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Abstract One of the most important decision-makings in a supply chain is how to allocate the order to suppliers under uncertainty. This type of problem requires much information in order to find the best decision for the problem at hand; therefore, it is very complicate by nature. This research focuses on how to allocate the order to a set of selected suppliers. The uncertainties considered in this research consist of fluctuation of raw material price, inaccuracy in forecasting, product quality, and ratio of on-time delivery of suppliers. We have studied a case study of a laminate manufacturer in Thailand, in which, the decision maker has to decide how to order the raw material from suppliers while each supplier has different characteristics or different uncertainty.

The objective of this study is to assign the order allocation pattern, which minimize the total corresponding costs. We have developed the mathematical model and 11

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have applied the Genetic Algorithm to develop the program for optimizing the total cost. Then, algorithm has been tested using the data retrieved from the company and the data from the forecasting. Moreover, we have solved the tested case by the LINGO software in order to verify the efficiency of the proposed algorithm. The results show that our algorithm works very well under uncertainty and can suggest the best decision under each category of uncertainty.

Keywords: Supply Chain Management, Order allocation, Uncertainty

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Introduction In recent year, Supply chain management has generated much interest because of the realization that actions taken by one member of the chain can influence the profitability of all others in the chain. A supply chain is a network of facilities and distribution that are the functions of procurement of materials, transformation to finished products, and distribute these products to the customers. Nowadays, there have many researches related with the supply chain management but not many researches in field of supply chain under uncertainty such as late delivery, defect materials from supplier, or unreliable suppliers. Therefore, any research about uncertainty especially the uncertainty from supply sources should be considered. In this paper, we have investigated a manufacturer to study its purchasing system and then define the order allocation model. From the case study, we have developed the allocation method so that the company can minimize the total cost under the company’s policy.

Literature Review There are some researchers who have researched about the supplier assignment and order allocation. Followings are the concerned literature.

Papers on supplier selection: Thomas Y. C., Janet L. H. (1996) compared

supplier-selection practices based on a survey of companies at different levels in the auto industry. They used the survey method and then research method in order to make the decision.

The results show that selection supplier based on the potential for a cooperative, long-term relationship is just as important to direct and indirect suppliers as it is to the auto assemblers.

Ghodsypour S.H., O’Brien C. (1998) make a trade off between these tangible and intangible factors some of which may conflict in order to select the best suppliers. They applied mixed integer, goal and multi-objective programming to solve this problem. They also use an analytical hierarchy process and linear programming is proposed to consider both tangible and intangible factors in choosing the best suppliers and placing the optimum order quantities. This model can be applied to supplier selection with and without capacity constraints. A numerical example is presented and the model advantages are discussed.

Madeleine E.P. (1998) studied the difference between managers rating of the perceived importance of different supplier attributes and their actual choice of suppliers in an experimental setting. He uses two methods: a Likert scale set of questions, to determine the importance of supplier attributes; and a discrete choice analysis (DCA) experiment, to examine the choice of suppliers. The results indicate that although managers say that quality is the most 13

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important attribute for a supplier, they actually choose suppliers based largely on cost and delivery performance.

Luitzen B., Leo van der W., Jan T. (1998) studied about the nature of initial purchasing decisions such as make-or-buy decision and supplier selection usually is complex and unstructured. They also try to solve this problem. They used the “Outranking methods” and the management science techniques as the tools to solve the problems in any cases. The results showed by means of a supplier selection example, that an outranking approach may be very well suited as a decision-making tool for initial purchasing decisions.

Christopher D., David F.L, Benkatesh N., Madhav C.R. (1999) examined whether supplier selection and monitoring practices affect the association between supplier strategies and organizational performance. They used the empirical test to test the data from the automotive and computer industries indicated that the performance gains from supplier partnerships practices are contingent on extensive use of non-price selection criteria. These selection and monitoring practices appeared to have little effect on the performance of organizations following arms-length supplier relations.

Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L. (2002) presented an intelligent supplier management tool (ISMT). They used the case-based reasoning (CBR) and neural network (NN) 14

techniques to select and benchmark suppliers.

The result of which is to support the decision-making process in benchmarking suppliers in outsource manufacturing.

Stefan M. (2003) reviewed inventory models with multiple supply options which is “single-stage inventory models” and discusses their contribution to supply chain management.

He used the stochastic lead times to make the analysis of the inventory models. Finally, issues for future research and a synthesis of available supply chain management and multiple supplier inventory models are proved that it’s practical.

Toshiya K. (2003) solved the product allocation problem by distributing the scheduled resources based on the agent interactions in the market. He formulated supply chain model as a discrete resource allocation problem under dynamic environment, and demonstrate the applicability of the virtual market concept to this framework. It has been confirmed that careful constructions of the decision process according to economic principles can lead to efficient distributed resource allocation in SCM. Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R. (2004) addresses the interaction of purchasing and routing for a propane gas supply chain.

Rigorous solution methods using both set partitioning and taboo search are developed for obtaining optimal and near-optimal solutions for the purchasing/routing problem. The proposed methods are applied to a real-world propane

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distribution problem. The results of the study indicate that the potential annual cost savings through the integration of purchasing and routing decisions can range up to millions of dollars for large distributors.

Papers on uncertainty: Ram G., John E.T., Yuanming G. (1999) examined the dynamics of a supply chain that has the option of using two suppliers one reliable, and the other unreliable. He calculated the expected shortages based on the normal and discrete distributions. The results show that, in the presence of a second supplier who’s willing to provide a price discount, logistics managers can potentially save on annual inventory-logistics by placing a fraction of the order to this cheaper supplier.

Jukka K., Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T. (2002) proposed a framework by which the risks related to a customer-supplier relationship, the service requirements by the customers and the strategies of the supplier company can be included in production capacity allocation and supply chain design. They used a numerical example and it is based on integrating the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and mixed integer programming (MIP). According to the results, the supply chain is designed on the basis of the customers’ strategic importance and service requirements.

Kirstin Z. (2002) investigated the supply chain

coordination with uncertain just-in-time delivery by means of a single–period order and deliveryplanning model within a just-in-time setting. She compared the worst cast with the best case, and then develops a coordination mechanism. The results displayed that the example demonstrates that the coordination mechanism is flexible enough to enable different allocations of these overall cost thus allowing both parties in an existing supply chain partnership to make a profit.

Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003) provided an overview of their previously published works on incorporating demand uncertainty in midterm planning of multisided supply chains. They modeled the manufacturing decisions as “here-and-now” and used the “CPLEX” solver to solve the model with many equations and variables. The trade-off between customer satisfaction level and production cost is also captured in the model. The proposed model provides an effective tool for evaluating and actively managing the exposure of an enterprises asset to market uncertainties.

Brian F., Sean B., Donna M. (2004) developed a model of environmental uncertainty, supply chain (SC) relationship quality and SC performance. They used the “survey instrument” and the statistical method to test the models.

The results provide mixed support for the model, with the moderating role of both demand and supply uncertainty being supported, but technological uncertainty not supported.

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Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004) created the multi-product, multi-stage, and multi-period scheduling model to deal with multiple incommensurable goals for a multiechelon supply chain network with uncertain market demands and product prices. They used the fuzzy sets as the tools to solve the models.

The results proved effective in providing a compromised solution in an uncertain multiechelon supply chain network.

June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras V.R., David E. (2004) proposed the use of deterministic planning and scheduling models which incorporate safety stock levels as a means of accommodating demand uncertainties in routine operation. To solve the model they use a simulation based optimization approach. The results display that the safety stock level, which is calculated to meet a desired level of customer satisfaction, can be provided.

Ruengsak K., and Nguyen V.H. (2005) have studied the effects of an order allocation procedure in a supply chain. This supply chain consists of a company that can order products from multiple suppliers. They used the computer simulation, order allocation, Excel, and numerical test to archive their models. The results showed that it can vary the percentage of on-time delivery and could understand the behavior of purchase cost.

From the above mentioned literatures, we have observed that some researchers have 16

studied the order allocation under uncertainty.

However, few of them have considered the real case that has more complexity and sometimes the purchasing department has to follow a policy of the company. Accordingly, in this paper we have studied a company that purchased raw materials from selected (or contracted suppliers). The company has to follow agreement signed with the suppliers (such as the minimum ordered quantity) while the cost of ordering must be minimized. With more complexity, we developed the ordering approach that tends to optimize the cost which related to the allocation pattern. The purposed approach could be applied by the company with the less effort but with high efficiency.

Problem Statements In this paper, we have studied a case study of Thai Laminate Manufacturer (TLM) Company which produces a number of laminate products to supply to electronic industries. As shown in Figure 1, the company has ordered raw materials from a set of selected suppliers which all of suppliers locate abroad. The required amount of an item (or multiple items) will be determined by the purchasing department. An order consists of the selected supplier, quantity purchased, due date, price and other related information. Our consideration is only the part of the supplier network (inside the dot-line block in Figure 1). Since, the company can select any

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supplier from the list, therefore, there are many allocation patterns while ordering and come up with the question that which pattern is the best

pattern when the company also has to maintain its own policy on all contract suppliers.

Figure 1 Supplier network of the company

In the ordering process the planner has to select supplier (or suppliers) from list, then assign the quantity and due date. However, there

are many things to consider since there are many uncertainties concerned in the process. Some of uncertainties are depicted in Figure 2.

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Figure 2 Factors of supplier-uncertainty and demand-uncertainty

From our study, uncertainties appeared in the order allocation process consist of: Capacity of suppliers; in the category each supplier has its own customers; therefore, the capacity supply for a customer may be vary.

At the ordering time, the company has to check the stock of suppliers, thus sometimes the company cannot order from that supplier if the 18

stock level is not enough.

Price Inflation; since the price of raw material (metal such as Copper, Zinc, etc.) has been affected by the market therefore the material price is unstable (both increasing and decreasing due to the marketing condition).

Late delivery; this category always occur since all suppliers locate abroad.

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Quality problem; the received raw material sometimes have quality problem and can not be detected until it has been used since almost materials are in the coil or strip form.

Forecast inaccuracy; the approach used by the company has less accuracy since the order decision based on experience of the purchasing staff.

In the demand side of the company, there are many uncertainties appear, such as order cancelled, rushed order, defects, and unit price fluctuation (finished goods). But, these uncertainties are not our concerns since they are uncertainties in the demand side.

1. Material ordering process TLM has to order raw materials from its suppliers. Ordered material consists of copper sheet, resin, etc. The concerned problem in this research is the order allocation to the selected suppliers. Since a kind of material can be ordered from more than one supplier. TLM has applied this strategy since the company wants to reduce the risk of shortage that used to occur in the past. As depicted in Figure 3, the order process starts from the production plan (received from production planning department). Then, production plan will be breakdown to the material order plan using BOM. From the material order plan, the purchasing staff will select some suppliers from list and finally

assign the quantity to each selected supplier.

The order allocation must be done in the manner that the total corresponding cost is minimized.

2. Order Allocation Sub-process The quantity ordered must satisfy in order to fulfill the requirements from production plan.

Since the company the a policy about the purchasing that the stock must be enough for at least one-month production when the material price is high and at most three months when the material price is low. This policy is based on the production plan that will be rolled up every month and apply the three month plan. Thus, the possible ordering patterns are; one-month stock ordering, two-month stock ordering, and threemonth stock ordering. One-month stock means the ordered quantity will be used up within one month. Therefore, the best plan will be selected from the three plans generated (1-month, 2-moth and 3-month). The process is described in Figure 4.

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Figure 3 Ordering Process

purchasing costs which are interest paid for the advance payment and fixed engagement fee.

However, the cost should be optimized in such manner that the following constraints must be satisfied : Reliability of the delivery must not be less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%), and Quality of the delivered material must not be less than a fixed percentage (e.g., 95%), Where, reliability of the delivery is the probability that an amount ordered will be late.

For example 95% of reliability means among 100 units ordered, it is expected that 5 units will be late and 95 units will be delivered on-time.

For the quality of delivered material, 95% means that among 100 units delivered 5 units will be defects and the remaining 95 units will be good parts.

4. Mathematical Model The objective is to minimize the following :

Figure 4 Ordering Allocation Sub-process

TCj = MCj + PCj The technique used for the forecasting is exponential smoothing or double exponential smoothing depend on the best fit for each material.

3. Ordering policy The order of a material must be done in order to minimize the total cost of material cost (purchasing price) and correspondence 20

(1)

Where, TCj = Total cost of ordering material j, MCj = Material cost of ordering material j, PCj = Purchasing cost of ordering material j, including costs are interest paid for the advance payment, fixed engagement fee

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Equation (1) must be optimized when the following conditions are satisfied.

purchased for each of every 1 month, 2 moths and 3 months, therefore we have to formulate the total cost of each case as shown below.

Condition 1: Average on-time delivery score Proportion of total reliability for material j (2)

TRij = ODij * QLij ; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ; for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n

(4)

Condition 2: Average quality score

(3) Where, Rijk = Ratio for material j related to supplier i at month k.

ODij = Score of on-time delivery of material j related to supplier i means 100% on-time delivery, this data calculated from past record. This score is computed from the quantity that delivered on-time over the total quantity ordered.

QLij = Quality of material j related to supplier i means no defect from supplier, calculated from past record.

This score is computed from the quantity that are non-defect over the total quantity ordered. s = Number of suppliers.

However, since the material can be

Where, TRij = Score of reliability of material j related to supplier n = Number of types of materials.

Expected quantity order for material j Dijk = Djk * Rijk

(5)

Subject to; (6) (7) for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ; for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n ; for k = 1, 2, 3 (8) Where, Qijk = Quantity of material j ordered to the supplier i at month k.

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Qjk = Quantity of material j ordered at month k.

Dijk = Demand for material j related to supplier i at month k.

Djk = Demand for material j at month k.

Rijk = Ratio for material j related to supplier i at month k.

(13) ; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ; for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n

Total cost for material j Case 1: One-month plan

(9) ; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ;

for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n

Case 3: Three-month plan

(10)

Case 2: Two-month plan

(14)

Where, TCjm = Monthly total cost for material j for case m, m = 1, 2, 3.

Qijk = Quantity of material j that is assigned to supplier i at month k.

Pijk = Price of material j related to supplier i at month k.

EFk = Engagement fee (fixed cost) at month k. i1 = Interest rate for LC. i2 = Interest rate for engagement fee.

Ujm = Unit cost of material j for case m.

Explanations of each case are as follows.

(11)

; for i = 1,2, 3, …, s ; for j = 1, 2, 3, …, n 22

(12)

Case 1 (one-month plan, m = 1): first we calculate the raw material cost of each month by using the material price of each month multiply with the quantity of that month then change it into the future worth at month 3 with the LC interest. The raw material cost was summed for every supplier to get the total

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variable cost before the engagement fee which changed to future worth was added. After that we sum them for every month to get the total cost of case 1. Finally, we divide the total cost by the all expected quantity to get the unit cost at month 3.

Case 2 (two-month plan, m = 2): we compute raw material cost by using the total expected quantity of first month and second month multiply with the price at month 1 (we have to order for covering next 2 months so the price of ordering in next 2 months must be the same). Then we change it into the future worth at month 3 and sum this cost for all suppliers to get the total variable cost. The cost was added with the future worth of first month engagement fee. Then the variable cost and fixed cost of third month was calculated and changed into the cost at month 3. After that we divide the total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months to get the unit cost of case 2 at month 3.

Case 3 (three-month plan, m = 3): we sum the demand for next 3 months and multiply with the price at the first month. Then convert this variable cost to the future worth at month 3. The engagement fee was added to the total cost only once in the first month, so we converted the engagement fee like the variable cost. Similar with the previous two cases, we can divide the total cost by the expected quantity for 3 months to get the unit cost at month 3.

Finally, we compare Total cost (TCjm) or

Unit cost (Ujm) for every case m (m = 1, 2, or 3) and select the cheapest one.

Allocation Algorithm In this paper, we have applied Genetic Algorithm as a tool to identify the optimum order allocation plan. The purposed algorithm is shown in Figure 5. Parameters and procedures for the algorithm are set as follows: Initial Population: Randomly generated Crossover: Partial-mapped Crossover (PMX) with a crossover rate of 0.2 Mutation: Pairwise adjacent scheme with a rate of 10% mutation rate Selection: Roulette wheel approach The chromosome will be represented by the integer representation. Figure 6 depicts a chromosome that we will order material 1 equal to 20 tons from supplier 1, 0 tons from supplier 2, and 15 tons from supplier 3.

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Figure 5 The purposed GA algorithm for order allocation

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Figure 6 Chromosome Representation

Numerical Example In order to test the efficiency of the purposed approach, we have done an experiment using a set of materials ordered from 3 suppliers. The tested data are shown in Table 1. Here, we have tested 2 kinds of material (Copper foil and Resin) which their costs dominate the cost of other type of materials. The data have been solved by the purposed algorithm and for verifying the efficiency these data also have been solved by Lingo. The results from both approaches will be compared.

