both urban and rural sectors. The Demand - Supply gap of urban and rural areas of Attingal Water supply division is 1.35 MLD and 30.77 MLD. In Aruvikkara Division the gap is about 29.78 MLD.In Neyyattinkara Division the urban and rural areas have a gap of 2.94 and 35.47 MLD respectively. To meet this Demand – Supply gap various measures like Reducing loss of water during supply, Rejunuvating unused ponds, wells and lakes, Desilting of Aruvikkara and Peppara Dams, Augmenting water supply schemes at Panchayat level, Adopting alternate sources of water – Rainwater Harvesting have to be adopted.

Population for the next 20 years was extrapolated and demand of water for these years has been calculated. In rural areas of Neyyattinkara, Aruvikkara, Attingal and Thiruvananthapuram there is 4% increase in population and in urban area the increase is about 9%. From the analysis of rainfall data it is found that there is sufficient rainwater in the district. In Neyyattinkara the annual availability of rainfall is 145514 millionlitres/ year. The percentage of rainfall that can be utilized varies from 13-15% for each five from 2010 to 2025. The annual rainfall availability of Attingal is 166100 millionlitres/ year. About 11-13% of rainfall is needed for each five years from 2010 to 2025.In Thiruvananthapuram from the annual rainfall availability of 135350 millionlitres/year, 43-55% of rainwater can be utilized. About 5-6.5% of rainwater is required for Aruvikkara region where the annual rainfall availability is 270080 millionlitres/year.

By harnessing the above listed rain water in an effective manner Demand – Supply gap as well as scarcity of drinking water can be effectively solved. Rainwater harvesting is cost effective technology that can be adopted by all categories of consumers.

REFERENCES Annon. 2000. Bio-Physical Resources of Thiruvananthapuram District, 2000. Development Perspective, State Planning Board, Kerala, pp 38-91.

Annon. 2001. Water Supply and Sanitation, Economic Survey of Delhi, 250p..

Ashok B. 2004. Rural Water Supply in Kerala:Issues and Prospects, KSCSTE, Thiruvananthapuram, pp 11-24.

Christabell P J, Pillai G K, John Paul and Nair A S K. 1999. Eco – Friendly management of a common property resource with special reference to Vellayani fresh water lake, Thiruvananthapuram district, Proceedings of the Eleventh Kerala Science Congress, Kasargod, pp 422 – 423.

Economic Review. 2003. Water Resources, State Planning Board, Government of Kerala. 545p.

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Garg S K. 2000. Water Supply Engineering, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, pp 5-53.

George R and Nair A S K. 2000. Drinking Water, State Planning Board, Kerala, pp 393-415.

Iyer Ramaswamy. 2001. Water: Charting a course for the future. (Website) James E J. 2004. Fresh Water Resources of Kerala, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology & Environment, Thiruvananthapuram, pp 1-10.

Joseph P Martino. 1993.Technological Forecasting for Decision Making, Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, pp 57 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 77.

Nalinakumar S and Nair A S K. 1998. Environmental degradation of Vellayani Kayal using IRS -LISS II Data, Proceedings of the Tenth Kerala Science Congress, Kozhikode, pp 68 - 70.

Nambudripad K D. 2004. Drinking Water Storage in the Kerala Context, Kerala State Council for Science, Technology & Environment, Thiruvananthapuram, pp 40-43.

Raju B S N. 2000.Water Supply and Wastewater Engineering, Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited, NewDelhi, pp 4-25.

Rema Devi and Naved Ahsan. 2002. Water and Wastewater: Perspectives of Developing Countries, Anamaya Publishers, New Delhi, pp 359 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 366.

Sastry G S. 2001. Urban water Supply and Demand: A case study of Banglore City. (Website)

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Prevalence and enhanced sur vival of indicator bact eria

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Young Scientistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Award Presentations

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Centre for Environment and Development

Prevalence and enhanced sur vival of indicator bact eria

Abhirosh et al.

Prevalence and enhanced survival of indicator bacteria and enteric pathogens in Kumarakom region of Vembanad lake

Abhirosh Chandran1, Hatha A A M2, Sherin Varghese1 and Thomas A P1 1 2

School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 686 560, Kerala School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin - 682 016, Kerala

INTRODUCTION Maintenance of the microbiological quality and safety of natural water resources used for drinking, recreation and harvesting of seafood is imperative, as contamination of these systems can exert high risks to human health as well as economic loss. Waters contaminated with human faeces adversely affect human health, as they are more likely to contain human-specific enteric pathogens, including Salmonella, diarrheagenic E. coli, Vibrios spp. etc. The occurrence of high concentration of V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, Salmonella sp and pathogenic E. coli in shellfish grown in faecally polluted water and several food borne outbreaks due to the consumption of shellfish from sewage contaminated water has also been reported (Daniels et al., 2000). Besides water, prolonged survival of indicator and pathogens in sediment poses a potential health risk through microbial resuspension and subsequent recontamination of the overlying water column due to human or natural turbulence before the organisms die off (Craig et al. 2004). This is especially critical for a water body where recreational activities and human contact takes place.

The region of the Vembanad lake (9o35â&#x20AC;&#x2122;N 76o25â&#x20AC;&#x2122;E) where the study has been carried out is known as Kumarakom lake, which is lifeline of people around Kumarakom. The study area is devoid of any central facility for the effective waste collection and disposal, hence the Kumarakom lake acts as major sink for all domestic and industrial waste.

Also, the number of people using the system for agriculture, fishing, transportation and recreation is much higher than the other parts of the Vembanad lake. The availability of pure drinking water is very low in this region and the lake water is being used for different domestic purposes. Water related diseases are very common in this area even though most of them were not reported officially. The water quality problem of the lake is further compounded by the construction of a salt water regulator which seriously affects the flow patterns of the lake. Though some published data are available on the water quality of Cochin region of Vembanad lake (Lakshmanaperumalsamy et al., Centre for Environment and Development

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1981; Hatha et al., 2004) there are virtually no reports are available on the microbial pollution of water in the present study area, i.e., Kumarakom lake. Hence the present study has been carried out to examine the prevalence of E. coli, V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and Salmonella in water at various stations along the southern (enclosed) and northern (open) side of salt water regulator and to compare the survival of E. coli, V. parahaemolyticus and S. paratyphi in water and sediment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Studies were carried out from October 2004 to September 2005 at Kumarakom region of Vembanad lake, where the salt water regulator is constructed and most affected by this structure (Fig.1). Monthly collections of estuarine water samples were made from 5 stations on the southern (enclosed region) and 5 on northern sides (open) of the salt water regulator in sterile plastic bottles. Water samples were transported to the laboratory in an ice box and subjected to bacteriological examination within 2 hours of collection.

Fig.1 Study Area showing sampling locations

Bacteriological analysis A three tube fermentation method was used to estimate faecal coliform using EC broth as the medium and incubation at 44.5oC for 24-48 hours. Loopful of culture from each tube showing growth and gas production were streaked on Eosine Methylene Blue (EMB) agar for the isolation of E. coli and incubated at 37oC for 24 hours. Typical E. coli like cultures were isolated, restreaked to ensure purity and confirmed by indole, methyle red, voges proskauer and citrate (IMViC) test. Isolates showing + + - - reaction for IMViC test were confirmed as E. coli. Serotyping of the strains was carried out at National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre, Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh, India.

For the isolation of V. cholerae and V. parahaemolyticus 10 ml of estuarine water samples were inoculated into 40 ml alkaline peptone water for pre-enrichment in a conical flask and incubated at 37oC for 24 hours. Flasks showing growth in enrichment broths were streaked onto TCBS agar and incubated at 37oC for 24-48 hours. Typical colonies, whenever present, were isolated, restreaked to ensure purity and maintained 246

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on nutrient agar slants for further biochemical characterisation. The cultures were identified according to bacteriological analytical manual (BAM) of United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA).

