Cosmological origin of physics

Cosmological Origin of Physics

Momentum conservation of radiation jets entering cosmic voids from all sides proves dark energy is a hoax to get funding to measure immeasurable ghost, abuse Einstein Gravity Physics as the greatest mistake in science supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, Ref. 1.

Prof.-­‐Dr. Benjamin Gal-­‐Or

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Figure 1: Cosmological Origin of Physics starts by a simple proof that "dark energy" is not physics Cosmic travel of all radiation energies as galactic & interstellar "winds" or "jets", ends when all these energy flows from active stars and galaxies dissipate irreversibly in all cosmic cold voids. Fig. 3, yellow arrows shown and Refers. 2 to 8.

Comprehension: The marked yellow "winds-­‐jets" enter all voids from all directions.

BASIC CLASSICAL PHYSICS: Subject to momentum conservation, these "winds-­‐jets" push back, and away, all non-­‐expanding, by gravity, "matter-­‐filaments-­‐walls" of super-­‐clusters of millions galaxies around each, evenly distributed voids, Fig. 3. Said thermodynamic and thrusting processes cause the well-­‐verified Einstein-­‐Hubble inertial expansion, since the 'BIG BANG', to accelerate the expansion.

Wherefore, there is no need to speculate on immeasurable dark-­‐energy that is claimed to fill-­‐up the entire cosmos and our solar system to account for the 1998-­‐discovered acceleration of the Einstein-­‐ Hubble expansion and accordingly to change Einsteinian Gravity Physics, EGP, or GENERAL RELATIVITY.

2

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

RECAP: Inside each void the "winds-­‐jets" clash in virtual "adiabatic surfaces", Fig. 2, and dissipate there irreversibly as the end of their cosmic travel, some as long as 17 billion years.

Preliminary Origin Conclusions: These verified thermodynamic processes provide the root-­‐cause for: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

The cosmological origin of theoretical physics, including the second law of thermodynamics, The origin of all observed time asymmetries, The origin of all life evolution. [2-­‐8].

The philosophy of Gravitism based on EGP, The unequivocally proof that dark-­‐energy does not account for the 1998-­‐discovered acceleration of the Einstein-­‐Hubble expansion of the universe, because simple classical physics and astronomy, do it herein.

That claims based on immeasurable dark energy are misleading and wrong, That to associate dark energy with demands to "correct" well-­‐verified EGP is tantamount to (a) The greatest mistake in Science, (b) The greatest loss of trust in today's theoretical physics and in scientific periodicals that support dark energy during the last 18 years.

Supporting similar issues raised by string theories are presented in Appendix A. These preliminary conclusions are further defined, explained and proved by Figures 2 to 3 and demonstrated by Thought Experiment provided below.

Figure 2: "DARK ENERGY HOAX" from the "Astrophysical School's" point of view, Refers. 2 to 8 Figure taken from page 283 in our book "Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy", Ref 7. [published reviews on the "Astrophysical School" are provided below].

3

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

VOIDS EQUIVALENCE: Due to observed uniform distribution of the voids in intergalactic space, Fig. 3, the study of one is closely equivalent to the study of all, namely, the sole root-­‐cause of all irreversible processes in the cosmos is originated by these expanding-­‐cooling voids; from about 4,000 degrees at radiation-­‐dominated-­‐era-­‐ end, down to 2.7 degrees K that currently rules all cold voids. [2-­‐8].

CLUSTERS I and II represent all super-­‐clusters of galaxies. The marked EXPANDING, UNSATURABLE, SPACE "1" represents the expanding voids shown in NASA-­‐MAP Fig. xx. The voids are located between all Super-­‐clusters of galaxies shown in the Map, or in similar published maps of the visible universe. It is the largest dumping space, or "sink" of the universe. Much larger then any BLACK HOLE can provide. In fact, all radiation flowing into SPACE-­‐1, from stars and galaxies, end their travel there.

Depression in energy-­‐density gradients between Clusters I and II represents gradients inside the expanding voids. Nearby expanding voids are half-­‐shown. Energy-­‐gradients in intergalactic SPACE-­‐2, which wraps all non-­‐expanding clusters and super-­‐clusters of galaxies, and interstellar SPACE-­‐3 located inside each galaxy, as marked.