Total cost of the purposed algorithm and Lingo will be compared using %RPD as shown below.

Table 1 Testing data set Input Variables 1.) Number of supplier 2.) Price 3.) Minimum on-time delivery (OD) score 4.) Minimum quality (QL) score 5.) On time delivery ratio of each supplier 6.) Quality ratio of each supplier 7.) Interest rate for LC Interest rate for engagement fee 8.) Engagement fee 9.) Demand of material

Testing Value Vary based on type of material Vary 0.97 0.97 0.98, 0.98, 0.96

(15) Ratio that exceeds 100 means the purposed algorithm is poorer than the optimum solution obtained from Lingo.

In each category, we have considered the values of RPD that compare values of GA to the values of LINGO. Results show that GA provides the values that are very close to LINGO. The RPD is higher than the optimum value obtained from LINGO at only around 1%, or we can say, the efficiency is about 99% of the optimum value.

The increasing in SD results in higher RPD values that may come up from the search spaces that are larger. This will make GA to have a lower performance. By the way,

0.97, 0.97, 0.98 5.15%/ month 1.25%/ month $ 36 per time Vary 25

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Table 2 % RPD of the total cost for material type 1 (Copper Foil)

Table 3 % RPD of the total cost for material type 2 (Resin)

the benefit of the algorithm over the LINGO is that the processing is extremely short (less than 1 second) while LINGO must be coded and needs several minutes to complete. Moreover, 26

there has no need to code the program since the purposed algorithm is coded in C++ language and had been compiled to be an executable program. Data are input directly from the screen and then the program will provide the solution.

Conclusion As we mentioned in the first part that order allocation is the critical task for a company to minimize the inventory ordering cost. Especially when there are uncertainties occur in the ordering process. In this research, we have done the research that concerns with the order allocation under uncertainty using a real case study. From the study, we can determine the uncertainty factors in the raw material purchasing process. The model has been developed and the algorithm has been constructed using Genetic Algorithm. The purposed approach has been tested by using the real data. The main benefits obtained from this research are; an algorithm with sufficient efficiency that can suggest the near-optimum solution, appropriate forecasting techniques, and allocation approach that works simply with high efficiency. We do hope that this research will be the useful reference for a company who has to make the decision about the ordering under an uncertainty environment.

Acknowledgement We would like to thank to Thai Laminate

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Manufacture (TLM) Company, for the permission to do this research and also many thanks to staffs at TLM for their helps.

References Anshuman G., Costas D.M. (2003), Managing demand uncertainty in supply chain planning.

Computers & Chemical Engineering, 27 (8-9), 1219-1227.

Brian F., Sean de B., Donna M. (2004), Environmental uncertainty, supply chain relationship quality and performance.

Journal of Purchasing and Supply Man agement, 10(4-5), 179-190.

Cheng-Liang C., Wen-Cheng L. (2004), Multiobjective optimization of multi-echelon supply chain networks with uncertain product demands and prices. Computers & Chemical Engineering, 28(6-7), 1131-1144.

Choy K.L., Lee W.B., Victor L., (2002) An intelligent supplier management tool for benchmarking suppliers in outsource manufacturing. Expert Systems with Applications, 22(3), 213-224.

Christopher D.I., David F.L., Benkatesh N., Madhav C.R. (1999) Supplier selection, monitoring practices, and firm performance.

Journal of Accounting and Public Policy, 18(3), 253-281.

Ghodsypour S.H., O'Brien C., (1998) A decision support system for supplier selection using an integrated analytic hierarchy process and

linear programming. International Journal of Production Economics, 56-57, 199-212.

Jukka K, Kalevi K., Antti L., Markku T., (2002) An analytic approach to production capacity allocation and supply chain design.

International Journal of Production Economics, 78(2), 187-195.

June Y.J., Gary B., Joseph F.P., Gintaras V.R., (2004) David E. A simulation based optimization approach to supply chain management under demand uncertainty.

Computers & Chemical Engineering, 28(10), 2087-2106.

Kirstin Z., (2002) Supply chain coordination with uncertain just-in-time delivery. International Journal of Production Economics, 77(1), 1-15.

Luitzen de B., Leo van der W., Jan T., (1998) Outranking methods in support of supplier selection. European Journal of Purchasing & Supply management, 4(2-3), 109118.

Madeleine E.P., (1998) An analysis of the supplier selection process. Omega, 26(6), 673-688.

Ram G., John E.T., (1999) Yuanming G. Dual sourced supply chains: the discount supplier option. Transportation Research, 35(1), 11-23.

Ruengsak K., Nguyen V.H., (2005) Order allocation in a multiple-supplier environment.

International Journal of Production 27

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Economics, 93-94, 231-238.

Stefan M., (2003) Multiple-supplier inventory models in supply chain management: A review. International Journal of Production Economics, 81-82, 265-279.

Thomas Y.C., Janet L.H., (1996) An exploration of supplier selection practices across the supply chain. Journal of Operations Management, 14(4), 333-343.

Toshiya K., (2003) Multi-agent based supply chain modeling with dynamic environment.

International Journal of Production Economics, 85(2), 263-269.

Wen-Chyuan C., Robert A.R., (2004) Integrating purchasing and routing in a propane gas supply chain. European Journal of Operational Research, 154(3), 710-729.

Associate Professor Dr. Ruengsak Kawtummachai received his B. Eng. in Industrial Engineering (First Class Honored) from Chiang Mai University, and Master of Mechanical Engineering and Ph.D. in Production System from Okayama University, Japan under the Japanese Government Scholarship. He is currently working as the Dean of Faculty of Business Administration, Pantyapiwat Institute of Technology. His main areas of research are Vehicle Routing, Logistics and Supply Chain Management, Optimization, and Production Planning and Scheduling.

Professor Dr. Pakorn Adulbhan received his Bachelor Degrees in Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Engineering from Chulalongkorn University. He received a Master Degree in Industrial Engineering and Management Science from Northwestern University, Illinois and Doctor Degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering from Georgia Technology. He worked in many organizations such as Chulalongkorn University, AIT, Siam Cement Group, etc. He has been served as a Fellow of the Royal Institute.

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Dr. Sa-ard Banchirdrit Director of M.B.A. Program Panyapiwat Institute of Technology E-mail: saardban@pit.ac.th

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Abstract This study aims to investigate factors affecting turnover of high performing employees in the Electronics Industries in Thailand. Even though, some turnover studies were conducted in past decades, but most of studies related to all employees. No studies were able to be identified, which specially examined the turnover of high performers.

Research questions were; (a) why do high performers leave organization? (b) what turnover model of high performers look like?

This is a qualitative approach. Telephone interviews were conducted fifty high performers of one electronic company who resigned during 1999-2003. In-dept interviews were conducted ten executives of five electronics companies. Turnover model was developed and modified by the executives. Basic statistical means; percent, frequency, were employed.

The results were found that factors affecting turnover of high performers were external factors, organizational factors, job related factors, and personal factors. Top five 29

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factors affected turnover of high performers were external job opportunities, challenging job, promotion, compensation and benefits, and organizational policies.

The executives mostly agreed with factors influenced turnover of high performers.

Few items were recommended for "fine tune", not totally changed.

Turnover model also was recommended to adjust in small part of the model.

It concluded that most findings of this study agreed with literatures.

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Introduction Significance of the Problem The Thai Electronics Industry has developed into a significant contributor to the economy of Thailand over the last 30 years (Apinanmahakul, 1996). In particular, it is important in its role in generating foreign income through exports, and its role as major employer.

1) Export Value: The industry generates foreign income through exports, which adds to Thailand's foreign reserves. Thailand Exports were 636,067.36 million Baht in 2000; 598,795.48 million Baht in 2001; 582,151.40 million Baht in 2002 and 643,200.89 million Baht in 2003 (Export Promotion Department, 2004). This made the exports of electronic components in the top three of all Thailand exports (Bank of Thailand, 2003).

The Electronics industry has been one of the top five exporters in Thailand for a number of years (Bank of Thailand, 2003). This is a key factor to keep the financial balance of the country.

2) Major Employer: A survey of 604 BOI promoted companies by the Board of Investment (BOI) found that the Electronics Industry employed 323,231 people in 1999 (BOI Annual Report 1999) and the 2002 figures of employment of the industry show over 350,000 people (C&C International Venture, 2002).

Labour demand of the electronics industry increased approximately 17 percent in 2002-

2003, which was higher than all other industries.Various government and private industry reports in the years 2003-2005 indicated that demand for graduates in the technology field continued to high and various shortages were reported or predicted.These employment figures indicated that the electronics industry creates job opportunities, reduce the overall unemployment rate and contribute significant income to the country.

The Electronics Industry produces “hightech products” and “Export oriented products” (Apinanmahakul, 1996). This industry is characterized by a high rate of change, high technology, and highly trained and highly skilled employees (Goman, 2000). So when these people leave the organization, this may have a significant impact.

In 2003, the Thai economy grew by 6.7 percent, industrial production growth rate was 12.2 percent and the unemployment rate was 2.2 percent (Brooker Group, 2004). In the first quarter in 2004, export value of the electronics industry was 182,220.10 million Baht. The growth rate increased from the previous year by 6.2 percent (BOI, 2004; First Quarter: Production and Investment Report, 2004). Unfortunately, a new trend of the labor issue is that high labor turnover usually occurs when the economy declines. An unpublished report of the Electronics and Computer Employer's Association (ECEA) shows that labor turnover 31

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of its member companies had sharply increased; the percentage of turnover was 7.3 percent in 2000, 7.6 percent in 2001, 8.3 percent in 2002, and 9.6 percent in 2003 (ECEA monthly record, September, 2004). It is, therefore, considered that this issue should be handled effectively so that the impact can be minimized.

It is clear that the negative impact of turnover is a cost aspect. This includes separation cost and replacement and training cost (Cascio, 1991). In the U.S.A., the Saratoga Institute reports that the cost per hire averages approximately US$ 4,000-6,000, for each employee (Burkholder, 2004). In Thailand, the cost of turnover of the Sony group of Companies averages US$800 (Wateetip, 1999).

In general, the figure that will emerge will give credence to the normally quoted turnover cost of 1.5 to 2.5 times the annual salary level of replaced employees (Ahlrichs, 2000). These are costs of turnover of all employees, not just high performing ones.

The turnover cost of a high performing employee is obviously much higher than the cost of losing an average performer even though the salaries and benefits of the two may be similar (Hendron, 2004).

Almost all employers search for talented employees because they are a high-value-added human capital element. McKinsey (Michaels, 2001), found in the U.S. that talents increased productivity by 40 percent, revenue by 67 32

percent and profits by 49 percent from their study on the "war for talent" in 1997 (Martel, 2002), so high performers are in high demand from all companies. There are three factors fuelling talent demand in the business world: 1) The irreversible shift from the industrial age to the innovation age, 2) The intensifying demand for high-calibre managerial talent, and 3) The growing propensity for people to switch from one company to another (Michaels, 2001). Even though this study took place in the U.S.A., one would expect it also to apply elsewhere.

Even though labour turnover studies have been conducted in Thailand in the past, most of the studies were about factors relating to total labor turnover (Asamaporn Na Songkhla, 1996; Sirinoot, 1997; Wateetip, 1999; Pengsuk, 1999; Despradipa, 2001), and the relationship between job satisfaction and intention to leave (Suapituck, 1998; Ratanamanee and Ketwong, 1983). There are no studies that this researcher could find on turnover of high performers.

The critical impact of turnover of high performers to organizations and industries are the high costs of replacement, it usually takes more time to recruit high performers and there is a lot of uncertainty about having the same level or a higher level of performance. These losses could affect a company's or industry's competitive advantage (Michaels, 2001).

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The objective of this study then is to investigate the turnover of high performing employees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand. An attempt will be made to overcome this dearth of information in this area and to develop a framework or model to try to contribute towards improving this situation. This would make a significant contribution to Thailand's further growth.

Purpose of the Study The objectives of this study are: To review literatures in order to develop a conceptual model of employee turnover, To study factors affecting turnover of high performing employees in one electronics company in Thailand, To examine and compare the general model of labour turnover with that of high performing employees, To investigate retention strategy and develop a conceptual model of this, and To identify what retention factors should be used to try to retain high performance employees.

Expected Contribution of this Study To provide results of this study to members of the Electronics and Computer Employer Association (ECEA) and other interested parties, contribute to academic knowledge and

learning in this important topic in Thailand, To provide results of this study to HR practitioners through the Personnel Management Association of Thailand (PMAT), and To provide a basic study in this area, to help other HR personnel and HR scholars, to study and develop this topic further.

Literature Review The purpose of this section is to investigate turnover of high performing employees (HPEs).

The attributes of the study are prioritized as: 1) Definition, 2) State of the art of Employee Turnover, 3) Turnover of High Performing Employees, 4) Retention Strategy, and 5) Summary.

Definitions Definition of Turnover These are classified into 2 categories: 1. Global Perspective: All kinds of movements in the labour market, either flowing into the market (Hiring) or departing from the market (Termination of employment) are considered as “Turnover”. This is not specific in any particular organization. Employees moving from one industry to another industry, or from plant to plant, are also called turnover (Hedberg, 1967). This view has been supported by Abbasi and Hollam, (2000), who see turnover as the rotation of workers in the labor market, between firms, jobs and occupations and between states 33

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of employment and unemployment.

2. Organizational level perspective: There are two concepts in this perspective.

The first concept views all movement in organizations, such as Hiring, Promotion, Inter-department transfer, and departure of employees as labor turnover (Forbes, 1971). This view has been supported by Price and Mueller (1986) who further classified turnover into voluntary and involuntary. Voluntary turnover means turnover is initiated by the employee such as voluntary resignation. Involuntary turnover means turnover is initiated by the employer such as lay-offs, and termination of employment by disciplinary action. The second concept views that Hiring, Transferring and promotion in an organization are not "turnover" (Mobley, 1982).

He gives a definition of turnover that it is a voluntary cessation of membership in an organization by an individual who receives monetary compensation for participating in that organization. So it can be interpreted that turnover components comprise: 1) the leaver must be a regular employee; 2) the leaver must receive financial compensation from the organization; Volunteer employees who are not receiving wages/salaries, such as a foundation's employees are not classified within this meaning; 3) The departure must be on a voluntary basis (involuntary departure; lay-offs, termination by disciplinary action are not regarded as turnover).

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In summary, turnover is usually regarded as termination of employment conditions of regular employees on a voluntary basis over a specific period of time.

Functional/Dysfunctional Turnover (Dalton and Todor, 1982: in Hom and Griffeth, 1995).

Employee Turnover functional turnover means a poor performer leaves an organization and a good performer stays with the organization.

Dysfunctional turnover means a good performer leaves an organization and a poor performer stays with the organization.

A High Performing Employee means an employee who receives an A or B rating in the annual performance appraisal in the company which uses A, B, C, D and E ratings, or who was rated as "Exceeding Expectations" for the organization using three ratings, Not meeting expectations, Meet expectations and Exceeding expectations.

In a broader meaning, HPEs are employees who have demonstrated superior performance, who have inspired others to achieve superior performance, and who embody the core competencies of the organization. They are role models for success and the organization can neither afford to lose them nor fail to take advantage of their ability to contribute to organizational excellence (Berger and Berger,

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2004).

Talent: Talent is the sum of a person's abilities - his or her intrinsic gifts, knowledge, experience, intelligence, judgment, attitude, character and drive. It also includes his or her ability to learn (Michaels, 2001). It is similar to the concept of "competence".

State of the art of the literature on Employee Turnover Mayo, (1975 reprint of 1933) was the first to study turnover of workers in the mule-spinning department of a textile mill near Philadelphia (Pettman, 1975). In the initial stage of turnover studies most saw turnover as a negative. They believed that employee departures caused problems for a company. It was only later that some scholars and writers started to study and analyse turnover and develop theories about it.

Some studies found that some aspects of turnover were not necessarily bad (Mobley, 1982). It depends on who leaves the organization and why. If poor performers leave and better performers can replace them, then this is an opportunity for the organization. If high performers leave, it is often very difficult to replace them with the same level of performers, and this is considered as a lost opportunity (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). So the consequences of employee turnover may have either negative or positive outcomes.

Consequences of Turnover The consequences of turnover are divided into two parts; consequences for the organization and the consequences for the individual (Hom and Griffeth, 1995).

Consequences for the Organization Potential Negative organizational consequences.

These may be economic costs, productivity losses, and declines in morale.

Economic costs Turnover cost has been raised for discussion among scholars and practitioners for a lengthy period (Blakeslee, Suntrup and Kernaghan, 1985; Cascio, 1991; Hom and Griffeth, 1995). The organizations consider three major cost categories: separation cost, replacement cost, and training cost (Smith and Watkins, 1978, in Cascio, 1987).