Salmonella were detected by the selective enrichment of the water samples in Tetrathionate broth (TTB) and Selenite cystine broth (SCB) following selective plating on xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar and Hektoen Enteric agar (HEA) and incubation at 37oC for 24 to 48 hours. Typical cultures were subjected to primary biochemical testing involving reactions in triple sugar iron (TSI) agar, lysine iron agar (LIA,) slants, indole production in tryptone broth and urease production on Christnsen’s urea agar following secondary biochemical characterization involving fermentation of carbohydrates such as lactose, sucrose, dulcitol and salicin. Isolates that matched typical biochemical reactions of Salmonella were further confirmed by slide agglutination test using Salmonella polyvalent ‘O‘serum. Serotyping of the strains was carried out at National Salmonella and Escherichia Centre, Kasauli, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Survival experiments Test organisms: E. coli, S. paratyphi and V. parahaemolyticus isolated from the Kumarakom lake was used for survival studies.

Preparation of inocula: The inocula were prepared as previously described by Abhirosh & Hatha (2005). Briefly, E. coli/ S. paratyphi/V. parahaemolyticus were grown in Tryptone Soya Broth (TSB) and incubated at 37oC for 24 hours. After incubation the cells were concentrated by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes and washed twice with sterile isotonic saline. After the final wash the cells were suspended in the same isotonic saline.

Microcosms: To study the survival in sediment, intact sediment core along with overlying water was collected from Vembanad lake. Intact sediment cores were collected in perspex columns from Vembanad lake according to Craig et al. (2004). Prior to sampling, microcosm equipment was treated using ethanol and rinsed with sterile water to remove any microorganisms which may have been present. Perspex columns (60 mm diameter, 300 mm length) were inserted into sediment and overlying water to a depth of 100 mm. The top of the column was capped with a rubber bung to aid the removal of the core from the sediment. The sediment core was kept in place by inserting a combination of neoprene (5 mm thick) and closed-cell foam (20 mm thick) bungs into the bottom of the core. This prevented the movement of both sediment and water from the column.

Inoculation of core sediment microcosm Each column was inoculated separately by adding 1 ml of washed E. coli/S. paratyphi/ V. parahaemolyticus suspension to overlying water. The initial concentration of the microorganisms was around 108CFU per ml. Columns were kept at 25oC without disturbing the upper layer of sediment. Both sediment and water from the columns were analysed on days 3, 5, and 7. One ml water sample was collected from the overlying Centre for Environment and Development

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water column using sterile pipette. Sediment samples were obtained first by aseptically removing the overlying water. After sampling, the water was again replaced over the sediment. The top 10 mm of sediment was removed with aid of a sterile spatula and added into a sterile beaker. Of this sediment, 10 g (wet weight) was added into 90 ml sterile isotonic saline water and mixed for 10 minutes with the help of a magnetic stirrer. After that, appropriate serial dilutions were made for the enumeration of bacteria.

Sterilised sediment and water inoculated with test organisms were also used as control.

n.

Fe b.

M ar .

Ap ril M ay Ju ne Ju ly Au g.

Se p.

Ja

D

O

N

ec .

9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 ct. ov .

Mean MPN index/100 ml

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Monthly variation in the MPN index of faecal indicator bacteria in water on the southern and northern parts of the salt water regulator in Kumarakom lake during October 2004 to September 2005 is given in Fig.2 & 3. The results revealed that the water body is polluted with high faecal colifrom bacteria with MPN value ranging from 90-11000/

Months S outhern part Northern part

Fig.2 Prevalence of faecal indicator bacteria in southern and northern parts of the salt water regulator in Kumarakom lake (Mean + SE)

Mean MPN index /g

1200000 1000000 800000 600000 400000 200000

O ct N ov D ec Ja n Fe b M ar Ap ri l M ay Ju n Ju ly Au g Se pt

0

Mo nths Southern part

Northern part

Fig. 3 Prevalence of faecal indicator bacteria in sediment on southern and northern parts of the salt water regulator in Kumarakom lake (Mean + SE) 248

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100ml with mean value 2957-7146/100ml in water and 4000-1200000 with mean value 832916-208583/g in sediment, The prevalence level of faecal coliform bacteria in the sediment was 110 times greater than that of overlying water and was significantly high (p<0.01). However this was lower compared to the observation made by Stephenson et al. (1982) and Ashbolt et al. (1993) who reported even high concentration of indicator bacteria in sediment than overlying water (100-1000 times greater) in various aquatic sediments. The MPN index of the faecal coliform was substantially high in all the stations both in water and sediment indicating high degree of faecal contamination of the water body. The MPN index of FC in the present study area was found beyond the permissible limit laid by WHO, EU and BIS and also higher than those recorded in Cochin region of Vembanad lake (Hatha et al., 2004) and in Mondovi and Zuary estuaries of Goa (Row, 1981). The growth of human population and increased waste generation are accounted for the high load of FC. Effluents from septic tanks and sewage from market place was found discharged into the estuary. Also, there is a practice of dumping animal carcasses into the lake at various points near the salt water regulator. There are no effective measures to control such activities, which could result in gross contamination of the system, and the self purifying capacity of the system might cease to function once the waste load into this water body exceeds its carrying capacity. Faecal contamination of recreational waters may be a health hazard for bathers due to the presence of several microbial pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa.

Comparatively high FC load was noticed in southern part of the lake during December to March; this is because during December to March the system is closed and natural flow is prevented which results in the accumulation of organic load in the southern part of the lake, giving proper environmental conditions for the multiplication of bacteria.

Enteric pathogens such as V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus and various serotypes of Salmonella and the indicator bacteria, E. coli were isolated and identified from various sampling stations. Salmonella serotypes included Salmonella paratyphi A, B, C and S. newport. Serotypes like S. paratyphi A, B, C and S. newport were isolated from the stations on the southern part whereas S. newport was not isolated from any of the stations on northern part of the regulator. The percentage incidences of these pathogens and indicators are represented in Table 1. The prevalence of E. coli was 81.2-85%, V. parahaemolyticus and V. cholerae varied from 40-47.6% and 40-44.2% respectively.

Prevalence of Salmonella was relatively high (42.7-57%). The prevalence of different serotypes of E. coli encountered in Kumarakom lake during the present study, and their percentage incidence is given in Table 2. In the present study out of 35 E. coli isolates serotyped, 14 different serotypes including some pathogenic serotypes such as uropathogenic (O2,O7) and enteropathogenic (O114, O20, O26, O9) were obtained.

Diverse E. coli serotypes including uropathogenic and enteropathogenic strains were observed in the present study area indicating rich diversity of the strains in the lake. It also indicates the high amount of faecal waste input into the lake from various sources.

Even higher diversity of E. coli serotypes was recorded in the previous study in Cochin Centre for Environment and Development

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Table 1 Percentage incidence of indicator and enteric pathogens in the Kumarakom lake during the study period Indicator/ Enteric pathogens

E. coli Salmonella V. cholerae V. parahaemolyticus

Samples tested

Southern part Samples % positive incide nce

Samples te sted

Northern part Samples positive

% incidence

Total %

365 140 105

311 80 42

85.2 57* 40

540 110 122

439 47 54

81.2 42.7** 44.2

82.8 7 50 .8 43

130

62

47.6

135

54

40

43 .7

*Serotypes include S. paratyphi A, S. paratyphi B, S. paratyphi C and S. newport ** Serotypes include S. paratyphi A, S. paratyphi B and S. paratyphi C

Table 2 Percentage incidences of different serotypes of E. coli in Kumarakom lake

E. coli srotyp (n=33) O75 O63 O92 O2 a UT O41 O114 d O132 O32 O26d ROUGH O20d O9 d O7 a

% incidence 3 9 18 3 9 3 3 12 3 3 3 9 3 9

a

Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), d Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) UT: untypable

estuary (Hatha et al., 2004) such as enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC). These serotypes are of great public health significance worldwide and are major cause of acute diarrhea in children in developing countries (Nataro et al. 1998).