"Adiabatic walls" are virtual surfaces that encage each expanding void and thus prevent net energy flow from one expanding void to another due to their uniform distribution in space. [Figure 3]. Energy still flows through this surface in opposing directions, but the net value is zero.

By rocket-­‐type reaction, the winds-­‐jets that enter each void from all directions push out the "walls" of non-­‐ expanding, super-­‐clusters of galaxies around each, causing acceleration of the left-­‐over EINSTEIN-­‐HUBBLE expansion inertia. Wrongly the detected acceleration is claimed as caused by a mysterious "dark energy" that "fills the entire universe", thus 'requires' correcting a mistake in EGP.

4

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Figure 3: Coldest Expanding Voids v. non-­‐expanding "filaments" or "walls" of super-­‐clusters of galaxies: The dark, coldest, expanding VOIDS are evenly distributed between the super-­‐clusters of galaxies, some are marked in pink. Each void encounters fast, incoming inter-­‐ galactic/interstellar "winds" as radiation "jets". An example is marked with yellow arrows in Fig. 1. Two rules of physics take place RE the root-­‐cause of the 1998-­‐discovery of accelerated

5

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

expansion of the universe: (i) momentum conservation, which control rocket-­‐type thrust that pushes away the non-­‐expanding filaments and walls of the super-­‐clusters around each void, (ii) the effect of (i) on inertia that control the Einstein-­‐Hubble expansion since the Big-­‐Bang.

Theorists identified in page 2 claim that the 1998-­‐detected acceleration in the expansion of the universe is caused by mysterious "dark energy" that fills the entire universe, and accordingly, physics must be "corrected" to fit their "Dark Energy Speculations".

Figure 4: SPACE-­‐"2" wraps all non-­‐expanding galaxies [Fig. 2] and all

non-­‐expanding SPACE-­‐"3" where super-fast, interstellar winds,

flow out to SPACE-"2" and next, permanently and irreversibly dissipate in the coldest, expanding SPACE-­‐"1", Fig. 2, composed of cold, dark, expanding VOIDS located between the Super-­‐Clusters of galaxies. [Figures 2 & 3]. All images from author's books & Wikipedia.

6

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Who are the Dark Energy Chimerians?

No proof was ever established that these "Hail-­‐Cannons" do anything but raise loud noise, fool media editors, the public, donors and government to fund otherwise needed moneys for better education, health programs, the army, and helping the poor and elders.

Claims made today by about 400 theorists at Fermilab, Universities of Chicago, Pennsylvania, Ohio State, UCL & Argonne National Lab, DOE, NSF, IEEC, IFAE, OzDEZ, NOAD, NCSA, SLAC, CTIO, LMU in Germany, UK Consortium, universities in London, and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, are voided by (a) applying simple momentum conservation which unequivocally proves that "dark energy" is nothing but Chimera, (b) resorting to Chimerian base & immeasurable "dark energy", to claim that Einstein Gravity Physics is wrong, (c) maintaining (a) & (b) results in the greatest mistake in Science, generated by theorists and supported by SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, Ref. 1.

7

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Within organized shows, some Chimerian players throw up "dark-­‐hail", which instead of falling back by gravity, is speeding up to the sky, whereby they (i) fool fellow scientists, media editors, the public, donors & international governments, to raise astronomical funds for space craft & instrumentation aimed to measure the immeasurable "dark hail", (ii) exploit the 1998-­‐discovery that the universe is NOT slowing down its expansion by gravity, but, by "dark hail", is accelerating, (iii) help sell computer-­‐simulations as "tests" of claimed Chimera properties that dictate to "correct" Einstein Gravity Physics. Details below.

What is claimed in need of "correction" in theoretical physics?

Einstein published his Gravity Physics, known as General Relativity, in November 1915, post checking if it correctly predicts published, irregular, precise, motions of the planet Mercury. He found total agreement with said astronomical observations, agreement that no other theory had accomplished before.

In 1918-­‐1919 his field equations were re-­‐confirmed by correctly predicting the gravity-­‐induced, bending of light passing near a large mass, in this first case, the sun.