Turnover cost is different in terms of position-to-position and country-to-country. For example, the total cost in the first year of replacing a top IT engineer can go as high as four times of his/her salary (Goman, 2000). The cost of replacing a special nurse at a hospital in the USA is 156 percent of that nurse's salary (Ahlrichs, 2000). In Thailand, turnover cost in one study of Electronics companies shows the cost to be approximately US$800, for 35

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degree-level employees.

From these figures, it can be seen that turnover costs vary considerably. So it is difficult to identify exactly just how much the cost of labor turnover is. Even though turnover cost has been brought to the attention of scholars for a long period, it would appear that relatively few companies have paid serious attention to it. In the U.S.A., only 16 percent of U.S. companies track turnover cost according to one study (Ahlrichs, 2000).

Unfortunately, the researcher was unable to identify comparative evidence for turnover cost of poor performers and high performers.

Various reasons have been given for turnover and various theories or models have been developed in an endeavour to understand and measure turnover.

Unfortunately, in this paper, there is not enough time or space to describe these studies or theories in any depth.

The main studies are as follows: Motivation Model (March and Simon, 1958) The key concepts of this model are that perceived desirability of movement and perceived ease of movement are the main determinants of turnover.

In brief, there are five factors which are seen as being correlated with turnover. These are perceived desirability of movement, job satisfaction, size of organization, perceived ease of movement, and job availability.

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Expanded Model (Mobley, Griffeth, Hand and Meglino, 1979) In the expanded model, the authors identified that the quit intention as the immediate precursor of turnover (Hom and Griffeth 1995). They conceived intentions and turnover as a function of: 1) job satisfaction, 2) expected utility of the present work role, and 3) expected utility of alternative work roles.

Labor Economic Model (Hulin, Roznowski and Hachiya, 1985) In brief, this model explained that job opportunities directly influence job satisfaction and directly affect turnover. This argument should be investigated since job satisfaction or dissatisfaction is based on various factors. Job opportunities cannot influence satisfied employees to become dissatisfied because antecedents of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction vary (Spector, 2000). Job opportunities should be considered as a supportive factor of job satisfaction.

Integrative Model of Turnover Determinants (Hom and Griffeth, 1995) This model has integrated empirical findings into a turnover model by demonstrating that job satisfaction, organizational commitment, withdrawal cognition and expected utility of withdrawal are key factors leading to turnover.

Organizational Commitment: Scholars of commitment agree that commitment predicts quits more accurately than does satisfaction (Porter,

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Steers, Mowday and Boulian, 1974) as resignation implies a rejection of the company, not necessarily of the job which can be assumed elsewhere.

Both job dissatisfaction and lack of organizational commitment can create withdrawal cognition. In such cases, when employees have a withdrawal cognition, i.e., they are dissatisfied, and then job turnover is likely to occur.

The Market-Driven approach. This was developed by Cappelli (2001) who indicated that the most influential factors of employee turnover have changed from internal factors, such as job satisfaction, compensation, promotion opportunities etc., to external factors. He called these market-driven factors. Therefore employees may leave an organization without any dissatisfaction because they received offers from outside which are irresistible or they see opportunities outside, which their existing organization cannot provide. Such opportunities are likely to be available to talented and high performing employees even when economic conditions are difficult.

In summary, these models may explain turnover of average performing employees but they may not adequately explain turnover of high performing employees in the current environment because high performing employees are in high demand in the labour market (Michaels, 2001).

Job opportunities are usually always available for them. As a result, it is now challenging to

investigate the factors which affect turnover, both of any employee, but particularly, of high performing employees to see whether they are the same or different, and also to investigate or develop retention strategies, particularly designed to retain high performing employees.

Findings and Discussion on Factors Affecting Turnover of All Employees Factors which are seen to have an important impact on employee turnover are: Job satisfaction Pay and Compensation Job Opportunities Organizational Policies and Procedures Promotion Opportunities Supervisory Issues Relationships between employee and supervisor Met expectations of employees Working Environment Family Issues These factors are divided as follows: 1) Job related factors, 2) Organizational factors, 3) Individual factors, and 4) External economy.

These key four factors are seen as playing a major role in employee turnover.

The findings of ten authors/theorists who have studied employee turnover indicate that 26 factors affected turnover. Very few factors were found in the individual related factors. The top five scores are found in nine items; these are 37

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job satisfaction (9/10), pay and compensation/ benefit (7/10), job opportunity (6/10), policies, procedures, rules (5/10), promotion opportunity (5/10), supervisory issues (5/10), relationship (5/ 10), meet expectations (4/10), and working environment (4/10). These nine factors are well recognized as factors which affect turnover of employees.

Turnover of High Performing Employees (HPEs) This study represented a case study of one the turnover of High Performing Employees in one large Thai Electronics company.

The researched was given telephone contact details of HPEs who had left the company during the previous six months and he was able to contact and obtain information from 50 of these former employees about their reasons for leaving. .

From the literature, there appear to be a few differences between why HPEs and other employees might leave their organizations.

Five factors are identified from the literature, as common. They are: 1) pay and compensation, 2) job opportunity, 3) promotion, 4) supervision, and 5) relationships.

Some differences, however, could be identified, and also some focal points for HPEs. Focal and different points for HPEs are: 1) Challenging, Exciting work, 2) recognition, and 3) development. The findings indicate that most 38

of the basic needs are met for HPEs, such as pay, promotion opportunities, etc. because of their high level of performance. Organizations try to cover these basic, traditional elements.

Sometimes, however, management overlook the important motivating factors for HPEs. This usually leads to lower motivation for HPEs and, providing an incentive to leave their organizations. So, job satisfaction for HPEs is a critical requirement. The basic factors, pay, etc, are still obviously important but these motivating factors are essential to retain HPEs. Employee development is a critical motivating factor.

Without adequate development programs, HPEs are likely to become dissatisfied and hence, more likely to leave their organizations.

Conceptual Turnover Model of High Performing Employees Having reviewed the literature of turnover, and particularly relating this to HPEs, key factors can be identified and applied to employee turnover, with particular respect to HPEs. The factors are: Challenging/Exciting work.

Supervision Pay and Compensation Promotion Training and Development Relationships Job opportunity Personal Factors

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The study also asked respondents about the type of organisational retention strategies the company should try to use in an endeavour to retain as many as possible of their HPEs. Both from the literature and from respondents comments the following retention strategies were suggested.

The factors considered most important are: Compensation Job design Job customization Social Relationships These strategies view employee turnover in a different dimension from the old paradigm which always focused on job-related factors such as job satisfaction and commitment. However, this point-of-view is quite limited, since this approach views outside factors (labour market) as key factors influencing employee turnover. A challenging question is "Are job opportunities from outside the organization influencing high performing people to resign?"

Employee Value Proposition (EVP) An employee value proposition (EVP) is the holistic sum of everything people experience and receive while they are part of a company-everything from the intrinsic satisfaction of the work, to the environment, leadership, colleagues, compensation and more.

An employee value proposition is similar to a customer value proposition. For more than a

century, markets have been consciously crafting customer value proposition. Now, with companies competing hard to win the war for talent, they have to start applying the same kind of marketing thinking to attracting and retaining employees. Companies need strong employee value propositions - a compelling answer to the question, "why would a highly talented person choose to work here?"

Summary - Retention Policies or Strategies An effective retention strategy must start even prior to hiring and matching work requirements with individual needs. People are different so some factors may be consistent over a number of employees, while others are not. As indicated, we need to determine the major needs of high performing employees. An effective retention strategy can and must be developed and managed.

Importance of Model Evaluation A model is "a representation of a system that is constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole" (Cooper and Schindler, 1998, p. 48). Models differ from theories. A theory's role is explanation; whereas a model's role is that of an understood reality.

The model used in this paper is an explicative model and it is improves our understanding of the key concepts of turnover factors.

Kimbleton (1972) indicated that one of the 39

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advantages of model evaluation is that it can be an aid in conceptualizing an area of interest more clearly. Stogdill (1970) emphasized that models "help understand the set of events" (p. 25).

According to Lippitt (1973), a good model has these characteristics: (a) clarifies goals and perspectives of situations, (b) indicates variables compelling changes, (c) provides new opportunities to understand situations, (d) shows the interrelationship of the various conflicting factors, (e) shows different concepts and theories, and (f) indicates capability to evaluate progress, success or failure of a process.

Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand External Factors Economic situation External job opportunities Job Related Factors A challenging job Organizational Related Factors Policies/Procedures Promotion Compensation & Benefits Business uncertainty Relationships Training & Development Reward & Recognition Working environment Geographic Factors Doing their own business 40

Relocation Long distance traveling Taking care of family Further study Retention programs indicate that the findings are not much different from the turnover factors. Six programs are recommended as retention strategies, namely: 1) career development, 2) pay for performance, 3) reward & recognition, 4) job review, 5) attractive benefits, and 6) effective communication. Most programs align with the literature, however some are less clear, for example, job review, attractive benefits and effective communication. So evaluation of these programs will be beneficial to this study in order to improve the applicability of the model on the turnover of high performing employees in the Thai Electronics industry.

In addition, the research literature did not identify any data to evaluate a model of high performers' turnover. Therefore, this paper, by use of a qualitative evaluation study that incorporates the perspectives of senior executives in the electronics industry in Thailand, will attempt to explain the practicality of the factors affecting the turnover model of high performing employees in the electronics industry in Thailand .The challenge is whether senior and experienced persons agree with the turnover model which was identified by former high performers and if any recommendations are given to further develop the turnover and

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retention models further.

Research Questions This study aims to build on an exploratory study of turnover of high performing employees in one electronics company in Thailand by in-depth interviews with ten executives of one electronics company in Thailand.

Three research questions are: 1. Do you agree with the findings from paper two? Please provide an explanation.

2. If not, how do you think the proposed turnover recommendations? Please give your recommendation.

3. Do you agree with the proposed retention model? Please express your opinion.

As indicated, participants in the qualitative evaluation are five chief executive officers and five human resources directors from five electronics companies who are members of the Electronics and Computer Association of Thailand since the studied company is a member of the Association so opinions or suggestions of executives who are working in a similar environment are likely to be appropriate. There were a total of 10 participants (two persons from each company). The reasons why two persons from each company were selected are that human resource directors are responsible for exit interviews of the company so they should have some idea about why high performers left their

organizations, and executive officers oversee policy and the overall business perspective, so they are the resource persons who can evaluate the total picture of employee turnover and retention.

Participants were contacted by phone and an individual meeting was arranged to obtain written consent by voluntarily signing an appropriate permission form before the interview was conducted. Participants were then contacted between October 1 and 15, 2005 to arrange interviews. After the interview date was confirmed and consent obtained, the interviews were conducted.

All 10 participants were interviewed in their offices for at least one hour each. Most respondents gave a detailed perspective to the model evaluated. Notes were taken, and the tapes of all interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed. The confidentiality and anonymity of the participants' responses and of the company was assured.

Criteria for Selection Ten executives from five electronics companies were interviewed and asked for their recommendations on the turnover model of high performers in the Thai electronics industry.

Participants were recruited according to the following criteria:

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ECEA Membership The selected companies were the top five with lower turnover rates among ECEA's member (30 companies) in 2003. Since those companies were well accepted in the HR community as good examples of managing employees' turnover and retention.

Executives must work in the industry Executives must be currently working in the electronics industry in Thailand.

HR Directors Five HR directors are responsible for employee turnover/retention policies.

Interviews Face-to-face interviews give advantages for such a purpose, according to Sekaran (2000, p.

230) "the main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions. The researcher also picks up nonverbal cues from the respondents".

Interview questions were designed to elicit their thorough consideration and points-of-view in evaluating the model based on their professional experience. The following questions were asked: Please share your experience in 42

this aspect of the research seeks to confirm the character-istics of the turnover model of high performing employees in the electronics industry in Thailand should look like. Whether the proposed characteristics of the turnover and retention models that were recommended by fifty former high performers of one electronics company are confirmed or not? The result of this study will be beneficial to the industry in retaining their high performers. To get interviewees' views in detail, face-to-face inter views with ten managerial personnel of the industry were conducted. The researcher tried to get a view on the concept and the situational factors of turnover and retention of high performers.

Data Collection Each participant was asked a series of questions prepared to yield individual and demographic information. The record shows that the executives are mostly male; all of them are over 40 years of age, most of them hold masters' degree with an engineering background and most graduated from overseas universities.

The range of experiences was from 20 to more than 30 years.

1. Participants were then asked a series of in-depth managing employee turnover and retention in overview, particularly with respect to the turnover intentions of HPEs. 2. Do you agree with the identifying factors

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influencing turnover of high performers as shown in the proposed model? Please elaborate.

3. Do you think the proposed turnover model should be modified or not? If yes, how? Please explain.

4. Do you agree with the model's identifying factors as influencing retention of high perform-

ers? Please elaborate.

5. In your opinion, how do you think this retention model should be modified? If yes, how?

Please advise.

6. What are your recommendations about the turnover and retention of high performers in the electronics industry in Thailand?

Findings Findings are shown in Figure 1.

External Factors - Economic factors - Job Opportunity Job related Factors - Job was not challenging - Job stressful Organizational Factors - Policies / Procedures - Promotion - Compensation & Benefit - Business uncertainty - Relationship - Training & Development - Reward & Recognition - Working Environment

Turnover

Personal Factors - Running own business - Long distance traveling - Taking care of family - Relocation - Further study Figure 1 Further Proposed Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics industry in Thailand (from interviews with senior executives) 43

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Evaluation of Factors Affecting Turnover of High Performers It should be noted that only ten interviews of these senior managers were undertaken - five CEOs and five HRM Directors / Managers. So it is difficult to analyze substantial differences between them, however, one difference did emerge. The responding CEOs regarded turnover as a “problem” to be overcome whereas the responding HR executives indicated that they “live” with turnover - it is seen as a “normal” part of their jobs. This does not mean that they are not concerned about it nor does it mean that they do not take action to try to improve it, but they realize that there will still be some turnover even with the most efficient and effective policies and procedures to try to lessen its impact. So there is then this slight difference in emphasis between the two groups of senior managers.

The findings of the in-depth interviews of the 10 respondents are summarized as follows: External Factors All executives accepted that external factors most influenced turnover of high performers in their organizations. In the search for talent today, jobs come to people rather than people going to jobs as in the past because all know that good people can help a business to grow and compete in a highly competitive world. There are plenty of means whereby people can 44

access job opportunities such as newspapers, internet, friends, recruitment agencies and head hunters.

Most responding executives accepted that the economic situation was a supporting factor to encourage employees to change their jobs especially when the economy was booming since that situation creates many job opportunities in the labor market. But for high performers, it matters less as to what the economic situation is, as they are likely to be in high demand at all times.

These statements are in agreement with the literature and support previous findings which determine that external job opportunities most influenced turnover of high performers.

Organizational Related Factors Most responding executives see organizational factors as most affecting turnover of high performers, because employees work in an organization so the impact caused by that organization is happening at all times.

Employees have different expectations from their organizations. Employees' dissatisfaction towards organizational factors easily occurs.

Job Related Factors All executives agreed with the model with respect to these factors by confirming that a challenging job/ an exciting job was a key factor affecting turnover of high performers.

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Job dissatisfaction is an additional factor which all executives agreed was a significant factor influencing turnover of high performers.

They advised that job dissatisfaction is caused by several factors such as the nature of the job itself, pay, and promotion.

Most findings on organizational factors were similar to those in the literature and the comments of former high performers. However executives viewed the proposed model in the following factors: 1) business uncertainty can't easily be claimed as a turnover factor, 2) training and development are likely to be a retention factor rather than a turnover factor, and 3) job dissatisfaction was recommended to be added to the model.

Demographic Factors Most executives accepted that individual factors were one part of the turnover story and accepted that several employees claimed that these had caused their departure so demographic factors were recommended to be included as part of the turnover model of high performers.

They were asked what demographic factors should be put into the turnover model and why?

Fifty percent of executives replied that age, education and gender were recommended to include in the turnover factor.

In summary, all executives agreed with the majority of the factors affecting turnover of high performers as described in the proposed model,

but a few factors were doubted such factors as business uncertainty where, they believe that employees know the nature of business very well, so this factor would not be a cause of turnover, except for newly hired employees only where it might have some impact because they could not adjust to get along with the normal business phenomenon. Job dissatisfaction was highlighted by most of the executives as a key factor influencing turnover of high performers.

Demographic factors of age, education, and gender were recommended to be included into the turnover model.

Modified Turnover Model of HPEs in the Electronics Industry in Thailand Executives agreed individually to modify the proposed turnover model of high performers as shown in Figure 2.

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External Factors External Job Opportunities Organizational Related Factors Policies/Procedures Promotion Compensation & Benefits Relationship Intention to Leave

Turnover

Job Related Factors Challenging Job Job Dissatisfaction Demographic Factors Age Education Sex

Figure 2 Modified Turnover Model of High Performing Employees in the Electronics Industry in Thailand

This model was developed from the literature review (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Mobley, 1982; Porter and Steers, 1973) and from the interviews with the 50 HPEs who had left their positions, and, further from the interviews with 10 senior executives.