Salmonella enterica serovars isolated in the present study such as S. paratyphi A, B, C and S. newport are important human enteric pathogens causing enteric fever by the contamination of water and food. In the present study, the prevalence of Salmonella was significantly higher than those reported from the Cochin estuary (Hatha et al., 2004). However the diversity of serovars was limited. Salmonella paratyphi A, B, C is responsible for enteric fever in many developing countries. Woods et al. (2006) noticed that S. paratyphi A has emerged as an important cause of enteric fever in 250

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South Asia during the past decade and S. typhi and S. paratyphi A infection has been reported from India. The source of S. paratyphi A in the Kumarakom lake could be faecal discharge by infected person/carriers. Since humans are the only reservoir of S. paratyphi A (Hook, 1990), the results are indicative of the contamination of this water body from human excreta. This is the first report of the isolation of these pathogenic strains of Salmonella from the Kumarakom region of Vemband lake.

Several workers have reported the high incidence of Vibrio spp. from Indian sub continent. For instance, high densities of Vibrio spp. were reported from the inshore waters of the east coast (Nair et al., 1980); Cochin back waters (Chandrika,1983); offshore waters of the west coast (Pradeep and Lakshmanaperumalsamy, 1986); and coast of Visakapattanam (Clark et al., 2003). However, the prevalence levels reported in the above works were found to be lower than those of the present study. V. parahaemolyticus is an important cause of foodborne illness in Asia and United States and its outbreaks have been associated with consumption of raw or undercooked shellfish (Daniels et al., 2000). The present study area is a major shellfish harvesting water and supporting livelihood of the local people. Hence, the potential risk through shellfish consumption is significant.

Survival of indicator and pathogenic bacteria in sediment The survival curves of E. coli, S. paratyphi and V. parahaemoluyticus in sediment and water is illustrated in Fig. 4, 5 and 6 respectively. The results revealed that the density of the three test organisms were greatly reduced in the overlying water by 5-6 logs after 7 days. However, E. coli showed better survival in column water compared to S. paratyphi and V. parahaemolyticus. On the other hand the test microorganisms showed slower reduction rate in sediment than in overlying water column and declined only 23 logs after 7 days. In sterile water and sediment the reduction was negligible. The statistical analysis revealed that the survival of the test organisms were significantly higher in sediment (p<0.05) than that in overlying water. Slower reduction rate of the 10 9

Log CFU/ml

8 7 6 5 4 Co lum n water Co lum n se diment Sterile water Sterile se diment

3 2 1 0 0

3

Time (Days)

5

7

Fig. 4 Survival curves of E. coli in column water and sediment at 25oC Centre for Environment and Development

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 0

3

5

7

Time (days) Column water

Column sediment

Sterile water

Sterile sediment

Fig. 5 Survival curves of S. paratyphi in column water and sediment at 25oC

Log CFU/ml

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 0 Column water Steril e water

3 5 Time (Days)

7

Column sediment Sterile sediment

Fig. 6 Survival curves of V. parahaemolyticus in column water and sediment at 25oC

test organisms in sediment suggest that estuarine sediment act as a reservoir for their extended survival. In support of our observation Davies et al. (1995) Craig et al.

2004) reported that enteric microorganisms could survive and accumulate in sediments at levels 100â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1000 times higher than overlying waters, serving as sinks for faecal indicator bacteria with the potential to pollute coastal waters during tidal and high erosional flow conditions (Ashbolt et al., 1993).

In the present study we have noticed extended survival of E. coli. S. paratyphi and V. parahaemolyticus in estuarine sediment than those in overlying water column (p<0.05).

In agreement with our results several studies have reported that E. coli, Salmonella and V. parahaemolyticus, can survive better in the sediments (weeks or sometimes months) than in overlying waters (Burton et al., 1987; Davies et al., 1995; Craig et al., 2004). The extended survival rate of these pathogenic bacteria in sediment poses direct 252

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or indirect health risk during recreational activities. Numerous epidemiological studies have demonstrated that contact with bathing water subject to faecal contamination increases the risk of disease (Kay et al. 1994; Fleisher et al. 1996) particularly the resuspension of sediment bound bacteria. It also increases the health risk due to the contamination of shellfish bed and subsequent consumption of undercooked seafood due to their ability to concentrate pathogens and toxins during the filter-feeding process (Rippey 1994). The present study area is major shellfish harvesting water and supporting livelihood of the local people and the potential risk through shellfish consumption is significant. Dredging for molluscan shell is also a major means of income generation of the people and the resuspension of sediment bound microorganism are likely to occur during such activity which in turn pose possible health risk.

CONCLUSION The detection and isolation of E. coli and V. parahaemolyticus, V. cholerae and Salmonella serovars from Vembanad lake indicates the frequent discharge of sewage containing pathogenic microorganisms into the estuary and also the extended survival of these organisms to a detectable level at higher concentration. Results of this microcosm study demonstrated prolonged survival of E. coli, S. paratyphi and V. parahaemolyticus in estuarine sediments compared with overlying water. Hence their high concentration and extended survival in sediments may act as a reservoir of pathogenic bacteria and exhibit increased risk of infection because of the possible resuspension of other pathogenic microorganisms during natural turbulence or human activity such as dredging and mining for shellfish. In this context, the results of the present study assumes great significance as the study area has got rich shellfish fishery resources and people around the study area are engaged in shellfish mining as a means of livelihood. Besides, the monitoring of indicator bacteria in overlying water alone to assess the microbiological quality of the water in the present study area and in similar locations are insufficient and would underestimate the actual health risk posed by the pathogenic microorganisms. Hence the assessment of bottom sediment must be considered for water quality monitoring programme, particularly, in shellfish harvesting and contact recreational waters.

REFERENCES Ashbolt N J. 2004. Dispersion and transport of Cryptosporidium oocysts from faecal pats under simulated rainfall events. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70: 1151-1159.

Clark A, Turner T, Dorothy K P, Goutham J, Kalavati C and Rajanna B. 2003. Health hazards due to pollution of waters along the coast of Visakhapatnam, east coast of India. Ecotoxicol.

Environ. Saf. 56: 390-397.

Craig D, Fallowfield H and Cromar N. 2004. Use of macrocosms to determine persistence of Escherichia coli in recreational coastal water and sediment and validation with in situ measurements. J. Appl. Microbiol. 96: 922-930.

Daniels N A, Ray B, Easton A, Marano N, Kahn E, McShan II A L, Del Rosario L, Baldwin T, Kingsley M A, Puhr N D, Wells J G and Angulo F J. 2000. Emergence of a new Vibrio Centre for Environment and Development

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parahaemolyticus serotype in raw oysters: a prevention quandary. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 284: 1541-1545.

Davies C M, Long J A H, Donald M and Ashbolt N J. 1995. Survival of faecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 6: 1888-1896.

Fleisher J M, Jones F, Kay D, Stanwell-Smith R, Wyer M and Morano R. 1993. Water and non-water-related risk factors for gastroenteritis among bathers exposed to sewagecontaminated marine waters. Int. J. Epidemiology. 22: 698-708.

Hatha A A M, Abhirosh C and Mujeeb Rahiman K M. 2004. Prevalence of diarrhegenic serotypes of Escherichia coli in the Cochin estuary, along west coast of India. Ind. J. Mar. Sci. 33: 238-242.

Hook E W. 1990. Salmonella species (including typhoid fever). In Mandell G L, Douglas R G, and Bennett J E (ed.), Principles and practice of infectious disease, 3rd ed. Churchill Livingstone, Inc., New York. pp. 1700-1709.

Lakshmanaperumalsamy P, Chandrasekaran M, Brightsingh I S and Chandramohan D. 1981.

Microbial indicators and pathogens near the mouth region of Vembanad Lake. Bull. Dept.

Mar. Sci. Cochin Univ.2: 103-106.

