Leap of Insight

RUNNING HEAD: LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION by RICHARD CLARKSON

Leap of insight: exploring the essential spark of creative illumination (Draft Copy)

Richard Clarkson clarkson.richard.nz@gmial.com Process Blog: http://rcmdi.tumblr.com/

Tutor: Sarah Caylor Student ID: 300160220

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Abstract

An exploration of the underlying design process of the fundamental idea generation and problem identification procedures used in industrial design. This paper opens up this often neglected area of design processes and existing frameworks to academic critic and evaluation. Furthermore I plan to use the findings from this research to generate my own framework for use in both design education and early, practice-based industry situations. I will utilise iconic chair design case studies of Eames furniture to articulate my findings and provide examples for each framework category. This thesis involves powerful ideas such as design motivation questions why we design. The aim of this paper is not to formulate the design processes but rather to isolate certain elements within its initial stages in order to reflect on it within a context. The motivation for this paper is personal however I hope that the discussion here will help others, primarily those in education, both students and teachers, to gain a deeper understanding of it.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Ninety-nine percent of all design in intuitive - Paul Rand. (Raye, 2009, p. 35) This paper is born from a personal struggle of how to begin the design process. In my first year of University the design papers often consist of very constructed projects to enable students to learn specific skill sets and knowledge bases. In my second year the students, myself included, quickly developed a craving for more open-ended briefs as the briefs remained relatively confined. In the final year the project briefs open right out and suddenly the students, who had been dreaming of open briefs for years, find themselves at a loss of how to even begin the initial phase. Watson calls this phase the ‘leap of insight’ a rather poetic but extremely fitting tittle (Watson, 1974, p. iv).

In designerly ways of knowing Nigel Cross identifies three subjects of design research residing in people, process and products. The first section of this paper is a discussion on the methodologies of design, the process and development and application of techniques. I briefly touch on the design process as a whole then focus on the initial spark that leads to good design. The second section evaluates the Cross’s other two subjects of design by using Charles and Ray Eames as a case study of the relationships between their initial methodologies and output products (Cross, From a Design Science to a Design Discipline: Understanding Designerly Ways of Knowing and Thinking, 2007, p.

47).

Designing then, in terms of chess, is rather like playing with a board that has no divisions into cells, has pieces that can be invented and redefined as the game proceeds and rules that can change their effects as moves are made.

Even the object of the game is not defined at the outset and may change as the game wears on. (Lawson, What designers know, 2004, p. 20) Lawson’s comparison of the design process to a game of chess eloquently describes its complexities and uniqueness as a problem solving procedure. For this very reason those in the past those who have attempted to deconstruct and formulate the process have been met with high degrees of counter evidence and been bombarded by powerful challenges to their formula (Lange, 2001) (Cross, From a Design Science to a Design Discipline: Understanding Designerly Ways of Knowing and Thinking, 2007). An example is the RIBA and Goel models for design as a sequence of activities:

Figure 1. - RIBA and Goel Models (Lawson, What designers know, 2004, p. 14)

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

In relation to Watson’s methodical approaches to the activity of designing as: exemplar (what the designer does), pattern book (how he does it) and systematic (anatomy of the design problem) (Watson, 1974, p. iv) systematically the models are correct, however theorists such as Lawson disregards these two models as being over simplified and out of date for modern design. Another approach is embodied by Ken Wallace (1991) the Bubble Design Process Model (Ashby & Johnson, 2010).

Figure 2. - Ken Wallace (1991) the Bubble Design Process (Ashby & Johnson, 2010, p. 35).

This approach allows for interlinking relationships between the design process elements but in many ways is too abstract to be of any real use or application. There are various other diagrams and models of the process such as; problem-solving process that involves rational-analytic procedure and emotional –intuitive procedure based on work by F.G. Winter (Heufler, 2004, p. 73), Belsky’s Design Management Formula (Belsky, 2010, p. 14) and numerous others but each seems to fall to one side a useable format, i.e. too systematic and inflexible or to complex and abstract.

Following a simple step-by-step process does not lead to inspiring or even apt, designs. For a more detailed view we must look at the “leap of insight”, the essential spark of creative illumination. (Watson, 1974, p. iv) Watson identifies the need for a different approach with focus on the ‘essential spark.’ It is here for the purpose of this research that we divorce the idea of the initial spark from the rest of the design process and focus on exploring that particular element.

