Wine & Viticulture Journal

JULY/AUGUST 2013 · Volume 28 Number 4

WINE MATURATION • Extended maturation of white wines • Richard Smart: Trunk diseases... a larger threat than phylloxera?

• Concrete egg vats - are they all they're cracked up to be?

• Tony Hoare: Advancements in water budgeting tools • Tasting: Barbera

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Publisher: Hartley Higgins General Manager: Elizabeth Bouzoudis Editor Sonya Logan Ph (08) 8369 9502 Email Associate Editors Gary Baldwin Mark Krstic Markus Herderich

Fax (08) 8369 9501 sonya@winetitles.com.au Peter Dry Armando Corsi

Editorial Assistance Lauren Jones, Write Lane CONTRIBUTING WRITERS Matt Atallah James Becker Jen Bullock Roberta De Bei Denis Dubourdieu Paul Evans James Gosper Tony Hoare Leanne Hoxey Dan Johnson Valérie Lavigne Michael McCarthy Phil Nicholas Chris Penfold Wayne Pitt Mark Rowley Sandra Savocchia Mark Skewes Mark Sosnowski Rob Stevens Stephen Tyerman Eric Wilkes

Matthew Ayres John Blackman Philippe Darriet Peter Dry Rebecca Duffy Sigfredo Fuentes Richard Halstead Cathy Howard Rujuan Huang Tony Keys Rodney Marsh Sue Mills Joanne Pech Tim Pitt Alexandre Pons Anthony Saliba Leigh Schmidtke Richard Smart Christopher Steel Creina Stockley Trevor Wicks

Advertising Sales: Nicole Evans Ph (08) 8369 9515 Fax (08) 8369 9529 Email n.evans@winetitles.com.au

Sonya Logan, Editor

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s this issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal was going to print, there was just a week to go before the biggest event in the Australian wine industry’s calendar - the Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference was to get under way in Sydney, which was to be immediately followed by Wine Health 2013, the latest in a long-standing series of international meetings that explore the latest scientific information and ideas relating to the effect of wine consumption on human health.

We look forward to bringing you the highlights of both these events in coming issues of the Journal.

Meanwhile, the focus of this issue of the Journal is on wine maturation, which begins with Cathy Howard’s comprehensive look into ‘sur lies’ or extended maturation (see page 20). This is followed by a report on the outcomes of research into the effect of barrel-ageing on the formation of sotolon – a volatile compound with an intense odour of curry – in dry white wines (page 25).

We then take a look at how three Australian winemakers have found their use of concrete egg vats have had on their wine (page 30).

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Production and Design: Nathan Grant Administration: Esme Parker Subscriptions One-year subscription (6 issues) Australia $77.00 (AUD) Two-year subscription (12 issues) Australia $144.00 (AUD) To subscribe and for overseas prices, visit: www.winebiz.com.au The Wine & Viticulture Journal is published bi-monthly.

Correspondence and enquiries should be directed to Sonya Logan.The views expressed in the Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Journal or its staff.

Serendipitously, this issue has something of a focus on trunk diseases.

Richard Smart begins by stating his case for increased research into the diseases (page 18). Researchers from SARDI then outline a new research project that aims to identify grapevine germplasm in the organisation’s Barossa Valley collection that are resistant or tolerant to eutypa dieback and botryosphaeria dieback (page 55). We then present the findings of a project in which the pathogencity of eight species of fungi that cause botryosphaeria dieback of grapevines in Australia was tested along with their growth rates at various temperatures given that the prevalence and distribution of such fungi are thought to be influenced by climate (page 55).

Another of the highlights of this issue is Tony Keys’ article for which he invited wineries to comment on how they would describe their relationship with their bank given the current climate. The feedback he compiled, although anonymous, makes for interesting reading (page 11).

@SonLogan Cover: H ighlighting this issue’s focus on wine maturation, this issue’s cover photo is courtesy of Patritti Wines winemaker Ben Heide.

Regular features

News Wine Australia ASVO WFA Tony Keys

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AWRI Report Alternative Varieties Wine Inelligence Varietal Report Tasting

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I n t h is issu e

R E G U L A R FE AT U R E S

c o n t e n ts

V I T I C U LT U R E

8 WINE AUSTRALIA (James Gosper): Get onboard Savour Australia

45 Variation amongst rootstocks in the tolerance of grafted Chardonnay vines to lethal water-stress

9 ASVO (Paul Petrie): Nominations now open for Awards for Excellence

50 Night-time plant water loss: the unseen process for local and global water footprint and water balance estimations in grapevines

10 WFA (Paul Evans): New projects focus on vital health knowledge 11 KEY FILES: Banking on the wine industry: defining the lending environment between banks and wineries

53 To cultivate or not to cultivate? Floor management and frost risk 55 In search of resistance to grapevine trunk diseases

16 RICHARD SMART: Trunk diseases ... a larger threat than phylloxera?

59 Pathogenicity of fungi causing botryosphaeria dieback of grapevines in Australia

38 TONY HOARE: Making every drop count – advancements in water budgeting tools

62 ALTERNATIVE VARIETIES: Michelini makes its mark with Marzemino

business & marketing W I NE M A K I N G

20 Revisiting extended maturation of white wines ‘sur lies’

64 Wineries respond to drive by distributors and retailers to keep wine stocks to a minimum

25 Incidence of some oenological parameters on the content of sotolon in white wines 30 Concrete egg vats – are they all they’re cracked up to be?

67 The position of Australian Chardonnay in the world-wide flavour map 71 Austerity decree not evident in China wine imports 73 WINE INTELLIGENCE: Time for the wine industry to marshal its mavericks to target consumers 36 Assessment of CMC-induced tartrate stability over 12 months 38 AWRI REPORT: What’s in a label? How science is helping winemakers to respond to new EU rules concerning allergens in wine V2 8N 4

W I NE T A S T I N G

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Australian crush rises by 10% The Australian wine industry crushed 1.83 million tonnes of grapes in 2013 - 10% more than the previous vintage making it the biggest intake since 2008, according to estimates compiled and released by the Winemakers’ Federation of Australia.

WFA’s chief executive Paul Evans said the 2013 crush, which follows a number of lower vintages, was a reminder that the production potential of the industry remained too high and was not in balance with local and international demand for the nation’s wine.

“The large crush is likely to result in higher inventory levels and bulk wine exports. It will place further downward pressure on prices and profitability throughout the commercial wine segment over the coming vintage,” Evans said.

WFA president Tony D’Aloisio noted that the increase in the 2013 crush had not been matched by a lift in demand for Australian wines, particularly in the commercial segment.

“While the recent decline in the value of the Australian dollar is welcomed and an emerging global shortage may help bulk wine prices in the longer term, the sustained recovery of lost volume in international markets at profitable price points will require a concerted effort from both individual companies and the industry on a number of fronts,” he said.

“Internationally, we need to reengage with consumers, distributors and industry gatekeepers in our key export markets. Locally, we need to improve margin in a highly consolidated retail market, anticipate emerging consumer trends and take back share from imports.”

Meanwhile, the WFA board is finalising its consideration of an expert review of wine industry dynamics it announced earlier in the year and the steps industry and WFA can take to support recovery and future profitability.

“These measures will include what we can do to grow the demand opportunity domestically and overseas and how we can support further adjustments to the supply base to bring it into better balance,” D’Aloisio said.

The findings of the expert review and WFA’s recommended next steps are due to be released in August.

WFA’s 2013 vintage report noted that the increased crop was attributable to an absence of major events, such as disease or flooding, which had affected the previous vintages. However, the 2012-13 season was far from easy, the report continued, with the Bureau of Meteorology reporting that the summer

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had been the hottest on record and also one of the driest. In addition to heatwaves across south-eastern Australia, there were bushfires in the southern parts of SA and Victoria and very heavy rains along the coast that extended some way inland, from southeast Queensland almost to Sydney.

“The sustained warm dry periods produced unusual ripening rates and patterns and an early and very condensed harvest in many regions,” the vintage report said. “However, the impact of the hot and dry conditions was reduced by the availability of water in the irrigated areas and generally good winter rains.”

The crush from the warm inland regions was estimated to have risen by 13% on last year’s vintage to 1.1 million tonnes - the highest combined crop from these regions since 2006.

Conversely, the crush from cool regions rose by around 80,000 tonnes to account for around 39% of the national crush.

To download a copy of the full vintage report visit: http://www.wfa.org.au/ vintage_reports.aspx Average purchase price of winegrapes highest in four years The average price of winegrapes in Australia increased by 9 per cent in 2013 to $499 per tonne, the highest recorded in four years, according to the latest 2013 Australian Winegrape Price Dispersion Report released by Wine Australia.

A total of 1,067,360 tonnes of winegrapes were purchased in 2013, valued at $544 million.

The report showed that red winegrapes recorded a significantly stronger price increase than white winegrapes, with the average price paid for reds increasing by 13% to $619 per tonne, while white winegrapes increased by 2% to $388 per tonne.

Most regions recorded higher average prices. The average purchase price for the warm inland regions increased by 5% to $351 per tonne and rose by 19% to $1156 for the cool/ temperate regions.

Price increases were recorded for a number of varieties including Chardonnay, Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard, Grenache, Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris.

Wine Australia’s outgoing chief executive Andrew Cheesman said that while grape prices remained below historical peaks, an increase in average prices was a positive development for the wine community.

“The growth in the average purchase W i n e & V i t i c u ltur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

price for winegrapes was driven by stronger demand for premium fruit in support of the growing demand for premium Australian wines, particularly in the Asia Pacific region,” Cheesman said.

“In addition, less fruit at the entry level of less than $300 per tonne has been sold by growers to wineries. In 2013, 24% of winegrapes were sold at below $300 per tonne compared with 28% in 2012, 43% in 2011 and 39% in 2010.”

The Australian Winegrape Purchases Price Dispersion Report is freely available to grape growers and winemakers at www.wineaustralia.com/ winefacts. To do so, users must sign-in or sign-up to the website in the top right hand corner of the home page.

Wine industry welcomes merger legislation The wine industry’s proposal to establish a single statutory authority through the merger of the Wine Australia Corporation (WAC) and Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC) is a step closer following the introduction of enabling legislation into Parliament.

The Winemakers’ Federation of Australia (WFA) and Wine Grape Growers Australia (WGGA) proposed the merger last year.

“We are pleased with the support we received from the Government and the Opposition when we raised the idea and even more so to see the matter brought before the Parliament so quickly,” said WGGA chair Vic Patrick.

WFA president Tony D’Aloisio said the merged entity would have a better capability to identify and deliver aligned industry strategic imperatives and R&D goals, and deliver industry programs.

It is hoped the Bill will pass through Parliament in time for the merged entity to take effect from the middle of 2014. $7.6 million investment in grapevine germplasm research announced The Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC) will invest more than $7.6 million in research over the next four years to identify and evaluate rootstocks and varieties that possess desirable viticultural and winemaking properties for the Australian grape and wine sector.

The research will be undertaken

by CSIRO, which is contributing an additional $5.9 million to the projects over the four-year period. The University of Adelaide and the South Australian V28N4

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Research and Development Institute will contribute additional funds to some of the projects.

The following new projects come under GWRDC’s grapevine germplasm sub-program: • identification and marker-assisted selection of genes for reducing the susceptibility of new winegrape cultivars to fungal pathogens • genetic and mechanistic characterisation of rootstock traits conferring abiotic stress tolerance to grapevines • towards elite mildew resistant selections suitable for industry use • new rootstocks for Australian conditions • rootstock transformation to test significant abiotic stress and pest resistance genes • climate change ready varieties and management technologies that reduce greenhouse gases in the vineyard.

“New investments in grapevine germplasm will build on previous GWRDC investments and will help address key industry and Government priorities including adaptation to climate change, tolerance to drought and salinity, and nematode and phylloxera resistance,” said GWRDC executive director Dr Stuart Thomson.

Grapevine germplasm was identified as a key research priority by the GWRDC’s stakeholders during wine sector consultations associated with the development of GWRDC’s Strategic Research, Development and Extension (RD&E) Plan 2012–17.

Wine and health in spotlight Australia has just played host to WineHealth 2013, the latest in a longstanding series of scientific meetings that started in Italy in 1996 for which world experts come together to exchange the latest scientific information and ideas on the effects of wine consumption on human health, and to explore the epidemiological evidence of the effect of wine as a unique alcoholic beverage.

Held in Sydney immediately following the Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference, WineHealth 2013 brought together scientific experts from across the globe who presented their latest findings across a variety of disciplines including cardiovascular, pharmacological, ageing, cognitive function, nutrition and lifestyle and psychological.

Organisers of the conference said the event would present the most objective picture of what is known about wine as a unique beverage and its relationship to health. Sociological outcomes of the use and abuse of wine, and hence public health priorities would also be presented.

Reports from the conference will be presented in future issues of the Wine & Viticulture Journal.

In the meantime, visit www. winehealth.com.au to access the list of speakers and program.

Communication for the future at SIMEI An innovative system for a complete, quick, sustainable exchange of information by near field communication

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will make its debut in Italy at the next edition of SIMEI – the Enological and Bottling Equipment Exhibition – to be held in November in Milan.

To take advantage of the system, visitors to the trade show simply have to preregister on the website www.simei.it, print the document of admittance and bring it to reception. Every visitor will receive an admittance badge-holder containing a microchip which when brought to within a few centimetres of electronic devices operated by exhibitors, will transfer any information the exhibitors wish to share (e.g., brochures or videos) while leaving evidence of visitors’ attendance at the stands. Visitors will be able to examine and download the contents by simply visiting the website of the exhibitors and entering the e-mail provided during the pre-registration phase and the alphanumerical code written on the badge-holders.

“We are going towards a removal of physical media and paper documentation: in future no more business cards, leaflets, brochures, DVDs will be necessary,” a spokesperson from the tradeshow’s organiser, Unione Italiana Vini, said. “Besides making a visit to the exhibition more comfortable, as visitors don’t have to carry around information materials for hours, this allows substantial saving for exhibitors who can avoid the investment in this type of documentation.”

For further information on SIMEI visit the trade show website: http://www.simei.it/EN/

NEW WEBSITE www. fischeraustralis .com.au

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Get onboard Savour Australia

By James Gosper General Manager, Market Development, Wine Australia

Savour Australia 2013 is the wine industry’s moment to shine: it’s the time to put aside competitive differences, rise above industry politics and come together to present a united and confident sector.

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n September, the Australian wine industry has an important opportunity to influence the world’s perception of Australian wine and showcase the regionality, diversity and quality of our wines. The world’s wine trade, media and Australian wine producers will descend on Adelaide for Savour Australia 2013 – Australia’s first global wine forum.

This is the biggest, most comprehensive Australian wine forum ever undertaken. Its unique combination of business sessions - led by the world’s authorities on retailing, digital and social marketing, pricing, supply and demand, global trends, distribution and consumer behaviour; tasting opportunities through Landmark Australia tastings, a Grand Tasting and tasting bars; networking lounges; and themed lunches and dinners - will give you the opportunity to showcase your wines to the world and do business with the international wine trade on Australian soil.

The three-day business forum is the precursor to the consumer-focussed food and wine campaign Tourism Australia will be launching next year in partnership with Wine Australia to promote Australia’s premium food and wine experiences. This is a chance to extend our consumer reach in a way that has never been done before. But there’s no point getting consumers excited about our wide-ranging, high quality wines if they can’t actually buy them in their own country. We need to first (re)engage and excite our global network of distributors, importers, retailers, sommeliers, hotel food and beverage professionals and other on-and-off premise specialists to get our wines onto the world’s wine lists and retail shelves.

Savour Australia 2013 is a major undertaking for Wine Australia and the entire industry. We have worked in partnership with some of Australia’s leading wine brands to guide the development of the forum, including

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the business sessions, the networking lounges and the tastings, to ensure every aspect of the program is relevant and beneficial for wine producers. It is taking every resource we have to pull it together to ensure you - our wine industry partners - get the most out of it. But we can’t do it alone. We need the support of all Australian wine producers, regional wine associations, state bodies and national industry bodies to bring this event to life and to put our best foot forward.

Through Savour Australia 2013, Wine Australia has invested in an amazing foundation for you to build your business, but we need you to get onboard to make the experience worthwhile. One of the greatest contributions you can make is by not only attending the event, but inviting your key business partners (importers, distributors, retailers) to also participate. The more wine trade partners able to experience the energy and the significance of the event, the greater the impact will be for the overall category.

My colleagues and I spent some time recently travelling throughout the wine regions of Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales talking about Savour Australia 2013. The event has strong verbal support across the industry, but now is the time to translate the talk into action. So, if you have been wavering and unsure about what you will get out of it, here are a few reasons why it might be worth getting involved: •W e are bringing more than 100 of the world’s leading wine trade to the event from Australia, the US, Canada, the UK, Continental Europe, Ireland, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, India, the Middle East and South America to participate. Some will be involved in panel discussions during the business sessions, some will be looking for new business in the ‘Entry to Market’ lounge and all will have the opportunity to extend their visits beyond W i n e & V i t i c u ltur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

the forum to discover Australia’s wine regions. Check out the current list of presenters and guests at the Savour website www.savour-australia.com • Showcase your wines through the Grand Tasting, lunches, dinners, the Savour networking lounges and tasting bars and capitalise on all these opportunities to meet with trade and media and get your wines in their hands.

• Understand the importance of shifting the promotion of wine into the lifestyle space alongside food and find out about Tourism Australia’s food and wine promotional plans and how you can benefit.

• Learn about the latest trends in retailing, digital and social marketing, pricing, supply and demand, distribution and consumer behaviour from global industry leaders to help inform your business decisions.

• Help present a united and confident Australian wine industry, challenge outdated perceptions, showcase Australian winemaking innovation and help to build the case for Australian wines at the largest wine industry event ever hosted in Australia.

All wine producers, regardless of their business’ size or export footprint, have the potential to benefit from Savour Australia 2013. But only if you take full advantage of it by getting involved by buying a ticket and attending the event and, then, getting your trade partners involved and activating your networks to bring them out for the event.

For more information about Savour Australia 2013, visit: WVJ www.savour-australia.com V28N4

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Nominations now open for Awards for Excellence

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Viticulture

By Paul Petrie, President, Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology

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Custodia® is a co-formulation of a strobilurin and a DMI fungicide that provides a simple solution for fungicide resistance management.

• Proven effective and cost competitive Powdery Mildew control • A simple solution for fungicide resistance management • AWRI Dog Book 2013/14 Approved Talk to your CRT Local Bloke to find out how Custodia® can benefit you.

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ominations for the second year of the Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology’s Awards for Excellence have now opened. Join us to celebrate the announcement of the winners on 24 October at our gala awards dinner at the National Wine Centre, in Adelaide.

As was the case last year, three award categories are on offer to recognise dedicated professionals within our industry. These awards recognise professional excellence in viticulture, winemaking and research. The awards will be made to individuals who have demonstrated technical and industry excellence in their respective fields of expertise.

The awards for best viticultural and oenology paper, again sponsored by the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation, are open to all research papers published in the Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. They will be judged by an industry-based panel according to which have the most significant potential benefit for the industry. Last year, Victor Sadras, from the South Australian Research and Development Institute, received the ASVO Best Viticultural Paper of the Year award and Rob Bramley, from CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, the Best Oenology Paper of the Year award.

The Viticulturist of the Year award is again sponsored by Bayer Crop Sciences, and will honour an outstanding viticulturist involved in the development of a novel and significant viticultural innovation or introduction of a novel viticultural practice over the previous five years.

Last year, Amy Richards, from Treasury Wine Estates, received the ASVO Viticulturist of the Year award.

The Winemaker of the Year award is again sponsored by Lallemand Australia and will recognise a winemaker who has demonstrated technical mastery over any aspect of winemaking. Wendy Cameron, from Brown Brothers, was the previous recipient of the ASVO Winemaker of the Year award.

To nominate for the awards or to access the guidelines, visit http://asvoawardsforexcellence.wordpress.com/ We hope that everyone had a very interesting and enjoyable Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference. As a part-owner (along with the AWRI) this event was a key part of the ASVO calendar for 2013.

The ASVO sponsored the ‘Into the Winelight’ session, which was an entertaining introduction to future people and their projects in grape and wine research; 14 students, one slide each to answer the questions: what are you researching and why does it matter? The students presented passionately about their research and I am certain that the prize winners will go on to have a successful career in the wine industry.

The proceedings from the ‘Objective Measures of Grape and Wine Quality’ seminar have just been distributed to delegates. The proceedings include papers by Peter Dry (Australian Wine Research Institute) on vineyard assessment, Ashley Keegan (Food and Beverage Australia Ltd) on the effect of grading on vineyard profitability, Patrick Iland (Patrick Iland Wine Promotions) on chemical measures of grape quality, Sue Bastian (The University of Adelaide) on berry sensory assessment, and Anthony Saliba (Charles Sturt University) on sensory assessment of wine quality. Copies of the proceedings can be ordered from the ASVO website or by contcacting Chris Waters (asvo@asvo.com. au).

There’s always better value at CRT. www.crt.com.au

W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

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New projects focus on vital health knowledge

By Paul Evans, Chief Executive, Winemakers’ Federation of Australia

Two new projects will be conducted over the next 18 months by AWRI staff, the findings of which will strengthen WFA’s action plan around wine and health issues.

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ne of the primary objectives of WFA’s action plan around wine and health issues is to work with the AWRI to develop a strategic research capability for the industry that is relevant to the public debate and reinforces our reputation for fact-based advocacy.

First, we need to identify and address key knowledge gaps so we can accurately and effectively balance public debates on wine and misuse, and promote the benefits of moderation.

Last year, WFA commissioned Creina Stockley, AWRI’s manager of health and regulatory information, to carry out an extensive literature review of research on wine’s role in alcohol abuse to identify deficiencies in existing databases and information.

The findings revealed that there are several pressing gaps in our knowledge base. For example, there is no specific Australian research on wine’s role in reported rates of alcohol-related harm, and virtually no data on the price elasticity of wine drinkers who drink at risky levels.

Now we are moving into the second phase. WFA has just commissioned Stockley and her colleagues to carry out two new projects that will help to fill some of these gaps and to clarify our thinking around the position and strategy the industry should adopt.

The first will analyse the price sensitivity of at-risk alcohol consumers to establish whether price can be considered an appropriate lever to use in attempting to reduce harmful or risky consumption levels and alcohol-associated health and social harms. The focus will be on the 14-25 and 50-plus age groups, which were identified as being at risk in the most recent (2010) National Drug Strategy Household Survey.

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This is a critical area, because pricebased mechanisms such as taxation or floor prices are regularly proposed as an answer (sometimes the only answer) to alcohol abuse, despite the fact that scientific opinion varies greatly on whether such a link exists. For each study that says yes, another says no, particularly for heavy drinkers.

On the one hand, Australia’s National Alcohol Strategy 2006-2011 advocates regulation of availability through pricebased mechanisms as one of the options for “facilitating healthier and safer drinking cultures”. On the other hand, the 2012 Australian National Preventative Health Agency paper 'Exploring the public interest case for a minimum (floor) price for alcohol' acknowledges that “price responsiveness … varies within and across alcohol categories and questions arise in particular about the responsiveness of heavy drinkers”.

We hope to get a clearer picture by running a comprehensive project over 18 months. Following an extensive review of the available research here and abroad, our aim is to undertake a 12-month survey of the two at-risk groups, focussing on their alcohol consumption and drivers, reasons for an increase or decrease, any beverage substitutions, and any associated health or social harms.

The second project will analyse research on the health and social benefits of moderate wine consumption.

That may, on the surface, appear a strange choice and one that could open us up to criticism for attempting to portray wine as somehow different to other forms of alcohol and, thus, deserving of special treatment.

But our motivation is no different than with the first project. This is an area in which claims are regularly made on both sides without clear proof. More broadly, if W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

it can be shown – to the satisfaction of all – that there is a level of consumption that can offer some benefits, this increases the argument for Australians who drink beyond recommended levels to cut back.

This project will also run over 18 months. Both will be overseen by our Wine & Health Working Group, which includes representatives from WFA, AWRI and the broader industry.

As this work begins, there are a number of other positive activities happening in the wine and health space.

Take up of the joint WFA/DrinkWise pregnancy labelling initiative continues to be strong. We are developing an even more comprehensive initiative to showcase the industry’s commitment to responsible alcohol consumption and public education (more about that in the near future), and the Alcohol Beverages Advertising Code (ABAC) has been given a tick of approval.

ABAC, as you would be aware, is the formal body that both adjudicates complaints from the public about alcohol advertising and works with alcohol producers and their advertising agencies to try to prevent such issues arising through pre-vetting.

It is funded by the alcohol industry (wine, beer and spirits) and, thus, is regularly derided by critics who choose to ignore the fact that it has Government backing and an independent adjudication panel.

However, a new survey shows that ABAC’s decisions on public complaints are very much in line with community expectations – even erring on the side of caution.

It is interesting to note that while alcohol accounted for 4% of all advertising complaints five years ago, that has fallen to just 1.7%. And hardly WVJ any complaints deal with wine.

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Banking on the wine industry

Defining the lending environment between banks and wineries

By Tony Keys

We asked Tony Keys to find out whether there is any truth to the anecdotal feedback we’ve been hearing that suggests banks are currently treating their wine industry customers with more caution and conditions.

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rom somewhere deep in my subconscious, when asked to write about grapes, wine and finance my immediate thought was of Dylan Thomas and the line from Under Milk Wood: “Poor Dad,” grieves The Reverend Eli, “to die of drink and agriculture”.

Dad (The Reverend Esau) indulged heavily in drink and was, “undogcollared by ‘his little weakness,’ was scythed to the bone one harvest by mistake when sleeping, with his weakness, in the corn”.

Perhaps writing this article asking banks to explain themselves sans the self-promotional drivel and asking wineries and grapegrowers to tell me how they are fairing financially may turn me to excess drink and, like the Reverend Esau, agriculture would prove my undoing.

Is alcohol pleasure, pain mistress or servant of mankind? It’s all and more besides and, like my previous article on supermarkets which surprised several people as it could be read as a defence of them, it’s going to be much the same with banks.

The story lies somewhere between the following quotes from two Australian wineries: “In short, cashflow management is one of our biggest challenges at the moment. While we were able to extend our overdraft last year, I have no doubt that it is the one and only facility extension we’ll be granted. Every bank review includes the question ‘when are we going to clear the overdraft?’

“We are regularly reporting our performance, which luckily is stable or showing growth. Fortunately our bank has supported us of late, which I think is the result of demonstrated reliable performance, sound financial and business management, plus a plan which clearly identifies what we’re doing from here (and why the additional funding was required).

“Quite frankly, the effects of vintage 2011 and 2012 have really made a dent on a business which was already under V2 8N 4

…cashflow management is one of our biggest challenges at the moment. While we were able to extend our overdraft last year, I have no doubt that it is the one and only facility extension we’ll be granted. Every bank review includes the question ‘when are we going to clear the overdraft?’

Anon. pressure (2011 bulk [wine] cleared for below cost of production as most of it wasn’t good enough to bottle and 2012 simply didn’t yield any surplus to sell as bulk). I know that we’ll be fine, but it will be a tough period ahead as we continue to push for increased sales in a tight market.”

And this from another winery in the same region: “We must be the exception that proves the rule. We’ve had a great relationship with our bank for many years and never really had a problem.

I get on well with my manager, the regional manager is a friend, I know the state manager well and have had a few beers with the national manager.

“Our accountant reckons we're actually making money, so the bank is not on our tail at all. We haven’t asked to borrow any more for quite a while, but I’ve been assured that if I had the ‘right’ proposal there would be no problems.”

It is about having the right proposal that counts with banks and the right proposal always, and I repeat always, is to the bank’s advantage. It has to be understood that banks are not there to be adored, although they try their hardest nowadays to promote the image of love, fairness and trust. No matter the degree of advertising and attempted manipulation of consumers’ minds, banks or money lenders in one form or another have misled and extracted the maximum from their clients for millennia.

For this article, the banks I approached had a strong common W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

bond: no comment. Nothing of value could be got out of any of them that was worth writing about.

Equally silent were the grapegrower representatives from Riverina, Riverland and Murray Valley, although Murray Valley Winegrowers chairman Brian Englefield suggested I contact Sunraysia Rural Counselling Service.

With a wall of silence from banks and the three largest regions, one could conclude that all is healthy and the relationships between growers and lenders is a happy state of affairs.

Alternatively, one could pick up on the tension and look at the figures.

According to the latest Murray Valley Winegrowers newsletter, the production cost figure to produce a tonne of grapes is $357. According to the 2012 Australian Winegrape Purchases Price Dispersion Report: • 54 percent of the Murray Darling crop fetched an average of $273 tonne • 68 percent of the Riverina crop fetched $259 tonne • 62 percent of the Riverland crop fetched $276 tonne.

Of course, the remainder of the crop could have fetched such good prices that enough money was made to compensate for the amount sold at below cost of production.However, this seems unlikely. Having lost a large part of the grapegrowing industry to “no comment”, it seemed agriculture might be my undoing. Fortunately, producers across the rest of country were more forthcoming; unfortunately, there was a constraint: they all requested anonymity. Considering the ▶ www.winebiz. com . au

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The bank has become extremely strict, and despite meeting 100 percent of our repayments, we have been put into the ‘bad bank’ for the past six years...in the current lending environment we cannot change to another bank, as they are all extremely cautious or reluctant to loan money to wineries (we have tried twice in the past four years but were not able to switch).

Anon.

format of the article this request was understandable as no producer wishes to talk openly about his or her finances, especially if having difficulties. Therefore, no names or regions are mentioned. I thank all that have contributed and the trust they have shown in regard to my promise of anonymity.

The following Q&A is an example of a company that is of a fair size, has won awards and much praise from wine critics: Q: I’ve been commissioned to write an article on winery and grapegrower finance. Before I ask questions, I should say I am choosing a random selection of wineries in various regions. I have not heard or suspect you or your company are having any financial difficulties.

A: We do struggle each and every day, and have struggled since 2004.

Q: I have heard that even successful companies are sometimes being refused just small overdraft extensions for a limited time. Maybe you have (or not) experienced that. The main point being the article is about the industry and issues it faces.

A: The bank (Westpac) has become extremely strict, and despite meeting 100 percent of our repayments, we have been put into the ‘bad bank’ for the past six years. This means that we have very strict controls, monthly reporting and are forced to pay a 1.5-2% interest penalty over standard overdraft rates. Having been with Westpac for 20 years, in the current lending environment we cannot change to another bank, as they are all extremely cautious or reluctant to loan money to wineries (we have tried twice in the past four years but were not able to switch).

Q: From what I have gathered so far, banks are treating wine production or grapegrowing with great caution. Finance is not being refused but the condition of lending is very strict and existing overdraft facilities, in some cases, are being reduced.

A: We are not able to purchase new critical equipment, even though we have successfully and continually paid down our debt. We cannot increase our

overdraft, but we have not had it reduced as it was always conservative in relation to our turnover.

Q: Can you give me an insight into your view of banks and perhaps, if you have one, an example that obviously doesn’t identify you?

A: While it is extremely disconcerting for our business, with the number of grape/wine business failures and the lack of legal recourse to properly recover their loans, as well as the soft approach the legal system applies to personal accountability of company managers and directors, I can understand the bank's need to exercise great caution.

