INTRODUCTION to ASTRONOMY, MODERN PHYSICS, PHILOSOPHY: CORE GRADUATE COURSE by Prof.-Dr. Ben Gal-Or

INTRODUCTION to ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, and PHILOSOPHY of SCIENCE A CORE GRADUATE COURSE

By Prof.-Dr. Benjamin Gal-Or ACTEre

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume I Table of Contents Worldwide Acclaims ……………………………………...…….… ii SIR KARL POPPER, Foreword ……………….……………..…… xx SIR ALAN COTTRELL, Foreword ………………….………........ xxi Preface ……………………………………..….……….…..…….... xxii

Introduction

1.1 The Revival of Relativistic Cosmology vs. Modified Concepts in Physics and Philosophy …………………...….…

1.1.1 The problem of ordering ……………………...….…

1.1.2 How did it all start? ………………………………….

1.1.3 The first seven stages ……………………………....

1.1.4 The present matter-dominated era …………………..

2.1 The Einsteinian Methodology: A Preliminary Remark..

2.2 The Withdrawal of Philosophy From Physics (and of Physics From Philosophy) ………………………….…...…

2.3 The Greatest Ambition of Physics …………………..…......

2.3.1 Unification of initial-boundary conditions first?

Unification of fields second? …………………..…....

2.3.2 Should unification begin with differential equations? …………………..………...…

2.4 The Great Physico-Philosophical Gains From The Discovery of the Cosmic Background Radiation ……….

2.5 The Expanding Universe ………………………….…….......

2.6 The 1977 “Aether Drift” Discovery ……………..………....…

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2 3 5 7 11 11 13 16 16 17 19 22 23

2.7 Verification of Physical Laws by Astronomy and Astrophysics …………………………………….……….…... 24 3.1 Some Tentative Assertions …...…………………..…...……. 26 3.2 The Skeptic’s Outlook .…………………...………..…...……. 69 PART I: Preliminary Concepts 1.

From Terrestrial Gravitational Structures To Black Holes and Neutrinos in Astrophysics

1.1 Gravitation, Asymmetry and Structure ……………….……. 80 A fallacy associated with current theories …………….........…. 80 1.1.2 Gravity-induced sedimentary structures …………... 81 1.2 Stars and the Hertzsprung-Russel Central Diagram ……….. 88 1.3 Supernova, Gravitational Collapse, Neutron Stars, Pulsars …………………………………….. 92 1.4 X-Ray Astronomy, Binary X-Ray Systems, and Gravitational Clocks ……………………………………... 100 1.5 Black Holes …………………………………………….… 106 1.6 Gas, Dust and the Formation of Stars in Our Galaxy ….… 113 1.7 How Are Cosmic Distances Measured? ………………… 116 1.8 Neutrino Astronomy and Astrophysics ………………… 130 1.9 The Emergence of Gamma-Ray Astronomy ……………. 132 1.10 Exploration of Extra-Solar Space

By Unmanned Spacecraft ……………………………….. 134

2.

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

From “Conservation” in Classical Physics To Solitons in Particle Physics Aim and Scope …………………………………………...

Limitations of Theory ……………………………………

The General Macroscopic Equation ……………………..

Continuity Equation (Total Mass Conservation) ………...

Conservation of Linear Momentum and Gravity.…………

The Navier-Stokes Equations and Gravity ……………….

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138 140 142 146 147 149

2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

3.

Kinetic-Energy Equation and Dissipation Function in Gravitational Fields …………….

First Law of Thermodynamics or Energy Conservation Equation ……………………………………

First Law and Enthalpy …………………………………..

First Law In Terms of Temperature Field ………………..

Entropy Balance Equation ………………………………..

Beyond Classical Physics: Solitons, Antisolitons and Conservation ………………….

Neutrinos and the Powerful Role Conservation Equations Play in Subatomic Processes (Addendum) ……

152 154 156 157 159 160 163

From General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology To Gauge Theories

3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….... 167 3.1.1 Einstein’s field equations in general relativity ……….….. 169 3.1.2 Confirmation of Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation ………. 172 3.2 Principles and Formulations of General Relativity and Relativistic Cosmology ………………...……….…………… 191 3.3 Observations, The “Age” of the Universe And “Equivalent Local Cells” …………………….……….… 200 3.4 Timekeeping, Accelerated Observers and the Principle Of Equivalence ………………………….………… 204 3.5 From General Relativity to Unified Field Theories ………… 205

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PART II

From Physics to Philosophical Crossroads and Back 4.

The Arrows of Time

4.1

Time and The Arrow of Time: The Most Distorted Of All Ideas? ………………………….. 215 4.2 Asymmetry-Symmetry-Space-Time and The Unification of The Laws of Physics …………………… 216 4.3 Methodology, Aim and Scope ……………………………… 217 4.4 Confusing Concepts of Time and Time Asymmetries ……… 219 4.5 The Entropic Arrow of Time ……………………………….. 222 4.6 Causality, Causation and Time Asymmetries ………………. 226 4.7 Causation and Determinism in Relativistic Theories ………………………………………… 227 4.8 Cosmological Arrows of Time and Cosmic Time ……….….. 230 4.9 A Few Remarks ……………………………………...……….. 232 4.10 Time-Reversal Invariance and Irreversibility …………….…. 236 4.10 Microscopic Time Asymmetries in “Elementary Particles” ………………………….……….. 240 4.11 The Death of Scale-Based Physics ……………….……….... 242 4.12 The “Dual” Quantum-Geometrodynamical School and “Superspace” ………………………………….. 243 4.13 Tachyons and Causal Violations …………………….……… 246 4.14 Macrocausality and Microcausality in Quantum Mechanics … 247 4.15 Fading Memory in Classical Physics ……………………….. 247 4.16 Doubts As To The Universality of Entropy ………………… 249 4.17 Entropy-Free Thermodynamic Arrows of Time ………….…. 250 4.18 5.

The Crisis In Quantum Physics

5.1 Preliminary Review …………………………………….……. 255 The effect of gravitation and the outside world on quantum physics: 5

5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

5.6

5.1.1 The three main schools of thought …………………… 261 Einstein’s Objections to the Uncertainty Principle ……….... 262 The Heresy of a Few Skeptics ………………………….….. 265 Mythologized Concepts of Quantum Physics …………...…. 265 The Failure of Classical and Quantal Statistical Mechanics to Deduce Irreversibility and Time Asymmetries ……………………………………………..… 267 The Emergence of Quantum Chromodynamics And Super-Symmetry …………………………………….... 272 5.6.1 Spatio-Temporal Approach to Quantum Physics ….… 272 5.6.2 From Weinberg-Salam Theory to Quantum Chromodynamics ………………………...... 273 5.6.2.1 Conservation laws as symmetry principles; and vice versa ………………………………….. 273 5.6.2.2 Global, exact, approximate, isotopic and SU(3) symmetries ……………………….… 274 5.6.2.3 From SU(3) to renormalizable gauge theories ……………………………………....... 276 5.6.2.4 Quark confinement asymptotic freedom in gauge theories …………………………... 276-1 5.6.2.5 QCD and the search for higher symmetry principles ………………………………..…

276-1 5.6.3 From Quantum Field Theories to Super-Symmetry Super-Gravity …………………………………….... 276-3 5.6.3.1 On the limits of quantum gravity and ‘Unified Field Theories’ ……………………... 276-4

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PART III

From Physics to Cosmological Crossroads and Back 6.

Cosmology, Physics and Philosophy 6.1 Reduction of Thermodynamics to Gravitation ……...…

6.1.1 Methodology …………………………………….

Dialectical gravitism: Definition of the first problems ……………………………………

6.1.3 Gravitation as super-asymmetry ………………..

6.2 The Earliest and Most Universal Asymmetry: Observational Evidence …………………..………........

6.2.1 Which space expands and which does not? …...….

6.3 Gravitation-Asymmetry Principle of Equivalence …….

6.4 Can Intercluster Space Be Saturated With Radiation? …

6.5 Derivation of the Master Asymmetry From Gravitation Theories ………………………...….

6.6 Irreversibility in the New Gravitational Cosmological Thermodynamics …………………...…..

6.7 Origin of Dissipation in Newtonian Fluids ………..…..

6.8 Terrestrial Thermodynamics ……………………..…….

6.9 Connections With Classical and Continuum Thermodynamics …………………………………..…..

6.10 Electromagnetic Irreversibility And the Master Asymmetry …………………….....…...

7.

277 277 278 279 279 282 284 287 290 293 297 299 301 303

Cosmological Origin of Time and Evolution 7.1 Time: The All-Embracing Concept …………………..

7.2 Cosmological Origin of Time ………………………...

7.3 Cosmological Interpretations of Newton’s Laws of Motion …………………………………..…....

7.4 Gravitational Origin of Structure and Evolution .……..

7.5 Gravitation and the Outflow of Energy Into 7

309 310 314 316

Un-Saturable Space ………………………………….. 322 7.6 Stellar Evolution …………………………………….... 324 7.7 Terrestrial Evolution ………………………………...... 325 7.8 Some Open Questions ……………………………..… 326 7.8.1 Microscopic T-Violation and the Master Asymmetry: A possible Connection? ………..

327

8.

Black Holes and the Unification of Asymmetries 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7

Introduction ………………………………………..

Observational Evidence ……………………………

Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes ………….

Black Holes Mechanics and Entropy ………………

Can Black Holes “Evaporate”? …………………….

Primordial Black Holes? …………………………...

Back to the Melting Pot of Unification? …………...

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330 331 332 340 341 341 341

PART IV: Beyond Present Knowledge 8.

Havayism – The Science of The Whole 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

The Futile Quest for Final Answers ………………..

An Example in Havayism ……………………..…....

From Cosmology to Irreversible Structures and Memory ……………………………………..….

The Skeptic Outlook ……………………………..….

349 350 365 415

VOLUME II Critique of Western Thought

Introduction …………………………………………….................

420

A Few Historical Remarks on Time, Mind and Symmetry ………

437

The Philosophy of Time & Change: Some Historical Notions …………………….…………………..

455

Structuralism and the Divided American Thought: A Short Glossary of Terms ………………………………..……..

467

Policy and Publicity: A Critique ………………………………….

483

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Thought-Provoking and Thought-Depressing Quotations ………..

495

Critique of Western Methodology ……………………………….

530

Volume III Table of Contents ……………………………………………………….. 2 Reviews ………………………………………………………………… 11 Introduction …………………………………………………………….. 16

Lecture No. 1.

The origin of anti-symmetry ……………………………..………. 25 2.

Limitations of Theories & Definitions ……………………….…. 57 3.

The Crisis in Physics Today …………………………………...... 68 4.

Theory of Everything and String Theories Re-Visited ………...… 85 5.

World History. Parts I & II ……………………….……………… 90 6.

Retarded Science ………………………………………...………. xxx 7.

Cells, Gravity and Socio-Biology …………………………………xxx 8.

Linguistics and Brain-Mind Perceptions ……………………….... xxx 9.

Knowledhe is one; its division is human weakness ……………… xxx Appendix I: On Einstein’ Personal Philosophy ………………….…… xxx Appendix II:

Re-Assessment of Academic Leadership, 2012 ….......... xxx

Appendix III: World History. Part III …………………………………... xxx Appendix IV: Thought Provoking Quotations ……............................... xxx Epilogue ……………………………………………….……………….... xxx References …………………………………………………………….….. 120 10

PUBLISHED Reviews A Master Piece.

The well-known author bases his philosophy on a very sound knowledge of present-day scientific theories.

Indian Journal of Physics This is one of the most beautiful books that I have read.

Outstanding Books List This is a great book, and an exciting book; readable, worth reading and enlightening.

Sir Karl Popper I do not know a better modern expression of science, philosophy and classical humanism than that of Gal-Or’s book.

HaAretz Recommended by Encyclopedia Britannica, "Nature, Philosophy of"

We are all Gal-Orians ! The Editor, Foundations of Physics

Gal-Or launches a new spirit of inquiry by his excellent and thought provoking writings. I would recommend awarding a prize and would hope that this would serve to focus attention on a most important subject.�

T. Gold, Cornell University, to the N.Y. Academy of Sciences and the Arts

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Evokes a person heart !!

Has generated a large number of responses from around the world, some declaring that it has turned them into “Gal-Orians”. Since the thought presented by this book is so rich, translators of our country should recommend this book with all their intellectual power.

Chinese Academy of Sciences Tour de force. A magnificent and sustained piece of work!

Gal-Or’s net is widely cast – it reaches as far as science policy and political philosophy.

Sir Cottrell, Chancellor, Cambridge University

“One of the best books on the totality of the sciences & the universe/ It was one of the favorite books of Sir Karl Popper. It looks at physics and the universe as a totality of the mathematical philosophical understanding. It also combines the physical concept of time with human psychological perception and brain understanding of languages.” Robin (forumhub.com/expr/@202.54.92.222 “A comprehensive explication of a large area of science which the reader may study in many subjects. ” Contemporary Philosophy Gal-Or’s “beauty” has always been the object of science, which, he lyrically observes as “a most fundamental aesthetic frame of mind, a longing for the run-away horizons of truth and symmetry that we always try to reach.”

Order Amidst Chaos, Enlightenment Aesthetics “This book has a wide-ranging scope.

Professor Gal-Or develops a philosophy of science, which he calls Havahyism.

Space Science Reviews, Smithsonian - NASA Astrophysics Data Systems Appeals to scientists of all disciplines who are prepared to open their minds.

Shines a welcome light in some dark corners of science.

Sir Karl Popper, in a Foreword, correctly describes it “a great book.”

New Scientist Interesting to read, integrating much of scientific material.

Deutsche Literaturzeitung

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Scientific American : "The Judeo-Christian Tradition” ; Weisskopf quotes from Lectures in CPP: "Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void,´ `light´ and a `structure-less´ state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us"

Lecture one [in Volume I] affirms that the stress placed by Genesis on ‘beginning’ and the initial roles of ‘void’, ‘light’ and a ‘structure-less’ state, “may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us.

Christian Apologetics, Journal

Einstein's time-symmetric tensor was elevated by Gal-Or’s “New Astronomical School of Unified Thermodynamics” to the status of the source of “Master Asymmetry” controlling not only irreversible thermodynamics, but all physical and biological phenomena!

Gal-Or calls “GRAVITISM” (his philosophy) that gravitation is the prime cause of structures, irreversibility, time, geo-chemical and biological evolution -- that the expansion of the universe is the cause of the second law of thermodynamics – that microscopic physics, and thermodynamics in particular, cannot be understood without reference to cosmology.

He ties “irreversibility” to the “expansion of space itself”, i.e. as far as space is expanding, the contribution of all kinds of radiation in space is weakened “irreversibly” due to the expansion phenomenon itself.

Such loss, or “degradation” of energy in the depth of inter-cluster expanding space, may then be considered as a universal sink for all the radiation flowing out of the material bodies in the expanding universe.”

Advancement of Physics

“The works of scientists like Gal-Or, Bohm, and (Noble Prize-Winner) Prigogine provide important resources.

Prigogine's formalisms do not really tell us how irreversible change emerges from reversible [mathematics]. (in this Gal-Or is superior).”

The Crisis of the Sciences

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“Gal-Or's remarkable book sees and seizes the world whole.

He emphasizes that all scientists operate under some set of philosophical prejudices, and that failure to acknowledge this is self-delusion.

Furthermore, he argues that a failure to attend to the philosophical base of physics leads to an empty scientism.

His work is challenging on many levels, constituting a review 'with derivations' of general relativity 'as applied to cosmology', thermodynamics, the current state of theoretical particle physics, astrophysics, as well as a summary history of western philosophy, 'especially the philosophies of time and mind' and critiques of western society, the intelligentsia and the relationship between academic science and government.

One 'and perhaps the central' theme explored, is that of the interplay between symmetry and asymmetry. His primary interest is not in the recent progress in the unification of forces in gauge theory, although he finds support in it for his Einsteinian outlook, but is rather time, time's arrow, and the asymmetry between past and future. Around time are accumulated discussions, both mathematical and philosophical, of thermodynamic reversibility, time reversibility, the nature of causality, and the use of advanced and retarded solutions to wave equations.

The second major theme is that of gravity and its overwhelming domination of the actual form of the universe, at all scales.

The combination of these themes is not accidental; they are point and counterpoint to his thesis that the time asymmetries are connectable to and perhaps even determined by the master asymmetry given by the gravity of general relativity: the remorseless cosmological expansion.

He argues that only the expansion can provide the unification of time asymmetries.

The expansion provides, among other things, an unsaturable sink for radiation, which, in turn, permits the establishment of gradients in temperature and density, which provide the basis for the physical process that leads to life.

He also criticizes the sloppy and improper use of the concepts of entropy 'and the related notions in information theory' and quantum indeterminism, especially as covers for an inadequate understanding of temporal asymmetries.

Taking an Einsteinian position on the interpretation of quantum mechanics, he looks forward to revitalization of Einstein's quest for a deterministic interpretation of quantum events.

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The value of this book lays in the challenging combination of ideas which Gal-Or presents, which goes far beyond what can be sensibly described in a review.

[This] work may be too large to digest as a text in these days of the decline of academic institutions "as Gal-Or describes them", but that will be the loss of both the faculty and the students.”

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICS

“I have in the meantime studied your book, with great interest, and made pages of notes on it.

I feel as if I had been on numerous walks and talks with you on the great questions, and know that would be great to go on with them!

Who cannot be impressed by your love for the great men of all times and all countries, by your phrase “working back and forth between theory and fact”, by your belief that philosophy is too important to be left to the philosophers, by your concern for where thought and language lie in the scheme of things – and by so much more!

I continue to reflect, again and again, on your central thesis that expansion is the origin of all asymmetry in time.

What an ingenious phrase is your, “smuggle irreversibility in without declaring the contraband”!

I regard your book as seeking to accomplish two tasks – and being two books – at the very least.

One is the exposition of your central thesis, with clarity, and careful mustering of every argument pro and con that can lead to testable consequences.