Next, a Russian mathematician proved that Einstein's Field Equations, when applied to cosmology, show that Einstein's cosmos cannot stay stable, it must expand or contract. Einstein was horrified. Strong social and religious pressures forced him to add a simple constant to his equations, to make his world "stable".

A few years later, Hubble, in the U.S., proved that, indeed, our universe is expanding, that, in fact, all galaxies run away from each other.

Einstein had thus predicted what Hubble proved later: We live in an expanding universe, and because it has been expanding, there had been a "beginning", which nowadays is called "Big Bang", but should be termed "Einstein Genesis", or "Einstein-­‐Bang".

Most famously, Einstein next rejected this Ghost Number, partly as WARNING to SCIENTISTS to avoid Fooling Themselves, and mainly characterizing his own yielding to add it to his well-­‐verified world equations, the most misleading-­‐intervening social pressure in science, and the "worse blunder" of his life.

Thought experiment

Tomorrow the voids expansion stops and temperatures in SPACES 3 to 1 gradually rise to those in the center of stars or galactic centers, eventually, thermal equilibrium is reached, by which all processes stop.

THUS, (a) stellar evolution, which produces the building blocks of life, is impossible without energy the expansion and without the energy-­‐density marked in Fig. 2, gradients generated by said expanding-­‐

8

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

cooling of the voids, (b) Expansion of SPACE-­‐1 causes outflowing radiation (interstellar winds, or jets, Fig. 3] emerging from active stars and galaxies, to gradually proceed to SPACE-­‐2 and dissipated in SPACE-­‐1.

A note on the 1964-­‐discovered Cosmic black-­‐body radiation: It is a remnant, left-­‐over, radiation glow that has expanded with VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 during about 17 billion years. It is cooled by the expansion itself from about 4,000-­‐3,000 K to about 270 degrees below zero C. Accordingly, this black-­‐body radiation provides one of the direct proofs that VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 has expanded and is forming the sole universal, thermodynamic "sink" in the cosmos.

A note on Black holes: These are local "sinks" whose energy dissipating capacities form important research subjects but so far do not provide the sole universal sink.

CONCLUSION-­‐I: Our simple technical proof denies and replaces a mystic, immeasurable, dark energy that fills the entire cosmos as own-­‐generated by armies of proponents who extract billions for space-­‐craft, instrumentation and activities based on baseless claims that are not only misleading and fooling fellow scientists, media editors and the public, but, to put it short: Are nothing but 18-­‐years re-­‐sold Chimera to the government and the public.

CONCLUSION-­‐II: Said Dark-­‐Energy Armies, "DEA" are composed of highly-­‐devoted proponents who fool themselves and sponsors to finance their grand Chimera, partly because they fail to account for their inability to read and comprehend this counter-­‐dark-­‐energy-­‐proof. In short: (i) DEA resurrect a Misleading, Ghost Number, Historically and Wrongly Called "Cosmological Constant", which is nothing but a "Socio-­‐Religious Prejudice Constant", or "SoRePreC", enforced on gentle Einstein to add to his well-­‐ verified Gravity Field Equations to stop the socially-­‐unwanted expanding universe predicted by his famous, well-­‐verified equations. (ii) DEA reject and/or ignore verified astrophysical evidence used by this Astrophysical School, Refers. 2 to 8, which empties their own-­‐generated, "Dark Energy" for which they ask the government to pay for. (iii) DEA reject and/or ignore verified facts and laws of physics presented by this school, which unequivocally, fully account for the 1998-­‐detected acceleration, and (iv) DEA reject the best and well-­‐verified Einstein Gravity Physics as "wrong", and (v) DEA demand to "correct" the well-­‐verified Einstein Gravity Physics, and

9

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

(vi) DEA demand that other fellow scientists adopt their dreams formulations, some of which are based on other wrongs briefed in Appendix A below, and (vii) DEA demand that governments endlessly finance their dreams by huge budgets in space-­‐crafts, space research and academic education aimed to maintain alive their Chimerian dreams.