The lack of profitability within the wine industry has been driven by: • the ever-increasing market dominance of Woolworths, Coles and Aldi driving prices down, as well as dramatic increases in ‘own brand’ sales at the expense of real winery brands • high wages and high penalty rates making operating costs high • carbon tax has added over 20% to our energy bills • total lack of market protection with imports • the WET rebate being given to New Zealand wineries - effectively Australians subsidising Australian competitors taking shelf position of Australian wines • the WET rebate being given to interwinery bulk wine sales.

The lack of profitability means that the business operations of wineries and growers have become, at best, marginal and have, therefore, become very risky borrowers. Higher risk means higher interest rates and stricter borrowing controls.

There is little that can be done about the strength of the supermarkets either here or overseas. Nor can anything be done about the growing range of home brands. Some producers are doing quite well out of providing the odd own brand alongside what this person terms “real winery brands”.

Operating costs are high in Australia and this reflects more in export markets where equal quality wine can be retailed below Australian prices; the added harshness is a strong Australian dollar.

At the time of writing it was 95.8c to the US dollar after falling below parity on 13 May. In April the dollar hit $1.05 and a high of $1.08 in February 2012. If, at the time of publication, the dollar has dropped another 10 cents there may be room for optimism; if it has gone back up, radical readjustment in production will be needed.

There can be no market protection for imports; it would do Australia more harm than good in a much wider context than wine. Throughout the Australian wine industry there is concern about imports, but are they as bad as many think? In the March quarter (latest figures available) a total of 16.7 million litres of wine was imported, valued at $110 million.

This is an increase of 10.2% in quantity and 11.6% in value over the 2012 March quarter. The average value of wine cleared for home consumption in the quarter was $6.58 per litre, up from $6.50 in the March 2012 quarter.

Looking closer at the figures, New Zealand wine dominates, accounting for 57% of the total in the March quarter, valued at $58,550,000. Add in the WET rebate New Zealand enjoys and it can be seen that NZ wine is responsible for a proportion of the Australian wine industry's issues.

Not all wineries are having difficulties with their bank, as the following three comments from the same region show: • “We are in excellent shape with our bank (NAB). They do seem to be backing ‘winners’. I have heard of much more restrictive behaviour if they feel that the winery is not well backed. We have had the same banker for many years, which has enabled a real relationship to develop. He knows our strategy very well and has supported it consistently.”

• “I agree that banks are certainly treating the industry with great caution (from what I have heard/ read). However, I believe banks are still happy to lend finance to sound businesses (in whatever industry).

From my point of view I have had no overly-cautious or overly-strict bank dealings recently. In fact, the bank is much easier to deal with today than years ago, but that is a reflection of being an established business with a proven track record today, as opposed to a new start-up years ago.”

• “Agreed that it seems as though banks are taking a tougher line on the financing of wine businesses and, I would assume, grapegrowing businesses. "To some extent I think

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they probably should, as there are We have not had any issue with banks treating us with operations out there that shouldn’t be in this business. I see this as being a caution because of the industry we are in. The bank is only time when anyone who has stuck by interested in our business dealings, sales and marketing. This could their bank over the years and has had a relationship with the bank personnel be the case because we have been dealing with the same Sydney has been able to leverage off this loyalty to keep them onside. There is branch for 40 years, and even though we have seen five different a need to be commercial about the managers, our borrowing history and ability to repay debts is what relationship, meet regularly to review rates/facilities and put the pressure keeps our good relationship with the bank. on the bank so that they know you are prepared to negotiate with others if Anon. they fail to meet businesses' needs.

"Certainly there is a need to demonstrate the winery has the ability only interested in our business dealings, “Our relationship with our bank is to pay back the loans, and not just the sales and marketing. This could be the positive, and it must be to ensure we can interest owing as this helps to show the case because we have been dealing operate successfully. This year we leased business has the ability to repay when with the same Sydney branch for 40 $140K worth of equipment, including wine it needs to.” years, and even though we have seen tanks and a new shed to house the new red This is from a winery in a different five different managers, our borrowing ferment area. We consider this a big loan, region in another state: history and ability to repay debts is what and it did take some persuasion, but the bank “Our bank has never mentioned our keeps our good relationship with the was willing to co-operate and try to work out industry's tough times. They are more bank. We are a medium sized, familya re-payment schedule which would suit us. interested in our own company finances, run winery and I think banks would see One key factor is the employee of the bank, cashflow, etc. We do have overdrafts, and us very differently to a large winery who we have a relationship with. This makes small extensions of $20-30k are often operation that is more vulnerable to dealings easy or hard." sought and approved from the bank.

Not all wineries have such good market fluctuations, including pricing “We have not had any issue with relationships with the banks as the above wars. We have recently asked for an banks treating us with caution because four. Some teeter on the edge of trust/ increase in our overdraft, and it was 1 1 3 9 _ v 1 C R T _ N u f a r m3 . p d f Pa ge 1 2 5 / 0 6 / 1 2 , 1 2 : 5 3 PM ▶ of 3the industry we are in. The bank is mistrust: approved.

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• “I have no insider knowledge on the X saga as I was not a board member and just a minor shareholder, so not privy to negotiations that took place with the bank. From the verbal reports and financial reports I did receive, the company had been meeting all its debt requirements but the bank demanded additional shareholder equity. This was not forthcoming so they called in the loan; there was no ‘let’s try to work something out’ attitude.

“With the current business we have an overdraft and several commercial bills.

There is an annual review where they cast an eye over our end-of-financialyear stuff and budgets. Generally, we

significant basis. We have no expansion plans at the moment that would require bank funding. However, this could change and then we may have a more concerned view.”

‘No comment’ is a dangerous statement, as is ignoring questions asked.

The danger comes from leaving the receiver (in this case me) free to let his or her imagination roam, think the worst or seek any tenuous fact to fill the gap. I have no facts regarding the three inland regions apart from the figures provided, but they don’t look good and I fear there is a very large part of the Australian wine industry in difficulty. Read the following and feel the pain:

Generally, we have a good relationship [with our bank]. Last year they indicated they wanted us to reduce our overdraft level and to start paying back a big chunk of the commercial bill. This was not a request but a demand…while we are working together okay for now, it would seem that if we slipped up in any way, ANZ might not be so pleasant.

Anon have a good relationship. Last year they indicated they wanted us to reduce our overdraft level and to start paying back a big chunk of the commercial bill.

This was not a request but a demand.

They obviously wanted to reduce their exposure to us and, from what I hear from others, in the sector in general.

We have reduced our overdraft by a third as requested and are in process of demolishing half of one of the commercial bills this year. To sum up, while we are working together okay for now, it would seem that if we slipped up in any way, ANZ might not be so pleasant. A typical bank - lend in the good times...call it in during the bad.”

• “Our concern with bank borrowing is their business margins, which have gone up about fourfold since the GFC. Over the past few years we have approached all the big banks but found little variations in margins, charges and services so have stayed with our existing bank. Bank charges are also a concern - EFTPOS charges recently shot up, foreign currency is expensive and where we used to deal without many fees and charges, over the past few years this has all changed.

Ultimately, though, access to bank credit is only relevant to us should we be seeking to expand our business on a

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• “It is probably not correct to say we don’t have any financial difficulties, and also to say that our bank has not been supportive (until now anyway).

The drought was hard on us. From 2006 our yields declined steadily until, in 2010, we were down to about 10% of our normal yield. We had grown all our own grapes until then, but found it necessary to purchase grapes in 2009 and 2010 to support expected sales; an added expense to the winery, while our own vineyards continued to cost the same amount to maintain. In 2011 we harvested little or no grapes due to floods; most of our vineyards went under water. You don’t need to be the Federal treasurer to see it paints a grim picture: fairly constant outgoings and declining sales due to lack of supply compounded by shrinking per case returns in a tougher domestic market and declining export sales. All this was made clear to our bank some years ago and our needs over a three to four-year period were submitted. Their support has been satisfactory to date. Towards the end of this year we will have to live up to our end of the bargain on yields and sales, and will ultimately sink or swim on the result.”

• “We went to the bank to borrow a few thousand dollars against nearly $1 W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

million in equity on our house. Their first response was that we would not be able to service the repayments, despite a perfect record with them for more than 20 years. Fortunately, they reconsidered.

“Even the ATO has turned against us.

They used to have no difficulty arranging for us to pay our GST in instalments. Now they want all sorts of additional information before they will agree.

“Our plan is to take our son out of university, vigorously pursue the distributor and go on the road ourselves. While they [distributor] have levelled off, sales are at a level that can support us, if we get paid.

Currently, local sales and the cellar door are the only things that keep us afloat.”

Some points, take from them what you will: • “Timing is everything, as our manager told us; we were lucky to refinance when we did, as land values are significantly lower now and that changes equity ratios, etc. [new vineyard and shed was purchased in early 2012].

• “Like us, I expect many wineries have looked at all the expenses they can trim, and also have to listen to the ire of suppliers whose terms have moved from 30 to 60 or 90 days.”

• “Things are still very difficult, but we are hoping/expecting to pull through. We are in the process of re-financing and, in particular, getting a deal where we do not pay interest of 15%.”

• “I am not really experiencing anything adverse directly but I know there is quite a deal of pain out there. The basic position is if you are not profitable and your LVRs (loan to value ratios) are out of order, then you will have trouble getting or maintaining finance. The wine business is just experiencing the same as any other business that is out of favour. Ask anyone in general retail how the banks are treating them. If a good customer can demonstrate capacity to service your loans, then the banks are competing for business. If you are borrowing to prop up a negative cashflow or losses, forget it.”

• “I think concerns are easing slightly, probably based on an industry-wide economic recovery and rationalisation, but there are certainly still difficulties experienced by some producers. From a personal point of view, I refinanced my business with a new lender, and they could not have been more helpful and willing to bend over backwards to get my business. I’m pretty sure the banks are looking a bit closer into assessing the strengths/risks of each individual business before offering finance, rather than applying generic ‘industry standards’ to their lending criteria, as they probably have done in the past.”

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• “A lot of banks are trying to reduce their exposure to the entire agriculture sector after getting quite carried away over recent years. ‘China! Food bowl! Soft commodity boom! Booming agriculture land values! Food security!

What could possibly go wrong?’

Apart from drought, flood, disease, high costs, low prices, government interference, and one or two dozen other things, I can’t think of any."

• “ As most of the banks are in the same position, instead of getting another bank to take over their position at maturity, they need to work with the borrower to reduce the size of their facility. With such low rates, successfully meeting interest obligations has never been so easy, but current market conditions (dollar, consolidation, oversupply, etc) aren’t good enough for a lot of borrowers to repay debt as fast as lenders want."

• “Add to this the fact that banks don’t want to force sales and rock the boat on valuations, and you have a pretty tricky situation for them. Push hard enough to slowly get out, but not hard enough to cause too much trouble.”

• “We are one of the longest customers with our bank and they like the

F I L E S

Carrying big debt in the wine industry right now is very scary for both the bank and the company. Survival will be the name of the game.

Anon. relationship and, hence, any talk of changing banks when we are not getting the appropriate service or there is increased charges results in head office attention. That’s not saying that they do not pay close interest in our business, and over the last three years it has been really tough. The UK and, to a lesser degree, Europe have been terrible due to a 40% change in exchange rates and, hence, $17 million worth of business has virtually disappeared. This forces a reshape of the business from fruit supply to sales and marketing structures to accommodate the new paradigm. This has resulted in many changes within the business - tough but necessary actions. The bank has been impressed

Eggs laid on leaves after spraying are killed

Eggs already on leaves at spraying are killed Controls caterpillars

that we are changing our business and they suggest we are an early mover.

That is to say, I believe there is a great deal of readjustment yet to flow through the industry, and the bank's attitude is that you are alert to acknowledge this.

Carrying big debt in the wine industry right now is very scary for both the bank and the company. Survival will be the name of the game.”

To end, I think this quote conveys many people’s attitudes to banks in general: “I can’t really help you. The last time I borrowed any money from a bank was in 1982. My view of banks from all the anecdotal evidence is that they are a bunch of.....”[extreme expletive].

WVJ

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Trunk diseases ... a larger threat than phylloxera?

By Richard Smart. Email: richard@smartvit.com.au

T

his is a deliberately provocative title, but one that has some substance as, I hope, will soon become obvious.

Phylloxera and Australian vineyards Most Australian vineyards are vulnerable to phylloxera given that they are grown on own roots. I am unaware of the proportion of vineyards on phylloxera-tolerant or phylloxeraresistant rootstocks in Australia, but I suppose it is much less than 50%.

Regional quarantine has been more effective in avoiding the spread of phylloxera in Australia than in most other countries, but that is no guarantee for the future.

Phylloxera can spread rapidly in own-rooted vineyards, the size of the symptomatic vine area about doubling each year. Depending on soil conditions, affected vines usually die in a couple of years. The insect mostly spreads through the soil, so from vine to vine and across and down rows. It is also spread by wind, leading to new ‘satellite’ infections, or on machinery. I recall proving this with colleagues in New Zealand in the early 1980s when we washed down a mechanical harvester in Gisborne and found many insects, including phylloxera.

Phylloxera was spread throughout most vineyard regions of the world by infected soil and infected planting material. Nursery hygiene can prevent this.

Trunk disease and Australian vineyards Many Australian grapegrowers are aware of eutypa dieback disease, especially in older vineyards. There is a group of ‘new’ trunk diseases causing problems around the world at present. These include Botryosphaeria (Bot canker), Phaeoacremonium and Phaeomoniella (Petri Disease, Black Goo decline, Esca), and Cylindrocarpon (Ilyonectria, Black Foot disease).

Like phylloxera, these diseases are spread by infected planting material, and also in mature vineyards, often through pruning wound infection.

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Figure 1. Trunk disease symptoms below the pruning wound in a rootstock source block.

There is a worldwide problem with infected planting material. I am amazed at the abysmally poor standard of grapevine planting material the world over. In general, nurseries concentrate on producing virus-free plants, but ignore other diseases, especially trunk diseases. Yet, these trunk diseases can be more damaging and lethal than common viruses.

I now live in the UK; growers there import grafted vines from Europe which are almost universally infected with Botryosphaeria and one or other of the two types of ‘Phaeo’ diseases, and sometimes Cylindrocarpon which is picked up from growing on in-field nurseries. I see the same everywhere I travel, for example, Belgium, Norway, Thailand, China, Russia and, more recently, New Zealand.

There have been many scientific studies of this grim situation world-wide, and the causes for diseased plants are common to most countries. These are infected cuttings taken from infected mother vines, nursery soaking practices which can spread diseases and, finally,

planting out in nurseries where they pick up more infection. I very frequently observe Bot infection in the stubs of canes after removal from the field nursery, and before dispatch. Cutting into a new vine to check for staining makes it unsuitable for planting. So, buyers beware!

Australia is not isolated from this global situation. Helen Waite is currently doing a PhD on trunk diseases at Charles Sturt University. She has surveyed the Australian grapevine nursery sector and found the same problems of infected mother vine plantings, and subsequent spread in the nursery process. The same has been found by Dr Melanie Weckert, also at Charles Sturt University, in a survey of ‘young vine decline’ in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area. This is not a new finding. Dr Ian Pascoe, in Victoria, found more than 50% of mother vines infected in a 1998 survey.

Bot canker and Phaeo are the most common infections of rootstock mother vines. Hot water treatment (HWT) in the nursery can generally kill the infection, and I know of two Australian nurseries

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successfully using this practice. However, Melanie Weckert has shown that newlypropagated vines also commonly pick up the black-foot fungi (Cylindrocarpon/ Ilyonectria) from contaminated nursery soil. There is no way to prevent this other than ensuring that nursery soil is free from these black-foot fungi. As the black-foot fungal spores can survive in soil for more than 15 years, chemical fumigation, or the more environmentally friendly Brassica biofumigants such as Indian mustard in crop rotations, are probably needed. Alternatively, vines can be sold after grafting as already growing with new roots and shoots, thus avoiding planting in the nursery soil, which may be contaminated.

Like eutypa dieback, bot canker generally takes many years to kill an established vine. Due to their excellent vascular systems, vines can survive long periods with infections, with it taking many years for them to show symptoms.

However, I have seen young vines in the UK die within one or two years of infection by bot. It is spread through infection of pruning wounds, especially in wet weather. At the moment, control may be achieved by remedial trunk surgery, and there seems to be no guaranteed way to stop the spread, although removal of infected vines can help.

Symptoms of Botryosphaeria are more common in vineyards over 10 years of age, unless infected from planting. Often vines show a yellow colour, merging into reduced vigour and eventually death which shows when vines fail to go through budbreak. This may be on one

Figure 2. Staining in rootstock typical of trunk disease infection, from poorlyperforming young vines. side of the vine. Bot infected vines can also suffer apoplexy, with leaves and fruit suddenly shrivelling during the growing season. Affected vines are often in clumps as spread to adjacent vines in the row, and cross row, is common.

In my experience there is not a widespread recognition of this disease

by Australian and New Zealand grapegrowers, and so the disease is insidiously spreading, unobserved in vineyards.

Comparing phylloxera and trunk diseases Trunk diseases are likely more widespread in Australia than phylloxera.

In 2008, Pitt et al. reported on a survey that found Botryosphaeria in 91 of the

93 vineyards sampled in 11 vineyard regions of NSW and SA. There is no reason to think the situation different in other states, and I have seen it recently in Tasmania.

While Botryosphaeria is undoubtedly more widespread than phylloxera, as already mentioned, in many situations the vine may show no symptoms. The disease expression is encouraged by stress. In my experience, poor soil drainage and low temperatures, including spring frost and winter freeze, frequently lead to disease expression and death. And, in these situations, poor vine health is thought to be due to the stress, not an unknown disease. In most cases, vine death after infection is slow, as is spread in mature plantings, compared with phylloxera. However, there is a

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R ic h ar d smart

control for phylloxera; remove infected vines and plant replacements on resistant rootstock. Trellis and irrigation can be saved, and with good management crops are restored in two to three years. So, we can survive a phylloxera invasion if healthy grafted vines are available.

Apart from remedial surgery, there is no control for Botryosphaeria, especially if it spreads rapidly in the vine. As with eutypa, one can remove the head and part of the trunk to get below the infection; one Victorian grower has advised me that this was effective in his Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard.

Infected vines are a source of spores, especially after rain, which can infect other vines. I suggest removal of dead vines prior to winter pruning, then burn them downwind. Do not leave them in piles around vineyards. Sadly, spores of Botryosphaeria may come from vegetation outside the vineyard as well as infected vines inside, but I am unaware how common this may be in Australia. Studies continue on pruning wound treatment to stop infection.

The cure for phylloxera is to replant with a resistant rootstock. However, and sadly, there is a chance that the new, virus-free, grafted vine will be infected with trunk disease!

I find Richard Smart’s article interesting and timely. In general, I support his point of view. Trunk diseases are ultimately deadly to the vineyard, and nursery hygiene practices, especially hot water treatment (HWT), is currently the most effective way to mitigate this problem in propagation material.

HWT has had a chequered history with Australian nurserymen. During earlier years, HWT protocols were not clearly defined and there were occasions when the treatment created adverse conditions, such as bud damage to propagation material or poor vineyard establishment. This legacy remains in some sectors of the industry.

It has been demonstrated that long duration HWT, i.e., 50°C for 30 minutes, when applied to propagation material does control the organisms that lead to trunk diseases. To be successful, a strict HWT protocol needs to be adopted including the condition of the cuttings prior to treatment and handling after treatment.

The HWT protocol in current use and promoted by VINA through its accreditation scheme was compiled as a result of a three-year, GWRDC-funded research project ‘Development of Effective and Reliable Hot Water Treatments - SAR 99/4”. The principal collaborators were John Crocker, senior research officer, SARDI; Helen Waite, University of Melbourne; and myself.

As Richard Smart rightfully points out, “the important area of nursery production and mother vine health remains largely unfunded. There is a need for more research and extension support to provide healthy plants”.

Paul Wright, Chair Vine Industry Nursery Association While we do not necessarily see a high incidence of infected material (possibly due to our own nursery practices), we are aware of the problems and insidious nature of these pathogens. As a nursery that employs hot water treatment for both cuttings prior to propagation and rootlings prior to distribution, along with other practices such as the application of phos acid to mother vines and field nurseries, we know that we are minimising the risk for ourselves and our customers.

But we are also aware that there may be more that we could be doing, so we would welcome further funding of research into nursery practices to minimise the spread of these trunk diseases. A high priority for research would be a non-destructive method for testing mother vines. If available, this would fit in nicely with our annual testing regime of source blocks for viruses. If we can remove and/or avoid infected mother vines (as we do with viruses) we would be a long way down the path of mitigating the effects of the diseases.

Nick Dry, Viticulturist Yalumba Nursery

Implications for Australia Overseas studies, including in New Zealand and Australia, indicate that vines now produced from most nurseries are infected with trunk disease. These infections cause young vine death, uneven vineyard establishment and irregular cropping from vines in the vineyard thereafter. Melanie Weckert (2013) has published a study on the effects of infected planting material on subsequent growth and yield. Furthermore, some diseases like Bot canker can spread to otherwise healthy vines as vineyards mature.

Based on planting statistics, around half of Australia’s vines are 15 years old or less. We can, therefore, expect trunk disease to begin showing in many vineyards about now, and to be spreading. This might lead to a questioning of the results of the Economic Review of Pests and Diseases produced for the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC)

by Scholefield Robinson in 2010, which listed trunk diseases as Priority 6 following five other pests and diseases, all of which have economic control. Some researchers believe that trunk diseases should be much higher up the list, and I agree.

Conclusion I would argue that trunk diseases presently constitute more of a threat to Australian winegrape production

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than phylloxera in that they are typically unrecognised and spreading, and have no commercial control measures. My viewpoint will be reinforced if and when phylloxera breaks the current quarantine boundaries, and the demand for highhealth grafted vines sky rockets.

In any event, I believe the future of the Australian wine sector lies in replanting.

I believe it will become evident to sector opinion makers that Australia should move the bulk of its wine production from hot regions to cooler ones, and to expand its varietal base. So, irrespective of phylloxera spread, I believe we need an efficient nursery industry capable of producing high health plants.

This then leads to question the research priorities of the GWRDC. Some funds have been made available for field research, but the important area of nursery production and mother vine health remains largely unfunded. I sincerely question if this is satisfactory. Nurseries need more research and extension support to provide healthy plants.

Nurseries obviously do not want to sell infected plants, be it from virus or trunk diseases. Yet, many nurserymen are frightened to adopt hot water treatment (HWT) for fear of its consequences, both in Australia and abroad. However, HWT is the primary defence against using infected cuttings in the nursery process.

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How many nurserymen test their vines for trunk disease? How many inspect their vines for trunk disease? How many clients inspect their vines for trunk disease? It is simple: cut the vines at the base of the rootstock, and under and above the graft union. If you see staining, like in Figures 1 and 2, there is a problem, and the future profitability of the vineyard is threatened.

I do not know the extent of the problem of trunk diseases in Australian grapevine nursery stock. Scientific surveys indicate that there is a problem. If so, the GWRDC should invest money for research to overcome the problem.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to editor Sonya Logan, and Peter Dry, Mark Walpole, Helen Waite, Melanie Weckert, Mark Krstic and Wayne Pitt for helpful comments on this article.

However, I take responsibility for its final form.

References Pitt, W.M.; Huang, R.; Qiu, Y.; Steel, C. and Savocchia, S. (2008) Distribution and management of fungi associated with Botryosphaeria canker. Aust NZ Grapegrower & Winemaker 539:26-30.

Whitelaw-Weckert, M.A.; Rahman, L.; Appleby, L.M.; Hall, A.; Clark, A.C.; Waite, H. and Hardie W.J. (2013) Co-infection by Botryosphaeriaceae and Ilyonectria spp. fungi during propagation causes decline of young grafted grapevines. Plant Pathology Doi: 10.1111/ WVJ ppa.12059 V28N4

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Revisiting extended maturation of white wines ‘sur lies’

By Cathy Howard

Although extended maturation on lees has been used in wineries around the world for a number of years, the technique is becoming more commonplace in Australia due to the improvements in wine quality that its proponents believe it delivers. Cathy Howard explores the theory behind extended maturation and asks some local and overseas producers to explain how they are implementing the technique.

T

he ‘sur lies’ technique has been a passion of mine for many years, following a trip to Austria in 2008 to attend the World Sauvignon Blanc Congress, which resulted in my ‘lightbulb moment’ for the winemaking style that I subsequently adapted for Whicher Ridge Sauvignon Blanc.

This method is traditionally most closely associated with Chardonnay production in Burgundy, France, and has been widely used for many years

for premium Chardonnay production in Australia, as well as being used in sparkling wine production. It is also being used by winemakers for other white varieties, which I will explore later in this article.

The chemistry behind ‘sur lies’ Wines kept on lees for an extended period show an increased concentration of nitrogenous compounds including amino acids and peptides, as well as

polysaccharides such as mannoproteins.

The enrichment of the wine by these compounds is due to the natural process of yeast cell breakdown or autolysis following the completion of fermentation.

Yeast autolysis is a relatively slow process whereby the yeast cell’s own enzymes act to breakdown the cell walls, gradually releasing intracellular compounds (peptides, fatty acids, nucleotides and amino acids), and cell wall compounds (polysaccharides) into the wine.

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The rate of autolysis is strongly influenced by the temperature and pH of the wine. At low pH and low temperatures (less than 15-17°C) the process is likely to occur at a much slower rate. The winemaker can, therefore, influence the success of ‘sur lies’ by extending the period of time that a wine is in contact with the yeast lees.

The compounds released into the wine during autolysis have an important influence on the sensory properties and stability of wine: •p olysaccharides, such as mannoproteins:  contribute a roundness and volume to the palate, and increase palate length  bind with anthocyanins and tannins to increase colour stability  bind with free ellagic tannins, modifying wood tannin astringency and, thus, reducing the amount of perceived tannins  bind with wood-derived compounds such as vanillin, furfural and methyloctalactones, modifying the oak aromas present in the wine  act as potassium bitartrate crystal inhibitors, thereby assisting in potassium bitartrate stability  improve protein stability; research suggests that mannoproteins prevent polymerisation of tannins, pigments and volatiles.

 released nutrients assist the growth of

malolactic bacteria, and using the sur lies technique protects the wine from oxidation while it is in an unsulfured state  released amino acids and nucleic acids can enhance flavours and complex aromas, particularly at the end of the palate.

Managing ‘sur lies’ Bâtonnage, or lees stirring, enhances the characteristics of sur lies maturation by redistributing the desirable compounds of the yeast autolysis process into the wine volume. As lees absorb oxygen, stirring also reduces the reductive compounds present by exposing the wine to some oxygen. Care needs to be taken with the stirring method chosen, as a vigorous, aggressive stirring method may introduce too much oxygen into the wine, increasing the risk of acetaldehyde formation which may then lead to higher levels of acetic acid in the wine.

Any method that redistributes the lees thoroughly, by bringing all the lees into suspension, provides an adequate method of stirring. A particular stirring method can affect the wine development in various ways due to the differing levels of oxygen exposure that each method exerts on the

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wine. The vessel type and size, as well as the level of oxygen uptake of a wine under the stirring technique chosen, should be factored into the decisions made on the intensity and frequency of the bâtonnage schedules.

For example, on a small scale (such as a barrel), bâtonnage can be undertaken by the use of a stainless steel rod with a paddle at the end which can be either spun with an electric drill or, for a more gentle stirring method, simply moved back and forth in the barrel by hand. On a larger scale (such as tanks), lees stirring can be achieved by pumping over the wine, lifting and moving the lees off the bottom of the tank and resuspending it back through the wine, and the type and speed of the pump will have an effect on the amount of oxygen picked up while stirring.

Generally, lees stirring schedules, and the total time spent on lees, vary widely depending on the variety, wine style, and winemaker. It is important to find a schedule that suits your own set-up, wine style and individual wine.

Potential risks with ‘sur lieS’ It is important to conduct regular sensory evaluations of wines undergoing

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sur lies to monitor for the development of any reductive and off aromas. Reduced sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans can be formed, and appropriate action should be quickly taken if off odours are noticed.

Preventing hydrogen sulfide formation involves providing sufficient nutrients for yeast prior to fermentation, and using a yeast strain that produces little hydrogen sulfide during fermentation. Wines that do not produce significant hydrogen sulfide during fermentation are less likely to encounter problems later when undergoing sur lies. Also, due to a greater tendency for gross (or heavy) lees to develop off aromas and flavours, these should be avoided in favour of fine lees for the sur lies technique.

Following is a snapshot of the sur lies treatment from three Austrian and four Australian wineries.

A snapshot of winemaking ideas for using sur lies Weingut Tement Sauvignon Blanc, Manfred Tement – winemaker www.tement.at There are two styles of Sauvignon Blanc made in Styria. The first is the ‘Klassik’ style of Sauvignon Blanc, made from grapes harvested earlier in the season from lower altitudes and from vines growing in the loamier soils. The second style is from grapes from higher altitudes, growing on leaner limestonebased soils. For this style, ferments are by wild yeasts, and are often barrel matured. The secondary ferment characters are more important than the primary fruit-derived characters in this style.

At Tement, there are five hand-picked harvests. The first harvest is for the Klassik style and the Sattlehof Sauvignon Blanc, which is fermented and matured in-tank, and receives yeast lees contact for eight months. The wine is then stabilised and filtered to bottle.

The second and third harvests are destined for fermentation in stainless steel and maturation in large oak barrels. The fourth and fifth harvests are fermented and matured in small oak barrels. These later harvested grapes are destined for the Tement Zieregg Reserve Cuvee wine.

Maturation is on yeast lees in-barrel for 12-18 months.

barrels, also for the next 10-12 months.

After 10-12 months in these small barrels, the wine is transferred, along with the yeast lees, into a mix of stainless steel and large vats.

In cooler years, Sauvignon Blanc has increased strength, freshness and aroma, and is generally left longer in the barrel for maturation (up to 18 months).

Weingut Polz Sauvignon Blanc, Christian Krampl - winemaker www.polz.co.at About 20% of the Sauvignon Blanc crush is from the later harvests, and is destined for the reserve range such as the Hochgrassnitzberg Sauvignon Blanc.

A mix of large oak vats, puncheons and barriques are used. Reserve parcels are 100% barrel fermented in new oak. Yeasts used are a mix of VL3 and wild yeasts.

After a small sulfur dioxide addition at the completion of ferment, the wines remain on yeast lees in-barrel for 12–18 months.

If it is a riper year, more Sauvignon Blanc is matured in-tank to preserve the fresher, fruitier aromas. In the first three months of maturation, bâtonnage is carried out weekly, then ceases for the next nine to 15 months.

Sons of Eden Riesling, Corey Ryan – winemaker www.sonsofeden.com Sons of Eden sources Riesling fruit from Eden Valley, with several parcels coming from the High Eden sub-region.

The fruit is hand-picked and whole bunch pressed to retain the delicate Riesling flavours, along with minimal phenolic extraction from the skins. By utilising extended maturation on yeast lees postferment, the aim is to complement the refined flavours and high acidity with some textural elements, rather than phenolic texture from the skins.

All the Rieslings are tank fermented.

Lees are stirred weekly for the first couple of weeks following the completion of fermentation and prior to any sulfur addition to the tank. The wine is then sulfured and left on lees without stirring for four months prior to being prepared for bottling. Heat and cold stabilisation occurs on yeast lees.