I don’t see how it is possible to do proper justice to a thesis of such importance by mixing it in with the other great task.

That is to give students an appreciation of the unity of philosophy and modern physics. You do both tasks far better than I could hope to.

I give you my personal thanks for putting the two books into a package that I personally have found most thought-provoking.”

John A. Wheeler, Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton

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The telescope at one end of his beat, And at the other end the microscope, Two instruments of equal hope ---- Robert Frost

If you can look into the seeds of time, And say which grain will grow and which will not, Speak then to me ---- Shakespeare

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Introduction to online Volume III E

instein’s Field Equations [“EFE”, or “Gravity Physics”], accept no

static large-scale solutions, namely, EFE provide us with one of the best explanations about the origin of fundamental symmetry breaking and the asymmetric nature of time and space-time in the actual world.

We first claim that the fundamental dynamics and thermodynamics have actually been derived from EFE [Vol. I, Lecture VI] and that the resulting entropy-free thermodynamics is based on the same foundations as those of General Relativity when applied to cosmology. The argument is based on facts presented in Lecture 1.

Accordingly, the new thermodynamics does not resort to the anthropomorphic concept “entropy” -- which is neither mass-energymomentum, nor an integral component of gravity physics.

Secondly, we claim that all asymmetries observed in Nature have been caused by a single observed fact discussed in Lecture 1. Hence, we maintain that all asymmetries must be united under this MASTER ASYMMETRY of Nature before one attempts to unify symmetric equations.

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Preliminary Glossary Radiation pressure is zero only on surfaces of adiabatic cells that wrap superclusters of galaxies. [Fig. 1.1. and Footnote 1.7, Lecture 1]. These surfaces exist inside all large voids detected by modern astronomy. Most important: Radiation pressure is not negligible. Its value on a “test-surface” facing the lowest radiation-energy density value [Fig. 1.2] is less than on the other side. Variations of this pressure are added on the pressure of uniform, Radiation-Era remnant: The 1941-1964 discovered, “Cosmic Microwave Blackbody Radiation” [Fig. 1.4].

Radiation pouring out of all stars and galaxies acts like a gas. Its pressure impacts satellites, earth and planets, and, with particles, it generates huge shock waves when solar-like “winds” clash with “Winds” arriving from nearby stars. [Footnote 1.8] On very large scales it impacts and pushes away all superclusters of galaxies, propelling them away from each other, opposing the far-away faint gravity forces and slightly accelerating the expansion of the universe. [The radiation pressure is zero on “adiabatic envelopes” “SPACE-1”.]. This is the familiar phenomenon behind “SOLAR SAILS” in space research.

There is no need for speculated DARK ENERGY and DARK MATTER. The result is the universal driving force for energy transport from all hot radiation sources to cold cosmic voids [‘SPACE-1”], whereby the energydensity/pressure gradients inside adiabatic envelopes [footnotes, Lecture 1] constitute the driving force of all irreversible processes in the universe, as had been claimed in Ref. 13.

The resulting VOIDS-SPACE-1 expansion emerges as the prime cause of all time asymmetries and irreversible processes in nature, the 2nd law of thermodynamics. [13]. The theoretical crisis involved is debated in Lecture 3.

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Note: With or without localized black holes [Footnotes, Lecture speculated dark energy and matter [References 74 70 114], only expanding, cold, SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] provides us, with universal, UNSATURABLE SINK, the cause of the 2nd Law thermodynamics.

1], the the of

Symmetry-asymmetry concepts and facts range from space, time, spacetime, curved space-time-attraction, gravitational configuratiions [galaxies, stars, earth, moons] to cosmological structuring of superclusters of galaxies, geological strata and electromagnetic and linguistic arrows of time, “symmetry breaking”, the 2nd law of thermodynamics, prediction [as opposed to retrodiction], initial boundary conditions [as opposed to final conditions) in integro-differential equations and in countless unresolved problems treated within a theory presented, in part, in these nine online lectures.

Lectures 2 to 4 illustrate some current conflicts in science that are fundamentally rooted in the correct understanding, or misunderstanding, of concepts and facts associated with symmetry-asymmetry concepts.

Assessing this situation, we maintain that some enthusiastic physicists have been fooling themselves for decades with various circular games of words that fall into the Feynman’s Fooling Assertion [Lecture 2] and that there is a new theory that changes the very philosophical approach that currently dominates main stream theoretical physics by resorting afresh to the Einsteinian outlook, which harbors a higher probability to by-pass the crisis in the philosophical domain of particle physics and string theories [Lecture 4]. For some reasons, and despite initial acclaims [Reviews], the new theory and outlook did not catch up with main stream physics. But with

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the crisis in the domains of string theories, the standard model, dark matter and dark energy, the probability of reassessment has increased.

Most astrophysicists, cosmologists and astronomers agree that the biblical account of cosmic evolution, in stressing `a beginning´ and the initial roles of `void’, `light´ and a `structure-less´ early state, may be uncannily close to the verified evidence with which modern science has already supplied us. [Lecture 1]. We thus term the biblical account of Genesis the ancient cosmological arrow of time, instead of belittling it.

What is shared today by science and Monotheism [Appendix III] is the understanding that gravity causes all anti-symmetries in nature. [Lecture 8 and Appendix III]. For maximizing sharing we proceed beyond the DQS issues into the domain of the philosophy of science, while inter alia claiming that • Physics today stands atop three pillars: General Relativity, Quantum Physics and Thermodynamics.

• Knowledge is one. Its division is human weakness. [Lecture 9].

• Scientific knowledge, and the main tenets of Monotheism [Appendix III], in the whole HAVAYAH [Vol. I], are gravity [curved spacetime] and anti-symmetry integrated with symmetry.

• DQS is based on astrophysics, astrochemistry and astronomy.

These pillars are, or should be integrated with the philosophies of spacetime, symmetry-asymmetry, brain-mind perceptions of asymmetries, thingsin-themselves [string theories] -- subjects revisited here with a skeptic view.

BACK TO THE ORIGIN OF ANTI-SYMMETRY: Out of the structureless chaos of the First Genesis - a second one emerges [Lecture 5].

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Dominated by gravitationally-induced structure-order, it separates the cosmic voids (‘sky’, ‘heaven’) from matter (‘earth’). [Figures 00.1 to 00.7 and Lecture 1].and in Nature. It takes center stage in our aspirations, aesthetics, facts, science, theology and the arts. It is often interlocked with “anti-symmetry” [asymmetry], creation, recording, music, irreversibility, linguistic symbols-codes, history, and cosmology. Moreover, symmetry and asymmetry are usually integrated, like in the images above and below, in our body, face, grammar and written languages [Lectures 7 and 8].

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Lecture 1

Fig. 1.1: We begin with the largest recorded structure of the universe. The “100 million ly” scale depicted at the top provides an idea of the scale of the visible universe. Here “ly” [“light Year”] is the distance light, travels at 300,000 km/sec during one year. But in Gravitism we focus on the 22

expanding dark voids shown between and around all the shining superclusters of galaxies. [A few marked in purple]. These dark-cold voids expand at accelerated rate, thereby giving rise to the term the expandingaccelerating universe.

The expansion of these voids makes them not only the largest, unsaturable sink of all radiation energy pouring out of the superclusters shown, but the primary cause of the second law of thermodynamics and the cosmological arrow of time. [Fig. 1.2].

Due to the limited speed of light, which causes the Event Horizon, humans can never see the entire universe. In fact, part of what we see now in Fig. 1.1 will be lost later forever to humanity due to red-shifted radiation beyond the visibility horizon caused by said expansion and the receding away of the superclusters.

Fig. 1.2:

The Central Pillar of Relativistic Thermodynamics

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Radiation pressure accelerates VOIDS-SPACE-1 expansion and causes the 2nd law of thermodynamics [13]. There is no need to speculate on mysterious dark matter and dark energy.

Radiation pressure in the large void structures of the universe is not negligible. Its value on a test-surface facing the lowest radiation-energy density value depicted in Fig. 1.1 is less than on the other side. Variations of this pressure are added on the uniform remnant glow left from the 1st Genesis. Like a gas, it acts on all superclusters of galaxies, pushing them apart against gravity and slightly accelerating the expansion of the universe.

[The radiation pressure is zero on adiabatic envelopes in mid cold Voids (SPACE-1). This is the familiar phenomenon behind “SOLAR SAILS” in space research.].

The result is the universal driving force for energy transport from all hot radiation sources to cold cosmic voids [‘SPACE-1”], whereby the energydensity/pressure gradients inside adiabatic envelopes constitute the driving force of all irreversible processes in the universe, as had been claimed in Ref. 13.

The resulting VOIDS-SPACE-1 expansion emerges as the prime cause of all time asymmetries and irreversible processes in nature, the 2nd law of thermodynamics. [13]. The theoretical crisis involved is debated in Lecture 3.

Note: With or without localized black holes, speculated dark energy and matter, only the expanding, cold, SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] provides us, with the universal, UNSATURABLE SINK, the cause of the 2nd Law of thermodynamics. Spaces 3 and 2 may also slightly expand.

SPACE-1 includes the expanding-accelerating cold-dark voids shown in Fig. 1.1. The “hills-vs.-valleys” radiation density-pressure gradients are zero on the surfaces of adiabatic envelops [Footnote 7], which are virtual surfaces with the lowest values of radiation density, as depicted. These surfaces are located between any neighboring pair of superclusters of galaxies, represented here by two clusters of galaxies.

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The radiation is pouring out of all galactic and stellar active emitters and is irreversibly absorbed forever in the depths of expanding SPACE-1. SPACE1 contains the isotropic and homogeneous faint ‘glow’, called the Cosmic Microwave Black-Body Radiation [CMBR]. It is the left over radiation from the end of the 1st genesis, the radiation dominated era. [Lecture 5].

The gigantic amount of radiation energy poured out from all the shining galaxies is evenly dispersed in all space directions, and is always proceeding from Space-3 to Space-2 and then irreversibly dissipated forever deep inside VOIDS-SPACE-1.

SPACE-1 wraps around all superclusters of galaxies [Figs. 1.1 and 1.2]. It is the sole, largest, coldest, UNSATURABLE SINK in the entire universe, simply because it is expanding forever1.2, at an accelerated pace that leads to cold death of the universe.

Fig. 1.3: “Our neighborhood” is home to thousands of galaxies, each wrapped around by non-expanding, dark-cold SPACE-3 defined by Fig. 1.2.

From SPACE 3 the radiation travels to non-expanding, cold-dark SPACE 2, which wraps around all clusters of galaxies. [Figs. 1.2 and 1.3]. Therefore, 25

only a very small portion of the wide-spread universal radiation energy reaches and is irreversibly dissipated in galactic centers that harbor massive black holes, while most of it escapes the limited frame-space of Fig. 1.3 to be irreversibly dissipated in the depth of expanding SPACE-1, which wraps around all superclusters of galaxies.

We are located in the “Local Group” of about 30 galaxies [center of Fig. 1.3], inside the VIRGO SUPERCLUSTER shown in the center of Fig. 1.1 and in Fig. 1,3. But the Solar System and our entire galaxy are less than a point in Fig. 1.1. Note also that the cosmic voids that are the furthest absorb energy from part of the universe that we cannot see. We return to this issue in Footnote 7.

Most of the shining galaxies shown contain super massive black hole1.6 at their center.1.1 Each galactic center therefore acts as a gigantic galactic sink of matter-energy in the ‘immediate neighborhood’ of such a black hole.

In comparison with radiation-unsaturable, expanding, VOIDS-SPACE-1, black holes are neither universal nor the largest thermodynamic “sinks”.

Most important, without the observed Voids/Space-1 expansion – the so called HUBBLE EXPANSION -- the density of radiation energy (Fig. 1.2) in all space would increase with time, eventually reaching the highest temperatures that are maintained by nuclear fusion4 in the cores of all active stellar cores, causing not only our roasting on earth and disintegrations of all macro structures in the entire universe, but an eventual equilibrium throughout all space, namely gradually approaching the same temperatures in all Spaces 3, 2 and 1, resulting in gradually vanished ’hills-Valleys’ gradients as depicted in Fig. 1.2.

Voids-Space-1 expansion is not only the cause of the 2nd law of thermodynamics; its expansion is the Master Arrow of Time and the origin of asymmetries in Nature [13]. Unlike most scientists, who claim that the entropy and disorder of the universe increases with time, we claim the opposite: Gravity everlasting transformation of chaos into structures in the entire universe.

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Fig. 1.4: The Earliest Visible World. The ever-expanding, dark-blue spots shown are the earliest Voids-SPACE-1. Their shown differentiation apart from the material energy emitters --- the yellow-green-red hot sources shown --- is the earliest recorded by science [Lecture 5]. The relative small size of these voids is to be increased during the next 17 billion years of the world expansion to end up with the gigantic voids shown in Fig. 1.1.

The earliest expanding voids (SPACE-1) shown in Fig. 1.4 wrap around the yellow-green-red hot sources. These voids irreversibly absorb all the radiation poured into them from the gravitationally-condensing, and, therefore, heated material emitters. (Fig. 1.2). Most important, this differentiation-aggregation is isotropic and homogeneous. The shown early dark cosmological voids are not only the first-ever macro-differentiation in the world, they constitute the central tools of Cosmological Gravitism.

The shapes of superclusters vary considerably; from that of Virgo, Coma and Hercules to long ‘filaments’. [Figs. 1.1 and 1.3]. 1.9; 1.11

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Skeptic Notes How such remote dynamics can affect us “here-now” ?

To start with, we resort to additional, verified evidence that relates to this legitimate question.

There is undisputed evidence about the Cosmic Blackbody Microwave Background Radiation [CMBR] of the early expanding universe [Fig. 1.4]. It was discovered in 1941-1964 and is the remnant of radiation in early SPACE-1, which has since expanded and cooled by the expansion of the voids during about 13.72 (less about 350,000) billion years, until these early voids reach the forms depicted in Fig. 1.1.

This radiation has been cooled down from about 4,000-3,000 K at the end of the radiation dominated era [Lecture 5], and it always engulfs us ‘here-now”.

It thus constitutes a direct link to the “external world” and one of the many proofs that SPACE-1 has been expanding and is isotropic [the same in all directions] and homogeneous.

It is undisputed today that the cosmic dark voids not only expand, but their expansion is accelerated. There is however, a debate on the cause of that acceleration. [1-5, 7, 9, 10, 20-52, 55, 74-115].

This expansion, we assert and discuss below, not only causes the 2nd Law of thermodynamics, but according to Gravitism, has generated all chemistry, and irreversible processes that eventually lead to life. [Lecture 5 and Ref. 13].

The central pillar of modern astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology is the empirical HUBBLE LAW. It is based on verified observations since first discovered by Hubble in the 1920’s. [1-4, 7, 9, 52, 53, 55, 74-115]1.2.

Hubble Cosmic Expansion Law is marked in Fig. 1.2 as Uo=Hor, where “r” is the distance from earth to “CLUSTER I”. Here “r” represents superclusters or a cluster of galaxies shown in Fig. 1.1, Ho the Hubble Constant and Uo the recession velocity, namely, SPACE-1 expansion.

Employing next Figures 1 to 5, we assert: 28

SPACE -1 wraps all superclusters of galaxies.1.3 It thus contains all expanding dark voids shown in both Figs. 1.1 and 1.4. But it does not include the non expanding superclusters.

SPACE 2 wraps around, but does not include the non-expanding clusters of galaxies. [Fig. 1.3].

SPACE-3 wraps around but does not include the non-expanding galaxies, stars, planets, moons, etc. [Figs. 1.3 and 1.5].

Preliminary Conclusion: All superclusters are receding away ‘from us’ -and from each other [Footnote 1, Thought Experiments] -- at great speeds -the further away they are, the greater is the observed receding speed.

Our Milky-Way Galaxy [images and Footnote 8] contains billions of gravity-compacted stars, planets and other entities.

Most “young” stars are formed in the dilute regions of the rotating interstellar medium within SPACE-3.

Our galaxy is almost 100,000 light-years in diameter at its disk-like longest spiral arms. It is in the form of an almost flat spiral disk [image below] with an average thickness of about 1,000 light-years.

Assertion 1: Non-expanding SPACES 3, 2 and expanding forever voids [SPACE-1] contain, inter alia, the cosmic microwave black-body radiation, photons, neutrinos, antineutrinos, gas, dust, etc., much of which first recorded with the Hubble Telescope. [Images on the right and below] Intra-galactic gas may also emit X-rays and other types of radiation. [The undetected, speculative, dark matter and dark energy are neither necessary ingredients of Gravitism, nor unacceptable. These are discussed by references 74 to 115.].

To deny today the central role these verified facts play in science, philosophy and theology, is to deny the very methodology of science, and to a priori reject a large portion of its empirical evidence, on the basis of false personal, fixed, pre-suppositions.

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Assertion 2: We are linked here-now to what is going on far out there by resorting to a thought experiment: SPACE-1 stops expanding ‘now’, thereby the stellar radiation energy density marked in Fig. 1.2 gradually rises all over spaces 3, 2 and 1, eventually causing the entire universe to reach equilibrium [uniform temperature/energy-density], whereby all processes in the universe stop, including life on earth.

Assertion 3: Since we do not see, and cannot study the entire universe (explanation below), the dynamics of a single adiabatic envelope that wraps around a typical emitter -- as defined and analyzed in Footnote 1.7 -- is strictly equivalent to the study and analysis of the entire universe. Why? The well-verified isotropic and homogeneous distribution of the observed cosmic dark voids vis-à-vis the shining emitters -- as illustrated by both Figs.

1.1 and 1.4, when combined with the physico-chemical dynamics of nuclear fusion (Footnote 1.4) and supernova (Footnote 1.5), unequivocally mean that about the same max temperature characterizes all superclusters shown in Fig. 1.1.

Most important, these qualities have been approximately preserved as the universe has expanded from what is shown in Fig. 1.4 to what is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Therefore, the dynamics and thermodynamics inside each such a randomly chosen single virtual “cell”, do represent those of the entire universe.