CONCLUSION III: Such empty claims only bring a sad-­‐end to global trusting of theoretical physics. To save this trust and wasted $-­‐billions, universities and governments should dismantled these Dark-­‐Energy Armies.

CONCLUSION IV: Reference 7 details the chain of processes ruled by the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics. This chain includes the generation of the chemical building elements of life inside massive stars, and supernova explosions that spread the elements in SPACE-­‐3, the origin of the solar system and earth from the sole origin of all: The Master Cosmological Expansion of VOIDS/SPACE-­‐1 as has been established since 1969-­‐1972 by our Astrophysical School of Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics and Time Asymmetries. [2-­‐8].

A Brief Mathematical Review RE: the Astrophysical School Reference 7, at 267-­‐283, summarizes the "THE FAILURE OF CLASSICAL AND QUANTAL STATISTICAL MECHANICS TO DEDUCE IRREVERSIBILITY AND TIME ASYMMETRIES". A few Examples: (a) A common mathematical practice to resort to prediction that rejects retrodiction to support desired wishes to extract "proofs" of the origin of irreversibility in nature e.g., the famous Boltzmann Theorem, or more recently, the wrong "proof" advanced by the late Nobel Prize Winner I. Prigogine, is stressed first by this school. (b) A common acceptance of retarded solutions of wave equations in static vs. expanding cosmos, while rejecting advanced solutions. [Cf. John Wheeler's comment in Reviews below], is also stressed by this school. (c) A common wrong in accepting only initial conditions vs. rejecting final conditions when one starts formulations with symmetric mathematics to provide the sought-­‐after "proof" in asymmetric mathematics, is also exposed by this school. (d) Similar common mistakes are detailed in Ref. 7. They amount to smuggling irreversibility into symmetric mathematics without declaring the contraband.

10

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Published Reviews v. "Dark-­‐Energy" Claims

"Einstein's time-­‐symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-­‐Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-­‐Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-­‐chemical and biological evolution -­‐-­‐ that the expansion of the universe is the cause of Einstein's Portrait, by Evelyne Katz, 1986, with Permission

the second law of thermodynamics -­‐-­‐ that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-­‐cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.” Advancement of Physics AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS: “Gal-­‐Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole. He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-­‐delusion.

11

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry.

His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

12

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

The value of this book lies in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-­‐Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-­‐Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS “I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it. I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-­‐provoking.”

Prof. John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton University

"Gal-­‐Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.” Gold Award by N.Y. Academy of Sciences

"Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds. Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.

Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book”.

New Scientist Magazine

"The works of scientists like Gal-­‐Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-­‐Winner) Prigogine provide important resources. Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-­‐Or is superior)." The Crisis of the Science

13

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe. It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.” Robin forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222

"Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-­‐Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power." Chinese Academy of Sciences "A Master Piece.The well-­‐known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-­‐day scientific theories. " Indian Journal of Physics

"This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening." Sir Karl Popper, the Greatest Philosopher of Science

"I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-­‐Or’s book." HaAretz, Israeli News Paper

"We are all Gal-­‐Orians ! " Editor, Foundations of Physics

"Gal-­‐Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-­‐away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.” Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics

Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

"This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read." Outstanding Books List

"Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!

Gal-­‐Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy."

A. Cottrell, V. Chancellor, Cambridge University “Lecture one [in Volume I] affirms that the stress placed by Genesis on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-­‐less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified

14

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.”

Christian Apologetics Journal

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy Springer Verlag, 1981, 1983, 1987, 2008, 2015-­‐2016 by ISSUU

SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………........ xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..…….......... xxii

Introduction

1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy ………………….....… 2 1.1.1 The problem of ordering ………………………...…… 3 1.1.2 How did it all start? ……………………………………….……..… 5 1.1.3 The first seven stages ………………………………………...... 7 1.1.4 The present matter-­‐dominated Era…………………….….… 11

15

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark …... 11

2.2 The Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and of Physics From Philosophy) ……………………………...……………… 13 2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics ….………………..…....... 16

2.3.1 Unification of initial-­‐boundary conditions first?

Unification of fields second? ………………..…............................ 16 2.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..……………….......... 17 2.4 The Great Physico-­‐Philosophical Gains from