Nair G B, Abraham M and Natarajan R. 1980. Marine Vibrios and related genera from the Velar estuary. Mahasagar Bull. Natl. Inst. Oceanogr. 13: 285-290.

Nataro J P and Kaper J B. 1998. Diarrheagenic Escherichhia coli. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 11: 142-201.

Pradeep R and Lakshmanperumalsamy P. 1986. Distribution of faecal indicator bacteria in Cochin backwater. Ind. J. Mar. Sci. 15: 99-101.

Rippey S R. 1994. Infectious diseases associated with shellfish consumption. Clin. Microbiol.

Rev. 7: 419- 425.

Stephenson G R and Rychert R C. 1982. Bottom sediment: a reservoir of Escherichhia coli in rangeland streams. J. Ran. Manage. 35: 119-123.

Woods C W, Murdoch D R, Zimmerman M D, Glover W A, Basnyat B, Wolf L, Belbase R H and Reller L B. 2006. Emergence of Salmonella enterica serotype Paratyphi A as a major cause of enteric fever in Kathmandu, Nepal. 100: 1063-1067.

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Landf ill leac hate and its impact on the ground water

Arun Babu et al.

Landfill Leachate and its Impact on the Ground Water Quality of Vadavathoor, Kottayam – A Case Study Arun Babu V, Rakesh P S, Thomas A P and Ramasamy E V School of Environmental Science, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam.

INTRODUCTION Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human and animal activities and that are discarded as useless or unwanted (Peavy et al., 1985). Many cities in developing countries face serious problems in managing their solid waste (Bhide and Sundaresan, 1983). More than 90% of the municipal solid waste in India is directly disposed of on the land in an unscientific manner (Das et al., 1998) causing serious environmental problems like air, water and soil pollution. Production of leachate from dump yard, if not controlled, is the main phenomenon that can cause a serious contamination problem in the groundwater (Aivalioti and Karatzas, 2006). The present study examines the impact of solid waste dumping on the groundwater quality of the area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The study area lies in Kottayam municipality which is located in the south central part of Kerala State. The area is geographically situated between North latitudes 90 35’ 0" and 90 35’ 45" and between East longitudes 760 33’ 15" and 760 34’ 0". A radial distance of 0.6 km from the boundary of the dumping yard is delineated as the study area (Fig. 1).

Sampling and analysis The leachate from the municipal solid waste dumping yard was collected and analyzed for its potential to pollute the groundwater. Subsequently, two rounds of groundwater samples were taken from dug wells located surrounding to the dump yard in the months of March and April, 2008. All the samples were analyzed for selected relevant physicochemical parameters, heavy metals (Fe, Zn, Cd, Pb and Cu) and faecal coliform (FC) according to standard methods (APHA, 1998). A total of 22 dug wells were chosen for first round of sampling. The selected wells were spatially distributed representing all directions from the dump yard. From the analysis of the first sampling it was found that the influence is more on the North-East and South-West directions. Based on this Centre for Environment and Development

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Fig. 1 Location Map showing sampling sites

the number and locations of the wells for the second round of sampling were selected.

Around 300mm of rain (Data from Meteorological Monitoring Station, Rubber Research Institute, Kottayam) was recorded in the study area, during the interval between two sampling.

Preparation of contaminant distribution maps in GIS environment Extent and direction of groundwater contamination was spatially modeled using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) method in the spatial analyst tool of ArcGIS 8.3 software.

Inverse distance method of interpolation combines the ideas of proximity espoused by the thiessen polygons with the gradual change of the trend surface. The assumption is that the value of an attribute z at some unvisited point is a distance-weighted average of data points occurring within a neighborhood or window surrounding the universal point (Burrough and McDonnell, 2000).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of leachate analysis shows its great potential to contaminate the ground water indicated by high values for Total Solids (80850 mgL-1), Electrical Conductivity (71500 ÂľS cm-1), Biological Oxygen Demand (32430 mgL-1), Chemical Oxygen Demand (72300 mgL-1), Total Nitrogen (2492 mgL-1), Chloride (6200 mgL-1), Sodium (2180 mgL-1), Potassium (6020 mgL-1), Calcium (2244 mgL-1), Iron (168 mgL-1), Copper (3.29 mgL-1) and Lead (0.75 mgL-1).

The groundwater of the area is mainly used for drinking and other domestic purposes.

The pH of all the groundwater samples examined was acidic, the range being 4.08 to 6.7. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) which is a valuable indicator of the amount of dissolved ions present in water was observed in the range between 65 to 289 ÂľS cm-1.

An increasing trend in the 2nd sampling was observed for EC. Total solids (45 to 182 mg L-1) and total dissolved solids (21.6 to 130 mg L-1) were also showing an increasing trend in the 2nd sampling.

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Total hardness was observed between 10 and 48 mg L-1 and is well within the standards.

The concentration of Cl- in the groundwater samples ranged between 18 mg L-1 to 50 mg L-1. Chloride is not considered to undergo any chemical or physico-chemical reactions in the aquifers and as such is considered inert or conservative (Christensen et al., 2001). Hence it is usually considered as a tracer for groundwater contamination (Fatta et al., 1999). At sites V1, V2, V3 and V13 the Chloride concentration was found to be comparatively high. These high values near the landfill are likely to originate from the landfill. In the second sampling the Cl- shows a slight increase in most of the wells. The concentrations observed for Na (3 to 28.1 mg L-1), K (0.5 to 14 mg L-1), Ca (1.6 to 24 mg L-1), and Mg (0.49 to 4.37 mg L-1) were also found to be well within the drinking water quality standards of BIS. The groundwater samples were analyzed for heavy metals such as Fe, Zn, Cd, Pb and Cu. The concentration of iron in the samples ranges between 10 to 590 µg L-1. The iron concentration increases dramatically in the second round of sampling. Almost 44% of the wells exhibit iron concentrations higher than the permissible limit in the second round of sampling. This increase in concentration can be attributed to the leaching of iron from the laterite soil. All the heavy metals other than iron are well within the permissible limit.

In the present study most of the wells in the location showed high number of faecal coliforms. The presence of faecal contamination is an indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water. Analytical results showed that there is variation for most of the parameters between the 1st and 2nd sampling. Therefore Student’s ‘t’ test is carried out for selected parameters to know whether the variation is statistically significant or not (Table 1). Iron was the only parameter found to have significant variation at 0.05 confidence level between 1st and 2nd sampling. The variations for other parameters were found to be not significant at that level.

Table 1. Student’s ‘t’ test values for selected parameters

pH

Calculated value 0.525

2.086

Significance at 0.05 N

EC

0.404

2.086

N

TDS

0.346

2.086

N

TS

0.500

2.086

N

TH

0.409

2.086

N

K+

0.603

2.086

N

Ca2+

0.847

2.086

N

-

Cl

0.810

2.086

N

DO

0.342

2.086

N

Fe

3.132

2.086

S

Zn

0.280

2.086

N

Pb

1.244

2.086

N

Cu

0.849

2.086

N

0.095

2.086

N

Parameters

NO3

-

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Considering the spatial distribution of chloride and iron chloride distribution in the 1st sampling almost 85% of the study area is having a range of 20-30 mg L-1 was observed, wells very near to dump yard showing slightly high concentration towards NE and SW direction. In the 2nd round the distribution of chloride in the range of 30-40 mg L-1 were observed in many parts (Fig 2). Comparing the distribution of 1st and 2nd sampling there is no noticeable difference on the spread of chloride in ground water, its distribution is restricted within 250m toward NE and SW direction from the vicinity of the dump yard. In the 1st round of sampling Iron distribution was recorded in the range of 100-250 mg L-1 in majority of the area. In the second round NE and SE directions shows high values between 300-600 mg L-1 (Fig 3).

