The Aztec empire by Andrey DAS

Pub

e occasion of the exhibition

The Aztec Empire

red by

Felipe Solis

Solomon

October

15,

Guggenheim Museum, New York 2004-February

13,

Guggenheim Museum

The Solomon

ass stance of

CONACULTA-INAH

4ACONACULTA This exhibition

2005

INAH^

organized by the Solomon

acknowledges the

gratefully

organizing the loans from Mexico.

Guggenheim Museum

collaboration with the Consejo Nacional para

Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA)

Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH).

itituto

Major sponsors of this exhibition are

ÂŠ Banamex_

~^~~~

Citigroup,

Televisa Additional support provided by

ucvirn

j^ PEMEX

This exhibition has also been

Federal Council

made

possible

part by an indemnity

from the

on the Arts and the Humanities, together with the generous

support of the Leadership Committee for The Aztec Empire,

GRUMA,

ALFA,

and Con Edison.

Transportation assistance provided by

aeromexico

Media support provided by Thirteen/WNET.

Special thanks to the

United States

Embassy of Mexico

the

U.S.,

the Embassy of the

Mexico, and the Consulate General of Mexico

The Aztec Empire

e 2004 14

Instituto Nacional

The Solomon

All rights

reserved.

321-7 (hardcover)

ISBN

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de Antropologia e Historia/CONACULTA.

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Contents

Introduction 26 Felipe Solis

Art

the Aztec Empire

Traces of an Identity Beatriz de la Fuente

The Aztecs and the Natural World 56 The Basin of Mexico as William

Habitat for Pre-Hispanic Farmers

Sanders

The Harmony between People and Animals

Mercedes de

Garza

The Aztecs and Their Ancestors 81 Precolumbian

Man and

His

Cosmos

Felipe Solis

100 Origins and Forms of Art

the Aztec Empire

Felipe Solis

lin

The Olmec

Ann Cyphers

Hi Teotihuacan Linda Manzanillu

121 Tula

and the Tolteca \ Diehl

Thejemplo Mayor /

;â&#x20AC;˘

Excavations at the Templo Mayor

Eduardo Matos Moctezuma

the Aztec World

280

The Templo Mayor

at Tenochtitlan

Juan Alberto Roman Berrelleza

The Puebla and Tlaxcala Valleys Veronica Velasquez

284

Aztec Religion

The Domain of Coatlalpan

168

Jose Luis Rojas Martinez

Aztec Religion: Creation, Sacrifice, and Renewal Karl Taube

288 The Mixteca

178 Axis

Nelly M. Robles Garcia

Mundi

Roberto Velasco Alonso

300 The Huaxteca and the Totonaca

194

Felipe Solis

Gods and Rituals Guilhem Olivier

The Tarasean Empire 212 Painted Books and Calendars Elizabeth Hill

Boone

310 The Tarasean Empire Phil C.

Weigand

Aztec Society

Tarasean Art

222

Roberto Velasco Alonso

Nobles and

Michael

Commoners

Smith

The 230 Everyday

Michael

Fall

of the Empires

33 The Conquest as Seen by the Mexica -Aztecs Miguel Leon-Portilla i

Life in

Tenochtitlan

Smith

The Aztec Empire

3 12 The Spanish Conquest of Tenochtitlan

250

Pablo Escalante Gonzolbo

The Aztec Empire Richard

FJownsend Catalogue Checklist

264

351

The Provinces of the Aztec Empire Frances

Berdan

Bibliography

270 The Population of the Mexico and Toluca Valleys Perla Valle Perez

Preface

THE VISUAL NARRATIVE UNFOLDING BEFORE VISITORS TO THE EXHIBITION THE AZTEC EMPIRE EXPOSES SOME OF THE

hidden recesses of an essentially religious and military culture that

appeared

tragically. In less

empire from a vastly

economy. They formed strategic military

and

a harsh tributary system,

imposed

stone, feather, and metalwork,

utterances-to mention only some of the their

life,

as the

critic

Paul

Westheim has

alliances,

and established an

commerce. Perhaps even more noteworthy was the achieved

splendor and dis-

stratified society, as well as to create a strict educational

solid agricultural far,

lived in

than one hundred years, the Aztecs managed to erect a unique

level

system and

conquered domains near

intricate

network of trade and

of aesthetic excellence the Aztecs

ceramics, architecture, chronicles, and poetic

skills

that formed the "vital energy" impregnating

written.

Nourished by the cultural legacy of their predecessors, such as the Olmec, Teotihuacan,

and Toltec peoples; imbued with the wisdom culled from subjugated provinces; and enced by the craftsmanship of the few peoples

who

defied

them and maintained

independence, such as the Purepecha (Tarascans), the Aztecs excelled ciplines. Reflecting a close relationship with

influ-

their

wide range of

dis-

nature and the gods of a vast pantheon, these

disciplines included observation of the celestial bodies;

botany and herbal medicine; mathe-

matics and pictographic writing; monumental architecture and

art.

The comprehensiveness

of the exhibition enriches our understanding of this extraordinary Mesoamerican civilization,

whose veneration of the sun flooded contrast, those

who

sacrificial

stones with the blood of

carved these very stones would

refer to friends as

has been a great honor for the Consejo Nacional para

its

victims. In stark

"perfumed flowers."

Cultura y las Artes and the

Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia to collaborate with the

Guggenheim. The pres-

entation of extraordinary archeological objects and masterpieces of the pre-Hispanic world at the

Solomon

Guggenheim Museum

New

a greater appreciation of the cultural legacy that

When

considering the works on view,

British sculptor of universal resonance,

material,

its

tremendous power without

it is

York provides an invaluable tool for gaining is

a source of pride for

all

Mexicans.

easy to concur with Henry Moore, the renowned

who spoke

of Mexican stone sculpture's "truth to

loss of sensitiveness ... its

approach to

a full three-

dimensional conception of form." The dawning of the sixteenth century brought with of the Aztecs, but their brilliant and powerful creations remain and

fall

will,

the

to paraphrase

Westheim, prove impervious to time and the notions of space and subject matter. Their songs resonate-the remains of the Templo Mayor, the fragments, many colossal

still

art

whose

disquieting beauty

filled

Central Mexico.

Sari

Bermudez

President, Consejo Nacional para

in scale,

the teeming horizon of an empire that dominated

Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA)

Preface

MYTH, AS TERRITORY OF THE

HUMAN

CONDITION,

UNDOUBTEDLY THE MOST EFFECTIVE MEANS FOR EXPRESSING

the unique nature of a culture. Although

may seem

where

historic

and

social identities are constructed,

and

to repeat certain universal types

forms, myth establishes the distinctions and boundaries between self and other.

the place

It is

where the imagination recasts

life

symbolic dimensions.

Mythic narrative explains geographies and times; points to timeless preoccupations; provides a bols for the creative works of a beings,

and

intersect.

frontiers

Myth

a specialized

and even

origins, impulses,

source for literature and innumerable signs and sym-

community; as

well as indicating-through deities, other

vocabulary of representations-the realm where sacred and profane

Imagined personal and collective destinies imbue history with meaning. Immediate

between myth and is

reality evaporate.

the most salient indicator of the

ancient Mexican history.

ter in

life

and death of the Aztec world, the

final

chap-

provided the substance for the primordial covenant between

the war and sun god Huitzilopochtli and his people, which was established at the outset of a long pilgrimage to the land that would

ning

become the

navel of the world and bring forth, begin-

the fourteenth century, the unforgettable grandeur of Tenochtitlan.

the impulse that led the Aztecs,

toward empire,

their precipitous path

ous peoples over the span of mere decades. This same mythology, which had attitudes and

cal

military campaigns,

inevitably

And

explains

conquer numerjustified politi-

underlay the terror the Aztecs had of

the return of Quetzalcoatl, the deity they fatally supposed was incarnated

the form of the

conquistadors.

a sign of veneration, the

sun was to be provided with the sacred food of blood, thus

ensuring the celestial being's dominance over the nocturnal elements and continuity daily course.

Not without drama, the Aztecs' fulfillment of

hegemony

dealing with other

humans and

their destiny took the

its

form of

gratitude toward the divinities. Aztec religiosity,

originally a principle for social cohesion, also provided the outlines for an extraordinarily original aesthetic. final

Most compellingly evidenced

the architecture and urban planning of the

pre-Hispanic century, this aesthetic also led to a flourishing

devoted to working with stone, ceramics, cotton, animal

Conceived within a framework that is

quality of the pieces

New

York's

museum-going marks

national exhibitions of pre-Hispanic art presented over the years.

themes, following

and feathers.

public. In

terms of the

included-most of which are from the collections of the

Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia-this exhibition

cific

the arts and professions

both aesthetic and- archeological, The Aztec Empire

specifically directed to the sensibilities of

number and

skins, paper,

chronology from the origins of Aztec

a milestone in the inter-

It is

organized around spe-

civilization to the

time of

first

contact with the European world.

The mysterious interplay between the objects and modern perceptions imbues them with '

an unsettling beauty. The awe aroused by this imperial art power.

In this

sense, the Aztecs are our

own

a sign of

contemporaries.

Sergio Raul Arroyo Director General, Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH)

its

timeless and primal

ÂŠ Banamex

Citigroup*

BANAMEX

VERY PROUD TO PARTICIPATE AS A MAJOR SPONSOR OF THE AZTEC EMPIRE EXHIBITION, THE MOST

comprehensive survey of the

art

and culture of the Aztecs ever assembled outside Mexico.

Banamex was founded in 1884, its history has been closely related to the history of Mexico. But it has always been much more than a bank. With the conviction that businesses have a social responsibility, Banamex has participated in many activities that go far beyond Since

financial matters.

Through the programs carried out by

foundations, the bank supports culture and

art, social

its

cultural, social,

and ecological

development, and the conservation and

protection of the environment. This year

Banamex

celebrates

its

120th anniversary-an important achievement and also

an excellent opportunity to emphasize the bank's commitment to supporting and promoting

Mexican art and culture. At the same time, sponsoring this superb exhibition at the Guggenheim Museum in New York is part of an effort to build bridges of mutual understanding between two countries whose historical relationship has become increasingly close in

economic and

social terms, especially during the last decade.

Banamex's integration into Citigroup brings the best of the world

taking the best of Mexico to the rest of the world. Consequently, the bank port the

Solomon

leled exhibition

collections

Guggenheim Foundation

that brings together

Manuel Medina-Mora

presentation

New

delighted to sup-

York of an unparal-

more than four hundred works drawn from major

the United States and Mexico.

Chief Executive Officer

in its

Mexico and allows is

Televisa

TELEVISA PROUDLY

SPONSORS THE EXHIBITION THE AZTEC EMPIRE AS PART OF

and sharing

Mexican heritage.