The modifications align with the literature on turnover. So the researcher has incorporated them in the turnover model of high performing employees.

46

It has much in common with my current model of turnover.

Conclusions The final result of the qualitative evaluation was that most responding executives found that the model was appropriate. Most retention factors were accepted in the modified retention model. The majority of participants cited the same factors as influencing turnover and retention

©´¥¬´¥ ³ ´¢¶©³ Î PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

of high performers as those indicated in the original model. Minor changes were recommended; combining compensation and benefits into one term and taking job review out of the proposed model.

The responding executives viewed the proposed model in a systematic approach, they did not view it in a factor-by-factor way. In the turnover model, they accepted most of the proposed factors. However they recommended to add "intention to leave" in a separate box between the four factors (job related factors, organizational related factors, job related factors, demographic factors) and turnover. The executives advised that intention to leave is a determinant factor. Any single factor in particular cannot let turnover develop without the intention to leave of employees. So to make a turnover model lock should be added to the modified model. From the frame of reference, they suggested to add "satisfaction" in the middle box between the four retention factors (career development, compensation and benefits, reward and recognition, and communication) and "stay" by further explaining that these four retention factors lead to "employee" satisfaction that usually results in "stay".

Responding executives view the turnover and retention models as "process oriented", while former high performing employees looked at each single factor to answer the question of how that factor affected turnover of high performers, so

there is a difference of approach of each of the two groups, which might help to explain the difference of perception between them.

The encouraging point is that the executives' viewpoint regarding the turnover and retention models has helped shape the models better and made them more complete and more useful for further study and analysis.

The study in its conclusions this presents a framework for analyzing the major factors/s reason that high performing employees might leave their organizations.

The development and possession of this model senior managers, especially HRM Managers, to develop policies, procedures, and action, designed to try to retain high performing employees in their organization. It should also provide a research base for further research and for further testing of the model developed as a result of this research, to other scholars and researchers concerned with staff/labor turnover.

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©´¥¬´¥ ³ ´¢¶©³ Î PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

opportunity of export and impact from Asian Free Trade (Electronic and Electronics Industry)”, Thailand Development Industry (TDRI), November, 1996, pp. 29-71.

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(2004), Talent Management Handbook, USA, McGraw-Hill.

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People, HF 5549.5 R44 H287. pp. 27-50.

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Turnover,, Report no. 52 Stockholm: Swedish Council for Personnel Administration Henderson, Richard I. (1989), Compensation Management: Rewarding Performance, USA, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Hendron, Marie, (2004), Management Toolkit, Harvard Business Review.

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Francisco,USA, Jossey-Bass.

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Pettman, Barrie, O., (ed), 1975, Labor Turnover and Retention, John Wiley and Son. Porter, L.W. and Steers, R.M. (1973), Organizational, work and personal factors in employee turnover and absenteeism, Psychological Bulletin.

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Absenteeism and Turnover of Hospital Employees, JAI Press.

Ratanamanee, Maneemai., and Ketwong, Anant.

(1983), The Resignation of Civil Servants, Political Science Faculty of Thammasat University, Thailand.

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Sons, Inc. USA. Stogdill, (1970), Toward an integrative Theory of Business and Society.

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Ph.D. research. 129 pages.

Dr. Sa-ard Banchirdrit received his D.B.A. in Business Administration from University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia and Master of Public and Private Management from National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) and M.B.A. in International Business Administration from Asian Institute of Technology (AIT). He currently is Director of M.B.A. Program, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology.

50

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Abstract This research is to study appropriate period, program and process for efficient internship at Seven-Eleven Shop for Panyapiwat Institute of Technology's staff. The survey research methodology was applied using questionnaire responded by 28 staff, out of 30, who performed their internship during academic year from 2007 to 2009. The results from this study show that three-day internship period with three different shifts work: day, afternoon, and night shift are appropriate and efficient.

Moreover, jobs during internship should be assigned based on the staff educational level, position and their responsibility. In addition, the staff's internship should be prior to the start date of their employment in order to avoid work interference.

Keywords: efficient internship, Seven-Eleven Shop, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology

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Dr. Sareeya Chairattananont is a Director of Research and Development Office at Panyapiwat Institute of Technology. She received her Master Degree in Development Economics from National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) and her Doctorate (Ph.D.) in Environmental Management from the University of Queensland (UQ), Australia.

68

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Abstract Despite intensive efforts to determine the nature of the relationship between the firm-specific characteristic as firm size and the level of voluntary disclosure (VDI), this issue is expected that the relationship is in fact more of an indirect than direct nature. Thus, this paper attempts to delve deeper into this complex phenomenon by employing a resource dependency perspective to hypothesize a model of mediation as board of directors' quality index (BOQI) is moderated by a high concentration of CEO's ownership (HCEO) as corporate governance mechanisms. The findings suggest that the larger firm size, the higher is the BOQI and this in turn will lead to the higher VDI. These relationships appear to be weaker when there is moderation as HCEO, produced by the mediation process of the BOQI, and when this process is controlled, the residual moderation of the treatment effect is reduced. Further, board size as control variable is found to have a positive significant influence on BOQI and VDI. Keywords: Corporate Governance Mechanisms, Firm Size, Managerial Ownership, Voluntary Disclosure, Listed Companies in Thailand

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2 (4$ (Mean) ( ( - (SD) $" " (Correlations) 2 ? 1 Variables Variables Mean SD Correlations VDI LNTA BOQI HCEO LNBM

VDI (Dependent)

LNTA (Independent)

BOQI (Mediator)

HCEO (Moderator)

LNBM (Control)

0.37 .11

3.44 1.36

0.38 .12

0.15 .19

2.38 .25

1.00

.54** 1.00

.54** .37** 1.00

-.38** -.25** -.22** 1.00

.14* .25** .14* -.19** 1.00

* p < .05, ** p < .01.

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Equation 1.2

Equation 1.3

Variables Step 1

Step 2

(Criterion VDI) CV: LNBM X: LNTA

Step 1

Step 2

(Criterion BOQI)

Step 1

(Criterion VDI)

.15**

.01 .54** ( 11)

.15**

.06 .36** ( 21)

.15**

-.01 .40** ( 31) .39** ( 32)

.02 .02

.30 .29

.02 .02

.14 .14

.02 .02

.43 .42

ME: BOQI Statistics R Square Adjusted R Square 84

Step 2

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3 ,$ ( " 3 3 / $? 2 ? # - 1 $" 3 (N = 317) ( ) Standardized Beta Equation 1.1

Equation 1.3

Equation 1.2

Variables Step 1

Step 2

(Criterion VDI) R Square Change F Change Durbin-Watson Tolerance Min / Max

.02 6.82**

.28 122.51** 1.80 .94/.94

Step 1

Step 2

Step 1

(Criterion VDI)

(Criterion BOQI) .02 7.42**

.12 44.08** 1.84 .94/.94

Step 2

.02 6.82**

.41 110.31** 2.00 .94/.98

* p < .05, ** p < .01. ,

4 ,$ ( " 3 3 / $? 2 ? # - 2 $" 4 (N = 317) Standardized Beta Equation 2 Variables Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

(Criterion VDI) CV: LNBM ME: BOQI MO: HCEO

.15**

.07 .53**

.03 .47** -.27** ( 42)

MEMO: BOQI x HCEO

.02 .62** .28 -.55** ( 43)

Statistics R Square Adjusted R Square R Square Change F Change Durbin-Watson Tolerance Min / Max

.02 .02 .02 6.82**

.29 .29 .27 120.79**

.36 .35 .07 31.64**

.39 .38 .03 13.98** 1.89 .97/.98

* p < .05, ** p < .01.

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Dr. Jakkravudhi Chobpichien received his Ph.D. in Accounting from University Sains Malaysia. He is currently working in Accounting Curriculum, Faculty of Management Science, Suan Dusit Rajabhat University. His research areas include transparency and disclosures, namely, voluntary disclosure, mandatory disclosure, and corporate social disclosure.

95

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Abstract This article aims to demonstrate the relationship between "cultural commodity" and "cultural capital" within the economic crisis. The case study will be based on the incident of Umaji village in Japan, where overcoming the economic crisis was successfully founded by creating and consuming cultural commodity. The referred commodity is the transformed orange juice called Yusu, which encloses the living 96

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and culture of the Umaji villagers. Furthermore, in this incident, the village's cultural capital, like the rural village life, is used to motivate the consumers' need to consume the product.

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Abstract This article describes the correlation between social action and social recognition.

The paper tries to explain Social Action as A Means to Mutual Recognition: A Sociological Perspective. by using sociological concept deriving from structuralfunctional theory, self, dramaturgy, identity and habitus.

The study shows that social action which leads to social acceptance can be illustrated in three main categories; 1. Social action emphasizing on the social construction which perform by norms and social role 2. Social action emphasizing on agency as active and creative actors 3. Social action resulted from the combination of structure and agency. Each individual perceives their role in any situation properly by means of who they are and what they should do. In addition, social action relates to the habitus theory which means the individual performances constraint by habitus of their own social class. Human and to imitate the habitus of other social classes.

Keyword: social action, social recognition, self, identity, habitus

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2< (Slattery, 2003: 195-197. 3< 5 # ) !, 2552: 127-128) )

) ( , " ?

( = ? $ , (2 2

(

" (self)" 2 (| ( (George Herbert Mead) ! $ | $$ (Charles Horton Cooley) ( " (!

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$" 2 ( _ (Erving Goffman) ( = 5 )" $ 0

$ $ ) ! (| ( (George Herbert Mead) 5 5)(

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" " # $

, 8 ?5 "

8 ( = 2 () ( "I" $ "4 ( = " " ;< ( = ( = 2 ( # $ 0 5!

2

< = 8 2 # $ 2 , 8 ( "Me" $ "4 ( = " ;< ( = (

>( 7 "( "( ( = 2 ( / 0 ( =

$" >( 7 2 # $)";< ; ?5 ( 5 + # " ( # ) !, 2552: 112)

)"0 ( 8 #'

) #' )" ($8

8 /

? < 3< , 8 8 ;< ( =

"Me" 5 >2< ?

"I" ( "5 - " ( = "Me" # $ " (2 ( = , (2

(2 ( 5 ( = 2 , 8 (2 # ( = ,$) (2 ( = # 2 , 8 (2 8 2 , 8 8 (2 ( = ! ( 8 (2 0 > 2 (2 5 $ 2

, 8 8 (2 ( =)"0 )

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"I" ( "Me" 2 $ $<

2 ! $ | $ $ (Charles Horton Cooley) ! ( ;< (2 0 (

5 ( "Looking Glass-self" ( =

/ 5! 2 8 ( 8 ( , ") ( (! ( 5 ") ( ( ( 5 8 , 8 ) ( =)" "( ( ( (5 8 , 8 "( ) ,$ "( 2 ( (5 8 , 8 ) $ =)" " 5 ( ( ( $ ' " (! ) L $$ ( = 2 # $( / 2< )

# $0 $ ( $ 8 8 " !

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( ( = " (

(2 ( ;< (2 0 )

< 2 , 8 )< 0 / ( 5

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, 8 , (/ (; , $ ( ., 2547: 443444) 8 < 8 ( (

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" ?

2 5 "Looking Glass-self" L #' 5 5 , 8 8 #' 5 $ ,$ " 2 , 8 5 2 "

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, 1! =)"0 ?,$ "( 0 # 5 2 < $

2 , 5 1! ) ?0

, 1! 5 # ( ( 8 $"

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_ (Erving Goffman) ! ( ( # ) !, 2552: 130-133) / (2 ( ( " (! $" (Dramaturgy) 0 5) (2 (

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?( ? / ' ? 5!

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( " #' 5 8 ( $ $ (

( 5 " (2

/$ ( 11 (_8 _ #$, 2546: 1-2)

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) )# 0 ( $ 0 ( = ,$) $2 *'> # $ 5 (Postmodernism) ?3

/$

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( $ 2 $ '

3 8 (4 " $"

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( 0 3

$

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0 )"( = ( $", 8 0 ? 1 ( $"

( = #' 5 - ",

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+ $ $ 0 $

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! 5 + 8 # + (4 "2 $" ((!'- 3 , 2548: 114-115) 0 = 0 0 $" )"

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(2 0 0 = ) (! ! )

! ($8 )" 0 KFC 5 5 ( 8 ;< /

)" 5! 8 ! 0 # (

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(2 ( ! ) 5! 8 ! =0 #' ( = "5 " < 5

5 2 "( | # =

2 #' (! ) $ 0 | # ( = , $ )

$" " # ( 8

" ?

2

#' 5 (

"Habitus" ( = ( (Pierre Bourdieu) ! % ( 5! 5 !

2 (2 0 = ? = 5! ?5 ( = ? 5! / ( $ ) " 3< ( ( ($ (Norbert Elias)

)" 5 2 ( 0 ( =( 5! ? | # ( 8 3<

$# 5 5! ! 5 (! 5 ( 8 5 5 0

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2 # $ 0 $" 5 / 0 ? ) $ ( = < 2 5 ! ")? 5 ) 0 ? < ) ( 2

" ? ?5 ( ? L / 0 ( ; ; -, ( 2 ) $"| # ( = ( 8 $

" # 5 # $

" ? ( ! / ( 0 ( 8 8 | # 0 )

# + , $ 5 (!

8 8 2 !# ! 8 $ ' "(4 ";< )" (2 5) " $" 3 $ $ / 0 ( "0 ( ( = ( # ) !, 2552: 246-247) ? "Habitus" $( = 0 ") " ? " ? $" ? | # 0 5 ! ( "( =

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8 5 )< 0 5! 8 ( = )()

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" ?

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(

( 8 $" ( $"

( 8 5! ( # ) ! $" # ( ' #2, 2550: 261) ( 8 ) 122

$"( 8 022 ! ! ?5 ( 3 0 2 )() ! ( 8 ) ( 8 022 ?0 2 )() 5 8 $" ? ?5 ( ! ! (

2< ( # ) !, 2550: 251) ;< 8 35 $" "( # " , 5 8 35 8 ( = 5 ! ;< 3< !8 ! 5 !

( = ( '

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" ?

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, " ?

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( ) ?5 / ( ) ) ( 8 /! _ $"

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| #

/ 5

8

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=( " (2 0 "( 7 ( " 5 2 " ( 2 ($8

(2 )< 0 3 "(

2 ( ) 5 ( 7 ( 0 $" 0 "( 7 ( " $ 0 )

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;< "

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= ( = "

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) | # $"

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)" " ! # ) ! % 8 ( ' ! ($ 6 "( ( $ _# $ ! ($ "( ( ! ( 8 8 "( 0 0 _ ( = ( # ) 8.1 | # 0 ! $" #

( 8 2 $" 5 # ) !, 2550: 254) )

2 )< ) # 0 # ' 5 | # $" 0 ) )" 5 ( = 3<

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2 ))" 0

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$

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/ ( | # (! 0 =( " ( ) 8 + (! ;< = (

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" ? 0 2 = 8

#' 0 $

" ?

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$" 2 , 8 8

) 0 3< #

3 ( 8 $ ' 5 , 8

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$ $ 0 $ $"

( $"

)

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2 ( =

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) ! 2 ? "

) ! .

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# ) !. (2552). Â&#x2021; Â&#x2C6; * $ .

2. # ( M: ?

)#6 $ $ . # ( . (2546). Â&#x2021; Â&#x2C6; *$

-.

. 14 # ( M: ? $ ? . # ( $",) ) ".

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(2549). "- %

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2 . . ! 1 .

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# ( M: ? )# 6 $

$ , 2552.

1 1 (_8 _ # $ . (2546). $ , .$ & .

# ( M: "

) ! 2 .

Bourdieu, Pierre. 1994. Raisons Pratiques: Sur la theorie de I' action. Paris: Seuil.

3< 5 # ) !. (2552). *'> . 2. # ( : ?

)#6 $ $ .

Brown, David K. (2004). Social blueprints: conceptual foundations of sociology.

New York: Oxford university press.

Gary Taylor and Steve Spencer. (2004). Social Identities Muntidiscilinary approaches.

Great Britain: Cromwell press, 2004.

Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivationand Personality. New York: Hsrper and Row. Slattery, Martin. (2003) Key Ideas in Sociology.

Cheltenham: NelsonThornes Ltd. 3< 5 # ) !. (2552). Â&#x2021; Â&#x2C6; * $ .

2. # ( M: ?

)#6 $ $ .

Mr. Sakorn Somsert received his Master of Arts (Sociology) from Chulalongkorn University, his Bachelor of Arts (Politics) from Ramkhamhaeng University and Bachelor of Arts (Social Development Management) from Khon Kaen University. He is currently Lecturer in Faculty of Liberal Arts, Panyapiwat Institute of Technology. He main interests are in Sociological Theory and Thai Politics and Government.