Winemaker Corey Ryan finds that the wine left on lees for this period is harmonious on the palate, with the flavours and acids being more integrated upon bottling.

Working with high acidity white varieties in New Zealand and Champagne over the past 10 years has influenced Ryan to mature his Rieslings increasingly longer on yeast lees. He is also increasingly using extended lees maturation, as well as elevating levels of press solids on fermentation on most white varieties to aid in building texture, richness and interest.

Weingut Gross Sauvignon Blanc, Johannes Gross – winemaker www.gross.at/en/winery/winery For the Gross reserve styles, there are a range of barrel sizes available for maturation, from 300L and 600L barrels, up to 900-1000L oval oak vats, ranging in age from new to five years old. Each year, 20% new barrels are used. The Gross Sauvignon Blanc Kittenberg and Sauvignon Blanc Sulz wine styles are fermented in tank at 17oC, and are then matured in large vats and large barrels on yeast lees for 10-12 months. The Gross Ratscher Nussberg Sauvignon Blanc is fermented in small oak barrels at 18oC and matured in small and larger oak

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Whicher Ridge Sauvignon Blanc, Cathy Howard – winemaker www.whicherridge.com.au At Whicher Ridge Wines, extended lees maturation is used for the Margaret River Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier.

In the case of the Sauvignon Blanc juice is racked with light, fluffy lees into the ferment. Roughly 70% of the wine is tank fermented and matured, and 30% is barrel fermented and matured. At completion of ferment, the wines stay on yeast lees for 12 months. Lees stirring initially happens fortnightly for the first two months, then monthly for the next six to eight months, depending on taste. When a rich, textured and even palate weight has developed, and varietal characteristics are still present without obvious yeasty notes, then stirring is ceased and the wines stay on yeast lees for the remainder of their maturation time.

The benefits of adopting this style are the resulting creaminess, flavour length and texture of the wine. The style is much better for food matching. The extended time on yeast lees results in wines that not only retain their freshness, but have a creaminess and complexity that enhance the varietal fruit flavours, and balance the â–ś oak flavours and tannins.

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At Whicher Ridge Wines, author Cathy Howard uses extended lees maturation for Sauvignon Blanc for the resulting creaminess, flavour length and texture of the wine.

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Massena The Surly Muse Viognier, Jaysen Collins – winemaker www.massena.com.au The Massena Viognier is barrel fermented using wild yeasts, and the barrels are stirred near the end of ferment to keep the lees in suspension.

After this, there is no intensive stirring regime as the creamy, yeasty and buttery profile is undesirable for the winery's style. The Viognier is matured on lees for six months in either tank or barrel. The wine is sulfured late in the process and remains on yeast lees until fining and racking in preparation for bottling.

Massena makes a fresh, crisp style of Viognier, using the extended time sur lies to provide weight, texture and mouthfeel to the finished wine, adding complexity.

Winemaker Jaysen Collins also likes its antioxidant potential. In the riper years, he uses shorter lees ageing times to tone down the ripe and sometimes overpowering Viognier characters.

Massena also uses the same technique for Roussanne.

Mitchell Harris Wines Fume Sauvignon Blanc, John Harris – winemaker For John Harris’s Sauvignon Blanc, Jeni Port wrote recently (28 May 2013, Fairfax Media, www.good food.com) that

“Harris opted for an alternative to what he calls the ‘fruit tingle and battery acid’ wines out there. It’s a way-out-there winemaking expression for the Mitchell Harris 2012 Fume Sauvignon Blanc, the kind you might find increasingly being exercised in New Zealand - natural ferment; full contact between the wine and its dead yeast cells, pulps and seeds; and a little new, a little old oak producing a wine waving a wildly herbal, Savvy flag”.

For his Fume style, Harris matures 65-75% of the wine in-barrel, with an unoaked fresh and crisp component blended in at assemblage. The barrel portion spends four to six months maturing, with weekly bâtonnage for the first month or so and, then, stirring every four to five weeks depending on taste. The aim is to build palate structure, texture and complexity, and to add a degree of nutty and savoury notes to the ripe pineapple and passionfruit characters from the vineyard.

When establishing the Mitchell Harris brand in western Victoria five years ago, Harris wanted to make a textural white wine that would be a great partner with food, and he was a fan of the Gembrook Hills Sauvignon Blanc style. He had also seen some of the trials and blends from

other wineries in the Moët Hennessy group, which further inspired him.

Conclusions While researching this article, I talked with Cam McPherson, a passionate young winemaker at Flying Fish Cove Winery, in Margaret River, who spent some time working with John Harris at Mount Avoca. We talked about a number of producers in Western Australia who are using extended maturation sur lies for Chenin Blanc, Viognier, Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling and Chardonnay. McPherson also shared with me insights into how Mount Avoca had been using maturation on yeast lees for its Sauvignon Blanc and Viognier in 2010.

I realised that the technique that I have been using for a number of years is widely practised around Australia and is becoming more common, and I believe rightly so. The white wines produced using sur lies maturation for extended periods are better balanced, have enhanced structure and mouthfeel, increased aromatic complexity, and improved flavour depth and length. They are much better suited to matching with food, and they also have the potential to WVJ age well.

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Incidence of some oenological parameters on the content of sotolon in white wines

By Valérie Lavigne1,2, Alexandre Pons1,2, Philippe Darriet2 and Denis Dubourdieu2 1 Seguin Moreau France, Z.I. Merpins, BP 94, 16103 Cognac, France.

2 University of Bordeaux, ISVV, EA 4577, Unité de recherche Oenologie, F-33882 Villenave d’Ornon, France

Researchers in France have examined the effect of barrel-ageing conditions on the formation of sotolon – a volatile compound with an intense odour of curry - in dry white wines. The findings demonstrated that yeast lees were capable of minimising the formation of sotolon in dry white wines during ageing.

S

otolon (4,5-dimethyl-3hydroxy-2(5)H-furanone) is a volatile compound with an intense odour of curry. A great deal of research has been done in recent years on the sensory properties of this compound and its contribution to the aromas of various foods 1-4.

Sotolon contributes to the aromas of ‘vins jaunes’ from the Jura and

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sherries 5, as well the ‘dried fig’ and ‘rancio’ nuances in French fortified wines (vins doux naturels - VDN) and port 6-7. Concentrations in white wines made from grape varieties like Savagnin increase during ageing with yeast flor, as well as during the barrel ageing of sweet wines 6, 8-9. Wines of this type at more than 20 years of age may contain up to 1mg/L sotolon.

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More recently, several authors 10-11 determined the contribution of sotolon to the oxidation aromas of prematurely aged dry white wines.

Oxidation phenomena are involved in generating sotolon in wine 6, 12-13.

According to Cutzach 7, this defect is accentuated in bottles of fortified wine with imperfect seals due to faulty corks.

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Assaying sotolon in a complex dilute-alcohol matrix such as wine requires a specific, highly sensitive method. Much work has been done in recent years on developing separation methods capable of assaying sotolon concentrations in the µg/L range.

Based on an optimised and sensitive method developed at ISVV (Institut des Sciences de la Vigne et du Vin) we report new knowledge and practical outcomes for winemakers concerning the knowledge of changes in the sotolon content of a white wine during ageing in oak barrel and bottle.

Materials and methods Wine samples Commercial white wines from several vintages (two to 32 years old) were all analysed in 2005. The grape varieties and appellation are presented in Table 1. For each wine, duplicate sotolon analysis took place immediately after bottle opening. Moreover, 10 vintages from another estate from Pessac Leognan appellation were also analysed.

Sotolon was assayed in wines that had been fermented and aged in new or used French oak barrels, with or without lees, for eight months after the end of alcoholic fermentation.

When Sauvignon Blanc was aged without lees, the lees were removed just after the end of alcoholic fermentation. Each assay was carried out in triplicate. The free sulfur dioxide concentration was maintained constant (25mg/L) throughout the experiments. Lees were maintained in suspension by stirring once per week.

After eight months’ barrel ageing, 200mL samples were taken from each wine.

Assaying dissolved oxygen in bottle Dissolved oxygen was measured using an oxygen electrode. This polarographic probe, patented by Orbisphere (model 31120), was equipped with a Derlin circulation chamber and connected to a piercing-sampling system capable of measuring the dissolved oxygen content directly in a sealed bottle by creating a nitrogen counter-pressure.

Sotolon assay The extraction procedure was based on the method described by Lavigne 14. Wine samples (100mL) were extracted three times with dichloromethane. Two microlitres of the extract were injected into the GC with a mass spectrometer detector.

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Table 1. Examples of sotolon concentrations in several Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Chardonnay and Savagnin wines from different vintages made under reducing (R) or oxidising (O) conditions.

Code

Grape variety

Appellation

Winemaking conditions

Vintage

Sotolon (µg/L)

1

Sauvignon Blanc

Pessac Leognan

R

1997

5.2 (0.2)

2

Sauvignon Blanc

Pessac Leognan

R

1997

1.1 (1.1)

3

Sauvignon Blanc

Pessac Leognan

R

1997

traces

4

Sauvignon Blanc

Pessac Leognan

R

1992

10 (0.4)

5

Sauvignon Blanc

Entre-Deux-Mers

R

2003

7 (0.3)

6

Sauvignon Blanc

Entre-Deux-Mers

R

2001

0.9 (0.2)

7

Sauvignon Blanc & Semillon

Pessac Leognan

R

1983

1.7 (0.3)

8

Sauvignon Blanc

Graves

R

1985

1.4 (0.3)

9

Sauvignon Blanc

Graves

R

1980

1.1 (0.2)

10

Sauvignon Blanc & Semillon

Pessac Leognan

R

1975

6.1 (0.7)

11

Sauvignon Blanc

Pessac Leognan

R

1973

5.8 (0.5)

12

Sauvignon Blanc

Sancerre

R

1999

2.3 (0.2)

13

Chardonnay

Pouilly Fuissé

R

2001

4.7 (0.1)

14

Chardonnay

Pouilly Fuissé

R

2001

3.1 (0.1)

15

Chardonnay

Pouilly Fuissé

R

2002

3.0 (0.1)

16

Chardonnay

Saint Veran

R

2001

1.1 (0.1)

17

Chardonay

Vin de pays d’Oc

R

2001

2.8 (0.3)

18

Roussette

Roussette de Savoie

R

2001

1.9 (0.2)

19

Roussette

Roussette de Savoie

R

2002

4.3 (0.2)

20

Roussette

Roussette de Savoie

R

2000

1.9 (0.3)

21

Colombelle

Côte de Gascogne

R

1999

2.5 (0.5)

22

Colombelle

Côte de Gascogne

R

1998

6.9 (2.2)

23

Colombelle

Côte de Gascogne

R

2000

2.2 (0.4)

24

Colombelle

Côte de Gascogne

R

1998

4.1 (0.3)

25

Savagnin

Château Chalon

O

1995

52 (3.3)

26

Savagnin

Château Chalon

O

1997

46 (1.1)

27

Savagnin

Château Chalon

O

1989

43 (0.9)

28

Savagnin

Château Chalon

O

1996

41 (1.5)

29

Savagnin

Château Chalon

O

1987

140 (3.4)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Assaying sotolon in several dry white wines The sotolon content was assayed in dry white wines of different origins and vintages (Table 1). All the wines analysed were assessed by a trained panel and chosen for their oxidative flavours. Wines made under reducing conditions were considered to have non-typical oxidative ageing flavours, whereas these aromas were normally associated with wines made under oxidising conditions.

Sotolon concentrations varied from one wine to another, but also according to the vintage. The amount of sotolon in the 29 wine samples

analysed ranged from 0.9-140µg/L. The sotolon content of most samples was below the perception threshold (8µg/L). The distribution of sotolon concentrations in the wines in Figure 1 shows the log transform of sotolon content in wine samples from the different grape varieties.

The Savagnin wines (aged in barrels with a yeast flor) differed from those of the other grape varieties.

No other differences were observed between wines (‘reducing conditions’ group) made from different grape varieties. These differences correlated with the presence of oxidation conditions during winemaking.

The 1992 Sauvignon Blanc sample (Table 1) had an odour reminiscent

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2

Log (sotolon)

1.5

1

0.5 0

-0.5

S(5)

C(4)

R(3)

SA(13)

CH(5)

Figure 1. Box plots of the logarithm of sotolon content in prematurely-aged wine samples from different French grape varieties. The thick horizontal lines are the medians.

The upper and lower edges of the boxes enclose 50% of the data. Legend: Savagnin (S), Colombelle (C), Roussette (R), Sauvignon Blanc (SA), and Chardonnay (CH). Number of samples in brackets.

10

d

Sotolon μg/L

8 6 c 4 2

b a

0 OBL

OB

NBL

NB

Figure 2. Changes in the sotolon content of a white wine after eight months barrel ageing. Impact of ageing conditions: n=3; OBL: old barrels with lees; OB: old barrels without lees; NBL: new barrels with lees; NB: new barrels without lees. The letters (a, b, c, d) indicate significant differences between sotolon concentrations (KruskalWallis, p < 0.05). of ‘rancio’ wines and a high sotolon content for a dry white wine (10µg/L), although it had not been aged under oxidation conditions. In contrast to the results obtained

by Camara 9 for Madeira wine, there was no apparent correlation between the sotolon concentration of the dry white wines analysed and the vintage (R² = -0.192). Its formation in dry white wines is apparently promoted or even triggered by unknown parameters.

Changes in the sotolon content during the barrel-ageing of dry white wines As sotolon is a marker for defective ageing in dry white wines, we monitored changes in the sotolon content of a white Sauvignon Blanc wine, fermented and aged in new or used barrels, with or without total lees. During ageing, the free sulfur dioxide content was maintained at 25mg/L and the lees were kept in suspension by stirring once per week.

The presence of lees in dry white wines during eight months’ barrel-ageing (Figure 2) delayed the formation of sotolon, considered an ageing defect in this type of wine.

It was detected in all the wines, irrespective of the ageing method. The sotolon content was highest in new barrels ▶ V2 8N 4

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5

R2 = 0.938

0

100

200

300

400

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600

(oxygen) μg/L

Degree of aroma oxidation

(Sotolon) μg/L

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4 3

R2=0.713

2 1

0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(sotolon) μg/L

Figure 4. Correlation between dissolved oxygen content and the intensity of oxidation flavours.

Figure 3. Correlation between the sotolon concentration and degree of oxidation of dry white wines analysed.

6

50

0.25

4 30 3 20 2 10

1

DO420

40

O2 (μg/L)

Sotolon (μg/L)

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0

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

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2000

1999

0

2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999

Vintages

Vintages Figure 5. Evolution of dissolved oxygen (grey line) and sotolon (black line) concentration in bottles according to the vintage.

Figure 6. Evolution of DO420 of the wines according to the vintage.

without lees, often exceeding the perception threshold in dry white wine (8µg/L). These results demonstrated that yeast lees were capable of minimising the formation of sotolon in dry white wines during ageing. The lees’ capacity to combine oxygen15 probably explains their protective effect in preventing sotolon formation.

top-grade natural corks. The dry white wine samples analysed had variable dissolved oxygen contents, which were very highly correlated with the sotolon concentration (R² = 0.938) (Figure 3).

Dissolved oxygen concentrations were usually between 5-100µg/L. At this range of oxygen concentrations, the sotolon content remained below its perception threshold in wine (8µg/L), only exceeding this value when the oxygen content was above 500µg/L. These results clearly demonstrated the role of low oxygen concentrations in the formation of sotolon in dry white wines aged in bottle.

In addition to this chemical analysis of defective ageing of white wines, a trained jury made a sensory evaluation of the correlation between sotolon content and the degree of oxidation (Figure 4). The correlation coefficient calculated (R² > 0.7) clearly indicated that the perception of oxidation aromas in aged wines was dependent on the sotolon concentrations present and, more precisely, in the earliest stage of defective ageing. These findings indicate that this furanone is a good ‘marker’ for the defective ageing phenomenon that affects white wines during bottle-ageing.

We report also on the evolution of sotolon according to the vintage. All the analyses were performed in 2010 (Figure 5).

During the first two years of storage, sotolon level is low (below its perception threshold). From the third year to the seventh year, we observed an increase in sotolon level before reaching a plateau. For the oldest vintages, sotolon concentration increased exponentially. We also monitored dissolved oxygen in the bottle. We observed a similar behaviour. Concentrations ranged from 0-39µg/L.

Sotolon changes in dry white wines during bottle ageing: impact of dissolved oxygen content The chemical mechanism responsible for the formation of sotolon in wine involves oxygen. This explains the high sotolon content found in wine aged under oxidation conditions, e.g., vin jaune from the Jura, port, and vins doux naturels (French fortified wines). According to Cutzach10, sotolon concentrations are considerably higher in VDN bottles with defective corks (leaky bottles).

Dry white wines are traditionally protected from oxygen during the winemaking process. During barrel ageing, the presence of yeast lees and sulfur dioxide minimise the attenuation of varietal aromas, as well as preventing sotolon formation10. It is relatively common for the aromas of white wines aged in bottle to age abnormally rapidly and develop defects. According to several authors, the variability of this aromatic deterioration is due to considerable differences in permeability to oxygen among cork stoppers.

For all these reasons, we felt it was useful to monitor the involvement of oxidation phenomena in sotolon formation during the bottle ageing of dry white wines.

Forty bottles of dry white Pessac Léognan wine, from the same 1997 vintage and bottling batch, were analysed after seven years in bottle. The bottles were sealed with

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In this case, both variables are highly correlated (R² > 0.85).

This ageing is systematically accompanied by an increase in the yellow-brown colour (optical density at 420nm) of the white wine (Figure 6).

CONCLUSION A conventional GC-MS method was optimised to develop a sensitive method for analysing traces of sotolon in dry white wines. This technique was used to monitor the sotolon concentrations in several wines. We demonstrated that the sotolon content of these wines was much lower than that of other alcoholic beverages, i.e., fortified wines, port and sherry. These differences are due to the specific composition of dry white wines and the winemaking methods used (reducing conditions). We showed that barrel-ageing conditions had a significant impact on the formation of sotolon in dry white wines: higher concentrations were produced under conditions more conducive to oxidation. We also showed that the uncontrolled permeability to oxygen of cork stoppers during bottle-ageing had a significant effect on the formation of sotolon and the perception of oxidation flavours in dry white wines.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 Blank, I.; Sen, A. and Grosch, W. (1992) Potent odorants of the roasted power and brew of Arabica coffee. Z. Lebensm. Unters Forsh 195:239-245.

2 Kirchhoff, E. and Schieberle, P. (2001) Determination of key aroma compounds in the crumb of a three-stage sourdough rye bread by stable dilution assays and sensory studies. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49:4304-4311.

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OAK per fection

Fine Grain Barrels Since the beginning, Saury has operated on the basis that grain is the most important determinant of barrel quality. Today, the cooperage still applies this theory to each and every barrel, growing into a modern, efficient and quality focused cooperage while maintaining its status as a maker of the finest grain oak barrels in the world.

3 Girardon, P.; Sauvaire, Y.; Baccou, J.-C. and Bessière, J.-M. (1986) Identification de la 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone dans l’arôme des graines de fenugrec (Trigonella foenum graecum L.). Lebensm. -Wiss. u.-Technol. 19:44-46.

4 Kobayashi, A. (1989) Sotolon, identification, formation, and effect on flavor. In Flavor Chemistry trends and development, ACS Symposium: 388:49-59.

5 Guichard, E.; Pham, T. T. and Etievant, P. (1993) Quantitative determination of sotolon in wines by high-performance liquid chromatography. Chromatographia 37:539-541.

6 Silva Ferreira, A.C.; Barbe, J.C. and Bertrand, A. (2003) 3-Hydroxy-4,5dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone: A key odorant of the typical aroma of oxidative aged port wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:4356-4363.

7 Cutzach, I.; Chatonnet, P. and Dubourdieu, D. (1998) Rôle du sotolon dans l’arôme des vins doux naturels, influence des conditions d’élevage et de vieillissement. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 32(4):223-233.

8 Cutzach, I.; Chatonnet, P. and Dubourdieu, D. (2000) Influence of storage conditions on the formation of some volatiles compounds in white fortified wines (vins doux naturels) during the ageing process. J. Agric. Food Chem.

48:2340-2345.

9 Camara, J.S.; Marques, J.C.; Alves, M.A. and Silva Ferreira, A.C. (2004) 4,5-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone levels in fortified Madeira wines: Relationship to sugar content. J. Agric. Food Chem. 52:6765-6769.

10 Lavigne-Cruège, V. and Dubourdieu, D. (2002) Role of glutathione on development of aroma defects in dry white wines. In 13th International Enology Symposium, Trogus H.; Gafner J.; Sutterlin., Eds. International Association of Enology: Montpellier, France 331-347.

11 Silva Ferreira, A.C.; Hogg, T. and Guedes de Pinho, P. (2003) Identification of key odorants related to the typical aroma of oxidationspoiled white wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51:1377-1381.

12 Cutzach, I.; Chatonnet, P. and Dubourdieu, D. (1999) Study of the mechanisms of some volatile compounds during the ageing of sweet fortified wines. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47: 2837-2846.

13 Pham, T.T.; Guichard, E.; Schlich, P. and Charpentier, C. (1995) Optimal conditions for the formation of sotolon from alpha-ketobutyric acid in the french ‘Vin Jaune’ . J. Agric. Food Chem. 43:2616-2619.

14 Lavigne, V.; Pons, A.; Darriet, P. and Dubourdieu, D. (2008) Changes in the sotolon content of dry white wines during barrel and bottle ageing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56(8):2688-2693.

Salmon, J.M.; Fornaison, C. and Moutounet, M. (1999) Modification chimique des lies consécutive à l’apport d’oxygène pendant l’élevage des vins sur lies,. In Oenologie 99, 6eme Symposium International d’oenologie, WVJ Tec et Doc, Ed. 428-432.

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Concrete egg vats – are they all they’re cracked up to be?

M ore and more Australian winemakers seem to be adding concrete egg vats to their arsenal of toys. Based on similarshaped vessels used in Roman times, the vats are said to deliver improved fermentation kinetics and preserve fruit flavours and aromas during maturation without imparting wood or reductive characters of the more conventional oak and stainless steel alternatives. We asked three winemakers to comment on whether their concrete egg vats have lived up to their expectations.

James Becker Winemaker Oakvale Wines, Hunter Valley, New South Wales When did you first acquire a concrete egg tank?

Late 2011 What was the initial reason for getting one?

To see how Hunter Valley Semillon was affected by the concrete egg during the ageing process and how it would differ from the traditional bottled-aged style.

How many tanks do you currently own and what size are they?

We currently have two 600L Nomblot eggs, which we purchased through Philippe Morin at French Oak Cooperage Pty Ltd. Did you ‘prepare’ the tanks in any way prior to use?

The eggs were treated as recommended by the manufacturer with multiple tartaric acid washes.

What sort of wines have you put in the tanks and what were the desired and actual outcomes?

We made a 2012 Semillon with the goal of seeing how Semillon would age in a porous vessel like an egg versus the traditional bottle-aged Semillons that are so famous in the Hunter Valley. The results were really interesting, with the wines showing some aged complexity on the nose while maintaining youthful vibrancy on the palate. The outcome is a really intriguing wine.

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Oakvale Wines winemaker James Becker with the winery’s two 600L Nomblot eggs, which it acquired to see how Hunter Valley Semillon would be affected by the eggs during the ageing process compared with the traditional bottled-aged style.

Describe the way in which you have utilised the tanks?

For the 2012 Semillon we made a natural wine with no acid, yeast, sulfur or other winemaking tools added. The fruit was simply pressed to the egg and allowed to do its own thing for 12 months with fortnightly topping. The wine was hand bottled with no finings and minimal sulfur dioxide.

How would you describe the temperature fluctuations recorded during fermentation?

The fermentation temperature curve was slight. It didn’t require any cooling or warming.

Have you conducted any trials comparing the same wine in concrete tank and either wood or stainless steel? What did you conclude from these trials?

We made the same wine in a 2000L stainless tank which was bottled quickly and not given the same opportunity to mature.

Therefore, we weren’t able to compare results on a like for like basis.

Do you believe the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the wine?

Possibly. We witnessed the wine moving or stirring during maturation which would have helped increase mouthfeel and weight, but I’m unsure if the shape impacted minerality, structure, etc.

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Do you think the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the ferment, e.g., more continuous, less temperature fluctuation, less stirring?

Possibly, but I believe the smaller mass and the concrete materials used has a greater impact on the fermentation kinetics.

What drawbacks, if any, would you say there are with the tanks?

The price.

What are your future plans for use of the tanks?

At this point we are happy with the results from the Semillon and plan to continue using the eggs for making minimal intervention Semillons.

Would you recommend the tanks to colleagues and why?

Of course. They challenge a lot of ideas about winemaking techniques and wine styles.

Rebecca Duffy Winemaker/Manager Holm Oak Vineyards, Tamar Valley, Launceston, Tasmania When did you first acquire a concrete egg tank?

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What was the initial reason for getting one?

Fun. I like experimenting and trying new things, and I thought it could add to the quality of our Chardonnay and differentiate us from other Tasmanian wine producers.

How many tanks do you currently own and what size are they?

We have one 600L Nomblot egg which we bought through Philippe Morrin, of French Oak Cooperage.

Did you â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;prepareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; the tank in any way prior to use?

Yes, we treated it with tartaric acid as per the instructions, although it took me about three days to work up the courage to put anything in it!

What sort of wines have you put in the tanks and what were the desired and actual outcomes?

We bought the egg for Chardonnay.

However, we also fermented some of our Kabinett style Riesling in it this year because it came in about two-and-a-half weeks before the Chardonnay. Our desired outcome was a Chardonnay with enhanced mouthfeel and complexity. The actual

Holm Oak winemaker Rebecca Duffy.

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Describe the way in which you have utilised the tanks?

The Chardonnay is whole bunch pressed with a small addition of SO2 and no enzyme. The juice is allowed to settle overnight to settle out heavy solids before being racked to the egg for wild fermentation. No cooling is used at any stage and no yeast is added. Following fermentation we top the tank and top it about every six weeks or so if required.

In 2012 I stirred the egg once as the wine was looking a little flat and stale.

I’m not sure if I will stir it this year. I will not sulfur the wine over the winter and will wait until it warms up before deciding whether to put it through malo (last year the wine temperature was around 5°C during winter). I may inoculate with MLF bacteria if required.

Although Holm Oak’s 600L Nomblot egg did not arrive in time for the winery to ferment Chardonnay from the 2012 vintage in the tank, it was used for maturation for about eight months, producing a wine that was remarkably different to the same wine matured in-barrel with greater freshness, aromatics and good mid-palate richness and texture. outcome for the 2012 Chardonnay was a little different to this, as we were not able to ferment in the egg. Instead, we fermented in a 600L plastic tank and then transferred the wine to the egg when it arrived at the winery. The wine stayed in the egg for about eight months and was remarkably different to the Chardonnay matured in barrel (we fermented the same clone in an old oak barrel that we didn’t stir and a 300L Flextank). The egg-matured Chardonnay had, by far, the greatest freshness and aromatics and had a good mid-palate richness and texture, but lacked the acid

integration of the barrel fermented and matured wine. The clone of Chardonnay we used was clone 95, which was picked relatively early so had quite high acidity; the acidity in the egg-matured wine came across as a little hard. This year I have used a different clone (SAVI 5) and have been able to ferment in the egg, and it is likely that I will put the wine through malolactic fermentation (being in Tassie, this will not occur until spring). Already I am seeing characters more in line with my initial expectations.

How would you describe the temperature fluctuations recorded during fermentation?

The ferment temperature increased slowly to 20°C and then maintained this temperature for a few days before declining to around 15°C for the end of ferment, so it was a nice, steady and fairly even ferment.

Do you believe the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the wine?

I think there is definitely a minerality to the wines that the barrel ferments don’t have. I’ll have to wait to see the results of this year in regards to palate weight and structure. It also had the brightest and most clearly defined palate and excellent aromatics (and no reduction).

Do you think the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the ferment, e.g., more continuous, less temperature fluctuation, less stirring?

The wine fermented really well.

I didn’t stir it at all and it finished

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ferment without too many problems. I did stir the barrels towards the end of ferment as they were slowing a little.

The barrel ferments peaked at higher temperatures than the egg (about 4-5°C more). I’m assuming this is due to the circular shape, but really have no scientific evidence to prove this.

What are your future plans for use of the tanks?

We will continue using the egg for Chardonnay. I would love more eggs to use for different wines. I think Riesling and Pinot Gris would be great wines to ferment and mature in the egg, but the limiting factor is the cost.

Has your ability to conduct microoxygenation in the tanks rather than in barrel been a factor in your reasons for acquiring one?

No, I was more interested in the supposed lees stirring effect and the resulting effect on mouthfeel.

Would you recommend the tanks to colleagues?

Yes. They are lots of fun to play around with and it makes you smile when you walk past them in the winery; they look so cute! Also, they definitely add a different dimension to the wine.

With regard to maturation, how would you describe the results compared with barrels or stainless steel alternatives?

Better aromatics and more defined fruit flavours, good mid-palate texture, but less acid integration. It will be interesting to see the results of egg fermented and matured wine this year as opposed to just the matured wine last year.

Matt Atallah Winemaker Cumulus Wines, Orange, New South Wales

What drawbacks, if any, would you say there are with the tanks?

They are expensive.

When did you first acquire a concrete egg tank?

March 2009 What was the initial reason for getting one?

The winemaker back then had been to Burgundy and fallen in love with the egg for Chardonnay ferments.

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How many tanks do you currently own and what size are they?

One, it has a 600L capacity.

Did you ‘prepare’ the tank in any way prior to use?

Not that we’re aware of.

What sort of wines have you put in the tank and what were the desired and actual outcomes?

To date we have used the egg for Chardonnay ferment as a portion of our premium Chardonnay, the Cumulus Chardonnay. The desired outcomes were to have various parcels of Chardonnay with significant points of difference to blend into this product. It was used for Chardonnay in the 2010, 2011 and 2012 vintages.

It makes up about 15% of the total blend and adds a nice complexity to the wine. There were some issues with oxidation originally but a carefully managed SO 2 regime, much like that used in micro-oxygenation, has alleviated that.

This year, we carried out a little experiment and crushed 2013 Riesling straight into it, left it to naturally ferment, topped it every two weeks

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with tank fermented Riesling, and left it on skins. The aim is to ‘over blend’ with some small parcels of other whites we have treated ‘noconventionally’ – there is no desired outcome for this; it is simply a bit of winemaking playtime!

Describe the way in which you have utilised the tanks in the winemaking process?

For the 2010, 2011 and 2012 Chardonnays, the juice was racked off heavy solids into the egg, taking some of the light lees with it. For the 2013 Riesling trial, we crushed straight into the egg, skins and all, and it is all still sitting there, getting topped every couple of weeks.

Every ferment has been ‘wild’.

Post-ferment, the Chardonnays were kept on full solids and stirred a couple of times a week for complexity.

The wines did not undergo malolactic fermentation in 2011 or 2012, but a partial malo was used in 2010.

The egg is not cooled; it lives in our temperature-controlled underground barrel shed. No oak was added as we have a barrel component in this blend as well.

Cumulus winemaker Matt Atallah.

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How would you describe the temperature fluctuations recorded during fermentation?