Grupo

its

Televisa

one of the world's

Televisa's productions are broadcast

its

largest

countries

ments. Televisa

in is

movies, radio, and

Latin America, Asia, Europe,

also involved live

satellite

COMMITMENT TO PROMOTING

Spanish-language television producers.

four networks

ming content reaches Spanish-speaking communities and

ITS

Mexico.

Much

of this program-

the United States through Univision,

and Africa through other licensing agree-

and cable

television, the Internet, publishing,

entertainment.

Fundacion Televisa focuses on enhancing the nutrition, health, and education of children,

and promoting values such as honesty, generosity,

responsibility,

impact social-awareness campaigns. Televisa's foundation

and promoting Mexico's

artistic heritage, as well as to

and respect through high-

also

committed to preserving

generating more interchanges between

our culture and other cultures around the globe. It

is in

this vein that

bition at the

are pleased to support The Aztec Empire, a groundbreaking exhi-

Guggenheim Museum

civilization.

Emilio Azcarraga Jean

Chief Executive Officer

New

York that

will

shed new

light

a magnificent

I \

(

^ i

f.W.f*

Team

Project

Guggenheim Museum

Richard Avery, Chief Cabinetmaker

Executive Staff

Sam

Edward Cunningham, Cabinetmaker

Dennison, Deputy Director anc

Lisa

Zainek,

Deputy

Director.

Christopher Powell, Cabinetmaker

.'ator

Communications and Publishing

Director,

Robert Ebeltoft, Metal Fabricator Christopher George, Metal Fabricator

Cox, Deputy Director, Special Projects

Dane Solomon, Deputy

Green, Cabinetmaker

Douglas Hollingsworth, Cabinetmaker

as Krens, Director

Corporate Development and Global

Joseph Taylor, Metal Fabricator

Marketing

Marc

Deputy

Steglitz,

Director. Finance

and Operations

Facilities

Anand, Director of

Brij

sneral Counsel

Ian A. Felmine,

House

Facilities

Electrician

Art Services and Preparations Scott Wixon,

Manager of Art Services and Preparations

Finance

Barry Hylton, Senior Exhibition Technician

Amy

Derek DeLuco, Technical Specialist

Christina Kallergis, Budget

Mary Ann Hoag,

West, Director of Finance

and Planning Analyst

Lighting Designer

Graphic Design Marcia Fardella, Chief Graphic Designer

Conservation Ransick Gat, Project Conservator

Leslie

Amy

Cassey Chou, Senior Graphic Designer

Concetta Pereira, Production Supervisor

Jones, Assistant Project Conservator

Christine Sullivan, Graphic Designer

Eleonora Nagy, Sculpture Conservator

Janice Lee, Graphic Designer

Construction Michael Sarff, Construction Manager

Legal

William Ragette, Lead Carpenter

Brendan Connell, Associate General Counsel

Development Anne Bergeron,

Marketing Director of Institutional and Capital

Development

Kendall Hubert, Director of Corporate Development

Laura

Miller, Director

of Marketing

Ashley Prymas, Marketing Manager

Gina Rogak, Director of Special Events Helen Warwick, Director of Individual Development

Photography

Pepi Marchetti Franchi, Executive Associate, Director's Office

David M. Heald, Director of Photographic Services and Chief

Photographer

Debbie Ahn, Manager of Membership

Penelope Betts, Manager of Corporate Membership

Kim Bush, Manager of Photography and Permissions

Stephen Diefenderfer, Special Events Manager

Manager of Corporate Sponsorship

Hillary Strong, Cecilia

Wolfson, Manager of Individual Giving

Beth Allen, Corporate Development Associate

Peggy Julia

Allen, Special Events

Public Affairs

Ann Edgars Associates Jennifer Russo, Public Affairs Coordinator

Coordinator Publications

Brown, Membership Coordinator

Pallavi Yalamanchili, Individual Giving

Coordinator

Elizabeth Levy, Director of Publications

Managing

Annie Donohue, Membership and Individual Giving Assistant

Elizabeth Franzen,

Graham Green,

Melissa Secondino, Production

Intern, Director's Office

Editor

Manager

Lara Fieldbinder, Production Assistant

Edward Weisberger,

Education Gail Engelberg Director of Education

Program Manager, Public Programs

Pabk)

Manager, School Programs

Meghan

Editor

Dailey, Associate Editor

Stephen Hoban, Assistant Editor Kate Norment, Project Editor Laura Morris, Ed Jennifer Knox White, Editor

Exhibition Design Registrar

Meryl Cohen, Director of Registration and Art Services Lardner, A

Coordina'

Paula Armelin,

Proji

Exhibition

Management Retail

Development and Purchasing

Ma-

Leonca.

i i

Security i

abrii

(it

Security

ation Visitor Services i

opment Manager

Mexican Cultural Institutions Consejo Nacional para

Cultura y

Enrique Norten (TEN Arquiteetos) + las

Artes (CONACULTA)

Enrique Norten

Sari Bermiidez, President J.

Meejin Yoon

Clara Sola-Morales Serra

Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH)

Tim Morshead

Sergio Raul Arroyo, Director General

B.Alex Miller

Moises Rosas, Technical Secretary

Shuji

Luis A. Haza, Administrative Secretary

Suzumori

Carl Solander

Museums and

Jose Enrique Ortiz Lanz, National Coordinator of

Fernanda Chandler

Exhibitions

Mariana de

Maria del Perpetuo Socorro Villarreal Escarrega, National Coordinator

Fuente

Angela Co

for Legal Matters

Gerardo Jaramillo, National Coordinator for Communications and Publishing Elvira

Catalogue

Baez Garcia, Director of International Exhibitions

Miguel Angel Fernandez,

Management Consultant

LANDUCCI

Jacqueline Correa, Project Coordinator Editorial Coordination Felipe Solis,

Sandro Landucci Lerdo deTejada

Museo Nacional de Antropologia

Lucinda Gutierrez

Juan Alberto

Roman

Berrelleza,

Museo

del Templo

Mariel Rodriguez Sanchez, Assistant

Mayor

Luis Garcia, Assistant

Aldo Plazola, Assistant

Jacinto Chacha-Antele, Centro INAH Hidalgo

Museo Regional de Hidalgo "Ex Convento de Museo deSitio de Tepeapulco; Museo Arqueologico

Sergio Rasgado Flores,

San

Francisco";

de Tula "Jorge

Eduardo Lopez Calzada, Centro INAH Oaxaca Jesus Martinez Arvizu, Frisel

Design Arturo Chapa

Acosta"

Museo de

Photography

las Culturas

de Oaxaca; Museo

Michel Zabe Enrique Macias Martinez, Photography Assistant

Mitla

Yolanda Ramos, Museo Regional de Puebla

Prepress

Arturo Chapa/Landucci Maribel Miro, Centro INAH Estado de Mexico

Museo de

Laura Elena Mata,

las Culturas

Mexicas "Eusebio Davalos"

INAH Eugenio Mercado, Museo Regional Michoacano

"Dr.

Nicolas Calderon"

Editorial Coordination Felipe Solis

Daniel Goeritz, Centro INAH Veracruz

Vicente Hernandez,

Roberto Velasco Alonso

Museo Baluarte de Santiago Editorial Supervision

Museo Regional de Guadalajara

Martelva Gomez,

Museo Nacional del

Miguel Fernandez

Felix,

MNena

Museo Regional deTlaxcala

Koprivitza,

Gerardo Jaramillo

Virreinato

Contributing Institutions Claudio

Gonzalez, Mauricio Maille, Diana Mogollon, Fundacion

Cultural Televisa

Carolina

Monroy

del

Mazo, Instituto Mexiquense de Cultura, Gobierno del

Estado de Mexico Martin Antonio Mondragon,

Museo Arqueologico

del Estado

"Dr.

Roman

Pina Chan"

Ramiro Acevedo, Centro, Regional Cultural Apaxco Baltazar Lopez Martinez,

Museo Municipal Arqueologico de Tuxpon

Candida Fernandez, Maria del Refugio Cardenas, Fomento Cultural

Banamex,

A.C.

Roxana Velasquez Martinez Maria Ascension Morales,

del

Campo, Museo Nacional de Arte

Museo

Universitario de Gencios yArte

Meejin Yoon

Lenders to the Exhibition

American Museum of Natural

New

Brooklyn Museum,

New

History,

York

Centro INAH del Estado de Mexico, Toluca Centro Regional Cultural Apaxco

The Cleveland

Museum

of Art

Dumbarton Oaks Research

Library

and

Collection, Harvard University,

Washington, D.C

The

Museum

Field

Fomento

of Natural History, Chicago

Banamex

Cultural

Fundacion Cultural

A.C.,

Televisa,

Mexico City

The John Carter Brown Library at Brown University, Providence

Museum

The Metropolitan

Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo Museo

of Art,

New

Arqueologico de Tula "Jorge Arqueologico del Estado

"Dr.

York Acosta," INAH

Roman

Pina Chan," Teotenango

Baluarte de Santiago, INAH, Veracruz

las

Culturas de Oaxaca, INAH

las

Culturas Mexicas "Eusebio Davalos," INAH, Acatlan

Sitio

del

de Tepeapulco, INAH

Templo Mayor, INAH, Mexico

City

Municipal Arqueologico de Tuxpan

Nacional de Antropologia, INAH, Mexico City Nacional de Arte, Mexico City Nacional del Virreinato, INAH, Tepotzotlan Regional de Guadalajara, INAH Regional de Hidalgo "Ex Convento de San Francisco," INAH,

Pachuca

Museo Regional de Puebla, INAH Museo Regional de Tlaxcala, INAH Museo Regional Michoacano "Dr. Nicolas Calderbn," INAH, Morelia Museo Universitario de Ciencias y Arte, UNAM, Mexico City Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence

Museum

of Fine Arts, Boston

National

Museum

Washington,

Peabody

of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution,

D.C.

Museum

of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University,

Cambridge

Museum of Natural History, Yale Museum of Art Princeton University Art Museum Saint Louis Art Museum Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven Peabody

Philadelphia

University,

New Haven

The Solomon Foundation Honorary Trustees

Solomon Justin

Guggenheim

Perpetuity

Guggenheim

The Leadership Committee The Aztec Empire Honorary Chair His Excellency Carlos de Icaza,

Thannhauser

for

Ambassador of Mexico

to the

United States of America

Peggy Guggenheim

Honorary Co-Chairs Honorary Chairrnan Lawson-Johnston

Peter

Bermudez, President, Consejo Nacional para

Sari

Cultura y las Artes

Sergio Raul Arroyo, Director General, Instituto Nacional de

Antropologia e Historia

Chairman Peter

Arturo Sarukhan, Consul General of Mexico

Lewis

Felipe Solis, Director,

New

York

Museo Nacional de Antropologia, Mexico

Enrique Norten, TEN Arquitectos

Vice-Presidents

Wendy John

Members

McNeil

L-J.

