Winter 2017
Issue nr. 2
The brain & the computer
Are we really that different?
“D
istinction between present, future and past is just an illusion” said Albert Einstein 100 years ago. Although being an illusion, time is essential for human beings. Another year full of scientific breakthroughs is over and the academic sphere expects to witness further advances in the new year 2017. Albert Einstein devoted his life to the study of space and time and predicted the existence of gravitational waves hundred years ago, and in 2016, gravitational waves were finally discovered at the Laser Interferometer GravitationalWave Observatory. Open Science was not behind and published an article about gravitational waves in the preceding volume. We also informed you about new breakthroughs and challenges faced by scientists last year, those including printing in 4D, new target for the treatment of
multiple sclerosis or a discovery of a new form of carbon which is harder than a diamond. One of our aims has been to make science approachable even to those who do not have a solid scientific background, and we hope that we have made you more knowledgeable about neutrinos, principles behind the function of smartphones or the chaos theory. The world of science has been moving fast. In the past year, scientific breakthroughs brought us closer to the use of self-driving cars; genetic engineering enabled scientists to create immune cells that target cancer cells in a patient, and we found a potentially habitable planet near Proxima Centauri. Artificial intelligence enabled a paralyzed man to regain the ability to feel with an artificial hand and in this volume, you can read about the essentials of the interconnection of computers and human brains.
New year brings new challenges and topics to discuss, and in this volume we would like to bring you closer to the understanding of nuclear plants, superhydrophobic surfaces, or helicobacter pylori. I would like to encourage you to pay a special attention to the articles “Ubiquitous Palm Oil” and “The Invisible Forces” as these are written by our youngest contributors. Enjoy reading Open Science and do not forget to use QR codes to access additional information about articles and their authors. On behalf of the Open Science team,
If you have anything to ask or to tell us, don’t hesitate to use our gmail adress:
openscience.info@gmail.com Also, use your QR code reader to gain more information about the authors and sources of our articles.
Michaela Mrázková
Biology • 4
Technology • 9
Ubiquitous palm oil!
The Invisible Forces
World News• 6
Chemistry • 11
The Hyperloop
Superhydrophobic Surfaces
Guest Science • 12 Do Brains Work as Computers
Electron Cryomicroscopy
Chemistry • 7 Caffeine in coffee
Biology • 14 Small, yet deadly
Physics • 8 The Amazing Nuclear Power
Top Ten • 15 Coolest and most dangerous poisons Comic • 16 Wilson and Timothy
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owadays, many people are aware of the ecological and health issues associated with the use of palm oil. Some of us claim it is too difficult to avoid it, and deny its harmful effects. However, despite its advantages, not only is the palm oil dangerous for the environment, but it is also a threat for the human health. We are surrounded by palm oil everywhere. Not only does it represent almost half of all market products, but it is also added to the products where we would not expect it at all. For example, it is found in cheap blends of creams since it resembles the taste of milk. It has similar function in the case of instant mashed potatoes. Almost every instant soup or sauce contains palm oil because of its low price. It is commonly used in baby food (breastmilk substitutes); there it is used in a combination of several types of fats, together forming a similar substance to the actual breastmilk. Palm oil is used for this purpose for its high-content of saturated fatty acids, commonly found in breast milk. Oil palms generally begin to produce fruits 30 months after being planted in the fields and they can be harvested six months later. As the oil palm matures, its yield increases and it reaches a peak production at the age of seven to eighteen years. Mature oil palms produce 18 to 30 metric tons of fruit bunches per hectare, which is a relatively high amount.
There are many problems associated with the increased use of palm oil. Firstly, there are numerous issues related to its production. It is mostly produced in Indonesia where its plantations replaced 50% of original tropical forests. This naturally leads to the destruction of natural habitat of many species which are in danger of extinction. Another problem associated with the production of palm oil is the way in
which the original forests are being replaced. In order to be efficient in terms of time, the forests are usually burned, leading not only to the air pollution, but also to the extinction of various species of animals. The air pollution can even lead to health problems of people living nearby the forests. According to estimates, Indonesia is responsible for more carbon dioxide release than the United States which is expected to be related to the continual burning of forests.
room temperature. Moreover, it does not affect the flavor of the product since it is absolutely tasteless. Often, it is used in large factories for frying and deep frying (with the example of Lays). Palm oil can be used as a polishing substance for instance in gummy bonbons and muesli, where it makes the product more shiny and supple. Along with other fats and oils, it is added to margarines.
Somebody could object that palms are tropical plants, and if they get replaced by other trees, it has no significant impact on the environment since a new forest will be created. This assumption is however wrong. If we plant only one species instead of diverse forest vegetation, we create a monoculture. Species that used to live in the original tropical forest will not be able to adjust to the monoculture because one or two plant species cannot provide them sufficient variety of sources of food and shelter.
To promote the understanding of the associated health problems, it is necessary to outline the structure of
Another problem is the lifetime of a palm which is usually 20-30 years. After the tree perishes, it leaves the land infertile. Nowadays, most of Indonesian land is barren. Therefore, most of the production of palm oil is gradually moving to Africa, where it is expected to lead to similar destruction of the environment.