Initial Spark & Design Drivers

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

The essential spark that Watson alluded to was by no means a new concept (Vegesack, Dunas, & Schwartz-Clauss, c1996) (Hinrichs, 2009), but rather a largely unappreciated one. For example in both fig.2 above the initial spark is pre-assumed. What Watson was interested in is almost what comes before the initial bubble. Idential to interest in Kneller’s interpretation of ‘first sight’ a recorgnition period that identifies the existance of a problem. This peiod may last for hours, days or even years. He highlights the importance of the formulation of the problem as a critical phase of in design situations and the need for an understanting of this process throughly (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, p. 109). This then feeds into Poincare’s five stages of the creative process.

Figure 3. - Poincare’s (1924) five stage model of the creative process (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, p. 110) The first two steps of this process and the feedback relationship are what interest me and are most relevant for this research however further reading of the model shows its still pertains to the idea that the first insight is based on the formulation of a problem.

Contemporary design has begun to expand beyond preconceived boundaries of importance and relevance… The newest generation of designers, therefore, are producing work within an altogether original set of parameters, with new motivations, expectation and resources. (Houseley, c2009, p. 9) The idea that Houseley introduces in the quote above is that contemporary design is still working within much the same processes and methodologies as it has done historically but the inputs to these processes have changed and advanced. It makes logical sense then that the question of “why we design” i.e. designers’ motivations should have a significant relationship with what drives the initial spark. Thus in order to better understand the initial spark we must explore the fundamentals behind the question of why we design.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

We must design because we are not perfect. (Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p.

4) Nelson offers his examples of design motivation as; to control, from necessity, bring order, give meaning, calling – design will, for enlightenment / wisdom, lack of wholeness and to be of service.

These motivations have strong reference to inquiries of the purpose of designing for which he suggests the following to; Survive, improve, develop, thrive, evolve, serve others, make something of lasting quality, create something of real consequence, participate in the never-ending genesis.

Nelson believed that once creative motivation was applied to purpose that was what sparked design (Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p. 13).

In order to maintain movement of this paper on the path of creative illumination enlightenment I will assume Nelsons theory to be correct and if so the question of what forms creative motivation still exists. Houseley identifies some key influences of modern day designers as being; Media, Educational, Cultural, Environmental and Social Influences. Running parallel with this is Houseley’s common themes of; Nostalgia, Recycling, solutions, Materials, Technological Innovations, Process and Craft and finally Play (Houseley, c2009, pp. 9-13). Often these pertain to wider social, cultural and political issues beyond that of the individual designers own personal ambitions or problem solving structures.

Heufler provides another opinion on what forms creative motivation as consisting of factors; Human factors [physical, emotional and social user needs] Technical factors [material selection and manufacturing process] Finical Factors [material, tool and labor costs] Ecological Factors [raw material and energy consumption, environmental impact] (Heufler, 2004, p. 73). There is a strong resonance between Houseley and Heufler’s influences and factors. Although each worded in different ways they both suggests a wide array of interlinked ‘essences’ of design. It is here at these essences that we find what has the capacity to spark design.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Figure 4. – Design Driver Brainstorm by Richard Clarkson In Fig. 03 I use Houseley and Heufler’s influences and factors to create a brainstorm of underlying essences or ‘design drivers’. At this depth of analyisis its is clear why a formula for even just this section of the design process is enevitably destined to fail. Even a brainstorm stuggles to identify the interconectedness and evolutionary tendancies of each element. So rather than attempt to exaustivly define each subdriver I have created four catergories which existing and future drivers might fit into, these are the personal, the technological, the societal and the market.

(DRAFT NOTE: From here onwards I am still working on the intergration and devlopment of each topic into the main body of the paper)

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Not a formula but a tool

Figure 5. Systems Design Palette by Churchman 1979 (Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p. 104) Systems Design Palette with system on one axis and inquiry on the other. This is a System Inquiry approach discussed earlier in the chapter, one quote of particular relevance

This requires the designer to acquire at least a working knowledge of different approaches from which to choose, as well as to devote a considerable time to reflecting on the specifics of the present design situation and what is needed. (Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p. 106) This is the first instance I have come across an indication of the importance of initial reflection before the idea is born. He then goes on to say Particularized relationships among various categories of systems –and these multiple modes of inquiry- create compounds of inquiry and action that assist in explaining or describing a specific complex system. They can also help to conceptualize such a system as a new design, when it does not yet exist. The capacity to create design palettes comprised of systems types in relationship to different design of inquiry is essential for managing complex design projects.

In those few sentences Nelson effectively justifies my planned design output. On page 299 Nelson talks about ‘drivers of action’ and explains:

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

It is important to remember that design is a choice, one among many triggers that drives intentional behaviour. (Nelson & Stolterman, 2003, p.