Looking back at all of the ferment records for the egg, they all took around 12-18 days to go sugar dry, and the temperatures stayed between 20-22°C, so you could say that the temperature fluctuation was minimal, though it may have been different if the egg was in a different place in the winery.

It lives in our temperature-controlled underground barrel shed at a constant 18°C, so there is very little external pressure to heat up. As we do not inoculate with a commercial strain of yeast, the total cell count is probably lower so is not generating as much heat either.

Have you conducted any trials comparing the same wine in concrete tank and either wood or stainless steel?

No, but the same Chardonnay went into the egg and some barrels and we noticed that the parcel in the egg was more oxidised than the barrel parcel.

This is not really a problem, as long as you are aware of the chance of it occurring.

Do you think the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the ferment?

I don’t know if it is the shape, but I believe that the material is certainly less conductive than stainless steel and, therefore, we get less temperature fluctuation. Ferments don’t have an issue finishing, and we practise the same stirring regime as on the barrels.

Do you believe the circular shape of the tank has an effect on the character of the wine?

No, but all of my evidence is anecdotal.

Has your ability to conduct microoxygenation in the tanks rather than in barrel been a factor in your reasons for acquiring one?

No. We only use active micro– oxygenation in our bigger blends, and as for the passive mox in oak and the egg, once we finish lees stirring we keep our SO2 levels up and top fortnightly.

With regard to maturation, how would you describe the results compared

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with barrel or stainless steel alternatives?

Whites only so far and anecdotally more oxidative.

What drawbacks, if any, would you say there are with the tanks?

Emptying and cleaning is a chore, and the oxidation factor, but both are manageable.

What are your future plans for use of the tanks?

Play around with some more Chardonnay – full solids, and also see how the Riesling/savoury dry white experiment turns out. At this stage, there are no plans to acquire any more of the eggs.

Would you recommend the tanks to colleagues?

I don’t really have an opinion on this one. I like what the egg does and am keen to play a bit more, but it is an expensive tank to have and, if you compare the cost of the egg with how many new barrels you could buy…

Maybe I should trial with some oak alternatives? There are some good WVJ ones around.

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TA R T R AT E S TA B I L I T Y

Assessment of CMC-induced tartrate stability over 12 months

By Rodney Marsh1 and Sue Mills2 1 Managing Director, Winechek, Western Australia. Email: rodney@winechek.com 2 Business Manager, IMCD Australia

CMC (sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) was approved for use in winemaking in Australia in late 2011, but only limited overseas studies show its effectiveness in imparting tartrate stability in wine. This trial was constructed to assess the performance of CMC on white and red wines over an extended period of 12 months. Following publication of the preliminary findings of the trial in the November-December 2012 issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal, the authors now present the final 12-month findings.

The trial

Cold stability measurements were completed on two instruments: the Erbsloeh Krista-Test conductivity meter performing the Tsat potassium and calcium analyses and the Stabilab performing the DIT% and ISTC50 analysis1.

T

wo CMCs were provided by IMCD: a liquid from Erbsloeh (Vinostab 7.5% (liquid) and a granule product from Dow Chemicals (Dow C/S Wine 100% (granular).

Three dosage rates for each product were suggested by IMCD. For the Vinostab: 0.75mL/L, 1.0mL/L and 1.3mL/L. For the Dow C/S Wine: 0.05g/L, 0.075g/L and 0.1g/L. Two wines were selected: a 2011 Margaret River Sauvignon Blanc and a 2008 Western Australian Cabernet Merlot.

It was determined that each wine should be analysed as a control, and at each dosage rate prior to chilling, and at three, six and 12 months. Trial samples were stored at -4°C for the specified times.

White wine results See tables 1 and 2.

Conclusion At 12 months both the white and red wines treated with CMC remained tartrate stable. However, the colour precipitation caused by CMC would appear to preclude its use in red wine.

From this trial we can conclude that CMCs can successfully cold stabilise white wine for at least 12 months. However, the wine should not be too unstable initially as determined by the Stabilab DIT% test, as was shown in our initial selection of a Chardonnay that had a DIT% of 30.3 and subsequently proved unstable at three months, even with CMC addition2.

Analytical parameters like pH and TA were not affected, as is the case with some other cold stabilisation techniques.

Alcohol, residual sugar, volatile acidity and turbidity also remained unaffected.

Methodology A Metrohm autotitrator was used to carry out pH and total acidity analyses.

Alcohol analysis was completed by near infrared on an Anton Paar alcolyser.

Glucose and fructose and acetic acid were measured by enzymatic analysis.

Turbidity measurements were made on a Hach 2100P turbidimeter.

As noted by Janice McDonald, senior winemaker for Western Australian winery Burch Family Wines: “We did taste the wines and did not detect any differences in appearance, aroma and taste in the wine treated with CMC and the control”.

Apart from the known constraint of CMC - namely that it can cause filterability issues for 48 hours after addition, which obviously needs to be taken into consideration when organising bottling schedules - we have observed several other effects that need to be considered when deciding to use CMCs. First, the preparation issues associated with the dry or granular forms of CMC may cause issues in wineries, as high shear forces (very vigorous stirring) are required to dissolve the CMC. Liquid forms of CMC are easier to handle in large quantities.

Secondly, young white wines maybe too unstable for CMC use. So, an analysis like the Stabilab DIT% test needs to be performed to assess wine stability and the potential usefulness of CMC to achieve stability. White wines with Tsat potassium values of 15-16 will have a better chance of stability with CMC. Thirdly, CMC’s ability to precipitate colour would seem to make it unsuitable for use in red wine. This also makes questionable CMCs usefulness in tartrate stabilising rosé.

It may be prudent to do a bench trial to assess colour precipitation in rosés prior to use.

Table 1. Initial results of the white wine trial.

BLEND

2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB

36

BATCH

pH

TA g/L

RS g/L

ALC %v/v

VA g/L

Turbidity NTU

CONTROL VS 0.75mL/L VS 1.0mL/L VS 1.3mL/L DCS 0.05g/L DCS 0.075g/L DCS 0.1g/L

3.23 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25

6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7

1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0

13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8

0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.21

0.44 0.38 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.40 0.38

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Tsat K

Tsat Ca

15.8

23.3

W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

COLD Stabilab ISTC50 @-4C

ISTC50 uS change @-4C

unstable stable stable stable stable stable stable

17 1 3 1 2 1 1

Tartrate Stability DIT% 11.9

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Table 2. Final results of the white wine trial.

BLEND 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB 2011 RISB

BATCH

pH

TA g/L

RS g/L

ALC %v/v

VA g/L

Turbidity NTU

CONTROL VS 0.75mL/L VS 1.0mL/L VS 1.3mL/L DCS 0.05g/L DCS 0.075g/L DCS 0.1g/L

3.21 3.24 3.24 3.24 3.24 3.24 3.24

6.7 6.7 6.8 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.7

1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2

13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8

0.25 0.25 0.24 0.25 0.24 0.24 0.25

1.36 1.04 1.02 1.12 0.93 0.88 1.78

COLD Stabilab ISTC50 @-4C

ISTC50 uS change @-4C

stable stable stable stable stable stable

1 1 1 0 0 1

Note the minimal changes in pH, total acidity, residual sugar, alcohol, volatile acidity and turbidity.

General observations At Winechek, we have been working with CMC products from various sources for about two years. Over this period we have experienced many successes and a few failures with regard to CMC use. Relating the causes of the failures would be of use to the industry.

Most of the problems with CMC use come from trying to ‘bend the rules’ of the manufacturers’ instructions, such as: • last minute additions of grape juice concentrate; amounts equivalent to 1g/L residual sugar have caused issues • trying to reduce costs by performing trials and using less CMC than the manufacturers’ specifications

• CMC addition to wine prior to course filtration and inline filtration to bottle; this was undertaken in an attempt to reduce wine loss in a small batch of wine • not checking if the wine is too unstable before CMC use • acid additions, particularly tartaric acid, just prior to bottling.

Another issue we have found is that deacidification, which is known to cause major changes in tartrate stability, can continue to cause effects for more than a week, if not more. This can mean that a wine could be de-acidified, a few days later have CMC added, the next day be tested and appear stable and, then, a week or months later become unstable. This is something to be seriously considered and planned

for when wishing to use CMC for tartrate stabilisation.

Acknowledgements Thank you to Burch Family Wines for the donation of wine for this trial, and to Janice McDonald and the winemaking team for their organoleptic opinion.

References 1 Marsh, R. (2010) Stabilab™ - the new standard in tartrate stability testing. Australian & New Zealand Grapegrower & Winemaker 558:80-84.

2 Marsh, R. and Mills, S. (2012) Assessment of CMCinduced tartrate stability over an extended period. Wine & Viticulture Journal 27(6):48-51.

Erbsloeh EasyKrista test operating instructions.

3

WVJ

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A W R I

What’s in a label?

How science is helping winemakers to respond to new EU rules concerning allergens in wine

By Leanne Hoxey, Creina Stockley*, Eric Wilkes and Dan Johnson *Corresponding author. Email: creina.stockley@awri.com.au The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia

Mangaging director Dan Johnson

On 1 July 2012, new rules came into force regarding the labelling of potential allergens in wine exported to the European Union. The AWRI developed and validated a test for milk and egg residues to allow Australian producers to measure the levels of allergens in their wines and give consumers and policymakers continued confidence in Australian wine. Through national and international collaborations, work is also under way to ensure that testing is equally robust overseas.

The new rules

F

rom 1 July 2012, all wine entering the European Union (EU) became subject to EU laws regarding the labelling of allergens. These allergens include compounds found in milk and egg, which is relevant to winemakers given that both ingredients can be used as fining agents. The rules apply even though there is no evidence of life-threatening adverse reactions when consumers with allergies to milk or egg consume wine that has been processed using those compounds.

Until last July, wines entering the EU had been given an exemption from the rules.

This ‘derogation’ had been extended twice to

AT A GLANCE • EU laws on the inclusion of milk and egg allergens on wine package labels have applied to all wines imported into the EU from 1 July 2012 • If tests for egg and milk residues return a negative result, then allergen labels are not required – but only certain tests can be used • AWRI Commercial Services has worked with an Australian manufacturer to develop and validate tests that deliver reliable results that meet EU specifications • Today, Australian wine producers are in a stronger position to comply with EU rules. Work is also under way to ensure a level playing field through the adoption of best practice guidelines and protocols.

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give wine researchers more time to gather data. Studies have now analysed egg- and milk-fined wines in detail; they have also assessed whether there is any risk of adverse reactions among consumers who are allergic to egg or milk.

Based on the evidence collected, the Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV) – the intergovernmental organisation concerned with the technical and scientific aspects of winemaking – made two submissions to the European Commission (EC) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) asking for a permanent derogation.

The OIV argued that allergen labelling for milk and egg products was not necessary for wine, since research had shown no adverse reactions among consumers with confirmed allergies to egg or milk.

Those consumers comprised 0.5-1.0 percent of the population, and hospital W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

emergency department data had shown that anaphylactic reactions to egg and milk products were extremely rare. However, the OIV’s submissions requesting a permanent derogation for wine were unsuccessful.

When labels are not required The good news for Australian wine producers is that allergen labelling is not required for wines exported to the EU if residues of milk and egg remain below certain prescribed levels.

The OIV Resolution OIV-OENO 4272010 for the methods of quantification of potentially allergenic residues of fining agent proteins in wine as written into EU law, means that no labelling is required if egg- or milk-fined wine has tested negative for egg and milk residues using an analysis technique with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.25mg/L. The suggested threshold for adverse reactions to pure egg white V28N4

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and milk is generally much higher: approximately 1-2mg/L. This resolution followed research by the OIV taskforce on allergens: a collaboration including a researcher from the AWRI and representatives from France, Germany and Italy. The role of the taskforce continues: it has coordinated additional research to gain a better understanding of residual protein in egg- and milk-fined wine and its significance for human health.

It is significant that taskforce studies have shown that no residues of ovalbumin (from egg) were detected in the wines they tested, which were made in accordance with good manufacturing practices, such as postfining and filtration. Those wines had been treated with egg- or milk-fining agents.

Similar results were obtained in different commercially-available white, red and rosé wines. This was regardless of the wine’s physical or chemical characteristics, and the type and dosage of fining agent used.

Finding the right test In order to ensure that Australian winemakers and consumers can have confidence in the data supplied, the AWRI set out to find a reliable test (or assay) for the detection of egg and milk residues.

Work intensified in 2010 when the AWRI recognised the need for industry to test for egg and milk. Initially, the information was required to satisfy certain vegan markets. It was also necessary for exporters to Canada to comply with guidelines from the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, which imposed an LOD for egg/milk residue of < 1.0ppm (note that mg/L and ppm are used as equivalent units in this article).

After consultation with several assay suppliers, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (manufactured by the Australian company ELISA Systems) were chosen to provide this analytical capability to industry.

At first, the assay was used as a qualitative screening test, with the capacity to develop the assay further to provide quantitative data. Two ELISA systems kits were chosen: Casein Residue ESCASPRD-48 and Enhanced Egg Residue ESEGG – 48. Casein is the protein most commonly associated with milk allergy.

Qualitative results From February 2011, AWRI Commercial Services began offering the qualitative ELISA assay to detect the presence or absence of casein and egg residues in wine.

Over a 15-month period, 74 samples from across Australia (including five from New Zealand) were submitted for casein residue screening, and 56 samples from across Australia (including five from New Zealand) were submitted for egg residue screening.

Only one sample returned a positive result for milk residue (being > LOD of 1.0ppm). This was found in a juice sample that received a milk addition of 707ppm.

A total of six samples returned a positive result for egg residue (being > LOD of 1.0ppm); in these cases the fining regime was not known.

Assay validation and development To meet the requirements of Australian wine producers and exporters, the AWRI worked closely with the assay manufacturer to further validate and develop the testing kits.

In 2012, the OIV agreed on an LOD for allergen assays of 0.25ppm and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.5ppm for both casein and egg white. In response to this – and its impact on labelling and testing – the AWRI started work to validate ELISA assays at the required LOD and LOQ levels.

Since there was debate regarding which residue component the limits applied to

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Table 1.

Casein Residue ESCASPRD-48

LOD

Enhanced Egg Residue ESEGG – 48

LOD

Skim milk powder

0.108ppm

Egg powder

0.268ppm

Total milk protein

0.035ppm

Total egg white protein

0.075ppm

Casein

0.028ppm

Ovalbumin

0.037ppm

LOQ

Enhanced Egg Residue ESEGG – 48

LOQ

Skim milk powder

1.0ppm

Egg powder

0.9ppm

Total milk protein

0.32ppm

Total egg white protein

0.25ppm

Casein

0.26ppm

Ovalbumin

0.13ppm

Table 2.

Casein Residue ESCASPRD-48

Table 3.

Positive total egg white protein residue breakdown Sample type

Egg result ppm

Fining addition

Winery processing

2011 Cabernet Sauvignon

1.04

75ppm egg white

Centrifuged only

2011 Cabernet/Shiraz/Merlot

2.72

0.9ppm egg albumin

Racked only

Unknown

1.05

Unknown

Coarse racking only

Table 4.

Negative total milk protein residue breakdown Sample type

Fining addition

Winery processing

< 1ppm – 30ppm milk Wine

< 1ppm – 200ppm casein 16ppm – 300ppm skim milk powder

Various wine processing (settling/racking/ centrifuging) followed by filtration

No additions made (10 wines) Juice (‘milk products’ or ‘casein’; ‘egg products’ or ‘ovalbumin’ or ‘ovomucoid’), the AWRI met with ELISA Systems and the parties agreed to refine the interpretation of data generated using the kits.

The milk residue kit was adapted to report ‘total milk protein’, rather than ‘casein’. The egg residue kit was adapted to report ‘total egg white protein’, rather than ‘ovomucoid’. Both kits were then validated using skim milk powder and egg powder.

LODs were determined by averaging a large number of blank replicates across numerous assays, then adding three times (3x) the standard deviation (SD), (See Table 1).

The uncertainty of measurement (UOM) was calculated from the data of seven replicates from several different assays on different days. From this, it was estimated that the uncertainty of measurement at two times (2x) SD was equal to ± 0.1ppm for both kits.

40

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200 – 350ppm milk The LOQ was then determined by spiking wines in triplicate at various levels over several assays, and assessing the lowest level at which the UOM of 0.1ppm could be met (see Table 2).

In summary, the qualitative assay met the OIV specifications of a LOD of 0.25ppm and a LOQ of 0.5ppm for both ELISA kits.

Outcomes for industry From June 2012 to May 2013, further details were obtained from wineries to evaluate the impact of fining regimes and processing techniques. Of the 521 samples submitted for allergen testing in that period, processing details were obtained in 90 cases. The results are summarised below.

Egg residue Of the 521 samples submitted, 394 samples were tested only for total W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

Milk added to juice, then centrifuged to ferment egg white protein residue. Of these, 20 samples (5%) returned positive results (> LOQ of 0.25ppm) ranging from 0.27-3.73ppm. The samples came predominantly from red wines. Table 3 summarises the fining regime and processing techniques used in three of the wines that tested positive. This suggests that filtration (or lack of it) may affect the result.

There were 374 samples that returned a negative result (< 0.25ppm). In these cases, fining regime details were provided for 37 wines; of which 35 wines had egg added. Two of the wines had no egg added at all and were tested to confirm its absence. Significantly, none of the 35 wines that were filtered (using various standard winery protocols after egg fining) returned a positive result.

Milk residue All samples (521) were tested for V28N4

A W R I

total milk protein residue, with just three (0.6%) returning positive results (> LOQ of 0.25ppm ranging from 0.27ppm – > 5ppm). Unfortunately, no information was provided about the fining regimes in these three samples.

Of the 518 samples that returned a negative result, fining regimes were provided for 59 wines and 14 ferment samples that had milk added (Table 4).

Of those wines where processing information was available, 10 had no milk added and were tested to confirm its absence. None of the other 49 wines that were filtered (using various standard winery protocols) after milk fining returned a positive result.

This research showed that filtered wines did not return a positive result (> 0.25ppm) for either egg or milk.

Furthermore, there were no false positive results returned for the 12 samples that were listed as being processed without adding egg or milk.

Towards a level playing field Further research has revealed that manufacturing, processing and filtration techniques can affect on the

way that allergen-testing results are interpreted and extrapolated.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has stated that there is no standard or uniform winemaking practice, no code of good manufacturing practice, and there are no best practice guidelines. EFSA has also noted that microfiltration and bentonite treatment are not mandatory steps and that this may significantly affect fining agent residues.

As a result, the OIV has established a set of ‘good fining practice guidelines’.

These apply to egg- and milk-fined wine and may soon be adopted into EU law. The OIV has summarised the key issues in a working document (available at http:// www.oiv.int/oiv/info/enguidesoiv) and, although it is not yet official, it serves as a useful resource for winemakers. It covers the definition of good manufacturing and fining practices, criteria for analysis methods, and the scientific background.

This working document can also be used to work towards harmonisation of international legislation.

In the short term, members of the OIV taskforce are working collaboratively with industry and test manufacturers to

conduct further studies. Through a ‘ring test’ involving 10 overseas laboratories, two commercially-available testing kits and wine producers, further data will be generated to supply even greater certainty to laboratories, as well as wine exporters regarding the reliability of test results.

The study will give confidence to regulatory authorities in the EU, Canada, Australia and New Zealand that the legislation is valid and that consumers are not at risk. The samples under study will have a full winemaking history. The study will also comply with the OIV’s new guidelines regarding microfiltration and bentonite treatment.

The study will continue work at the AWRI, in collaboration with its partners, to ensure that research informs appropriate decision making, contributing constructively to debate, protecting consumers and ensuring fairness for Australian wine producers.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge Sharon Mascall and Rae Blair for their editorial assistance.

WVJ

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viticultur e

t o n y

h o ar e

Making every drop count â&#x20AC;&#x201C; advancements in water budgeting tools

By Tony Hoare

Hoare Consulting, PO Box 1106, McLaren Flat 5171 South Australia. Email: tony@hoareconsulting.com.au

T

he increasing cost of irrigation water in many regions across Australia has led many irrigators to make every drop count. Water costs in some regions are as high as $3000 per megalitre and power costs to move water keep increasing. Irrigation budgeting and optimising water use efficiency are paramount to maximising profitability.

What are some of the tools available to growers to assist them in water budgeting?

The decisions faced by irrigators are complicated. They are best illustrated by Figure 1. Australian winegrape growers are among the most efficient water users in the agricultural world. The natural cycle of floods and drought create a constantly changing situation for irrigators to adapt and mitigate to secure their crop specifications. Added to this is the increasing incidence of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;extremeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; weather events, such as heatwaves and unseasonal rainfall. Irrigation is also a powerful management tool that allows growers to directly manipulate winegrape yield and quality through controlled strategies such as regulated deficit irrigation, sustained

42

www.w i n eb i z .c om.au

deficit irrigation and partial rootzone drying. The continued rise in the cost of irrigation water, its storage and energy costs to deliver that water mean that water use efficiency can be the difference between making a profit or loss at the end of a season. The start of improved irrigation water use efficiencies begins with a water budget.

Water budgeting Water budgeting is simply balancing the outputs of water lost from plants through evapotranspiration (ETo) and readily available water to the plant via the soil through its roots from rainfall and irrigation. If there is a deficit of water available, the plant will become stressed and not able to function at maximum efficiency. Excessive water application and water logging can also have the same negative effects on plant growth as a water deficit.

Calculating a water budget relies on seasonal rainfall information (mm), ETo information, an understanding of the soil, irrigation system, water source and the

W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

crop to be irrigated. A code of practice for optimal irrigation of winegrapes and a reference guide is currently being developed. In the meantime, a free water budgeting tool is available online from SA Rural Solutions at http://solutions.pir. sa.gov.au/markets/water_management Irrigation Recording and Evaluation System The Irrigation Recording and Evaluation System (IRES) has been developed by South Australian irrigation researchers as a tool to allow irrigators of winegrapes and other crops to improve their water use efficiency. IRES is a software program that allows growers to input irrigation system information, such as weather, soil moisture and crop factors to assess the irrigation efficiency as an input cost and return on investment.

Riverland grower Bill Ruediger has used IRES to help reduce his water use by almost 33% without any reduction in yield or fruit quality. He has also used IRES to

continued on page 44.

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Figure 1. Cultural and environmental factors influencing best practice irrigation. Source: Tony Hoare 2013.

Predicting plant stress with greater accuracy - a new perspective on crop coefficients Manager of research and development and co-founder at Sentek Sensor technologies, Peter Buss, has long been at the forefront of technological development of effective soil moisture monitoring equipment and software. Buss has identified a deficiency in traditional irrigation budgeting information. Irrigators have traditionally relied on crop coefficient (Kc) figures available for specific crops. Crop coefficients are developed under experimental conditions and in specific regions without the influence of external factors affecting plant growth, such as the onset of plant water stress. The evapotranspiration stress index (ETSI) was developed by Buss, which now allows irrigators to have accurate information to predict the onset of plant stress before it causes economic damage to their crops.

ETSI, the ratio of daily evapotranspiration (ETo) and daily soil water change (corrected volumetric daytime negative charge (VDTNC)) can serve as an important indicator of the onset of crop water stress. Daily calibrated soil water change and its relation to ETo are providing new insights into real crop water use under numerous and ever-changing influencing factors relating to climatic and soil water change. This data will assist in the development of more accurate Kc factors, incorporating: • variety and environment-specific crop physiology development • regional changing climatic conditions • abiotic and biotic crop stress conditions • soil and agronomic management conditions.

The benefit of Buss’s discovery is that irrigators can now have more meaningful information about their specific crop to assist in making decisions about applying the correct amount of irrigation at the optimal time of plant growth. In essence, it allows the plant to communicate its moisture status to the irrigator.

Buss has developed the Irrimax software version 9.1.2, which supports Enviroscan probes to incorporate ETSI. A test version is available as a free download at http://www.sentek.com.au/downloads/startdownload.asp

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free up one day per week in time that was previously used to maintain the irrigation system. IRES has given Ruediger the confidence to change irrigation practices from overhead to under-tree, to a limited area under-tree to micro-jet and, finally, dripper irrigation. IRES allowed Ruediger to reallocate water resources to use water more wisely and reduce his operating costs from pumping water inefficiently.

The only investment was in his time to input information into the IRES program. According to Ruediger, it was a very worthwhile investment.

IRES is available at no cost. For trial access to IRES, simply download the program from ftp://central.pir.sa.gov.au/Iresfiles and contact Denis Sparrow (denissparrow@sa.gov.au) to organise an unlock code to operate the program.

Australian Government’s On-Farm Irrigation Efficiency Program The Federal Government recently made $450 million available with the release of the Murray-Darling Basin Plan to assist irrigators in improving water use efficiency.

Irrigators have benefitted from $350 million to date over two funding rounds. There is one final round to be announced, where irrigators can apply for funding from the remaining $100 million available. According to a delivery partner, 95% of the funding has been invested with irrigators on the ground for projects such as conversion from sprinkler to drip irrigation, installation of soil moisture monitoring equipment and replacement of inefficient irrigation equipment, such as drippers past their use-by date.

To assess your eligibility and apply for funding, visit www.environment.gov.au/water/programs/srwui/on-farm-3.html In general Making every drop count is becoming easier for winegrape growers with other advancements in technology. Radio-controlled valves, irrigation controllers and soil moisture probes connected to smartphones allow growers the ability to access information and control irrigations in the palm of their hands.

Additional information from electromagnetic soil surveys, plant cell density mapping, sap flow meters, pressure bombs, portable near infrared spectrophotometers and SoluSamplers can assist in making decisions about when and how much to irrigate in your water budget. WVJ

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V28N4

I R R I G A T I ON

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Variation amongst rootstocks in the tolerance of grafted Chardonnay vines to lethal water-stress

By Rob M. Stevens1*, Tim Pitt2, Mark Skewes2, Joanne M. Pech1 and Phil R. Nicholas1 1 Former employees of the South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI/PIRSA) 2 Present employees of SARDI/PIRSA *Corresponding author. Email: rmstevens.water@gmail.com

Research conducted by SARDI scientists in a fully irrigated Riverland vineyard planted to Chardonnay that had been grafted onto a range of rootstocks has assessed the response of the vines to the cessation of irrigation. Measurements of soil water content and salinity, stem weight and the number of flower clusters made while the vineyard was in receipt of full irrigation were compared with those made two years after irrigation stopped. This article explains the project’s main findings.

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pecies used in the breeding of grapevine rootstocks originate from a wide range of habitats with different edaphic and climatic characteristics (Padgett-Johnson et al. 2003). Evolution under more arid conditions should have favoured the development of drought tolerance. How can this tolerance be identified?

Variation amongst stocks in the tolerance of grafted vines to cessation of irrigation in a supplementary irrigation area Figure 1 shows the results from one of two studies in supplementary irrigated vineyards during the 1990s that showed some rootstocks commonly in use within Australia were more tolerant of drought than others (Cirami et al. 1994, McCarthy et al. 1997). Stopping supplementary irrigation imposed a drought stress, which reduced the

yields of grafted Shiraz vines by 50% on average over four seasons. If all rootstocks responded in the same way to stopping irrigation, that is, showed average behaviour, then we would expect that the yield under no irrigation would be 50% of the respective yield under irrigation (this is shown as the dotted line in Figure 1). For example, the yield of vines on Ramsey rootstock was 8.3kg/vine with irrigation.

3 6 2 7 Q M_ A d _ 1 3 0 x 9 0 G G W 1 2 0 1 3 - 0 5 - 2 2 T The expected yield without irrigation would have been 50%,

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Figure 1. The effect of rootstock on the yields of grafted Shiraz vines with and without supplementary irrigation, and the values expected if all rootstocks responded similarly to cessation of irrigation. Redrawn from McCarthy et al.

(1997). Supplementary irrigation , no irrigation  and expected values .

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investigating the response of vines grafted to a range of rootstocks to a complete absence of irrigation for two seasons.

Variation amongst stocks in the tolerance of grafted vines to stopping irrigation in a full irrigation area

Figure 2. The effect of rootstock on the yields of grafted Cabernet Sauvignon vines irrigated at 100% and 25% of crop water requirement, and the values expected if all rootstocks responded similarly to irrigation at 25%. Redrawn from Williams (2010). 100% irrigation , 25% irrigation ď Ž and expected values . or 4.1kg/vine, which is similar to the actual yield of 4.3kg/vine. Ramsey showed average behaviour. Shiraz vines on 99 Richter, 140 Ruggeri and own roots yielded above the expected values, while those on 110 Richter, K51-40 and Freedom yielded below the expected values. The group yielding above expectations were more tolerant of drought, relative to other rootstocks in this trial, and the group yielding below were less so.

The tolerance of vines on Ramsey and 1103 Paulsen lay mid-way between these two groups.

Lack of variation amongst stocks in the tolerance of grafted vines to reducing irrigation in a full irrigation area Subsequent studies with grafted vines located in full irrigation regions found no variation amongst rootstocks in drought tolerance. In Australia, vines grafted to a range of rootstocks displayed equal tolerance to reductions in irrigation of up to 35%, which caused up to a 30% reduction in yield (Stevens et al . 2008, Stevens et al . 2010). Likewise, in America, grafted vines displayed equal tolerance to reductions in irrigation of up to 75%, which caused up to a 32%

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reduction in yield over five seasons (Williams 2010). That is, the yield was 68% of that under full irrigation and, if all rootstocks responded in the same way to reduced irrigation, then the expected yield would equate to the respective yield under full irrigation multiplied by 68%. Figure 2 shows that the actual yields were very close to the expected yields (compare red and dotted lines). All rootstocks responded similarly to reduced irrigation and, therefore, the rootstocks exhibited similar tolerance relative to one another.

It is likely that the vines investigated in studies located in the full irrigation areas (where irrigation supplies all or most of the vines' water requirements) were less stressed than those in the supplementary irrigation areas. In the former, reducing irrigation caused a maximum average yield decline of 32% (Williams 2010), whereas in the latter, stopping irrigation caused a 50% decline (McCarthy et al . 1997).

Would rootstocks display a variation in drought tolerance in a full irrigation area if the reduction in irrigation was sufficient to cause a yield decline of 50% or more? We sought to answer this question in a full irrigation region - the Riverland, in South Australia - by W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

The fortunes of the Chardonnay vineyard in which Stevens et al . (2008) had investigated the tolerance of grafted vines to reduced irrigation during the early 2000s took a turn for the worse at the end of October 2008. No buyer could be found for the crop and the owner stopped irrigating except for one 30mm irrigation applied in September 2010 to wet soil in order to ease removal of the trellis posts.

In the growing seasons between November 2008 and October 2010, the depth of effective rain was 230mm.

In this area, the seasonal water requirements of a well-watered vine are about 780mm. Rainfall met just 15% of this. In late October 2010, just prior to removal of the vines, we measured the following parameters: soil water content and salinity; depth to water table; mass of the current seasonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s shoot growth; and number of flower clusters. A detailed description of these measures is given in Stevens et al . (2011). The weight of stems (the one-year-old wood, had vines survived until pruning) was equated to 37% of shoot weight (Treeby and Wheatley 2006).

We assessed whether stopping irrigation had changed rootstock performance relative to that under full irrigation by comparing measurements taken in 2010 with the most recent previous measurements from the same trial taken while it received full irrigation. In 2003, these were: the number of flower clusters, soil salinity, water content and depth to water table; and in 2004, stem weight (the weight of one-year old wood taken at pruning following the close of the season). These measures were taken during the study of Stevens et al . (2008).