This conclusion is very important because less and less of the observed universe [Fig. 1.1] can be seen with the progress of the accelerated expansion. In short, we harbor no option but to use adiabatic envelopes for we do not see and cannot directly study and analyze the entire universe.

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Assertion 4: The maximum speed of light is not violated by Hubble expansion. When sectors of the universe expand away from us at speeds higher than the speed of light, that law is not violated.

The expansion of the universe generates a large-scale event horizon – an observational and theoretical limit for us to see the entire universe; namely, the light from such far away receding emitters is gradually being redshifted until the most remote sources totally disappear from our sights, forever.

Consequently, there is no option but to study adiabatic cosmological cells of the universe, like the one defined in Fig. 1.2 vis-à-vis Figs. 1.1, 1.3 and 1.4.

RECAP: The portion of the universe shown in Fig. 1.1 is shrinking in time, but a ‘nearby’ selected at random adiabatic cell remains in sight. Thus, much of what we observe in Fig. 1.1 would be unobservable in the future; it would, forever, be a lost case for science.

Assertion 5: Are we the Ashes of Dead Stars ? See “Supernova”, Footnote 1.5

Relevance of Einstein’s General Relativity in Gravitism Einstein’s General Relativity (“EGR”) [Footnote 1 and Lecture 3] is expressed by his field equations [13 and Lecture 3 herein]. Without the socalled cosmological constant [74-115] EGR accepts no plausible static cosmological solutions.

Thus, according to Einstein, the 1916 EGR had predicted the expansion of the universe before Hubble detected it in the mid 1920’s.

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From this point of view our new astrophysical school of systems dynamics and thermodynamics it is the agreement with EGR and said Einsteinian outlook, that this outlook is deeply rooted in EGR.

Dark Matter? Dark Energy?

If one retains the cosmological constant in EGR, which Einstein had rejected due to the Hubble discovery in the mid 1920’s, it may explains the role of the speculated dark energy and dark matter that are claimed, without strict observational evidence, to fill the universe and support claims for its observed accelerated expansion rate. [74-115]. But see Fig. 1.2 and counter comments there.

From Large to Small-Scale Systems-Dynamics, and Back Clustering differences begin on the largest and earliest scales of the visible universe, as demonstrated by Figs. 1.1 and 1.4.

We next focus on the group dynamics of shining emitters vis-à-vis the darkcold cosmological Voids, as defined by Fig. 1.2.

Up-scaling 1: Since Space-1 is expanding -- and its expansion rate has been observationally proved as being accelerated -- the universe is unidirectionally cooling down forever.

The corollary is that, eventually, all energy density gradients depicted in Fig, 1.2 – and in the solar system1.8 -- would vanish, and all processes here and there would stop in what is called the final cold death.

Downscaling 1: Said expansion generates the observed large-scale energydensity gradients [Fig. 1.2], which, in turn, generate small-scale stellar and planetary temperature gradients – the ones that allow life to emerge and be sustained. [13].

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Downscaling 2: Einsteinian gravity is well-approximated by Newtonian Physics as one goes down the scales of size-masses. Accordingly, above a certain size-mass, all is structured by specific gravity, the heaviest components down in the core; the lightest up, at the ‘top’. We term this phenomenon gravitationally-induced selectivity or gravitationally-induced survival of the “fittest”. [Lectures 5 and 7.].

Downscaling 3: Adiabatic envelopes7 in the observed homogeneous and isotropic universe are always located between any pair of superclusters or clusters of galaxies. [Fig. 1.2].

Collecting all said spots forms Space-1 “cells” (adiabatic surfaces-envelopes around superclusters or clusters7), each of which evolves as representative of the entire universe that we cannot observe due to the event horizon/Space-1expansion.

FOOTNOTES Volumes I, II and footnotes in these lectures constitute detailed components of Gravitism. While some are long, they do not constitute “Introductions” to the subjects. If one is interested in physico-mathematics, the derivations are available in Volume I.

1.

Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR, or Gravity Physics) is reviewed in Volume I with the mathematics and tests involved. Lecture 3 herein is restricted to footnotes on EGR, Quantum Physics and The Standard Model. The physico-mathematical derivation of EGR is provided in Volume 1 in terms of Einstein’s Field Equations (EFE).

EFE are FORMULATED in Volume I in the same form for all observers – accelerating, linearly moving, rotating, standing on a minor astronomical body, like earth, or on a massive star. This need provides the basis for using translators from one such observer coordinate system to another. Such translators are called energy-momentum tensors [Vol. 1 and Lecture 2].

They include first and second mathematical derivatives in three space 33

coordinates and in one time coordinate of the physical properties mass, energy and momentum.

Change in the gravitational field, or in local gravity value, is accounted for by change in the curvature of space-time, on one hand, and change in massenergy and momentum on the other side of EFE. [13]. EGR includes Einstein’s Special Relativity [ESR] and the conservation equations of mass, energy and momentum Distances in cosmological models based on EGR are determined locally between two infinitesimally close points in curved space-time. It is, therefore, an issue to determine them within the framework of each model.

Said issue should not be confused with the fact that the size of SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink] increases with time. Yet, in debating the validity of each proposed model, one must specify its space-time-curvature -- the curvepath-of-light that connects two such cosmic-apart points.

Largely due to NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, new infrared, radio and Xray techniques and the uses of gravitational lens, our testability of universal phenomena and processes in the most remote regions of space-time has substantially been improved.

Einstein’s Lens “Cosmic The Dark Age” lasted between 200,000 to 500,000 years after the “Big Bang”. Science maintains records of its finger prints as the Cosmic Microwave Black-Body Radiation. [Fig. 1.4.]. Gravitational lens were predicted by Einstein in 1936.

Einstein calculated such cosmic effect for future astronomy. These “lens” are therefore called ‘Einstein Rings” – and they become useful when the gravity of a massive cosmic object causes bending of the path of radiation, say, light, from an otherwise hidden source. The key point is that this effect magnifies early sources and is especially interesting and important in recent 34

studies of the early, Radiation Era [Fig. 00.1 and Lecture 5]. The orange arrows show the magnified source, while the white arrows show the actual path of light from the hidden source.

2. On the Expanding Universe via the Hubble Expansion Law Hubble’s astronomical observations prove that superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.1] are moving away from each other with speeds that are proportional to their distance from each other [Fig. 1.2]. Hence the universe had a beginning. Independently, this expansion-based beginning is supported by the 1941-1964 discoveries of the cosmic microwave radiation. Fig. 1.4 proves that it is not the expansion of galaxies and stars but only of the VOIDS-SPACE-1, and is the same in all directions (isotropic and homogeneous). Isotropic distribution across the sky of distant gamma-ray bursts and of supernovas also support this finally accepted solid conclusion.

Our net motion in Space is not easy to comprehend. The direction of the earth’s net motion lies in the same plane as its orbit around the sun and at angle of 61 degrees tilted upward [northward] from the plane of the disk-like Milky Way. We rotate and travel around the sun, while the sun travels around the galactic center.

These speeds should not be confused with the recession speed of clusters and super-clusters of galaxies away from each other. [R(t) Fig. 1.2]. This is the Hubble expansion. Our galaxy is deviating from this uniform expansion motion by about 600 km/sec.

Thought Experiment I: Imagine that your home bath-tub is transformed today into an elastic rubber one that is being continuously inflated when you pour water into it, in analogy to the fact that SPACE-1 is expanding faster than it is filled up with radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources around it. [Fig. 1.2]. In case you select to start inflating the bath-tub from, say, a midway water-level mark, that level would only go down with fast enough inflation of the bath-tub, thereby you cannot fill it up, again, in analogy to the observed SPACE-1-expansion. So your ‘expanding bath-tub’ represents the cause of the dark-cold night sky that you observe by stepping out of your home on a non-cloudy night.

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Since SPACE-1-expansion causes the cosmos to be UNSATURABLE with respect to the radiation energy emitted from all galaxies and active stars, the radiation energy flowing into it from the shining sources cannot fill-it-up -as far as it keeps expanding “fast enough”.

The measured 2.7 absolute degree Kelvin temperature of the cosmic background blackbody radiation and the dark-cold night sky play a key role in Gravitism.

SPACE-1-expansion causes electromagnetic radiation irreversibility [retarded waves] that we term the electromagnetic arrow of time.

[Volume I] In contrast, if you stop the inflation of your home bath-tub, the water level would start rising and the bath-tub will now be filled up gradually. (In analogy, the night sky would become hotter and hotter until, eventually, it reaches the maximum fusion temperature1.4 in the interiors of stellar objects like the sun, or galactic centers.1.6). Note also that due to many supernovas1.5 scattered throughout the visible universe, the galactic systems maintain about the same maximum temperature.

Conclusion: There is no net flow of energy from one adiabatic cell1.7 to another. [Fig. 1.2].

Thought Experiment II: One may next bake a raisin cake, and, in analogy to superclusters of galaxies in our observed expanding universe, observe how each raisin there represents a supercluster as the cake expands.

If the raisins are spread about evenly throughout the cake dough, they represent the receding away superclusters as they run away from each other due to the expansion. When the raisin cake is expanding in the home oven one may also imagine a tiny “educated observer” located on each nonexpanding raisin. Inquiring what he sees, he tells you that all other raisins are moving away from him, and that the density of cake-matter between him and the nearby raisins decreases. Next, if you move him to another raisin, he observes the same.

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Thus, in teaching a Thermo in class, we give students hot cakes.

Notes: According to cosmological EGR the universe has no ‘edge’, like in the balloon analogy below. But even without an ‘edge’ the universe is finite in “size”, as is the surface of a balloon whose finite surface area is increasing when you inflate it.

Beyond expansion time zero [‘after’ the ‘Big Bang’], there is no clock other than the increasing “size” of your universe-cake, or the average cell size around each raisin. In fact, our sun-earth time-scale is entirely irrelevant prior to the formation of the solar system. So please consider to reset and recalibrate your traditional time-scale, perhaps with the one introduced in Volume I.

Thought Experiment III: Gravitism is the thermo-physical branch of EGR. On the surface of an inflating balloon you may next paint small images of superclusters of galaxies, as in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. Next imagine a tiny “two-dimensional educated observer” located on each image, but this time one who is only capable of the perception of a surface, namely, the two-dimensional, curved surface of his inflating-expanding balloon. The conclusion of this wise creature is similar to the one in Experiment II: All superclusters of galaxies are receding away “from me”, no matter where I stand on the balloon surface. Note also, that according to EGR, the balloonuniverse harbors no ‘edge’. It is finite in surface area, but boundless. And, for this two-dimensional creature, it is not expanding "into" any extant space outside the balloon. For this creature just the surface of the whole balloon is ‘the whole universe’; namely, there is no ‘outside’ three-dimensional space.

Similarly, within our familiar three-dimensional universe, there is no ‘outside’ into which the actual universe is expanding.

Conclusions drawn from these thought experiments remain about the same even if one introduces local black holes, galactic motions, rotations, star explosions, or implosions, dust, gas and local thermo-geometrical changes.

In the Commoving Distance Model, for instance, commoving distances cannot be fixed. In practice, the distance of distant objects are best measured by their luminosity -- which is reduced by the square power of the distance 37

to the radiation source [13], and by redshifts of their incoming electromagnetic radiation.

Cosmological models may be open or closed, bounded but unlimited in curved space-time, as explained in Ref. 13. Unlike quantum physics, EGR is scale-free and deterministic. We return to these important issues a Lectures 2 and 3 and 4 on String theories.

2.

Our “Local Group” of Galaxies

Andromeda (M31) is a respectable member of our Local Group of galaxies.

[Fig. 1.3 and the image above show “our Local Group” when zoomed in.].

Andromeda is characterized by a spiral structure similar to our galaxy,, and 38

is “nearby”, just about 2,200,000 light-years away. Both are the largest in our Local Group, which is about 10,000,000 light-years in its largest spatial ‘diameter’, namely, the ‘size’ of our local group is about 100 times the size of our galaxy. [Image]. Our local group includes M49, M58, M59, M60, M61, M84, M86, M87, M89 and M31 (Andromeda).

Andromeda’s system consists of Cassiopeia Dwarf, Pegasus dSph, M32, M110, NGC 147, NGC195, AND I-V, etc. The Triangulum Galaxy, the 3rd largest galaxy in ‘our’ local group, also includes the Pisces Dwarf as a satellite.

‘Our’ satellite galaxies consist of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Ursa Minor Dwarf, Darco Dwarf, Sculptor Dwarf, Canis Major Dwarf, Fornax Dwarf, Carina Dwarf, Sextans Dwarf, Tucana Dwarf, Leo I, Leo II, Leo A, Sag DEG, etc.

4. Nuclear Fusion is the most important process in the universe. It is caused by extremely high forces-pressures of gravity in/on the inner cores of active stars [picture]. It generates most chemical elements by transforming (fusing) hydrogen plasma, [H], into heavier elements like Helium [He], carbon [C], oxygen [O], nitrogen, phosphor, and iron [Fe] at star center.

A Typical Sun-Like Star is shown on the right. Note the energy flows: Convection currents from the very hot, thermo-nuclear reacting core to the colder surface and the various types of radiation and particles pouring out into non-expanding, colder SPACE-3.

All active stars generate in their interiors all the basic chemical elements beyond hydrogen and helium; namely, all the heavier basic elements of matter that we observe on earth and in our body and brain.

According to both Einsteinian and Newtonian physics, the bigger the mass of a star, the higher are its core pressures and temperatures and faster are the nuclear fusion processes in its interior [13].

How do we know that?

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On both fusion and fission scientists know much [Footnote 1.4]. Fusion is also the driver of hydrogen-bomb explosions, (not fission as in atomic reactors and in ‘regular’ atomic weapons).

When a certain amount of iron is formed in the interiors of active stars, endothermic reaction replaces the exothermic one. (The exothermic reaction generates energy, while the endothermic consumes it.)

All active stars produce energy through such nuclear fusion.

5. Supernova, Maximum Temperatures, Redshifts & Measuring Astronomical Distances Supernovas are gravity-induced phenomena that astronomers observe in galaxies when a massive star ends its life by internal collapse-implosion.

The collapse begins when the fusion process1.4 that produces energy, ends.

Why this relatively massive star had ended its life in a gigantic explosion?

Is this common cosmic phenomenon important?

As shown in Fig. 1.6 the explosion throws out to SPACE-3 hot debris and gases. Such remnants of at least one supernova in our galaxy were captured into orbit around the sun. Gravity then guided and compressed some to form the observed spherical planets and moons in the Solar system. Life followed.

Why supernovas explode?

The sole sin of such innocent stars is being too fat and big, thereby converting their huge mass, (initially only hydrogen and helium), by nuclear the well-known fusion metabolism, to heavier chemical elements [oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphor, etc.], more quickly than do smaller stars, like our sun.1.8 All active (shining) stars generate the heavier chemical elements at the high temperatures-pressures that gravity induces in their interiors. But the massive stars arrive to that ‘End-of-life Stage’ earlier than smaller stars do.

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That ‘End-of-life Stage’ may, however, be the ‘Beginning-of-life-Process’ in case the supernova debris (‘ashes’) gradually form orbiting planets around stars, as is the case that we assert was the beginning of our solar system.

It is always gravitation that plays the central role in the "selection" of the structures to be produced: First in controlling the structures galaxies and clusters in SPACE-1, then in forcing chemical evolution through a succession of specific reactions in which evolution means the development of complex elements from simple ones. [Hydrogen and helium make up about 99% of all observable matter in the universe.

Hence, we and the planets in the solar system constitute just little ‘unpure grains’ in the vast ‘clean’ universe.]

In short, gravity is the only 'suitable’ or ‘fittest' force -- in human concepts, that can build all the elements in the chemical periodic table by successively adding, in the hot interiors of all active stars, small increments of mass and electric charge in selected combinations that are completely controlled by the value of the attractive gravity force-pressure-temperature.

Supernova unusual bright glow has been studied since 1054, starting from the Crab Nebula. [Image]. At its center there is a neutron star spewing energy and ‘elementary particles’ into SPACE-3. Said radiation net flow then proceed to SPACE-2 and, eventually, to SPACE-1. [Fig. 1.2] Supernovas are not only the originators of all chemistry beyond hydrogen and helium [by nuclear fusion.], but serve in astronomy as reliable ‘distance yardsticks’ [“candles”] on which much of astronomy rests. The reason for this selection is explained below.

Supernova explosion [images] throws into Space 3 its interiors in the form of glowing debris and gases that, initially, are much brighter than any other star in its home galaxy. Hence, certain types of supernovas serve in astronomy as the max-cosmic temperature standard for calibrating distances 41

to far-away galaxies via the absolute luminosity (brightness) method discussed in CPP Volume I [13].

That end is reached when a threshold amount of iron is formed in the interior of a massive star [Volume I]. At that stage all net energy generation inside the star stops and the process reverses into an endothermic one during which energy is consumed.

STELLAR COLLAPSE: At this stage the core pressure falls and the doomed star cannot support the gravity-induced ‘weight’ of its upper layers.

This leads to a gigantic collapse-implosion of the entire star structure.

A few general-relativistic ‘deterministic options’ then emerge, depending on the mass and details of the doomed massive star: (i)

If the mass of the star is about 1.4 times that of the sun, the star slowly decays into a white dwarf.

(ii)

If its mass is larger, the formation of an extremely packed neutron star [image] or a black hole is the end result, in which case no atomic nuclei structure survives.

(iii) A gigantic supernova explosion follows the collapse-implosion by bouncing back from a central dense body [neutron star].

Type Ia supernovas harbor consistent brightness (absolute luminosity) because their progenitor is accreting mass from a nearby star, always imploding into the central neutron star at exactly the same mass -- the Chandrasekhar Mass Limit. [Volume I].

The Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey Supernova Program is designed to measure several hundred high-redshifted supernovas.