As mentioned before, according to estimates, palm and palm kernel oil represent almost half of all market products (This concept expresses food and non-food products, which can be found in supermarkets), so it is very difficult to avoid it. It is often used in chocolate products, since it replaces the expensive cocoa butter. In various products it is used as alternative cheaper oil. Palm oil is cheaper, because in the same area it makes twice higher profits than if you are cultivating rape. Moreover, it is preferable for production; palm hydrogenated fat remains in the solid state even at the
palm oil first. There are two types of palm oil. The first type is made of the pericarp of a palm and it is called simply palm oil. The second is made of kernels, and so it is called palm kernel oil. Both types are composed of fatty acids. Fatty acids are molecules consisting of a long chain of carbons with a carboxyl group at one end. A fatty acid can be either saturated, if each carbon is joined to its neighboring carbons by a single bond, or unsaturated, if one or more double bonds appear in the molecule. If a fatty acid has more than one double bond in the carbon chain, the fatty acid is called polyunsaturated, if this is the case for only one bond, then it is monounsaturated. Two types of polyunsaturated fatty acids are important in the diet, because they are required for correct function of the metabolism, yet cannot be synthesized by our body and have to intaken.These two types of essential fatty acids are called n-3 and n-6.Âť
Oleic acid is a common fatty acid found also in palm oil. It contains one double bond which means that it is a monounsaturated fat. In palm oil polyunsaturated fats can be found as well. In polyunsaturated fats, more than one double bond is present in the chain of carbons, which has an impact on the number of hydrogen atoms. The more bonds, the less hydrogen pairs and the more kinks in the chain and the more fluid the oil is. These kinks in the structure make our cell membranes flexible and permeable, allowing nutrients to enter the cell and waste products to leave. The fatty acid chain of palm oil contains a large proportion of saturated fatty acids which are considered as the more harmful to our organism compared to unsaturated fatty acids. Whereas there are only about 7 grams in 100 grams of rapeseed oil, in all types of palm oil the amount is several times bigger. Palm oil made from pericarp, is 37 percent monounsaturated fat, 50 percent saturated fat, and 9 percent is polyunsaturated fat. Palm oil has a high concentration of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid (palmitic acid). Unrefined, palm fruit oil’s reddish or golden color indicates the presence of carotenoids, which the human body converts into vitamin A. Additionally, palm fruit oil is high in tocotrienols, a form of vitamin E. Content in the raw oil is between 600 - 1000 mg/kg and in the utilized oil it is about 350 mg/kg. It does not contain cholesterol, however, saturated fats are responsible for increase in both LDL and HDL cholesterol, leading to elevated levels of cholesterol in blood. Palm kernel oil has a fatty acid composition that is almost identical to the one of coconut oil, high in medium-chain fatty acids (caprylic, capric, and lauric acids) and with a total saturated fat content of over 80 percent.
We have a list of many ecological problems, however, the negative consequences of palm oil are even further-reaching. Research in the field of medicine provides us with further insight into the chemical structure and properties of palm oil and associated consequences on the human health, mostly in the context of increased consumption of palm oil. Palm oil in its pure form made from the palm pericarp is considered to be healthy in comparison with the other type (it contains 50% saturated fatty acids and 50% unsaturated fatty acids). Palm kernel oil itself contains a large amount of saturated fatty acids, which negatively affect our health. For more than half a century it has been demonstrated in research that high consumption of these acids generally leads to increase in blood cholesterol levels, associated with a greater risk of cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids help lower blood cholesterol levels and thus reduce the risk of undesired blood clots. Cholesterol is a fat-like substance which is part of every cell and certain hormones. Without it, our cells will work poorly or not at all. The body itself partly produces cholesterol (mainly in the liver) and partly receives it from the diet. Cholesterol is not soluble in water, and therefore, it needs its carrier to enter the blood circulation. Depending on what carrier cholesterol "grabs", we distinguish "bad" LDL and "good" HDL cholesterol. With the "good" HDL cholesterol the carrier travels from the blood to the liver where it is degraded. This reduces blood cholesterol levels and the risk of cardiovascular disease. "Bad" LDL cholesterol supplies cholesterol to all body cells. If there is too much of it, cholesterol accumulates in the walls of blood vessels, and leads to partial or absolute stenosis of the vessel. This state is called atherosclerosis. Bad effects are not associated primarily with the natural structure of the oil, but with the change in structure due to utilization. Food manufacturers discovered that bubbling hydrogen through polyunsaturated oils created "partially hydrogenated" fats that were less vulnerable to becoming rancid than
t h e original oils and therefore had a longer shelf life. These partially hydrogenated margarines and shortenings are now present in almost all baked goods and a lot of chocolate products. Part of the chemical structure remains the same during utilization. It has the same number of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms, the same -COOH alpha ending, and the double bond is in the same place—but it becomes straight instead of kinked. The body recognizes this chemical structure and tries to use it in the same places and for the same purpose that it uses the bent cis form. But the trans form stacks together just like saturated fats, which sabotages the flexible, porous functionality the body needs from unsaturates. When the body uses trans fats in place of the cis-form of unsaturates, our cells can become insulin resistant, which can lead to type II diabetes.
It would not be appropriate to conclude with the negatives only since there are positive sides to palm oil as well. Palm oil is very advantageous for the companies utilizing it. It is cheaper than other vegetable oils which results into higher profits. Many companies also claim that it has suitable structure for production. On the other hand, we should realize that there are more negative consequences than positive ones in the issue of palm oil. Therefore, I would like to encourage you to see the problematics from all angles and think about the content of products you buy on a daily basis.•
A
n idea discussed for decades, a way of mid to long distance high speed transportation in “capsules” through partial vacuum tubes, has been recently re-invented by Elon Musk, followed by many others, such as Hyperloop Technologies.