Stopping irrigation for two years reduced the percentage of plant available water at the end of October from 95% to 8% (Table 1). In some areas, vines can obtain a significant amount of their water requirements from shallow watertables (McFadyen and Grieve 2012). The watertable at the site was deep. In 2010, the depth was greater than 5.1m and it is unlikely that the vines obtained any V28N4

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Figure 3. The effect of rootstock on the number of inflorescences on grafted Chardonnay vines under full irrigation in 2003 and in 2010 after no irrigation for two years, and the values expected if all rootstocks responded similarly to no irrigation. Data for full irrigation from Stevens et al. (2008). Full irrigation , no irrigation ď Ž and expected values .

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water from it (Table 1). While stopping irrigation had left little available soil water, it had not caused a build-up of soil salt. Soil salinity in 2010 was similar to that under full irrigation and both values indicate the soil was nonsaline (Table 1).

The effect of two seasons of no irrigation on canopy growth is illustrated in Table 2 (see page 49).

The pictures are indicative of the average canopy growth. No shoots were present on vines grafted onto K51-40 in three plots and on vines grafted onto 1103 Paulsen in two plots.

Two years without irrigation appeared to have been lethal for these vines.

Shoot mass and the number of flower clusters were scored as zero for these plots.

In 2004, the weights of stems from vines grafted to Ramsey, 140 Ruggeri, 1103 Paulsen and K51-40 were equivalent and greater than those from vines grafted to 110 Richter (Table 2, see page 49). Stopping irrigation for two seasons and harvesting stems before the end of the growing season caused the weight of stems to decline by 57% on average.

In 2010, the stems from vines grafted to Ramsey weighed more than those

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Table 1. The values of plant available water (%PAW) in the top 1.2m of soil, of average soil salinity (ECe, dS/m) in the top 1m of soil and depth (m) to water table, under full irrigation and after two season without irrigation.

Full irrigation†

No irrigation for two years‡

%PAW

95%

8%

Soil salinity

1.0

1.2

Depth to water table

3.2

>5.1§

†Data from Stevens et al. (2008); values of %PAW and watertable depth recorded at end of October in 2003, values of soil salinity were the average of data from samples taken at the opening and end of the 2003 season. ‡ All values recorded at the end of October 2010. §test well casing depth was 5.1m.

from vines grafted to 1103 Paulsen and K51-40, and stems from vines grafted to 140 Ruggeri and 110 Richter more than those from vines grafted to K51-40 (Table 2, see page 49).

In 2003, rootstock had no effect on the number of flower clusters per vine (Table 2). Stopping irrigation for two seasons caused the number to decline by 90% on average.

In 2010, vines on Ramsey and 110 Richter had more flower clusters than those on 1103 Paulsen and K51-40 (Table 2). The data is also plotted following the convention used in Figures 1 and 2 to give a visual appreciation of the effect that no irrigation had on the relative performance of rootstocks (Figure 3). Had all rootstocks responded similarly to no irrigation, then the expected number of flower clusters would equate to the respective number under full irrigation multiplied by 10% (shown as the broken line). The number of flower clusters from vines on 110 Richter and Ramsey were above the expected values, and those on K51-40 and 1103 Paulsen were below. Flower cluster numbers above expectations indicate that the former group were more tolerant of drought relative to other rootstocks in this trial, while the numbers below that show the latter group were less tolerant. The tolerance of vines on 140 Ruggeri lay mid-way between these two groups.

This study, and that of Sommer et al . (2010), show that rootstocks are a significant source of variation in the tolerance of grafted vines to stopping irrigation in the full irrigation areas.

In the largest full irrigation area in Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin, the government authority managing water resources has foreshadowed a redistribution of the resource in the lower reaches with about 26% of the water currently used by agriculture being moved to the provision of environmental services (MDBA 2010). To address this change, information is required about rootstocks that tolerate stress at this level of irrigation cutback. The present study and Stevens et al . (2008) show for a group of five rootstocks that those which displayed drought tolerance with no irrigation (a commercially unviable option) gave no advantage when irrigation was reduced by 35% (commercial viability may be possible). It is unclear whether there are other stocks that could tolerate reduced irrigation. Field trials are expensive. Soar et al . (2006) proposed that instantaneous measures that demonstrate the vine’s capacity to sustain leaf gas exchange and maintain higher leaf water potentials during soil drought

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can be used as indicators of drought tolerance. This approach offers a much less expensive method to assess many rootstocks. If studies using instantaneous measures of vine water status are to meet the challenge posed by irrigation cutbacks, then they will have to distinguish the indicators of tolerance to stress at levels where the vineyard remains commercially viable from indicators of tolerance to stress at levels where the vineyard becomes commercially unviable.

Conclusion Based on the responses of stem weight and flower cluster number, we conclude that, in a full irrigation area, rootstocks are a source of variation in the tolerance of grafted Chardonnay vines to no irrigation. In this study, vines on either Ramsey or 110 Richter rootstocks were more tolerant to no irrigation for two years than those on either K51-40 or 1103 Paulsen.

The project received financial support from grapegrower and winemaker levies and the Australian Government through the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC).

References Cirami, R.; Radford, R. and Furkaliev, J. (1994) Summer drought and vine rootstocks. Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker 366a:145.

McCarthy, M.G.; Cirami, R.M. and Furkaliev, D.G. (1997) Rootstock response of Shiraz ( Vitis vinifera ) grapevines to dry and drip-irrigated conditions. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 3:95-98.

McFadyen, L. and Grieve, A.M. (2012) Effects of irrigation management and watertable depth on growth and yield of field-grown Sultana grapevines in south eastern Australia. Agricultural Water Management 111:20-26. doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2012.04.009.

Murray-Darling Basin Authority (2010) Guide to the proposed Basin Plan: Technical background. (Murray-Darling Basin Authority: Canberra, Australia).

Padgett-Johnson, M.; Williams, L.E. and Walker, M.A. (2003) Vine water relations, gas exchange, and vegetative growth of seventeen Vitis species grown under irrigated and nonirrigated conditions in California. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 128:269-276.

Soar, C.J.; Dry, P.R. and Loveys, B.R. (2006) Scion photosynthesis and leaf gas exchange in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz: Mediation of rootstock effects via xylem sap ABA. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 12:82-96.

Sommer, K.J.; Hancock, F. and Downey, M.O. (2010) Resilience of sultana ( Vitis Vinifera ) to drought and subsequent recovery: field evaluation of nine rootstock scion combinations. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture 31:181-185.

Stevens, R.M.; Pech, J.M.; Gibberd, M.R.; Walker, R.R.; Jones, J.A.; Taylor, J. and Nicholas, P.R. (2008) Effect of reduced irrigation on growth, yield, ripening rates and water relations of Chardonnay vines grafted to five rootstocks. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 14:177-190. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-0238.2008.00018.x.

Stevens, R.M.; Pech, J.M.; Gibberd, M.R.; Walker, R.R. and Nicholas, P.R. (2010) Reduced irrigation and rootstock effects on vegetative growth, yield and its components, and leaf physiological responses of Shiraz. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 16:413-425.

Stevens, R.M.; Pitt, T.R.; Dyson, C.; Pech, J.M. and Skewes, M. (2011) Salt tolerant rootstocks for long-term sustainability in the Limestone Coast.

Final report to the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation.

Project number: SAR 09/03. http://www.gwrdc.com.au/completed_projects/ salt-tolerant-rootstocks-for-long-term-sustainability-in-the-limestonecoast/ [accessed 12 March 2013].

Treeby, M.T. and Wheatley, D.M. (2006) Effect of nitrogen fertiliser on nitrogen partitioning and pool sizes in irrigated Sultana grapevines.

Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46:1207-1215.

Williams, L.E. (2010) Interaction of rootstock and applied water amounts at various fractions of estimated evapotranspiration (ETc) on productivity of Cabernet Sauvignon. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 16:434-444.

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Table 2. The effect of two seasons without irrigation on canopy growth; the effect of rootstock and irrigation on the dry weight of stems (kg/vine) and number of flower clusters per vine.

Rootstock

Photo end of October 2010†

Stem dry weight

Flower clusters per vine¶

2004‡

2010

2003‡

2010

110 Richter

§0.69b

0.45cd

556A

81BC

K51-40

1.01a

0.16e

454A

0D

1103 Paulsen

1.02a

0.31de

418A

4D

Ramsey

1.11a

0.68bc

511A

123B

140 Ruggeri

1.14a

0.52bcd

520A

40CD

†Cell size on backdrop grid 0.5m X 0.35m. ‡Data from Stevens et al.

(2008) §Values followed by different letters in the same or different seasons are significantly different, lowercase for stem weight and uppercase for flower clusters (LSD, P = 0.05). ¶Data subject to square root transformation for analysis, means are backtransformed values.

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Night-time plant water loss: the unseen process for local and global water footprint and water balance estimations in grapevines

By Sigfredo Fuentes1*, Roberta De Bei2 and Stephen Tyerman2 1 University of Melbourne, Melbourne School of Land and Environment, Victoria 3010, Australia 2 School of Agriculture Food and Wine and Waite Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, Plant Research Centre, Waite Campus, PMB 1 Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia *Corresponding author: sfuentes@unimelb.edu.au

Recent research has boosted understanding of the dynamics of night-time transpiration and water rehydration of plants and grapevines, with the aim of obtaining amelioration strategies to maximise water use efficiency for crops under a challenging climate.

R

ecent research on grapevines has challenged the paradigm that C3 and C4 plants do not transpire at night-time due to complete stomata closure. It has been shown that grapevine water loss by transpiration at night-time can reach up to 50 percent of the day-time transpiration depending on the level of aridity and water stress (Rogiers and Clarke 2013, Rogiers et al.

2009). Since night-time transpiration is not coupled to photosynthesis, it contributes to decreased water use efficiency. Furthermore, when plants are not subjected to water stress, nighttime transpiration is highly correlated to vapour pressure deficit (Moore et al. 2008). Therefore, considering that climate change models have forecasted that night-time temperatures will increase at a higher rate compared with the diurnals, night-time transpiration might be exacerbated in future global warming scenarios (Fuentes et al. 2013).

Considering these new insights from research, it is worrying that night-time transpiration has not been considered in evapotranspiration models for small scale (irrigation scheduling of crops) nor for large scale (catchments and forest water use estimations). This creates a problem for water footprint, water balance and evapotranspiration calculations that could potentially affect growers, irrigation practitioners, water modelling for catchments and government policy.

Implications for irrigation and water use Climate change predictions have prompted research into water conservation, since important reductions in rain events in most agricultural areas

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have been forecasted. Australia is already a water deficit country and many areas of the continent have been under long periods of drought in the last two decades.

Australiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s agriculture and horticulture industries depend on water supplied by irrigation and uses around 70% of fresh water available. Therefore, it is not surprising that the bulk of research has been destined to improve water use efficiency (WUE) at the farm level.

In the 1990s in Australia, two major irrigation strategies were developed, namely regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) and partial rootzone drying (PRD). These techniques can help to increase WUE exploiting plant physiology manipulation strategies according to the spatial and temporal distribution of water application within the rootzone. Therefore, these techniques rely heavily on pressurised irrigation systems.

It has been shown that growth and wood thickening of trees and shrubs is enhanced with increased atmospheric CO2 concentration due to higher photosynthesis and decreased photorespiration. In these conditions, WUE is expected to increase, since rising CO2 will also decrease stomatal conductance by about 20% (Eamus et al. 2007). In the past, it was a general consensus that C3 and C4 plants closed stomata at nighttime. Therefore, any nocturnal water uptake would mainly correspond to stem and organ rehydration and cuticular transpiration. Under these conditions, WUE is not affected by nocturnal water uptake, which only corresponds to plant recovery from water stress endured the previous day. However, new research has demonstrated that nocturnal transpiration (Enight), due to stomatal opening at nightW i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

time (gnight), can be as high as 30-60% compared with the diurnal one for arid and semi-arid regions and in a variety of ecosystems (Caird et al. 2007, Escalona et al. 2013, Fuentes et al. 2013, Rogiers and Clarke 2013, Rogiers et al. 2009, Snyder et al. 2003, Zeppel et al. 2010). Considerable Enight has significant implications for the whole-tree water budget and WUE. Recent studies have characterised nocturnal water uptake (Sn) dynamics using sap flow sensors and gas exchange measurements and have offered insights into the relationship between night-time transpiration (Enight) and rehydration.

Literature review and recent research Sensitive sensors can pick up night-time water flows The sap flow probes used in the past were not sensitive to low flows (typically at night-time) and gave noisy data, which added to the paradigm of stomatal closure at night-time and led scientists to disregard night-time sap flow values and force them to zero for analysis. However, continuous measurements of sap flow using probes sensitive to low flows has been possible in the last 10 years through the compensated heat-pulse sap flow system (Fuentes 2005, Fuentes et al. 2013, Fuentes et al. 2008, GonzĂĄlez-Altozano et al. 2008, Green 1998, Green et al. 2003).

Figure 1 shows the total Sn measured at night-time (from sunset to sunrise) by the sap flow sensors. The total Sn respond to water application (either by irrigation or rainfall), thus showing that that Sn is sensitive to the dynamics of soil water availability and plant water status associated with the previous day.

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Figure 1. Dynamics of night-time water uptake (Sn) for almond trees (Berri, South Australia, season 2009-10). Fully irrigated trees (filled circles) and deficit irrigated trees (clear circles) respond to water application either by irrigation or rain events.

Arrows represent rain events with their magnitude equivalent to litres received per plant (From Fuentes et al. 2013).

Similar results have been obtained for grapevines (Fuentes et al. submitted).

Parabolic relationships between Sn and plant water status It has been demonstrated that factors such as hormonal signals, mainly abscisic acid (ABA), are related to lower diurnal stomatal conductance (gs) at increased levels of water stress (Bauerle et al. 2004, Chaves et al. 2007, Chinnusamy et al.

2008, Davies et al. 2005, Davies et al. 2002, Hartung et al. 2005). This has been the basis for the development of irrigation techniques that help to increase WUE, such as RDI and PRD. Based on the hypothesis that the same internal factors affecting gs (ABA) will affect gnight, it is expected that the latter will be responsive to the level of water stress endured by the plant or tree the previous day, which can be measured as stem water potential (Ψs) using a pressure bomb (Chone et al. 2001, Scholander et al. 1965). Recent research has shown a parabolic relationship between Sn and Ψs measured the previous day for a variety of crops and fruit trees, such as almonds (Fuentes et al. 2013), grapevines (Fuentes et al. under review) and citrus trees (Fuentes et al. unpublished).

Figure 2 shows this relationship from which two areas can be identified: nonwater stress conditions to mild water stress conditions (0 > Ψs > -1.0 MPa), and from mild water stress conditions to severe water stress conditions (-1.0 > Ψs > -2.5MPa). The peak of this relationship corresponds to the maximum Sn. Physiological data helps to explain night-time behaviour Since Sn data is obtained using sap flow sensors inserted in the trunk, it is not possible to know the partitioning of Sn V2 8N 4

Figure 2. Night-time water uptake (Sn) response to plant water status measured the previous day for fully irrigated grapevines cv. Shiraz (Benalla, Victoria, Australia). Two zones are characterised for non-water stress to mild water stress (zone 1) and from mild water stress to severe water stress (zone 2) (Fuentes et al. under review). between rehydration (water that stays in wood and organs), cuticular transpiration (smallest component) and transpiration through stomata within leaves. An indirect method to characterise this partitioning has been proposed by Fuentes et al. (2013) comparing Sn data with the atmospheric demand for water, as night-time vapour pressure deficit (VPD). When comparing Sn data from the first zone (Figure 2) with night-time VPD and the corresponding values for the second zone of the curve with nighttime VPD, it was found that there were high correlations between Sn and VPD W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

in zone 1, but no correlations at all for zone 2 (Fuentes et al. 2013, Moore et al.

2008). These observations have been supported by collecting gas exchange measurements of Enight and gnight with accurate and sensitive instrumentation at night-time (Escalona et al. 2013).

Furthermore, zone 2 of the curve is characterised by high levels of ABA in the sap (Fuentes et al. unpublished).

Therefore, it could be speculated that gnight and Enight in zone 1 is more influenced by hydraulic signals (VPD and Ψs) and zone 2 by hormonal signals (ABA). ▶ www.winebiz. com . au

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Implications of night-time transpiration and rehydration in the whole-plant water budget Rehydration at night-time helps the plant recover from water stress endured the previous day to maintain cell turgor for growth and refill cavitated xylem conduits to maintain plant hydraulic conductivity. However, Enight is not coupled with photosynthesis and this contributes to decreased WUE. Plants have different strategies to respond to water stress and these influence shape and dimensions of the parabolic curve presented in Figure 1. In general, for horticultural plants it is considered Ψs = -1.0 MPa as a threshold between non-water stress and water stressed plants (Lampinen et al. 2001, Smithyman et al. 2001, Tregoat et al. 2002). Grapevine cultivars that are more conservative in water use (isohydric) tend to show a displacement of the parabolic curve to the right, closing stomata at night with higher Ψs measured in the previous day. Non-water conservative grapevine cultivars (anisohydric) present peaks shifted towards the left of -1.0 MPa in the parabolic relationship (Fuentes et al. under review). Therefore, there is an opportunity for adaptation strategies, in the case of grapevines, defined first by variety or cultivar selection and, secondly, by management strategies through reduced or controlled water application that will help to minimise Enight and maximise rehydration and WUE. Implication of night-time transpiration on modelling and water footprint estimations In general, evapotranspiration (ET) models do not take into consideration night-time water uptake for small scale calculations (irrigation scheduling) or larger scale (global modelling). The main problem to account for this previously unseen factor was the requirement of accurate instrumentation to register low flows. The micrometeorological approach (Bowen ratio, Eddy covariance) has been the most used method to validate ET models in crops and forests. However, low wind velocity and the lack of eddies at night-time makes it difficult to account for low flows using these techniques. The alternative could be the use of lysimeters, which are sensitive enough to register flows at night-time. However, it is not possible to uncouple transpiration from evaporation of water directly from the soil using the latter. It is important to notice that Enight will be associated with water extraction by roots at deeper layers. Considering these scenarios, it is most

likely that these methodologies to estimate ET and water footprint need to be revisited.

and Cox, J.W. (2013) Night-time sap flow is parabolically linked to midday water potential for field grown almond trees. Irrigation Science. DOI: 10.1007/s00271-013-0403-3.

Conclusion

Fuentes, S.; Rogers, G.; Jobling, J.; Camus, C.; Dalton, M.; Mercenaro, L. and Conroy, J. (2008) A soil-plantatmosphere approach to evaluate the effect of irrigation/ fertigation strategy on grapevine water and nutrient uptake, grape quality and yield. In: I. Goodwin (Editor), Vth International Symposium on Irrigation of Horticultural Crops. Acta Horticulturae - ISHS, Mildura (Australia) 297-303.

There is significant value in understanding and characterising the dynamics of night-time water uptake and transpiration processes by plants and trees to obtain insights into the adaptation strategies that will contribute to increase WUE in a climate change scenario.

Further research is required to understand the differences in strategies according to different species, varieties and cultivars. Finally, modelling and water footprint methodologies need to be revisited in light of the latest research on night-time water consumption and transpiration by plants and trees.

Literature cited Bauerle, W.L.; Whitlow, T. H.; Setter, T.L. and Vermeylen, F.M. (2004) Abscisic acid synthesis in Acer rubrum L. leaves - A vapor-pressure-deficit-mediated response. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 129(2):182-187.

Caird, M.A.; Richards, J.H. and Donovan, L.A. (2007) Night-time stomatal conductance and transpiration in C3 and C4 plants. Plant Physiol. 143(1):4-10.

Chaves, M.M.; Santos, T.P.; Souza, C.R.; Ortuño, M.F.; Rodrigues, M.L.; Lopes, C.M.; Maroco, J.P. and Pereira, J.S. (2007) Deficit irrigation in grapevine improves water-use efficiency while controlling vigour and production quality.

Annals of Applied Biology 150(2):237-252.

González-Altozano, P.; Pavel, E.W.; Oncins, J.A.; Doltra, J.; Cohen, M.; Paço, T.; Massai, R. and Castel, J.R. (2008) Comparative assessment of five methods of determining sap flow in peach trees. Agricultural Water Management 95(5):503-515.

Green, S. (1998) Measurements of sap flow by the heat-pulse method. HortResearch, Palmerston North, New Zealand.

Green, S.; Clothier, B. and Jardine, B. (2003) Theory and practical application of heat pulse to measure sap flow.

Agronomy Journal 95(6):1371-1379.

Hartung, W.; Schraut, D. and Jiang, F. (2005) Physiology of abscisic acid (ABA) in roots under stress - a review of the relationship between root ABA and radial water and ABA flows. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 56(11):1253-1259.

Lampinen, B.D.; Shackel, K.A.; Southwick, S.M. and Olson, W.H. (2001) Deficit irrigation strategies using midday stem water potential in prune. Irrigation Science 20(2):4754.

Moore, G.W.; Cleverly, J.R. and Owens, M.K. (2008) Nocturnal transpiration in riparian Tamarix thickets authenticated by sap flux, eddy covariance and leaf gas exchange measurements. Tree Physiology 28(4):521-528.

Chinnusamy, V.; Gong, Z. and Zhu, J.K. (2008) Abscisic acid-mediated epigenetic processes in plant development and stress responses. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 50(10):1187-1195.

Rogiers, S.Y. and Clarke, S.J. (2013) Nocturnal and daytime stomatal conductance respond to rootzone temperature in ‘Shiraz’ grapevines. Annals of Botany. doi:10.1093/aob/mcs298, available online at www.aob. oxfordjournals.org

Chone, X.; Van Leeuwen, C.; Dubourdieu, D. and Gaudillere, J.P. (2001) Stem water potential is a sensitive indicator of grapevine water status. Annals of Botany 87(4):477-483.

Rogiers, S.Y.; Greer, D.H.; Hutton, R.J. and Landsberg, J.J. (2009) Does night-time transpiration contribute to anisohydric behaviour in a Vitis vinifera cultivar? Journal of Experimental Botany 60(13):3751-3763.

Davies, W.J.; Kudoyarova, G. and Hartung, W. (2005) Long-distance ABA signalling and its relation to other signalling pathways in the detection of soil drying and the mediation of the plant’s response to drought. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 24(4):285-295.

Scholander, P.F.; Hammel, H.T.; Bradstreet, E.D. and Hemmingsen, E.A. (1965) Sap pressure in vascular plants: negative hydrostatic pressure can be measured in plants.

Science 148:339-346.

Davies, W.J.; Wilkinson, S. and Loveys, B. (2002) Stomatal control by chemical signalling and the exploitation of this mechanism to increase water use efficiency in agriculture. New Phytologist 153(3):449-460.

Eamus, D.; Fuentes, S.; Macinnis-Ng, C.; Palmer, A.; Taylor, D.; Whitley, R.; Yunusa, I. and Zeppel, M. (2007) Woody thickening: a consequence of changes in fluxes of carbon and water on a warming globe, Bureau of Meteorology papers, http://www.bom.gov.au/bmrc/basic/ cawcr-wksp1/papers/Eamus.pdf Escalona, J.M.; Fuentes, S.; Tomas, M.; Martorell, S.; Flexas, J. and Medrano, H. (2013) Responses of leaf night transpiration to drought stress in Vitis vinifera L. Agricultural Water Management 118(0):50-58.

Fuentes,S. (2005) Precision irrigation for grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) under RDI and PRD. PhD Thesis, University of Western Sydney, Richmond.

Fuentes, S.; Mahadevan, M.; Bonada, M.; Skewes, M.A.

Smithyman, R.P.; Wample, R.L. and Lang, N.S. (2001) Water deficit and crop level influences on photosynthetic strain and blackleaf symptom development in Concord grapevines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 52(4):364-375.

Snyder, K.A.; Richards, J.H. and Donovan, L.A. (2003) Night-time conductance in C3 and C4 species: do plants lose water at night? Journal of Experimental Botany 54(383):861-865.

Tregoat, O.; Van Leeuwen, C.; Chone, X. and Gaudillere, J.-P. (2002) The assessment of vine water and nitrogen uptake by means of physiological indicators influence on vine development and berry potential - (Vitis vinifera L. cv Merlot, 2000, Bordeaux). Journal International Des Sciences De La Vigne Et Du Vin 36(3):133-142.

Zeppel, M.; Tissue, D.; Taylor, D.; Macinnis-Ng, C. and Eamus, D. (2010) Rates of nocturnal transpiration in two evergreen temperate woodland species with differing water-use strategies. Tree Physiology 30(8):988-1000. WVJ

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To cultivate or not to cultivate?

Floor management and frost risk

By Chris Penfold, The University of Adelaide. Email: chris.penfold@adelaide.edu.au

Chris Penfold provides a brief overview on cover crop management and reducing frost risk.

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ne of the main reasons given for hooking up the disc or rotary hoe to the tractor is to mitigate the risk of frost by cultivation of the soil prior to budburst. This may include incorporation of covercrops as a green manure, with the intention of leaving the vineyard floor devoid of vegetation.

Cultivation of our fragile soils is to the detriment of their structure, and it all adds to the vineyard’s operating costs, so is there sufficient benefit to be gained from cultivation to warrant this practice?

Cultivation of the soil followed by rolling for compaction is often recommended practice to help in the

prevention of frost. The intention is to use the heat stored in the soil during the day for release at night to increase air temperatures up to cordon height. While this may be good in theory, in practise there are downsides. Cultivation of the soil causes soil moisture to evaporate and creates air spaces that reduce the soil’s capacity to store heat for release in the evening as the temperatures decrease (Donaldson et al. 1993). Increased levels of dust, and weed invasions following rain are also commonly observed in cultivated vineyards. And is it beneficial in frost reduction compared with simply mowing the mid-row sward?

Cultivating covercrops into the soil prior to budburst is often recommended to help mitigate the risk of frost but causes soil moisture to evaporate, creating air spaces that reduce the soil’s capacity to store heat for release in the evening as temperatures decrease.

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No studies on the effect of vineyard floor management on cordon temperatures have been reported in Australia. However, in the Sonoma and Napa counties of California, Donaldson et al. (1993) investigated the impact on cordon temperatures of three floor management treatments on four vineyards over three years. The vine mid-rows were either kept bare over the late winter/spring period with glyphosate herbicide, disced in spring or mown to 8cm in height. Their research showed cordon temperatures following herbicide application were the same or slightly higher than the cultivation treatment and mowing was generally similar to the cultivation treatment. As no benefit was gained by cultivation, the more benign practice of mowing is therefore recommended.

Increasing numbers of growers are now rolling their cover crops instead of mowing. It is desirable because the cover crop takes longer to break down, as the stems maintain their integrity instead of being reduced to smaller pieces, as occurs with mowing. The effect of this practice compared with mowing on frost mitigation is an unknown. It may be sufficient, especially on sloping

An increasing number of growers now roll their cover crops instead of mowing but the effect of this compared with mowing on frost mitigation is not known.

References

ground, to simply lay the plant material on the ground so air movement is not impeded. If any growers using rolling have any experience of that practice in the presence of frost, the author would welcome your feedback.

Donaldson, D.R.; Snyder, R.L.; Elmore, C. and Gallagher, S. (1993) Weed control influences vineyard minimum temperatures. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 44:431-434.

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In search of resistance to grapevine trunk diseases

By Mark Sosnowski, Matthew Ayres, Trevor Wicks and Michael McCarthy South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI) GPO Box 397, Adelaide SA 5001

A new GWRDC-funded research project is aiming to identify grapevine germplasm within SARDI’s Barossa Valley collection that is resistant or tolerant to eutypa dieback and botryosphaeria dieback.

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rapevine trunk diseases such as eutypa dieback and botryosphaeria dieback contribute to grapevine decline, reducing productivity and longevity, causing considerable economic loss to the $8.3 billion Australian wine industry. It was estimated that eutypa dieback costs South Australian growers up to $2800 per hectare through lost production (Wicks and Davies 1999).

Both eutypa and botryosphaeria dieback fungi infect pruning wounds, growing into woody tissue that appears as dark wedge shapes in cross-section and eventually results in the death of cordons and trunks. However, only Eutypa lata produces toxic metabolites which are translocated to the foliage, causing stunted shoots, necrotic and distorted leaves, reduced bunch size and uneven ripening. Management of trunk diseases is based on removing infected wood material and preventing infection through pruning wounds (Sosnowski et al. 2009).

There have been limited reports of resistance or tolerance of Vitis vinifera cultivars to trunk disease. Carter (1991) cited a report on the resistance or susceptibility to eutypa dieback of cultivars typically grown in France (Dubos 1987) based on foliar symptoms in the vineyard. Of 32 cultivars assessed, five were categorised as resistant (cvs Aligote, Grolleau, Merlot, Semillon and Sylvaner) and all others were listed as moderately to highly susceptible. Based on three surveys conducted in South Australia over the past 40 years (Wicks 1975, Highet and Wicks 1998, Loschiavo et al. 2007), the cvs Grenache, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz were recorded with the highest incidence of eutypa dieback foliar symptoms V2 8N 4

Figure 1. Stunted shoots of eutypa dieback and dead cordons on a vine (cv Chenin Blanc) at the Nuriootpa Research Centre. and cvs Merlot, Riesling, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay and Semillon with the least. The growth of E. lata in grapevine wood also varies and cvs Merlot, Gamay, Grenache and Semillon were recorded with half of the rate of dieback compared with cvs Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz (Sosnowski et al. 2006). For botryosphaeria dieback, there is no available literature on resistance or susceptibility of cultivars. However, observations during studies in North America suggest that many of the commonly grown V. vinifera cultivars, such as Chardonnay, Thompson Seedless, Riesling, Cabernet Sauvignon, and the interspecific hybrid W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

cultivars, Chardonnel, Chambourcin, Catawba, Traminette and Niagara are highly susceptible to botryosphaeria dieback (J. Úrbez-Torres, personal communication).

The SARDI germplasm collection in the Barossa Valley consists of a broad range of V. vinifera cultivars sourced from around the world.

This study reports on a preliminary assessment of trunk disease severity, which will contribute to research aiming to identify resistant or tolerant germplasm as part of a new project funded by the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC). ▶ www.winebiz. com . au

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a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 2. Red wine cultivars; (a) Sangiovese, (b) Merlot, (c) Cabernet Sauvignon and (d) Odola showing varying severity of trunk disease symptoms.

Methods The SARDI germplasm collection, located at the Nuriootpa Research Centre, South Australia, consists of 83 red and 95 white winegrape cultivars (V. vinifera). Vines were planted between 1977 and 1982 with a panel (three or

four vines) per cultivar. All vines have been cordon trained and spur pruned, with no specific strategies to control trunk diseases.

On 7 November 2012, vines were visually assessed for severity of eutypa dieback foliar symptoms and overall severity of trunk disease symptoms, which in addition to foliar symptoms, included

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a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 3. White wine cultivars; (a) Semillon, (b) Chardonnay, (c) Chenin Blanc and (d) Sauvignon Blanc showing varying severity of trunk disease symptoms. presence of dead spurs, cordon dieback and trunk cankers. Ratings were given on a percentage scale (0% - non-symptomatic, 100% - dead). Ratings were averaged for each cultivar.