16

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

the Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation ……..… 19 2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….…............. 22 2.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..………........ 23 2.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and Astrophysics …………………………………….……….……………………. 24 3.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...…………………..…......…... 26 3.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .…………………...………....….………… 69

PART I: Preliminary Concepts

Lecture I

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures to Black Holes & Neutrinos in Astrophysics

1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….…………….... 80 A fallacy associated with current theories ……………............. 80 1.1.2 Gravity-­‐induced sedimentary structures …………... 81 1.2 Stars and the Hertzsprung-­‐Russel Central Diagram ………. . 88 1.3 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars ……………………………………………………..… 92 1.4 X-­‐Ray Astronomy, Binary X-­‐Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ………………………………………………..... 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….…………………………….… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy .……………. 113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? …………………… …………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ……………………………… . 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-­‐Ray Astronomy ………………………….. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-­‐Solar Space by Unmanned Spacecraft …. 134

17

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Lecture II

From “Conservation” in Classical Physics to Solitons in Particle Physics

2.1 Aim and Scope ……………………………………………………………. 138 2.2 Limitations of Theory ………………………………….………………. 140 2.3 The General Macroscopic Equation …………………….….........142 2.4 Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) …………....146 2.5 Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.………….. 147 2.6 The Navier-­‐Stokes Equations and Gravity ………………….. 149 2.7 Kinetic-­‐Energy Equation and 2.8 Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields ……………… 152

2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation …………………………………………………………… 154 2.9 First Law and Enthalpy ……………………………………………………… 156 2.10 First Law In Terms of Temperature Field ………………………………. 157 2.11 Entropy Balance Equation ……………………………………….….. 159 2.12 Beyond Classical Physics: Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation …………………………………. 160 2.13 Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) ……..… 163

Lecture III

From General Relativity & Relativistic Cosmology to Gauge Theories

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………....... …………………..…….. 167 3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….…….…... 169 3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation …………... … 172 3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and.

Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….………………………………….. 191

18

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Univers.e And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….….......................... 200 3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle of Equivalence ………………………….………………………………… 204 3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ……………….…. 205

PART II

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back

Lecture IV

The Arrows of Time

4.1 Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted of All Ideas? ………………………………..…. 215 4.2 Asymmetry-­‐Symmetry-­‐Space-­‐Time and The Unification of the Laws of Physics …………………… 216 4.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope ………………………………. 217 4.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries 219 4.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time ………………………………………………. 222 4.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ………………………. 226 4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ……………………………………………………….. 227 4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….…… 230 4.9 A Few Remarks ……………………………………...………………………. 232 4.10 Time-­‐Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility ………… 236 4.10 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….……………. 240 4.11 The Death of Scale-­‐Based Physics……………….…………....242 4.12 The “Dual” Quantum-­‐Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” …………………………………..……..……. 243 4.13

19

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

4.14 4.15

Fading Memory in Classical Physics ……………………….. 247 Doubts as to the Universality of Entropy ……………….….249

Entropy-­‐Free Thermodynamics & Arrows of Time 250

4.16

Lecture V

The Crisis in Quantum Physics

5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….……………….. 255 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics: 5.1.1 The three main schools of thought …………………… 261 5.2 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ………... 262 5.3 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….………….. 265 5.4 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………….. 265 5.5 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ………………………………………………. 267 5.6 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics and Super-­‐Symmetry …………………………………..... 272 5.6.1 Spatio-­‐Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-­‐Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ………………………....................... 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa ……………………………………………………………...….. 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………...……………….. 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories …………………………………….......................................... 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories …………………………................................... 276-­‐1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………..……………………………………. 276-­‐1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-­‐Symmetry & Super-­‐Gravity …………………………………….............................. 276-­‐3

20

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

5.6.3.1 On the limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ ……………………...... …………………….... 276-­‐4

PART III From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back

Lecture VI

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy

6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……. 277 6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………………………. 277 Dialectical Gravitism: Definition of the first problems ………………………………………………………………………….. 278 6.1.3 Gravitation as super-­‐asymmetry ………………… 279 6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………................... 279 6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...…………………………… 282 6.2.2 6.3 Gravitation-­‐Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence …………………. 284 6.4 Can Inter-­‐cluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? …… 287 6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry from Gravitation Theories ………………………...… ………………………. 290 6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics ………………...…………………………. 293 6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ……..…… ………… 297 6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..……………………… 299 6.9 Connections with Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………………..…………………….......... 301 6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility and the Master Asymmetry …………………….....….......................... 303