Massive stars: Due to their high, gravity-induced, inner-core pressurestemperatures, massive stars are much faster than smaller stars, like the sun, to exhaust their ‘hydrogen-helium fuel’ by nuclear fusion.1.4 42

The resulting higher pressures-temperatures in massive stars cause faster releases of fusion energy in the interiors of these stars. From there the energy reaches the outer layers of the star and eventually leaves the star and spreads out in unexpanding Spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, dissipated forever in expanding SPACE-1.

6. Black holes are postulated astronomical local objects that are spread throughout galaxies and superclusters of galaxies that are wrapped around by non-expanding SPACE-3, or may exist within Spaces 2 and 1.

Black holes come into being by gravity and the expansion of unsaturable SPACE-1 [the Master Black Sink]. They act as additional unsaturable sinks to that caused by the expansion of SPACE-1. Like stars and galaxies, black holes cannot be formed without SPACE-1-expansion.

Astrophysicists indirectly detect the presence of black holes, which may range from roughly the mass of a few suns to ten billion times greater. Such super-massive ones are, by indirect gravitational evidence, postulated to be in the center of some extremely bright galaxies, including the ‘Milky Way’ and quasars.

Black holes are general relativistic cosmological sinks for all matter-energy arriving and falling into them from nearby stars and any radiation. They are postulated to be highly concentrated, local gravity-sinks where the gravity field is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape from them. [There is an unconfirmed speculation that black holes ‘evaporate’. Whether or not this is verified by future science, the outcome would not change the foundations of Gravitism.].

General relativistic cosmology predicts them as one-way sinks in spacetime. Some are assumed to be in the center of some galaxies. They may be associated with what is observed and termed quasars.

Within a black hole all atomic and sub-atomic structures had already been crushed to become only geometrically-curved space-time. This is due to

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the extremely strong gravitational field within the black hole. The cause of that total ‘break down’ of all structures is only gravity.

Quasars and black holes.

Quasars are assumed to be super massive forms of black holes. Hundreds have been detected by NASA's Spitzer space telescope, which measures infrared light, and by Chandra, which measures X-ray emissions. These quasars are in young (far-away) galaxies that are surrounded by relatively high-density gas that emits X-rays as it is being sucked into and accelerated towards a one-way sink of a massive black hole.

7. Adiabatic Envelopes An adiabatic “wall”, or “surface”, is a physical wall or an imaginary surface through which no NET energy flow takes place. In Fig. 1.2 we mark only three points on such imaginary surfaces, namely, where there is ‘No net energy flow’ across them.

These surfaces wrap around superclusters of galaxies in 3 dimensions. No net energy flow means that radiation [and matter particles] somewhat similar to the ones detected within our solar wind – do not cross such adiabatic surfaces.

The maximum temperature attainable in each galaxy is about the same. It is roughly the same as that generated initially by a supernova and is attributed to: (1) the maximum temperature in stellar cores during fusion in all active stars, (2) The maximum temperature during supernovas explosions. (3) The maximum detectable temperatures attainable by at the external surfaces of quasars or galactic centers that harbor gigantic black holes.

8. The Solar System is composed of our sun [picture], the orbiting planets, moons, asteroids, comets, rocks, gases and dust, all bounded together by the COMBINED attractive gravitational field of the sun, ‘our’ galaxy, ‘our’ local group of galaxies, ‘our’ superclusters of galaxies [Fig. 1.3] and the gravitational field of all the masses in the rest of the universe.

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The sun, like all active stars, is a self-gravitating massive sphere of subatomic particles in a state of hot plasma that is pressed-heated by the attractive force of gravity. It accounts for about 99% of the solar system total mass. Its diameter is about 1.392 million km and is slightly larger than of an average star in ‘our’ Milky Way galaxy.

About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, with about 25% helium.

Gravity-captured debris [asteroids] from previous generations of earlier gas or stars/supernovas, had started to condense and fall into or orbit the sun, gradually structuring the currently observed solar planets. During more than half of its present age,the universe did not harbor our solar system.

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SPACE-3: Interstellar Medium

Bow Shock Termination Shock Heliopause

Solar System

Voyager I [marked] crossed the termination shock on December 16, 2004 to SPACE-3 providing data on the local interstellar medium.

The Solar System extends far beyond the farthest planets, asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, comets, rocks and dust in ‘our’ community. It is located inside non-expanding Space 3 that wraps our entire galaxy and is spatially interconnected with Spaces 2 and 1. \

SPACE-3 includes the so-called local interstellar medium, which begins where the Solar System ends.

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CLIMATE CHANGE

BY SUN-CYCLES Our atmosphere comprises the following gravity-induced layers: Homosphere from sea level to 80km (Troposphere up to about 13km; Ozone layer about 13-43km; Stratosphere 13-50km; Mesosphere 50-80km); Thermosphere 80-175 km (dilute Nitrogen 80-15km, Oxygen 105-128km, Helium 128-150km, Hydrogen 150-175km)].

Climate scientists claim that global temperatures will rise a few degrees Fahrenheit in the next hundred years. Samples from ice cores from Greenland show that 11,500 years ago the average temperatures in Greenland increased by about 15 degrees Fahrenheit, over the course of 10 years, a change partially attributed to melting polar ice, which altered ocean circulation and weather patterns. And indeed, as today’s climate warms, ice is again melting near Earth’s poles.

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The monotonic increase in (automatically) measured global temperatures does not show the 11-YEARS SOLAR CYCLE [depicted above] during which the sun luminosity changes. The sun’s cycles are the results of complicated sun-interior convection currents [image above], magnetic field lines between changing sunspot pairs, huge solar flares, etc.

Conclusion: Such ‘short-time’ cycles may also correspond to the ‘Little Ice Age” that chilled Northern Europe during the late 17th century, suggesting a causal link between solar total luminosity activity and climate change on earth. There have been 17 or 19 ‘ice ages’: From about 3,000,000 years ago until the last one, which gradually ended from about 12,000 to 8000 years ago. [Lecture 5].

These ages have strongly affected ecological systems on earth, and each lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the oceans, resulting in climate-induced changes in life and all ecological systems.

No Net Sun’s Energy Remains in Earth or planets: This fact is verified in studies of the complicated thermal cycles in our atmosphere and on earth’s surface. The incoming sun energy [“Solar Wind”] is partially reflected [and scattered] from the upper layers of our atmosphere [about 30%] back to non-expanding Space-3, and, eventually, to expanding SPACE-1.

Most incoming short-wave energy [about 64%] is reflected back to Spaces 3, 2 and eventually absorbed in the ever expanding VOIDS/SPACE-1 as long-wave radiation that results from the sun’s energy undergoing complex processes in the earth’s atmosphere and on the earth surface.

Thus, all incoming sun’s energy (plus about 6% of heat from the earth’s interior], is proceeding further into the depths of Spaces 3, 2 and 1.

RECAP: On its way to SPACE-1, the ‘solar wind’ engulfs earth and the other solar planets. No equivalent amount of this incoming radiation energy remains with earth and the other planets, as some wrongly assume.

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Part of it is reflected immediately by our upper atmosphere to outer, colddark spaces 3, 2 and, eventually, to Space-1. The rest of the ‘solar wind’ enters our atmosphere, and following complicated thermal-ecologicalhydrological cycles it dissipates irreversibly in outer cold-dark Space 1.

The outgoing energy includes additional, small amount of energy from the earth’s interior. Together with similar ‘solar winds’ generated by billions of stars in our galaxy, this radiation reaches SPACE 1 -- the unsaturable, limitless, universal sink of all radiation energies pouring into it from all stellar and galactic sources [12-18].

9. Galactic Centers. The center of our galaxy is called Sagittarius A. It is a source of radio waves that originate from matter heated to millions of degrees K as they “fall” into a super-massive black hole.

Galactic centers of other galaxies may also harbor super massive black holes in the range of hundreds of thousands to tens of billions of the mass of the entire solar system. Cf. Footnote 8.

Nearby Systems, somewhat similar to our solar system, are created by supernovas. They are located inside a “Local Bubble” [image] -- a cosmic region within the arm of our galaxy called “Orion-Cygnus”.

Nearest stars include Alpha Centauri, Sirius and Procyon.

There are about 50 solar-system-likes there.

9.

Symmetry-Asymmetry & Super symmetries

These central subjects in science and the philosophy of science were introduced in the opening pages. They are further treated in Volume I and in Lectures 3 and 4 herein. At this point we only refer to a non-scientific claim favored by the main media [Cf. Feynman’s Fooling Assertion in Lecture 2].

It states: If the universe is eternal into the future ‘it must be’ eternal into the past’, or ‘prior to creation’ [the “big-bang”], there must have been a ‘symmetric’ contraction into an ‘all-containing’ black hole.. As the density “had” 49

increased during that ‘pre-creation’ contraction, gigantic black holes are claimed to be formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had switched to expansion, and only one of them has turned into “our expanding universe”.

Upcoming tests at CERN [Lecture 4], the Planck Satellite and the groundbased LIGO and VIRGO observatories, may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that is claimed to be associated with such postulated effects, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation.

11.

Merging-Colliding Galaxies

Billions of sun-like stars collide when two galaxies ‘merge’ The rate of galactic collisions was much higher in the past, mainly because the galaxies were closer to each other. Our galaxy is predicted by some models to collide with the Andromeda galaxy in about 5 billion years;

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L ecture 2 Limitations of Theories and Definitions There is something provisional about all scientific theories. They must be re-confirmed by fresh verified information from any sub-field of science, hence, are subject to constant revision and even replacement; -- in this, each succeeding generation takes a measurable step beyond the position of its predecessors.

Closely related to the unrestricted content of modern science is its unrestricted questioning of all earlier convictions in light of verifiable evidence that refutes extant axioms, definitions, assertions, outlooks and theories.

Thus, every item of carefully recorded experimental or observational information is a proper object for analysis. A drive towards novelty and discovery impels inquiry to explore all corners of the universe. These tenets are the central pillars of Gravitism. But there is more to it. The outlook includes constant re-assessments of the theory -- of any theory -- and analysis of the errors involved as one updates and improves it.

2.1

How Errors Are Introduced by Precise Definitions According to Plato, everything is connected with everything else. Therefore, any definition must include 'the whole universe', its contents, dynamics and history.

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This means that the very act of defining a word, a symbol or an axiom erects a ‘fence’ around it. Anything outside that fence is, a priori, rejected and lost forever.

Indeed, without paying much attention to fundamental consequences, we often resort to such definitions as we find them in dictionaries, textbooks and everyday life.

ASSERTION 2.1: The use of a priori definitions of symbols, axioms and statements must be minimized -- for contrary to intent, this practice introduces error.

2.2

Tarski's Indefinability Theorem

According to this theorem no sufficiently powerful language is stronglysemantically-self-representational. For instance, any arithmetical truth cannot be defined by arithmetics.

According to Smullyan [42], Tarski's Indefinability Theorem is somewhat superior to the famous Gödel's Incompleteness Theorems [Refrs. 34-43], which are more related to mathematics and less to philosophical, scientific, and linguistic issues. Tarski's theorem is not directly about mathematics but about the inherent limitation of any formal language that is stronglysemantically-self-representational when it contains predicates and function symbols defining the semantic concepts specific to that language.

2.3 Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem Gödel [34-43] has demonstrated that conventional mathematics, which we tend to consider as our supremely logical and consistent system, involves paradoxical, self-referential statements about itself, i.e., a conventional mathematical system, say, the mathematics of flat space in the Euclidian geometry -- an ‘absolute stage’ upon which Newtonian gravity and physics stands, can be incomplete because one has not discovered all its necessary axioms. In other words, no matter how many physico-mathematical issues theoretical physicists solve, there always will be other issues that cannot be 52

solved by any known laws of physics; and since these laws constitute a finite set of rules, and are based on mathematics, Gödel's theorem restricts them.

Even in computer science one cannot create a complete and consistent finite list of axioms, or an infinite list. Each time one adds a statement as an axiom; there are other correct statements that cannot be proved, even with the new axiom.

Moreover, if the system can prove that it is consistent, it is not. As might have been expected, this idea has been much debated by mathematical philosophers: How can a theory be both correct and unprovable?

Is mathematics a loop of our mind?

Is the mind a self referential loop?

Gödel's first incompleteness theorem shows that any system that allows one to define the natural numbers is necessarily incomplete: it contains statements that are neither provable correct, nor provably false. Some scholars therefore argue that this refutes the logicism of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell, who had aimed to reduce/define the natural numbers in terms of logic.

Not all axiom systems satisfy these hypotheses, even when these systems have models that include natural numbers as a subset. For example, there are axiomatizations of ‘flat’ space that do not meet the hypotheses of Gödel's theorems.

Another limitation applies only to systems that are used as their own proof systems.

Gödel's theorem has another interpretation in the language of computer science. Theorems are computably enumerable: one can write a computer program that will eventually generate any valid proof. One can then ask if it has the stronger property of being recursive: 53

Can one write a computer program to definitively determine if a statement is true or false?

Gödel's theorem says that you cannot. His theorems, however, are confined to sufficiently strong axiomatic systems, i.e., that a theory contains enough arithmetic to carry out the proof of the incompleteness theorem.

Some scholars claim that Gödel's incompleteness theorems have provided a deadly blow to David Hilbert’s program towards a universal mathematical

formalism. Nevertheless, the essence of these issues is much more complicated, as indicated below.

Undecidable Statements: A statement is neither provable nor refutable.

Hence, some scholars resort to the concept "independent". However, that concept is also ambiguous.

Meta-Language: A sufficiently developed language cannot represent its own semantics. Any meta-language includes primitive notions, axioms, and rules absent from an object language. Theorems provable in a meta-language are not provable in the object language.

“Truth”: Some of the aforementioned theorems may presuppose that mathematical "truth" and "falsehood" are well-defined in an absolute sense, rather than relative. If an axiomatic system can be proven to be consistent and complete from within itself, then it is inconsistent.

Minds and Machines: Gödel's incompleteness theorems may also reflect on human intelligence. While Gödel's theorems cannot be applied to humans, since they make mistakes and are, therefore, inconsistent, it may be applied to the domain of science.

Sets of expressions are considered as coded as sets of numbers. For various syntactic properties (such as a formula, a sentence, etc.), these sets are computable. And any computable set of numbers can be defined by some arithmetic formula.

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There are various additional theorems and sub-theorems 34-49. I do not intend to expand on them in these pages, for these pages are mainly written for the general reader, without resorting to any mathematics.

We therefore move next to elaborate on some more practical domains in the mined fields of verifiable scientific theories and proofs.

“Pure Mathematics” is human attempt to stay aloof and beyond emotions, traditions and ambitions. It may protect one from making mistakes, prior to and aft writing down any mathematical equation.

How mathematics -- combined with verifiable observations -- help protect the human mind from falling into unverifiable traditional dictums or ‘intuitively’ generating mistakes is demonstrated by the following dramatic event in the history of science; when Einstein had concluded that his [tensorially based 2.1-2.3] field equations of general relativity3.3, our most universally verified theory of acceleration and gravity, harbors a mistake. To correct that ‘mistake, he forced on these equations a ‘correction number’, called the cosmological constant.

Luckily his tensorial field equations were flawless, despite the fact that a cult of believers in its unverifiable interpretations has evolved during the last 90 years or so, hinting about a need to leave that artificial constant in Einstein’s field equations.

2.4

Space-Time and Symmetry-Asymmetry

The deep essence and the fundamental meaning of curved space-time, symmetry-asymmetry, statistics and probabilities are understood only by a portion of scientists. A much smaller portion, or, in fact, a splendid minority, maintains that probabilities, statistics and quantum postulates provide them with no ‘free will’. [Volume I].

2.5

Differential Equations vs. Observations

It is in what is claimed to be the “domain” of mathematics that timesymmetry, reversibility and the symmetrical laws of physics serve us as key tools to better understand nature, despite the limitations mentioned above.

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And it is only by combining (conceptual, reversible, analytic) timesymmetry with (factual, aggregated, observational) time-asymmetry, or by combining reversible equations with a priori known, factual, initial and boundary conditions, that one may, mathematically, arrive at a reliable world outlook in agreement with observations/experimentations. For more information see Refs. 7, 8.

While symbols and analytical concepts may be symmetric, words and sentences (in order, syntax, phoneme, form, sound modulation or other modes), or ‘useful’ physico-mathematical equations, are basically asymmetric.

Mathematics, gravitation, symmetry-asymmetry, aggregation, time and meaningful sentences are coupled. While some minor reservations are justifiable, there is an overwhelming "word of evidence", derived from physics, the languages and the studies of linguistics, cybernetics, information and mathematics that fortifies this contention.

A theory may be a “set of statements”, some of which are taken as valid without proof (axioms), and others, the theorems, are taken as valid because they are implied by the axioms.

A complete and consistent set of axioms for all mathematics is impossible.

"Provable by a theory" means "derivable from the axioms and primitive notions of the theory, using logic.”

2.6

The Popperian Falsification Principle

Sir Karl Popper, has introduced the Falsification Principle about the ability of mankind to establish what is science and what is non-science, in addition to what might be ‘true’ within the domain of a given theory, or a set of ‘facts’, axioms or definitions.

[Lecture 4] Applied mathematics is often use as a cover to advance their subjectivistic, unverifiable claims, proofs and ‘theories’. The examples provided in 56

Lectures 3 and 4 and below illustrate how -- by a priori selecting only timeasymmetric mathematics, or time-asymmetric mathematical solution that fits with their desired ‘proof’ – they easily fool themselves and others.

The Fooling" Assertion by

Nobel Laureate Feynman

“The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool. So you have to be very careful aboutthat. After you’ve not fooled yourself, it’s easy not to fool other scientists. You just have to be honest in a conventional way.”

“You should not fool the layman when you’re talking as a scientist. I am not trying to tell you what to do about cheating on your wife, or fooling your girlfriend, or something like that, when you’re not trying to be a scientist, but just trying to be an ordinary human being.

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… I’m talking about a specific, extra type of integrity that is not lying, but bending over backwards to show how you are maybe wrong, that you ought to have when acting as a scientist.

And this is our responsibility as scientists, certainly to other scientists, and I think to laymen.”