Under the new name, Hyperloop is supposed to be a revolution in mass transport, as it will travel at speeds reaching 1 200 km/h with hundreds of people and cars on board the capsule. This capsule will be propelled to such speeds by a large fan in the front, while
floating and getting extra push from electromagnets in the walls of the tube. Due to a reduced drag on the capsule, reaching its top speed will only be a matter of minutes. On the first proposed track, from San Francisco to Los Angeles, Hyperloop could travel the distance of 560 km at an average speed of 970 km/h in 35 minutes. Both numbers are unmatched by even the most modern aircraft or trains. Furthermore, with low air-pressure in the tubes, and the remaining air acting as a propellant through the large fan at the front of the capsule, the Hyperloop is planned to be extremely effective and, running purely electrically, extremely environmentally friendly, especially compared to other means of mass-transport..•
A
new set of machine learning algorithms developed by University of Toronto researchers that can generate 3D structures of tiny protein molecules may revolutionize the development of drug therapies for a range of diseases, from Alzheimer´s to cancer. The ability to determine the 3D atomic structure of protein molecules is critical in understanding how they work and how they will respond to drug therapies. This new set of algorithms reconstructs 3D tructures of protein
molecules using microscopic images. Since proteins are tiny—even smaller than a wavelength of light - they can not be seen directly without using sophisticated techniques like electron cryomicroscopy (cryo-EM). This new method is revolutionizing the way scientists can discover 3D protein structures, allowing the study of many proteins that simply could not be studied in the past. Cryo-EM is unique because it uses high-power microscopes to take tens of thousands of lowresolution images of a frozen protein sample from different positions. The computational problem is to then piece together the correct high-resolution 3D structure from the low-resolution 2D images. The algorithms could
significantly aid in the development of new drugs because they provide a faster, more efficient means at arriving at the correct protein structure..•
C
offee is a commonly known, wide-spread beverage, consumed by people all around the world. Besides its specific bitter taste, it is often used for its sleep-suppressing effects. The chemical responsible for this effect is caffeine, which, in general, provides the body with feeling of being awake, more alert, having more energy and improved concentration. Considering that caffeine is a drug, the danger of overdose by caffeine should not be overseen. The limit for intoxicating an adult is, according to various sources1, between 4 to 12 milligrams per kilogram of body mass for a person to feel anxiety. From 150 to 200 milligrams per kilogram is the amount resulting in coma and subsequent death. In order to avoid overcaffeination and all negative effects it causes, it is necessary to determine the amount of caffeine in the coffee consumed – using chemical methods of iodometric titration,which will be introduced in this article.
Separation Firstly, the caffeine must be isolated from the coffee, to eliminate the possibility of other reactions occurring between components of coffee. Table 1 contains the solubility of caffeine in water at different temperatures and in chloroform, CH3Cl. Solubility in H2O at 25°C2 2.2 mg/ml Solubility in H2O at 100°C3 66.2 mg/ml Solubility in CH3Cl3 18.1 mg/ml Table 1: Solubility of caffeine The method of separation of caffeine is based on the data in the table. Coffee at room temperature is not likely to dissolve caffeine; the chemical capable of this is the chloroform, which is therefore added to already cooled coffee, hence causing caffeine to
be dissolved in the organic solvent chloroform. Those two liquids can then be split apart using separation flask, considering that density of chloroform is approximately 1.5 times higher than that of water.
change to light brown occurs. At that point, the stream of droplets from the burette needs to be stopped and the amount of thiosulfate used written down.
Analysis Reaction After successful isolation of the caffeine from the coffee sample, the resultant solution must be mixed with several other chemicals in order to be prepared for the titration reaction. The reaction used in this case is following: C8H10N4O2 + I- + I2 + H+ -> C8H10N4O2 .HI .I4 + KHSO4 Basically, it is enough to react excess amount of H2SO4, KI solution and iodine powder, I2, with the chloroform mixture. It is necessary to note down the amount of iodine added to the reaction, because this value will be used in the calculations. Having added all those into the chloroform solution, it is necessary to stir the mixture so that everything has reacted properly and fully. The result is an insoluble sediment of black colour, which needs to be filtered off – once done, the remainder is excess of original reactants – including iodine, whose amount is determined by titration.
Titration The titration process in this procedure is called iodometric titration. It uses the remainders of iodine from the original reaction, reacting them with Na2S2O3 – sodium thiosulfate. The reaction formula is: I2 + Na2S2O3 -> Na2S4O6 + 2NaIThe method is that a burette is filled with the thiosulfate solution, few droplets of starch solution indicator are added to the iodine solution and it is mixed together until the colour of the mixture changes . Originally, the colour is expected to be dark brown, then as the reaction proceeds the tone changes to black, and the reaction is finished when a sudden
To calculate the amount of caffeine in the actual coffee sample, several separate calculations are required. To begin with, the concentration of thiosulfate needs to be figured out. Finding out what amount of Na2S2O3 was used for the reaction, the molar ratios of all reactants and products in both reactions used are used for determining the original amount of caffeine in the sample, thus providing the information about the percentage representation of caffeine in the coffee powder. There is a high possibility of imperfections and uncertainties; those could be minimised if certain conditions are met – using always the same chemicals of identical concentrations at identical temperatures for example. Also, all the processes should be given time to finish, such as the filtration or the density-based separation.
Conclusion The method, introduced in this article, is the most basic process for determining the caffeine content of coffee beverage. The experimental measurement may be conducted in an ordinary school laboratory – other methods would then require advanced and elaborate equipment, like light chromatograph. The expected result of the measurement is that there is something between 1 and 2 percent of caffeine in coffee beans (or eventually coffee powder). However, it is necessary to conduct the measurement carefully in order to avoid biases in the measurements, and to also consider measurement uncertainties in further calculations.•
Abstract
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uclear power is an important source of electricity. It makes up 10.9% of world’s total production of electricity. It has many advantages, such as almost no waste, high potential and efficiency. However, many politicians and ecologists still oppose the building of nuclear power plants. Some of them claim that the nuclear waste is dangerous to the environment, and that the amount of emissions is not tolerable. Anyone who understands the mechanism that enables the function of nuclear reactors and the disposal of the radioactive waste knows these claims are not entirely valid. This article is going to summarize the basic processes and explain how the nuclear plants operate.