Stephen

Swid

Emilio Azcarraga Jean

Wadsworth,

Placido and Marta

Jr.

Domingo

Posy Feick

Abraham

Director

Dr.

Thomas Krens

Carlos Hank

Secretary

Jaime Lucero

Franklin

and Gina Diez Barroso de Franklin

Rhon

Fernando and Marinela Lerdo de Tejada

Edward

Manuel Medina-Mora

Rover

Raul

Muhoz

Leos

Federico Sada G.

Trustees

Jon Imanol Azua

Yolanda Santos Garza

Peter M. Brant

Jesus and Hildegard Silva-Herzog

Mary Sharp Cronson

Julio C. Villarreal-Guajardo

Gail

May

Martin

Henry

List in

Koch

Thomas Krens Peter

Lawson-Johnston

Peter Lawson-Johnston Peter

Lewis

Howard W. Lutnick Mack

William L

Wendy

L-J.

Edward

Vladimir

McNeil

Meyer

Potanin

Frederick W. Reid

Stephen M. Ross

Mortimer

D. A.

Sackler

Denise Saul Terry Semel

James

Sherwood

Raja W. Sidawi

Seymour

Slive

Jennifer Blei

Stephen

John

Mark

Zambrano

Gruss

Frederick

David

Lorenzo

Engelberg

Stockman

Swid

Wadsworth, Walter

John Wilmerding

Honorary Trustee Claude Pompidou

Trustees Ex Officio Dakis Joannou

David Gallagher

Director Emeritus

Thomas M. Messer

Jr.

formation as of August

2004

City

â&#x20AC;¢

Foreword

AND

THE AZTEC EMPIRE REPRESENTS THE MOST EXTENSIVE

HISTORICALLY ACCURATE SURVEY OF THE ART

AND

culture of the Aztecs and their contemporaries ever assembled outside Mexico. The Aztecs,

the nomadic culture that dominated Central Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest,

founded Tenochtitlan, modern-day Mexico

mented culture

City,

1325. Fearless warriors and pragmatic

empire during the fifteenth century and were the most docu-

builders, they created a vast

the Americas at the time of European contact

the sixteenth century. This

exhibition presents the extraordinary works of art created by the Aztecs as well as by the peoples they conquered,

and the cultures that preceded them

Though perhaps unexpected,

this project

the Guggenheim's global program. Our institution

Mesoamerica.

nonetheless

a natural fit within

the scope of

modern and con-

primarily devoted to

temporary visual culture, but from time to time we have presented major exhibitions focused on

and even ancient,

classical,

Exhibitions

art.

Africa: The Art of a Continent

(1996), China: 5,000 Years (1998), and Brazil: Body and Soul (2001-02) have given us the

opportunity to explore vision of the

broad array of

Guggenheim, providing

artistic traditions.

They have greatly expanded the

intriguing contrasts with our

contemporary program-

ming, while also reflecting the context from which today's art has emerged. The Aztec Empire,

like Brazil,

develop closer in fact,

ties

Guggenheim

exemplifies a profound desire by the

have emerged from

tural narratives that

Latin America.

to explore the rich cul-

As the United States and Mexico

economically, the opportunity for cultural communication increases and,

becomes increasingly important.

Academy

The Aztec Empire was inspired by a major exhibition at the Royal called simply Aztecs.

on view, and

When

instantly

visited the

show,

thought that they would

Guggenheim's Frank Lloyd Wright building

New

stunning

York.

Bermudez, Mexico's culture minister, we discussed the devoted to the Aztecs.

quickly

became

clear that there

as curator for such an important project, Felipe

Antropologia

Mexico

City.

tious-to provide not only

Dr.

Soli's,

When, soon

met

Sari

show

was only one person who could serve Director of the Museo Nacional de

Solis's project for the

its

the context of the thereafter,

possibility of another, larger

Guggenheim presentation

thorough representation of Aztec society

empire, but also to suggest the context for

of Arts, London,

was captivated by the extraordinary objects

ambi-

at the zenith of the

development, expansion, and influence. This

exhibition transcends the stereotypical portrayal of the Aztecs as fierce conquerors to pres-

ent their

many

positive achievements.

The largest and most important section of the exhibition

devoted to the Templo Mayor,

the heart of the Aztec culture and an active archaeological site

the center of Mexico

City.

Excavations of the Templo Mayor throughout the twentieth century, but especially since 1978, have yielded a rich and significant trove of sculptures,

ceremonial objects-some of which have never been shown

by the general public for the

works of

art

first

reliefs, religious artifacts,

Mexico and

will

time. TJne final section of the exhibition includes objects

from the time of the European conquest, and

society as well as the appropriation and utilization of

its

and

be seen here

and

reflects the destruction of Aztec

artifacts,

both religious and secular.

The exceptional quality of this exhibition reflects personal support and cooperation at the

highest levels of the Mexican government. From

first

conversations with Sari

Bermudez, she has proven an invaluable champion of the project. The Aztec Empire is organized with the support of the Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA) and the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia (INAH) of Mexico. In her position as President of

CONACULTA,

Sari effectively mobilized the ministry

on the

project's behalf,

and we are deeply

grateful to her

and her

Jaime Nualart, Technical Secretary

staff for their unfailing support.

and former Director General

for International Affairs,

was instrumental

coordinating pre-

liminary discussions, and his successor, Alberto Fierro. Director General for International

CONACULTA, continued to provide encouragement. At INAH, Sergio Raul Arroyo,

Affairs,

Director General, Moises Rosas, Technical Secretary, and Jose Enrique Ortiz Lanz, National

Coordinator of

Museums and

Exhibitions,

have provided valuable assistance and support. The

was the

administrative organization of the project at INAH Garcia, Director of International Exhibitions,

direct responsibility of Elvira Baez

and Jacqueline Correa, Project Coordinator, and

are appreciative of their constant guidance and cooperation. The Foreign Ministry also

supported this exhibition through the good offices of the Ambassador of Mexico to the United States, the Honorable Carlos de Icaza, together with Cultural Attache Alejandro Negrin; to the

we would

to extend our gratitude for their support.

Honorable Arturo Sarukhan, Consul General of Mexico

advice and consultation at important stages of the project.

extend

New

personal thanks

who

York,

provided

are grateful to Rodolfo

Elizondo Torres, Secretary of Tourism, for his steadfast support of this project. Our gratitude also goes to the Honorable

Anthony Garza

U.S.

Jr.,

Ambassador

to Mexico, together with

Jefferson Brown, Minister Counselor for Press and Cultural Affairs, Marjorie Coffin, Cultural

Attache, and Bertha Cea Echenique, Senior Cultural Affairs Specialist, of the U.S. Embassy

Mexico

City, for their

To design the exhibition Norten, founder and

enthusiasm and constant support. in

New

principal of

York, the

Guggenheim has

TEN Arquitectos

(Taller

enlisted the talents of Enrique

de Enrique Norten Arquitectos), a

firm that has altered the face of Mexico City, as well as the international perception of

Mexican architecture, since

its

founding

was joined

1985. Norten

in this

effort by

Meejin

Yoon, architect, designer, and educator. For The Aztec Empire, the designers introduce gle bold design

element into the

building: an undulating ribbon wall covered with gray ing light to

and sound, renders the space

accommodate the various

scales of

a sin-

white wall interior of Frank Lloyd Wright's landmark

classic

wool

felt.

The serpentine

deep and mute environment. As

work on view, the

new

wall creates

wall,

absorb-

bends and peels

spatial experiences

along the ramps. By focusing on the experience of perimeter and periphery, as opposed to the center, the project

accommodates the

same time providing

smooth and nonuniform system

selected by

The staff of TEN Arquitectos has been

ticular

Dr. Soli's.

curatorial

thanks are due Clara Sola-Morales Serra

themes of the

New

exhibition, while at the

for displaying the array of artifacts tireless in their efforts,

and par-

York.

The exceptional collaborative experience of the project extends beyond the efforts of the curator to include the scholarship within this publication.

approach and

Dr. Solis's editorial

academic standing enabled the inclusion of scholarly essays by eminent Mexican and authorities,

and the book promises to become

original texts by Dr. Solis,

major reference on the subject.

and Roberto Velasco Alonso, curatorial

the distinguished authors

who have

contributed to this volume.

assistant,

U.S.

addition to

are indebted to

are also pleased to col-

laborate with Landucci Editores on the publication of this catalogue.

Although a large part of the work on view loans from Mexican institutions includes

more than

sixty

made

The Aztec Empire

the result of generous

possible through CONACULTA-INAH, the exhibition also

major Precolumbian works from

museums

the United States.

These complement and complete the curator's portrayal of the Aztec people and provide a greater awareness of the riches

are indebted to

them

for their

domestic collections. The lenders are

listed

elsewhere, and

cooperation and enthusiastic support of the project.

The complexity of ization in

this exhibition presented

the result of the work of

all

unusual challenges, and

the departments of the

its

particular the personnel listed in the Project Team. Special thanks also

Deputy Director and Chief Curator; Marc

Steglitz,

spectacular real-

Guggenheim Museum. We thank

Deputy Director

to Lisa Dennison,

for Finance

and Operations;

Karen Meyerhoff, Managing Director for Exhibitions, Collections and Design; Kendall Hubert, Director of Corporate Development; Marion Kocot, Project Manager; and Mariluz Hoyos, Project Assistant, for their steadfast professionalism on

sponsors.

In particular,

to the support

we thank major sponsors Banamex and

and preservation of Mexican

Manuel Medina-Mora, Chief Executive izing

project.

this

art

Officer,

and culture

must be thanked

for his

Banamex

to this project.

commitment

in real-

Cultural Foundation;

and

also extend our sincerest gratitude to Televisa,

under the leadership of Emilio Azcarraga Jean, Chief Executive able support that

longstanding. At Banamex,

Exhibitions and International Projects Coordinator, brought great

Gil,

and dedication

creativity

whose commitment

Televisa, is

Jorge Hierro Molina, Executive Director of Institutional

addition,

Relations; Candida Fernandez de Calderon, Director of the

Hermelinda Caceres

stages of the project.

all

magnitude could not take place without the generous support of our

exhibition of this

makes

Officer, for providing invalu-

possible to share this remarkable culture with diverse audiences.

addition, Claudio X. Gonzalez, President, together with Mauricio Maille, Visual Arts Director,

and Diana Mogollon,

all

of the Televisa Foundation, demonstrated an inspiring

commitment

are indebted

to this exhibition.

was provided by PEMEX;

Significant additional support

Muhoz

to Raul

Leos,

particular,

Chief Executive Officer, and Octavio Aguilar Valencuela, Corporate

Director of Administration, for their dedication to this project. The Mexico Tourism Board also

deserves special recognition; Officer,

together with

Guillermo

Ohem

Northeast Region,

Ochoa,

New

most thankful

are

team, Alejandro

his

Director

for

Muhoz

to Francisco

Ledo,

the Americas, and

York office, for their support.