Fig. 2 Map showing the spatial distribution of chloride (Cl-) in the groundwater

Fig. 3 Map showing the spatial distribution of Iron (Fe) in the groundwater 258

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CONCLUSION On the basis of the spatial distribution of the contaminants in the groundwater samples more wells from north-east and south-west directions were sampled and analyzed in the second round of sampling taken after one month. The results are compared with BIS and WHO drinking water quality standards. The variations in different parameters in the first and second sampling were analyzed using student’s ‘t’ test. The following conclusions are drawn from the results of this study.

In general, the physico-chemical and heavy metal analysis of the leachate indicate very high values for different parameters. Contamination from the leachate to groundwater was limited. According to Lee et al., (2006) a natural low permeability hydrogeologic layer (clayey silt or clay materials) can provide an effective hydraulic barrier for the leachate plume migration. The study area is representing a tropical weathering pattern, clay present in the lateritic soil may be serving fortunately as a barrier and prevent the in situ percolation of leachate. However, after a rainfall of 300 mm a slight increase in the concentration of some of the parameters that too in the groundwater of the wells located near to the dump yard indicates that when good rainfall occurs the percolation of the leachate do occurs and subsequently it contaminates the groundwater in the wells which are in close proximity to the dump yard.

Generally the groundwater of the area is highly contaminated with faecal coliforms.

This may also be due to seepage from the septic tanks. The observation of increase in iron content of the water samples in the second round of sampling suggest that this increment may not be due to leachate contamination, because the increase in concentration of these parameters are noticed as either equal or more in the samples from the wells which are located far away from the dump yard. So no plume of leachate contamination could be derived. Hence the increase in the concentration of iron content of the water samples could be attributed to local conditions such as the soil type ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The financial support from University Grants Commission (UGC), through a research project [No.F.31.-298/2005(SR)] is gratefully acknowledged. Rakesh P.S thanks to UGC for the award of RGNFS fellowship.

REFERENCES Aivalioti M V and Karatzas G P. 2006. Modeling the flow and leachate transport in the vadose and saturated zones of a municipal landfill. Environmental Modeling and Assessment 11; 81–87pp.

APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 20th edn. APHA, Washington, D.C. Bhide A D and Sundaresan B B. 1983. Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries.

Indian National Scientific Documentation Center, New Delhi, India.

Burrough P A and McDonnell R A. 2000. Principles of Geographic Information Systems.

Oxford University Press. New York.

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Christensen T H, Kjeldsen P, Bjerg P L, Jensen D L, Christensen J B, Baun A, Albrechtsen H J and Heron G. 2001. Biogeochemistry of landfill leachate plumes: Review Applied Geochemistry 16; 659-718.

Das D, Srinivasu M and Bandyopadhyay M. 1998. Solid state acidification of vegetable waste.

Indian Journal of Environmental Health 40 (4); 333-342.

Fatta D, Papadopoulos A and Loizidou M. 1999. A study on the landfill leachate and its impact on the groundwater quality of the greater area. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 21; 175-190.

Lee J Y, Cheon J Y, Kwon H P, Yoon H S, Lee S S, Kim J H, Park J K and Kim C G. 2006.

Attenuation of landfill leachate at two controlled landfills. Environ. Geol. 51; 581-593.

Peavy H S, Rowe D R and Tchobanoglous G. 1985. Environmental Engineering. McGrawHill Book co., Singapore.

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Comparison of Floral diver sity

Deepamol and Khaleed

Comparison of Floral Diversity in Fresh Water and Salt Water Wetland Sacred Groves of Kannur District Deepamol P C and Khaleel K M Department of P G Studies & Research in Botany, Sir Syed College, Talipramba- 670142

INTRODUCTION Scared groves are small patches of forest left untouched by the local inhabitants to be protected by local village folk deities. They are the home of local flora, fauna, gene pool and a mini biosphere reserve. Within this groves are locked ancient secrets of herbs and traditional medicine, primitive practices of sorcery and magic .The first documented study of sacred groves in North Kerala recorded 57 groves in Kannur (Unnikrishnan,1990). There are 352 groves in Kannur according to Jayarajan (2004).

Many sacred groves contain water resources. The present study compares the floral diversity of two different sacred groves found in fresh water and salt water wetlands.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Pungottu Kavu near Mattanur of Kannur District is selected as the sacred grove in fresh water swamp and Thazhekkavu, a small island near Madakkara on the bank of Valapatanam river as the sacred grove situated in a salt marsh. Survey of flora was made in the groves by inventory method. All the plant species present in the sacred groves were collected in either flowering or fruiting stage. The collected specimen were poisoned, dried and stitched on herbarium sheets (Jain and Rao, 1976). The plants were identified with the help of authentic book like “Flora of Presidency of Madras” (Gamble, 1935) and in consultation with the experts.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION Pungottukavu is a fresh water wetland sacred grove where Myristica swamp is present.

The dominant plants found here are Myristica malabarica, Myristica beddomi, Knema attenuate, Lagenandra ovata, Carallia integerrima, Caryota urens, Stenochlaena palustris etc. (Table 1). Thazhekkavu is having mangrove ecosystem with the dominant plants like Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia officinalis, Excoecaria agallocha, Calamus hookerianus, Rhizophora apiculata, Caryota urens , Bruguiera cylindrica, Acrostichum aureum, Premna cerratifolia (Table 1).

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Table 1. List of Major Plant Species Found in Wetland and Freshwater Sacred Groves Fresh water

262

Anaphyllum wightii

+

Antiaris toxicaria

+

Carallia integerrima

+

Caryota urens Connarus monocarpus

+ +

Elaeocarpus tuberculatus

+

Gnetum edule

+

Gymnacranthera furcariana

+

Holigarna arnottiana Hopea parviflora

+ +

Knema attenuata

+

Lagenandra ovata

+

Lophopetalum Wightianum

+

Memecylon renderianum

+

Myristica malabarica

+

Myristica beddomi

+

Pandanus thwaitesii Pogostemon paniculatus

+ +

Stachyphrynium spicatum

+

Stenochlaena palustris Macranga peltata

+

Salt water

+

+

+

+ +

Morinda citrifolia

+

Clerodendron inerme

+

Leea wightii

+

Acanthus ilicifolius

+

Pongamia glabra

+

Aegiceras corniculatum

+

Avicennia officinalis

+

Excoecaria agallocha

+

Calamus hookerianus

+

Rhizophora apiculata

+

Caryota urens

+

Bruguiera cylindrica

+

Acrostichum aureum

+

Premna cerratifolia

+

Cinnamomum zeylanicum

+

Cerbera odollum

+

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Comparison of Floral diver sity

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Many sacred groves contain water resources such as ponds, streams and the vegetative mass that covers the floor of a grove can absorb water during raining season and releases it during the time of draught. These are last resorts in many of the animals and birds for the water requirement especially summer. The wells and tanks are seen with in the sacred groves satisfying the need of water to the near by community and also help to traditional irrigation system. Sacred groves helped in reducing water run off and in maintaining soil moisture. A number of streams and rivers originated from sacred groves. The river water from sacred groves brings minerals and fertilizers in much quantity.

According to Rajendraprasad (1995) sacred groves with the complex array of interaction influence the flora and fauna of the region as well as microclimate of that locality.

The thick litter cover and channel created by soil macrofauna together enhanced the water retention capacity of sacred groves and regulate the flow of water and sediment to the settlement and agricultural down slope. Local people protect the water resources in the sacred groves on the basis of spiritual believes.

The Pungotu Kavu with 35 acres of land have its own microclimate and as a result small fresh water perennial streams are originated inside the groves .This is due to the presences of huge floristic structure of these sacred groves.The other sacred groves which have lesser area and less floristic wealth does not have any perennial water stream. Thazhe Kavu is a costal sacred grove with 18 acres of land area. Three sides of this Kavu is having salt water and one side paddy field. The vegetation present at here are mangroves , its associates and some of angiosperms. A stream originated from Pungotu Kavu reaches finally to Valapattanam river. Paddy fields near the Pungotu Kavu get sufficient water from near by groves.The streams are also helpful to local people for fishing.