299) In the end perhaps design must be learnt rather than taught. We each of us have to acquire our own process, for it is we, not others, who must design with it. However, that process deserves extensive and carful study. (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, p. 3) In relation to design technologies he identifies that an inventive element is esentialy independent from the field of the creator using Clegg’s (1969) examples of inventions & inventor relationships; for exmple a Muscian invented Kodachrome films, an Undertaker invented the Automatic Telephone and a Journalist invented the Parking Meter. This shows that base principals of invention at leasted can be interdiciplinary and the proceses can be generalised across different areas, not only within design but outside it aswell.

Interesting note that he suggests that end product classification due to speciaseied technologies can have a straightjacket effect on the designer by “directing mental processes towards a predefined goal.” Lawson later identifies the design process in the following; the design process is endless, there is no infallibly correct process, the process involves finding as well as solving problems, design inevitably involves subjective value judgement, design is a prescriptive activity and designers work in the context of a need for action. (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, pp. 91-92)

Also mentions the Gestalt School od Pshycology that concentrates on processes and organisation rather than mechanisims. In the Creative Thinking chapter Lawson brings forth Kneller’s interpretation of ‘first sight’ a recorgnition period that identifies the existance of a problem. This peiod may last for hours, days or even years. He highlights the importance of the formulation of the problem as a critical phase of in design situations and the need for an understanting of this process throughly. (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, p. 109)

That is, each problem is not viewed afresh but rather is first classified according to types of problem already encountered, and the solution is selected accordingly (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, pp. 112-113)

Creative tecqunies such as brainstorming, Synectics and fantasey, each involving restrictions and rules of permited behaviour to reduce the tendancy to try to fit old solutions to new problems.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Lawson discusses some ‘traps’ that causes inexperienced designers difficulties in problem identification these include; the catergory trap, the puzzel trap, the icon trap and the image trap (Lawson, How designers think : the design process demystified, 2006, pp. 158-177)

In relation to design education Lawson identifies a nessisary balance between free, open ended and expresive work and acquasition of knowledge, discipline and expertise. However also provides evidence to suggest that short-term or restricted experience of open ended problem-solving is not always benefictial as it produces a mechanising effect on individual thinking.

Case Study – Charles and Ray Eames 1940’s began to bring a change in the perception of the chair as an icon and as a metaphor for the actual designer. Massey then continues on to discuss the divorcing of the chair from the original interior art object by Museums and Galleries (Massey, 2011, p. 71).

Vitra firm itself strives to collect and document not only the final output but also the documentary material (Vegesack, Dunas, & Schwartz-Clauss, c1996, p. 13) this locates it perfectly in my research scope which explores process and driving factors of the design. When Ray died she gifted the extensive process documentation to the Vitra museum, generating an enormous database of their processes, methodologies and thinking available to the public. This resource database allows me to properly explore the ideas and theories behind each of the pieces more so than most other designers works.

A brief history of the Eames starts with the collaboration between Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen on their winning entries of plywood furniture submitted for the 1940 Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) competition in New York (Byars, 50 chairs : innovations in design and materials, 1996) (Baker & Baker, 2011). The mass manufacture of these pieces was ‘fraught with difficulties’ so much so that Saarinen left to pursue other projects. Operating with similar design ideologies Ray soon became both a romantic partner and a modernist-design driven creative partner. As World War II broke out they gained work designing and manufacturing bent ply splints and later aircraft parts for the US Navy (Mehlhose & Martin, c2009). These military contracts provided valuable access to new developments both in production of ply and more advanced glues. As military contracts increased Charles and Ray brought in colleagues from various disciplines to create The Plywood Group. Soon after this group moved to the eventual design and manufacture of The Plywood Group Furniture (1945-46) including the iconic Low Chair Wood (LCW). Kirkham then goes onto discus the origins of the iconic Eames Lounger and Ottoman and reference is made to Billy as a motivation. Charles state, The motivation behind most of the things we’ve done was either that we wanted them ourselves or we wanted to give them to someone else… The Lounge chair, for example, was really done as a present for a friend, Billy

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Wilder, and has since been reproduced. (Kirkham, Eidelber, Hine, Hanks, & Peatross, 2006, p. 54) A fundamental design idea throughout Eames work is their ambition to ‘create high-quality economical furniture. This highlights the two other driving forces in Eames work. First from a larger societal standpoint the political requirements of the time necessitated minimization of input resources. Secondly from a Market perspective post war America contained an emerging middle class that desired luxury or ‘good design’ at affordable prices, and thus the Eames moved to meet this gap in the market. Around 1995 the Eames achieved this balance in wood, plastic and wire Mesh.