Ortiz,

Marisa

would also

Isabel

for

assistance,

with

special

thanks to Augusto

Lopez,

Director,

much-needed

Fernandez Kegel, Vice

trans-

President

Marketing and E-Business, and Maricela Moreno Cardentti, Advertising and Corporate

Image

Director.

This exhibition has also been

made

possible in part by an indemnity from the Federal

Council on the Arts and the Humanities.

We would

also

to thank the individuals of the

Leadership Committee for The Aztec Empire as well as participating sponsors

and Con Edison

Division,

to express our grat-

itude to Fernandez Flores, Chief Executive Officer of Aeromexico, for

portation

Chief Executive

Head of Promotional

for additional critical

GRUMA,

support helping make this exhibition possible.

ALFA,

Finally,

are grateful to Thirteen/WNET for media support allowing audiences to learn about the

importance of the Aztecs. Indeed,

zations that the

ments of in

due to the

tireless efforts

Guggenheim

this great culture.

and generosity of so many individuals and organi-

able to present The Aztec Empire,

The objects gathered together for

and to present the achieve-

this exhibition are extraordinary

aesthetic terms as well as for the sophisticated and hierarchical society they represent.

Thomas Krens Director, The Solomon

Guggenheim Foundation

<^~

J ft

Introduction

ntroduction /•(•///«'

Solis

THE PUBLIC HAS GREETED THE ART OF PRE-HISPANIC MEXICO WITH ENTHUSIASM AND A SENSE OF

wonder and awe, as has been demonstrated by the tremendous success of exhibitions presented in the world's most cosmopolitan capitals since the first half of the twentieth century.

In this

respect, the opportunity to bring together an

exquisite selection of objects for The Aztec Empire, which re-creates the splen-

chapter of the indigenous world of Mexico, represents

dor of the

final

momentous

occasion.

Among

monumental

the works united here are

chrome ceramics, musical instruments, well as

historical processes

sculptures, reliefs, poly-

objects carved from jade and wood, as

ornaments and jewelry wrought from

them evoke the

and

shell,

turquoise, and gold.

lifestyles of the

All

Aztecs and the various

peoples and societies that existed alongside them during a glorious period of wealth, power, and majesty. This exhibition

comes out

of the research and publications by specialists

the art and culture of this final chapter of Mesoamerican history, the basis for

which are indigenous codices and the chronicles written by Europeans early sixteenth century. The Aztec Empire has been conceived a holistic vision, allowing viewers, as they

the

order to provide

proceed through the exhibition, to

simultaneously contemplate and examine artworks created by the inhabitants of Mexico-Tenochtitlan alongside those of other contemporaneous cultures. Visitors will be able to

expressed

various societies

Solomon

the

compare tremendously innovative indigenous

styles, as

the diverse forms and unique ornamental devices particular to the

which they originated. The monumental space afforded by

Guggenheim Museum

will

also allow commonalities to be

traced through the so-called international style of the Late Postclassic period-

evidenced

some

of the extraordinary masterpieces on display-which

became

consolidated around the time the Aztec empire was established. This style

characterized by a complex universe of symbols executed with similar artistic

means, through which the different indigenous peoples could recognize one another and participate they

may

in a

common

artistic

language, despite the fact that

not have been able to communicate via spoken language.

trust

that visitors encountering

extraordinary experience

the art of the Aztecs will have an

witnessing firsthand the principal features of the

culture's astounding, multifaceted universe. this vision of the

cosmos unique and

When one

different

emerge with an indescribable power. Indeed, creating civilizations

there are

The

contempo?

many precedents

first

occurred

and

for

considers what makes

from oui

its

forms

between past

has not been an easy process, althc

such an undertake

modern attempts by Westerners

to understand

the nineteenth century, as travelers, including

>urneyed to Me-

re's,

a dialogue

indigenous art

some well-known

he period of revolution ,md indep<

•

If/'

Rear view of

cat. no.

•

and

its first

decades as

ancient cities

a republic.

ruins,

These travelers illustrated their tales with images of

monuments, and

rare

and mysterious

sparked the interest of Europeans and Americans to follow collect similar treasures.

Among

the most

famous accounts

objects,

all

of which

their footsteps

and to

are the books of John

Stephens, illustrated by Frederick Catherwood, which are devoted to the mysterious

world of the Maya; and the works of Guillaume Dupaix, which were unfortunately published very late and thus had less of an impact than Stephens's works. Dupaix's writings provided detailed evidence of Mexico's ticularly in the central region

phy of

travel literature

which primarily

detail

enormous archaeological wealth,

would

be enriched by William Bullock's contributions,

later

Aztec archaeology, while Eduard Muhlenpfordt and Carl Nebel

dedicated their efforts to Oaxaca, the Gulf Coast, and Mexico

Humboldt-a pioneer himself had obtained

Finally,

located

in his

Baron Alexander von

some

pieces,

European

of which he

Mexico. first Mexican museum, Autonoma de Mexico, where the

are indebted to Pietro Gualdi for conceiving the

the courtyard of the Universidad Nacional

monoliths to be discovered, beginning

first

City.

field-collected codices that had been stored

and exhibited them together with archaeological

libraries

par-

and the valleys of Oaxaca and Palenque. The bibliogra-

1790

Mexico

City's

Great Plaza and

the atrium of the cathedral, were displayed. These include the enormous sculpture

Great Coatlicue, the

first

monument

emerge during that period of improvements

the urban infrastructure of Mexico City; and the Stone of Tizoc, originally called the

Stone of

Sacrifices.

was during the nineteenth century that the pre-Hispanic world gained exposure through the publication of superb etchings, while the phenomenon of archaeological It

collecting appeared. This

was

practiced institutionally within Mexico and privately by

individuals from the United States and nations

Germans, Swiss, and French. Although

Europe, particularly by the English,

their activities

were undertaken without any

governmental oversight, the objects they unearthed eventually enriched the museums of their respective countries of origin, where they were considered the creations of a distant, exotic,

and primitive world.

The Museo Nacional de Mexico was moved

museum's new home had been devoted metals and

the

exhibiting

for

now

minting

archaeological

displayed

and

its

quarters at the uni-

colonial times to the smelting of precious

pieces.

obtain

more space

The great monuments were

the central courtyard, while smaller sculptures, ceramics, tools, in

the rooms on the palace's upper floor.

was

Mexican archaeological research began and the has since brought the country great prestige,

school of museology, which established.

The Gallery of Monoliths opened This

1866 from

move was made

historical

at this venerable institution that

was

of coins. This

and ornamental objects were housed

first

baroque palace located along the southern side of the Palacio Nacional. The

versity to a

was the most

significant event

in in

1888

the museum's largest exhibition space.

the revalorization of Mexico's pre-Hispanic past.

The construction of the gallery had been motivated by the desire to create a protective

environment for the Sun Stone, which

outdoors,

embedded

for nearly a century

one of the towers of the

The most important works of sculpture that the

were exhibited around the stone, of stone figures, ballcourt rings,

among them reliefs,

altars,

city's

had been displayed

Metropolitan Cathedral.

museum had

collected to date

the Great Coatlicue and hundreds

and

vessels,

most from the Aztec

period, that had been discovered underneath the modern capital and at other major settlements in the Valley of Mexico. Aztec artworks and archaeology thus regained their visual

power through the display of compelling images of ancient gods and

related cult

K M»

S& /

' /,

'•*

i t

* 2.

Coatlicue, front

Aztec, ca.

1500

and

rear views

*v%.

^H f<

objects,

which had been

during the centuries following the Spanish Conquest of

lost

Mexico-Tenochtitlan. International validation of indigenous

twentieth century. This occurred only

Mexican Art

Modern

however, would have to wait

art,

until the

1940 with the opening of Twenty Centuries of Art,

New

which was presented

York,

government of President Lazaro Cardenas.

oration with the

was the

Museum

at the

collab-

This remarkable exhibition

outside Mexican territory to bring together artworks from the three major

first

periods of the country's history: Precolumbian, colonial, and modern. The exhibition

met with overwhelming

success, as did the catalogue, which included writings by

Alfonso Caso and served as a guidebook for appreciating the most important treasures of ancient Mexico.

was the

museum

time that this

first

major works of international modern

art,

New

York.

was

felt

not only by

also of particular importance for the shift

lectuals in their attitude

about works from the

considered to be expressions of high aesthetic value. This change was evident publication of the book Arte prehispanico de Mexico tion led to a

new

triumphant invasion.

museum visitors among Mexican intelPrecolumbian period, which were now

The impact caused by Mexican archaeology was in

was devoted

space, which

had experienced such

of appreciation

level

Considering such changes, Caso,

Mexico

who had

for

1946,

the

whose broad dissemina-

indigenous creations.

Museo Nacional

joined the staff of the

de Mexico around 1950, transformed the Gallery of Monoliths into the

first

exhibition

space devoted specifically to the art and culture of the Aztecs. The gallery was intentionally

named

the Mexica Hall to link the

name Mexica-which, along

with Tenochca

and Aztec, has been used to identify the people who founded Mexico-Tenochtitlanwith the actual of

tity

all

name

of the country, serving by extension as a reference to the iden-

Mexicans. The Mexica Hall thus established our most distant origins of

national identity.

Many were

introduced

Fernando Gamboa.

Mexico's

Precolumbian

tested the waters

beyond the Americas, daring

tingent of works,

in this

to bring to

formula that had proved so popular

tion,

which traveled to

through the efforts of York exhibition,

Gamboa

Europe an even larger con-

case a polished selection of archaeological objects that gave

the public a chance to appreciate the richness and

shown with works from

art

New

the two decades following the

New

drama

of pre-Conquest

art.