The general phytosociology of sacred groves is extremely complex. In fresh water sacred groves woody plants are dominant species. In the interior part of the groves, only sciophytes are found. Myristica swamp is an endangered fresh water swamp ecosystem. Tropical evergreen forest trees with various root adaptation such as knee roots and breathing roots are present. The most dominant family is Myristicaceae.

Some species of this groves shows cauliflory and buttress root. A number of medicinal plants are found here. In salt water sacred groves mangroves are dominant species, because only the mangroves can survive in the salt water wetland. Vivipary and pneumatophores are the characteristics features of plants which are growing in this region.

CONCLUSION Sacred groves are the seat of rare and endangered species of plants. The present study establishes the role of the nature of water in determining the floral diversity in different sacred groves. We must protect these type of sacred groves because they are the water reservoir and gene pool. Sacred groves might be lost for ever if any further degradation is allowed to these fragile ecosystem.

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REFERENCES Gamble J S. 1935. Flora of The Presidency of Madras, Volume 1, 2 and 3 London: published under the Authority of the Secretary of States For India.

Jain S K and Rao R R. 1976. A hand book of field and herbarium methods. Today and Tomorrow publishers.NewDelhi 350pp.

Jayarajan M. 2004. Sacred Groves of North Malabar, Discussion paper number 92, KRPLLD92:86-124 Rajendraprasad M. 1995. The Floristics, Structural and Functional Analysis of Sacred Groves of Kerala. Ph.D Thesis, University Of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram Unnikrishnan E. 1990. Sacred Groves of North Malabar, Jeevarekha, Thrissur 230 pp.

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Water shed Management of Parambikulam

Magesh and Menon

Watershed Management of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary - A Geospatial Approach Magesh G and Menon A R R Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur

INTRODUCTION Watershed, a hydrologic entity implies prudent use of soil and water resources in the catchment are to protect the environment to sustain the productivity levels of soils by reducing the excessive soil loss leading to land degradation and sedimentation of river courses and reservoirs in this downstream.Watershed approach for optimal planning and management aims at harnessing all natural resources for sustainable development and better living. The factors that play a greater role in the planning and development process of a watershed are its size, shape, physiographic, soil, soil erosion zones, land use land cover, surface water and ground water etc. Remote sensing technology provides the vital spatial and temporal information on these parameters. Recently many hydrological and environmental applications have been reported which use remote sensing and GIS techniques in conjunction or separately.

STUDY AREA The area selected is of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary lies between 76째35' and 76째51' E longitude and between 10째20' and 10째32' N latitude in the Palakkad revenue district of Kerala with an area of 274 km2. It is the third largest protected area in Kerala. The sanctuary is located immediate south of Palakkad gap, exhibits undulating terrain interspersed with dry or moist valleys. The altitude ranges from 440m to 1438m.

During 1960s, three reservoirs at Parambikulam, Thunakkadavu and Peruvarippallam, occupying an area of 24 km2 were commissioned.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The toposheets covering the study area were scanned and imported in the GIS software where georeferencing was done. The toposheets was used as background image for all onscreen digitizing. The watershed has been delineated from the watershed atlas of Kerala.The drainage map was prepared on 1:50,000 scale using SoI topo sheets 58 Centre for Environment and Development

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B11, B15 & B14 and each stream has been assigned an order. Various drainage morphological parameters, viz., stream order, stream length and drainage density have been evaluated. Satellite imageries of the study area has been used for analysis.

RESULTS Natural water sources The sanctuary is blessed with both natural and artificial water sources. The natural water sources are small and medium size streams distributed all over the sanctuary and the three man-made reservoirs of Parambikulam, Thunacadavu and Peruvaripallam.The water sources are almost uniformly distributed in the sanctuary.

As such there is no specific pinch period in the sanctuary. Water remains available to animals within cruising distance except in few portions of the sanctuary especially Elathode section area lying close to the plains of Tamil Nadu, which experiences acute scarcity of water in the months of February and March. However, it has been reported that many of the streams which were perennial long ago are no longer so. It is attributed to the degradation of the catchments due to the large-scale clear-felling for raising teak plantations and the commercial timber extractions in the natural forests in the past.

Artificial water sources The artificial water sources comprises the man-made water holes and check dams. Such sources created in several portions of the sanctuary are illustrated in Fig 1. The three reservoirs constructed as a part of Parambikulam-Aliyar Project and the water holes and check dams constructed during the course of last few years support the wild animals during summer when the streams tend to dry. The extent of water spread and the perimeter of these reservoirs as estimated using GIS tools are given below (Table 1).

Table 1. Reservoirs of Parambikulam Sanctuary

Name

Extent (sq. km)

Perimeter (km)

Thunacadavu and Peruvaripallam

3.089

29.05

Parambikulam

17.570

60.38

Total

20.659

89.43

This excludes the islands in the reservoirs with an extent of 0.54 sq. km.

Water holes and check dams Sufficient water sources by way of waterholes, check dams and streams are available in Parambikulam Range, Chettivara, Peruvari and Anappady sections of Sungam Range and Karimala Section of Karimala Range. Most of the waterholes in the sanctuary are artificially dug since 1983-84. They are in the low lying areas where the aquifer is reached after 1 to 2 meters of digging. The locations of check dams and water holes are shown in Fig.1 266

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Fig 1. Locatios of checkdams and waterholes in Parambikulam Wild Sanctuary

DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES There are 3 major rivers identified in the sanctuary viz., Karappara river, Parambikulam Ar and Sholai Ar, of which Karappara river and Sholai Ar constitute the boundary of the sanctuary in the North Western region. Parambikulam Ar is the single major river system present within the sanctuary. The streams are categorized as per Strahler’s (1964) system of classification. Accordingly, the general constitution of river systems is as follows. Kuriarkutty Ar is the major tributary of Parambikulam Ar. Thekkady Ar, Thunacadavu Ar and Pulikkal Ar are the tributaries of Kuriarkutty Ar. Veti Ar is the main tributary of Thekkady Ar which forms almost half of the northern boundary of the sanctuary. Kudalvaithode, a IV order stream flowing in Kottayali area of the PA is a tributary of Karappara river. Thuvai Ar, which is another IV order stream flowing in Pooppara section drains directly to Parambikulam reservoir. Parambikulam Ar, Kuriarkutty Ar, Thunacadavu Ar, Thekkady Ar and Veti Ar are excluded from the stream classification since their origin is not identifiable within the sanctuary. Apart from these rivers, there are 3 man-made reservoirs viz., Parambikulam, Thunacadavu and Peruvaripallam formed after construction of three dams during early 50’s as part of Parambikulam Aliyar Project.

According to Strahler’s classification 34 full and 1 partial watersheds are delineated in the sanctuary in respect of third order streams. Though these rivers are present within the sanctuary, they all flow towards the North Western region of the sanctuary and drain in to Chalakkudy river which flows out of the sanctuary. Thus the sanctuary Centre for Environment and Development

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appears to be a large basin draining towards North West. The drainage map of the sanctuary is given as Fig. 2. The number of streams of different orders identified in each range is given in Table 2

Table 2. Number of streams of different orders identified in Parambikulam Sanctuary

Range

Number of streams I order

II order

III order

IV order

Sungam

119

37

5

-

Parambikulam

91

23

6

-

Orukomban

194

45

7

2

Karimala

176

41

13

1

Total

580

146

31

3

Fig 2. Drainage map of Parambikulam Wild Sanctuary 268

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Data on the seasonal nature of these streams and the strength of flow (full, partial or dry) has been collected systematically and mapped (Fig.3). Then 2 km x 2 km grids were formed and over laid on the drainage map. The grid squares not supplied by any perennial stream or seasonal stream of required water flow have been identified as â&#x20AC;&#x153;Water Gapsâ&#x20AC;?. It is in these water gaps that the artificial water sources like waterholes are to be provided. Water harvesting structures like check dams also shall be constructed

Fig 3. Seasonal character of streams in Parambikulam Wild Sanctuary

in these areas to facilitate water availability for the wildlife. In the grid squares supplied by perennial streams, there is no necessity to make any interventions. Whereas, in the areas supplied by seasonal streams of varying levels of water flow, interventions of appropriate degree are required.