Culmination of the Eames’s long and trying search for the ideal application – or as they would say purely honest application – for molded plywood.

(Lidwell & Manacsa, 2009, p. 106) Billy Wilder’s request for Charles to build and “ultra, ultra, ultra comfortable modern lounge chair.” Also explores Charles’s “Banana leaf parable” a simple to esoteric to simple design ideology. (Lidwell & Manacsa, 2009, p.

112) 1 Technology – LCW Low Chair Wood 2 Individual – Eames Lounger 3 Social – Fiberglass Chair 4 Market – La Chaise

Figure 6. Various Sketches of Eames Furniture by Richard Clarkson

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Literary Review: To gain a better understanding of the relationships and comparisons of resources within topics I have formatted my Literary Review of key resources in the order that I came across them and then listed them in key topic groupings. These consist of; Discourse / Good Design, Design Education, Design Process, History of Furniture, Eames Specific Furniture and Materials & Technology Specific Resources.

Discourse / Good Design Resources Hinrichs, K. (2009). Good design : deconstructing form, function, and what makes design work. 26-31. (T. Marks, & M. Porter, Interviewers) Beverly, Mass: Rockport Publishers. pp.28 “what makes good or great design: emotional content, storytelling ability and staying power,” Also mentions design for family as a trigger. pp.30 in relation to a question on what kind of reference and source materials he uses for inspiration and ideas Hinrichs states “I get true inspiration from the world around us. From the culture we’re in.”

Raye, R. (2009). Good design : deconstructing form, function, and what makes design work.

(T. Marks, & M. Porter, Interviewers) Beverly, Mass: Beverly, Mass.

“Ninety-nine percent of all design in intuitive” Paul Rand (Raye, 2009, p. 35) Couturier, E. (c2010). Talk about design. Paris: Flammarion : distributed in North America by Rizzoli International Pub. The 2nd Chapter titteld “Before Design,” (pp.32-41) introduces some basic ideas of style affecting design, “If, in literature, style makes a differnce, in interior decoration is sums up a period.” Meaning that styled objects denote a particular time and culture frozen in place by the objects themselves. I think its also imperitive to note here that although I am primarily using Eames Furniture in my case studies I am in my base research exploring a wider aray of furniture styles, designers and histories.

Overall very nice book with a strong relation between product design and art.

Design Education Resources Watson, J. D. (1974). The design activity : a pattern for design education. Melbourne: University of Melbourne. pp.iv synopsis, Watson introduces methodical approaches to the activity of designing as: exemplar (what the designer does), pattern book (how he does it) and systematic (anatomy of the design problem) Design process is the name given to describe the designer’s own metal process either linear, cyclic or general systems models. The general systems model allows for similarities in the process across different designers and subjects of design. He also identifies an optimum educational system would focus on the design process rather than the designed object. I challenge this viewpoint

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

and suggest that both are vital to design education and there should be a relationship and balance between the two.

“Following a simple step-by-step process does not lead to inspiring or even apt, designs. For a more detailed view we must look at the “leap of insight”, the essential spark of creative illumination.”

(Watson, 1974, p. iv)

Design Process Resources Belsky, S. (2010). Making ideas happen : overcoming the obstacles between vision and reality. New York: Portfolio. pp.14 Introduction on The forces that make ideas happen very usefull for my design process reserach, especialy the fomula Beslky provides: Making ideas Happen = (the idea) + organisation and excution + forces of community + leadership capability. (Belsky, 2010, p. 14) Also his chapter on Breaking Projects into primary elements is also useful for clasification and articulation (pp.34) Best, K. (2010). The fundamentals of design management. Lausanne: AVA Academia ; La Vergne, TN : Distributed in the USA & Canada by Ingram Publisher Services, c2010. pp.12 Design Business Definition that I want to challenge from this resource states that design is a people-centered, problem solving process. I want to expand this definition to broaden its scope beyond just people-centered, as I believe design now has the ability to related to and reflect upon more than just people and society. The whole book is from a bussines viewpoint which is a valid perspective but its also important to realise that its not the only design perspective. Pp.18 gives a good overview of a Market lead approach to design and to contrast this pp.42 explores design for society. Best also introduces design thinking and cites Tim Brown stating a design thinker must explore a “landscape of innovation” that involves people, needs, technology and business. Pp.44 Jacob, B., & Zec, P. (Eds.). (2010). Design value : a strategy for business success. Essen: Red Dot ; London : Springer [distributor], 2010.