21

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Lecture VII

Cosmological Origin of Time

7.1 Time: The All-­‐Embracing Concept ………………………..………... 309 7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………....................... 310 7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…........................... 314 7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .……. 316 7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into Un-­‐Saturable Space ……………………………………………………….. 322 7.6 Stellar Evolution …………………………………………….. 324 7.7 Terrestrial Evolution ……………………………….......…. 325 7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………..……. 326 Microscopic T-­‐Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ……… 327

Lecture VIII

Black Holes Vs. Unification of Asymmetries

8.1 Introduction ……………………………………………… 330 8.2 Observational Evidence ………………………….… 331 8.3 Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes …………. 332 8.4 Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ……………… 340 8.5 Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? ……………………. 341 8.6 Primordial Black Holes? ………………………….... 341 8.7 Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………....341

22

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

PART IV Lecture IX

Beyond Present Knowledge

Hawaism, The Science of The Whole

9.1 The Futile Quest for Final Answers ………………….. 349 9.2 An Example in Hawaism ……………………..…....….….. 350 9.3 From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..….… 365 9.4 The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..…………… 415

VOLUME II

10 Introduction ……………………………………………................... 420

11 A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry 437

12 The Philosophy of Time & Change:

Some Historical Notions …………………….…………………... 455

13 Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: 14 A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..……… 467

15 Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………………….. 483

23

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

16 Thought-­‐Provoking and Thought-­‐Depressing Quotations … 495

17 Critique of Western Methodology ……………………………….. 530

RECAP

(a) The radiation Jets (yellow arrows in Fig. 1 enter each void from ALL DIRECTIONS, thus pushing away, under momentum conservation, the observed "filaments" and "walls" of non-­‐ expanding, super-­‐clusters of galaxies, by

(i) thrusting-­‐out ("pushing out", like by reaction provided by rockets & jet engines), (ii) thus, causing intergalactic voids to expand, (iii) thus, self-­‐cooling voids become the universal energy-­‐sink of the universe, (iv) thus, all radiation is forced to flow from SPACE-­‐3 to SPACE-­‐2, to irreversibly end their travel and permanently dissipate in SPACE-­‐1. (v) thus adding accumulated, steady acceleration to the entire EINSTEIN-­‐ HUBBLE expansion INERTIA of the cosmos. (vi) SPACE-­‐1 generates the 2nd law, time asymmetries and life evolution.

Appendix A Unverifiable String Theories v. Unverifiable Dark Energy Fundamental Problems in String Theories Associated with some Dark-­‐Energy Claims Current experimental techniques in science cannot provide direct verification below about 10-­‐19 meter, which is more than 15 orders of magnitude above any direct verification scale of string theories, or of any theory.

Moreover, all string theories have failed to converge into a single acceptable formulation, and no string theory version has made any prediction that differs from those made by other theories.

Whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become an active branch of theoretical physics, that, in part, had originated from Einstein’s search for a unified field theory of gravity and quantum physics.

24

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

The first to add a fifth spatial dimension to Einstein's general relativity were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926). These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his attempts to develop a unified field theory. But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain.

The current proponents of string theories claim, inter alia, that on very small sub-­‐atomic scales, all fundamental field-­‐forces consist of vibrating strings or membranes of energy. See below.

The spectrum, or zoo, of subatomic particles then emerges (mathematically) as small vibrating strings that by altering their mode of vibration transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles, while causing space-­‐time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity.

Despite three decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of string theories, as conducted by armies of physicists, there is not a single, direct verification test that the theory is correct. And none is expected.

While the various equations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions; a mysticism of scientists, which, when combined with the fundamental issue of a priori smuggling into these theories what is to be proved, makes them what they are. Einstein’s anti-­‐probabilistic views remain un-­‐falsified. Similarly, the much acclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading.