Results The severity of foliar and dieback symptoms varied substantially amongst the cultivars (Figures 1-3). In general, the severity of foliar symptoms was similar

between red and white wine cultivars (5% and 4%, respectively). The severity of overall trunk disease symptoms was greater in red (35%) than white (26%) winegrape cultivars.

Foliar symptoms of eutypa dieback

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Conclusions This preliminary study indicated that the severity of trunk disease varied considerably amongst the cultivars in the 31-36 year old vines located in the SARDI germplasm collection. Results were generally consistent with previous reports from eutypa dieback surveys in Australia, France and the US. Twenty-three cultivars appeared to be unaffected by trunk diseases, suggesting resistance or tolerance to trunk pathogens may exist. Assessments will be repeated this spring to confirm these results. All vines were subjected to natural infection and, based on previous studies at the Nuriootpa Research Centre, up to 12% and 33% incidence of natural pruning wound infection has been reported for eutypa dieback and botryosphaeria dieback pathogens, respectively. However, fungal isolations from vines will be required to confirm the cause of symptoms and whether species responsible for botryosphaeria dieback are also involved.

The new GWRDC project will see SARDI, the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre and The University of Adelaide join forces to look at developing practical strategies to manage trunk diseases.

Promising cultivars from this study, along with genotypes from V. vinifera x cineria and berlandier lines developed by Dr Brady Smith (CSIRO Plant Industry), will be evaluated for resistance to trunk diseases for future selection in breeding programs.

The benefit of this research is the potential development of cultivars more tolerant to trunk diseases in the future, which would reduce inputs and routine management necessary to control the diseases.

References Carter, M.V. (1991) The status of Eutypa lata as a pathogen. Monograph – Phytopathological Paper No.32 (International Mycological Institute: Surrey, UK).

Dubos, B. (1987) Mise au point sur les maladies de dépérissement dans le vignoble fançais. Le Progrés Agriculture et Viticulture 104:35-140.

Highet, A. and Wicks, T. (1998) The incidence of eutypa dieback in South Australian vineyards. The Australian Grapegrower & Winemaker Annual Technical Issue 441a:135–136.

Figure 4. Severity of eutypa dieback foliar symptoms (green bars) overlayed on overall severity of trunk disease symptoms (brown bars), which include foliar and dieback symptoms on red and white winegrape cultivars planted at the Nuriootpa Research Centre between 1977 and 1982. developed on 39 of the 83 red winegrape cultivars, with severity ranging from 2-42%, and on 44 of the 95 white winegrape cultivars, with 2-50% severity (Figure 4). In terms of overall trunk disease symptoms, 76 red and 79 white winegrape cultivars were recorded, with severity from 2-100%. There was a closer correlation between foliar and overall symptoms for white cultivars

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(R = 0.41) compared with red (R = 0.14) cultivars. No symptoms were observed on seven red and 16 white winegrape cultivars, while a further 16 red and 16 white cultivars were recorded with less than 10% mean severity of trunk disease symptoms. The mean severity of trunk disease symptoms was greater than 80% for 11 red and four white winegrape cultivars.

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Loschiavo, A.; Sosnowski, M. and Wicks, T. (2007) Incidence of eutypa dieback in the Adelaide Hills.

The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker 519:26-29.

Sosnowski, M.; Lardner, R.; Wicks, T. and Scott, E. (2006) The spread of Eutypa lata within grapevines – implications for management of eutypa dieback.

The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker 509a:27-30.

Sosnowski, M.; Loschiavo, A.; Wicks, T. and Scott, E. (2009) Managing eutypa dieback in grapevines.

The Australian and New Zealand Grapegrower and Winemaker Annual Technical Issue 13-16 Wicks, T. (1975) The dying arm disorder of vines in South Australia. Agricultural Record 2:14-20.

Wicks, T. and Davies, K. (1999) The effect of Eutypa on grapevine yield. Australian Grapegrower and Winemaker WVJ 426a:15-16.

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Pathogenicity of fungi causing botryosphaeria dieback of grapevines in Australia

By Wayne M. Pitt*, Rujuan Huang, Christopher C. Steel and Sandra Savocchia National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences Charles Sturt University, Locked Bag 588, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. *Corresponding author: wpitt@csu.edu.au

The prevalence and distribution of the Botryosphaeriaceae species of fungi in grapevines are thought to be influenced by climate. Eight species were tested for their pathogenicity and growth rates at various temperatures under field conditions on the wood of mature grapevines.

Introduction

W

orldwide, more than 20 species in the Botryosphaeriaceae are associated with the disease of grapevines known as botryosphaeria dieback (Úrbez-Torres 2011), and in Australia 10 species are currently recognised (Pitt et al. 2010, Wunderlich et al. 2011).

Botryosphaeria dieback arises when fungi invade the vascular system of the vine, gaining entry via pruning and reworking wounds or other exposed surfaces. Symptoms include perennial cankers, shoot and branch dieback, bud necrosis, graft failure and fruit rot, but wedge-shaped lesions in the trunks and cordons of infected vines and a lack of vegetative growth are most characteristic of the disease (Úrbez-Torres 2011).

The pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species on grapevines was, until recently, the subject of considerable debate due in large part to a lack of detailed information on the pathogenicity and epidemiology of these fungi, which is thought by many to be greatly influenced by climate (Úrbez-Torres et al. 2006, Pitt et al. 2010). While recent studies have confirmed the role of these fungi in grapevine decline, much of this work has been performed on excised wood, green shoots or potted vines under laboratory or glasshouse conditions, and to date, few studies have examined the effect of these species on mature vines under field conditions.

The objectives of this study were to determine the pathogenicity under field conditions of eight Botryosphaeriaceae species on wood of mature grapevines.

Additionally, growth rates of the various fungi were assessed under laboratory conditions to determine cardinal temperatures for each species. The V2 8N 4

pathogenicity and temperature-growth relationships of Botryosphaeriaceae species are discussed in context with previous data on their prevalence and distribution in Australian vineyards.

Materials and Methods Thirty-eight fungal strains comprising eight Botryosphaeriaceae species, including Botryosphaeria dothidea, Diplodia mutila, Diplodia seriata, Dothiorella iberica, Dothiorella viticola, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Neofusicoccum australe and Neofusicoccum parvum, were used in a pathogenicity trial conducted at the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre (NWGIC), in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales.

In October 2010, wounds were created in the trunks of disease-free, 15-year-old Chardonnay grapevines approximately 30cm below the crown using a sterile 10mm-diameter drill bit. Plugs (3x5mm diameter) from the margins of sevenday-old colonies of Botryosphaeriaceae species growing on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 100mg/litre of streptomycin sulfate (PDA-strep) were inserted into the wounds and sealed with woodfilling putty. Sterile non-colonised plugs of PDA-strep were used as controls. In September 2012, 24 months after inoculation, a 50cm portion of the trunk comprising the inoculation point and 25cm of tissue above and below the wound was removed from each grapevine. Trunks were sectioned longitudinally in half through the point of inoculation to expose any vascular staining or discoloration of the wood (lesions). The total lengths of lesions were measured. To fulfil Koch’s postulates, ~2mm2 pieces of wood from the edges of lesions were removed from each trunk, surface sterilised for two minutes in 2.5% bleach, rinsed in W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

sterile water and transferred to PDAstrep. Cultures were incubated under fluorescent light for seven to 10 days and identified using colony morphology (Úrbez-Torres et al. 2006).

Cardinal temperatures for growth were also determined for each species.

Plugs 5mm in diameter from the margins of actively growing four-day-old cultures of each strain were transferred to PDA-strep and incubated in the dark at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40°C. Colony diameters were measured at daily intervals and growth rates (mm/day) for each strain determined at each temperature.

Regression curves were fitted to values of daily growth rate versus temperature, and optimum growth temperatures established for each species based on relationships described by a third order polynomial (Sánchez et al. 2003).

The pathogenicity trial was conducted using a randomised complete block design with six blocks (replicates) comprising a total of 42 treatments, including controls, while radial growth rate trials were conducted in duplicate using a completely randomised design with three replicate plates per strain.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare differences in mean lesion lengths and growth rates between species. Means were separated using Tukey’s test (P=0.05).

Results Inoculations of Chardonnay grapevines with Botryosphaeriaceae species produced vascular staining and discoloration of the wood (lesions), which was evident upon longitudinal sectioning of trunks 24 months after inoculation (Figure 1, see page 60).

Lesions extended both above and below the wound and ranged in length from 76mm for D. seriata to 165mm for N. parvum. While lesion lengths differed www.winebiz. com . au

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depending on species (P=<0.001), all eight Botryosphaeriacae species were pathogenic to grapevines and produced necrotic lesions that were significantly longer than those on controls, and from which fungi were subsequently reisolated and identified (Figure 2).

Botryosphaeriaceae species grew over a range of temperatures from 5-40ºC. Only D. iberica and D. viticola exhibited growth at 5ºC, and growth at 40ºC was limited to L. theobromae and B. dothidea. Optimum growth temperatures for B. dothidea and L. theobromae were 29.7°C and 29.4ºC, respectively, while N. parvum, D. seriata and N. australe displayed optimum growth at 26.8°C, 26.6° and 26.2ºC. D. mutila grew best at 25.8°C, D. viticola at 24.0°C and D. iberica at 22.9ºC. Discussion In this study, all eight Botryosphaeriaceae species, including B. dothidea, D. mutila, D. seriata, D. iberica, D. viticola, L. theobromae, N. australe and N. parvum, acted as pathogens when inoculated into mature wood of 15-year-old Chardonnay grapevines. In each case, inoculations

Figure 1. Examples of lesions produced in the trunks of 15-year-old Chardonnay grapevines by Neofusicoccum parvum 24 months after inoculation. Lane 1 = control. produced necrotic lesions at sites of infection that were significantly longer than those on controls, and fungi were reisolated from the margins of developing lesions.

Neofusicoccum parvum along with N. australe and L. theobromae produced the longest lesions and were among the most pathogenic of the eight species tested. This confirmed

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earlier reports by Úrbez-Torres and Gubler (2009) who consistently found L. theobromae and species of Neofusicoccum among the most aggressive of nine species tested in the United States, and also supported virulence rankings Úrbez-Torres (2011) proposed for the Botryosphaeriaceae in which Neofusicoccum and Lasiodiplodia spp. were categorised as ‘highly’ virulent.

Botryosphaeria dothidea and Diplodia spp. were ‘moderately’ pathogenic compared with the more aggressive species cited above, and this too was supported by the virulence rankings Úrbez-Torres (2011) proposed for these species. However, in contrast to Úrbez-Torres and Gubler (2009), we observed fewer differences between species, and while Úrbez-Torres (2011) assigned a ‘weakly’ pathogenic status to Dothiorella spp., we found D. iberica and D. viticola to be similar in virulence to B. dothidea and Diplodia spp. Results also confirmed the pathogenicity of D. seriata, well known for its controversial status as a pathogen of grapevines (Úrbez-Torres 2011).

The prevalence and distribution of Botryosphaeriaceae species infecting grapevines are thought to be influenced by climate (Úrbez-Torres et al. 2006, Pitt et al. 2010). In this study, species of Diplodia and Neofusicoccum grew optimally at moderate temperatures in the range 25-27oC, and in Australia were the most widely distributed of the 10 currently recognised species (Pitt et al. 2010, Qiu et al. 2011, Taylor et al. 2005, Wunderlich et al.

2011). Diplodia spp. were by far the most prevalent, accounting for 79% of specimens collected by Pitt et al.

(2010), Qiu et al. (2011) and Wunderlich et al. (2011) in the south eastern states and 57% of isolates collected

by Taylor et al. (2005) in Western Australia. Neofusicoccum spp. were similarly widespread, but were much less prevalent, especially in the east where they accounted for less than 8% of the total number of specimens collected in three surveys (Pitt et al.

2010, Qiu et al. 2011, Wunderlich et al. 2011). In contrast, L. theobromae and B. dothidea grew optimally at temperatures close to 30oC, and in surveys were isolated predominantly from grapevines grown in the hotter, dryer regions (Pitt et al. 2010, Qiu et al.

2011, Taylor et al. 2005, Wunderlich et al. 2011), while Dothiorella spp., with ideal temperatures between 22 and 24oC, were most commonly isolated from grapevines in cooler climate winegrowing regions (Pitt et al. 2010).

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Figure 2. Mean lesion length caused by Botryosphaeriaceae species on Chardonnay grapevines 24 months after inoculation. Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different according to Tukey’s test (P=0.05).

Bars represent the 95% confidence interval of the mean.

Currently, management strategies for botryosphaeria dieback rely heavily on remedial surgery to remove infected wood and inoculum sources from the vineyard (Úrbez-Torres 2011), and the use of fungicides and paints to protect pruning wounds from infection (Rolshausen et al. 2010, Pitt et al. 2012). However, greater knowledge of the epidemiology of these fungi including their prevalence and distribution may improve efforts to develop more effective control strategies.

For example, while strains of L. theobromae and B. dothidea have been shown to be highly pathogenic to grapevines (Úrbez-Torres and Gubler 2009), in Australia these species are quite rare, and in surveys occurred over a narrow geographic range (Taylor et al.

2005, Pitt et al. 2010, Qiu et al. 2011). In contrast, Diplodia and Dothiorella were ubiquitous, and Australian climatic conditions seemed to favour the growth of these species over some of their more aggressive counterparts. These species may well compensate for their limited virulence through shear prevalence and distribution. While future studies will continue to evaluate promising agents for the control of botryosphaeria dieback, given this knowledge, perhaps we might best focus our attention on the management of the most prevalent rather than pathogenic of species.

Acknowledgements This work was funded by the Winegrowing Futures Program, a joint initiative between the NWGIC and the Grape and Wine Research and Development Corporation (GWRDC).

W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

References Pitt, W.M.; Huang, R.; Steel, C.C. and Savocchia, S. (2010) Identification, distribution and current taxonomy of Botryosphaeriaceae species associated with grapevine decline in New South Wales and South Australia. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 16:258-271.

Pitt, W.M.; Sosnowski, M.R.; Huang, R.; Qiu, Y.; Steel, C.C. and Savocchia, S. (2012) Evaluation of fungicides for the management of botryosphaeria canker of grapevines. Plant Disease 96:1303-1308.

Qiu, Y.; Steel, C.C.; Ash, G.J. and Savocchia, S. (2011) Survey of Botryosphaeriaceae associated with grapevine decline in the Hunter Valley and Mudgee grape growing regions of New South Wales. Australasian Plant Pathology 40:1–11.

Rolshausen, P.E.; Úrbez-Torres, J.R.; Rooney-Latham, S.; Eskalen, A.; Smith, R.J. and Gubler, W.D. (2010) Evaluation of pruning wound susceptibility and protection against fungi associated with grapevine trunk diseases.

American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 61:113-119.

Sánchez, M.E.; Venegas, J.; Romero, M.A.; Phillips, A.J.L. and Trapero, A. (2003) Botryosphaeria and related taxa causing oak canker in southwestern Spain. Plant Disease 87:1515-1521.

Taylor, A.; Hardy, G.E.StJ.; Wood, P. and Burgess, T. (2005) Identification and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeria species associated with grapevine decline in Western Australia.

Australasian Plant Pathology 34:187-195. Úrbez-Torres, J.R. (2011) The status of Botryosphaeriaceae species infecting grapevines.

Phytopathologia Mediterranea 50:S5-S45. Úrbez-Torres, J.R. and Gubler, W.D. (2009) Pathogenicity of Botryosphaeriaceae species isolated from grapevine cankers in California.

Plant Disease 93:584-592. Úrbez-Torres, J.R.; Leavitt, G.M.; Voegel, T.M. and Gubler, W.D. (2006) Identification and distribution of Botryosphaeria species associated with grapevines cankers in California. Plant Disease 90:1490-1503.

Wunderlich, N.; Ash, G.J.; Steel, C.C.; Raman, H. and Savocchia, S. (2011) Association of Botryosphaeriaceae grapevine trunk disease fungi with the reproductive structures of Vitis vinifera.

WVJ Vitis 50:89-96. www.winebiz. com . au

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alternative varieties

Michelini makes its mark with Marzemino

By Greg O’Keefe, Winemaker, Michelini Wines, Alpine Valleys, Victoria

Alpine Valleys producer Michelini Wines planted Marzemino vines in 1991, and has created a single varietal wine since the 1999 vintage. The wine has developed a strong following among the wineries’ wine club patrons.

M

arzemino is a red Italian variety found primarily around Isera, south of Trentino in the Alto Adige region of northern Italy. The variety has been found to be a parent of two other varieties grown in the region, Teroldego and La Grein, and is widely regarded for its full body and savoury finish. It is remembered in Mozart’s famous opera Don Giovanni, when Don exclaims of the wine, ‘excellente Marzemino!’

In 1851, the Michelini family began growing grapes and making wine in the Trentino Alto Adige region of the Italian Alps.

In 1949, Emo Michelini arrived in Sydney at the age of 25. Two years later, Emo and his wife Olga moved to the Alpine Valleys region where he began share farming with several other Italian families, growing and curing tobacco before turning his hand to the vine in the Alpine Valleys GI near Porepunkah, nestled between Bright and Mount Buffalo in the Buckland Valley in north-east Victoria.

From left, Dino Michelini, Greg O’Keefe and Ilario Michelini, of Michelini Wines, in Victoria’s Alpine Valleys region.

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Initial planting was in 1982 with Chardonnay and Pinot Noir for sparkling base. In 1991, more Chardonnay, Merlot and the little known variety Marzemino was planted with the assistance of Emo’s sons Ilario and Dino.

The site has very old, dark red duplex soils on ancient river terraces that form a ring around Mount Buffalo, which allow for moderate vine vigour. Elevation is around 325m with little slope and not a lot of wind. Temperature data for Bright at 319m elevation shows the mean maximum temperature for February is 29.5°C and minimum 11.4°C. Mean annual rainfall is 1133mm, with almost 50% falling during the growing season of October to April. There is an average of seven days with daily minimum temperatures of less than or equal to 0°C in spring.

Of a total 34.4ha, Marzemino was planted to 0.4ha on Schwarzmann rootstock in 1991. Row orientation is east-west, rows are 3m apart and vines spaced at 2m, providing 1500 vines/ha.

Vines are trained on a double cordon and cane pruned to 40 buds per vine. Fruit is typically thinned after fruitset to allow an even spread along the canes and avoid crowding at the head to allow the fruit to dry out better after a rain event.

The vines are irrigated weekly over the peak of summer using a drip irrigation system with water drawn from the Buckland Valley, which also provides water for the overhead sprinklers to give frost protection in spring.

The rows are mowed regularly during spring to keep the grass down and vines are trimmed to allow for a manageable canopy for disease control and leaf and fruit exposure.

The spray regime depends on the season, however, in addition to the usual copper and sulfur applications, botrytis sprays are always applied at 10% capfall and 80% flowering in case of a difficult wet autumn period. The variety is susceptible to powdery mildew and care has to be taken when conditions are suited to this fungal disease.

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alternative varieties

viticultur e

Marzemino

By Peter Dry Viticulture Consultant The Australian Wine Research Institute Background

The Michelini cellar door.

Bunches are fairly long with loose, medium-sized berries that are quite dark in colour. This variety requires a long growing season and is typically the last to be harvested in mid-April at around 8t/ha.

In a typical year such as 2010, fruit was picked on 11 April at 12.0 Baume with 5.4g/L TA and pH 3.8, while in the warmer 2013 year it was also picked on 11 April at 13.1 Baume with 6.5 g/L TA and pH 3.7.

Winemaking The fruit is machine harvested and transferred to the winery in Myrtleford to be crushed into 2t stainless steel open fermenting tanks.

The fruit is allowed to soak for two days with moderate sulfur dioxide addition of around 50ppm prior to the addition of ICV-D254 yeast. Fermentation starts almost immediately and proceeds for about five to seven days on skins with regular pump over at moderate temperature of 25-28°C prior to pressing in a modern airbag press. The wine is transferred to oak in a heated room to complete primary and malolactic fermentation.

Following the fermentation process, the wine is racked to tank and pH adjusted to around 3.5. Then, 100ppm SO2 is added and the wine is transferred to one- and two-year-old French oak barriques.

Minimum SO2 levels of around 40ppm free and 80ppm total are maintained throughout the maturation period.

These wines are typically aged for around 12 months in barrel prior to final filtration and bottle-ageing for several months prior to release.

Marzemino (pronounced marz-amino) is an old variety that may have originated in Veneto and subsequently spread to Trentino, Lombardy, Friuli and Emilia-Romagna. It is now grown mainly in Trentino where it is used in several Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) areas, particularly in the Val Lagarina. There is also some in adjacent parts of Lombardy, particularly near Lake Garda, where it is often blended with other varieties; and in Emilia-Romagna and Veneto. The total area in Italy has declined in recent times from 1000ha in 2000 to 600ha in 2010. DNA profiling indicates that Marzemino and Lagrein are siblings; the parents being Teroldego and an unknown variety. Synonyms include Balsamina, Barzemin, Berzamino, Marzemina Cenerenta, Marzemina Nera and Marzemino Gentile. There are at least three producers of Marzemino wine in Australia, mainly in the King Valley, and one in New Zealand.

Viticulture Budburst is early mid-season, and maturity is mid-season to late. Growth habit is erect and vigour is high. Bunches are medium, winged, and well-filled with blue-black medium berries. Flesh is slightly pink with neutral taste. The skin is said to be thin, but strong. Yield is good and regular with a tendency to overcropping. In Italy, cane pruning is most common but Marzemino is also reportedly suited to mechanised spur pruning. It performs best on low potential sites and expansive trellis systems that spread out the canopy. Both shoot thinning and bunch thinning are common. It is susceptible to powdery mildew and botrytis bunch rotâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;with variable reports on susceptibility to downy mildew and lime-induced chlorosis.

There is clonal variation for bunch shape and sensory characteristics.

Wine

Wine

In the early years, Marzemino was blended with Merlot. However, since 1999, it has been made as a single varietal wine.

Italian varietal wines typically have firm, drying tannins on the tongue compared with other (most notably French) varietal wines that show much more fruit sweetness, making them more enjoyable when consumed with Italian dishes such as pizza or pasta, or polenta and stew.

In the cellar door, customers remark about the deep red purple colour. The nose displays ripe chocolate, marzipan and cassis notes, with full mouthfeel, persistent flavours and quite firm, drying tannins.

The wine is filled into a standard antique green premium claret bottle with Stelvin finish and is marketed as part of Michelini Winesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; range of Italian varietal wines, including Pinot Grigio and Teroldego (both also from northern Italy), as well as the better known Barbera and Sangiovese.

Sales are predominantly through our cellar door, located on the Great Alpine Road, in Myrtleford, built in the style of a traditional Italian villa.

We do also keep some back vintage stock for wine club members, WVJ who are familiar with the variety and are regular buyers.

Marzemino is used for still and sparkling wines in Italy and Australia. Wines can have intense colour and aroma with good body and full flavour. Tannins are not high. The aftertaste can be slightly bitter. Descriptors include fragrant, fresh, grassy, herbal, red fruits, violets and sour cherry. Wines do not require long ageing but extended maceration can give long-lived wines.

In Italy, Marzemino is usually blended with other varieties such as Sangiovese, Merlot and Barbera for DOCs of Trentino, Lombardia, Veneto and Emilia Romagna, e.g. Botticino, Cellatica, Garda, Garda Rosso Classico, Colli di Scandiano e di Canossa. It is also made as a stand-alone varietal for other DOCs, e.g. Trentino Marzemino, Merlara Marzemino, Refrontolo Passito and Breganze Marzemino.

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For further information on this and other emerging varieties, contact Marcel Essling (viticulture@awri.com.au; tel. 08 8313 6600) at The Australian Wine Research Institute to arrange the presentation of the Research to Practice program on Alternative Varieties in your region.

W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

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business & marketing

TRansport & logistics

Wineries respond to drive by distributors and retailers to keep wine stocks to a minimum

By Sonya Logan

Over the last 10 years, the dynamics of transporting wine around the country has been forced to change in line with the drive by distributors and retailers to store as little wine as possible themselves, forcing many wineries to tweak the management of their own wine stocks.

D

istributors and retailers keep the amount of wine they hold in stock to a minimum these days in a bid to keep their costs down in today’s highly competitive retail market. This has meant many wineries are now bearing an increased burden of storage costs, forcing many to finely tune how they manage their packaged wine stocks and, in some cases, how they package a vintage’s production.

A case in point is Penley Estate, which by virtue of its location in South Australia’s Coonawarra – some 370-

odd kilometres from Adelaide and 430-odd kilometres from Melbourne - has always had to keep a tight rein on their wine stocks to overcome the challenge of its distance from major transport hubs. However, general manager Sam Wigg, admits the pressure has increased across the entire supply chain over the last decade.

“Ten years ago, restaurants and so on were happy to hold onto stock. Now they are struggling for cashflow and no-one wants to hold as much stock.

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But the wine industry isn’t alone. It’s happening in other parts of the retail sector too,” he said.

With only minimal capacity to store packaged wine on site, Penley Estate has always been reliant on the warehousing facilities of other parties, firstly with Portavin and now with Adelaide-based Wine Storage and Logistics (WSL). But, the winery has recently begun to store a percentage of its bottle-ready production from each vintage in tank on site to reduce its bottled wine storage costs.

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TRansport & logistics

“It’s cheaper to keep the wine on site in tank than pay for bottled storage somewhere else. So, with any particular wine we’re now bottling in smaller batches and bottling more frequently.

Over the life of the product, the wine is still going out to market just as quickly if it was bottled in one go. But, we’re saving on storage costs.”

Penley Estate sells around half its annual production on the domestic market, with the eastern mainland states accounting for about 65% of its national allocation, which is split 50-50 between on-premise and retail outlets. The balance of its production is sold in export markets, principally the US, Canada and China.

In another measure to grapple with the vagaries of the wine retail market, Wigg said an increasing amount of Penley Estate’s production was simply bottled with a front label, with back labels only going on once the destination of the wine was confirmed, saying it was cheaper to label on-demand in this way than relabel when the need arose.

Wigg said despite the increase in just-in-time ordering, the winery had not experienced any unreasonable expectations from buyers for the arrival of wine.

“They just want to know when it’s going to get there,” he said.

That experience is echoed by Clare Valley-based winery Reilly’s, which also uses Wine Storage & Logistics to warehouse some of its packaged wine.

Brad Shiell, South Australian sales executive for the winery, which has an annual production of around 30,000 cases, said communication between wineries and their customers was more important than ever with the rise of smaller, more frequent shipments between the two parties.

“As long as there is clear communication between us and our distributor then everyone is aware of where things are at so one party isn’t left thinking another has dropped the ball or is being slack. Everyone wants stock as quickly as they can get it. If we get a call at 5.30 on a Monday from a customer who wants their order to be delivered

by Friday, if the best we can do is have it delivered by 2.00pm the following Monday, then people don’t mind that so long as they are told about it and why.”

Reilly’s sells most of its wine in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland with some also distributed to Western Australia and South Australia, in

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both on and off-premise outlets, mostly independent retailers, although in the last 12 months has sold a small amount through Coles. It also ships some wine to China and Hong Kong.

The winery stores a portion of its bottled stock at its own warehouse facility in the Clare Valley and Shiell himself keeps a couple of cases of each wine at his house for last minute, needit-now requests.

“If we know we’re not going to need stock for two to three months then we won’t bring it down to Adelaide for storage at WSL. Like everybody else, we’ve had to drill down into our overhead costs. It’s cheaper for us to store it ourselves but it means we have to do stocktakes regularly to avoid having to run up to Clare to grab stock that we thought was with WSL.” As a company that specialises in wine storage and transport, WSL knows only too well the increasing pressure being placed on wineries by their customers in these areas.

“The days of agents and distributors running large inventories are gone,” said WSL’s operations manager Simon Byrnes. “It’s very competitive out there in the wine retail sector at the moment

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business & marketing

TRansport & logistics

With distributors and retailers keeping the amount of wine they hold in stock to a minimum these days, many wineries are now bearing an increased burden of storage costs. Photo courtesy Wine Storage & Logistics which means distributors are trying to reduce their costs as much as possible.

The cost of storing and moving wine around Melbourne or Sydney, for example, is high. So, distributors are saying they don’t want three months worth of wine, they only want enough for three weeks. So, just-in-time orders are common, which pushes back issues of storage and logistics to the wineries themselves. They are now fulfilling orders as they come through which means smaller volumes, more regularly. Instead of having one larger consignment a year, they now have two to three smaller ones, which adds another level of complexity.”

WSL’s managing director, Guy Fens, said because wineries were only sending out one to two pallets of wine at a time, getting trucking companies to pick up those orders promptly was not always assured as it once had been when bigger orders were more the norm and seemingly regarded as more worthy of the trip. “I’m aware of one winery in the Riverland that was recently told there would be a three to

four day delay. If wineries store some of their wine with us, we’ve got trucks leaving here every day so can readily coordinate multiple smaller loads.”

Smaller producers are also having to manage the challenges of more modest and frequent orders.

“Customers are obviously trying to keep their stock holdings as low as they can; like us, they’re trying to keep their overheads to a minimum,” said Lindsay McCall, of the Mornington Peninsula’s Paringa Estate. “If they’re keeping their stock levels that low then they’ll want an order to arrive within a day or two or they’ll completely run out of stock. But, the guys we deal with are pretty good and give us plenty of notice to avoid that happening.

“We would occasionally send out four pallets at a time of our more popular wines, but more often than not we send one or two pallets made up of four or five different wines.”

Paringa Estate has an annual production of 15,000 cases, has distributors in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and WA, and ships

around 10% to export markets. It stores all its wine on the Mornington Peninsula at three facilities around Red Hill which were former apple coolstores. But, McCall, who says he prefers to keep his stock under his control, hopes to buy a block of land adjoining the property that is home to the vineyard and winery and build on it a storage facility for packaged wine.

With an annual production of around 1400 cases, Mornington Peninsula neighbour Paradigm Hill is capable of storing all its wine on site, and has done so since its modest first vintage in 2002. Up until three years ago, owners George and Ruth Mihaly handled the distribution of their wines themselves.

While George still takes care of deliveries in Melbourne, an agent now looks after the rest of Australia.

“Everybody wants just in time deliveries, whether it’s a restaurant in Melbourne or our agent,” Ruth said.

“Restaurants, in particular, seem to have limited capacity to store wine these days.

“We had a few weeks off in late April and early May this year. George contacted all the restaurants we sell to in Melbourne in advance to see if they wanted to order some stock to tie them over. We even offered to post-date invoices. While 20% of our customers placed orders, the rest said ‘no, we have enough stock’. Whether they’ve got a policy that they only order when they’re down to their last bottle I don’t know, but another month’s credit wasn’t an attraction.

Ruth points to another indicator of the squeeze on wine storage at restaurants.

“Some years ago, we used to find some restaurants that liked to cellar wine themselves. But that’s really stopped now,” she noted.

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consumer perception

business & marketing

The position of Australian Chardonnay in the world-wide flavour map

By Anthony Saliba*, John Blackman, Jen Bullock and Leigh Schmidtke National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, Charles Sturt University, Boorooma Street, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia *Corresponding author. Email: asaliba@csu.edu.au

This report about NWGIC’s work to establish how Australian Chardonnay differs from international wines available domestically complements the article about its consumer-sensory evaluation focussed Chardonnay Challenge project that appeared in the May/June 2013 issue.