A second resource I have looked at from a design business stratagies perspective. Similar to Best’s The fundamentals of design management. Design Value however is more focused on interpreting value and seems to go beyond Best’s deffinition of design. Every idea needs a form chappeter contains the concept that “a project always starts with an idea” pp.33 I argue this is much to simple statement to make, and ignores a huge amount of process and critical thinking that happens before and at the generation of the idea. Pp.44 Jacob then explores design Value once again taking a very market level perspective citing Thomas Watson Jr’s comment “Good design is good business!” In a later chapter Jacob calculates design value using the following formula: (Design Revenue x Design Strength) + (Design Revenue x Design Continuity) + Design Assets = Design Value. Pp.161 Moore, D. J. (2007). Design and the creative process. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson Delmar Learning.

An excellent resource for an understanding of the design process from both a practise based theory to and educational exploration. In the Preface it identifies that as teaching tool students will gain an

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

understanding of the background specifics such as relevancy, client consumer and marketplace issues as well as function and rational, which can be used as a precedent starting point for projects.

Lange, M. W. (2001). Design semiosis : synthesis of products in the design activity .

Stockholm: Dept. of Machine Design, Royal Institute of Technology.

Though this thesis goes well beyond my brief exploration of the design process, the early chapter are relevant to both developing my understanding of design from a research perspective. It also provides a catalogue of the history of design process models which could be useful to build upon.

Pp.20. Lange brings in Copper’s divisions (1993) for reasoning for the creation of new product from a business and profit driven sense as being either; New to the Company or New to the Market pp.39 Jones, S. W. (1973). Product design and process selection. London: Butterworth.

Some core themes that are still relevant in terms of design process but similar to Jacob’s Design Value it skims over the creation or identification of the problem which is what this research is focused on.

Nelson, H. G., & Stolterman, E. (2003). The design way : intentional change in an unpredictable world : foundations and fundamentals of design competence. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Publications. pp.4 The two ideas from this book that I found helpful towards my research are: design foundations and design fundamentals, which Nelson defines as the first principals and core concepts of design respectively. In the first chapter the First Tradition he denotes that “we must design because we are not perfect” and inquires about the purpose of designing and lists the following: Survive, improve, develop, thrive, evolve, serve others, make something of lasting quality, create something of real consequence, participate in the never-ending genesis. Nelson then goes on to explore motivation for designing as being derived: to control, from necessity, bring order, give meaning, calling – design will, for enlightenment / wisdom, lack of wholeness and to be of service (pp.13) Both of these lists resonate deeply within my own design ideology. Only recently I was asked why I design. And found real difficulty in articulating a response. Pp.37 Covers intuition in design. Pp.106 is a really useful figure of an example of a systems Design Palette with system on one axis and inquiry on the other.

This is a System Inquiry approach discussed earlier in the chapter, one quote of particular relevance “This requires the designer to acquire at least a working knowledge of different approaches from which to choose, as well as to devote a considerable time to reflecting on the specifics of the present design situation and what is needed.” This is the first instance I have come across an indication of the importance of initial reflection before the idea is born. He then goes on to say “Particularized relationships among various categories of systems –and these multiple modes of inquiry- create compounds of inquiry and action that assist in explaining or describing a specific complex system.

They can also help to conceptualize such a system as a new design, when it does not yet exist. The capacity to create design palettes comprised of systems types in relationship to different design of inquiry is essential for managing complex design projects. In those few sentences Nelson effectively justifies my planned design output. On page 299 Nelson talks about ‘drivers of action’ and explains “ It is important to remember that design is a choice, one among many triggers that drives intentional behaviour.”

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Lawson, B. (2004). What designers know. Boston, MA: Elsevier/Architectural Press.

Contains a useful figure of the RIBA (Briefing > Analysis > Synthesis > Evaluation) and Goel (Problem Structuring [preliminary Design > Refinement > Detail Design]) Models of design as a sequence of activities. (Lawson, What designers know, 2004, p. 14) Pp.14 figure 2.4 Lawson’s comparison of the design process to a game of chess eloquently describes its complexities and uniqueness as a problem solving procedure. “Designing then, in terms of chess, is rather like playing with a board that has no divisions into cells, has pieces that can be invented and redefined as the game proceeds and rules that can change their effects as moves are made. Even the object of the game is not defined at the outset and may change as the game wears on.” (Lawson, What designers know, 2004, p. 20) pp.20 Further chapters on Architectural design drawing in relation to knowledge are not as applicable to my research.