Some of the string theories proponents claim that prior to Genesis a pre-­‐Genesis world contraction had turned into a black hole that, at the moment of Genesis, had created many WHITE HOLES, namely, our observable universe is just one of them – indeed a mystic science but a beautiful mathematical music to the brain-­‐mind.

Hidden variables are postulated in string theories as extra [beyond 3 space and one time dimensions] 6, 7 or higher spatial dimensions. Postulated by David Bohm, these ideas are now driving string theories. They, inter alia, by-­‐pass the embarrassing point-­‐like feathers of ‘particles’ in quantum theories Such variables also allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s dream of a deterministic world outlook of general relativity3.3 that is unified with quantum physics.

Investigating how a string theory may include fermions led to the concept of supersymmetry a mathematical collection of ideas relating bosons and fermions (every particle has superpartner that is not observable. Superpartners are called squarks, selectrons and gluinos.

25

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

M-­‐Theory is one group of string theories that postulates ‘Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions so as to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. The theoretical limit of the M-­‐theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. It is not yet a fully understood theory.

D-­‐Branes are membranes of different spatial dimensionality. The membranes are postulated to be gravitational sources, so that one may end-­‐up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of string and quantum theories. They may emit and absorb closed strings and are postulated to emit gravitons and also to emit charge since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons.

The pre-­‐supposed (hidden variables tiny entities are postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are postulated to oscillate-­‐vibrate. By pre-­‐assuming the reality of vibrating strings, one may deduce different vibrational modes that are further postulated to represent different sub-­‐atomic particles. Such postulated strings may split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between sub-­‐atomic particles.

Quantum Strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like regular strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape. A closed loop string, left to move without external forces, will contract into a smaller loop. But it is further postulated that it would not shrink to a zero-­‐sized point.

Open Strings have two distinct end-­‐points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop.

The two types may allow speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-­‐particle’. For example, one of the closed string modes is the graviton, and in the open string mode it is a photon3.1 ‘Landscapes-­‐Inside-­‐landscapes’, (worlds-­‐inside-­‐worlds) in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions are postulated in string theories4.6-­‐4.11 to harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. Such theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-­‐ theory.

Symmetry-­‐Asymmetry: All laws of physics, except those of thermodynamics, are space and time symmetric, namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time.

However, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, in its fundamental form, states that in using the time coordinate one can only proceed from past to future and never in reverse. Accordingly, some theorists claim, in contradiction with thermodynamics, that if the universe is eternal into the future, it must be

26

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

eternal into the past. Hence, they claim, prior to creation [the “big-­‐bang”] there was a symmetrical world contraction into an all-­‐containing black hole.

As the density “had” increased during that pre-­‐creation contraction, gigantic black holes had been formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they all switched to expnasion, the interior of one of them has become “our universe”.

Such claims encounter endless debates. Yet, their proponents hope that upcoming observations by, say, the Planck Sattelite and the ground-­‐based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be detected by their effect on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation; perhaps conferring some supportive evidence.

Appendix B

TRUST in Theoretical Physics Has ENDED by Proponents of Unverifiable Dark Energy and Unverifiable String Theories

Key Problem 1: Physics today is based on (i) scale-­‐free, well-­‐verified, Einstein's Gravity Physics, "EGP", known as General Relativity, (ii) well-­‐verified, Small-­‐Scale-­‐Arrested-­‐Quantum, "SSAQ-­‐Model", both divorced from each other despite SSAQ-­‐Model proponents enforcing their models on scale-­‐free-­‐EGP, and vice versa, to extract funding of SSAQ-­‐String Theories, or Theories of Everything.

Key Problem 2: Theoretical physics, except the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics, is formulated by time symmetric mathematics. Various attempts to extract the time-­‐asymmetric, 2nd Law, from symmetric mathematics have failed by smuggling asymmetric mathematics into symmetric ones without declaring the contraband. [References 1-­‐8].

Key Problem 3: Verifications of key foundations of physics are linked to cosmological distances, time and scale, which are beyond the reach of experimentation. Ref. 7. There is also the issue of great numbers. For instance, there are about 2.3 million galaxies, each harboring billions of stars, within a narrow window to the sky: 150 square degrees.