126

RZ WR %XLOG /HDUQLQJ 2UJDQL]DWLRQ ¯ Î ´¥Ã­Ê ´¥Â¥·¤ ¥»Ë¬´£´¥  ¶ ¸Ë Æ Ë¯¤Ê´ Æ¥ Muenjit Phruksangkul Lecturer in Department of Retailing Business Management Panyapiwat Institute of Technology E-mail: muenjitphr@pit.ac.th

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+ Abstract

The purpose of this article is to provide understanding and apply the concept of learning organization for the high productivity improving. The initial ideas is to eventually explore how people learn and create knowledge, together through interaction and practices by applying the model that could increase learner's consciousness about knowledge creation and knowledge sharing processes. Some virtual modern organizations intellectually can create and transform how to develop the human resources in the learning organization. The contributions of this article are fourfold. First, what the definition of learning organization is, type, and level of learning. Second, describe the subset of learning organization. Third, describe the core fifth disciplines of learning organization, and six actions for implementation.

Fourth, People with learning, Organization with learning, and comparison between traditional and modern organization is demonstrated.

Keyword: Learning Organization, Knowledge Management, Explicit Knowledge, Implicit Knowledge 127

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$% 3# " ( 8 5 , (2 5)( 8

( $" 3 ?

5

( 0 # + # $",$ 2

5 2< / ( )

< ' "

( $" + 2

3< ?

2 % L5 ;<

( 3 ?0 / ? 2 *'

( 0 " #

5! 5 (

( + $" " 5 3 " 2 5 ;< 5 ( +

# $ $" $ % 5 # $ 2 5 ( ( 8 + ( $"( $

2 5 ( =

( ( = ? 1 0

1. ? 2

( "( $" ) $ ) " 2 ( 2. " 2

( 3. 2

( 3< 2 ? 15

?5 ( =

( 4. ( 5 " # $ ( 5 " $"( (

(

5 "*" $?:

( ) ( ") ' %

Introduction World business today is highly competitive.

Businesses need to develop good relationships with their employees and customers.

Employees' knowledge issues also influence the degree to which businesses are able to build good relationship with shareholders, customers, and stakeholders. However, most of Thai businesses have less business experience, technology, and fund. An important features of the firm both public and private organization in 128

Thailand must adjust their businesses for surviving and prosperity in the severely dynamics environmental business. Recently, some local and joint venture firms bankrupted or sold out their business. One of the most important reasons for surviving is to reduce the exposure to risk associated with the development of new products, process, technologies, and cope with the crisis economics situation nationwide. Thailand has created more opportunities and favorable

©´¥¬´¥ ³ ´¢¶©³ Î PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

conditions for exploiting the internal and external development factors, supporting human resources learning, developing high technology, sharing vision, working team, including encouraging investments of different forms, especially joint venture as one of the most important cooperatives strategies for companies to enter and win this rigorously competitive emerging market. It is also focusing on assessing the learning organization's performances with the best practices to sustainable means of achieving competitive advantage. In today's rapidly changing business environment, the ability of the organization to adapt is considered to be the main factor in its survival and competitive success. Yet, adaptation to current problems and change is unlikely to prove sufficient, it is now suggested that company's need to develop proactive strategies, attempt to search the external outsourcing, generate training courses, or manage knowledge to develop their learning organizations so that future trends and environmental conditions can be predictors and continuous modifications made.

What is the Learning Organization?

This article attempts to identify the attributes of the learning organization in Thailand relation to knowledge management. Learning organization has been defined as "organizations where people continually expand their capacity

to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning to learn together" (Senge, 2006). Learning organization has been defined as "ability to think crucially and creativity, the ability to communicate ideas and concepts, and the ability to cooperate with other human beings in the process of inquiry and action" (Navran Associates Newsletter, 1993).

Learning organizations foster an environment wherein people can "create the results they truly desire", and where they can learn to learn together for the betterment of the whole (Rheem, 1995). "The essence of the organizational learning is the organization's ability to use the amazing mental capacity of all its member to create the kind of processes that will improve its own" (Dixon, 1994). "A Learning Company is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transform itself" (Pedler Burgoyne, and Boydell, 1991: 52). The author do agree with Watkins and Marsick that learning organization are characterized by total employee involvement in a process of collaboratively conducted, collectively accountable change directed towards shared valued or principles (Watkins and Marsick, 1992).

Type of Learning There are 4 types of learning that are: Type 1 Learning facts, knowledge, process, 129

©´¥¬´¥ ³ ´¢¶©³ Î PANYAPIWAT JOURNAL

and procedures (applied to known situations where changes are minor). There are 2 types of knowledge: 1.1 Tacit knowledge: subjective knowledge, personal and context specific.

1.2 Explicit knowledge: objective knowledge, codified system, formal and easy to communicate.

Type 2 Learning new jobs skills that is transferable to others (applied to new situations where existing responses need to be changed, bring outside expertise is a useful tool here).

Type 3 Learning to adapt (applied to dynamics situations where the solution need developing, experimentation, and lesson is the model of learning here).

Type 4 Learning to learn (work for creativity and innovation, design the future rather than merely adapting to it).

(David Skyrme Associates, 2008) Subset of learning organization Marquardt (2006) mentions that there are five dependent subsets of learning organization, details were shown in figure 1.

1. Learning: It can be categories into 3 levels are: Level 1 Individual learning Level 2 Group/team learning Level 3 Organizational learning (Marquardt, 2006).

2. Organization: These characteristics of the 130

organization are specialization, standardization, formalization, centralization, configuration, and flexibility. At least the organization consists of 4 dimensions; vision, culture, strategy, and structure (Takhumthong, 2007).

3. People: Not only employees get involve in or get the benefits from learning process, but managers, customers, partner, alliances, suppliers, and community did well.

4. Knowledge: knowledge is the power to drive the job done. Knowledge management (KM) consists of 6 steps (David Skyrme Associates, 2008).

4.1 Acquisition: the process in searching, and collecting the internal and external information.

4.2 Creation: the process in creative thinking, research, or innovating new information or existing information reasonably apply with the context.

4.3 Storage: the process in coding the useful information in order to increase the accessibility.

4.4 Analysis and Data Mining: the process in deeply analyze information structure (knowledge), build knowledge inventory, matching, grouping data for availability.

4.5 Transfer and Dissemination: the process is distribute the knowledge through any tool, techniques, network, or communication.

4.6 Application and Validation: the process is evaluate the knowledge, and continuous

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apply the valued knowledge by people within the workplace for development.

5. Technology: We can divide technology using into 2 dimensions (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995).

5.1 For technology management - in order to provide the right knowledge at right place and just in right time.

5.2 For technology enhancement via simulation, computer conferencing, computer based system and so on.

All subsystems is the root to build learning organization but how completed is depended on your interdependent (these subsystems) with your business characteristics. Established aim(s) before you design the shape of your organization, what picture or atmosphere in workplace you want to see it.

Source: Marquardt. Building the Learning Organization, 2006: 50 Figure 1 Subset of learning organization

The core fifth disciplines for Learning Organization The conceptual of the learning organization is increasingly relevant to twenty-first century management because of the increasing complexity, uncertainly and rapidly of change of the environmental organization. It is therefore important to understand what a learning organization is, what its characteristics are and how it relates to the emerging topic of knowledge management. It is widely accepted that firms which consciously invest in the creation of new knowledge through research and development activities or through more informal learning processes tend to do better than those that ride on the coat-tails of knowledge created by others. Learning does not mean acquiring more information, but expanding the ability to produce the results we truly want in life. It is lifelong generative learning. Learning organization is not possible unless they have people at every level who practice it (Senge, 2006).

Fifth disciplines in building the learning organization are personal mastery, mental models, team learning, shared vision, and systems thinking (Senge et al., 1994).

Personal Mastery applied to individual learner, and organizations cannot learn until their members begins to learn. Individual learning does not guarantee organizational learning. But 131

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without it no organizational learning occurs. Thus, if any firm wants to be learning organization, it has to encourage their people to be the active learners. Personal Mastery composed of 2 components.

First, one must fine "what one is trying to achieve a goal" (where one is currently functioning, what is important to us). We often spend so much time coping with problems along our path that we forget why we are on that path in the first place. We have to set the objective(s) before we start to take the actions.

Second, one must have a true measure of how close is to the goal (where one wants to be is referred to as creative tension, emotion tension, structural conflict). This tension means the difference between the objectives and the current reality. How can we achieve our goals?

The essence of personal mastery is learning how to generate and sustain creative tension in our lives. Creative tension will drive the firm toward its goals, especially: integrating reason (objective) and intuition (subjective); continually seeing more of our connectedness to their whole performances in workplace.

Thus, personal mastery is a process of continually focusing and refocusing on what one truly wants, and how to success on one's vision.

Furthermore, wheels of learning consists of 4 quadrants; questions, ideas, tests, and reflection (Faerman, 1996). Quadrant one: we have the doubt, or question, so that why we 132

would like to find out the data. Quadrant two: after we found the answer from quadrant one.

Quadrant three: we have to check or prove for the information, or the fact. The last quadrant: we have to mirror or share these learning for others. The metaphor of the wheel makes one think of something moving in workplace (think out of the box). The job of the top manager in the learning organization is to be the teacher or coach who helps unleash the creative energy in each individual. Organizations learn through the synergy of the individual learners (Senge, 2006).

Mental Models is the second discipline for the learning organization. The way of looking at the world and it is the framework for the cognitive processes of our mind such as attitude, thinking pattern, believing, emotional quotient (EQ). How we think and act the ability of individual to make the right decision, understand the situation clearly, mental ability to cope with the crisis or dynamics environment in globalization. Mental models determined not only how we make sense of the world, but how we take action. Practice is the essences of the discipline of mental models. For managers this requires both business skills and interpersonal skills. Managers are inherently pragmatic through training their employees in "mental modeling".

Without the interpersonal and business learning skills, learning is not generative. Generative learning requires people at all levels that can

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surface and challenge their mental models before external circumstances compel people to do so (Argyris, 2006). Mental models will not only be improving our mental models (what we think) but altering our ways of thinking and shifting from mental models dominated by events to mental models that recognize longer-term patterns of change and the underlying structures producing those patterns.

Nowadays, mental models used for critical decision because these experiences, generative ideas, believing, attitudes, norms, collected value. Continued practicing nourished the learners can understand, see the views, categorized any type of important events, arrange their own ideas for the right process, including decide to act in any situation appropriately. The learning organization of the future will make key decisions based on shared understandings of interrelationships and pattern of change. If the organizations are to develop a capacity to work with mental models then it will be necessary for people to learn new skills and develop new competency and capability, and for their organizational changes that foster such dynamics.

Shared vision is a vivid mental image in the future (Senge, 2006). Generating vision should answer these 3 questions: What, Why, and How? What's the picture we want to see the organization in the future? Why do we run

this business? How do we do our business to success toward our shared visions of the organization?

Every people have his own vision in working. Organization also has its own vision, but it does not work effective if the process begins with its own self reflection, or individual's vision does not agree with organization's vision.

Therefore, the organizational vision must build from the interaction among employees, or emerge from the organization's strategy planning process rather than dictated by the leader. The strong willed leaders need to be the good speaker, but before they can be the good speaker, they should be the good listener with defined well concentration, openness, think positive, and also challenging with the variety of opinions. The learning organization need to activate individual to share and reflected their own vision, compromise between the individual vision and improved them into a common direction for employees. Since we should encourage everyone understand the internal situation, agree in the organization common long term vision together, frame our ideas pattern into the same shape, and attempt to make it real in order to initiate the new learning, creative thinking ideas, direct aimed to the same destination of the organization. In addition, we should proactive encourage human resource both ones' truly committed and unity. Sharing vision is very important for the learning organization 133

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because it (sharing vision) is the energy for learning. We can say that the main task of the leader is to design and nurture the vision of the company because shared vision is also the potential sources of the energy drive and foster a commitment to the long term.

Team learning is "the process of aligning and developing the capacities of a team to create the results its member truly desire" (Senge, 2006). Team learning is not only the exchanging and sharing process in internal and external information, new and innovated knowledge, and various kinds of experiences such as succession, failure, or competition, but also diffusing these information and knowledge to each other. We can mention that team work, or team skill is the main tool to build the modern organization. If we learn how to bring one's competency, performances, and experiences connect with others in order to increase continuously effectiveness and efficiency of the organization, it would be the way to develop for creating the satisfied or attained the end results as well. Open communication gears toward the learning through discussing and initiating brainstorm for many ideas and knowledge sharing occurring continuously is the way to innovated many organizations to be the learning organizations in Thailand. We can facilitate our large team work via technology or network system; allow all level management, 134

including employees to contribute their own capability to develop their performances. In rewards system, we active to response their strong performances with group rewards rather than individual reward. "We" act instead of "I" act in any activities, including group cohesiveness, decentralized decision making, authority sharing, empowerment, and clear responsibility.

System thinking is ability to understand the internal and external environmental business, and we can interrelate each single business unit (SBU) to the whole picture of the organization, and also cope with these external situations. We can forecast or predict the cause-effects assumptions in the workplace and global business in various dimensions such as economics, politic philosophy, international trading, and foreign exchange rates, cross cultural management, and so on. When the whole pattern was changed, we tend to know in isolated part(s) of the system. No wondering which part is the source of the problem(s), and understands how to arrange the crucial sequence of the events as well. Furthermore, this concept is very important because it includes the ability of carefully consider thinking pattern in term of framework, strategy planning, contingency planning, short term and long term proactive or reactive of the implementation, be alert in any information receiving, recognized in opportunity, competitors, SWOT analysis, determine the

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practical solutions for the future. We can say that system thinking is the process to seek the interdependence among many things, arrange and focus them in total system rather than subsystem.

Watkins and Marsick (1992) explained that organizations can implement learning organizationin Six Actions as the following: 1. Create continuous Learning Opportunities consisted of effective planning of informal learning how to learn, and just in time learning.

2. Promote Inquiry and Dialogue consisted of dialogue in which people is mutually explored ideas, questions, and potential action.

3. Encourage Systems to Capture and Share Learning consisted of medium for moving new knowledge throughout the organization.

4. Establish Systems to Capture and Share Leaning consisted of building organizational capacity for new thinking embedded and shared with others.

5. Empower people Toward a Collective Vision consisted of participation of individual in a collective vision 6. Connect the Organization to its Environment consisted of interdependcies between the organization and its internal and external environment are acknowledged and worked through.

The author views that learning can occur every level in the organization. Especially, group/ team learning level would bridge the gap

between individual and organizational learning through six actions framework in different environmental conditions.

People with Learning "Put the right person into the right job at the right time and the right place" Many people always heard this sentence when we talk about recruitment process of human resources department. If we consider the number of the person who has high competency on his own job, how many percentages of these people will be in the workplace. Since the organization started to open for the job vacancies, how they screen these candidates.

Human resources department attempt to hire the accountable, and competencies person to be the key person who set the process, or produce the products, or services response our customer satisfaction as much as they can. Today many organizations really recognized on the importance of People as a Capital of the firm because people are the valued factor of production, people as the root (source) of many activities, and the determinants who set the direction(s) and future of the organization. So far, we open for the new position that we called "Management Trainee".

This position is to provide the learning opportunities for many employees to test or bring out their hide diverse abilities through rotating in different functions within the organization such as Coca Cola Co., Ltd.; Johnson & Johnson Co., 135

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Ltd., and P&G Co., Ltd. including multinational corporations (MNCs) in Thailand. Purpose(s) is to develop their technical, human and conceptual skills, to be assured employees' competencies suit with their positions. Some companies initiated launched the policies on human resources screening in many process such as large invested in testing system, cross questions interviewed, probation monitoring, including terminated policies, and so on. We strong believed that unlearned person seem as the high fix cost of the organization.

Organization with Learning We can't refuse that today we run the business and face the dynamics changing (globalization) all around us. To continued thrive as a valued business, the organization must think ahead, ready for tomorrow, learn to understand the trends, live for lifelong learning, high accessible in community response to the professional needs of individual, group, and organization level. Such many global and local firms in Thailand are aware of human resources developments which lead to the effective organizations for example Electric (GE) Co, Ltd (Imagination at work): large organization's vision that Our People are GE's greatest asset, as the company campaign "We are GE". GE uses the tools of research in developing to create the learning organization and invested over $ 1 billion every year on training and development 136

education programs for the people of GE. Education is pervasive at all levels in workplace such as entry level program for college students.

Experiences Leadership program offered intensive on the job development in the areas of Corporate Audit, Human resources and Sales and Marketing, Jack Welth Leadership Development Center established in 1956 served as a powerful organization force for all level employees with an important concept "Never Stop learning" (General Electric Company, 2009).

GE gets to know in making GE the world-class's most effective business people. Although it is difficult to find out the acknowledged people, the organizations have to wait and invest for their recruitment process. Until the organizations meet the right candidates, how much the cost it is.

The organization should be pleased to compensate for hiring these competencies as well. On the other hands, many human resources departments urgently accept these mismatch candidates with their job descriptions. Low productivity and high Turn over rate (TOR) was the troublesome end results of unplanned selection process of HR function.