The

York was repeated: Pre-Hispanic art was

the colonial period and postrevolutionary Mexico. This exhibiParis,

London, and Stockholm, was another huge success, rep-

resenting a triumph for Mexican

For the

art.

most varied

to experience Mexico's

first

time European audiences were able

artistic expressions, in

an amazing collection of

pre-Hispanic works that offered both specialists and the uninitiated an opportunity to explore their elegant forms and profound symbolism. The event triggered interest in the indigenous peoples

ancient Mesoamerican art

who had

enormous

created these works. This reassessment of

was followed by two

highly significant cultural events that

demonstrate the process of reevaluating the most important collections of Mexican art in the

The a

section

of Robert 1947.

United States.

first

was the inauguration devoted

Woods

Dumbarton Oaks art,

which had been on view

Bliss,

commemorating

1970

the institu

moving the objects comi

Washington, the

D.C., in

extraordinary

1962, of

collection

at the National Gallery of Art since

Before Cortes: Sculpture of Middle

at the Metropolitan rst

exhibiting

The second was an exhibition entitled

America, which opened

for

Precolumbian

Museum

centennial. The exhibition

of Art

was

New

York,

used as a pretext

the Nelson A. Rockefeller Collection, formerly

the

The

first circuit

City,

period

17,

own

1964. The inauguration of this

was based on

and museological concept, accorded each

its

Chapultepec Park

at its present site in

which took place on September

extraordinary structure, the design for which

artistic

specif-

of traveling exhibitions of Mexican art concluded with the open-

new Museo Nacional de Antropologia

Mexico

tectural

new wing designed

of Primitive Art, into a

the art of the Americas, Africa, and Oceania.

ing of the in

now defunct Museum

city's

ically for

a highly

cultural region

advanced archi-

and archaeological

space, thus showing visitors the specific technological advances and

features of the diverse peoples

who

center of the structure, the Mexica Hall

inhabited ancient Mexico. Located

was considered the

the

principal attraction for

those visiting the museum. The gallery's location, at the end of a long reflecting pool,

was meant this

to evoke the original site of the glorious Mexico-Tenochtitlan,

on the

built

islets in

magnum

which was

Lake Tetzcoco. Architect Pedro Ramirez Vazquez, the creator of

opus, conceived the Mexica Hall

monumental dimensions

imbue

the space with the character of a temple. The height and volume of the exhibition

space allowed visitors to suitably appreciate the grandeur of Aztec monumental sculpture,

nave,

most notably the Sun Stone, which was placed

at the

end of the central

front of a white marble wall and set on a marble platform, thus transform-

ing the piece into an altar devoted to

After

its

Mexican indigenous national

identity.

opening the Museo Nacional de Antropologia quickly became a tourist

attraction for those seeking to learn about the richness of Mexican archaeology, especially

its

expressions. The

artistic

museum's design had

influencing the transformation of exhibition spaces collections of Precolumbian Mexican art. itive art,

which had held

many

fast until this time,

was without

goddess Coyolxauhqui, which Project. For twenty-five years

led

museums

with

were dropped.

doubt the discovery

later

now

other

cases disparaging allusions to prim-

The event that brought the world's attention to Aztec "People of the Sun,"

international impact,

many

to the

art,

to the creations of the

1978 of the sculpture of the

development of the Templo Mayor

this project has

made

extraordinary archaeological

discoveries that have astonished people across the globe.

Its

researchers continue to

contribute to the knowledge and dissemination of information about the founders of

Mexico's

first capital.

1980

unearthed

a public

at the

eager to learn about and enjoy the discoveries that had been

Templo Mayor had the opportunity

sented at the Palacio de

las Bellas

Artes

Mexico

to visit a related exhibition preCity.

objects of delicate beauty and powerful symbolism, this exhibitions to display the advances

made

ple.

first

number of numerous

archaeological research. Since then the

interest in Aztec art has led to other exhibitions,

from the Templo Mayor explored themes

Including any

was the

which besides presenting objects

relating to the culture of Tenochtitlan's peo-

These exhibitions were noteworthy for the sheer volume of artifacts displayed,

some

being

shown

for the first time outside their original locations.

1982 we sent the exhibition The Aztec

Civilization to Japan,

Sendai and Nagoya. During the curatorial process

sented

artistic

and archaeological objects that had previously remained

from the eyes of the

public.

These works were

redesign of the Mexica Hall at the

The exhibition

now

where

was

pre-

selected important in

storage, hidden

considered key pieces

the

Museo Nacional de Antropologia.

Glanz und Untergang des alten Mexiko: Die Azteken und ihre in 1986, brought the art of ancient Mexico to Europe and

Vorlaufer, which opened

Canada, highlighting works of the Aztec world. Art of Aztec Mexico: Treasures of

Tenochtitlan, presented

Aztec: The World of

1983 at the National Gallery of

Moctezumo, which opened

Natural History, were particularly significant because

was not immersed within sented on In

them the

Museum

Mexico

art of the Aztecs

context of other Mesoamerican objects. At

indigenous development

final

Washington, D.C, and

Art,

1992 at the Denver

prior to the arrival of the Spaniards

last,

the

was

pre-

own.

its

Museo Nacional de Antropologia once again saw the need to new touring exhibitions. Beginning its successful

the 1990s the

collections in the form of

its

Museum

tour at the Metropolitan

of Art

October 1990, Mexico: Splendors of Thirty

Centuries- later continuing on to San Antonio and Los Angeles-was organized once again around the holistic concept of Mexican art broken

ods.

its

sites in

Chichen In

Mesoamerica:

into three

La Venta, Izapa, Teotihuacan,

Monte

Alban, Palenque,

same year the Museo Nacional de Antropologia organized the

Precolumbian Art of Mexico, which traveled to

Paris,

peri-

Tajin,

works of the highest cultural areas

a selection of

Mesoamerica-with examples from

quality from

artistic

exhibition

Madrid, Berlin, London, and Tokyo

between 1990 and 1992, providing the public with the chance to view

exhibition

main

and Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

Itza,

the

down

point of reference, the exhibition used the most significant archaeological

all

and archaeological periods-as well as from the north of Mexico. The

was

by international

hailed

critics

museum

as a microcosm of the

Chapultepec Park traveling the world. In

1999, during the

phase of renovation and redesign of the Museo Nacional

first

we made profound changes

de Antropologia,

to the Mexica Hall,

which would allow

nearly eight hundred objects to be displayed. Subsequently, with the experience

many

acquired over

years of research and

museum

undertakings,

developed,

together with Professor Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, the exhibition Aztecs, which was

presented

2002

at the Royal

from numerous museums

assemblage of

a large

its

The most demanding of

Academy

of Arts, London. This exhibition united objects

Europe, Mexico, and the United States;

number of pre-Hispanic and

and gave the exhibition

exhibition

unique

critics

Tutankhamun-lo be presented its

event

identity.

Treasures of

in Europe, for its relevance, the high quality of the

popularity

was presented

continent, the loans from Mexico Italian collections,

a rare

considered Aztecs to be the second-most important

among

specialists

Aztecs continued to garner very favorable reviews

Germany, where

the

in particular,

was

non-Western art-ranking behind only the legendary

works selected, and

from

colonial codices

in Berlin in

and the general public

when

and Bonn.

the next year

alike.

traveled to

Prior to leaving the

European

the original exhibition were joined with objects

thus forming Treasures of the Aztecs, a

delighted visitors to the Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome,

the

first

new

presentation that

half of 2004.

These are the signal events that have preceded the extraordinary showing of The Aztec Empire,

now on view

at the

Guggenheim Museum. The

exhibition focuses

on the expansion and culmination of two powerful empires: the Aztec and the Purepecha (Tarascan),

who dominated much

of the fifteenth century and the of

first

Mesoamerica during the second

these two indigenous cultures are indeed

made

palpable by the very works

presented to viewers. The most complex political entity considered Alliance,

better

known

half

two decades of the sixteenth. The splendors

as the Aztec empire,

the Triple

whose works make up the core

this exhibition. Originally a confederation of three

emerging

city-states,

headed by

Mexico-Tenochtitlan, this coalition dominated the central, southern, and ea

regions of Mesoamerica.

achieved and maintained this power through military con-

quests, the imposition of a strict tribute system, and the dissemination of

Nahuatl. Moreover,

reinforced

its

preeminence through

common

language,

its

artistic

language

that transcended linguistic barriers.

During the Postclassic period the most highly prized of metals, gold, was considered to be a material originating

and

the sun, and

its

use was thus restricted to the ruling class

nobility exclusively. Visitors to this exhibition will

nity to

come

have the extraordinary opportu-

face to face with the most important collection of gold jewelry from

Precolumbian Mexico ever displayed

the United States.

Empire allows us to bear witness to a time when

artists

significantly,

The Aztec

expressed through physical

objects the essence of the world around them, their culture's creation myths, and their people's close relationship to the sacred universe, with

night and day, creation and destruction.

all its

dualities of

life

and death,

:/,

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Aztec Empire

Traces of an Identity ///

/ uenle

Mexican

art

Through

manifestations

its

who we

understand Mexico without including

to eliminate the

source for understanding what

UNDERSTANDING HUMANKIND THROUGH history since

came

ITS

its

art

summarizes and

synthesizes the entire history of our becoming

fertile

are.

try to

most

are.-Justino Fernandez'

CREATIVE OUTPUT HAS BEEN THE TASK OF ART

into being as a discipline.

Through

artistic manifestations,

human

being as the creator of

branch of history seeks to understand the

this

and even

a novelty in the field of universal culture

Mexican culture.

images. Such images narrate stories of times and places both near and distant.

Not

all

we today

the creations that

consider artistic ones were the subject

of art-historical inquiry from the inception of the discipline; only two centuries

now

separate us from

its

began within the Western

beginnings as a

field

When

of knowledge.

tradition, its self-defined task

was

standing of certain works, the majority of which originated

art history

building an underin

the West. Under

such conditions were terms, methodologies, and strategies developed ing deeply into the is

meanings of such

sufficient to recall

for delv-

objects.

books with such

titles

which the artworks of the "world" were limited

as The History of World Art,

to surveys starting with the cave

paintings at Lascaux and Altamira and ending with the European and United States avant-garde. The art of Asia, Africa, and Latin America best included as an appendix

when

was omitted

or at

comparatively small number of pages. However,

in a

the communications media flourished

the late nineteenth century, that

narrow Western world became aware of the vastness of human expression. Thus horizons were broadened, and

began

of other previously ignored work.

the eyes of the nascent discipline of art his-

its

tory,

many non-Western

to investigate the artistic possibilities

objects suggested a complex and fertile discourse.

The "new" forms were different from the familiar and accepted canon. For this reason,

those terms, methodologies, and strategies developed to solve art-

Other documents consider the

great cave within Chicomoztoc, "mountain of the seven caves,"

ities

more important

ancestral

cave

site.

made up

where the seven main groups

Characterized by

its

of seven internal cav-

that populated the

Anahuac

Valley at a given time were believed to have originated.