Lawson, B. (2006). How designers think : the design process demystified (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier Architectural Press.

This is a more indepth analyis of design thinking than What Designers Know, a later simplified version of his research. In his intorduction to the book Lawson identifies that “In the end perhaps design must be learnt rather than taught. We each of us have to acquire our own process, for it is we, not others, who must design with it. However, that process deserves extensive and carful study.”pp.3 In relation to design technologies he identifies that an inventive element is esentialy independent from the field of creation using Clegg’s (1969) examples of inventions & inventor relationships; for exmple a Muscian invented Kodachrome films, an Undertaker invented the Automatic Telephone and a Journalist invented the Parking Meter. This shows that base principals of invention at leasted can be interdiciplinary and the proceses can be generalised across different areas, not only within design but outside it aswell. Interesting note that he suggests that end product classification due to speciaseied technologies can have a straightjacket effect on the designer by “directing mental processes towards a predefined goal.” Lawson later identifies the design process in the following; the design process is endless, there is no infallibly correct process, the process involves finding as well as solving problems, design inevitably involves subjective value judgement, design is a prescriptive activity and designers work in the context of a need for action.pp.91-92 Also mentions the Gestalt School od Pshycology that concentrates on processes and organisation rather than mechanisims. In the Creative Thinking chapter Lawson brings forth Kneller’s interpretation of ‘first sight’ a recorgnition period that identifies the existance of a problem. This peiod may last for hours, days or even years. He highlights the importance of the formulation of the problem as a critical phase of in design situations and the need for an understanting of this process throughly.pp.109 This then feeds into Poincare’s (1924) five stage model of the creative process; First insight >< preparation> Incubation> Illumination> Verification. Pp.10 The first two steps of this process and the redback relationship are what interest me and are most relevant for this research. In relation to design education Lawson identifies a nessisary balance between free, open ended and expresive work and acquasition of knowledge, discipline and expertise. However also provides evidence to suggest that short-term or restricted experience of open ended problem-solving is not always benefictial as it produces a mechanising effect on individual thinking.”that is, each problem is not viewd afresh but rather is first classified according to types of problem already encounted, and the solution is selected accordingly” He elabourates to sugest creative tecqunies such as brainstorming, Synectics and fantasey, each involving restrictions and rules of permited behaviour

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

to reduce the tendancy to try to fit old solutions to new problems. pp.112-113 Convergent and Divergent thinking abilitie. Pp.118 Canonic versus Analogical design to use alaogies from other areas to create a new way of seeing the problem.pp156 Finaly Lawson discusses some ‘traps’ that causes inexperienced designers difficulties in problem identification these include; the catergory trap, the puzzel trap, the icon trap and the image trap.pp.158-177 Cross, N. (2007). From a Design Science to a Design Discipline: Understanding Designerly Ways of Knowing and Thinking. In M. Ralf (Ed.), Design Research Now (pp. 41-54). Basel: Birkhäuser.

One of the required readings for this course that is relevant to my research, however this partiuclar paper of Cross’s referes more to knowledge and design research than the actual processes that initiate design. Therefore in this case other resources such as Nelson’s The Design Way and Lawson’s How Designers Think are more applicable.

Heufler, G. (2004). Design basics : from ideas to products. (S. M. Zettinig, Trans.) Zurich: Niggli Verlag. pp.73 Heufler identifies four types of product determining factors based on Schurer; Human factors (physical, emotional and social user needs) Technical factors (material selection and manufacturing process) Finical Factors (material, tool and labor costs) Ecological Factors (raw material and energy consumption, environmental impact). (Heufler, 2004, p. 73) I am unsure about whether or not this breakdown of factors is adequate for modern day design and plan to reevaluate it and create my own categorizations with interlinking factors. Heufler then goes on to explain a proposed problemsolving process that involves rational-analytic procedure and emotional –intuitive procedure based on work by F.G. Winter.

Houseley, L. (c2009). The independent design guide : innovative products from the new generation. New York: Thames & Hudson.

Very nice exploration of contemporary design, the main use of this resource comes from its introduction on a new design landscape. “Contemporary design has begun to expand beyond preconceived boundaries of importance and relevance… The newest generation of designers, therefore, are producing work within an altogether original set of parameters, with new motivations, expectation and resources.” Many rules and models that applied to previous generations of design have become redundant and in need of re-evaluation, and I argue that the initial design phase is such a model. Houseley briefly identifies the wider social, cultural and political issues highlighted by designers beyond that of the designers own personal ambitions. The author also identifies some key influences that are notably forming common themes between modern day designers, these include; Media, Educational, Cultural, Environmental and Social. Running parallel with this is Houseley’s common themes of; Nostalgia, Recycling, solutions, Materials, Technological Innovations Process and Craft and finally play.