R

esults of the ‘Attitudes, drivers of consumption and taste preferences: a focus on Chardonnay’ project demonstrated, via means of sensory and consumer studies, that there are existing styles of Australian Chardonnay that are liked by a broad range of consumers, and that some styles enjoy high demand amongst niche consumer groups. One of the key messages from the data has been how little parochialism Australian wine consumers show toward Australian wine. This is thought to be due to the lack of definition around how Australian Chardonnay differs from other countries. One of the key moves in defining New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc as different from other white wine styles was the establishment of an international flavour map for Sauvignon Blanc (Lund et al. 2009). One of the challenges of this type of work is to accurately define each country of interest.

For instance, in the Lund et al. (2009) study, Spain was defined through the use of just two wines.

Defining an entire country’s variety through two wines is problematic but, pragmatically, the task of conducting a full analysis for each country is not feasible. We sought to make the results from each country in our study relevant by choosing from wines that were readily available to consumers in Australia. By doing this, we were able to determine how Australian Chardonnay compares and contrasts in flavour compared with wines available in Australia from other countries. Our results are, therefore, relevant to domestic sales; readers can also extrapolate our findings to international sales for the countries where sufficient wines were represented – specifically, New Zealand and France.

The aim of this work was to establish how Australian Chardonnay differs from international wines available domestically.

Materials and method Wines Around 50 wines were selected in consultation with an industry advisory panel made up of experts from the Australian wine industry, with some representation from international companies. The wines included had to be readily available from Australian commercial outlets for approximately $10-30 per 750mL bottle and represent the flavour profile typical of the country of origin.

A sensory panel tasted each wine in the country of origin sets, and determined which wines should be chosen to represent the range of styles that were expressed. In some cases, wine styles were limited and only two wines were needed to represent that country (see Table 1). This was interesting because the wines V2 8N 4

Table 1. Country of origin of Chardonnay wines.

Wine

Country

Vintage

Brancott Estate ‘Letter Series O’

New Zealand

2008

Wither Hills

New Zealand

2010

Villa Maria Private Bin

New Zealand

2010

Cloudy Bay

New Zealand

2010

Craggy Range Gimblett Gravels

New Zealand

2010

Curious Kiwi

New Zealand

2010

Kendall-Jackson Vintner’s Reserve

USA

2010

Wente Vineyards Morning Fog

USA

2010

Fleur du Cap

South Africa

2011

Obikwa

South Africa

2011

Montes Classic Series

Chile

2011

Montes Alpha

Chile

2010

Maison Champy Bourgogne

France

2010

Louis Latour Macon-Villages Chameroy

France

2010

William Fevre Petit Chablis

France

2010

La Chablisienne Chablis

France

2009

JP Chenet

France

2011

Domaine Astruc

France

2011

Yellow Tail

Australia

2012

Jacob’s Creek S-Eastern Australia

Australia

2011

Warburn Gossips

Australia

2012

Goundrey

Australia

2011

Penfolds Thomas Hyland

Australia

2011

De Bortoli Yarra Valley

Australia

2011

Barwang

Australia

2011

chosen did represent the range of Chardonnay styles available for sale in Australia from that country. This position may change in future but, from our experience, the results have been fairly stable for the last few years.

The Australian wines were chosen from a much larger set, since many more Australian Chardonnay wines are available domestically. The wines were chosen from a complete descriptive analysis of Australian Chardonnay, results of which were reported in the May/June 2013 issue of the Wine & Viticulture Journal (Saliba et al. 2013). ▶

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Figure 1. Canonical variates analysis loadings.

Figure 3. Spider plot of means for each country of origin, for each descriptor.

Sensory analysis Sensory descriptive analysis was conducted on the 18 international wines. A dozen panel members were recruited from the NWGIC (mean age 41.3 years), most having been involved in previous descriptive analysis work. The training was complex, given the heterogeneity of the samples and testing only proceeded after appropriate performance was demonstrated; for most participants this was approximately 10 sessions of training. Data was collected in triplicate using the CompusenseTM program in the NWGIC sensory laboratory.

Results The sensory data was analysed using canonical variates analysis (CVA) and results suggested two dimensions (see Figure 1). Wines were separated across the first dimension by fresh fruit-to-oak character, while the second dimension ranged from minerality, citrus and apple to vanilla and caramel.

Analysis of variance showed that wines from each country differed, justifying further comparison of wines from each country.

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Figure 2. Biplot of wines and descriptors; wines are colourcoded to country of origin: New Zealand, Chablis, Rest of France, USA, South Africa, Chile and Australia.

Principal component analysis (PCA) (Figure 2) was performed in order to compare the characteristics of each wine. The correlation matrix was used to generate a two-factor solution and accounted for more than 66 percent of the total variation, thereby passing the conditions of the screen test and interpretability (Lawless and Heymann 1998).

Figure 2 illustrates the vast array of flavour characteristics associated with the various styles of Chardonnay wines.

Profound differences in fruit descriptors, ripeness levels and winemaking influences such as the use of oak, residual sugar, malolactic fermentation (MLF) and lees stirring/ageing produced a diverse group of wines, with this complexity evident in many of the wines when examined individually. While this diversity and complexity leads to some difficulties in style interpretation and differentiation, the main sources of variation are able to be considered. Dimension 1 accounted for 40.1% of the variance, with the samples separated to riper fruit characters (tropical, stonefruit, melon, floral/confectionary) and sweetness, as opposed to attributes associated with oak handling (oak, nutty, straw/hay and astringency). The second dimension, which accounted for 28.1% of the variation, points toward a separation due to grassy, apple, citrus, reductiveness and minerality attributes, with a lesser influence of acidity, in comparison to attributes principally related to MLF â&#x20AC;&#x201C; caramel, honey and butter â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as well as a vanilla attribute, which can be due to both fruit characters or winemaking artefact.

The primary characters of the commercially available international wine can be most easily interpreted when both Figure 2 and Figure 3 are considered together. Figure 3 demonstrates that the four Burgundy wines had the highest mean ratings for acidity, minerality, reductiveness, citrus and grass and, so, it is not surprising that these are seen as a distinct group on the PCA. The wines from the Chablis region of Burgundy - the William Fevre Petit Chablis and La Chablissienne Chablis - appear lower on the PCA, showing the taut, lemon/lime, grassy, mineral characters that are typical of the appellation.

The other two French wines, from south-west France rather than Burgundy, the traditional home of Chardonnay, appear above these wines on the PCA due to their riper fruit

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characteristics, higher residual sugar and lower perceived acidity. The highest average bitterness for the wines is possibly a result of high extraction rates required to produce these relatively inexpensive commercial wines.

The cheaper New Zealand wines (RRP approximately less than $15) are produced in a style in which ripe fruit characters and some residual sweetness are important.

The more expensive examples of New Zealand wines appear further to the right on the PCA, due to more pronounced oak (the highest mean rating) as well as lower levels of perceived sweetness and ripe fruit characters. The South African wines were rated the lowest for oak, vanilla, butter, honey, caramel and butter. This would seem to indicate that the style of wine intended was to be a fresh, fruitdriven style. However, low fruit ratings were also observed, indicating the wines were relatively non-descript.

The Chilean wines were amongst the highest for both bitterness and astringency, with high extraction rates similar to the commercial south-western France wines possibly being the cause.

The straw/hay character is also a more dominant feature than ripe fruit characters.

The wines from the US have the highest MLF characters (butter and caramel ratings), with relatively high oak and vanilla attributes also being an important feature. These rich, fullbodied styles are reminiscent of some Australian Chardonnays that were produced about 10 years ago. The Wente Vineyard wine is located further to the left on the PCA, as it rated higher for riper fruit characters and lower for oak characteristics than the Kendall Jackson Chardonnay. Both wines had a similar, relatively high perceived sweetness rating.

The Australian wines used in this study were not graphed on Figure 3, as a diverse range of wine styles were deliberately chosen. The lack of clustering of the Australian wines on the PCA further validates the choice of these wines as illustrative of the range of styles produced. Further, it shows that Australian consumers have the opportunity to select an Australian Chardonnay that has desirable characters found in other Chardonnayproducing countries.

The Casella Yellow Tail wine has some similar characters (particularly vanilla and noticeable sweetness) to

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the commercial US wines studied, but the wine has profound ripe fruit (tropical and stonefruit) characters and considerably less oak influence. It is, in fact, noticeable that none of the Australian wines were dominated by the influence of oak and, in particular, MLF characters. Even the Penfold’s Thomas Hyland wine, deliberately chosen to reflect an oak-influenced Australian wine, had less oak and MLF influence than the international wines made in this style. A crisp acidity and a relatively high citrus character were the other most important feature of this wine.

The Goundrey Chardonnay, an unwooded style with a mixture of ripe fruit, citrus and grassy characters with some residual sugar, appears to be quite unique in this study. The most similar wine is the Curious Kiwi Chardonnay, which has negligible oak but lower intensities of all fruit characters. The Barwang Chardonnay, with relatively high citrus character, acidity, minerality and some reductiveness, was the closest in style to the Burgundy wines studied.

The Jacob’s Creek and De Bortoli Chardonnays are depicted in the middle of the PCA – reflecting that no single attribute dominated either wine. ▶

The Pacifix Muselet • Plain plaque • Printed plaque • Plaqueless • Plain or coloured wire • Fast delivery • Precision component • Australian made Proudly made in Australia by D.J. Young Pty Ltd 710 High Street Kew East VIC 3102 Telephone: +61 3 9859 4468 Fax +61 3 9819 7357 e-mail: sales@pacifi x.com.au

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These are examples of balanced wines.

The Jacob’s Creek Chardonnay has riper fruit characters, and the De Bortoli wine less fruit overall with higher bitterness and astringency, indicating the importance of texture in this style.

Conclusions Two main conclusions present from this work. First, most of the international Chardonnay wines readily available for sale in Australia offer flavour profiles that can be gained through the purchase of Australian wines. The two departures are the apparently unique blend of minerality and citrus characters associated with wine from Burgundy, particularly the Chablis region. The oak and MLF-dominated style associated with wines tested from the US would also seem to be no longer a major wine style found on Australian bottleshop shelves. Our own work on consumer preference suggests that few consumers like buttery, oak-dominated Chardonnay, though we suspect that some consumers would find minerality appealing. Further work is required to characterise minerality both sensorially and chemically, and to understand

vineyard and winemaking influences, though initially it should be confirmed that consumers find minerality appealing before substantial resources are devoted to understanding the full picture. While our work here has highlighted the importance of minerality in Chardonnay, other wine varieties such as Semillon and Riesling should be included in further work on minerality.

The second main conclusion from this work is that there are at least two distinct ‘styles’ that Australia produces that are relatively unique, compared with the international Chardonnay readily available in Australia. First, there are wines that have been produced to deliver a range of overt fresh fruit characters with no oak influence. Secondly, there are a range of wines available that have good balance between fruit and oak characters. If there was one takehome message from this work, it is that Australian Chardonnay tends to be more balanced than many of the international examples available domestically.

Balance is an important characteristic of fine wine and certainly related to liking amongst high-involvement consumers.

Further work is needed to determine how balance appeals to lower-

involvement consumers, something that is important given that the vast majority of wine sales in Australia are accounted for amongst this segment.

These results can be used to explain the similarities and differences between Australian Chardonnay styles and international styles available domestically. This would help consumers understand the position of Australian Chardonnay on the international flavour map, something that helped New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc develop a following. Further, it elucidates the ‘reason to buy Australian Chardonnay’; without this in the past, domestic purchase behaviour has not been as parochial as the industry would prefer.

References Lund, Thompson, Benkwitz, Wohler, Triggs, Gardner, Heymann and Nicolau (2009) New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc distinct flavour characteristics: sensory, chemical, and consumer aspects. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 60(1):1-12.

Lawless, H.T. and Haymann, H. (1998) Sensory evaluation of food: principle and practices. MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Saliba, A.J.; Heymann, H.; Blackman, J.W. and MacDonald, J.B. (2013) Consumer-sensory evaluation of Australian Chardonnay. Wine & Viticulture Journal 28(3):64-66.

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Italian inspiration for novel Nero d’Avola making

Va R I E ta l R E P O R t

Putting the sparkle in sparkling rosé In keeping with the approaching festive season, this issue’s tasting featured sparkling rosés, 28 in all, ranging from non-vintage examples through to one from the 2003 vintage. the tasting panel identified the top wine or wines from the non-vintage entries, those from the 2012 to 2009 vintages and the 2008 to 2003 vintages (see page 102-106 for the complete results), with the producers behind three of those wines revealing what went into their making.

By Brad Hickey, Brash Higgins Wine Co., McLaren Vale, South Australia

Mclaren Vale-based Nero d’avola producer Brad hickey travelled to sicily, in Italy, in 2011 to investigate local growing and vinification of the variety. In addition to collecting ideas about how to maximise Nero d’avola’s potential on home soil, Brad was inspired to use amphorae as a winemaking technique.

W

need to find information on oak, pruning or the AsVO? type in your topic of choice to locate previously published articles.

hen I moved to McLaren Vale six years ago, after a decade spent buying wine for restaurants in New York City, I started thinking about new varieties we could plant on our vineyard that would not only thrive in McLaren Vale, but make for interesting drinking as well. The drought years had been making life hard, even for our Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon plantings, and we felt we needed to find some better suited grapes to bring onboard.

Nero d’Avola fitted the bill.

In 2009, Brash Higgins obtained some of the first cuttings of the Sicilian red winegrape Nero d’Avola available in Australia from Binjara Vine Nursery (formerly Chalmers Nursery), in Euston, New South Wales. Nero d’Avola is drought and heat tolerant to a certain degree, ripens late and thrives in its native Mediterranean climate, so it seemed like a good fit for coastal McLaren Vale and our evermounting heat and water issues.

VItICultuRE 2009-2010 In October 2009, we dedicated a halfhectare research block on our Omensetter

Vineyard to Nero d’Avola. Soils in this block are relatively shallow (40-50cm) red brown clay loam over a deep, soft marl limestone.

In the winter of 2009, we asked Dr Nuredin Habili, of Plant Diagnostics, at the Waite campus of The University of Adelaide, to perform a virus test on our Shiraz rootstock, which was planted in 1997. The results came back affirmative to graft Nero d’Avola.

Field grafting was conducted later, using two buds per vine on the Matura 1 clone from the Matura Group, in Italy. The clones grew exceptionally well, exhibiting great vigour and not needing any irrigation until the first week of December, followed by small amounts on a regular basis until midFebruary. Vines were trained on a single cordon trellis, and the cordon was filled by February 2010. We noted that foliage was prone to powdery mildew.

Josef Chromy Wines in tasmania’s tamar Valley.

Jeremy Dineen Winemaker/general manager Josef Chromy Wines tamar Valley, tasmania Wine: Pepik NV sparkling Rosé (RRP$27.00/bottle)

2010-11 The first fruit bearing year, we pruned the lateral growth hard from the main cordon back to basal buds. Vines grew strongly, with many double buds providing two shoots per node. These were shootthinned back to one shoot per node. A lazy ballerina trellising system was used,

VItICultuRE Fruit for the Pepik NV Sparkling Rosé is estate-grown from our vineyard at Relbia, 15km south of Launceston, Tasmania. The vineyard contains 61ha of vines and has an elevation of 85-170m with north and north-east facing slopes.

The soils range from deep, black, selfmulching clay to shallow brown clay with high gravel content.

The mean January temperature for the area is 16.7°C. It receives an average of 679mm per annum, with 94 rains days. The vines enjoy 1050 heat degree days, and 1758 sunshine hours (October-April).

The average age of the vines in the vineyard is 13 years, which are on a mixture of own roots and rootstocks.

The blend for the Pepik is usually Pinot dominant with some Chardonnay.

The Pinot clones planting in the vineyard comprise D2V5, D5V12, G5V15, G8V3, G8V7, H7V15, 115 and 114.

Mclaren Vale’s Brash higgins obtained some of the first cuttings of Nero d’avola available in australia from Binjara Vine Nursery (formerly Chalmers Nursery) at Euston, in New south Wales in 2009 and planted half a hectare.

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The Chardonnay clones are I10V1 and Penfolds.

The vines are trained to Scott-Henry and VSP trellises and have a vine density of 3220 per hectare and 2415 per hectare, respectively. All vines are crown thinned every year. Shoot and/or bunch thinning is carried out depending on the year.

The amount of drip irrigation, which is sourced from our on-farm dam and nearby river, depends on the season.

A permanent sward is grown in the midrows to reduce erosion with farm-produced composts also applied.

The vines are mainly hand cane-pruned with limited mechanical spur pre-pruning carried out.

Botrytis is the biggest disease risk to the vines, which yield an average of 11.5 tonnes per hectare.

WINEMaKINg The hand-picked Pinot Noir is whole bunch pressed, giving a free run of usually 500L/tonne and pressings of 200L/tonne.

The hand-picked and/or machine-picked Chardonnay is pressed to 500L/t free run and 200L/t pressings. The pressings are fined separately while the base juices are settled and combined prior to the primary ferment.

Malolactic fermentation is not carried out.

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Josef Chromy Wines winemaker and general manager Jeremy Dineen.

The juice is cold stabilised, partially heat stabilised and cross-flow filtered.

The secondary ferment is commenced in tank and bottled when the viable cell count has reached its target (tirage ferment approximately 15°C).

The wine is bottle aged for 12-18 months prior to disgorging. The dosage liqueur contains Pinot Noir table wine to ensure a consistent salmon pink colour. It is dosed to contain a final sugar content of ▶ 10-12g/L. www. win e b iz . c o m . a u

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Austerity decree not evident in China wine imports

By Mark Rowley, Industry Analyst, Wine Australia

Late last year, Chinese President Xi Jinping called on top public servants, military brass and provincial party bosses to exhibit austerity, suggesting the days of tax-payer funded banquets and excess were numbered. Although the president’s declaration has anecdotally affected high end restaurants and sales of Bordeaux wine, an analysis of wine imports into China suggests it is business as usual.

I

n Jiangsu province northwest of Shanghai, an angry mob storms a lavish banquet serving exotic Yangtze fish and imported wine.

The local Chinese official pleads over a megaphone with the crowd for calm. What was the catalyst for this chaotic scene? In late 2012, Chinese President Xi Jinping called on top public servants, military brass and provincial party bosses to exhibit austerity and curb corruption. The days of tax-payer funded banquets and excess were apparently winding down. Anecdotally, the decree of the president has impacted on high end restaurants and Bordeaux sales; however, wine import statistics seem to indicate ‘business as usual’. For the record, the wine at the centre of the banquet was Yellow Tail.

To examine the impact of the decree, I have analysed wine imports into Hong Kong and China. Due to the tax differential between Hong Kong and China, a large volume of wine enters (especially high end as Table 1 shows) through Hong Kong and is then moved into China. For example, in 2012, a total of 5.5 million cases of wine were imported into Hong Kong – a market in which an estimated 1 million cases were consumed in 2012. Therefore, to get a complete picture of the total market for imported wine in China, imports through Hong Kong need to be included.

Table 1 illustrates that while imported volume growth continued in the year to April 2013, the average value of imports declined by $11 per case. This may suggest that the president’s decree has caused a decline in expensive wine imports, which would result in a lower average value. However, Figure 1 illustrates that the average value of imports has been trending downwards since mid-2011 well before the president’s decree.

What are the drivers behind the decline in average prices? To provide insight, I have separately illustrated the average value of bottled and sparkling imports for China and Hong Kong. In addition, as France accounts for roughly half of imports to both countries, imports are split into two categories: ‘France’ and ‘other imported’.

In three of the four cases, the average value has been in decline.

Figure 2 illustrates bottled still and sparkling shipments to China. It is clear that the average value of French wines has declined. Conversely, the average price of other imports has been rising steadily. Encouragingly for Australian exporters (who account for a quarter of this segment), the average value has been growing strongly along with volumes. ▶

Figure 1. Bottled still and sparkling wine imports into Hong Kong and China. Source: Global Trade Atlas

Figure 2. Bottled still wine and sparkling imports into China (average price). Source: Global Trade Atlas

Table 1. Sparkling and bottled still wine imports into China and Hong Kong for the year ended April 2013.

Source: Global Trade Atlas Volume

Value (USD)

Average value (USD/case)

Million cases

Change (%)

Million USD

Change (%)

USD/case

Change (%)

China

32.83

17%

$1518

10%

$46.23

-6%

Hong Kong

5.52

3%

$1008

-15%

$182.73

-17%

Grand Total

38.35

15%

$2526

-1%

$65.86

-14%

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Table 2. Bottled still wine and sparkling imports into Hong Kong and China (month on ‘corresponding month in previous year’ volume growth). Numbers in red highlight negative months while numbers in blue and white highlight positive months. The deeper the colour, the more extreme the growth.Source: Global Trade Atlas 2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

January

27%

85%

69%

-10%

58%

February

39%

46%

11%

77%

-4%

March

20%

76%

48%

19%

12%

April

53%

25%

81%

-5%

19%

May

49%

29%

61%

21%

June

83%

47%

43%

13%

July

36%

83%

37%

34%

August

52%

54%

65%

26%

September

31%

36%

51%

20%

October

47%

28%

53%

20%

November

49%

29%

95%

-19%

December Date of CNY

50%

58%

48%

-10%

26 January

14 February

03 February

23 January

10 February

Figure 3 shows the same two categories for Hong Kong. Although average value for French wine is almost double that from other sources, both segments have exhibited an almost identical downward trend in prices. Commentator on the Chinese wine market, Denis Gastin, explained, “European exporters are increasingly meeting mounting everyday-drinking demand, which has the effect of pulling down the average price of all imports. Recently I saw a major distributor offering Spanish wine for US$12 FOB per case.”

Another interesting feature of Figure 1 is the decline in export volumes around the time of the president’s decree. However, further

Figure 3. Bottled still wine and sparkling imports into Hong Kong. Source: Global Trade Atlas analysis would suggest that the timing of the Chinese New Year is likely to be the major cause of this lull in shipments. In 2013, the Chinese New Year fell on the 10 February, 19 days deeper into the year than in 2012. This meant that more imports destined for use as part of the celebrations entered the country in January instead of December. This has a negative effect on the moving annual total (MAT) for the year up until December 2012, but then volumes recovered in the January 2013 MAT. Table 2 supports this observation, showing that wine imports in January 2013 were up 58% on the same month in 2012. This coincided with a weak trading month in December 2012. Another example is a relatively weak January 2012, due to an early new year in 2012 and later one in 2011. Table 2 demonstrates a strong correlation between a February Chinese New Year and strong import growth in January.

It appears that the president’s decree has yet to have a significant impact on wine imports to China. The later than normal Chinese New Year did have a temporary effect by making the 2012 calendar year figures look weaker than they actually were. However, growth definitely slowed in 2012, but this trend was in play before the president’s decree. In contrast to France, Australian wine exports to China are bucking this trend, increasing in both volume and average value. Whether the president’s call for austerity takes time to gain traction remains to be seen.

For further analysis of wine imports into China, visit Winefacts on the Wine Australia website and find the China Competitor Analysis WVJ or contact Wine Australia directly: info@wineaustralia.com

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Time for the wine industry to marshal its mavericks to target consumers

By Richard Halstead Chief Operating Officer, Wine Intelligence. Email: info@wineintelligence.com

The UK wine industry is in crisis. Successive duty increases, increased supermarket buying power and adverse currency movements have conspired to eliminate meaningful returns from the market. UK importers and distributors now fight for relevance in a world increasingly dominated by direct purchasing, specialist retailers struggle to define an offer that can effectively compete with supermarkets, and supermarket wine buyers need to justify wine’s merchandising space and profitability against competing claims. Wine Intelligence recently conducted a symposium at the London International Wine Fair in May titled ‘Meet the Mavericks’ which challenged the wine industry to think outside traditional market norms to target consumers.

T

he wine trade loves tradition.

Change makes us more nervous.

That’s not to say that we never take risks, and never try out new ideas. But generally speaking, we revere the old, the established, the proven, and raise a suspicious eyebrow at things that seem to challenge the status quo.

It does create the feeling that wine is a rather conservative business. Take the Bordeaux classification of 1855: there can’t be many industries that still cling to a grading system that dates back to Napoleon III. Look at the production rules that govern much of Europe and an increasing swathe of the New World: they’re specifically designed to prevent any deviation from old ideas, and cheerfully stifle much innovation.

And look at the way we still design our wine labels. Yes, you’ll find the wacky critter brands wherever you look for them, but they’re massively outnumbered by the labels bearing images of chateaux (real or imagined), coats of arms, embossed gold lettering or aristocratic script.

Mavericks are thin on the ground in the wine trade, or so it would seem. It’s not the same story in the beer world, as anyone who has encountered BrewDog will attest.

Here is a company that the Daily Mail newspaper in the UK told its readers was going to be “responsible for the downfall of Western civilisation”. It’s quite a claim, and one the brewery took as a compliment.

Some of what BrewDog has done may look plain silly. It’s been involved in an arms race with rival brewers to produce the world’s strongest beer, occasionally taking the lead with brands like Tactical Nuclear Penguin (32%), Sink The Bismarck (41%) and The End of History (55%) – the latter being packaged inside the dead bodies of squirrels and stoats.

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It could be argued that the conservatism of the wine industry is a good thing. Perhaps we should be proud of the way we refuse to be swept along with short-term fads, preferring to trust the time-honoured methods of previous generations.

The Scottish brewer has picked fights with the British government and fellow beer producers (it gleefully destroys the 'bland' products of its mainstream rivals in promotional videos), has clashed with the Portman Group, the UK drinks industry regulator, and the media (including beer writers). It refuses to advertise, to compromise or to discount, even when taking orders from the UK’s all-important supermarket groups. Unsurprisingly, BrewDog is regarded as a maverick.

At the Meet the Mavericks symposium organised by Wine Intelligence at this year’s London International Wine Fair, BrewDog’s Sarah Warman explained the company’s rationale to an audience of wine trade delegates. At one point, guests were invited to think of any similarly deviant or iconoclastic producers from the wine world.

There was an awkward silence. Some Young Punks? Well, possibly. Any others?

Awkward silence again.

BrewDog’s brashness and belligerence doesn’t appeal to everyone, but it’s no mere marketing stunt, and neither is it intended to be entirely self-serving. Its campaigning forced a change in the law on beer glass sizes (the two-thirds-of-a-pint schooner suits its high-strength products beautifully).

The company circumvented conventional finance channels with an equity issue for its own customers, which has allowed it to build a smart new brewery.

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“Mainstream beer is exactly what we stand against: industrially-produced stuff is what everyone should be moving away from,” Warman says. “We’re trying to bring more people into the craft beer revolution.

But we’re not trying to keep it to a small amount of people. We’re trying to make it accessible to more and more people.”

BrewDog now runs a small chain of bars. “It’s essential for us to maintain a hold on what we’re about,” Warman says. “The bars really help with that. We don’t just sell our beers in our bars – we sell craft beers from around the world and we’re getting people to come to our beer schools and really learn what craft beer’s about.”

It could be argued that the conservatism of the wine industry is a good thing.

Perhaps we should be proud of the way we refuse to be swept along with short-term fads, preferring to trust the time-honoured methods of previous generations.

But, in a marketing context, maverick thinkers are sensing an opportunity that continues to elude old-school devotees.

Tyler Balliet is one of them. He is a former wine store salesman who became exasperated with the failure of the wine industry to connect and engage with the millennial generation to which he belongs.

Who exactly are the millennials? They’re generally regarded as those who were born between 1980 and 2000, though Balliet has a slightly different definition. They are, he www.winebiz. com . au

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Mavericks are important to any industry, but working with them isn’t always easy…their interjections can be annoying and disruptive…maybe only disruptive behaviour actually changes things. says, the people who cannot imagine what the world looked like before the arrival of the internet or smartphones.

Balliet recalls attending tasting events which were intended to inspire and educate consumers who had paid good money to attend. But he watched groups of younger drinkers shuffling nervously around the hall, never quite having the conversations or the revelations they had presumably come for.

In the end, they simply decided to get drunk.

To Balliet, this was a massive missed opportunity, and a minor tragedy. “How did these people take a huge room of alcohol and make it not fun?” he asked delegates at the Meet the Mavericks symposium.

Balliet’s solution to the problem was Wine Riot, an event which has so far reached six major US cities, attracting up to 3000 people each time. These are wine tastings, but not as we’ve come to know them. There is, perhaps inevitably, a DJ performing, creating a party ambience that is not loud enough to deter conversation.

Conventionalists will shudder, but the lights are dimmed (yes, that may mean you can’t tell whether your wine is brick red or deep crimson, but Balliet insists it’s a compromise that’s worth making).

There are also, quite unashamedly, seminars – despite the accepted wisdom that young drinkers will run a mile from anything that looks like ‘education’.

Recognising that attendees may be shy to ask questions that betray their ignorance,

Balliet has been known to plant questions such as “is wine made from grapes?” just to put everyone at ease.

There are photo booths, and temporary wine-themed tattoos that are applied by guests and pourers alike. Again, it adds to the relaxed mood. Guests feel less intimidated by a wine professional with mermaid tattoos on their neck and are, in Balliet’s experience, more likely to ask questions as a result.

“We felt by changing the environment we could make people react differently to this product,” he says. Yet Wine Riot is not merely about frivolity. “We said [at the outset] we’re going to pack this thing with so much education. People love learning a lot more about wine.”

Mavericks are important to any industry, but working with them isn’t always easy.

David Scotland, a former board director of a string of blue-chip drinks businesses, and now chairman of Wine Intelligence, warns that their interjections can be annoying and disruptive. “They throw hand grenades into meetings,” he told the symposium.

But, he argued, “maybe only disruptive behaviour actually changes things. Bernard Shaw says the reasonable man adapts himself to the world. The unreasonable man persists in trying to adapt the world to himself: therefore all progress relies on the unreasonable man.”

He added: “We are hard-wired to be neophobic from childhood, and worry about things that are new. We rely on people who love facts and details. The downside is that they like things that worked for them in the past. That’s sensible. But it can block new possibilities.”

It’s the “difficult conversations” started by mavericks that led to trade developments like bag-in-box wine and screwcaps. “All of those things seemed like revolutions at the time,” Scotland said. “Ideas that resonate and move people are not simply logical; ideas that feel right for people.”

Another speaker, Professor Michael

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Beverland, said that mavericks typically spend a long time studying a problem, not rushing to a quick-fix solution. “Mavericks try shape the world they’re in. They reframe the problem,” he told delegates.

Beverland cited the example of a coffee shop in Bath, England, which has become something of an international mecca for aficionados. The owner, Maxwell ColonnaDashwood, has rejected most of the ideas that inspire the big coffee chains – and even the ‘hipster cool’ independents that purport to offer an alternative.

“Max looked at wine and grapes. He wants to try and change people’s view of coffee.

He’s reframed the problem,” said Beverland.

“There’s no such thing as ‘a great espresso’ or ‘a great cappuccino’. Max realised the notion of the coffee shop was a barrier to treating coffee as a gourmet product.”

Coffee drinkers have been trained to think that decent coffee is strong, hot and requires milk and sugar for flavouring. ColonnaDashwood recognises the sometimes vast differences between different types of coffee beans, the terroir that creates them, and the various roasting techniques that can make a difference. This is all summarised on a blackboard which is changed on a daily basis.