The fuel - Uranium The most commonly used source of the energy is the decay of Uranium-235, whose core consists of 92 protons and 143 neutrons. It is a very unstable isotope with the half-life of 7.038x108 years. This isotope makes up only 0.7% of the world’s uranium reserves; the rest is Uranium-238 which is very stable, and therefore useless in energy production. In order to have as efficient fuel as possible, special steps need to be taken before the fission reaction can be started. To begin, Uranium ore (UO2) has to be mined. We use two methods: conventional one and in-situ leaching (ISL). The conventional method means that the core is mined traditionally, crushed in a mill, and then put into water where the particles suspend. After sulphuric acid is added, it dissolves the uranium (IV) oxide, leaving the remaining rock and other minerals undissolved. The ISL method, on the other hand, extracts the oxide without major ground disturbance by circulating water with a lot of aqueous oxygen through the core, dissolving only the required uranium. The water is then evaporated, leaving pure uranium. Since the natural abundance of Uranium-235 is only 0.7% of the total
uranium, the fuel needs to be enriched. The mined uranium is vaporized, then put into a centrifuge that separates the heavier isotope from the lighter 235 one. It increases the fraction of U-235 to about 3.5 - 5%. Some reactors do not require enrichment at all but most do. This fuel is then pressed to small pellets. These pellets are then put into so called “fuel rods”. Those are then joined to fuel assemblies that can be several meters long. The number of rods per assembly and the number of assemblies per reactor core then depend on the type of reactor.
The reactor – fission The assemblies are put into the reactor. The uranium-235 captures a flying neutron that causes it to undergo decay, leaving Barium-144 and Krypton-89 and three neutrons – with great amount of energy, most of which is converted to heat. There are more possible decay chains, some of which are much more complex, but this one is good for basic illustration. The uranium would decay even spontaneously but shooting neutrons speeds up the process, and also enables us to control the process easily. However, since the heat generated is very high, and the fission rate somewhat random, it is necessary to have some way of slowing it down. This is the task of moderators which consist of boron, silver, indium and cadmium. They can capture the free neutrons instead of the fuel, reducing the rate of the fission.
Water systems There are two types of nuclear power generating systems. The first is boiling water reactor. The vaporized water (steam) from the reactor goes directly through the turbine, which spins it, producing electricity. It is then condensed in a condenser. After returning to the liquid form, it is pumped back into the reactor to repeat the process. Another pipeline with cold water is run through the condenser to cool the steam. This water is drawn from a river, and released back after it is heated by the steam in the condenser.
The second type is pressurized water reactor. The reactor heats water in the primary pipeline under extreme pressure which causes it to stay in the liquid form. This circuit continues to the steam generator which is a huge container of water which is vaporized by the heat from the first pipeline. This steam spins the turbine that is connected to the power generator. It is then cooled back to liquid in the condenser using the same method as in the boiling water reactors. There is also an alternative way to using so much water from the nearby
water source, which is simply called once-through system. The well-known huge concrete cooling towers represent the recirculating system. It means that the water that runs through the condenser in the pipes is pumped to the cooling tower where it is left to evaporate, reducing the average temperature of the liquid.
Nuclear waste management The fuel takes a lot of time to burn fully. However, it must be changed after some time which is different for each reactor but usually a few hundred days. For efficiency reasons, only a part of the fuel at a time is replaced - often a third. The new fuel must then be placed into the reactor, following a complicated pattern, in » order to achieve maximum efficiency. Simply putting the new fuel to the
place of the removed one would result in unnecessary losses due to irregular fission reactions throughout the reactor. The fuel is stored in special containers in pools of water deep underground. The radiation levels in the storages are very low. In fact, there is no way of telling that a huge amount of radioactive waste is stored in the water, even by measuring right beside the pool.
T
he world gives people many opportunities, but they are only able to take advantage of a few of them. Gliding is an unusual example of how people are able to use forces found all around us everyday, which many people will not notice throughout their entire life.
What is gliding? Gliding, also called soaring, is the oldest air sport. Otto Lilienthal, officially the first person to successfully and repeatedly fly, flew for the first time in 1891 on a glider, a gliding type of plane. The main difference between a glider and a conventional airplane is constructional - glider is constructed to fly without an engine. Glider pilots can fly distances of hundreds kilometres with an average speed of up to 150 km/h. Recently, speed record of 255 km/h was achieved on a distance of 1,000 km. The longest distance flown with glider is 3,000 kilometres.
What makes this possible?
The production, cost and risks
combustion plants access to cheap fuel.
The nuclear power plants represent approximately 10.8% of total world’s production of electricity. However, each plant produces somewhere from 500 MW to 3 GW, which is more than any other type of electric plant.
The security levels and precautions taken in the nuclear plants are very high. The risk of anything happening is extremely low. However, when the regulations are not followed exactly, the consequences can be devastating. Probably the most famous case of such accident is the Chernobyl tragedy. One of the most radioactive places on Earth is still next to the ruins, even though the catastrophe happened 30 years ago. •
Nuclear power is generated in large quantities but the cost is not low. The production itself is quite cheap at around 1.5 cents/kWh. On the other hand, building a nuclear plant is incredibly expensive. For example, the Olkiluoto reactor in Finland had cost approximately 6 billion Euros. Accounting for the productivity and low cost of the fuel, and also for the lifespan of a nuclear power station, the price is comparable to other sources, only falling significantly behind fossil fuel
Is there a form of propulsion which gliders use to fly these long distances? The answer is no, but before you can understand the ability of gliders to fly far, you should understand the principle of being airborne. Before a glider can fly, it must gain a sufficient altitude. A common way in which a glider takes off, involves a winch launch or an aerotow, by which the glider is connected to a tow plane, pulling it up in the air. Afterwards, the glider is released and is able to fly independently, speeding up by flying downwards, which creates a flow of the air around a wing. At this point, physics, or more specifically aerodynamics, comes into the game. The construction of the airfoil enables the air over the wing to cover longer distances compared to the air going under the wing.. This causes the wind above the wing to travel faster. Higher speed, which may wary between aircrafts but usually above 50 kph, creates a low pressure area and suction above the wing, on the other hand, the air under the wing becomes denser, creating an overpressure. Altogether, this suction and overpressure create a lifting force,