History of Furniture Resources Massey, A. (2011). Chair. London: Reaktion Books.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Concise yet descriptive analysis of the chair and its historical background. Chapter 2 Designers Presence, especially from page 71-73 concerning the change in the perception of the chair as an icon and as a metaphor for the actual designer. Massey then continues on to discuss the divorcing of the chair from the original interior art object by Museums and Galleries. This flows into a descriptive summary of Charles and Ray Eames work. Interesting that Massey compares the Eames work with Eero Saarinen designer of the Tulip Chair. “Unlike the Eameses, Saarinen was less concerned with the technology and construction of the chair, and more focused on the overall initial impact of a unified whole. The 1956 Herman Miller ad featuring the exploded diagrams of its complex construction would be an excellent diagram to include in my research pp.76-77 Mehlhose, A., & Martin, W. (c2009). Modern furniture : 150 years of design. K nigswinter, Germany: h.f.ullmann. pp.459 Eames Lounge Chair, very nice image that could be useful as a digital resource. The same applies to the Wire Chair (pp.497) Moulded Plastic Chair (pp.449) La Chaise (pp.516). Mehlhose later dedicates a section to Plywood Experiements – A Thoruroghly Modern Material by Karianne Fogelberg (pp.536-541) This is a descriptive but brief exploration of one of the Eames well know material process and will provide a nice supplimentary research to ideas discused in Kirkham’s The Eames Lounge Chair.

Eames Specific Furniture Resources Vegesack, A. v., Dunas, P., & Schwartz-Clauss, M. (Eds.). (c1996). 100 masterpieces from the Vitra Design Museum collection. Weil am Rhein: Vitra Design Museum.

From the beginning of this research this has been a primary resource in terms of iconic chair design methodologies and ideals. Though there are some iconic chairs such as Joe Colombo’s Tube Chair and The Bel Air Armchair that I feel are missing from this resource none can dispute that it is an impressive collection of furniture design and furniture thinking. “We can produce things we could never think of under normal circumstances. Of course that doesn’t mean constraints are not good, constraints are good. They make us humble and serving, but it’s as important to ignore them occasionally and experiment with other criteria in mind. That is what we do, anticipate things to come, we don’t know them clearly but we feel that we can experiment with materials, typology, with technical ideas, with social ideas, social issues etc.” Rolf Fehlbaum, Chairman Vitra. One of the reasons that this particular resource is more relevant to my research than some of the other Chair design and Chair histories resources I have looked at is for two reasons. The first is that the Vitra firm itself strives to collect and document not only the final output but also the documentary material (pp.13), this locates it perfectly in my research scope which explores process and driving factors of the design. The second is the Media that it is presented in. Along with this book there is a CD-ROM, a poster and in the case of the Victoria University of Wellington there is a scale model collection of 97 of the chairs. The implications of this broad media spread, especially the scale models, provides the opportunity to explore the designs in greater detail to gain a better understanding of them. I have put in a request to have the 4 models I discus in my case studies on display during my final presentation. Some of the truly influential designs featured are: Chair No.14 - Michael Thonet 1859, Donna - Gaetano Pesce 1969, Wiggle Side Chair - Frank Gehry 1972, No. 670 - Josef Hoffmann 1905,

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Chaise Longue - Le Corbusier 1928, Eames Lounge and Ottoman -Charles and Ray Eames 1956, Zig Zag - Gerrit Rietveld 1932, LWC - Charles and Ray Eames 1945, Pantone Chair - Verner Panton 1959, Poltrona di Proust - Alessandro Mendini 1978, Queen Anne - Robert Venturi 1979, Roodblauwe stoel - Gerrit Rietveild, B 3/Wassily - Marcel Breuer 1925, Lassu - Alessandro Mendini 1974.

Lidwell, W., & Manacsa, G. (2009). Deconstructing product design : exploring the form, function, usability, sustainability, and commercial success of 100 amazing products. Beverly, Mass: Rockport Publishers. pp.106 LCW “culmination of the Eames’s long and trying search for the ideal application – or as they would say purely honest application – for molded plywood. Lounge Chair and Ottoman pp.112 Seconds idea that it was initiated with Billy Wilder’s request for Charles to build and “ultra, ultra, ultra comfortable modern lounge chair.” Also explores Charles’s “Banana leaf parable” a simple to esoteric to simple design ideology.