Digging new water holes and desilting the existing ones shall be carried out during April-May or October-November i.e., before or after South West Monsoon. This will ensure their recharging during the South West Monsoon or North East Monsoon respectively. Regarding check dams, instead of constructing masonry structures, low cost brush wood check dams are recommended.

SOIL AND MOISTURE CONSERVATION PLAN Due to timber extractions in the last one and a half century from each approachable nook and corner of the PA, surface soil was disturbed considerably. Soil erosion in gully stage is severe in moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, teak plantations Centre for Environment and Development

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and also evident to some extent in the semi evergreen and evergreen forests as well.

Mechanical structures like dry rubble masonry gully plugs were built in the past. Gully plugging using vegetative means has been tried in some vayals in the last few years in the shallow channels where water velocity is not too high.

Several streams and rivers are flowing in the sanctuary causing soil erosion. The moist deciduous and dry deciduous vegetation types in the sanctuary necessitate moisture conservation. Soil erosion and soil moisture are basically functions of stream and terrain characteristics. Grids of 4 sq km each were laid on the drainage seasonality map. For those cells containing relatively more perennial streams a value of ‘1’ was assigned and for those cells dominated by non-perennial streams a value of ‘0’ was assigned. After interpolation the resultant map indicated the water availability in various areas based on the seasonality of streams. From the drainage map prepared the drainage density (length of stream channels per 4 sq km), and bifurcation ratio were calculated so as to provide inferences related to drainage morphometry. Drainage density reflects the existing balance between erosive forces and resistance of the ground surface.

Bifurcation ratio is indicative of the geological constitution. An overlay analysis done using the drainage density map and the water availability map revealed the general characteristics of the streams in the sanctuary.

Quantitative measurements of terrain such as average slope and relative relief were calculated. These maps when overlaid revealed areas that are highly vulnerable to soil erosion.Soil and moisture conservation priority area map was generated from the overlay analysis of soil erosion vulnerability map and stream characteristics map. The

Fig 4. Moisture conservation treatment priority map of Parambikulam Sanctuary 270

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Fig 5. Soil conservation treatment priority map of Parambikulam Sanctuary

map shows the categorization of the entire sanctuary into 5 regions based on the priority of attention. It is presented in ascending order with increasing colour tone. The highest colour tone indicates the areas most vulnerable to soil erosion that need to be attended first for soil conservation works. Based on this scientific analysis two maps were generated. Fig. 4 shows the priority areas for moisture conservation and Fig. 5 depicts the priority areas for soil conservation activities.

Gully plugging using dry rubble packing used to be the only method for soil and moisture conservation. The same can however continue as a chief method but besides that other measures viz., brushwood check dams, vegetative gully plugging and contour bunding should be included in the management wherever feasible. After reasonable stabilization of gullies is achieved seedlings of indigenous species can be planted inside and along the sides of the gully to arrest erosion permanently. In areas having gentle slope, brushwood gully plugs / check dams can substitute dry rubble. In areas like Pooppara where the tribes practice agriculture, measures like contour bunding and terracing are ideal.

REFERENCES Uniyal V K. 1987. The First Management Plan for Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary : 198788 to 1996-97. Kerala Forest and Wildlife Department, Kerala.

Strahler A N. 1964. Geomorphology. Prentice Hall, New York.

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Heavy metal content in the water and aquatic macrophytes of lower reaches of Periyar river Toms Augustine, Mahesh Mohan, Thomas A P and Ramasamy E V School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala

INTRODUCTION The contamination of water resources and biota by heavy metals is of major concern because of their toxicity, persistence and bio-accumulative nature. Since metals are non-biodegradable, they can be concentrated along the food chain, producing their toxic effects at points often far away from the sources of pollution; thus necessitating systematic and regular monitoring of their concentrations in the waters. Aquatic macrophytes reflect the level of available metal contamination in the environment, and may serve as a tool for the biomonitoring of contaminated waters. Periyar, one of the largest rivers of Kerala, is severely polluted with industrial effluents especially in the lower reaches. One of the largest industrial manufacturing centers in the State, the Udyogmandal industrial is located in this area and is home to more than 250 industries (Ouseph, 1996 and Omana and Mohan, 2008). These industries discharge huge quantities of partially treated or untreated industrial effluents in to the river. Because of the importance of Cochin as a major fish landing centres of India, the accumulation of metals and other pollutants in the biota can impart health risk to humans. Thus the present study was undertaken with a view to determine the current status of heavy metals such as Hg, Zn, Pb, Cd and Cu in the water and some aquatic macrophytes of lower reaches of Periyar.

MATERIALS AND METHODS In the present study, water samples (surface and bottom) were collected from 10 stations over a 15 km stretch of the Periyar River, starting from Bolgatty and ending at Pathalam bund that lies between latitude 9058’ - 100 04’ N and longitude 76016’ - 760 18’ E (Fig.1). Water samples labeled as S1, S2, S3……S10 were taken in polypropylene bottles and the samples were acidified on site to less than pH 2 with HNO3. Water samples for physico-chemical analysis was taken separately and analysed following standard methods (APHA, 1998).

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Fig. 1 Study area with sampling locations

Three species of aquatic macrophytes; namely Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta were collected by hand picking from different sites along the river. The collected samples were thoroughly washed to remove all adhered particles and placed in clean plastic bags and brought to the lab. In the laboratory, plant samples were cut into small pieces, air dried for 4 days and finally dried at 800C in a hot air oven for 24 hours. In warm condition, the samples were ground and passed through 63-Âľm sieve. 0.25g of these fine powdered samples was subjected to acid digestion with microwave digester and analysed for heavy metals. Mercury was analysed with a Rotating gold disc electrode (Lo and Lee, 1994) and other metals with a Hanging Mercury Drop Electrode by a Voltammetric Trace Metal Analyser (APHA, 1998).

Reagent blanks and digestion blanks were analysed concurrently with each analytical run in order to check the purity of reagents and for possible contamination. Analytical reproducibility was checked by performing duplicate analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The maximum, minimum and mean values of physico-chemical parameters were given in the Table 1. These parameters were showed high concentration at lower sampling sites (S1 & S2) and might be due to the tidal influence of Cochin estuary. All the physico-chemical parameters except pH showed higher values than the standards prescribed for drinking water quality by WHO (2003).

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics of Physico-chemical characteristics of water samples

Parameter

Minimum

T (0C) pH Conductivity (mS/cm) TDS (ppt) Chloride (mg/L) Salinity (ppt)

Maximum

Mean

Std. Deviation

29.00 6.22

32.00 7.30

30.60 6.82

0.821 0.274

0.81 0.37 334.90 0.55

37.40 17.50 5020.00 8.28

14.45 6.64 1482.83 2.45

11.659 5.382 1299.035 2.143

Total mercury was detected only in the upper 3 sites (Table 2). The maximum value was observed in the sample S-8, which is close to the prescribed standards (1µg/LWHO, 2003). However, according to many studies, fresh water without an apparent source of anthropogenic nature is estimated to contain 5ng/L of mercury (ATSDR, 1997). Thus the results obtained indicate that the discharge of industrial effluents have resulted in elevated mercury levels.