with
acting in the opposite direction than the gravity, thus keeping the glider airborne. We have now explained the essential background of the gliders ability to stay in the air. The described method requires the glider to fly downwards constantly, in order to have sufficient speed and lift force. Logically, the glider needs to fly up again, so it can repeat this process of flying down, and stay in the air for the highest possible period of time. Fortunately, in the nature, there are several ways to take off, which however most people ignore. Those include thermals, ridge lift, wave and convergence systems. The most common and simplest way to take off in a glider are thermals - streams of hot air climbing up from the ground . In order for a thermal to form, several criteria must be met. The most essential is the sun radiation. Sun rays hit the ground intensively on the sunny days and cause the ground and the air above to heat. Since the ground and the air become heated inconsistently, which is due to the fact that some terrain absorbs radiation better, there soon appear areas where the air is hotter than the of its surroundings. Due to the laws
of thermodynamics, hot air has a lower density than cold air, expands » and gains altitude. This is only possible if the atmosphere is unstable enough, which is affected by how much the temperature decreases with increasing altitude. If the glider flies inside one of these thermals, it is lifted by the hot air. The force of the thermals has been underestimated, and yet even the smallest thermals weight more than 80,000 tons. In good weather conditions, thermals may have diameter of more than 300 meters and climb up to five kilometres. The speed which the gliders may climb in the thermal differs by the type of glider and weather, but it usually lies within the range of 1 to 5 meters per second. These thermals are usually topped with a cumulus cloud, which is observable during sunny days. Another demonstration of the force of thermal are so called summer thunderstorms which are caused by overdeveloped cumulus originating from thermals. In these thermals, gliders gain altitude, the altitude gained is used when flying downwards to another thermal. Another way in which gliders gain altitude, is ridge soaring. Ridge soaring uses the flow of the wind over ridges and hills. The ridge forces the wind blowing against it to go up along the ridge and climb. Gliders fly into the wind going up and climb along the ridge. In the long wave system, the wind also
blows against the mountains where it is forced to go up alongside the hill and squeezed, therefore the speed of the wind increases. When the wind crosses the mountain edge, it creates a rotor which further serves as a barrier for the wind, and forces the wind to climb even further. Then, the glider can climb along with the ascending air. During the wave system, a specific rotor cloud can be seen behind the mountains ridge and high sleek clouds, which are created by the more humid air from the ground that raises, spreads behind the mountains, up to several hundred kilometres away. The convergence is the most complicated of them all and least commonly used. For simplicity, the convergence forms on the border between two different air masses which causes air to rise.
Knowledge of physics matters! Gliding is one of the most complicated sports around the world. Being a glider pilot requires both exceptional knowledge of physics, meteorology, geography, aviation terminology and physiology, and also a great physical condition since pilots are required to focus continuously for up to 10 hours. In the airplane, even a small mistake can result in a fatal accident. Only a pilot who masters all the skills mentioned above can be » successful in this sport. There are many things which pilot must
do before and during the flight in order to be good.
Why is it important to understand? One of the reasons is that Czech Republic, along with Germany and France, is one of the countries most actively pursuing gliding. Altogether, there are about 3,000 glider pilots in the Czech Republic, many of whom actively compete in this sport on the international level, in competitions such as World and European Gliding Championship. Besides that, Czech Republic has also one of the most extensive network of airfields. Secondly, gliding is a great sport to participate in. A person is never too old to start gliding. Although it is not easy at the beginning, and the amount of equipment and skills you need to learn is huge, once you are able to fly by yourself, you will see that hard work pays off.
I’m interested. Where can I find more? There are many sources on the internet and books in which you may read about gliding. If you are really interested, I recommend you to visit a local air club, where you will get the opportunity to experience a flight, and also meet pilots who will certainly discuss any possible questions with you. •
I
s the cocoa at the bottom of a cup ruining your life? No, I’m serious – does the fact that there is cocoa left at the bottom drive you crazy? Well, believe me or not, with today’s science it can be fixed by something called superhydrophobic coating, which is already being used for a myriad of reasons. However, the insides of tea cups are not among the applications, so maybe it’s unsanitary.
So what is it? Superhydrophobic coating comes in a spray that creates a nanoscopic layer on a desired object. The layer then bonds with the surface, regardless of its type – most coatings can bond with various metal alloys, plastic compounds, glass and even microelectronic silicon componentry. The coating is also oleophobic, meaning that it deflects not only water and mixtures as mud, but also types of oil. As a result, attempting to write on such a surface with a permanent, alcohol based marker, would come in vain since the ink would not stick.
Deflection of water When exposed to water, certain types of surfaces, attract water molecules. This is why water wets a glass, for example. Although some of the water pours down, the glass is wet as droplets stay on the surface. With hydrophobic coating, this doesn’t happen. Water droplets, instead of moving along the surface and leaving a wet line behind them, slide across the whole plane and fall off while still maintaining the same shape. No trace is left on the object.
Another example could be stepping into a puddle of mud. A shoe with superhydrophobic coating stays dry and untouched by dirt contained in the water. A hat falling into fish oil would not reek of fish and the list goes on and on. But why does this happen?
Adhesive and cohesive forces This phenomenon works on simple principles called adhesive and cohesive forces. These forces are both properties of molecules attracting each other due to their intermolecular forces. Cohesion describes like molecules clinging together; adhesion is when different molecules stick to each other. All compounds have different values in their inner cohesive forces and different adhesive forces to other compounds. For example, a block of gold has stronger cohesive forces than adhesive forces of air acting upon the block. Liquids like water have hydrogen bonds in a tetrahedral structure, but can attract to other materials. Water sticks with glass but not plastic, being the reason why we can shamelessly dip our plastic spoon in soup without wetting it. This principle is used with superhydrophobic surfaces.