Key Problem 4: Galaxies lump together by Einsteinian gravity to form clusters in the form of "filaments" or "walls" of non-­‐expanding, super-­‐clusters. Figure 3.

27

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Key Problem 5: By turning global research attention to

(i) better verify the complex thermodynamic processes that control the energy-­‐density gradients inside the coldest, expanding voids between the "filaments" and "walls", Figures 2 & 3, we can better establish the root-­‐cause of the 2nd law, time asymmetries in nature and SPACE-­‐1-­‐linked-­‐life evolution, as treated by References 2 to 8.

(ii) Dark energy claims are not needed to account for the 1998-­‐detected cosmic expansion acceleration. Our proof thus empty said dark energy claims, as have been assessed herein.

References SCIENCE-­‐AAAS, Ref. 1, supports "History Hoax: Dark Energy" and denies the Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics and Time Asymmetries, Refers. 2 to 8.

1. Keith

Smith, EDITOR, SCIENCE-­‐AAAS.Int. SUPPORTS DARK ENERGY and, DENIES the ASTROPHYSICAL SCHOOL, Refers. 2 to 8; Email to Benjamin Gal-­‐Or, October 29, 2016, 12.27AM, RE: 44 years Ago …; Copy to Alice Whaley, SCIENCE-­‐AAAS.Int., UK.

2. Benjamin Gal-­‐Or, Cosmological Origin of Thermodynamics, Nature 230, 1971); 234, 217 (1971);

3. Ibid, On The Origin of Irreversibility, Science-­‐AAAS, 176, 11 (1972); 178, 119 (1972);

4. Ibid, International Congress "Critical Review of the Foundations of Relativistic and Classical Thermodynamics", Pittsburgh, Pa. April 7-­‐8, (1969), with participation of Nobel Prize Winners, Chaired and edited by B. Gal-­‐Or, Proceedings published by Mono Book, (1970).

5. Ibid, Entropy, Fallacy, and the Origin of Irreversibility: An Essay on the New Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics; Annal. N.Y. Acad. Acad. Sci., 196 (A6) 305 (1972) (Gold Medal Award).

6. Ibid, on the New Astrophysical Revolutionary School of Thermodynamics, Found. Phys. 6, 407 (1976); 6, 623 (1976); 7, 50 (1977).

7. Ibid, Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy (CPP), Volumes I and II, Springer Verlag, New York, 1981, 1983, 1987, Volumes I and 2 in 522-­‐page, Hard-­‐Cover worldwide acclaimed book,

28

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED to Prof.-­‐Dr. BENJAMIN GAL-­‐OR, Oct. 31, 2016

Expanding and updating Refers. 2 to 6 and adding "Einsteinian-­‐Induced-­‐Physics and philosophy of Physics" and 'Gravitism' to "The Astrophysical School".

8. Ibid, "Unifications of Symmetries and Asymmetries: What should be first?, Physics Essays, 6, 60, 1993 followed by online published booklets, 2008-­‐2016, including issues related to the 1998-­‐ discovery that the expanding universe is accelerating, vs. History Hoax: "Dark Energy".

Author: Former professor at Johns Hopkins University, Pittsburgh University & Technion-­‐Israel Institute of Technology (TIIT); (i) established the NATIONAL JET-­‐ENGINE RESEARCH LABORATORY, (ii) in 1976-­‐1977 served as the 1st director of the INSTITUTE of ADVANCED STUDIES, TIIT. Current research: (a) Stealth, Tailless, Thrust Vectoring (Jet-­‐Steering) of Jet Drones, like RQ-­‐170, Boeing X-­‐45C, Cruise Missiles & Fighter Aircraft, like the F-­‐22, F-­‐35, (b) Updating the Astrophysical School of Thermodynamics and Time Asymmetries. References 2 to 8, (c) editor-­‐in-­‐chief, International Journal of Turbo & Jet Engines, DeGruyter, Berlin, Germany, but lives in the U.S. & Philippines since 2000.

All rights reserved to the Author.

29