Table 2 Concentration of heavy metals inthe the surface (S) and(B) bottom Table 2 Concentration of heavy metals in surface (S) and bottom water (B) water Sample

Hg ( µg/l)

Zn (µg/l)

Cd (µg/l)

Pb (µg/l)

Cu (µg/l)

S

B

S

B

S

B

S

B

S

B

S1

Nd

Nd

500.42

1042.48

0.849

2.929

12.06

9.136

15.362

16.816

S2

Nd

Nd

647.74

754.90

1.213

1.656

8.694

8.609

11.812

11.404

S3

Nd

Nd

451.41

648.52

1.578

2.429

8.675

9.838

5.933

5.528

S4

Nd

Nd

405.07

666.09

2.585

1.951

7.541

7.315

4.058

10.834

S5

Nd

Nd

520.50

912.94

2.906

7.831

9.109

9.223

7.331

15.422

S6

Nd

Nd

333.10

1196.45

0.459

2.224

6.707

11.938

5.836

14.951

S7

Nd

Nd

1356.83

607.03

4.02

3.087

16.809

11.286

6.778

2.156

S8

0.78

Nd

407.42

788.00

1.546

4.258

8.1

8.541

6.431

4.639

S9

0.38

Nd

583.05

1244.86

2.24

5.165

23.39

12.496

2.841

7.093

S10

0.22

0.39

245.69

291.92

1.226

1.007

9.283

9.167

5.566

4.781

Nd : Not detected

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Compared to other heavy metals, concentrations of zinc in water samples were high during the study period (mean concentration- 507.17µg/L). Even though, the values were less than the WHO permissible limits for drinking water, these elevated levels may adversely affect aquatic organisms. Medley and Clements (1998) reported that diatom communities show decline in diversity and abundance even when the Zn concentration exceed 200 µg/L. The maximum Zn concentration was reported at S-7 (1356.83 µg/L).

In the case of cadmium, five samples showed higher values than the permissible limit (3µg/L by WHO). All these sites were located in the industrial area and hence the higher values can be attributed to the discharge of industrial effluents. Earlier studies (Paul and Pillai, 1983) reported high Cd concentration in the water of Periyar River at industrial areas. They have got a maximum concentration of 4µg/L for Cd. In the present study it is 7.83µg/L. This showed that contamination of Cd has been increased during the last few decades. The same trend was noticed for Zn also. Paul and Pillai (1983) reported that industrial effluent discharge enhanced the concentration of Zn and Cd at the industrial zone and it is true for this study also.

During the study period, bottom water showed higher concentration of Pb in the samples S1 to S5, but in the upper reaches (samples 6-10) higher concentration was noticed for surface water. The higher values for upper reaches owed to the effluents and when going downwards it may get diluted and start settling. However, the concentration of Pb and Cu was well below the permissible limits.

The correlation coefficients computed between physico-chemical properties and concentrations of different heavy metals in water revealed that a negative correlation exists for metals with physico-chemical parameters (Table 3). It is also observed that all the metals showed positive correlation with each other except mercury. Cu and Pb showed significant correlation with all other metals. Furthermore, all the physicochemical parameters were positively correlated each other except temperature.

The aquatic macrophytes collected from few sites were analysed for heavy metal accumulation. Zn showed high accumulation in all plants followed by Cu (Table 4).

Accumulation of mercury was totally absent in the collected samples. The present study shows that the concentration of the metals in plant tissues could be arranged in a decreasing order as follows: Zn>Cu>Pb>Cd except in the case of Pistia. stratiotes where it is Zn> Cu> Cd>Pb. The former agrees with the studies done by Kumar et al.

(2006). Roots of aquatic plants absorb heavy metals from the water and accumulate high concentrations (Baldantoni et al., 2004). Similarly in this study, higher concentrations of heavy metals (Zn, Cd, Pb and Cu) were obtained in the roots of E. crassipes (Water hyacinth). According to Olivares-Rieumont et al., (2007) root metal analysis was further justified because metal transport to upper plant tissues from water or sediment is often via the root system rather than aerosol deposition. Hence a detailed analysis of root metal levels can be used for monitoring the metal pollution.

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Table 3 Pearsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s correlation matrix for physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals in water samples T

Conductivity

pH

TDS

Cl

Sal

Hg

Zn

Cd

Pb

Cu

1 T pH

.115

1

Conductivity

-.080

.526**

1

TDS

-.079

.527**

1.00**

1

Cl

-.428** .431**

.815**

.818**

Sal

-.429** .431**

.814**

.818** 1.00**

-.640*

-.640*

-.551

-.551

1

-.373*

-.373*

-.536

1 1

Hg

-.187

Zn

-.331* -.441**

-.262

-.263

.615

1

Cd

-.198 -.498** -.442** -.441** -.347*

-.349*

.328

.706**

Pb

-.347* -.452** -.540** -.536**

-.302

-.302

.594

.532** .547**

Cu

-.667** -.172

.133

.134

-.219

-.220

1

.782** .470** .436**

1 .479**

1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4 Heavy metal (mg/kg dry wt.) accumulation in organisms and aquatic macrophytes

Sample

Hg

Zn

Cd

Pb

Cu

S. molesta

Nd

1820.02

34.8

41.4

378.4

P. stratiotes

Nd

2114.45

43.74

9.9

71.95

E. crassipes

Nd

570.43

11.3

15.75

195.47

E. crassipes -root

Nd

4300

159.29

18.18

211.43

CONCLUSION The present study evaluated the concentration of metals in water and selected aquatic macrophytes of lower reaches of Periyar River, where the input of industrial wastewater is very high. Significant level of heavy metal pollution was noted in water samples of lower reaches of Periyar River, mainly the upstream regions, representing the industrial area, showed higher values compared to the down stream regions. The average water metal concentrations in Periyar River decreases in the order Zn > Pb > Cu >Cd >Hg. Aquatic macrophytes showed a maximum accumulation for Zn followed by Cu. Lead and Cadmium was also accumulated in smaller concentration. The increased 276

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concentration of heavy metals in water, sediments and biota obtained during this study reveals the degrading quality of Periyar River. There is a possibility of bioaccumulation of metals in fish and other aquatic organisms. Therefore, a more comprehensive investigation about the bioavailability of metals in the river encompassing more trophic levels is needed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work has been financially supported by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (No. MoES/ 8/PC/2(3)/2007-PC-IV), Govt. of India.

REFERENCES APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC, 20th edn.

ATSDR. 1997. Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Draft for Public Comment (Update). Prepared

by Research Triangle Institute under Contract No. 205-93-0606. Prepared for : US Deoartment of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registery, August 1997.

Baldantoni D, Alfani A, Di Tommasi P, Bartoli G and De Santo A. 2004. Assessment of Macro and microelement accumulation capability of two aquatic plants. Environ. Pollut. 130: 149-156.

Kumar V, Pal A K and Saxena N C. 1997. Pollution status of aquatie system of central part of Jharie coalifiedld with special reference to heavy metal. Indian J Environ Prot., 17(4): 248-252.

Lo J and Lee J. 1994. Dithiocarbamate Extraction and Au(III) Back Extraction for Determination of Mercury in Water and Biological Samples by Anodic Stripping Voltametry. Anal. Chem.

66: 1242-1248.

Medley C N and Clements W H. 1998. Responses of Diatom Communities to Heavy Metals in Streams: The Influence of Longitudinal Variation. Ecological Applications. 8(3): 631-644.

Olivares-Rieumont S, Lima L, Graham D W, Columbie I, Santana J L and Sanchez M J. 2007.

Water Hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) as indicators of heavy metal impact of a large landfill on the Almendares River near Havana, Cuba. Bull Environ Contamm Toxicol. 79: 583-587.

Omana P K and Mohan M. 2008. The new mercury pollution threat to aquatic ecosystems of India- an example from Kerala. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 14 (2-3): 1-4.

Ouseph P P. 1996. Distribution of mercury, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and chromium in the sediments of river Periyar and Cochin harbour. Report submitted to Kerala State Council for Science Technology and Environment.

Paul A C and Pillai K C. 1983. Trace Metals in a Tropical River Environment- Distribution.

J. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 19: 63-73.

WHO. 2003. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, http://www.who.int/ water_sanitation_health/ Centre for Environment and Development

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