A droplet and its deflection Cohesive forces lead to another physical phenomenon, which describes the cause of water droplet formation, named surface tension. The atoms within a droplet are covered with other atoms on all sides, meaning they are fixed within the drop and do not move. Except for the atoms on the outside, of course. These are attracted just from the inner side of the droplet, pulling them towards the other molecules. This maintains the round, accurate shape of the droplet that we all know. When a drop lands on most surfaces, its molecules attract to the molecules of the surface, breaking the drop structure. Depending on the strength of
the force, the water is more or less absorbed, or forms a puddle on the surface. Even after most of the liquid slides off, the surface is still wet as a small amount of molecules stayed attracted to the surface. This doesn’t happen with superhydrophobic surfaces. They are designed to have minimal attraction to water, so that water is unaffected by the surface wholly. Water molecules have nothing to bind with and as a result, slide off the surface without leaving any trace.
Composition and usage There is a number of companies that offer superhydrophobic coating andeach uses a different patent. Bases for coatings include manganese oxide polystyrene, zinc oxide polystyrene, precipitated calcium carbonate, carbon nano-tube structures and silica nano-coating. Studies test the efficiency of each, proving that silica is perhaps the most efficient. And the usage of this wonderful invention? Mostly industrial, such as coating for machines that work in wet conditions. It can be also used on clothing, and a very light hydrophobic layer is used when we impregnate our shoes, protecting us from soaking. Nobody would have to wash a car if it was fully waterproof and no mud would stick on it. Perhaps we could have waterproof books someday? Who knows. All I can say is that I’m sure the future will be hydrophobic. •
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n the past, brains used to be compared to hydraulic pumps, steam engines or telegraphs. Nowadays, our desire to understand the principles underlying brain’s functions has resulted in an extensive research focusing not only on the comparison but more interestingly on the interconnection of modern technologies and the human brain. Artificial intelligence promises that in the future it could be possible to develop computers with consciousness and ability to make decisions. Success of these attempts will depend on the extent to which the human mind and computers work on the same mathematical principles.
The language of computer science and AI Let's take a look at a light switch for a moment. Light switches work on a really simple principle. Inside the light switch, there are two metal contacts. When the light switch is off, contacts are held apart. When we turn the light switch on , electricity flows from the power supply through the switch, through the light bulb and back to the power supply, completing the circuit. If we turn the switch off again, the circuit is now broken and electricity can't flow through the light bulb. Inside a modern laptop computer, there are billions of switches. These switches are called transistors. Unlike the light switch, they are operated not by your hand, but by electricity. By applying electricity, we can turn the transistor on, electricity can flow through the transistor, just as it did when the light switch was on. If we stop the electrical current, the transistor turns off. In most cases, the thing controlling whether the transistor is on or off, is another transistor. Unlike a light switch, transistors can be made much smaller, and they have nonmoving parts. Transistors use the properties of the materials which they are made of to control the flow of electricity, rather than making a physical
break in the circuit as with the light switch. Transistors can be made really small. The iPhone 7 has over 33,000,000,000 transistors.
But how do we get a computer out of a pile of transistors? To build a simple computer, we need two things – to store and represent information, perform calculations, and make decisions. To begin with, we will look at the first function. Binary is the system that computer uses to store and represent information, using electricity. You probably use the decimal system on a daily basis. It is a system which humans use to operate with numbers. There are ten digits in the decimal system, from zero to 9. With this system, distinguishing all light with electricity would be very difficult. Binary is a way of representing numbers, using only two digits, 0 and 1. When the electricity is switched off, it corresponds to a zero. When the electricity is switched on, it corresponds to one. The binary system allows a number to be represented as a sequence of ones and zeros. Using electricity, we’ve learned that we can use the presence or absence of an electric current to indicate a one or zero. Number 13 can be written in binary as 1101; correspondingly, we can represent the number 13 as a sequence of on-off signals – on different wires in a circuit. You may have heard of the term “bit”. A bit corresponds to a single one or zero in a circuit. An average laptop can store over 2,000,000,000,000 bits. However, only bits by themselves wouldn’t be particularly useful. Imagine trying to figure out where one fall starts and another finishes.
There is a simple solution. Early computer scientists began by grouping successive groups of 8 bits together, and calling it a byte. A byte can store any whole number between zero and 255. To store larger numbers or other types of information, the bytes are grouped to form larger and larger structures. Computers use binary to store and represent information as a sequence of 1 and 0 or on-off electric signals. But what about music, e-mail, websites and photographs? By creating a special encoding for the type of information we want to represent, it is possible to store all these things, using just binary numbers. Let’s start with colors. The light you see coming from your computer screen, is made out of three components – red, green and blue. When all three colors are combined, they form white. By varying the intensity of each of the three components, and almost infinite number of colors can be achieved. And by using a single byte to represent the intensity of each component (red, green, and blue), it becomes possible to represent any color electronically. The intensity of each of the components becomes a number between 0 and 255. We already know we can represent numbers using binary. So almost any color can be represented using just three bytes, one for each component – red, green and blue. The RGB color space can represent over 16 million colors. But what about text, e-mails, webpages, letters, and documents? You might think that it would be much more difficult, but surprisingly, it is just as easy. Each letter and punctuation mark is assigned a unique number. The representation of the word HELLO would be 72 69 76 76 79. Assigning each letter of the alphabet a unique numeric code allows us to convert any text into a sequence of numbers. And a number, as we have already seen, can easily be represented in binary. The actual number used to represent a specific character depends on the encoding used by the programmer. Today, the most common encoding »
>is called Unicode. By using Unicode, it is possible to represent text written in almost all world’s languages and writing systems. In reality, the principle is more complicated and one of the most fundamental structures used in computer programming are so called binary trees which behave as fractals.
Unifying language If scientists ever wanted to create a full-functioning artificial intelligence, they would need to find a unifying language underlying the functioning of computers, brain, mind, and genome. Intuitively, we know that there must be some sort of unity and integrated structure behind the brain and mind. This is because we know that somehow, all the various myriad aspects of our brains and minds must work together in a unified and coordinated way to achieve our goals and objectives. But it has been very problematic for brain scientists and artificial intelligence researchers to work out how exactly this is the case physiologically and how this may be implemented.