Applied mathematics is the key tool of the ‘exact sciences’. It constitutes a special kind of 'intelligent thinking’ that is integrated with its ‘universal grammar' -- a sort of critical thinking which has been partially developed to safeguard our minds from prejudices and inconsistencies. Yet, consistency, by itself, is a two-sided issue.

‘Pure mathematics’ is often developed for its own sake, without a priori harboring intentional applications, although they may be ‘un-covered’ later.

According to Einstein, when we predict the behavior of a specific or confined set of natural phenomena, we usually mean that we have found a ‘constructive theory’ covering this set.

When we find that other sets of phenomena are incompatible with that theory, we tend to either generalize or modify it, or failing that, seek an alternative one.

To this ‘constructive’ category Einstein opposes the so-called “theories of principles” (exemplified, according to Einstein, by thermodynamics and the general theory of relativity), whose point of departure and foundation are not hypothetical constituent, but empirically observed general properties from which mathematical formulae are deduced so as to apply to every case of observation which presents itself.

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Thus, according to Einstein, the merit of “constructive theories” lies in their comprehensiveness, adaptability, and clarity for a given set of phenomena, while that of the “theories of principles” -- in their logical ‘perfection’ and universality and in the vast observational spectrum of their formulation at any scale and time.

Yet, Einstein did not trust some semi-hidden aspects of his own general theory of relativity2.5. Two such events are described next: The failure of statistical mechanics (both classical and quantum) to deduce and explain the origin of irreversibility, time-asymmetries, cosmic and local structuring, generation of order and what is called “entropy growth” -- as well as its philosophical and applicative limitations and lack of large-scale universality -- has been explained in footnotes 2.5, 3.4 and 3.5 as well as in Volume I. (See Table of Contents,).

Einstein had not suspected that his general theory of relativity already incorporates another ‘theory of principle’: Thermodynamics, especially the so-called Second Law of Thermodynamic. Namely, the foundations of thermodynamics should NOT be a separate, stand-alone, theory of science; it should NOT be fragmented from the rest of physics. It constitutes an integral part of gravity-induced, interconnected, unified physico-philosophical knowledge.

In ancient Greece chaos is the original dark void from which everything else appeared. According to Hesiod’s theology (the origin of the gods) chaos was the nothingness out of which the first objects of existence appeared. The Biblical Genesis refers to such earliest conditions as “without form, and void”.

Footnotes to Lecture 2 2.1 Scalars are numbers, ‘constants’, or measurable quantities that one can count. They harbor no direction in space, time or space-time. Algebra and calculus belong to this domain, and both constitute boring subjects to most students, and to me. An example is speed.

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2.2 Vectors are scalars and other entities that harbor direction in space, time, or space time. These are frequently used as the ‘first derivatives’ of entities, physical or imaginative, in space, time, and space-time or higher dimensions. An example is velocity.

2.3 Metric Tensors I confine this footnote to Einstein’s metric tensor3.3, which allows anyone to express the same laws of physics, namely, they should be the same, mathematically, for any observer in the universe: Rotating, standing still, moving linearly at constant speed, accelerating, standing on a tiny, or a massive planet or a star, i.e., under different gravitational fields.

Expressing derivatives in 3 space coordinates and a single time coordinate, or in additional dimensions, tensors constitute translators that show that what one observes, scales, measures, or reads in, say, a flat space-time, is expressible mathematically in the same FORM for any and all other curved space-time points [observers].

Tensors are, therefore, the reliable translators from one set of coordinates, say, a set used by a rotating observer, to those used, say, by an observer ‘falling’, or fast accelerating into a black hole1.5, or ‘standing’ on the planet Jupiter.

Thus, metric tensors express a theory by resorting to a universal language, e.g.., via their mathematical derivatives, they tell any observer that these or these scalars, vectors or other physico-mathematical entities, when, say, arranged on one side of a tensorially-expressed equation, are all zero [invariant] for any and all observers. We may judge that result as a ‘symmetric invariance’ for all. For more information see footnote 3.4 and the mathematical treatments provided in Volume I. 2.4 Chaotic Mathematical Systems: A chaos theory describes systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. As a result the behavior of chaotic systems appears to be random. This happens even though these systems are deterministic; their future is completely determined by their initial conditions with no random elements involved. This behavior is known 60

as deterministic chaos. All deterministic systems are governed by physical laws.

2.5 Determinism means that all current and future events are causally interconnected by the laws of gravity physics going back in time to the prime cause (mover) via a single, all-embracing, master law that controls anything in the universe since ‘Day-1’. [Lecture 5]. Thus, macro matter is without any freedom. Hence, the universe was strictly deterministic until humans emerged. The sole freedom (kaivalya) consists in realizing the ultimate separateness of matter and self.

In Yoga philosophy only Ishvara is free, and its freedom is distinct from all feelings, thoughts, actions, or wills, and is thus not at all a freedom of will.

In turn, the Nyaya and Vaisheshika philosophies support determinism, namely, the will is not "free" because it is dominated by the law of cause and effect.

Determinism and Free Will in Buddhist Philosophy that accepts both freedom and determinism. According to the Buddha: "There is free action, there is retribution, but I see no agent that passes out from one set of momentary elements into another one, except the [connection] of those elements."

Buddhists therefore reject absolute free will and determinism. The concept of karma in Buddhism is, in essence, deterministic, while in Hinduism karma is more often connected with determining one's destiny in future lives.

Determinism and Free Will in Kashmir Shavism: Humans have a limited degree of free will based on their level of consciousness. All subjects are identical - "all are one": Siva -- the supreme consciousness, the cause of the creation of the universe - a primordial force that manifests the world inside the supreme consciousness of Śiva. Causality in Kashmir Shavism is considered to be created by Svātantrya along with the universe, perhaps in analogy to what science calls the Laws of Physics, or, in philosophy, the Law, the Master Plan.

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Determinism and Free Will in Judaism is based on human soul (neshama, meaning "breath") and Yechida the singular element of the soul which is united with God and is independent of physical cause and effect, or determinism. [Everything is foreseeable but permission is given. Rabbi Akiva Ben Yossef (Killed by the Romans.).

Determinism and Free Will in Islam [Cf. Appendix III] is the main factor for man's accountability in his/her actions throughout life. All actions taken by man's free will are said to be counted on the Day of Judgment for they are his/her own and not God's. It is based on God's Jabr, [Epilogue], or divine commanding power. In Shia Islam determinism and pre-destination are often debated.

2.6 Divine Foreknowledge and Deterministic Laws in Physics. What will happen, right down to every choice humans make, is ALL pre-determined (predestined) in The Master Law introduced to the universe at the First Genesis. [Lecture 5].

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L ecture 3 The Crisis in Physics Today In 1979 Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing the electroweak theory that unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions.3.1 According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies as is calculated during the Radiation-Dominated Epoch (RDE). [Fig. 00.1].

The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodynamics [Volume I] for the strong interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do.

The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating the existence of a hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified experimentally. (Yet efforts continue at CERN.). But if the Higgs boson is not verified, “spontaneous symmetry breaking” fails.

Without “spontaneous symmetry breaking”, the STANDARD MODEL, contrary to fact, predicts that the W and Z bosons would harbor no mass -- a major failure of quantum physics.

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Quantum physics failure regarding “spontaneous symmetry breaking” is a fundamental anti-symmetry issue that is not dissociated with ‘symmetry breaking” in the STANDAR MODEL of thermodynamics, as advocated

by Prigogine.

Despite many claims for success, none has yet succeeded to derive and prove the origin of irreversibility in nature – or the Master Time Asymmetry (CPP, Volume I and Lectures 2 and 3 herein) -- from symmetric mathematical equations of statistics and probabilities, where retrodiction is precisely symmetric to prediction – or by starting from symmetric partial differential equations, say of electromagnetism3.1 (Cf. the Einstein-Ritz controversy [1]) and integro-differential equations-solutions that are ‘manforced’ to evolve only in the positive time direction, namely, by man-wish selection of only the INITIAL CONDITIONS while a priori rejecting FINAL CONDITIONS (ending ‘up’ with, say, retarded solutions in electromagnetism, which agree with observations of emitter vs. absorber), while rejecting, or intentionally ignoring or avoiding, the ADVANCED SOLUTIONS (which do not agree with observations).

Reference: Feynman’s Fooling Assertion in Lecture 2.

Conclusion: To smuggle irreversibility into symmetric-reversible equations of physics, without declaring the contraband, is not even wrong.

But there is another important aspect to that debate: Prigogine’s Lectures and publications on socio-dynamics should be re-assessed. We return to this critical issue in Lecture 7.

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An unknown source that may be referred to as ‘logical’, ‘aesthetic’, ‘inner wish’, or ‘religious’, is driving human will to unify all fundamental forces of nature and fuse them into a single verifiable outlook, or ‘unified field equations’ that are based on the minimal possible number of axioms while explaining the maximum number of verified facts.

The rest of this lecture contains only references to footnotes, which are designed to help comprehending the key foundations of Gravitism. There is nothing new in the footnotes, except, perhaps, some within footnotes 3.4 and 3.5. A few words of introduction are nevertheless used next.

Gravitation reigns superb and controls all macro systems in nature. It is best explained by General Relativity and Einstein’s Field Equations. (Footnotes 1.1 and 3.3). Gravitation is manifested by a relatively small force value on earth, in comparison with the other three fundamental interactions of nature.

But it may be contended to increase with decreasing distances in subatomic scales of nature, namely, as one gets closer to the Planck distance, which is about 15 orders of magnitude below all current and expected abilities of science to test it.

Evidence is gradually mounting that at hyper high energies and very small subatomic distances, the fundamental forces-interactions are unified. Said forces are referred to as field interactions and are four in number and three with the unification of the electromagnetic-weak interaction, viz. the: The Electromagnetic-Weak force-field-interaction is at the base of all chemistry, electronics, astronomy, radioactive decay, etc. It binds atoms together to form molecules3.1. At low energies the electromagnetic forcefield-interaction ‘separates’ from the weak, thereby physics end-up with four fundamental forces-interactions of nature.

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The Strong Force is at the base of subatomic, quantum physics. [Lecture 3].3.2

FOOTNOTES to Lecture 3

3.1 Electromagnetic-Weak Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.2 to 3.5 and Volume I. The electromagnetic force binds atoms together to form molecules. It is about hundred times weaker than the strong force.3.2 Field-Force-Interactions are postulated to emit and absorb massless, pointlike, field particles like the photons of light and some other field particles3.2 Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1979 for developing the electroweak theory that unifies the electromagnetic and week interactions. Inter alia it predicted the existence of the W and Z BOSONS at very high energies: About 82 Gev/c2 for W [verified later at 80.4 Gev/c2 ] and about 93 Gev/c2 for Z [verified later at 91.2 Gev/c2 ].

According to their theory both interactions have about the same strength at very high energies. The combination of the electroweak theory with Quantum Chromodynamics [QCD] for the strong interactions is termed THE STANDARD MODEL, which, however, does not include the gravitational field-force3.3 and it has not explained, say, why the point-like photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons do.

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The origin of the masses of W and Z has been treated by postulating the existence of a hypothetical Higgs Boson, which, however, has not yet been verified experimentally. However, such efforts continue at CERN. But if the Higgs boson is not verified, “spontaneous symmetry breaking” fails.

RECAP: Without “spontaneous symmetry breaking”, the STANDARD MODEL, contrary to fact, predicts that the W and Z bosons would harbor no mass -- a major failure of the theory. Yet, various alternatives have been proposed, but without experimental supporting evidence.

This general subject also involves (at high energies) the long-range electromagnetic field-force-interactions with the Weak Force, as a shortrange force-field-interaction that harbors some radioactive decay processes. At low energies it constitutes the fourth fundamental force-field in modern physics.

Gluons3.2 are postulated to mediate the strong force3.2, while specific bosons ‘mediate’ the weak force. [Gravitons have also been proposed by theorists to ‘mediate’ the gravitational force-field3.3.]

3.2 The Strong Force-Field-Interaction. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it one may consult Footnotes 3.1 and 3.3 to 3.5 and Volume I, especially for some hot debates and specific disputations in physics.

The strong force is an attractive force between sub-atomic nucleons. It is a very short-range force-field-interaction. Its magnitude is negligible in ranges greater than about 10-15 meter. (About the size of the atomic nucleus). It increases in sub-atomic separation distances and is ‘mediated’ by massless field-particles called Gluons.

Gluons ‘mediate’ the strong force that binds/confines quarks (see below) inside protons and neutrons. I.e., each quark in a proton or neutron is continuously emitting and absorbing gluons. The energy of a gluon can generate quark-anti-quark pairs, like the creation of electron-positron 67

pairs. When a quark emits or absorbs a gluon, the quark’s color charge (see below) may change.

Hadrons are sub-atomic entities that are not massless field particles, like the photon and the gluon. These sub-atomic particles interact through the strong force. A hadron is a complex particle that has size and structure, namely, it is a composite system of sub-atomic particles. Hadrons are, therefore, ‘nonelementary-particles’. They are composed of Fermions (quarks) [see below] and antiquarks.

Hadrons are of two types: Baryons [Fermions], that have masses equal to or larger than that of the proton, and Mesons [Bosons] [having 0 or 1 spin].

They interact via all forces. Hadrons have quantum numbers: Spin, parity and mass. In addition they carry “flavor” quantum numbers such as isospin (or G-parity) and a ‘property’ called strangeness. Hadrons are single excitations in QCD, which predicts that quarks and gluons interact weakly.

This ‘property’, which is called ‘asymptotic freedom’, has been experimentally confirmed at large energy levels.

Leptons have no inner structure, or size; namely, they are point-like fieldparticles of quantum physics -- a lacuna that some hope to be resolved by string theories4.6-4.11 All leptons have spin ½ and do not interact through the strong force. The following types are considered in quantum physics: Electrons, muons, taus and three types of neutrinos.

Messons are: Kaon, Pion, Eta; Baryons are: Proton, Neutron, Omega, Lambda, Sigma, and Delta Xi. The Kaon, lambda and sigma particles exhibit unusual ‘properties’, e.g. they are produced in pairs when created or decayed slowly, hence are called ‘strange particles’.

The Quark Model. Strong interaction that binds subatomic particles together is described by QCD. Quark gluons are gauge bosons in QCD. According to it quarks have a ‘property’ called color charge and the force between quarks is the strong force or the color charge, which may be due to gluon exchanges between hadrons.

Quarks are dividable into six flavors: up, down, strange, charm, bottom and top, and their antiquarks. Quarks harbor fractional electric charge and 68

are NOT found free in nature. The up, charmed, and top quarks have electric charges of +2/3 that of the proton. The down, strange and bottom quarks have charges of –1/3 that of the proton. Protons consist of 2 up and 1 down quarks, whereas neutrons consist of 2 down and 1 up quarks.

Quarks are also identified by three ‘colors’: red, green, and blue. The masses of the heavy charm and bottom quarks are obtained from the masses of hadrons containing a single heavy quark and 1 light antiquark, or 2 light quarks.

Particles with the same color charge repel, while the ones with opposite color charge attract. A collection of, say, red, blue and green quarks attract each other to form baryons. Every baryon contains three quarks. A residual force between them is the force that binds protons and neutrons to form the atomic nuclei. Quarks and gluons are assumed to be combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons, when the universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).

3.3 The Gravitational Field-Force-Interaction [Gravity in short]. Note: While this is a long footnote, it is not an Introduction to the subject. Beyond it, one may consult Footnotes 1.1, 3.1 to 3.5, and Volume I. Einstein’s General Relativity [EGR] is based on the principle of equivalence between gravity and acceleration, and on the axiom that all laws of nature are exactly the same for any observer. The fundamental laws may therefore be expressed as metric tensors [see below] and remain invariant [symmetric3.4] for, say, observers at rest, rotating, accelerating and standing on a small or a massive star.

It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations [EFE] constitute the scale-free EGR. EFE are based on the stress tensor and the Riemannian geometry of curved space-time. [Volume I] and consists of a set of 10 non-linear differential equations. Mathematical solutions of EFE are the components 69

of the metric tensor that describes geometry of curved space-time at any point.

Gravitation is a force-field-interaction that penetrates all and controls macro phenomena in the entire cosmos, at any time, location and scale.

Gravity and SPACE-1-expansion generate thermodynamics [Lecture 1] and control all galaxies, stars, supernova explosions, planets, moons, black holes, and quasars. [Lecture 1, Footnotes]. It is expressed by the deterministic, Einsteinian, tensorial, field equations, known also as Gravity Physics.

Gravity is a long-range force that penetrates everything. It is produced by any mass-energy aggregation that curves space-time. Gravity thus bends the path of light near massive astronomical entities -- the greater the massenergy, the greater is the degree of light [space-time] bending. This bending is the manifestation of curved space-time.

The greater the mass of a star, the greater is the local curvature of spacetime. Therefore, magnifying gravitational lens [Footnote 1.1] are used in astronomy when the incoming radiation to the telescope has, on its way to earth, passed ‘near’ a collection [cluster] of massive galaxies and/or massive stars. Such gravitational lens are used to observe the “dark age” in astronomy, namely, when the age of the universe was about 300,000 to 500,000 sun-earth years. This is an important cosmic age during which the universe had become transparent for the first time and gravity-induced structures had first been generated.

Gravity keeps earth and planets in orbit around the sun; causing tides; generating fluid flow under a temperature gradient and is heating the interiors of stars and planets under its compressive attractive force, until, at sufficiently high temperature, it ignites thermo-nuclear fusion [Lecture 1].

Time, as treated by general relativistic cosmology, is slowed down ‘near’ and by large galaxies and massive stars. This effect is in addition to time effects treated by special relativity. [1].