Some

historians

Chicomo/tor

document

fact,

accord-

the central area of

their messianic destiny.

The Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca, a manuscript created the mid-sixteenth century by people

who

lived

Coatlinchan

on the eastern bank of the Tetzcoco Lake basin, provides the

most impressive image we have of Chicomoztoc. dering, the sacred

shown

the ren-

mountain can be recognized from

hump,

its

as a curving figure; the surroundings are characterized

by an abundance of desert plants, such as the barrel cactus, nopal (prickly pear), and maguey. Amid the vegetation, a priest disguised as a wolf or coyote lights the like

cave of origins

we can

new

fire. In

womb-

the

see the seven chambers and images

names.

movement In

fifth

the exit pathway are footprints indicating

of a population, suggesting origin and return.

Teotihuacan, the renowned

sun took place,

a cave

site

where the creation of the

was discovered

importance of

to the north of the universe

this

who

wanderings by founding Mexico-

Mesoamerica but did not share

the

peregrination painting),

la peregrinacion, or

curved promontory,

will

also extended the Aztlan-Chicomoztoc ori-

ulated the central area of Mexico settled. They placed this site

to be the

tells

ed them privileged status, choosing them as the historic people

from around the beginning of the Christian

or inlet,

who

Left),

which they

Chalca, and Huexotzinca. This codex explains the Aztecs' place

the mythic place where the Aztecs and other groups that pop-

with the

in its inte-

Tepaneca, Tlahuica,

Pyramid of the Sun, the

the year Ce hill

while during their

for a

Matlatzinca,

the

one of the best-known of these pictographic books, describes

color white.

has a cave with images

guide them to the place

will

divided.

impose domination on the universe. Next are pictured the eight

addition to ancient stories, the Codex Boturini (1520-40; also

its

of Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird on the

rior

them that he

their place

hill

was

of the different Chichimec peoples born there, identified by

The Origin of the Aztecs and their Neighboring Peoples

called the lira

city

search of land represents the

reach Teoculhuacan, the

Flint) to later

curved protuberance. This

carefully

using the coa, a curved

soil

staff used for sowing. Agricultural

who

plant invented by the Mesoamericans,

houses, presumed

six

of origin and their encounter with their god/guide,

The pre-Hispanic peoples bore witness to the inextricable

food. Maize

pyramid with the water

surrounded by

again asked about what people would eat, and once more, in

neighborhoods into which the lakeside

to be

from

claim

that

the

area the

of Aztec affiliation,

shows the

called

Codex

island

earliest ritual plinth

this city for societies of

that preceded

may

Boturini, a

and the expanse

site,

dating

era. Certainly the

period as well as those

be attributed to the vast size of

its

con-

structions. Even as ruins, these evidence the force and domi-

nance of one of the most powerful indigenous states of Mesoamerica. A natural cave of volcanic formation with

chamber Sun.

Its

located almost

deep

practically at the starting point of the plat-

form attached to the western part of the tial

the center of the Pyramid of the

access gallery has an irregular shape, winding from the

entrance, which

layer, after

the

first

plinth.

Beneath an

ini-

pathway, two additional cavities were

excavated on either side; the gallery continues to the back,

where the space broadens Aztlan-

its

the subsoil of the

on that

chambers that

Among

recall

into four cavities

ritual

the silhouette of a flower with four petals.

other ideas, this design symbolizes the indigenous axis

mundi, a horizontal plane with four directions and a center.

wf :,

some

dressed and tied [the deceased]

codices, Teotihuacan can be identified by the exis1

tence of caves under the pyramids, evidence that people

the

and early colonial periods had knowledge of these

Postclassic

we may

sacred caves. Thus,

This

consider this and other caves to be

tains,

the empirical proof for naming this as the mythical creation of the fifth sun. The indigenous tlacuilos (scribes)

Duran

texts by the friar Diego

peculiar way.

re-created Chicomoztoc

hills,

located

recall

is filled

distancing

This

stones, with people inside,

and the vegetation

This

pass through eight

one

carried rocks

made

they

Tlaltecuhtli

through and passes

tographs, however,

rows of

and

thorny

body that

recalls Cipactli, the original creature that could

been

sacrificial knives,

before

arrived

and presented

where

hells,

by.

have

little

which

river,

swimming on top

the deceased crosses over,

and

living

of a

dog.

They say that upon arriving at the riverbank

a lizard or a crocodile.

referred to above, the deceased looks at the dog;

Structure of the Universe from Indigenous Point of View Like

many

peoples

the gods.

For

recognizes

swims

the history of the world, the inhabitants of

Mesoamerica, particularly the Aztecs, interpreted

environment as

a universe constructed

god

through the action of

earth, with the

that led the deceased toward Mictlan,

and

his wife Mictlancihuatl

trip

where Mictlantecuhtli

were located. The

ous lectures given to the deceased by

rites

began with

Thus,

windows, and

which has /cr

and

is,

carries

leave

him on

its

this

place

which

called

av*

the Aztec geometry of the universe, there were thirteen

vertical planes

world.

Some

above the earth and nine planes

scholars envision this

the under-

two stepped pyran

the underworld being the smaller of the two,

an inverted

way

that the ver-

both pyramids meet and constitute earth

tices of

place,

master

if it

the river and

position, representing the heavens, in such a

their relatives:

You have already gone to the darkest

his

into

and

underworld below. Fray Bernardino de Sahagun

gathered from the indigenous peoples a description of the

where

jumps

Chiconaumictlan, the deceased end their lives and pass

them, this primarily meant Tezcatlipoca and

Tlaltecuhtli. This led to the creation of sky

master,

its

back

their natural

Quetzalcoatl, who, as discussed above, split the body of the ancestral

him the

a broad river flows

There are dogs

walking around on the bank of the

has a monstrous face with eyes bulging

sharpened

when they passed through

After four years have elapsed, the deceased leaves

tation of the earthly beast Cipactli. In the pre-Hispanic pic-

out, teeth

neck they

papers they were carrying.

that had thus

and goes to the nine

already been created

its

Chiconahuapan.

deceased

the

the early colonial period as a reinterpre-

and around

Mictlantecuhtli, they offered

the

characteristic netted hair that identifies them. The animal figure a curious image of

because the wind was

and pieces of knives

the deceased take along a

fur,

top of the dog

river in hell, called

When

hunters, they

arms-bows and arrows-and have

to pass through the knife-

called Itzehecayan,

put a loose cotton cord; they said that the deceased

swam on

looks canine,'-

what you need

In addition,

indigenous artists included one that shows the migration of the

bear their offensive

pass through eight

what you need

Teochichimeca, departing Chicomoztoc from the head of the first

where there

to pass through

small dog with reddish

jaws open. As the

to pass through the road

what you need

so strong that

the illustrations that enrich Duran's descriptions, the

its

amid two moun-

edged wind,

recalls a thicket.

monster depicted with

what you need

This

simply orna-

a snake guarding the road.

[mountain] passes;

shown enclosed by

to pass

what you need

plateaus;

even further from the pre-

Hispanic tradition. The seven caves are

Among

the silhouettes of

close to Duran's, illustrates this

itself

a green wall lizard called Xochitonal;

with flowering plants. The Tovar Codex

document very

same passage,

the paper;

after the next;

This

and the passage, rendered with European-

in its interior,

mental and

This

the pre-Hispanic style. The original families are

style perspective,

(1583-87),'

what you need

one

where there

illustrated

Duran's codex (1579-81), the seven caves are

separated from each other and vaguely the

who

saying

anonymous

indigenous painters

the Cod<

anus

whose

(also called the

level."

The

illustrations appejt

Codex

Rios, ca.

1570-95)"

also re-created a vertical vision of the cosmos, indicating the

Then the old people and paper â&#x20AC;˘-â&#x20AC;˘ned

officials cut

and attached the pap< deceased and

shortened

<'d,

his

and .

legs,

terrestrial bd' je

rpac (earth) with eight levels below and he number of levels

above. The matter ot ad

above and below to reach the sum of nine plus thirteen has

complex

the pyramid

given

rise to

history

various hypotheses and discussions over the long

Generally, the version is

research

Precolumbian

deemed

to be

Mexican

religion.

most current and accepted

Codex

heaven of Tlalocan and the moon. He also proposes that

a full

the

levels, or planes,

using

Omeyocan, be counted twice because

Tlalticpac as the first level:

spelling/

celestial sphere,

Lopez Austin believes that counting should begin from the

proposes

that set forth by Alfredo Lopez Austin/'

reading and ordering of the underworld's

who

Regarding the set of heavens that make up the

highest

level

represented

Codex Vaticanus, the

the it

a place of duality;

constitutes the twelfth and thirteenth heavens:"

thus,

Codex

spelling/

proposed reading

Translation

Proposed order

proposed reading

Translation

Tlalticpac/Tlalticpac

Earth

1st level

Homeyoca/Omeyocan

Place of duality

Proposed order 13th and 12th heavens (9th

Apano huaya/ Apanohuayan

Water passageway

2nd

Teotl tlatlauhca/

are found

The

hills

Yztepetl/lztepetl

Hill

of obsidian

Yeehecaya/ltzehecayan

Place of obsidian wind

Tepetli

monanamycia/

Tepetl

monanamicyan

3rd level

God who

11th heaven (7th higher

red

heaven)

Teotl tlatlauhca

Teotl

cocauhca/

4th level

Teotl

cozauhca

5th level

Teotl yztaca/

God who

yellow

where

Place

Pancuecuetlacayan

flutter

flags

Temiminaloya/

Place where people are

Temiminaloyan

Teocoylqualoya/

Place

Teyollocualoyan

hearts are eaten

Yzmicilanapochcaloca/

Place of the obsidian of

Itzmictlanapochcalocan

the dead; place with no

10th heaven (6th higher

heaven)

God who

white

9th heaven (5th higher

heaven)

Teotl iztacca

Pancoecoetlacaya/

and 8th higher

heavens)

level

6th level Yztapal nanazcaya/

Place that has corners

8th heaven (4th higher

Itztapalnacazcayan

made

heaven)

Ylhuicatl xoxouhca/

Heaven that

of obsidian slabs

7th level

a great hurry

where people's

8th

level

9th

level

llhuicatl

Ylhuicatl yayauhca/

opening to

let

out smoke

llhuicatl

yayauhca

Ylhuicatl

mamaluacoca/ mamalhuacoca

llhuicatl

green

xoxouhca

Ylhuicatl huixtutla/

Heaven that

blackish

llhuicatl

Heaven of the turn-

5th heaven (1st higher

around

heaven)

Heaven, place of

salt

Sun heaven

3rd heaven (3rd lower

heaven)