In addition, Jack Welt also consisted in his policy to cut, or sold out any business unit that did not make the profit or be the cost of his organization, including the unable employees, or inactive people. GE Company monitors their people with 360 degree evaluate from many partners to assure in quality of task, moral, and

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so on. Recently, Forbes magazine ranked the top 10 fierce boss of U.S.A; he was one among these leaders. Jack Welt believed in his ideas likely to hire talented person with the expensive salary, but he will not hold or handle the unperformed or unneeded person with low cost.

Many large organizations prefer to hire few workers with high salary because they thought that these people as the capital of the organization to made or created the great ideas, and potential performances produce the high productivity and profit into the organizations instead. Hiring few but right people with very high salary better than hire many inactive people with low salary. From GE's top management level; thus, in currently, we can say that learning or modern organization expect to hire talented person mystery, invest with these people to develop their competency, shared visions, including knowledge dissemination with others.

Learning organization viewed that these few human capital will drive and increase the effectiveness of the organizations, therefore, GE Company pleasured to treat his capital (loyalty employees) in good corporate culture. The author thought that the good organization should be training school for their people to learn and develop their competencies as well. Presently, some companies use Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a strategic to gain public support for their presence in global markets, helping them sustain a competitive

advantage by using their social contributions to provide a subconscious level of advertising (Meiners, 1986).

Especially, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is the deliberate inclusion of public interest into corporate decision-making, and the honoring of a triple bottom line: People, Planet, and Profit. An approach for CSR that is becoming more widely accepted is community-based development projects. For example, GE is the organization focusing on the passionate about making life's better with new ideas and technologies by giving back to our community in more than 140 countries nationwide. In Thailand, GE Money also create "Healthymagination" project. Its aim to change the way and approach healthcare with over 1,000 innovations all focused on addressing 3 critical needs: lowering costs, touching more lives, and improving quality (General Electric Company, 2009).

Another example, SHIN Corporation in Thailand is one of the private holding firms to be recognized on the important of learning by connecting people's visions, organization's visions, personal mystery, team working, system thinking, and mental models of human resources, through technology management, and technology enhancement, and knowledge sharing (implicit and explicit knowledge) within the firm. SHIN Corp hires few people (less than 70 people), but screen high competencies people 137

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only. SHIN Corp still concentrated on the quality of staff and management through promotion within the firm first in order to keep the talented people who understand the culture of the organization well by using ALPC model for selecting (Attitude, Learn ability, Performances, and Potential), including the decision making, leadership, problem solving, future forward looking, and task evaluation form and questionnaire to ask their people well being (quality of work life balances) every 6 months.

Not only talented person they want to hire, but also moral or ethical person they did.

Consistently, SHIN Corp concept remain the same, they want to hire both high IQ, and E.Q. person via some knowledge sharing activities from reading the interesting books, public journals, traveling storyteller, or guest speaker invitation for discussion our views altogether.

Moreover, SHIN Corp also care and responsible to the society especially some rural students who lack of the good opportunity in learning both in distance schools, or limit budget to develop the community.

Lastly, there are many profit and learning organizations such as PTT Public Co., Ltd.; Siam Cement Group (Thailand) Co., Ltd.; Advanced Infor Service Co., Ltd.; Toyota Motors (Thailand) Co., Ltd.; Honda Automobile (Thailand) Co., Ltd.; Thai Beverage Public Co., Ltd.; Singha Corporation Co., Ltd.; Siam Commercial Bank Ltd.; Kasikorn Bank Ltd., and so on to spend a lot of 138

time and allocate the resources to continue Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects for the youth in Thailand both in education fields, arts and literature fields, and global warming environment fields. CSR should go along with the business whatever, wherever, or however they did, they should concern the health of the society by sharing the profit through the sincere commitment continuing to the society. Currently, the author strongly agrees toward the completed modern organization have to govern with the sustainable CSR activities and 5 disciplines of learning organization. (Fifth Disciplines: Personal Mystery, Shared Vision, Team Work, System Thinking and Mental Model) for the competitive advantages. It would be demonstrated the organization revolutions developed from the information era (tradition organization) to the knowledge-based society (modern organization) was shown in table 1. Briefly, Good Health Learning Organizations is necessary to live and cultivate in the Good Health Society as well.

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Table 1 Differences between the traditional and modern organization (Stephen, Robbins, and Mary, 1999: 198)

Traditional organization Inflexibility Focus on employees Quality improvement Learning from seminar session Focus on R&D department Be trainee Control management Job position based Individual based Job stable Job Directing Manager decision making Regulation based Similarity labor Vertical organization structure Think local

Modern organization Flexibility Focus on skill, and performances Process innovation on the job training Focus on outsource training be learner Empowerment Job description based Team work based Job dynamics Job participation Employee involvement in decision making Customers based Diversity labor Horizontal or Network organization structure Think global

Source: Stephen, Robbins, and Mary. Management, (1999): 198.

Conclusion In presently, learning organization has become an important concept of the way to develop organization. Basically, the organization's vision was to gain the profit, or to be the leader in the industry, they attempted to create competitive advantages their competitors with any strategies to increase their market shares only. But according to the changing dynamics environmental business, intense

competitiveness, or globalization effects, we tended to deeply consider our strategies again.

We found out that in the past we are so concern with money rather than cared man power's skills, performances, and happiness in workplace.

That's a big mistake! Because no any other organizations can't grow up without talented people work in. It's becoming evident that organizational learning is more developing. A significant moving is learning manpower 139

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undertaken to put the learning organization (LO) occurring. We can summarize that the components of LO are people, organization, knowledge management, technology, and learning was generated with fifth rules: personal mystery, shared vision, team building, mental model, and system thinking. Hence, building LO will highly influence the inevitable internal operation. It consisted of six actions framework to complements; first: create learning opportunity, second: promote inquiry and dialogue, third: urge team learning, fourth: share learning, fifth: empower people, and sixth connect organization with surrounding. Moreover, the crucial aspect of learning organization should come with corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities which to contribute the benefits back to the community as well. Likely, many modern organizations gear toward their own organizations with this LO framework and CSR is ongoing continuously, to support the well being in the healthy society, to help organizations identify their capacities to learn and share knowledge about evident-based practices innovations. The KM and LO model will need further validation and improvement through its organizational setting and to be able to align in the challenging future. Such the modern organization needs to embrace this changing, not as the traditional organization for centralized top management with bureaucratic, but as the flexible empowerment with skilled, 140

competent, and satisfied people instead.

Think Globally, Act Locally based on your business. It may be applied well with the modern learning organization that better suits the needs of your people.

High Prosperous Learning Organization will come with Good Quality of Work Life Balances.

References Argyris, C. (2006). Organizational learning.

Massachusetts: Addison Wesley.

David Skyrme Associates. (2008). Type of learning. Retrieved November 1, 2008, from Knowledge Connections Web site: http://www.skyrme.com/insights/3lrmorg.htm Dixon, N. (1994). The Organizational learning cycle. London: McGraw-Hill.

Faerman, S. (1996). Wheel of learning.

Retrieved February 11, 2008, from Learning Loop web site: http:/www.home. nycap.rr.com/klarsen/learnorg General Electric Company. (2009). Retrieved June 18, 2009, from GE imagination at work Web site: http:/www.ge.com/company/ culture/lead Marquardt, M. (Dipl-ing. Bodinth Wicharn, tr.)

(2006). Building the learning organization: Mastering the 5 element for corporate learning. Bangkok: EXPERTNET. Meiners, F. (1986). Corporate Social Responsibility. Retrieved June 22, 2009, from CSR

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Web site: http: www.en.wikipedia.org.wiki.csr Narvan Associates newsletter. (1993). Retrieved March 16, 2007, from The learning organization web site: http://www.moyak. com/researcher/papers/var21mkm.html Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H. (1995). The knowledge creating company. New York: Oxford University press.

Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J., and Boydell, J. (1991).

The learning company. New York: McGraw Hill.

Rheem, H. (1995). The learning organization, Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 10.

Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., and Smith, B. (1994). The fifth discipline

fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York: Doubleday.

Senge, P. (2006). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization.

New York: Doubleday.

Stephen, P., Robbins, C., and Mary, K. (1999).

Management. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Takhumthong, P. (2007). Modern organization.

Udonthani: Rajabhat Udonthani University.

Watkins, E. and Marsick, J. (1992). Learning organization. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from Dimensions of the learning organization Web site: http://www.infed.org/biblio/ learning-organization.htm

Miss Muenjit Phruksangkul received her Master of International Business Management and Human Resources Management Degree from Dominican University, Illinois, and Bachelor of Business Arts Japanese Degree from Assumption University. She is currently lecturer in Retailing department, Panyapiwat Institution of Technology.

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Abstract The concept of Learning Organization is extremely important for the development of Organizational Innovation of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) especially, in under current dynamic of economic situation. To continually develop the Organizational Innovation is to respond to the niche markets which, large enterprises are not able to support perfectly. In details, the concept of Learning Organization significantly supports the development of Organizational Innovation by encouraging organization members to apply their knowledges in order to facilitate innovation which, will generate benefit to an organization concretely.

Keywords: Learning organization, Organizational Innovation, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)

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Great Britain: Pearson Prentice Hall Business.

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). (2546). !$% -. 'Â&#x2021;,

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Smith, P. R. (1997). Processes Facilitating Reliance on Trust in Inter-Organizational Networks in Ebers, Mark. The Formation of Inter-Organizational Networks. Oxford: Oxford University Press Steinhoff D., & Burgess, J. F. (1989). Small Business Management Fundamentals.

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Mr. Niti Rattanaprichavej received his Master of Architecture (M.A.) from faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Thammasat University.

He is currently a D.P.A Doctoral Candidate in the Doctor of Public Administration Program, major in Public and Private Management (PPM) at The National Institute of Develoment Administration (NIDA). His main interests are about Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) and Organization Theory

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ULWLQJ 3XQFKOLQHV IRU -RNHV ´¥Â ·¤ º ­³ £º£ ¯ Â¥¹Ê¯ µ ³ Charisopon Inthapat Part time instructor at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi E-mail: aquiline52@hotmail.com Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi E-mail: ananya.tuk@kmutt.ac.th Kunlawadee Yamket Lecturer at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi E-mail: kunlawadee.yam@kmutt.ac.th

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Abstract This study intends to investigate how students manage difficulties in order to write punchlines for jokes. It is beneficial for ESL teachers who like to use jokes in language classroom. The jokes in this study were selected from the Internet according to certain criteria concerning the length of jokes, joke contexts, language complexity, variety of topics and situations. The subjects of this study were eight students from the Department of Material and Tool Engineering and the Department of Electrical Engineering at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT). In writing punchlines, the subjects had difficulties cause by inappropriate 154

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length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability and lack of creative ideas. Then, they used their techniques to cope with the difficulties. To the techniques, subjects' punchlines were evaluated by three raters ranging from the best to the worst punchlines.

The subjects were required to write punchlines for provided fifteen jokes. They were asked to spend three days a week and write three punchlines a day. When they finished each three jokes, the subjects were interviewed how they wrote their own punchlines. To write punchlines, it is found that the subjects had difficulties caused by inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes, insufficient language ability and lack of creative idea in writing. However, they had their techniques to manage difficulties by using re-reading, connecting jokes with their own experiences, imagining the scenes of jokes, translating, putting themselves in the situation in the jokes and using keywords. Due to these techniques, the subjects' works were evaluated by three raters who were studying in the programme of Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics for English Language Teaching (ELT) at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT) ranging from the best to the worst punchlines with reference to relevance, communication, creativity and fun. Then, the benefits of using jokes for language teaching and writing practice were discussed with points to consider and recommendations for further study were finally given.

Keywords: Jokes, Humour, Punchlines, Writing Process, Difficulties and Management of Writing Punchlines, Creative Ideas

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Background of the Study With reference to undergraduate curriculum of Liberal Arts of King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), the university provides four fundamental English courses (LNG 101 to LNG 104) to all students to study in the language classroom. Most faculties require them to study at least three English courses. All courses aim to equip them with language and learning skills through different tasks. The learning tasks aim to provide chances for students to practice four language skills, i.e. listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Particularly, LNG 103 course mainly provides students to practice thinking skill and creative writing. To the course it trains students know what creative thinking is and practices students creative writing such as opinion task, writing 156

creative technological design etc. Thus, the researcher preferred those who learned LNG 103, because it can save time to guide them.

Moreover, students have experiences in classroom and they have known the strategies for writing creatively.

Statement of Problems To compare writing with other skills such as speaking which is an output process, writing can be more difficult for most Thai students as it requires good command of grammar, sentence structure and word choice (Chenoweth, 1987: 25). Moreover, the written language is shown to be evidence to the readers, so accuracy is crucial and students need to practice. To practice writing, motivation, interesting input for practicing and thinking processing are needed

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for students. To the researcher' situation, Thai students lack inspiration to practice writing because of three main issues.

Motivation: To motivate students to write on their own is not easy because they have to spend time to compose written tasks. Besides, they do not have much chance to write in English in the real situation. To strengthen this point, Chimombo, (1987: 204) said, "Reality in writing is difficult for students to practice because writing is not part of most students' daily lives, so they only have a chance to practice in classroom mostly." For those who want to be professional writers, they should spend a sufficient period of time to learn. Thus, it is necessary to provide a supportive environment and time for the students to acquire the skill (Byrd, 2001: 6). To the researcher, what motivates students to write may not only come from the students themselves but also from courses, classroom materials or the tasks assigned.

Input for Writing: There are many materials that can be used as the task for students to practice writing. According to Hedge, (1989: 3339) "some pictures in a newspaper can be good input for writing activity." She gives each student the pictures and asks them to write about the scene in a newspaper. She asks students to imagine themselves as reporters and then write up the news. KMUTT students also have a chance to do similar activities in one of the

fundamental courses. They form pairs to write about the news of their interest and then work in groups to design their own newspapers. Although writing newspapers is a good task for students to practice writing skill, it is a time-consuming task; they are required to write accurately and it is mostly suitable for group work. By the nature of group work, some students may not contribute or take as much responsibility as they should. This means that what should be input for writing must encourage every student to practice the skill to the fullest extent. Woolfolk, (1993: 336-337) supports that the task that can encourage students to write should not only be enjoyable, interesting and stimulating but also fun for them and it should persuade students to share ideas freely. Therefore, if a teacher can find the task which can provide this phenomenon, it may motivate students to practice writing skill either in class or on their own. In other words, writing tasks which can inspire them to write depends on the types of writing that interest or challenge the students (Indrisamo & Squire, 2000: 11).

Thinking Process: Thinking process is another problem which students face when they write because writing is a complex process in which students have to spend time to improve but they have less chance to practice. To compose written texts, students need to organize their thoughts into a sequence which makes sense and they should express their ideas 157

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coherently. Leki, (1998: 78) said that, when students compose the texts, they should consider the main point or central idea of a piece of writing. Kroll, (1991) supports that students should link from the first to the second sentence and so on to connect ideas. As English is not their mother tongue, it can be difficult for KMUTT students to write with coherence and cohesion.

Consequently, the writing task should encourage them to think critically or use their imagination creatively.

Rationale of the Study To enhance motivation and thinking process in writing through enjoyable tasks, the researcher decides to use jokes because they are fun and not too long text to read. In addition, there are many types of jokes in various contexts.

However, the researcher chooses to focus only on the punchlines of the jokes because the punchline is the twisting part of the jokes that needs creative thinking which enhances many possible ideas as long as they fit well with the context provided. Fischel, (1980: 30), 40 supports that it is challenging to use jokes to enhance writing skill since it requires the writers' imagination and enables students to practice thinking skill.

Therefore, jokes were used in this study because they encourage students to write creative sentences and enables them to make use of vocabulary and grammar in the ways that 158

suit their own purpose. Additionally, jokes are proved to be useful in English language class for the following reasons. (1) Jokes are short and can be told or taught within the space of a few minutes. (2) Jokes can be a mini-lesson in grammar, vocabulary and speech pattern. (3) There is a wide range of possible speech patterns within the single genre of jokes. (4) Jokes are funny and they keep students alert.

Additionally, jokes cause positive atmosphere in classroom and lead students to have motivation to learn the language and introduce a refreshing change from routine language learning procedures. (Trachtenberg, 1980: 8-13).

The Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent that jokes can be used for students to practice writing and what difficulties students have when they write their own punchlines for provided 15 jokes and how they solve the problems. Thus, the main research question of the study is to answer. "How do students write punchlines for jokes?"

Definitions and Components of Jokes According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, (1995: 904) gives the definition of a joke as "something that is said or done to make people laugh for example, a funny story."