It’s a maverick approach to coffee retailing, which can’t appeal to everybody.

Beverland argues that the wine industry needs to be equally bold, even elitist, in the way it targets consumers. “You’ve got to be prepared to let people walk out the door because you don’t have anything to provide them with, instead of trying to provide something for everyone,” he told the symposium.

It’s not a blueprint for every wine sales strategy, any more than Wine Riot sets a template for every consumer wine tasting, or BrewDog is the example that all producers should follow. Neither is it essential that marketing departments should be packed with mavericks: life would be impossible if this were the case.

But the symposium demonstrated that there are benefits to disruptive thinking, to awkward questions, to hand grenades in meeting rooms. And perhaps the wine industry has been nervous about such things WVJ for too long.

more jobs more winery positions more viticulture positions more industry positions MORE OFTEN… and listed with DailyWineNews

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Bringing out the best in Barbera The Wine & Viticulture Journal recently held its first tasting of Australian-made Barberas. Before turning to the complete results of the tasting on page 79, find out how the producers behind three of the best wines were crafted both in the vineyard and winery.

Mark Lloyd General Manager/Winemaker Coriole, McLaren Vale, South Australia Wine: 2012 Coriole Barbera (RRP$30/bottle) VITICULTURE The fruit is sourced from two vineyards. The first planting is at Coriole, in the north of the McLaren Vale wine region. It was planted in 1998 on own roots. These were made from Barbera clones 424 and 84, which were imported by Libby Tassie and Penfolds in the mid-1990s. The site is western facing on stony ironstone soils, and is around 150 metres above sea level.

The site is exposed to wind and late afternoon summer sun. It is a tough and bony site and vines need careful nurturing to deliver good quality fruit.

Mulch and compost have been added to help achieve this. Watering is via drip irrigation from a blend of bore water and reticulated waste water from the Willunga Basin Water Company. The total volume of water applied is around 0.8ML/ha.

The second site is at Sandalwood vineyard where Barbera was grafted onto Shiraz in 2010. Sandalwood is about 200 metres above sea level on the slopes of the eastern edge of the McLaren Vale GI with deep, well-resourced soils. The area planted is 0.5ha using both clone 84 and clone 424. Drip irrigation is from a bore and totals around 0.3ML/ha with watering probably only necessary late in the season. Sheep are used for grazing during the winter. This may remove the need for herbicide application depending on the season.

Training on both blocks is via a single cordon, spur pruned with two sets of foliage wires; vines are spaced 1.5m apart and rows 3m apart. Both shoot and bunch thinning can be necessary.

The mid-row is a natural grass sward.

The vines are pre-pruned and then hand finished with around 24-30 buds per vine. There are no particular pest and disease problems that these vines suffer. There is concern that a heat spike in summer may damage fragile Barbera fruit. Therefore, good vine coverage is V2 8N 4

Coriole’s winemaker and general manager Mark Lloyd, pictured in June this year with some of Coriole’s Barbera vines. required for protection. However, the formless nature of Barbera foliage can make this a challenge.

At harvest we are looking for a reasonable balance of sugar and acid, as the acidity can be extremely high.

The target yield is around 8.5t/ha.

A typical analysis of the Barbera at harvest: Baume 14.0 pH 3.2 WINEMAKING The winemaking for our Barbera is relatively standard. The fruit is machine or hand picked, depending on conditions and resources. Crushing and de-stemming is followed by open fermentation in three to four tonne fermenters. Following malolactic fermentation, the wine is placed in older French oak barrels and matured for approximately 12 months before bottling and release. The 2012 vintage was cold soaked for four days prior to seeding with a neutral yeast. Fermentation occurred over seven days and then pressing took place at dryness. The wine W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

underwent malolactic fermentation in barrel.

MARKETING Barbera at Coriole is marketed as part of a range of Italian varietals that includes Sangiovese, Fiano, Sagrantino and Nero D’Avola. Barbera was first produced at Coriole circa 2001. It has only recently become available for regular distribution with the 2011 vintage (first bottling was 2004).

It is sold through on-premise and independent retailers. There are no export markets planned.

Barbera has great potential because of its unique varietal make-up. There is strong demand for this natural low tannin, bright-fruited variety. However, it suffers as there are no world benchmark wines that give the variety sufficient status for a prominent profile.

Barbera sells extremely well at cellar door and other tastings. It may be a slow and steady process for it to gain strong sales in the on-premise and retail areas.

A label ‘refresh’ is planned for release of the 2013 vintage. ▶ www.winebiz. com . au

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Clovely Estate’s chief executive and chief winemaker Luke Fitzpatrick.

Luke Fitzpatrick Chief Executive/Chief Winemaker Clovely Estate South Burnett, Queensland Wine: 2010 Clovely Estate Left Field Barbera (RRP$22/bottle) VITICULTURE Our Left Field Barbara is an estategrown wine made from a 3.186ha block planted in 2000 in our vineyard in the South Burnett region of Queensland. The clone planted was F6V4. The vineyard has an elevation of approximately 400 metres above sea level and has friable, forest loam soils.

Typically, most of our rain falls during the growing season, with the region’s average annual rainfall measuring 750mm. However, since 2005 we have seen below average rainfall which has put tremendous pressure on our water resources, not withstanding the floods experienced in 2011 and again in 2013, with 550mm recorded in January and February of this year.

Summer temperatures in the South Burnett tend to be warm and humid with a mean January temperature of 23°C and a mean July temperature of 11.5°C. Winter frosts are common but rarely threaten budburst and beyond.

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The Barbera is planted at two metre intervals with three metres between rows. It is trellised to a ‘lazy’ VSP. In this system the majority of shoots are trained up, with some shoots brushed out to allow them to fall naturally around the fruit zone. The aim of this trellising is to provide a suitable combination of fruit exposure coupled with moderate shading. Given our warm climate and high probability of rain during the growing season, we need canopies that do not over-expose the fruit, but will be able to dry quickly following a rain event.

The vineyard is set up with inline drippers spaced at 0.75m intervals providing 2.3L/hr. The vineyard (and 37,000 tree olive grove) is irrigated from the Bjelke Petersen Dam from which we have an annual allocation of 1400ML. Typically, we would irrigate the Barbera with approximately 1-1.5ML/ha.

The Barbera vines are spur pruned to approximately 25-30 buds per vine.

However, following years of drought and a fire in this block on Christmas Eve in 2012, we have restricted this number for this growing season to 18-24 buds per vine. A small amount of nitrogen (4g/week) is applied shortly after budburst and is supplemented W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

with liquid seaweed throughout the season, both as a foliar spray and through the drip system. A variety of other nutrients, including calcium, may be given if required at different times. It is important in our region to achieve strong early shoot growth, as hot weather can restrict canopy development and leave fruit overexposed post-veraison. Barbera is also a variety that can be quite vigorous, so it is important to find the right nutritional balance.

Barbera that tends to maintain reasonable acid levels throughout the season, which allows us the luxury of focussing on flavour without the stress of plummeting TAs. Generally, the Barbera is harvested between 13.514.5Be, with acidity levels of 7.3-7.8g/L and pH of 3.3-3.5. Yields have fluctuated dramatically in the previous few years due to drought and flood. However, we would typically aim to harvest between 6-8t/ha.

WINEMAKING Our main intention with Barbera is to make a wine that represents the essence of the variety, whilst exhibiting characteristics of the region and vintage. In other words, we do not V28N4

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MARKETING The Barbera is bottled under screwcap in a 750ml punted claret bottle. This wine retails at approximately $22 and current production is 150-300 cases per year.

The Barbera is marketed under our ‘Left Field’ brand. This brand was developed for the varieties and styles in our portfolio that are a little unusual or ‘left of centre’. The back label of this range explains where this variety originates, how our style compares or differs to the traditional home of the particular wine and, finally, the type of food that it complements. With this range, our focus is on a sense of discovery and education, with these wines heavily featured at our series of winemaker dinners hosted at our city cellar door in Brisbane.

Vale Creek Wines, about 15 minutes south of Bathurst in New South Wales’ Central Ranges zone, pictured through Barbera vines. excessively interfere with this wine once it enters the winery. There are two main styles from its home in Piedmont: a lighter, more rustic style that would traditionally be aged in large format or seasoned oak barrels, and a more modern style where new French oak barriques are used, usually with riper fruit. We have modelled our wine on the former, however, over the past few years we have allowed this wine to increase slightly in ripeness.

The fruit is mechanically harvested, destemmed and crushed to open fermenters. Generally, there is no need for acid additions and we intentionally resist any urge to add tannin. We have trialled a variety of yeasts but favour Rhone 2323 and BRL97. The ferment begins at approximately 20°C and we allow temperatures to reach 30°C. The ferment is plunged two to three times,

with one drain and return every 24 hours. The fermenting wine is pressed to tank at approximately 2Be where it completes primary ferment. It is then racked off gross lees to tank to complete malolactic fermentation. Following this, the wine is racked off fine lees and 60ppm of SO2 is added with copper adjustment if required. The wine is then transferred to three-to four-year-old hogsheads for 9-15 months maturation.

Barrels are topped, analysed and adjusted (if necessary) each month.

In the final blend we are looking for a wine that has firm acidity, relatively low tannin levels and flavours such as cherry, plum, blackcurrant and dark chocolate with savoury characters. The wine is filtered to fine earth prior to bottling with SO2 and copper adjusted as required. Egg whites are used in some years but typically at very low levels.

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Tony Hatch Owner/Winemaker Vale Creek Wines Central Ranges, Victoria Wine: 2009 Vale Creek Barbera (RRP$25/bottle) VITICULTURE Our Barbera is a 100% single-vineyard, estate-grown wine. Vale Creek Wines is located about 18km south of Bathurst, New South Wales. The Barbera block is located in the vineyard to the south of the winery. The block has an elevation of 750m, slopes slightly downhill to the north and has a northerly aspect. Soils are sandy/stony sedimentary loams over clay and were deep ripped and limed prior to establishment. Temperatures reflect the cool-climate environment.

Frosts are not uncommon in October or even November, and so appropriate mitigation practices need be employed.

Historically, the average annual rainfall is around 634mm, and is slightly summer dominant, but like most regions is not

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reflective of the last 10-12 years. Westerly winds predominate.

Average maximum and minimum temperatures during the growing season:

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Max 19.7 23.1 26.2 27.7 27.1 24.5 19.9 Min 6.2 8.8 11.6 13.2 13.3 10.8 6.7 The Barbera block occupies just under one hectare of our modest 5ha vineyard. It was planted in 2002 and is mostly ownrooted AT84, with a few F6V4 vines. The vines are planted on a VSP trellis with a 2.75m row width. They are planted 1.5m apart, and are bi-laterally cane pruned on a 75cm cordon wire with two sets of foliage wires. Row orientation is east-west. The canopy is erect and relatively narrow, with hedging practised when necessary. Shoot thinning is employed as required, as is bunch thinning in most seasons.

Drip irrigation is available from boresourced water. Soil moisture is monitored electronically from gypsum block sensors at 20, 50 and 80cm horizons, but shoot tip and tendril monitoring provides a primary indication.

Ryegrass was sown and remains the dominant mid-row crop. Flail-mowing or slashing is used to control weeds. All prunings are mulched into the mid-row to break down. Vine row herbicides are used sparingly if required.

Bi-lateral cane pruning is employed leaving 6-10 buds per cane depending on the season. All pruning is done by hand.

Mechanical hedging (summer pruning) is employed in seasons of prolific growth.

A regular spray regime is performed commencing pre-budburst with sulfur and continuing with copper/sulfur applications every two to three weeks. These intervals are extended in dry spells. Stronger fungicides are avoided and only used when necessary. Downy and powdery mildews have appeared in small patches but have never affected the fruit. Some minor botrytis was evident during the very wet 2011 and 2012 seasons. Grapevine moth caterpillars appear from time to time but our friendly magpies soon clean them up.

Insecticides have never been used.

Apart from magpies, birds do present a problem. Crows move in as the fruit ripens, but at least they consume whole berries. Lock-out bird netting keeps them away. Tiny silver-eyes and wattle birds are a greater nuisance as they pick tiny holes in the berries, which then spoil and render them unusable. If not noticed and processed, they will introduce volatility in the ferment.

Bird netting is expensive. Although I have outlaid a considerable amount on nets and machinery, they are still costly to install every year. For the 2013 vintage

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I elected to leave the Barbera un-netted with an interesting outcome. I lost around 15% of the grapes to crows, but their very presence meant that the hole-picking birds stayed away. I’ve yet to do the sums on this, but I am considering future bird strategies.

Other management practices have evolved to a satisfactory production level.

However, I do often consider if spur pruning would cause a drop in quality, and will perhaps experiment with a row or two.

In a vineyard planted entirely with Italian varieties, Barbera has proven to be less confronting than some others. Spring frosts can be a problem, so forecasts must be monitored and precautions taken. Being quite an acidic variety, it is essential to ensure adequate physiological ripening is achieved before harvest. Early leaf-fall can make this challenging.

To be ready for harvest, Barbera should produce some very handsome bunches, with medium elliptical berries, be dark blue in colour and have an attractive bloom.

Although acidic in nature, the ripe juice should be extremely flavoursome, with the seeds being crunchy and exhibiting lignification.

At harvest I would aim (hope) for test figures of around 12.5-14Be, 7-9g/L TA, and a pH of 3.1-3.3 before considering harvest, as long as the fruit is physiologically ripe.

Yields are kept quite low at around 4-6t/ha.

WINEMAKING Nothing special here - winemaking is quite conventional. Fruit is hand harvested in the cool of the morning and transported to the winery as soon as possible to keep the bunch temperature at or below 16ºC. If harvest is delayed the cool room is utilised.

PMS at 100g/t is added at this stage.

After weighing, the grapes are added to the hopper and fed into the destemmer/ crusher where they are light-medium crushed and pumped into a stainless steel closed fermenter. The must is chilled to <14ºC and cold macerated for three to four days. Then, it is allowed to warm to around 16ºC, at which time yeast is added together with a nutrient. My experience with Barbera is that it is prone to H2S formation and, so, it is important to maintain levels of YAN. After cap formation, the ferment is pumped over three to four times per day for at least 20 minutes, and it is aerated for a similar period every other day until it reaches around 2-3Be. Early co-fermentation is now practised, so an MLF bacterium is added shortly after cap formation. The wine is fermented to total dryness and then further macerated on skins for two or three days without letting the temperature fall much below 18ºC. The wine is lightly basket pressed into stainless steel and settled for a few W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

days. Pressings are kept separate, and in most seasons some of the marc is isolated for distilling at our local ‘Stone Pine’ distillery into grappa. After settling for a week or so, the wine is racked off lees into barrels. French oak is used exclusively, and new oak sparingly in a mixture of puncheons and barriques.

Cellar temperatures are maintained at around 18ºC until MLF is verified, after which sulfur is added as PMS. Free sulfur dioxide levels are maintained at around 35mg/L for up to 12-15 months, during which time barrels are topped up monthly and the wine regularly tasted to ensure oak optimisation.

Taste trials are also carried out at various intervals to determine appropriate fining additions, and further tasting takes place to determine blending ratios at the end of barrel maturation.

If required, the wine is filtered before bottling. Bottling is under screwcap, and is usually effected by a mobile bottling plant from Premium Estate Bottlers.

Obviously, cultural practices in the vineyard are different from one season to the next depending on conditions, with the only real change being in bird management. This is still a work in progress. Similarly in the winery, types and brands of yeasts, nutrients, bacteria and other consumables will change from year to year. Probably the most significant differences would be the extended maceration period and the early co-fermentation practices employed.

MARKETING Our wines are carried in a number of restaurants and liquor outlets in and around Bathurst and the Blue Mountains, with a few placements in Sydney. We are currently undergoing a marketing appraisal and website upgrade with Define Wine to effect better promotion and exposure, and these improvements should become live very soon.

Perhaps the greatest marketing obstacle that we face from Australian wine drinkers is in the general lack of knowledge and familiarity with Italian varietals. In presenting our Barbera we are so often asked “is it like a Merlot?” or “do you have something like a Shiraz?”

I have spent much of my life travelling internationally, where in Europe, the UK or North America one finds as many Italian, Spanish and other wines on a wine list as there are French varieties.

This situation is improving in Australia… but slowly. In a country where we choose from a very eclectic global menu, our diners are denied so many wonderful WVJ wines.

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Barbera, Queen of Tarts The Wine & Viticulture Journal recently held its first tasting of Australian Barberas – likely the biggest tasting of its type outside of the Australian Alternative Varieties Wine Show. Despite its reputation for being a warm climate variety, our tasting attracted a surprising number of cooler climate examples.

O

ur recent blind tasting of Australian-made Barberas has shown the nation is producing a mix of lighter and bigger versions of the wine, which is known for its intense colour and acidity and low tannin.

A total of 15 Barberas from vintages 2009 through to 2012 were tasted by a trio of McLaren Vale winemakers, all of whom have had experience with the variety: Mark Lloyd, of Coriole, a pioneer of Italian varieties that has been growing and making Barbera for around 10 years; Emmanuelle Bekkers, of Chalk Hill, which has also been producing Barbera for several years; and Briony Hoare, of Beach Road Wines, who currently specialises in Italian varieties and worked with Barbera during a vintage in Piedmont where the grape is best known.

As an interesting aside and comparison, the tasting also included two Barbera blends – a 50-50 Barbera Sangiovese and a 64-36 Barbera Nebbiolo.

The tasting panel agreed that although the vast majority of the straight Barberas exhibited ‘typical’ characteristics, the acid in a few of them stuck out a little too much while the colour of some, especially those from the 2010 vintage, was indicative of premature ageing.

“A lot of the wines were exactly what you might expect from Barbera. Some were quite light and more aged than expected, but most had relatively high acid which is what you want in Barbera – it’s the difference between it and many other varieties,” Lloyd said.

“The development of some of the wines was surprising,” Lloyd continued.

“I haven’t looked at our own Barbera in a line-up of back vintages – we never have any left in stock to line up – to see how the colours develop. But, if this tasting is any indication of the ageing ability of Barbera, then it would seem it is best to get it out quickly; don’t let it hang around.”

However, he questioned whether the premature ageing was more a result of vintage conditions than the variety itself.

Hoare said the seeming premature ageing of some of the wines seemed to support the adage that Nebbiolo is for ageing, while Barbera is for drinking.

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McLaren Vale compatriots and tasting panellists Briony Hoare, of Beach Road Wines, Mark Lloyd, of Coriole, and Emmanuelle Bekkers, of Chalk Hill.

“I was expecting more primary fruit in the wines,” she added. “In Piedmont, Barbera has such a dominant primary fruit character which is so lovely and attractive.

I remember coming back from there thinking what a fabulous variety Barbera is as an alternative to the intensity of Shiraz; I always thought the delicacy, perfume and fruit flavour of Barbera was such an attractive quality.”

Bekkers described the wines in the tasting as a “good mix of intense and lighter Barbera”.

She added that she was surprised by the use of oak, with none being over-powered by wood.

“Because of its high acidity Barbera can handle oak quite well, but in using too much oak you can lose some of those very nice varietal characters that make the wine so appealing. So you have to handle oak carefully with this variety,” Bekkers said.

“One of the beaut things about Barbera is that it doesn’t have huge tannins that most of the other varieties from Italy have and I think that’s also very appealing. That means it is soft, but it is still very full and rich in its flavour.”

She noted that Barbera was an “intense viticultural variety”, saying that, “you have to visit it often to keep an eye on it”.

“Like most Italian varieties, Barbera is W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

not easy to grow. Its sprawling canopy is a pain and it tends to roll. The vines also give a big fruitset for the canopy it produces, so thinning is necessary. At Chalk Hill, we’ve got four different Barbera clones across two vineyards sites and we keep seeing the same characteristics, so one assumes they’re typical of Barbera.”

“Barbera produces big, crowded bunches so you have to thin it,” echoed Lloyd. “It’s a bit like Nebbiolo - the canopy doesn’t have any structure and it just flops; it needs to be held up.”

Lloyd and Bekkers also noted Barbera was prone to heat stress.

The tasting panel was also surprised at the number of Barberas in the line-up from cooler climates.

“There were very few warm climate regions represented in the wines, yet Barbera is a variety that is known for its versatility and high acidity, so you think that would make it attractive for warm regions,” Lloyd said. “Barbera is difficult enough to grow in McLaren Vale. I would have thought it would be even more difficult in cooler climates.”

The panel’s best wines of the tasting were the Coriole 2012 Barbera, Clovely Estate 2010 Left Field Barbera, Michael Unwin 2010 Umbrella Man Acrobat Barbera and Vale Creek 2009 Barbera. www.winebiz. com . au

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Coriole 2012 Barbera

Clovely Estate 2010 Left Field Barbera

Michael Unwin 2010 Umbrella Man Acrobat Barbera

South Burnett, Queensland 14.2% v/v - screwcap RRP$20.00/bottle

Beaufort, Victoria 13.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$28.00/bottle

Best of 2010: Deep brick and ochre in colour with great intensity. Warm, nutty and mature notes on the nose, as well as lifted vanilla, cinnamon, cloves and red and black fruits. Intense palate of black fruit with well-integrated oak adding complexity. A nice wine, but question whether it is typical Barbera. “A big wine that must have been a monster as a baby,” noted one taster.

Best of 2010: A youthful appearance of deep purple.

Warm, mature oak characters on the nose, as well as dark and red fruits and jam. Complex blend of dark fruit and spices on the palate which has a good balance of strength, fruit and warming alcohol and a long finish.

Acid could perhaps be a little softer.

Vale Creek 2009 Barbera

Dalzotto 2012 Barbera

DiLusso 2012 Barbera

Central Ranges, New South Wales 13.9% v/v – screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle

King Valley, Victoria 13.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle

Mudgee, New South Wales 13.7% v/v – screwcap RRP$28.00/bottle

Best of 2009: Deep red in colour with some hints of purple. Interesting and complex nose of fruit and oak.

Soft and elegant palate with loads of fruit and spices and a rich, velvety mouthfeel; great intensity and wellbalanced with coating tannins that carry the wine for a long and strong finish. A big, rich Barbera that is still quite youthful; a wel-made, enjoyable drink.

Red brick in colour – quite light for a 2012 vintage.

Slightly developed nose with cedar tones and infused red fruit and spices – a sweet nose. Light to medium palate which has good texture, a layer of tannin and cedar and a lift of vanilla. Finishes a touch short.

Bright deep purple in colour. Sulfide held the wine back initially but opened to some beautiful black fruit, mulberries and cherries backed by some soft oak.

Powerful, robust, full-flavoured, low-tannin palate which is smooth and silky with well-balanced acidity. Great length.

Angullong Estate 2011 Fossil Hill Barbera

Margan 2011 Limited Release Barbera

Skimstone 2011 Barbera

Orange, New South Wales 13.5% v/v – screwcap RRP$22.00/bottle

Hunter Valley, New South Wales 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$40.00/bottle

Deep colour with red and purple hues. Infused spices on the nose with cinnamon and cherries; slightly herbal.

Fairly typical of Barbera in palate and texture; rich in spice and pepper. A light bodied, high acid, well-balanced wine with a soft and long, silky finish.

Deep purple in colour with red hues. Complex nose with sweet, lifted confectionary fruit as well as red fruit, cherries and some meatiness; some oak evident.

Great mouthfeel on the palate, which has a richness suggesting the influence of oak. Hint of vanilla and spice with a long finish; great persistence.

Rich purple in colour. An interesting and enticing nose which was a bit closed at first but opened to reveal a hint of spices, dark berries, raspberries and cherries; oak perhaps a little too dominant. Powerful palate with upfront fruit sweetness and great length. Sweet vanilla from the oak adds to the complexity of this wine. One taster said the wine suggested a lot of winemaking had gone into it to make a good wine even better. Perhaps not as varietal as it could be.

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McLaren Vale, South Australia 14.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle Best of 2012: Deep, rich purple in colour. Very attractive nose of black fruit and cherry liquor; good integration of oak is evident. Soft palate that is rich, elegant, has great fruit intensity and good acidity that carries through to a long finish; silky mouthfeel. A bright, fresh and youthful wine. “Herbal but in a nice way,” said one taster.

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Mudgee, New South Wales 15.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$28.00/bottle

T A S T I N G NO T E S

Topper’s Mountain 2010 Barbera New England, New South Wales 14.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$32.00/bottle Mature in colour – brick red. Developed notes also evident on the nose, including cedar and dark fruit; a hint of alcohol lift. A smoky/rubbery character apparent on the nose and, to a lesser degree, on the palate, which the tasters supposed might be an aged character. Lively acidity on the moderate-weight palate which lacks complexity.

Chain of Ponds 2010 The Stopover Barbera Adelaide Hills, South Australia 13.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$22.00/bottle Deep red in colour. Nose is somewhat dominated by oak with a hint of spice. Balanced, full-flavoured palate with some cherry fruit sweetness; slightly grippy tannins.

Glenwillow 2010 D’Yandoit Barbera

Patritti 2010 Adelaide Hills Barbera

Bendigo, New South Wales 13.0% v/v - screwcap RRP$25.00/bottle

McLaren Vale, South Australia 13.0% v/v - cork RRP$16.00/bottle

Brick red – showing signs of age. Interesting nose with some fruit, including infused cherries, and some atypical characters of cardamom and cigar box. A soft and well-balanced palate which is ageing nicely into some complex fruit, cedar and spice tones. A light and simple wine.

Deep red with a hint of brick in colour. A slightly herbaceous nose with cola/raspberries. Soft and sweet palate featuring developed, oak-aged Barbera characters; fruit just hanging in there and slightly tannic finish. A powerful, intense wine.

Paul Bettio 2010 Barbera

Boggy Creek 2009 Barbera

King Valley, Victoria 13.2% v/v - screwcap RRP$18.00/bottle

King Valley, Victoria 14.2% v/v - screwcap RRP$24.00/bottle

Rich red brick in colour. Interesting and lovely nose featuring strong primary fruit characters, including jam and mulberry, as well as some watermelon and confectionary notes. A mature, medium-bodied, balanced palate with pleasing sweet fruit and attractive and savoury tannins. A lighter style Barbera that is well made.

Deep brick to cherry red in colour with bright shades.

Youthful and mature aromas on the nose. A couple of the tasters questioned whether Brett was present. Typical Barbera characters on the generous palate featuring mature flavours, soft tannins and quite a firm acid mouthfeel.

TASTING PANEL’S OVERALL COMMENTS ON THE BARBERA BLENDS

Zonte’s Footstep 2012 Canto di Lago Sangiovese Barbera (50% Barbera, 50% Sangiovese) Langhorne Creek, South Australia 14.5% v/v - screwcap RRP$22.00/bottle Deep, rich red in colour with purple hues. Dark fruit on the nose including mulberry, as well as some toast. Rich palate with a strong, well-balanced tannin structure. A lovely wine.

V2 8N 4

Yarra Yering 2011 Barbiolo (64% Barbera, 36% Nebbiolo) Yarra Valley, Victoria 14.5% v/v - cork RRP$84.00/bottle Brick red in colour. Lots of spice on the nose which is gentle and sweet. Strong chocolate notes on the palate with a cherry lift. Soft tannin structure and good mouthfeel with a slight acid lift on the finish. A wellbalanced wine but lacks some fruit weight.

W i n e & Viticultur e Jo ur na l JULY/A UGUST 2013

Emmanuelle Bekkers said both blends moved away from the pretty fruit and tannin structure for which Barbera is known. Consequently, the characteristics of the wines reflected the blends more so than Barbera.

Mark Lloyd agreed saying, “they were fairly rich wines that showed more conventional red wine qualities – more structure and richness”.

Both Bekkers and Lloyd agreed Barbera would be a useful variety in a blend due mainly to its colour but also because of its acidity.

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PROducts & services

2013 fungicide spray programs released for grapevines F

aced with a range of fungicide choices, various diseases to control over the crop cycle, concerns about resistance, and a range of product withholding periods, grape growers have complicated decisions to make about their spray programs.

To simplify growers’ decision-making and resistance management, Crop Care has developed a set of easy-to-follow, practical and effective fungicide spray programs for 2013.

Crop Care horticulture business manager Kerrie Mackay said growers could use the spray programs and be confident they had everything covered.

“The programs are designed to control the full range of fungal diseases over the grapevine crop cycle – phomopsis, black spot, powdery and downy mildew and botrytis rot.”

She said separate spray programs for different climates and regions provided the best options for disease control throughout the season.

One program has been developed for cool, wet growing regions including Margaret River, Coonawarra, Yarra Valley, Mudgee, Orange and Stanthorpe.

Another has been developed for warm, dry growing regions including the Barossa, Riverland, Sunraysia, Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, Hunter Valley and inland Queensland.

Mackay said the number of sprays required would vary with disease pressure and the diseases present, so the programs had been designed to ensure effective control under high disease pressure.

“All important considerations were taken into account when preparing the programs,” she said. “Products are selected and included in the strategic spray programs on the basis of mode of action, resistance management, cost effectiveness, integrated pest management, product withholding periods, and crop and environmental safety.

“Competitor products are included where Crop Care does not have an appropriate, effective product.”

Mackay outlined the philosophy behind the programs.

Cost effectiveness In choosing between alternative products with similar functions, the lower-priced option was selected where possible.

For example, Mackay said the more

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Crop Care has developed a set of easy-to-follow, strategic fungicide spray programs for 2013 with products selected on the basis of mode of action, resistance management, cost effectiveness, integrated pest management, product withholding periods, and crop and environmental safety. expensive products combining both protective and post-infection activity against downy mildew (like Duplex) were only recommended where there had been infection and curative activity was required.

Strategic coverage With industry focus on good phomopsis control, the programs’ all-important earlyseason control of phomopsis included prebudburst application of Emblem, followed by applications of Delan and Captan between budburst and preflowering – both of which have been shown to be highly protectant against the disease.

Mackay said that for botrytis control, the programs recommended high-value systemic products at critical times – including highly effective bunch-rot fungicides in cool wet climates at 80% capfall, pre-bunch closure and pre-harvest.

“At less critical stages of the crop, or when disease pressure is low, protectants such as Barrack and Captan are recommended.”

Resistance management To minimise the development of resistance, the programs recommend a range of fungicides and modes of action. For example, products from five different groups of fungicides are recommended to control powdery mildew throughout the crop cycle.

Fungicides are included at times of the disease cycle when they will be most effective.

All uses comply with Crop Life recommendations for fungicide-resistance W i n e & V i t i c ultur e Jo ur n a l JULY/A UGUST 2013

management, including the maximum number of sprays. In some cases the usage of a particular product or mode of action is less than the Crop Life recommendations.

IPM management The effect of fungicides on biological control agents such as predatory mites is carefully considered. Those known to have an adverse impact are not included – unless there is no alternative with a better IPM profile.

The protectants Captan and Delan are included for their excellent IPM profiles and their ability to control a spectrum of diseases (phomopsis cane and leaf blight, downy mildew and black spot).

Withholding periods All recommendations comply with AWRI recommendations for export wine withholding periods.

Crop and environmental safety The programs include only products known to be safe to crops, and minimise the use of sprays known to have an adverse effect on vines or the environment.

For example, using copper products throughout the season will cause bronzing of leaves on many varieties and may result in pollen sterility. So copper products are only recommended after flowering and later in the season.

Copies of the spray programs can be obtained from Kerrie Mackay on 0413 458 069 or Customer Service 1800 111 454.

V28N4

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