Tonatiuh

Heaven

llhuicatl Citlalicue

(She of the Skirt of

Ylhuu

Heaven of Tlalocan and

tlalocaypaii'

the

li.jiocan

4th heaven (4th lower

heaven)

Ylhuicatl iztlalicoe/

6th heaven (2nd higher

heaven)

jixtotlan

Ylhuicatl tunatiuh/

7th heaven (3rd higher

heaven)

of Citlalicue

moon

2nd heaven (2nd lower heaven)

1st

heaven

heaven)

[1s1

lowei

As archaeological witness to

we have

celestial planes,

this vertical perception of the

the Stone of the Heavens, a sculpture

On one of

the form of a rectangular prism.

see a sequence of bands with stars

nous representations of the planet Venus. is

larger sides

its

like stellar

eyes and indigesetting, there

In this

pathway through which images of the pre-

a kind of central

Hispanic deities go up and down, along with the silhouette of

an eagle holding a bundle of victims

in its beak.'

which the deceased were directed. Outstanding for ity is

was Chichihuacuauhco, the nursemaid

represented only

its

peculiar-

tree. This vegetal site

the Codex Vaticanus;" the unusual repre-

sentation of a tree has the characteristic pre-Hispanic pattern

which plants have is

notes

made by

their roots uncovered. In the codex, this tree

designated Chichiualquauitl, "the milk

tree,"

the story that explains the creation of the horizontal plane,

and according to

Fray Pedro de los Rios:

Ome

was the

this

life,

third place passed

to which

through by

Omeyocan. Because of

their

constant activity as creators, they

went only those children who died

it is

a tree that

the children is

who

dripped milk, where they took

one

characterized by a specific color, which

must

give an identity to the region each one

the

Tezcatlipoca,

smoking

mirror,

red

Tezcatlipoca, the real

black; Quetzalcoatl Yohualli Ehecatl, the

wanted this

men

to emulate God. As our sacred wise

the limbo for children

who

this,

Huitzilopochtli, the emaciated

man, the two-headed serpent,

the southern hummingbird, or

Hummingbird on the

which the color blue or green

attached.

elements

Left,

was shared by in

all

say,

plane

tal

the

the Codex

These reprein

the

surrounded by the names of the twenty days of the

is in

The design

die unbaptized, or

the center, the cosmic ceiba tree with igneous

ritual calendar.

plumed serpent, night

The best-known representation of the horizon-

the Codex Fejervary-Mayer (dated before 1521).

recalls a

;

Greek cross, with narrower bands for the

diagonals with curved borders that resemble petals and a recthe center. Reading counterclockwise, from

made by an indigenous

person.

tangular panel

what they made these poor people

believe:

the upper right, the design begins with the direction east, called

virtue of a sacrifice is

Yayauhqui

characteristic color

wind, linked to the color white; and Omitecuhtli Maquizcoatl

four corners;

all

uncircumcised, under the old law, or without the

This

color;

Tezcatlipoca whose

will

build: Tlatlauhqui

sentations have a quadripartite design with the couples

died at that age, because the devil

so envious of God's honor that even

incorporate

the boundaries of the quadripartite vision of the cosmic uni-

Tro-Cortesianus (also called the Codex Madrid):

without having reached the age of reason. They pretend

who

generate the four Tezcatlipocas, their children,

Mesoamerican people. The Mayas represented

spirits of

and

Tecuhtli

Cihuatl, located on the cusp of the celestial planes, in

This horizontal vision of the universe This

Ome

the original divine couple are participants:

verse. Each

addition to Mictlan, there were various other places to

Horizontal Plane and the Surface of the Earth

77? e

that there

was

this place for their children,

added another

error,

Tlapcopa or Tlahuilcopa, on the side with the

and they

which was persuading them

mic

tree, Xiloxochitl, that

light,

with the cos-

has beautiful flowers on which

tioned a quetzal. The patrons of this direction are

that these children [angelitos] would have to leave

posi-

Itztli,

the

was

divine knife, and Tonatiuh, the sun god. The colors of the east

destroyed for the third [originally: second] time, and

are red and yellow, tonalities that characterize the sun;- for this

that

place

repopulate

they thought

the

world after

must have already been destroyed,

reason,

20 because the two [times] had already occurred.

considered to be the house of the sun, Tonatiuh

Ichan, through

which

Quetzalcoatl reappears

Based on the information provided

the Florentine Codex,

Miguel Leon-Portilla argues that the Chichihuacuauhco

Tamoanchan,

"our place of origin."

is in

the

To the

which

Stone of the Heavens.

north,

falcon.

Tepeyollotl,

Mictlampa

Detail of

left is

the is

the

raised in the firmament. Thus, here

in his role

The deities

heart of the

name

as the planet Venus.

where the spiny pochote grows, above

who

hill,

rule

and

this

Tlaloc,

designating north;

direction

are

deity of rain.

considered the

divine plain par excellence, and

deceased begin their The lower part

trip to

said that this

the underworld.

west, with the huisoche

see a hummingbird. This

the region of the

color

Its

where the is

on which you can

women

and

female patron of the sexual

Tlazolteotl, the

color white defines this direction,

before going through the hole

trip

On the

right

where the cocoa

where the sun ends in

act. its

The

daily

the east.

on which

sits a parrot.

The deities

that rule the south are Mictlantecuhtli, the underworld patron,

and Centeotl, the god of maize.

vision of the universe as the fifth direction,

god of

fire

one single perception of the universe; per-

many and

this horizontal

the

domain of

with his offensive arms or weapons,

was mentally

constant. The creation

are familiar with several images of the Mexica-Aztec

Codex Mendoza

foundation

the

re-created

Tenochtlitlan,

which occurred

of in

(1541-42),-' they

Mexico-

city-state,

their

the indigenous year

Ome

Calli

House, or 1325). Once again, the island was marked out as a

quadrangular plane with four directions and related corners. There they found the symbol promised by the god

who

patron-

ized the start of their migration. At the center, the icon: the tenochtli, the nopal flowering out of a rock,

The central region, which would complete

Xiuhtecuhtli, the

just

vision of the cosmos. In the

south, the region of the colors blue and green, tree grows,

was not

and physically re-created when circumstances so required.

Cihuatlampa;

so the patrons are the goddesses Chalchiuhtlicue, she of the jade skirt,

there

ceptions were

black.

on which an eagle

positioned with wings extended, under which

the symbol of

war, the chimalli, an indigenous shield, with arrows behind a horizontal position.

The borders of the future

city that

would

defined by the four currents of blood that evoke the sacred food

be the capital of the Aztec empire are defined as bands of water.

of the cosmos.

These bands show that the quadripartite space

should be noted that this pictographic document was

anahuac, or

circle of water,

executed by peoples of the central/eastern region of the valleys

was

of Puebla, and Tlaxcala and the region bordering Oaxaca, particu-

four sectors corresponding

larly

the Mixteca. This

was

the reason for the peculiar association

of the direction south with the

kingdom of the dead and the

north with Tlaloc, linked with the ideas of Tlalocan, where the

abundant

rains

gave

rise to a

surplus of food and flowers

all

For the Aztecs, north

phytic vegetation,

the cold plains, populated with xero-

where the frozen wind blows, Mictlampa

Ehecatl. Therefore, they considered north to be the direction of

was

the source of the people

also the

way

/e of

who

populated the earth, which

to Mictlan. In the south, meanwhile, from the

the Lake Tetzcoco basin, are the valleys o rnds),

moderate temperatures. These lands are agree

char,.

flourished, d

and abundance of crops. As the majority of ij

where the indigenous domains of

Cuauhnahuac (Cuernavaca) and Huaxtepec

ity

the middle of a

Codex Fejervary-Mayer but

within an

the

lake).

The division into the

regions indicated

the

once again shown by bands of water,

transverse position.

in a

We know

when

that

the founding of the city took place,

Tenoch, the guide/chief, placed the various segments of the

Aztec migratory group into four sectors: to the east, Acacitli and

year round.

also an island

lies

which surrounds the land (Aztlan

by their schi

these explanations of the cosmos,

Cuapan;

to the north, Ocelapan, Tecineuh, Xocoyotl,

and Tenoch

himself; to the west, Xiuhcaqui and Atototl; and, finally, to the

south, Ahuexotl and Xomimitl. The Tlatelolca

group from Aztlan adapted

them as

a place to settle,

founded

their

When

own

to the site

who came

and thirteen years

later, in

glory, they sculpted extraordinary monuments in confirming their dominion ol the known universe city,

ated

for

1338, they

capital city Mexico-Tlatelolco.

the Aztecs reached the pinnacle of their

with the

Tenoch designated

power and

volcanic rock, that originat-

the very center of the axis mundi. The Stone of in

the western pdii

the sacred site of the

Page

lino de

Codex, also

known

Nueva Espaha, 1575-77.

Sahagun, Florentine general de las cosas

Page from the Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca, 1550-70.

>* -M*

s^r

•

i 1

*>..-*-

*£m2m

Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan.

Templo Mayor, monolith

the best example.

the form of an

relief,

side,

shows the is

this

verti-

represented by

monster that holds men on

its

back,

its

thorns that outline four threatening jaws indi-

cating the four directions of the universe. the

curved

its

cylinder

cosmos. On the base, earth

cal vision of the

Tlaltecuhtli-Cipactli, the

body covered

enormous

the central band of

see fifteen scenes, each one representing the most

that

grows out of

a rock,

upon which an eagle

serpent. The mythic construction

supported the weight of the

was

celestial

sits

devouring a

perfect: the rock cactus

band, and, at the conver-

gence of the four directions, the symbol identifying the Aztec people as Tenochca supported the sun/eagle,

its

supreme

deity,

through the sacred food, the prickly pear/hearts, obtained from the conquered peoples.

significant military conquests carried out by the Aztecs. These

conquests were conducted by rulers from Acamapichtli to Tizoc in

every direction illuminated by the rays of the sun. This

con-

firmed by the upper strip on the side, a celestial band with stars

and symbols of the planet Venus.

supports an enormous

design carved on the upper side of the monolith of the solar disk with four rays radiating in the four directions of the cos-

was designed as a where they confronted

mos. Like Temalacatl, Tlacaxipehualiztli,

sacrificial altar for the

prisoners of war cap-

tured during the wars of conquest.

Lopez Austin, following the stories of the chroniclers, shows that the pre-Hispanic peoples imagined a separation of the

and the sustenance of the ic

trees located

celestial

sphere through four

on the borders of the universe, which they

Oted from the underworld. The A/t-

ed this vision

into a material reality by placing sculptures

nochtlitlan

â&#x20AC;˘s.

on the borders of

the form of cacti, which also their bases,

each one bears the oolic reading

nan.'

by iman

.acred nopal

Above: Templo Mayor, Mexico

City.