Beeman, (2000: 1) and Medgyes, (2002: 1) supported "jokes aim to create a feeling of

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enjoyment for the audiences, most commonly manifested in a physical display of pleasure including smiles and laughter. Additionally, jokes are triggers of laughter including comedies, funny stories and riddles." Trachtenberg, (1980: 9) and Maurice, (1988: 20) add that the riddles can be joking questions which include metaphors in the language and have lexical ambiguity in the words and the questions request unexpected answers from the readers or listeners. Among all the triggers of laughter, jokes are the most common stimulation that people use to entertain others and themselves (Webster, 1913: 7). Greg, (2004: 1) mentions that when joke writers write funny stories, they normally prepare the readers for laughing by giving the description of a situation i.e. it tells the readers who did what or talked with whom. Cooley, (2004: 1) agrees that the first part of jokes usually gives the background of the situation to the readers or listeners. The second part of jokes is the key part which is the punchline as it provokes laughter with unexpected endings and demands creative thinking to surprise the readers.

Use of Jokes in English Language Teaching (ELT) Humour and jokes can be used for educational purposes and language learning in the classroom for many reasons. For Maurice, (1988: 24), for example, explains that the use of jokes in language class makes students feel close

to each other because jokes create a positive learning environment and relaxing atmosphere.

Tosta, (2001: 27) adds that the use of jokes increases interaction among teachers and students and the jokes are a useful tool to get students' attention as they create enjoyment and thus motivate students to learn. Moreover, Trachtenberg, (1980: 9, 11) gives reasons why teachers use jokes in an English language class: (1) Jokes are funny and keep students alert. (2) Hence, jokes make a refreshing change from routine language learning procedures. (3) It is possible to use jokes in teaching because they are short and can be told or taught within a few minutes and jokes can be used as an introduction activity. (4) Jokes can be a mini-lesson in grammar, vocabulary and speech patterns. (5) There is a wide range of possible speech patterns within a single genre of jokes.

Pecnik, (2001: 2) adds more ideas about the use of jokes in ELT, "jokes can be used as a starting point of a discussion, creative activity or project work and help to relax the students."

Qualities of Good Jokes Although jokes can be exploited in the language classroom, it does not mean that any joke can be used for teaching. To help teachers select proper jokes, Pupipat, (2004: 87) says, "The simple criterion for selecting jokes is that the jokes should be appropriate for students in terms of language (e.g. words and discourse)."

159

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He continues that students' problems with jokes are usually idioms because students have limitation in language, so they may not understand jokes clearly. Therefore, these problems can be solved by informative support in which teachers analyze the selected jokes after they have got them from the sources to anticipate what can be difficult and what help students need to comprehend the jokes. For instance, teachers should consider the level of language in the jokes and the students' level of proficiency. In cases where some words in jokes are too difficult for the students, Pecnik, (2001: 1-3) suggests that teachers can simplify the words, use synonyms or provide the definitions of those words. Additionally, they can give emphasis on the keywords that the students are not familiar with because it helps them to know the whole story. She adds that it is important for teachers to extensively prepare themselves for a joke-telling activity and they should be sensitive and prepare students as early as possible by training them to be familiar with jokes such as to know parts of jokes and how jokes are written. This activity helps students to have the idea to create their own jokes or punchlines.

Pupipat, (2004: 88) also suggests that in selecting jokes teachers should be aware of culture bias. This means, the selected jokes should not be oriented to only one particular culture or fit well with a particular social context because students in other cultures or fields of 160

study may misinterpret the jokes. Pecnik, (2001: 3) adds that teachers should introduce jokes which closely relate to students' culture because, if the jokes are far from their social context, they may not be able to comprehend. Thus, selected jokes should generally provide comprehensible situations for students such as jokes about teachers & students, doctors & patients, family or animal jokes.

Criteria for Joke Selection 1. There should be no culture bias in the jokes. This means that the selected jokes are not restricted to a particular culture because such jokes may be too difficult for the subjects.

Furthermore, the jokes should be based on general situations where subjects in every field of study are familiar with, for example, school jokes, family jokes, animal jokes, patient and doctor jokes.

2. Each joke should not contain more than two idioms because it would be too difficult for the subjects to understand.

3. The length of each joke should not be more than half a page.

4. If there are too many difficult words, the jokes should be simplified or definitions of the words may be given.

5. All the jokes should cover a variety of topics and situations.

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Materials Twenty jokes were used in this study. They were divided into three groups. The first group, which included three jokes, was the jokes to introduce subjects know parts of joke which are story and punchline (see Appendix A). The second group, which included two jokes, was the jokes for training the subjects to write punchlines (see Appendix B). For these two jokes, their punchlines were deleted so that they have the same pattern as the third group. The third group, which included fifteen jokes, was the jokes for data collection (see Appendix C).

For these fifteen jokes, they were simplified and the meanings of some difficult words were provided. These jokes were further divided into five groups and each group contains three jokes for subjects work for a time.

Research Instruments Subjects' Punchlines The punchlines were the parts that the subjects wrote by themselves after reading the first part (the situation) of the provided jokes. All together, there were fifteen punchlines written by each subject for the data analysis. The subjects could put ideas freely and wrote as many sentences as they wanted for each punchline.

Semi-Structured Interview This research instrument was a set of twelve questions to ask the subjects how they wrote

the punchlines and factors affected their writing.

The interviews, which were recorded by tape recording, were conducted five times for each subject after they wrote their own punchlines for each of the three jokes (see Appendix E).

Methodology Pre-Experimental Procedure In this stage, three introducing jokes were shown to subjects (see Appendix A) and the subjects learned about the characteristics and components of jokes. Then, training jokes were given to subjects to write punchlines. They were required to read the stories and completed the punchlines by themselves. After they finished writing punchlines for the training jokes, the subjects' punchlines were compared what they wrote with one another to enable them to see how each subject got the idea to write the punchlines and discussed which punchlines were relevant to the given jokes. This was to help subjects to learn and see various ways of writing punchlines for the same jokes. This activity aimed to elicit the subjects' ideas to create their own punchlines and prepare them for the data collection procedure.

While-Experimental Procedure In the while experimental or data collection stage, three jokes were provided to the subjects at a time. Each subject wrote punchlines individually and then the punchlines were 161

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collected. When they finished each set of three jokes, each subject was separately interviewed.

This process was repeated every other day.

Altogether, they met for five times until all subjects finished all fifteen jokes. To ensure that the subjects could create proper punchlines, the researcher requested three raters who were studying for their MA in English Language Teaching programme to read all the jokes and evaluate the subjects punchlines by using the evaluating checklist. According to this stage, the researcher explained to the raters how to score the punchlines based on four criteria; relevance, communication, creativity and fun (See Appendix D). The aim of the evaluation was to find out the qualities of punchlines.

Data Analysis The punchlines produced by the subjects (see Appendix C) and the data from semistructured interview were analyzed in order to answer the research question. The scores given to each punchline were calculated by rating rule:

of creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language ability. The examples of subjects' answer show bellows.

Lack of Creative Ideas: Creative ideas in this study are needed for subjects in writing punchlines. It is concerned with understanding the context in the first part and the situation of the provided jokes. Then, the subjects had to react to the situation and to create ideas for the punchlines. It was found that their creative ideas were probably affected by other difficulties.

According to the data from the semi-structured interviews, inappropriate length of jokes and unfamiliarity with jokes are causes that affected the subjects' creativity. Firstly, if the first part of jokes was too long and had a lot of detail, the situation of the provided jokes would confuse the subjects. "…joke number 12 provided a lot of detail, I was confused, so I did not have creative idea to write a punchline."

(Subject 1, Interview 4)

Finding Subjects' Difficulties Though the subjects could compose quality punchlines for all the 15 jokes, the data obtained from the semi-structured interviews suggested that the subjects had difficulties concerning lack

On the other hand, if the jokes were too short, they did not provide enough information for the subjects to read and to imagine the situation.

Moreover, too short jokes did not give clear illustration to subjects and they affected them in creating punchlines. These excerpts support.

"Joke number 1, 2 and 3 were too short and did not provide enough information to imagine

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along the situation. Consequently, I did not have clear illustration and creative idea to compose punchlines."

Inappropriate Length of Jokes: There are two aspects of the length of jokes i.e. it is either too long or too short. To define the subjects' problem with the length of joke, data from the semi-structured interviews and the number of words of each joke were analyzed. Actually, the length of jokes is counted from the first word of the joke to the last word before the punchline.

The jokes that the subjects indicated as the long ones were joke 10 (54 words), joke 11 (68 words), joke 12 (95 words), joke 13 (77 words), joke 14 (92 words) and joke 15 (137 words). Moreover, the subjects said that these jokes had more detail and required them to imagine the scene while they were reading the jokes. The scene confused the subjects and it was hard for them to compose punchlines for these jokes. The following excerpts from the interview support this point. "…..joke number 12 was difficult because the information was long and I had to think a lot along about the situation in the joke…"

(Subject 3, Interview 4) It can be concluded that long jokes can confuse the subjects when they try to understand the context or the situation provided.

On the other hand, the subjects reported that

some jokes, such as joke 1 (25 words), joke 2 (28 words) and joke 3 (30 words), which were much shorter, were also difficult for the subjects to imagine the scene of the jokes. The subjects informed that some jokes were so short that there was not enough information for them to think of the situation. The data from the semi-structured interviews below illustrate the ideas that this difficulty obstructed them from composing their own punchlines. "….joke number 1, 2 and 3 were difficult because they didn't give enough information to read and to imagine."

(Subject 1, Interview 1) According to the data, the jokes that are too long or too short directly cause the subjects difficulty to understand the joke stories. The reason is that the long jokes could have several details and they require the subjects to think more about the situations while reading. On the opposite, too short jokes do not provide enough information for them; thus, they had not enough clues to guide them. The data also show that the subjects did not have problems with the length of joke 6 (35 words), joke 7 (33 words), joke 8 (51 words) and joke 9 (31 words). Therefore, these jokes may be considered as the moderate length. This may imply that length of jokes could affect the subjects in composing punchlines (see 4.3.1). However, joke 4 (26 words), which can be considered as a short joke, did not cause 163

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any difficulty to the subjects. This makes the researcher realize that the number of words might not be the only factor that causes difficulty to students, as will be described further.

Unfamiliarity with Jokes Unfamiliarity with jokes in this study means that the subjects had never read, heard or been in the same or similar situation to the provided jokes. When they participated in this study, it was the subjects' first time to learn about some of the joke stories. Familiarity seems to be beneficial to the subjects to comprehend the jokes. However, unfamiliarity can cause difficulties either in understanding or writing punchlines.

Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes difficulty while reading: While reading the jokes, if the subjects were not familiar with the context in the jokes, they could not comprehend the situation clearly. The data from the semistructured interview support this idea.

"Joke number 6 was difficult because I have never read or told the story or never met the situation likes joke 6, so I didn't understand the situation easily."

(Subject 5, Interview 2) The data suggested that unfamiliarity with jokes had certain effects on the subjects' comprehension in reading the jokes.

Consequently, they could not figure out the 164

situation of these jokes and this could affect their writing of punchlines.

Unfamiliarity with jokes that causes difficulty while writing: Actually, the subjects used their familiarity with the jokes to help them think about ideas for writing punchlines. On the contrary, if the subjects were not familiar with the situation in any joke such as they have never read or met the situation in the provided jokes, they would find that it was difficult to compose punchlines. The data from the semi-structured interview verify this idea. "….I have never met the situation or read the same joke like joke number 1, as a result, I didn't know what to put in the punchline."

(Subject 3, Interview 1) These excerpts indicate that unfamiliarity with jokes is likely to affect the subjects' creativity.

Surprisingly, this finding is not always true as one subject (subject 1) mentioned that the content of jokes, which is very close or very familiar to him, did not challenge him to compose punchlines. In this case, the subject's difficulty was influenced by his familiarity, i.e. he just copied down the punchlines which he had previously heard or read. From the semistructured interviews, this subject informed that he always told or shared jokes with his friends and he had heard the provided jokes before.

Therefore, the situation of the jokes was not challenging for him as he reflected in the following

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excerpts. "…since I was very familiar with the context of joke number 5, I kept thinking about the same old punchline."

(Subject 1, Interview 2) Insufficient Language Ability: It is worth noting that the problem with language ability was the least difficulty the subjects had. However, their proficiency has some impacts on their comprehension and creativity while they worked on the jokes. In other words, the subjects may have had difficulty with language in reading and/ or writing stage as presented below.

Insufficient language ability that causes difficulty while reading: The knowledge of vocabulary or keywords enables the subjects to understand the main idea of the stories that they read. On the other hand, if they did not know keywords, they could be confused with the stories and could not understand the jokes. The data from the semi-structured interview verify that the subjects' language competence could affect their reading comprehension. "…I didn't know some words such as impressive in joke 1 and pills in joke 3."

(Subject 4, Interview 1) From the excerpts above, the subjects' insufficient language proficiency could affect their comprehension of the jokes. This problem can also affect the writing stage, as further discussed.

Insufficient language ability that causes

difficulty while writing: The subjects' difficulty with language due to the lack of vocabulary and knowledge of grammar could happen even after they had some ideas to create punchlines.

According to the semi-structured interviews, the subjects informed that they could not express their ideas into written language and use vocabulary appropriately. The following data illustrate what they reflected about this problem.

"I couldn't write the punchlines of joke number 6 because I didn't know how to make sentence correctly."

(Subject 8, Interview 2) The information above reveals that, even though the subjects had ideas to create punchlines, they were limited by their language abilities. They could not make sentences or use vocabulary in the punchlines appropriately.

How Subjects Manage Difficulties To write punchlines for jokes, the subjects had four main difficulties affected by lack of creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language ability. To overcome these difficulties, they used a variety of techniques which can be classified into two main categories: techniques while trying to understand jokes and composing punchlines. The following table shows the subjects' report of how they coped with the difficulties.

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Table 1 How Subjects manage Difficulties

After eight subjects wrote their own punchlines (each subject wrote punchlines for each 15 jokes), the total numbers and the percentages of subjects' management of difficultuies show the overview of reported frequency of the techniques that the subjects used to deal with difficulties while trying to understand jokes were re-reading (15.26%), connecting jokes with own experiences (10.84%), imagining the scene of the jokes (14.06%), and translating (4.02%). The ways the subjects managed their difficulties while composing 166

punchlines by re-reading (10.12%), connecting jokes with their own experiences (19.68%), putting themselves in the situations in the jokes (7.63%), translating (2.47%) and using keywords (16.06). Concerning problems while composing punchlines, the most frequently reported difficulty in this part was lack of creative ideas.

To manage this problem, the subjects used keywords, connecting jokes with their own experiences, re-reading and putting themselves in the joke with frequencies of 34, 31, 14 and 10, respectively. However, insufficient language

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ability and unfamiliarity with the jokes also affected the subjects when they composed their own punchlines. Hence, when the subjects had difficulty with language ability, they connected jokes with own experiences, translated, used keywords, put themselves in the jokes and re-read. These techniques were reported 8, 6, 6, 3 and 2 times, respectively. Moreover, when the subjects were unfamiliar with the jokes, they still used connecting jokes with own experiences, re-reading and putting themselves in the jokes.

The reported frequencies of these techniques were 10, 9, and 6, respectively. Each technique is described in more detail as follows.

Re-reading The subjects used re-reading to manage their difficulties both trying to understand jokes and composing punchlines. However, they had different purposes in the use of re-reading; they revealed the reasons why this technique was used to manage their difficulties, as follows. The subjects used re-reading while trying to understand jokes when they met the difficulties about length of jokes and unfamiliarity with the content. The subjects could re-read the jokes more than one time. The example from the semi-structured interview illustrates this point.

"I never read joke number 10-12 both in Thai and English….so I read them two to three times.

By reading the first time, I read to know the whole stories. In the second and the third times, I read

to find the main idea of the jokes…"

(Subject 1, Interview 4) The purpose of re-reading while composing punchlines is not the same as the purpose of re-reading to comprehend the first part of the jokes. In fact, the subjects re-read in order to remind themselves and review what they had understood about the jokes. Moreover, the subjects said that, if they were unfamiliar with the situation of the jokes and had not enough language ability to write the punchlines, rereading could help them to cope with their problems. The example is presented below. "…joke number 8 was difficult…I solved… by re-reading the story. It helped me to relate the joke with my experience to write the punchline."

(Subject 6, Interview 3) Connecting Jokes with Own Experiences Connecting the jokes with own experiences in this study means when the subjects did not have exactly similar knowledge as the provided jokes, but they had some personal experience which might not be directly relevant to the jokes.

Then, they used their own experiences to help them to cope with the difficulties as presented below.

The subjects connected the jokes with their own experiences to understand jokes when they found that they were not familiar with the provided joke i.e. the subjects have never been 167

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in the same situation, read or listened to the same or similar jokes. Therefore, they linked their experiences from different situations to the provided jokes to help them comprehend the stories.

"When I read joke 4-6, I had to link the situation of jokes with my own experience which was not the same as the provided jokes but it enabled me to understand the jokes."

(Subject 3, Interview 2) Then, more than half of the subjects used their own experiences to manage their difficulties while they were writing the punchlines.