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Once EGR-outlook is adopted, the gate is opened to many interconnections: First, the whole world, or any part of it, at very high energies and very small distances, may be treated as a unified system composed of nothing but dynamically curved space-time. [Vol. I at p. 41] • Secondly, the order and connection of fundamental ideas often follows the order of and connection to things; from large cosmological structures to small, macro-ones, like humans. • Thirdly, all reality, unlike what is sensed by the human mind, is nothing but EGR-induced, deterministic, symmetry-asymmetry space-time at four or higher dimensions. [Lecture 4]. •

Special relativity rules superb not only in any (non-accelerating) system, but also in probabilistic, quantum micro-physics. The theory is limited to non-gravitating systems [Ref. 1]. Unlike quantum microphysics, both special and general relativity are strictly deterministic.

When first applied to cosmology, around 1919, EGR predicted the expansion [or contraction] of the universe, a phenomenon that was later confirmed by observation in the 20s by the American astronomer E. Hubble.

What Hubble measured is an increase in all distances between clusters and superclusters of galaxies (Fig. 1.2; Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).

The further the observed cluster, or super-clusters of galaxies, the greater is its speed of recession from us, or from any location in the cosmos. [Cf. the three thought experiments in Lecture 1.].

Newtonian gravity is included in EGR as an approximation for relatively weak gravitational fields, like that on earth. It rules superb in controlling tides, geological strata, generation of mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, ponds, oceans, city and village structures, transportation systems, the solar system, and many human concepts. [Lecture 7.]. It also explains how gravity controls the solar system1.1 and the structures of planets, moons and smaller objects.

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Mathematical derivations of both special and general relativity are provided in Volume I, which also describes the key measurement methods of astronomical distances.

3.4

Asymmetry vs. Symmetry Revisited

There is a great confusion in physics concerning fundamental vs. primitive symmetries, gauge symmetry, supersymmetry and the master time asymmetry. [Lecture 1].

We first note the importance of symmetry in the formulations of verified fundamental forces-fields-interactions3.1; 3.2; 3.3, where one can find theories expressed by Lagrangians that remain invariant under certain symmetry operations.

When such physico-mathematical operations are invariant under a transformation that is performed at any point in space, they are referred to as harboring a global symmetry, which becomes a local symmetry when fixed in space-time as a generalization of the equivalence principle of EGR3.3; 3.5.

Supersymmetry in Supersymmetry theories is that for every particle a Super-Partner exists; i.e., quark v. squark. [Lecture 4].

The importance of gauge symmetries may be illustrated by relativistic quantum mechanics of the electrons. In quantum physics3.2, symmetry is often referred to as a transformation between states that preserve the expectation values of all observables.

String theories [Lecture 4], and some attempts to re-formulate EGR [References], may be expressed as gauge theories [CPP, Volume I].

Gauge theories involve renormalizable operations3.5 in which symmetry transformations can be conducted locally as well as globally.

A key notion of Gravitism states that all fundamental laws of physics, except the 2nd law of thermodynamics, are space and time symmetric. Namely, there is no distinction between any direction in space and in time.

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Gravitism means that the 2nd law of thermodynamics [Lecture 1] rules the observed asymmetric time coordinate, allowing it to be extended only from past to future, and never in reverse.

This Rule is thus termed ‘Time Asymmetry’. Indeed, false past claims of the 2nd law of thermodynamics proclaim, inter alia: ‘Entropy of the universe only increases’, a fallacy proved in Volume I and by endless observations of gravity-induced structuring and ‘order’ in the universe.

[Lectures 6 and 8].

All ‘exact’ sciences can be reduced to Physics, and all physics to the fundamental fields-forces-interactions [at high energies/short distances] electroweak3.1, strong3.2 and gravitational3.3.

In turn, these are expressed in terms of the mathematics of curved spacetime in which there is no distinction between any direction (a plus or a minus coordinate) in space and in time, namely, all basic equations of physics (except the 2nd law of thermodynamics), are strictly symmetric in time and space or in curved space-time coordinates.

In the observed (macro) world, there is a clash between the aforementioned theoretical symmetry and the actual time asymmetries found in nature. This result is based on the fact that all processes in nature are irreversible and pointing from past to future, and never in reverse.

That ‘arrow of time’ is an optional fundamental expression of the 2nd law of thermodynamics. In turn, any solution of the three symmetric fundamental forces, say, as integro-differential equations that can and ARE to be compared with verifiable observations, is subject to the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics (in the macro world).

Finally, to conclude this footnote -- and proceed to footnote 3.5 -- we stress again that there are different time asymmetries, e.g.: • cosmological, 73

• thermodynamic, • electromagnetic, • linguistic • Other gravity-induced asymmetries (or arrows of time).

The central issue raised by Gravitism is therefore: Which one generates and controls the others?

What is the origin of the aforementioned confusion in physics?

The Crisis in Quantum Physics [Cf. 13, Volume I, Lecture V at p. 254 to 271] -- and earlier publications – where we had replaced such smuggling acts by using general relativistic cosmology and the observed SPACE-1Expansion as the origin and cause of irreversibility and time asymmetries in nature, thereby basing the origin of all irreversible processes in nature on general relativistic cosmology.

3.5 On the failure of the Theory of Everything to unify the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in physics. [Lecture 4].

Beyond unifying the weak and electromagnetic fields-forces-interactions3.1, other attempts to unify the fundamental forces-fields-interactions in physics3.1, .3.2, 3.3 have failed.

We assert that the key reasons for said failures are attempts to unify fieldsforces-interactions first by inconsistently mixing mathematically symmetric with asymmetric equations, instead of first consistently unifying time asymmetries based on verified facts. [Volume I].

It may be noted that Einstein was isolated in his attempts to develop unified physics via relativistic unified field theories that are based on deterministic gravitation. Part of that was due to his consistent claim that quantum theories

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are incomplete and would, in due time, be replaced by an ultimate, deterministic, unified theory of physics.

It is indisputable today that Einstein’s Field Equations constitute the single, best, scale-free, universal and verified theory of gravitation that physics has ever provided.

Following Einstein’s publication (1915) and later verifications of EFA by astronomical observations, Einstein had focused first on unification of the gravitational and electromagnetic fields-forces-interactions3.1; 3.3. However, it has turned out that ordinary Riemannian theory cannot exhibit the electromagnetic field-force-interaction as a purely geometric phenomenon [Ref 1].

During Einstein’s life time the strong field-force-interaction3.2 was not yet formulated as it currently stands. Many theorists focus today on a reversed effort: Develop a quantum theory of gravitation, or quantum gravity, etc. But so far these efforts have failed. [Lecture 4].

Some reputed past theorists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Arthur Eddington, Theodor Kaluza and Herman Weyl, have tried, in vain, during Einstein’s life time, to unify the fundamental forces.

For instance, Erwin Schrödinger investigated pure-affine formulations of generalized gravitational theory, assuming, initially, a symmetric affine connection. But he later changed his efforts to a nonsymmetrical mathematics. Nonetheless, skepticism from Einstein discouraged him, and his work has been largely ignored.

Einstein continued to work, in vain, until his death, on unified field theories of gravity and electromagnetism. However, he became isolated for his efforts ignored the quantum theories of his time.

Nonetheless, many contemporary theorists have changed their mind about Einstein’s reserved attitude towards quantum theories, at least by admitting that quantum theories are not complete for they do not incorporate the field 75

of gravitation and also harbor serious fundamental problems. This change of mind has led, since Einstein’s death, to numerous efforts to verify a single, reliable, verifiable string theory, all in vain. [Lecture4].

In the past, to incorporate electromagnetism in general relativity, Weyl generalized the Riemannian geometry by adding degrees of freedom between two points in locally sized measures along a path, in terms of a gauge and vector fields, thereby unifying electromagnetic and gravitational fields. Weyl corresponded with Einstein about his theory, which, eventually, has turned out to be non-physical. Nevertheless, his gauge invariance was later applied in quantum filed theory. [Volume I].

Kaluza's approach to unification was to resort to a single time and four space dimensions. Riemannian geometry was maintained and the extra dimension allowed incorporating the electromagnetic field vector into modified EFE. But, again, his theory did not meet verifiable science criteria. Nevertheless, it influenced Einstein's later work [Ref. 1] and was further developed later

by Klein in an attempt to unify relativity with quantum theory, again in vain.

Another approach that has not succeeded is termed the Lancelot Law Whyte's unitary field theory. Affine connection is the basis of Eddington’s approach that resorts to parallel transport of vectors from one space-time point to another; assuming it to be symmetric in its covariant form. Since the simplest cosmological model emerging from Eddington’s equations is symmetric, Eddington’s theory has failed in the face of evolving cosmological-astronomical evidence.

These attempts have eventually centered on treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. In general relativity, these are symmetric, but since actual electromagnetism harbors asymmetry, the mixing issue arises again. In such field theories sub-atomic particles -- the domain of quantum theories -- appear as regions in curved space-time in which energy density is very high. Einstein and coworker Leopold Infeld had demonstrated that, in the unified field, singularities may harbor ‘point particles’3.2. However, singularities are points where the equations may not be valid.

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The Standard Model3.2 unifies the description of electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong interactions in the language of gauge theory.

Quantum Chromo Dynamics [Volume I] is a gauge theory with action of SU(3) on the color triplet of quarks3.2. Non-abelian gauge theories involve asymptotic freedom in strong interactions3.2.

The importance of gauge theories is in allowing unification of quantum filed theories of electromagnetism3.1 with the weak and the strong forces in the Standard Model, which accurately predicts experimental observations regarding three of the four fundamental forces of nature. For more information see Refs. 53 and 60.

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Lecture 4 “Theory of Everything” & String Theories Re-Visited Despite decades of intensive attempts to provide experimental proof of the variously proposed string theories, as conducted by many able theorists around the world, there is not a single verification test that the proposed string theories can be unequivocally confirmed by test or observation, or by predicting new entities and thus unifying physics, as claimed by its proponents.

In fact, no string theory version has yet made a prediction that differs from those made by other theories.

While different formulations of string theories have survived mathematical challenges, each solution represents an entire set of unverifiable predictions [53]. Accordingly, the proclaimed “Theory of Everything” is misleading and is not considered scientific, as claimed by Ref. 53.

In addition, the proponents of string theories often smuggle into their formulations what they wish to prove.3.4 We therefore conclude that whatever the future holds for string theories, they have become interesting mathematical exercises within a very active branch of theoretical physics [59], a branch that, in part, had originated from 78

Einstein’s quest for a unified field theory of gravity3.5 and quantum physics.3.2

The first to add a fifth dimension to Einstein's Field equations [EFE] were Theodor Kaluza (in 1919) and Oskar Klein (in 1926)3.5. These attempts attracted Einstein’s attention in his work to develop a unified field theory.

But Einstein died prior to being successful in this domain.

“Hidden Variables” play key roles in extra 6, 7 or higher dimensions that are postulated by various string theories [Lecture 3], namely, beyond the familiar four space-time dimensions of relativity3.3.

Postulated by Einstein [Ref 1] and David Bohm, the general idea of ‘hidden variables’ is still driving string theorists in their noble attempts to by-pass the highly disputed point-like feathers of ‘particles’ in current, yet still evolving, quantum physics3.2. Such attempts may allow theorists to get closer to Einstein’s famous hope: “It is only in the quantum theory that Newton’s differential method becomes inadequate, and indeed strict causality fails us. But the last word has not yet been said.

May the spirit of Newton’s method give the power to restore unison between physical reality and the profoundest characteristics of Newton’s teachingstrict causality.”

Albert Einstein Indeed, up to the end of his life, Einstein consistently explained that probabilistic quantum theories are incomplete, a fact indirectly acknowledged by string-theories proponents who seek to remedy that dispute in physics3.2, 3.5. For more disciplinary information one may consult References 11, 26, 48, 51, 53, 58-110.

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Skeptic Notes Any current -- and expected -- experimental technique available in science cannot provide experimental verification of anything at about 15 orders of magnitude blow its capability.

That undisputed fact confronts the proponents of string theories, who claim, inter alia, that, at extremely small, sub-sub-sub-atomic scales, 15 orders of magnitude blow direct testability, all fundamental field-forces-interactions3.1, 3.2, 3..3 consist of vibrating strings, closed or open, or membranes.

Indeed, the spectrum, or ‘zoo’, of such ‘entities’ may (mathematically) be represented by tiny vibrating strings that, by altering their mode of vibration, transform, say, an electron into a neutrino, a quark, or other particles3.2, while causing space-time to curve around these entities so as to give rise to Einsteinian relativistic gravity 3.3.

Some string-theories proponents also claim that prior to verified physical Genesis [the so-called Big Bang], a Pre-Genesis-World had turned into a very massive black hole, that, at the very instant of the Big bang, became a white hole that has since generated endless other ‘universes’, while ours is just one of them – indeed, a beautiful mathematical-configurational music.

M-Theory [Lecture 3] harbors an almost infinite number of versions, which "predict" an almost infinite number of possible universes. Critics call this the "Alice's restaurant problem" a reference to the folk song: "You can get anything you want at Alice's restaurant." And conclude that a theory that predicts everything, like the ‘Theory of Everything’ that S. Hawking is advocating, does in fact predict nothing, and is therefore not a theory at all.

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M-Theory postulates ‘Landscapes-Inside-landscapes’ in 10, 11 or 26 dimensions that harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes.

Investigating how a string theory may include fermions3.2 has led to the concept of supersymmetry, a collection of postulates relating bosons and fermions3.2 (every particle has superpartner that is not observable). Such superpartners may be called squarks, selectrons and gluinos.

The theoretical limit of the M-theory infers that protons, electrons, neutrons and their antimatter counterparts, may be converted to photons and then converted to other particles, i.e., to particles such as protons that may be changed to other particles, such as electrons. For more information one may consult References 11, 26, 48, 51, 53 and 58-69.

D-Branes in String Theories are membranes (in short ‘branes’) of different dimensionalities. These unobservable membranes are postulated as optional gravitational sources so that one may end-up with a modified gravitational theory within the framework of quantum gravity3.5. The concept supersymmetry [Volume I] may then apply between forces and matter for closed or open strings.

These postulated strings emit and absorb closed strings and are further postulated to emit gravitons3.3 and charge3.2, since they emit closed strings, which are gauge bosons.3.2 The imaginary strings are also postulated to contract to minimize their potential energy. But conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing. Instead they are further postulated to oscillate-vibrate.

By pre-assuming vibrating strings, one may next speculate about different vibrational modes that are even further postulated to represent different subatomic particles.

Such strings are claimed to split and combine, which may resemble particles emitting and absorbing other particles, as in quantum interactions between sub-atomic particles.3.2

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Such quantum strings are also postulated to harbor tension, like the familiar strings of a violin; a tension that is related to their size and shape.

Open strings have two distinct end-points, while closed strings are joined to make a complete loop. The two types may allow wild speculations about two different spectra of ‘elementary-particles’.

For instance, one of the closed string modes is speculated to be the graviton, and in the open string mode it is may be a photon.3.1 Brane Cosmology includes speculative models in which Genesis is claimed to be periodical collisions between branes. See also Hinduism. Other proposals include ‘multiverses’ and dark matter and dark energy. [Refs. 51, 53, 58-115].

‘Landscapes-Inside-Landscapes’ are speculated in some string theories as hidden worlds-inside-worlds in 10, 11 or 26 space dimensions. They may harbor a large number of hidden variables, different vacua and endless other universes. Such theories are also being postulated to be the theoretical limit of the M-theory.

Symmetry-Asymmetry & Supersymmetries Many types and branches of ‘supersymmetries’, are postulated in string theories. For instance, some theorists claim that as the density “had” increased during said ‘pre-creation’ contraction, gigantic black holes are formed, and, at the instant of maximum contraction, they had all switched to expansion, namely, reverting to a White Hole and only one of them has turned into “our universe”. At best such claims are not acceptable in verifiable science.

Indeed, such claims have encountered hot exchanges that may hardly be qualified as debates. But the proponents hope that upcoming observations at CERN, or those expected from the Planck Satellite and the ground-based LIGO and VIRGO observatories, etc., may reveal slight variations in gravitational radiation that might be associated with such postulated

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phenomena, say, on the polarization of the cosmic black body radiation.

[Lecture 1].

L ecture 5

WORLD HISTORY

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Fig. 5.1: Terminologies of a few optional Clock-Histories of the commonly termed Radiation Era, or the biblical Genesis.

Our traditional sun-based time-clock-calendar is neither universal nor relevant during the first 9 billion years of the world history, namely, prior to the formation of our Solar System. [Lecture 1 and Table II below]. This fact allows the use of other time scales, as marked above and had been proposed elsewhere [13]. At least four clocks can replace the seconds depicted on the left of Fig. 5.1: • Temperature clock-history [marked on the right]; • Volume clock-history: Defining the speed of light, c, as universal unit one and resorting to the specific volume of the expanding uniform medium [as its third root]: • Astrophysical clock-history: The 6 Stages marked in Fig. 5.1; • Biblical clock-history: The first six biblical “days”.

There is no fundamental difference in selecting any option. The world earliest clock-history may therefore be briefed as follows.

Table I: ‘Day’

“Radiation Era”: Terminologies of

>>1011K

DAY

1

Temp.

Deg. K

About 17.75 billion years ago the totality of our universe was extremely dense and hot at the beginning of what is commonly termed the “Radiation Era”, as marked in Figs. 00.1 and 5.1.

All evidence indicates that the laws of physics have remained invariant at any place, scale and time, since ‘Day-1’.

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Direct verification of the first six ‘Days’ of the world history is, nevertheless, banned by the fact that during the earliest epoch it had been totally opaque, uniform and structureless, while any curved space-time point in it has been in a state of uniform thermal equilibrium (in space).

From this hot-dense beginning, the universe has been expanding. This fact is neither a theory nor a model, as many wrongly still maintain. It has been reconfirmed by various independent astronomical observations since the mid 1920’s dramatic discovery: The Einstein’s Gravity Physics Prediction and Hubble Observations [Lecture 1].

This fact means cooling of the universe as a whole, forever, and at a slightly accelerated rate of expansion, as more recently discovered.[Lecture 1].