Although experts in neuroscience and artificial intelligence have not come to an agreement about what is the unifying language or principle, Fractal Brain Theory can provide us with a revolutionary insight. According to this theory, binary trees and binary combinatorial coding are the secret language behind the workings of mind and brain. What the Fractal Brain Theory can show is that the entirety of brain and mind may be conceptualized as a single tightly integrated and all-encompassing hierarchical structure. Given our allencompassing unifying structure we may then ask, is it possible to define a single overarching process over that structure which captures all the separate processes happening
within it. Or put another way, if we can represent the entire brain and mind as a single integrated data structure, then is it possible to specify a single algorithm over that data structure, which captures the functionality of all the partial algorithms of brain and mind? The answer is yes. One of the very convenient implications of this way of describing the brain, mind and genome using the language of binary trees together with the idea of binary combinatorial codes is that it is exactly the language of computer science and information theory. It has already been suggested by leading researchers that there may exist a single algorithm for explaining the workings of most of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex. But the Fractal Brain Theory goes much further. What is behind the theory is a universal algorithm and unifying process that can span not just the functioning of the cerebral cortex but also that of all the other major auxiliary brain structures comprising the hippocampus, striatum, cerebellum, thalamus and importantly the emotion centres, which are involved in reinforcement learning, and which include hypothalamus and amygdala. The Fractal Brain Theory can demonstrate how a single over-arching process can account for and explain the purpose and functioning of all these main structures of the brain. Significant for mainstream ideas about brain functioning and neuroscience inspired AI, is that the Fractal Brain Theory shows that the cerebral cortex cannot really be understood without considering other auxiliary brain structures. Therefore, what we are talking about is a single algorithm behind the functioning of the entire brain, the emergent mind and intelligence itself. The theory goes even further than this. For not only does it describe how all the functioning of the brain and mind can be captured by a single algorithm, but also that this overarching process extends to the process of how brain and bodies come into being, i.e. neurogenesis and ontogenesis, and even describes the operation of the DNA genomic computer guiding this developmental process. There exists an “astonishing hypotheses” that is an inherent part of the Fractal brain theory.
It proposes that it is possible to perfectly extrapolate or interpolate the structures and processes of the brain and mind into the realm of the genome and DNA. So, that a unified theory exists to completely describe the workings of brain and mind together with that of the genome. It is often thought that the genome and the DNA in each cell, somehow function as a computer. What the Fractal Brain theory shows is that the genome functions exactly as a tiny brain. Astoundingly the fractal brain theory can show that there is a singular unified description behind the process by which life begins from a fertilized egg to give rise to bodies, to give rise to brains, to give rise to minds, to give rise to behaviour and all the things that go on during a lifetime, right back to the purposefully directed central goal of our lives which involves the process fertilizing eggs. And so, the cycle begins again. Likewise, a unified theory for how these processes of biological development and those of mind evolve in evolutionary time and the lifetime of an individual respectively.
When it is fully digested and accepted that it is possible to understand the brain, mind and genome using the fundamental scientific and mathematical concepts of symmetry, self-similarity and recursivity, in this complete and comprehensive manner; then perhaps the Fractal Brain Theory itself may come to be seen as something fundamental. The next steps for neuroscience and the future of the brain which some of the world’s leading experts describe is exactly the need for unifying language, a unifying structure and a unifying process which can span mind, brain, and genome.•
What is Helicobacter pylori
How is the stomach lining damaged?
destruction of the bacterium; the stomach lining is heavily damaged.
H
Both of the described diseases are most commonly caused by the increased number of bacteria in the stomach. The environment of the stomach is greatly acidic - ranging from 1 to 3 pH. This acidic environment is created by the hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach lining. When bacteria reside in the stomach, and a sudden change of conditions in the acidic environment occurs, Helicobacter pylori tends to move to a safer, more protected and stable area, which in this case, is the stomach lining and the mucosa layer of stomach lining. Such change of environment may be induced by multiple factors, including eating habits, consumption of dairy products, and smoking, etc.
The process causes so called “stomach ulcers”. This bleeding in the stomach lining may eventually lead to the formation of gastric cancer, which is an uncontrollable and unstoppable cell division. Reason behind this conclusion is the fact that the stomach lining is damaged and needs to be repaired, which increases the chance of mutation or cancer cell formation.
elicobacter pylori, has been an unknown type of bacterium for years, until 1982. Yet, it has been living in our gastrointestinal tract for centuries. Helicobacter pylori produces an enzyme called urease, which acts as a converter of urea (CO (NH2)2) to ammonia (NH3) and does not have other major function in our body. It is a spiral shaped bacterium, which grows in the human stomach and duodenum, and if disturbed, it may have vast impacts on the human carrying the bacterium.
Effects Stomach cancer has always been associated with inappropriate diet, increased acidity of the stomach, and other factors, however, in recent years, multiple studies have found a correlation between the increased number of helicobacter pylori in the stomach and stomach cancer. Another disease heavily linked to the infestation of helicobacter pylori in the stomach is stomach ulcer. Despite the fact that it has been believed that numerous factors, such as increased acidity of the stomach, excessive consumption of fatty foods and sweet beverages, stress, smoking or spicy foods cause stomach ulcers, it has been recently shown through scientific research that helicobacter pylori is the main cause of this grave disease.