Kirkham, P., Eidelber, M., Hine, T., Hanks, D. A., & Peatross, C. F. (2006). The Eames lounge chair : an icon of modern design. London: Merrell.

Expands more on the collaboration between Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen on their winning entries of plywood furniture submitted for the 1940 Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) competition in New York. The mass manufacture of these pieces was ‘fraught with difficulties’ so much so that Saarinen left to pursue other projects. Operating with similar design ideologies Ray soon became both a romantic partner and a modernist-design driven creative partner. As World War II broke out they gained work designing and manufacturing bent ply splints and later aircraft parts for the US Navy. These military contracts provided valuable access to new developments both in production of ply and more advanced glues. As military contracts increased Charles and Ray brought in colleagues from various disciplines to create The Plywood Group. Soon after this group moved to the eventual design and manufacture of The Plywood Group Furniture (1945-46) including the iconic Low Chair Wood (LCW). Kirkham then goes onto discus the origins of the ‘super-iconic’ Eames Lounger and Ottoman and reference is made to Billy as a motivation. Charles state, “the motivation behind most of the things we’ve done was either that we wanted them ourselves or we wanted to give them to someone else… The Lounge chair, for example, was really done as a present for a friend, Billy Wilder, and has since been reproduced.” (pp.54) A fundamental design idea throughout Eames work is their ambition to ‘create high-quality economical furniture. This highlights the two other driving forces in Eames work. First from a larger societal standpoint the political requirements of the time necessitated minimization of input resources. Secondly from a Market perspective post war America contained an emerging middle class that desired luxury or ‘good design’ at affordable prices, and thus the Eames moved to meet this gap in the market. Around 1995 the Eames achieved this balance in wood, plastic and wire Mesh.

Materials & Technology Specific Resources Ashby, M., & Johnson, K. (2010). Materials and design : the art and science of material selection in product design. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

Chapter 3’s section of Ways of thinking evaluates observation and perception in relation to industrial design by categorizing different attributes; Aesthetic, association, perceived and emotional.pp.30 These relate quite closely to my initial framework of possible design derivers and triggers, suggesting there is a solid relationship between the perception of finished objects in the creation of new ones.

Also talks about Verbal-Mathematical and Visual Thinking as defined by McKim (1980). In the following pages Ashby gives a concise industrial viewpoint on the design process and goes on to explain the Bubble Design Process Model developed by Ken Wallace (1991) (Ashby & Johnson, 2010, p. 35) Pages 107-113 there is a section titled Materials and Chairs which will be useful supporting evidence in my materials case study.

Beylerian, G. M., & Dent, A. (2007). Ultra materials : how materials innovation is changing the world / George M. Beylerian and Andrew Dent. (B. Quinn, Ed.) New York, N.Y: Thames & Hudson. pp.12 Materials as the Basis of Ideas, will provide very nice introduction information and support material for the materials case study. Similar to Ashby’s Materials and design. Other chapters in the book extensively explore specific materials and experts’ use, views and ideas of them. Also an article on Hella Jongerius by Bradley Quinn could give an insight to the relationship between materials and other design derivers such as personal factors.pp.98-101 Antonelli, P. (c2003). Objects of design, from the Museum of Modern Art . New York: Museum of Modern Art ; Distributed in the U.S. and Canada by D.A.P./Distributed Art Publishers, Inc. pp.280 Tokujin Yoshioka in relation to his Honey-Pop Armchair “a concept [is] often inspired simply by the desire to use new materials and processes… I never start with form”. Chapter on Good design contains useful resources on much of the Eames work in relation to other works of a similar time period. Interesting point that the Eames Lounger was said to be originally produced for Charles’s friend Billy Wilder (pp.201). Brief written descriptions of this piece, LCM Low Side Chair and La Chaise in earlier pages.

Baker, K., & Baker, F. (2011). Modern furniture classics : from 1900 to now. London: Carlton Books.

Very simple and to the point chronological style based book covering styles such as Art Nouveau, Modernism, Art Deco, Mid-Century Modern, Pop, Postmodern, Millennium and art. I am focusing on the Mid-Century Modern chapter introduction and the Eames Examples given. LWC’s (pp.155). DKR2 Chair (pp.165). Lounge Chair and Ottoman (pp.176)

LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

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LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

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LEAP OF INSIGHT, EXPLORING THE ESSENTIAL SPARK OF CREATIVE ILLUMINATION

RICHARD CLARKSON

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