A few THEORETICAL results emerge out of this BASIC FACT: The entire contents of the universe have been undergoing changes -- from chaos to order, from structure-less state to the current, GRAVITYINDUCED, structured galaxies [Fig. 00.1] stars, planets [Lecture 1] moons, tides, biosphere, amino acids, RNA, DNA, bio-organisms written languages, books, you and I. [Lectures 6 and 8].

Einstein’s General Relativity, combined with what we know today about the frozen-until-now neutronproton ratio [see ‘Day 5’], the hydrogen bomb, thermonuclear fusion processes [Lecture 1] and the remnant, cosmic, microwave black-body radiation [Fig. 1.4], provide us with reasonable understanding of pre-atomic processes undergoing during the first six ‘Days’; namely, prior to the emergence of nuclei, 85

atoms and proto-agglomerations of gas-into-starsinto-galaxies, until, eventually, matter had separated from radiation during the ‘7th day’, and the “dark ages” emerges when the universe was about 350 years old. [Table II below] All fundamental forces-fields of nature [Lectures 3 and 4] are unified during the extremely hot-dense beginning of this Radiation Era. Out of this high-energy, structure-less field-forceinteraction, the electroweak and the strong forcefield-interactions would split in the next key stage of the world history, namely, when the universe had cooled below about 1028K [10000000000000000000000000000 degrees Celsius or Kelvin], thereby breaking the original, unified, single force-field-interaction of nature.

Above a certain value, the gravitational-energy density at the hot-dense beginning is somewhat comparable to assumed density inside a black hole [Lecture 1] – namely, where all sub-atomic structures had been completely destroyed.

When the extremely small and hot-dense early universe had expanded and cooled the first ever subatomic structures started to be formed out of the original, unified field: Quarks, leptons [Lecture 3].

Their creation marks, the emergence of the first ever ‘structures’ to be ruled by the three [later four] fundamental forces of nature: The gravitational, electroweak and the strong.

Note: Some “String Orchestra Members” who play vibrating music in the halls of physics with string theories [Lectures 4 and 9], claim that there have been 86

other universes hidden at a scale 10-35m during a precreation time and pre-creation ‘hot-crunchcontraction’.

Some terminologies may be required next: For instance, “Stage 4” marked in Fig. 5.1 includes the term “Neutrino decoupling”.

This may have happened when the all-penetrating neutrinos begin to spread freely through the plasma into all directions in space. However, this assumption may not be confirmed, as it has been for the electromagnetic photons that give rise to the 19411964 detected Cosmic Microwave Background blackbody Radiation that was emitted much later.

[Lecture 1].

Other terms are quark-gluon plasma [Lecture 3], hadrons including baryons such as protons and neutrons.

During this earliest “Stage/Day” the newly emerging quarks may have been combined with positively charged strong field-interactions [Lectures 3 and 4] and, fuse “later” to form, for the first time in world history, the nuclei of the light chemical elements that we know today: Hydrogen, helium and lithium.

[Lecture 1].

The assumed scenario is as follows: As the temperature dropped below about 1015K, (but was still above 1011K), the strong and electroweak fields parted from each other, thereby resulting in the four fundamental fields-forces-interactions of nature as we know them today at relatively low energies.

Spaces 1, 2 and 3 are still fused-unified together.

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[Figs. 1.1 to 1.4]. At this epoch the universe is radiation-dominated and opaque.

The only clock -- the sole measurable time coordinate in general relativistic cosmology, or the coordinates marked in Fig. 5.1, is the universe itself -- by its increase in ‘size’, decrease in spatially uniform temperature, decrease in the spatially-uniform energy density and temperature.

Neither other clocks, nor any other measurable time has existed during the first six ‘days’ of the expanding, structure-less, opaque universe.

This clock releases anyone from the prison of the common anthropomorphic seconds and years.

‘Elementary particles’ pairs are ‘generated’ out of the intense unified field, while the cosmic temperatures DAY are further lowering, yet are still above 1011K. 2

>1011K

Therefore, this ‘2nd Day’ in the world history is also termed ‘PARTICLE CREATION DAY’. rd

The ‘3 Day’ is DAY ISOTROPISATION’.

termed

‘THE

DAY

OF

>1011K

It is characterized by the roles played by strongly interacting ‘elementary particles’, such as photons, neutrinos, leptons, mesons, nucleons.

DAY During this ‘Day’ the cosmic temperature drops to about 100,000,000,000 degrees Kelvin.

4 3

The cosmos now contains photons, neutrinos, anti11 neutrinos, muons, anti-muons, electrons and 10 K positrons.

As the temperature dropped further, the neutrinos and 88

antineutrinos decoupled from other ‘elementary particles’: A duration that may be termed ‘NEUTRINO DECOUPLING’.

DAY Electron-positron pairs began to annihilate each other 5 and the cooling of the neutrinos and anti-neutrinos froze the neutron-proton ratio at the value that has since been preserved and is verified by all observations.

1011K to 109K

This epoch may be termed ‘HELIUM FORMATION DAY’.

At lower temperatures photons stop disintegration of the newly formed atomic ‘plasma’; mainly that of hydrogen and helium.

DAY Neutrons start to fuse with protons to form their 109 K relative abundances as we observe them today. to 3000 6 K This duration may be termed ‘DEUTERIUM FORMATION DAY’.

On this ‘Friday Night’, the world temperature has already dropped down to 4,000-3,000 K, and the 7th ‘Day’ enters the world history.

YRS AGO

17.3 billion years To 16.7 Billion years

Key Events Gravity-induced structures begin to form about 300,000500,000 sun-earth years after the chaotic 1st Genesis beginning.

(Use of Einstein’s gravitational lens [Lecture 1] thus helps us to verify the structuring process of voids vs. gravity-expansion structures in this early epoch.) This epoch is marked the ‘Dark Ages’ in Fig. 00.1. It lasted until the universe was 1 billion years old, about 16.7 billion years ago.

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ago 13 billion years ago

Two interwoven worlds are caused by gravity: (1) Gradually emerging billions of non-expanding galaxies, each containing up to a trillion stars. [Figs. 00.1 and 1.5] (2) SPACE-1 is formed as interconnected, expanding voids that begin their everlasting expansion-cooling. (Figs. 1.1 to 1.4).

What had been first measured in 1941 by Andrew McKellar, explained-predicted in 1948 by George Gammow, rediscovered in 1964, is dubbed “Cosmic Microwave, black-body Radiation”. It is our detected remnant radiation from the end of the 1st Genesis. [Figs. 00.1 and 1.4].

Atoms were first formed at the end of the 1st Genesis, when the radiation-dominated era had come to a close.

During the Kingdom of Gravity Epoch Spaces 2 and 3 were also created. (Figs. 1.1 to 1.4). That Kingdom was affected when the Radiation Energy Density [Fig. 1.2] drops below the (rest-mass) density of matter (mainly hydrogen and helium) and the cosmic temperatures drop below about 3000-4000 degrees Kelvin.

150 to 800 years post the first genesis

The first stars were mainly born out of hydrogen “fog”.

Condensed-heated by gravity they gradually started to shine due to the most important chemical process in the universe: Thermo-nuclear fusion [Lecture 1], which has since generated all the building blocks of life: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphor. [Cf. Supernova in Lecture 1] It is mainly by intense radiation that atoms split into protons and electrons, thereby clearing the hydrogen “fog” and producing plasma that is still detectable between closely neighboring stars.

This era has lasted from around 150 million to about 800 million years after the so-called ‘Big Bang’.

Notes: 90

(1) The faster a galaxy is moving away from an observer, the more its light is skewed towards longer, redder wavelengths by the intervening expansion of the universe – namely the expansion of the voids between superclusters of galaxies as shown in Figs. 1.1 to 1.3. This phenomenon is known as cosmic redshift: The greater the redshift detected the more distant the source of radiation is.

(2) Cosmic entity from the 2nd Genesis: UDFy-38135539 [Fig. 00.1], is the most distant and oldest object detected so far. It records our cosmic history when the earliest stars were just beginning to emerge from the cosmic “fog”. The image recorded reveals about a billion stars. But this remote shining entity is only one tenth of the diameter of our own galaxy and is harboring only about 1% of its mass, while forming about the same number of stars per year as are in our galaxy.

The radiation emerging from this galaxy has a redshift 8.55.

Light from this galaxy was emitted 13 billion years ago, namely, about 600 million years after the First Genesis, when the universe was only 4% of its current age.

The radiation that we now observe from this galaxy was emitted during a time when the universe was filled with hydrogen plasma fog and not yet fully transparent.

Computer simulations suggest the first galaxies could have formed as early as 200 million years after the “Big Bang”.

During this epoch clusters and superclusters of galaxies form thereby generating the voids/SPACE-1 that we observe in Fig. 1.1 Only “SPACE-1” keeps expanding while the materials structures [stars] contract and are heated until fusion starts.1.4 Without SPACE-1 expansion any galactic-star evolution, planet and life is impossible.

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SPACE-1 expansion is also the basis of our Second Law of Entropy-Free Thermodynamics [The Astrophysical Thermodynamic School]. It is also the sole recorded clock of the universe, the master arrow of time.

150 to 800 years post the first genesis

Unlike most scientists who claim that the entropy and disorder of the universe increases with time, we claim the opposite: Gravity everlasting transformation of chaos into structures in the entire universe.

The early opaque universe was chaotic and structureless. It became clear for the passage of radiation only during this Second Genesis, due to gravity-induced aggregations of matter.

Therefore, the Second Genesis is the beginning of all structuring-building processes in the universe; -- physical process that leads to life starting from about 8.8 billion years later.

\\4.567 billion

Our Sun and its planets are gravity-constructed out of supernovas ashes [Lecture 1]. These are debris that has been floating in SPACE-3 prior to the creation of the solar system.

They had been formed from earlier explosions of very massive star in our arm of our galaxy, the Milky Way. [Lecture 1].

Eventually, this ashes-debris has condensed by their own gravitational field to form the sun and the planets. The remaining ashes-debris is still not condensed. See the Asteroid and Kuiper Belts in Lecture 1, Footnote 8.

Such debris are composed of rocks, meteorites, clouds of dust and gas, that are orbiting the sun, or had fallen into it, or on earth, moons and the other planets of the solar system.

The fate of the sun is fixed by gravity-induced FUSION. [Footnote 4 in Lecture 1]. Fate of a star depends on its mass and nearby objects.

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4.55 to 4.40 billion

The Age and Fate of Earth: Isotopes exist on earth since 4.54 billion years ago. Crystals of zircon from Australia provide 4.55 billion years as earth age. A compromise between astronomers and paleontologists, which includes the “radiometric age dating” of meteorite material and lunar samples, fix the age of earth at 4.404 billion years.

The solar wind and Earth. [Lecture 1]. This ‘wind’ hits the planets and moons. On earth it is partially reflected back to cold Spaces 3, 2 and 1.

This reflection is from the upper atmosphere. The rest of it is undergoing complex energy transformations/cycles in the air, clouds and upper ground surface, being eventually reflected back, at longer wavelengths, to Space-3, and, eventually, further and deeper into colder Spaces 2 and 1.

A huge shock wave is formed at the solar system edge [Lecture 1, Footnote 8], where the solar wind clashes with other stellar winds that spread out from nearby stars.

4.5 to 0.543 billion

Earth Precambrian Era is fragmented into: Hadean [4.5 to 3.8 million YRS AGO]; Achaean [3.8 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; further fragmented into Paleoproterozoic [2.5 to 1.6 billion YRS AGO]; Proterozoic [2.5 to 0.543 million YRS AGO]; Mesoproterozoic [1.6 to 0.9 billion YRS AGO]; Neoproterozoic [0.900 to 0.543 million YRS AGO], Vendian [0.650 to 0.543 billion YRS AGO.

The origin of life on earth begins with natural amino acids being ‘organized’ into proteins and nucleic acids (e.g., guanine & ribose depicted on the right -- the building molecules of Ribonucleic Acid [RNA], which can reproduce on its own and had predated Deoxyribonucleic Acid [DNA].

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Three key facts emerge: (1) about 3.8 billion years ago fossil bio-objects existed as simple cells, (2) life was widespread on earth about 3 billion years ago as evidenced by fossils [pictures] photosynthesis, (3) multicellular life emerges about 1 billion yrs ago.

During the early stages of earth the current continents were close to each other as depicted. Gradually they have drifted apart to where they are today. See below for more details.

650 to 543 mills.

The first animal-like organisms were not motile. The earliest fossils that may represent animals appear towards the end of the Pre-Cambrian around 610 million yrs ago.

Ancestors of insects emerge 570 million yrs ago. Fish emerge 500 million yrs ago. Reptiles emerge 300 million yrs ago.

These are known as the ediacaran or venedian biota. They did not have any type of digestive system and lived on deep-sea grounds, just increasing their surface area to maximize energy intake. They were replaced during the Cambrian Era by motile animals that have gradually developed digestive systems in which energy intake is enhanced by millions of inner residing bacteria.

Reproduction is originated by irreversible processes1.1. First these processes had involved only single-cell organisms, but later two different organisms exchanging DNA heredity code for reproduction of a newly-born organism have emerged.

Some of the newly-born organisms lacked the capability to reproduce and vanish from the history of life. [Vol. I].

Female and male entities have gradually evolved to reproduce by combining DNA of the two parents.

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Different types, locations and orientations of legs, wings, eyes, hair, digestive systems, mouth and reproductive organs evolve under the influence of and in response to gravity1.1.

Biological clocks associated with fertility are gravitationally linked to the annual changing sun-earth gravity cycles and the moon-gravity-induced tides. The head-legs super-structureorientation of the embryo is formed by gravity-induced orientation. [Lecture 7].

Nearly all animals undergo some form of sexual reproduction.

They have a few specialized reproductive cells needed to reproduce.

Many animals are also capable of non-sexual reproduction in which fertile eggs are produced without mating, or via fragmentation.

Fish become the first creatures on land, moving with sideextended legs, backbones and eyes on the top of their heads rather than on the side. Unlike other fish, such land types could move their head independently of its shoulders, like current land animals.

Overlapping ribs that could support the body against gravity evolve. Motility was increased by evolving legs directly under the body, like most current land animals (instead of on the sides).

543 to 248 million

Paleozioc Era [543 to 248 million YRS AGO], fragmented into: Cambrian [543 to 490 million YRS AGO]; Ordovician [490 to 443 million YRS AGO]; Silurian [443 to 417 million YRS AGO]; Devonian [417 to 354 million YRS AGO]; Carboniferous [354 to 290 million YRS AGO]; Permian [290 to 248 million YRS AGO]. Most known animal

appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the socalled Cambrian Explosion era.

248 to 55

Mesozoic Era is fragmented into: Triassic [248 to 206 million YRS AGO]; Jurassic [206 to 144 million YRS AGO]; Cretaceous [144 to 65 95

million

million YRS AGO]. Extinction events have caused the “survival

of the fittest”.

Flowers emerge about 130 million yrs ago.

50 to 45 million 50 to 45 million

Gravitationally-pushed glaciers advancing South, mammoths to what is now the state of South Dakota.

forced

Mounted skeletons of Tyrannosaurus (left) and Apatosaurus (right) at the American Museum of Natural History;

Various types of dinosaurs live around the globe. They vanished around 65 million yrs ago.

Together with most species they became extinct by gravityinduced climatic phenomena --- a large meteor impact and/or huge volcanic eruptions resulting in climate change.

The resulting dust/ash blocked sunlight causing lack of sufficient water, grass, etc. Smaller species and some ‘DinoBirds’ had survived and have further evolved into various familiar birds and other species.

TECTONICS and MOUNTAINS The images below show the maps of gravity-induced tectonic phenomena that have given rise to mountains, valleys, continental drifts and global climate changes, which, together with gravity-induced volcanism and meteoric impacts on earth have eventually resulted in the landscapes and life as we know them today.

Himalayan tectonics and mountains are 50 to 45 million years old. Similar landscapes have been generated around the globe by uplift of plates. [pictures & arrows in the two diagrams below]. NOTE: Like the footnotes, the text and images below are not “introduction” to the subject. They aim at starting a study in case one is interested in gaining more information.

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Mount Everest in the Himalaya. What happened to the land that is India is shown in the map below. urrent views of the Himalaya (above) and of the Rockies in Canada.

(Below).

65 to 1.8 million

14 to 8 million

8 to 6 million

Mammoths, mastodons, and elephants emerge. The first mammoths emerged in Africa. They later reached Europe and Siberia. One branch reached North America about 1,700,000 YRS AGO. Experience with gravity-induced factors, grew in hominids into primitive but intelligent thinking. [Cf. “Lucy”, “Ardi” & “Ubeidiya” below] Several hominids may be our ancestors: Sahelanthropous techadensis, Orrorin tugenesis and Ardipithecus kadabba.

Australopithecus afarensis is shown on the left. It is closely related to the human genus Homo, and may be ancestral to it.

Its family is Hominidae. [Cf. “Lucy”, “Ardi” & “Ubeidiya” be Gravity-induced changes in the environment, e.g., when a volcano erupts, cause changes in feeding behavior of hominids, and thus changes in teeth, jaws, legs, backbone, etc.

Skeleton structure adapts to enhance motility. Loss of estrus by the female hominid. This sexual rhythm differentiated them from all other animals. New modes of mating improve the selection of a partner lead to prolonged infant dependency, stable and more enduring family units. Both human (Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo) and Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus) lineages further diverged from a common ancestor about 5 to 6 million years ago

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4.4 to 1.8 million

Hominids “Lucy” and “Ardi” [Refs. 60-62] lived in Afar, Ethiopia, about 4.4 [“Ardi”] or 3.2 [“Lucy”] million years ago.

The structure of both “Ardi” and “Lucy” knee, pelvis and hip indicates that they could walk upright on two legs. [Lecture 7].

However, chimpanzees also occasionally walk upright for short periods of time.

Genetic studies show that both shared a common ancestor about 8,000,000 YRS AGO. Other sites date from 2,000,000 to 1,400,000 YRS AGO and include Turkana, Kanapoi, Olduvaland and Ubeidiya.