When in the gastric juice in the stomach, Helicobacter pylori is harmless to the body, as it only produces urease and does not interfere with the biological processes taking place in the digestive tract. But when the environment becomes increasingly difficult for the bacterium to live in, it travels to the mucosa of the stomach lining[6]. This initiates the human immune system, as the bacterium is recognized as hostile and dangerous cell. Once the immune response occurs, the body naturally tries to destroy the bacterium, however with the
Treatment Although Helicobacter pylori may seem as a minor problem, as far as health is considered, its impacts are severe and may even be lethal. This is why it is important to prevent the bacteria from causing much greater issue by controlling one’s diet, exercising and not smoking in order to maintain adequate stomach conditions. As a result, the Helicobacter pylori will have no reason to attack the stomach lining. Nevertheless, sometimes a use of medicine such as proton pump inhibitors or antacids has proven to be useful to maintain the conditions of the stomach. Furthermore, as the last resort, antibiotics, specifically Amoxicillin, Clarithromycin or Metronidazole may be used to get rid of the infection induced by Helicobacter pylori and to stop this deadly bacterium.•
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little bit of a snake poison might be healthy, but a low of it is deadly. This is what I usually tell myself before I play Super Mario Bros, but I still end up playing it for the whole afternoon. Nevertheless, I always thought that a snake or a shiny green frog from the Amazonian forests had the most dangerous poisons ever. Fortunately, there are even worse ways how to achieve the world apocalypse. Here are the: TOP 10 COOLEST AND MOST DANGEROUS POISONS!
10. Nitrous oxide Nitrous oxide is not really a poison, but if you think about it, everything is a little bit of a poison. It is a cute and funny gas, which allows you to constantly laugh when inhaled. The „laughing gas“ has a slightly sweet taste and is used in hospitals to prevent pain. However, a big amount of Nitrous oxide can kill you, because it is a very addictive drug. Due to the oxygen, it may destroy your brain cells. It wouldn’t be a „funny“ death.
9. Sarin Sarin was discovered in 1938 by a German scientist Wuppertal-Elberfeld and acts as a tool of mass destruction. The lethal nerve gas that can kill in 1-10 minutes even when released in very low concentration. After inhaling you may experience difficult breathing, which causes the body to collapse. In fact, Sarin has been used by the German Army.
8. Amatoxin Amatoxin is a small mushroom with a deadly effect - even a single mushroom can kill you. After eating this dead-delicious mushroom, the poison attacks your kidney and your liver. After a few days, you collapse into a coma and you never wake up again. This mushroom can be found anywhere in the world, so watch out!
7. Cyanide Cyanide, originally created for mining purposes, is a poison commonly used to kill someone or commit suicide. When a small amount of cyanide comes into contact with blood, it binds itself to the iron element in the blood and prevents the flow of oxygen in the body. Death will occur immediately since there is no circulation of oxygen in the body. Interesting fact is that during the
World War II. many agents had a tooth filled with cyanide, in case they got caught, the only thing they had to,was to break the capsule with a tooth and release the cyanide before the enemies captured them.
6. Strychnine Strychnine is an alkaloid that is colorless, bitter and crystalline. It is used as a pesticide for killing small animals, like rats. The deadly poison occurs naturally in India, but is mainly produced in labs. If it enters your body through inhalation, ingestion or absorption, your muscles will start contracting within minutes. Nausea and vomiting will follow soon after. The muscle convulsions will lead to asphyxiation that will, in turn, kill you. You’re going to have 30 minutes to say goodbye!
5.Tetrodotoxin Tetrodotoxin, mostly known as TTX, is a Japanese pufferfish and is used to prepare sushi known as “Fugu”. 95% of the fish is poisoned, so only the 5% of the fish is edible. If the poison is consumed, it may be hard to swallow or speak and you feel like hallucinating. After that, you will experience seizures and convulsions, then coma and good bye to the delicious Japanese cuisine - you will die. That could happen from 17 minutes to 6 hours. The fish has been an inspiration to the Simpsons when there has been an episode about it when he ate the whole food in the local sushi bar and then Homer has eaten a Fugu made by an amateur Japanese cook. If you are brave enough, you can try!
4. Arrow Poison Frog The tiny bright coloured Central and South American Dendrobatid frogs have over 125 species of their kind. Initially, they were used by Native Americans for hunting purposes. The arrow head was covered by the batrachotoxin from the skin of the frog, and it became a deadly weapon. Though the frog is the size of the tip of a thumb, it has enough poison to kill more than 10 men. The poison can either be a cardiotoxin, meaning it stops the working of your heart, resulting in instant death, or a neurotoxin whereby an amount equal to 2 grains of salt can kill an adult human. Don’t trust a frog!
3. VX Formally a pesticide, VX is the most lethal nerve gas in the world with no other use except for chemical warfare. It is categorized as a weapon of mass destruction, and has neither taste nor odour, like Sarin. Though VX was banned for use, militaries across the world scrambled to stockpile this lethal weapon. If one drop of the gas meets exposed skin, it will cause death. Inhalation will cause symptoms that are flu-like with minimal exposure. In severe cases, it can lead to paralysis as well as failure of the respiratory system. You think the smog in Prague is bad? Try to expose VX into the air and then you cannot complain!
2. Botulinum Toxin This naturally occurring poison cannot be used to kill when it's isolated, but it has crazy toxin levels. One teaspoon of botulinum toxin is enough to kill more than 1 billion human beings. For this reason, it is very popular among weapon developers. In fact, it is rumoured that during the reign of Sadam, Iraq might have had enough botulinum toxin to clear the earth three times over. The toxin is produced by a bacterium called Clostridium botulin. Its poisonous form is botulism, which can be found in food, but can be killed by heating food to over 100°C. Surprisingly, it is used for medical and cosmetic procedures like Botox. If you’re sick of your dorm neighbours do not use Botulinum Toxin, otherwise you are going to sooth your dorm neighbour in Singapore!
1. Polonium Discovered in 1898, the radioactive element Polonium was the cause of death of Yasser Arafat, the Palestinian leader and Russian dissident. Polonium is amongst the deadliest poisons of the 21st century. It has no use in biological science since it is extremely lethal to all living organisms. Its most common form is Polonium 210, which is allegedly 250,000 times more deadly than hydrogen cyanide. This explains why the Americans employed its toxicity in the World War II to bring down Nagasaki in what they called the Manhattan Project's Dayton Project. In theory, a gram of Polonium 210 could wipe out 10 million people if ingested, injected or inhaled. If the radiation doesn’t kill you, then you are likely to get cancer.
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