It is also clear that the use of own experiences helped the subjects to create their own punchlines. In this case, this technique was mostly used to solve the problem about lack of creative ideas. "…I solved the problem by linking joke number 12 with my own experience. In order to compose creative punchline, I linked the joke to what I read about a party and applied to write punchline, so I used word swinging."

(Subject 4, Interview 4) Imagining the Scene of Jokes Imagining the scene of jokes in this study means the subjects made illustration and the scene of the joke stories in their heads to see the events in jokes. This solution was only used in the stage while trying to understand the 168

provided jokes. As shown in the excerpt below, subject used this technique to understand what happened in the stories appropriately when they were unfamiliar with the jokes. "…I had to imagine the situation in jokes 1, 2 and 3 because it helped me to understand what happened in the stories appropriately...."

(Subject 1, Interview 1) Translating The researcher discovered that the subjects used their L1 to comprehend the first part of jokes and compose the punchlines when they had insufficient language ability. The data below present the students' solution. The use of translation in trying to understand the jokes in this study means that the subjects used L1 as an aid to process L2. Actually, this technique was used when subjects had insufficient language ability. Translating into Thai could help them understand the jokes more easily. "…I had to think in Thai when reading joke 1, 2, 3… ."

(Subject 1, Interview 1) The use of translating while composing punchlines was employed when the subjects already had an idea of how to complete the punchlines, but could not express their idea in English. They, therefore, translated what they thought in L1 as illustrated in the following excerpt.

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"…I didn't know how to express my idea to write the punchlines for joke number 1, 2 and 3. I solved the problem by thinking in Thai first and translated the words into English."

(Subject 2, Interview 1) Putting Oneself in the Situation in the Jokes For some subjects who did not have any experience that could be related to the situation in the jokes, they put themselves in the jokes to write the punchlines. This technique was only used in the stage of composing punchlines in order to manage the difficulty of unfamiliarity, insufficient language ability and lack of creativity. As a subject said in the example in the excerpts below, he put himself in the situation and considered what they would say in the punchlines. "….I solved the problem by supposing that I was in that situation, like in joke number 1 and thought what I would say, if I were that person."

(Subject 3, Interview 1) Using Keywords The use of keywords from the first part of the jokes was only used in the stage of composing punchlines and it was another technique that the subjects used to manage the difficulty of insufficient language ability and lack of creative ideas. According to the data from semi-structured interviews, this is what a subject said.

"…I used keywords which are the main words such as…clever and sweet in joke 3 as a part in the punchlines…."

(Subject 1, Interview 1) To conclude, all of the subjects could write punchlines for jokes by trying to comprehend the situation in the jokes before they went through the writing process. However, they perceived that writing punchlines is difficult because of four difficulties: lack of creative ideas, inappropriate length of jokes, unfamiliarity with jokes and insufficient language ability. They dealt with the difficulty by re-reading the jokes, connecting jokes with their own experiences, imagining the scene of the jokes, translating the jokes, putting themselves in the situation in the jokes and used keywords.

Subjects' Writing Process The subjects used writing process, i.e. planning, drafting, revising and editing when they attempted to write the punchlines for 15 jokes as presented in table 3.

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Table 2 Eight Students' Writing Process in Writing Punchlines Eight Subject's Writing Process Jokes

Re-writing Planning

Joke 1 Joke 2 Joke 3 Joke 4 Joke 5 Joke 6 Joke 7 Joke 8 Joke 9 Joke 10 Joke 11 Joke 12 Joke 13 Joke 14 Joke 15 Total of frequency of Writing Process used by Each Subject

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 120

It is clear that all the subjects always used planning and drafting and some of them used rewriting, i.e. editing and revising. The detail of each writing process is described as follows: Planning In this study, planning was the first stage and it refers to setting rough ideas for the punchlines before starting to write. All subjects knew that the joke readers expect enjoyment when they read jokes, so jokes should have a 170

Drafting 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 120

Revising 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 0 0 23

Editing 2 2 2 3 3 2 0 3 2 0 0 1 2 2 1 25

twist to motivate them to laugh. Therefore, the subjects had a planning stage since they would like to write funny punchlines. As a punchline is usually short compared with other written texts, the subjects revealed that they did not write an outline of a punchline. In fact, they simply planned in their mind what they would put in their own punchlines. Here are some examples of what subjects mentioned.

"After I had read the first part of jokes, I tried to understand what they stories were about,I

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organized the idea…and how I would write the punchlines…I didn't write any plan actually before writing punchlines because it was very short…"

(Subject 4, Interview 2) It can be implied that the subjects did plan what to write bout they did not actually write any word or notes when they organized their ideas for the punchlines.

Drafting After the subjects planned to write punchlines in the previous stage, they wrote their own punchlines immediately. They said that the punchlines were short, so they could write what they had had in mind. The data from semistructured interview support this idea. "…I only thought of what I wanted to say or what would happen and I wrote immediately."

(Subject 2, Interview 4) However, the full process of drafting was not clearly shown in the subjects' writing process because the punchlines were short sentences but the subjects actually had process of drafting for their punchlines after planning to write.

Revising After the subjects wrote the punchlines, some of them checked whether they needed to clarify

the ideas or re-organize any words in the punchlines. To do so, the subjects imagined themselves as the joke readers so that they may know what and how to change what they had written, as the excerpts below show.

"After I wrote punchlines, I had to check whether the punchlines were relevant to the stories or not. Moreover, it was a chance to re-organize my idea and add some words in my punchlines…after I finished to write the punchlines, I supposed that I was a reader and read my punchlines. I thought that, if it made me laugh, other readers would laugh."

(Subject 1, Interview 1) It can be concluded that revising helps the subjects to re-organize the ideas in their punchlines. It is noteworthy to say that all subjects were concerned about their readers and they not only knew the purpose of writing but also tried to reach the writing objectives.

Editing It is found that the subjects edited their punchlines by focusing on grammar mistakes, spelling, and sentence structure because they cared about the accuracy of language. Some illustrations are quoted below.

"I changed grammar mistake and spelling in joke 4 and 5 when I finished writing the punchlines."

(Subject 4, Interview 2) 171

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The findings indicate that the subjects attempted to look for their own grammatical mistakes which are one step of self-directed learning. This might be because they knew that their punchlines would be read and checked by other readers. Having a real reader can be an inspiration for re-writing. However, the subjects revealed that they did not use revising and editing with every joke, because they thought that their punchlines were already suitable.

It was evident that the subjects engaged in several stages in the writing process; planning, drafting, revising and editing to write their own punchlines. Therefore, it means that their writing process in writing punchlines for jokes was similar to the typical writing process for other types of written texts.

Implication and Recommendations To enable the subjects to understand jokes and write punchlines on their own, the following points should be taken into account.

Length of Jokes: With reference to the result of this study, it is found that too long jokes may contain too many new or unfamiliar words and unfamiliar contexts. Consequently, it was not easy for the subjects to understand some of the joke stories and to write proper punchlines This is supported by Walakanon, (2002: 76) as he says that too long jokes demotivate subjects to read through the passage. In addition, he continues that short jokes were more favourable 172

to most of his subjects and made them feel interested to read. However, the findings of this study indicate that too short jokes can also cause difficulty to the subjects due to insufficient information for the subjects to read and imagine the situation of jokes and thus they could neither understand nor create punchlines. To lessen their difficulty caused by inappropriate length of jokes, teachers who select jokes to use in a language class should be aware of the number of words in the jokes. However, considering only the proper number of words is not enough to select the jokes because there are other factors such as types of jokes and language complexity in jokes which the teachers should consider, as will be described further.

Type of Jokes: Although there are several types of jokes like family jokes, school jokes, doctor and patient jokes, the jokes selected for ELT should not include the situations which the students hardly come across such as business jokes and political jokes because unfamiliar contexts will obstruct their comprehensibility.

Alderson, (2000: 46), Carrell, (1988: 245) and Pupipat, (2004: 88) support that, when teachers select jokes for their language class, they should consider that their context should not be too far from the students' background knowledge.

Another possible way is to encourage students to choose the jokes that they find funny and not difficult to understand in terms of context;

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teachers can ask students to create new punchlines (Pecnik, 2001: 3). With reference to this study, the proper types of jokes that are easy for students to understand are animal jokes, family jokes, school jokes, doctor and patient jokes and daily life jokes. However, these jokes should also be considered in terms of language complexity, as discussed in the following topic.

Language Complexity of Jokes: Another factor to consider whether the jokes are difficult to understand or not is the language complexity or the use of vocabulary and sentence structures in jokes. Words of high frequency and uncomplicated structure are appropriate to students who do not have experience in reading jokes in English. In case that there are too many difficult words, teachers should simplify those words by using synonyms or providing definitions (Pupipat, 2004: 88), otherwise students might ignore those words which may be the keywords of the jokes (Walakanon, 2002: 76). However, too much simplification may distort the use of language. Therefore, it is better for the teachers to anticipate their students' difficulty in comprehending jokes concerning the language.

Language Preparation: Another way to solve the problem of language proficiency is to have language preparation especially for weak students. Teachers should teach students reading strategies such as reading for main ideas, finding keywords and guessing meanings from

context clues. Alternatively, teachers can have students work together to share ideas about the jokes before they create the punchlines individually. To do this, students should have enough time for the reading stage before they write the punchlines. Moreover, language complexity should be simplified.

Recommendation for Further Studies This study reveals that some students had language difficulties such as vocabulary and sentence structure, which are common problems among Thai students. Therefore, it is interesting for other researchers to investigate whether jokes can be used to train students to get the meaning of unknown words by using context clues. Moreover, it is interesting to find out what other possible problems the students might encounter and how they solve the problems.

Another interesting research study is whether we can encourage students to learn culture through jokes. In this study, many types of jokes such as political jokes and ethnic jokes were not included since these jokes contain cultural bias.

These jokes may be difficult for students to understand. However, it is interesting to find out whether these jokes can be used with advanced learners to see how they gain the knowledge of social and cultural aspects of other countries.

Conclusion This study aims to investigate how students 173

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write punchlines for jokes. The study was done with a group of undergraduate students at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi who had learned about writing and creative thinking in their compulsory English course while undertaking this study. Eight subjects were selected by voluntary basis and trained in the components of jokes and how to write punchlines.

Then, fifteen jokes were used in the real procedure. When the subjects finished writing the punchlines for each three jokes, they were interviewed about how they wrote their punchlines individually. According to the findings, the subjects went through the writing process: planning, drafting, revising and editing for writing punchlines. They, however, had some difficulties in trying to comprehend the jokes and in writing the punchlines. The data gained reveal that most of their difficulties were interrelated and they used various techniques.

However, it can be suggested that jokes are interesting materials for language teaching such as they provide funny and relaxing contexts.

Furthermore, jokes can be exploited to motivate students to promote their thinking skill. Finally, it is recommended that the use of jokes to teach context clues and cultural aspects can be further studied.

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Webster, 1913, Webster's Dictionary, [Online], Available: www.google.com, [2004, June 8], p. 7.

Woolfolk, A. E., 1993, Educational Psychology, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, pp. 336-337.

Appendix A: Jokes for Introducing Punchlines Joke 1 One Sunday, a preacher told his congregation, "I have good news and bad news." The good news is that we have enough money to pay for your new building program. "The bad news is that it is still out there in your pockets." www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html preacher is someone whose job is to give religious speeches or lead religious ceremonies in some Christian churches. congregation is a group of people gathered together for a religious service.

Joke 2 Lunch The teacher of the Earth Science class was lecturing on map reading.

After explaining about latitude, longitude, degrees and minutes the teacher asked, 175

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"Suppose I asked you to meet me for lunch at 23 degrees, 4 minutes north latitude and 45 degrees, 15 minutes east longitude...?"

After a confused silence, a voice volunteered, "I guess you' d be eating alone." www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html Joke 3 Jane: Do you like this cake?

Sally: OK! Where did you buy it?

Jane: I made it by myself. Is it delicious?

Sally: I think, if it's possible, you should buy it.

Jane: Why? Sally: "You taste your cake first." www.jokeandhumor.com/index.html Appendix B: Jokes for Training writing punchlines Joke 1 Elephant keeper: "My elephant isn't well. Do you know a good animal doctor?"

Zookeeper"……………….……………… ………………………………………………..…" www.justjoking.com Joke 2 Sam: "Can you see the movie screen clearly?”

Pam: "Yes, thank you."

Sam: "No one is blocking your view?”

Pam: "Oh no, I can see perfectly."

Sam: "And you're comfortable?"

Pam: "Very comfortable."

Sam "…………………………...…………… ………………………………....................……"

176

www.justjoking.com Appendix C: Examples of Jokes for Data and Subjects' Punchlines Joke 3 Brother: "Why are you so clever?"

Sister: "I take clever pills."

Brother: "Let me have some, then."

Sister: "Take two of these."

Brother: "These aren't pills-they're just sweets."

Sister: "……………………….....…………… ……………………………………………………" www.justjoking.com pill is a small piece of solid medicine that you swallow with water: sleeping/contraceptive/ vitamin pills.

Students' punchlines Subject 1 Oh! My brother! you are clever already. You know, it is only sweet.

Subject 2 "Oh! You are still stupid, it is not sweet, but it's sour."

Subject 3 "Now, you are clever, you know, it is candy."

Joke 4 Teacher: John, how do you spell "crocodile"?

John: "K - R - O - K - O - D - A - I - L" Teacher: No, that's wrong.

John: Maybe it's wrong, but "…...……… ………………….………………………………."

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www.lotsofjokes.com Students' punchlines Subject 1 Maybe it's wrong, but "If I didn't spell like this, how I know, it's wrong."

Subject 2 Maybe it's wrong, but "It's still CROCODILE." Subject 3 Maybe it's wrong, but "KROKODAIL" is new species."

Joke 7 Little Johnny was playing in the garden and looking angrily into the sunlight with half-shut eyes.

His mother came out and said "Why don't you move out of the sun?"

Johnny answered…………….....……….. ….............………………………………………" www.jokepalace.com/main Students' punchlines Subject 1 "I think, I don't need to escape, because I came first."

Subject 2 "No", "Why didn't the sun escape me first?"

Subject 3 "I am not dead walker, I am not afraid the sun."

Joke 8 A man was walking down the street when he saw a little boy with a dog.

"Does your dog bite?" he asked.

"No", said the boy.

The man bent down to pat the dog and was immediately bitten.

"I thought you said your dog didn't bite", he complained.

The boy said, "…………......……………...… ………………………………….....………………" www.jokepalace.com/main Students' punchlines Subject 1 "Sure", it is not my dog", "I don't know whose' s dog?"

Subject 2 "The dog didn't bite but I didn't say you can touch its head."

Subject 3 "My dog never bite but it isn't my dog."

Appendix D: Form of Evaluation of Punchlines Criteria to evaluate punchline for the joke Evaluator 1 2 3 Subject number ……..

Score 5 = the most 4 = more 3 = average 2 = less 1 = the lest Give the score for subjects' punchline by following the criteria below.

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Punchline of Joke Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Relevance

Criteria Communication Creativity

________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________

_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

Appendix E: Questions of Semi-Structured Interview 1. Have you ever read the provided jokes in Thai or English before? If so, please tell the number of jokes. Did you think, if you have read the provided jokes, it has the effect with writing punchlines?

2. How many times did you read the first part of jokes before you completed them? Why? 3. Did you imagine the scene when you read the jokes? How does this behavior help you? Why? Please tell the number of jokes.

4. Did you organize the idea before you 178

________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ ________

Fun ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________

write punchlines? How? 5. Did you note down or write what you want before you write the punchlines? Please explain.

6. Did you think in Thai before you complete the jokes? Please tell the number of jokes.

7. Did you use vocabulary, phrase or sentence to be a part of punchlines? Please explain.

8. From the provided jokes, did you think what numbers of jokes were difficult for you?

Why? How could you manage the difficulties in

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writing punchlines?

9. Did you relate the situation and your previous experience when you read the jokes?

Please explain.

10. Did you re-read or check the stories when you finished punchlines? Why? 11. (From item 10) Did you change or

re-write your punchlines after you complete jokes? How? 12. Did you think, what make you laugh, when you read the jokes? How can you make the jokes in order to motivate the readers to laugh?

Charisopon Inthapat received his Master Degree in Applied Linguistics in English Language Teaching from King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi and Bachelor Degree in Business Administration in Accounting of Siam University. Present, he is part time instructor at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, South-East Asia University and Sripatum University (Chonburi). In part, he was part time instructor at Bangkok University and Panyapiwat Institute of Technology Dr. Ananya Tuksinwarajarn received her B.Ed. (SWU), M.Ed. (SWU), Cert. (Talkbase, AIT) Ph.D. Education-TESOL (The University of Mississippi.). She is currently a lecturer at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.

Kunlawadee Yamket received her B.A. (CU), M.Ed. (CU), M.Sc. (Aston U. in Birmingham, UK.). She is currently a lecturer at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.

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