Some 17 or 19 gravity-induced ice ages since 3,000,000 YRS AGO have strongly affected ecological systems on earth. Each lasted about 50,000 to 100,000 years and each had lowered the surface of the oceans, resulting in climate-induced changes in life and ecological systems, e.g., U-shaped valleys in North America and Canada. Ice melting lead to destruction of creatures which had adapted to colder climates.

3 million

The Jordan Valley formed a low-level, hot, bio-geographic, gravity-induced tectonic corridor connecting hominid habitats in East Africa with the Gravity-induced Jordan River Valley.

Between 2 million and 3 million years ago Afro hominids and animals migrated to the Jordan Valley under the same climatic conditions as in their source. The earliest evidence for a human presence in the Jordan valley comes from the site of ‘Ubeidiya, just south of Lake of Galilee, Israel. There, stone tools and the fossils of large mammals occur together in remnants of a muddy shoreline about 1.6 to 1.4 million years ago.

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2.0 to 1.4 million

UBEIDIA, Israel, is the site where hominids evolved, improved and then spread to all corners of the world.

Human-like ‘settlement’ of hominids in Ubeidiya, Israel, 3km South of present lake of Galilee. [Arrow on map]. It is where the Jordan River, meets a small (mostly dry) river flowing down from the Porria Valley. This world unique site is still not open to tourists.

It consists of 'living floors' that include hand axes, picks, bifaces, and pebble-core tools. Bones found at the site include extinct species of hippopotamus, deer, and mollusks.

The Ubeidiya site contains distinct layers composed of alternating ‘living’ floors which contain animal-bones vs. lakefish-bones, in mud, not on ‘living’ floors.

The layers with floors are composed of ‘ordered’ riverrounded-stones that include the tools mentioned above. The alternating layers correspond to repeated expansions and contractions of the ancient Lake of Galilee.

1.4mill ion to 12k Yrs ago

When the lake was contracting, the animals and hominids that had migrated from East Africa via the gravity-induced Red and Dead Seas found here a unique feeding site that has allowed them to gradually surpass the ‘technology’ of the Neanderthals in Europe/ It is in Ubeidiya where hominids improved their physical and mental capabilities, living and hunting technologies and organization of settlements; it is from Ubeidiya that our early ancestors have gradually spread to all corners of the world.

[Ref. 62].

Ubeidiya is therefore the earliest Academy of mankind. Their earliest migration waves to cold lands have not survived (Cf. the Neanderthals below), but later migrations -- of more 99

advanced hominids -- did.

Recent mtDNA studies of ‘Graduated’ hominids from Ubeidiya, Israel, prove migrations to: South Asia, about 50,000 Years Ago; to Europe about 40,000 Years Ago; to East Asia about 30,000 Years Ago; to North America about 30,000 or about 14-11,000 Years Ago; to Australia about 30,000 or 40,000 Years Ago; Ubeidiya is not younger than 2 Million Years. It may be older than any record of Early Acheulian artifacts or Homo Erectus in Africa [Refs. 60, 61, 62].

780k to 80k yrs ago

Stone hand axes, fashioned according to African techniques and found at a site just north of Lake of Galilee, indicate additional emigration waves out of Africa about 780,000 years ago.

Remains discovered west of Lake of Galilee at Skhul Cave and Qafzeh Cave in Israel indicate that early modern humans-probably either descendants or near relatives of the recently discovered, 160,000-year-old H. sapiens fossils from Herto, Ethiopia--were present in the gravity-induced Jordan River tectonic Valley between 130,000 and 80,000 yrs ago.

0.8 million to 25k yrs ago

Various mtDNA analyses show that Neanderthals shared a common ancestor with Homo sapiens, probably living in North-East Africa, Ubeidiya or the Carmel Caves. mtDNA based dating of that split ranges from 800,000, 516,000 or 500,000 yrs ago while fossil records indicate 400,000 yrs ago.

Neanderthal fossil finds spread from Israel to Germany and from Spain, Portugal, Italy and England to Uzbekistan.

100

Neanderthals made their last stand in Gibraltar about 25,000 yrs ago. Like apes, they lacked a bony chin. Yet, they had a larger and broader face than ours. Their skull has a receding forehead and low braincase, but their brain is larger than those of our ancestors. Moreover, they used fire and introduced burial sites, as did our ancestors.

500k to 40k

Carmel Caves are occupied by migrants from Ubeidiya. The Tabun Cave has the longest sequence of occupation, almost half a million years. The dwellers used improved hand axes of flint or limestone for killing animals (gazelle, hippopotamus, rhinoceros and wild cattle) and for digging out plant roots.

Hand axes became smaller and better shaped and scrapers, made of thick flakes chipped off flint cores, were used for scraping meat off bones and for processing animal skins. Upper levels in the Tabun Cave consist mainly of clay and silt, indicating that a colder, more humid climate prevailed when glaciers formed once more; this caused the Mediterranean Sea level to drop about 100m to its present level. It also produced a wider coastal strip, covered by dense forests and swamps.

Trash is gold to the archaeologist. Its gravity-induced layers reveal at least the diet of the dwellers. It consisted of fruit, seeds, roots and leaves with meat supplements.

1,800 k to prst 120k

100k to 13k

The Quaternary Era is fragmented into the Pleistocene [1.8 million to 10k YRS AGO] and Holocene [10k to present]

Burial tradition spreads. Skeleton of a female buried inside a stone niche just outside a Carmel Cave is one of the most ancient human skeletal remains.

Migration from Ubeidiya to the Indian subcontinent.

Carmel graves show a cult and rituals related to death and spiritual realm. [Migrations from Ubeidiya to the rest of the world are proved by studies of complete Mitochondrial DNA 101

sequence.] In Ubeidiya, during 1.4 million yrs, hominids have ‘self-educated’ themselves to graduate as ‘modern humans’.

They have later survived with relatively advanced technology in other climates.

67k to 10k

At least 14 skeletons uncovered portray Homo sapiens, who are closely related to modern humans in physical appearance with delicate facial features, a protruding chin and a straight forehead. These appearances have been developed in the Carmel Caves and the Jordan River Valley.

Early migrations from Ubeidiya to China. Improved inventions in fishing and in fire making emerge.

40k YRS AGO, further migrations from Ubeidiya to Europe.

35k YRS AGO, the earliest clothed body discovered in Russia.

30k YRS AGO: Beginning of the last North-American ice age.

Mitochondrial-DNA [mtDNA] studies provide evidence for migration from the Baikal Lake area in Southern Siberia, across the Bering land bridge, to Alaska, North America and further South along the coast.

27k YRS AGO, caves in Africa abound with paintings and carvings.

20k YRS AGO, further migration to North America via the Bering land bridge.

15k YRS AGO, domestication of dogs from a few ancestor wolfs starts in China.

13k YRS AGO, further migration from North to South America.

Plant-gathering and animal-hunting is transformed to plantgrowing and animal-domestication.

The level of the Mediterranean Sea rose again, as the last glacial period came to an end, and the coastline stabilized to 102

roughly its present contours.

Carmel settlements become permanent, consisting of a few families living together in a kind of a village that serves as a base for hunting expeditions and food gathering.

Improved Natufian flint tools are used primarily as scrapers of animal skins.

12k to 8kYrs ago

10kYr s ago

Decorative beads, blades for cutting meat and sawing bone and sickle blades (secured in wooden or bone scythes) emerge for harvesting grain (which left a characteristic gloss on the edge of the blades).

Microliths of a lunatic shape are used as arrowheads, harpoons and fish hooks.

Grinding tools, mortars and pestles made of stone are used for food processing.

The last Ice Age ends about 12,000 to 8000 yrs ago.

The earliest levels of excavation in Jericho show the inhabitants had gathered the seeds of cereal grasses from the rocky hills flanking the Jordan River Valley and planted them in fertile soil. “The result: Domesticated plants followed centuries later by domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep, and the expansion of human settlements.” [J. J. Shea, Ref. 62] Further migrations from Asia across the Bering land bridge to the Americas. Migrants’ artifacts in Clovis, N.M., North America. This finding is the oldest indisputable evidence of human presence in the Americas since about 11,000 years ago.

Main racial groups are frozen in territories that they dominate.

Cultivation of primitive forms of rice in South-East Asia emerges.

Pottery is produced in Japan 9,819 YRS AGO. Human remains in ‘On Your Knees’ cave in Alaska.

9,500 YRS AGO, evidence of harvesting of wild grasses in 103

9200

7,000 to 5,500

Asia Minor.

9,400 YRS AGO, human remains in Kennewick, on the Western Coast of North America.

8,640 YRS AGO, human remains in Palli Aike, at the Southern end of Chile.

Village and perhaps a shrine in Jericho, the Jordan Valley.

Jericho is considered by some as the birthplace of civilization.

[But see Appendix III].

UR is recognizable as the first stage of civilization: It was established on the fertile soil formed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in an area close to where they flow into what is today Iraq, near the Persian or Arabic Gulf. It is also called Shummer.

Yet, other call it the ‘the land between the two rivers’, ‘the Ur Civilization’, or ‘Ki-engir’, ‘Acadi’ as the Bible refers to it.

(Also via other names, including Ur). Its first settlers are called Ubaidians. Their name is derived from Tel al'Ubaid, near the city of Ur. [App. III].

6600 YRS AGO. Ubaidians living in villages develop systems to drain marshes and irrigate crops by digging ditches to river waters. They learn to keep farm animals and develop weaving, leather work and copper and bronze metallurgy. They are involved in trade with nearby societies. [App. III].

6100 YRS AGO. Ubaidians develop large ovens for baking bread. In Tell Hamoukar, a protective city wall is erected. Dry clay marks and primitive hieroglyphics are emerging for record keeping of trade transactions or taxes involving livestock or crops. [App. III]. Stamp seals are used at various Ubaid-culture sites as precursors to writing.

The first written language in the history of humanity emerges.

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Villagers construct early religious centers, each with its particular god. One of these, Eridu, is traced back to about 7000 YRS AGO. It later had a temple with monumental architecture that goes back to around 6500 YRS AGO. [Appendix III]. Semites work their way from the Carmel Caves into the fertile Ur area. An U’baid site at Yarim Tepe yields several hundred grindstones and grinders in a single room.

Wheels for donkey carts and for simple machines are devised to make pottery easier to manufacture and paint. Pottery emerges as Ubaid Style of Art, with its monochrome black painting.

The earliest historical division of labor evolves.

Earlier flint sickles are replaced by clay sickles. A religious temple dedicated to Nin-Khursag (Ninhursag) was uncovered at al'Ubaid, with a dedication inscription from A-anni-padda, king of Ur and son of Mes-anni-padda, king of Ur. Uncovered “Shummerians King List” shows that they are from the First Dynasty of Ur. Ubaidians are invaded by Shummerians and a new era starts to evolve. As with the Ubaidians, the origin of the Shummerians is not clear. Their language, which has survived through writing, bears some resemblance to the Ural-Altaic languages.

Earlier than 9,000 YRS AGO Ali Kosh becomes a village with wide lanes and rectangular houses. Sheep and goats are well domesticated.

5.9k

Fishing in nearby marshes and irrigation gradually evolve to help grow cereal crops by at least 8000 YRS AGO. [Appendix III] Shummerians construct improved canals for irrigating crops and for transporting crops by boat to village centers. They also improve the roads over which their donkeys trod, some of their 105

donkeys pulling wheeled carts.

As the UR/Shummerian population increases, key elements in creating a civilization - a word derived from an ancient word for city – evolve.

5.4k

At least fifteen cities emerge: Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Eridu, Sipper, Nippur, Adab, Umma, Larsa, Eshnunna, Shaduppum, Isin, and Shurupak.

Sufficient food is gradually produced to support city population that had developed professions: Priesthood, pottery making, weaving, carpentry, early metallurgy and trading, including trade by sea for which they constructed seaworthy boats and even ships. They imported commodities made from wood, stone, tin and copper. Ur, for example, has increased to a city of about 24,000 people and Uruk to around 45,000. Around each city were fields of grain, orchards of date palms and land for herding. [App. III].

The “ICE MAN” -- discovered on September 19, 1991 almost intact under an Alpine melting glacier near the border between Austria and Germany -- had a tattoo-like marks on his preserved skin, a deerskin quiver that contained 14 arrows, unfinished bow, an ax of nearly pure copper and a tool to sharpen flint blades. Other findings reveal that these people grew wheat and barley and made linen cloths from flax. They have already domesticated dogs, sheep, goats, cattle and pigs.

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R eferences I shall make you love books more than you love mother, and I shall place their excellence before you.

(Reading books) is the task-must for everyone.

Father to Son in the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (Papurus Seller I) Let us come now to References that other books contain and yours lacks. The remedy for this is very simple; for you have nothing else to do but to find a book that quotes them all, from A to Z, as you say.

Then you put the same into yours, and if it serves no other purpose, at least that long list of References will be useful to lend authority to your book at the 1. Publication by and on outset.

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132 (1905); A. Einstein, new determination of molecular dimensions, PhD thesis (April 30, 1905); A. Einstein, On the Motion Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, (Brownian Motion), ibid., 17: 549–560 (1905); A. Einstein, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, (on Special Relativity) Ibid, 17: 891 (1905); A. Einstein, Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?, (on Mass-Energy equivalence), Ibid, 19: 639 (1905); A. Einstein, On the Influence of Gravity on the Propagation of Light, ibid, 35: 898 (1911); A. Einstein, ibid. 10, 195 (1909); ibid. 10, 323 (1909); W. Ritz, (Wrongly Attacking Einstein’s Origin of Electromagnetic Irreversibility), Phys. Z. 9, 903 (1908); A. Einstein, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation), Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844 (1915); A. Einstein, Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity), Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1917); A. Einstein, Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 19: 121 (1917); A. Einstein, Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier (1923); A. Einstein, Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases) Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch— Mathematische Klasse: 261 (1924); A. Einstein, Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes (On meanders in the courses of rivers) Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223 (1926); A. Einstein, B. Podolsky and N. Rosen, Nathan, Can QuantumMechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", (The EPR Paradox) Physical Review, 47 (10): 777 (1935); A. Einstein, Lens-Like Action of a Star by the Deviation of Light in the Gravitational Field, Science 84, 506 (1936) (Gravitational Lens, Einstein Rings); A. Einstein, On Science and Religion, Nature 146: 605 (1940); A. Einstein, et al. To the editors, New York Times (4 December 1948); On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation, Scientific American (4): 13 (1950); E. Hubble, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae, Proc., Nat. Acad. of Sciences (U.S.), Vol. 15, Iss. 3, (1929); A. Einstein and L. Infeld,, The World As I See It (1934); A. Einstein, The Evolution of Physics, (1938); Out of My Later Years (1950); A. Einstein, 108

The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press (1956); A. Friedman, A: Über die Krümmung des Raumes, Z. Phys. 10 377 (1922), (English translation: Gen. Rel. Grav. 31, 1991 (1999); A. Alain, D., Jean and R., Gérard, Experimental test of Bell's inequalities using time-varying analyzers, Phys. Rev. Letters, 49 (25) (1982): Nobel Foundation, Albert Einstein — Biography; D. Howard and J. Stachel, Einstein: The Formative Years, 19791909, Springer (2000); P. A. Schilpp (Ed.), Albert Einstein — Autobiographical Notes, Open Court Publishing (1979); P. A. Schilpp, (Ed.), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Harper Torchbook (1951); R. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times, Harper-Collins (1984); F. Golden, Person of the Century: Albert Einstein, Time (Jan 3, 2000); About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930); Why War? (1933, with Sigmund Freud); P. Galison, Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time; A. Pais, Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press (1982); J. Crelinsten, Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity, Princeton University Press (2006); H. Kant, Albert Einstein and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin; J. Renn, (Ed), Albert Einstein — Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH. (2005); J. Schmidhuber, Albert Einstein (1979–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever' (2006); Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz, NL; G., Goettling, Einstein's refrigerator, Georgia Tech Alumni Magazine (1998); U.S. Patent 1,781,541 , Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd (refrigerator), November 11, 1930; Brian, Dennis Einstein: A Life, New York: John Wiley & Sons (1996); Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffman (eds) Albert Einstein, The Human Side, Princeton University Press (1981); A. Einstein, The World as I See It. New York: Philosophical Library Albert (1949); Zionism and Israel Information Center, Albert Einstein and Zionism; American Museum of Natural History (2002), Einstein's Revolution; Rowe, David E.; Schulmann, Robert, Einstein on Politics: His Private Thoughts and Public Stands on Nationalism, Zionism, War, Peace, and the Bomb, Princeton University Press (2007); Einstein Archives, History of the Estate of Albert Einstein, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2007); Princeton Online Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon, Historical Society of Princeton;J. Stachel, et al, (Eds.) The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vols. 1–10, Princeton University Press; The Atomic Heritage Foundation, Einstein’s Famous 109

Letter to the U.S. President about the need to survive by developing the atomic bomb before the Germans would do it; W. Isaacson, Person of the Century: Why We Chose Einstein, Time, (3 January 2000).

2. E. Schrödinger, Space-Time Structure, Cambridge Univ. Press (1950) 3. J. Tou, et al, Models to Study Gravitational Biology of Mammalian Reproduction, Biology of Reproduction Vol. 67. (2002) 4. S. Perlmutter et al. (The Supernova Cosmology Project) Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 high redshift supernovae, Astrophysical J. 517: 565 (1999).

5. C. W. Kilmister, Eddington's search for a fundamental theory. Cambridge Univ. Press (1994) 6. H. F. M.Gönner, On the History of Unified Field Theories. Living Reviews in Relativity (2005) 7. D.J. Schwarz and B. Weinhorst, Isotropy of the Hubble Central Diagram: Comparing Hemispheres, Astronomy & Astrophysics 474: 717 (2007) 8. D. L. Wiltshire, Exact Solution to the Averaging Problem in Cosmology, Phys. Rev. Lett. 99: 251101 (2007).

9. D. Zwillinger, Handbook of Differential Equations (3rd edition), Academic Press, (1997) A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd edition), Chapman & Hall/CRC Press (2003).

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