Notes Codice Chimalpopoca: Anales de Cuanhtitlan y leyenda de los

Primo Feliciano Velazquez,

ile,

soles,

facsim-

(Mexico City: Imprenta Universitaria, 1945),

ed.

pp. 119-42. 2.

The paintings

Mexicanos coincide with

Historic de los

this sequence.

Angel Maria Garibay Kintana, Histona de los Mexicanos (Mexico

See

City: Editorial

Porrua, 1965), pp. 21-90. 3.

The image of one of these giants was re-created

Colonial

Codex Vatieanus 3738,

See

period.

Cansen, and Reyes Garcia, eds. 1996,

Garibay Kintana, Historia de Mexico,

Described

6. Felipe

the Codex Chimalpopoca,

Olguin

the early part of the

Ferdinand Anders,

f.4v.

facsimile,

108. p.

120.

La Culture del Maiz (Mexico City: Clio, 1998), pp. 11-17.

Solis,

Doris Heyden, Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca (Copenhagen: 1942),

Codex Xolotl,

Diego Duran, Historia de las Indias de Nueva Espana e

Heyden, 1998,

(Codex Durdn) 2

25. Islas

Tierra Firme

(Mexico City: Coleccion Cien de Mexico, 1995).

vols.

Juan de Tovar, Manuscrit Tovar: Origines et croyances des Indiens du

10.

Mexique, Jacques Lafaye, ed. (Graz: Akademie Druck Verlagsanst, 1972). 11. Ibid., plate

238.

12.

Codex Duran,

13.

Bernadino Sahagun, Historia General de

plate

las

Cosas de Nueva Espana,

(Mexico City: Editorial Porrua, 1997), pp. 205-07. 14. Luis Barjau,

mito mexicano de lasedades (Mexico

Autonomade Tabasco,

Universidad Juarez

Codex Vatieanus,

15. 1

City:

Juarez

Autonoma

17.

plates 1v-2r.

humano

Alfredo Lopez Austin, Cuerpo

1998),

antiguos nahuas (Mexico

City:

e ideologia: Las concepciones de los

Autonoma de Mexico,

Universidad Nacional

Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, 1984),

63.

17. Ibid.

18. Dioses del

(Mexico City: A.,

1996),

Mexico Antiguo, exh.

UNAM,

cat.,

Antiguo Colegio de San lldefonso

Ediciones del Equilibrista, S.A. de C.V. and Turner Libros

19.

Codex Vatieanus,

20.

Ibid.,

pp.

plate 3v.

50-51.

21. Miguel Leon-Portilla,

De Teotihuacan a

los

Aztecas: Antologia de fuentes e

interpretaciones historicas (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional

Mexico, 1983),

Autonoma de

209.

22. Salvador

Mateos Higuera explains that the

color red and

was therefore nicknamed

was

41.

called Yayauhqui; the third

first

to be born

Tlatlauhqui; the second

was born white and had

showed the

was

to be

black,

named

and

Iztac

Tezcatlipoca, the white mirror, identified with Quetzalcoatl, symbol of the beautiful;

and the

last

was born without

flesh,

was only bones, and they

called

him Omitecuhtli, the man of bones, better known as Huizilopochtli, and the color of his skin

had to be

blue.

Salvador Mateos Higuera, Enciclopedia

grafica del Mexico, 4 vols. (Mexico City: Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, 1992-94), vol.

23.

II,

p. 11.

Codex Tro-Cortesianus [Codex Madrid]

(Graz:

Akademische Druck-u.

Verlagsanstalt, 1967), pp. 75-76.

24. Codice Fejervary-Moyer: El Libro de Tezcatlipoca, senor del tiempo, facsimile,

Ferdinand Anders, Maarten Jansen, and Gabina Aurora Perez Jimenez, eds.

(Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1994), 25.

A microscopic

firmed that the only colors originally covering

its

This corresponds with information in the codices

26.

p. 1.

analysis of the pigments used to paint the

Codex Mendoza (Mexico

City:

Sun Stone con-

surface were red and ochre.

and

the chronicles.

San Angel Ediciones, 1979),

folio 2r.

Origins and Forms of Art

the Aztec Empire

Felipe Sola

THE EXTRAORDINARY ARTISTIC

AND SYMBOLIC REPERTORY THAT CHARACTERIZED THE ART OF THE

Aztec world comes from different traditions,

some

of considerable antiquity. The

artisans of the Postclassic period recovered original models

of their ancestral

cities,

the ruins

in situ in

mainly Teotihuacan and Tula. Teotihuacan was consid-

ered to be the place of origin of the fifth sun and thus the site of creation, and

was therefore regarded of the ruins there

as supremely sacred. The Aztecs carried out excavations

and recovered ceramics, carved stone

figures,

and valuable

to the gods at the Templo Mayor. They

masks, which they gave as offerings

often embellished these objects with paint or other ornamentation, reusing

them

connect

They also copied the architectural

their present with the past.

forms and bright polychrome mural decoration of Teotihuacan in

own

their

stone to constructions as the ancients ity is

did.

the buildings

adding animal figures sculpted

capital, Mexico-Tenochtitlan,

One important example

of continu-

the serpent heads that begin and end the framework around both sides of

the stairways of the Templo Mayor.

The Aztec presence ing

the city of Tula

from Aztlan, the Aztecs had settled

at least

two decades. The

was unique.

the course of migrat-

the remains of the abandoned

city for

ruins retained signs of their original greatness, includ-

ing sculptures of ancient deities

and columns

the form of serpents as well as

images of powerful ancestral warriors, which archaeologists have called caryatids or atlantes. These figures built,

were designed to support the temples that were

according to legend, by Quetzalcoatl himself. Forms and styles from even

more distant times were

familiar to the Aztecs as well. In fact,

armies expanded into far-off

from the Olmec period

(ca.

territories,

1300-400

in the valley of the

Mezcala

River.

and material evidence of other cul-

was one such

Among

culture,

which flourished

the objects recovered there were

anthropomorphic figures and curiously simple masks with tion that

the Aztec

they obtained as tribute cast-off items

B.C.)

tures that preceded them. The Mezcala

when

geometric orienta-

approaches abstraction.

Given the importance the Aztecs placed on the past, there was nothing

unusual about their plans to evoke the ancient Tenochtitlan.

Once again, there would be

city

of Tula

Mexico-

grand metropolis covered with

stones decorated with eagles and jaguars. Atlantes would cover the horizontal

space (the axis mundi) and there would be new renditions of the chacmools ual attendants) associated with fire

ornamentation of the

rain

god

By the fifteenth century

(rit-

and water and bearing the insignia and

Tlaloc.

a.d.

the Aztec empire

was

flourishing

various

indigenous capitals of the central valleys of Mexico, such as Tetzcoco, Xochimilco,

and Calixtlahuaca. During

their

ascendancy the Aztecs also fostered

13.

Sculpture of a

kiruj

Huaxtcc, 13th oi 14th century

oped new formal designs, creating images of men and

new

who

developments. This was particularly true for sculptors of the period

artistic

women

devel-

that would signify each

Depictions of male figures were imbued with the maturity associated with

era.

procreation and sustaining the family and the state. Thus, these sculptures present the

forms of young adult men, a

garment that was

bound

sculptors felt

bared breasts.

masculine. Depictions of females were different: Because

to exalt

young matrons as

In reality,

women

some people from

tion of

organs discreetly hidden by a simple maxtlatl,

their sexual

strictly

shown with

symbols, they were

fertility

did not reveal themselves in this way, with the excep-

the coast of Oaxaca and Guerrero,

who maintained

this

ancestral tradition.

Many a

wrap

stone images also honor women's garments of the period. By

called a cutitl. in a range of designs,

body and held torso.

ing

Mexico-Tenochtitlan and neighboring

as a triangle,

differently

was not unusual

movement

wide

woman

put her head.

of the wearer's arms.

was considered the most

also rendered

to see a

liv-

a peculiar article of clothing

the center through which a

the Aztec period, young adulthood

them

cities,

front and back, allowing free

manhood; however, sculptors treating

to cover the lower part of the

One was the quechquemitl,

with a rhomboid shape and a hole

skirt,

number of people from other regions of Mesoamerica

a great

variety of female garments.

It fell

of a

place with a sash, while a very long blouse called a huipil covered the

As there were

was used

way

significant stage of

images of old men as well as older women,

accordance with their

of older men, only

sex. In sculptures

the faces were covered with wrinkles. Occasionally, the eyeteeth were prominently featured and the incisor teeth were missing to denote age, but the bodies look vigorous;

perhaps these images were meant to show men's aspiration not to lose their sexual

prowess with the passage of time. Depictions of older flaccid breasts indicate the effects of childbearing In

the

monumental sculptures

basic formal

women

include wrinkled faces;

and nursing on the female body.

that undoubtedly served a ritual purpose, these

models depicting the sexes were embellished with many other garments

and ornaments

were trans-

for representing the various deities. Thus, the effigies

formed into personifications of the gods, indicating the importance the human figure had acquired. Sculptors were expressing themselves more freely than they previously

human movement. They extended

had, exploring the mystery of rendering

dard sculptural repertory, daring to show figures on bent knee or seated half-lotus position in addition to or seated positions. The

Olmec had achieved formal

millennia earlier by turning the torso

(600-400

B.C.),

the Dancing

The in

artistic

the

some

Monkey modes

figures to

sculpture

(ca.

one 1

lotus or

human body two known as The Wrestler

liberation of the

this technical

side. This style

500),

in a

poses accentuated by vertical

famous sculpture

and Aztec sculptors rediscovered

turning the heads of in

traditional, rigid

the stan-

which turns

and

reached its

body

artistic

its

fullest

in a spiral

advance by expression

movement.

of the Aztecs influenced the people they conquered. Sculptures

the Aztec style were placed alongside indigenous images and representations by the

Huaxteca and Totona<

the Gulf Coast, the Mixteca of Oaxaca,

state of Guerrero. The Aztec style,

allowed

its

pract

and peop

which became known as the international

integrate the various forms of visual

prevalent during the epoch into a cohesive approach.

style,

communication

The Olmec \nn

'yphers

THE STORY OF CREATION AS TOLD BY THE OLMEC WILL NEVER AGAIN BE HEARD. ALSO LONG

forgotten country")

same

land

name, as the term "Olmec" ("inhabitant of the rubber

their true

borrowed from

a culture that

many

the southern Gulf Coast lowlands

centuries later inhabited the

the Mexican states of Tabasco

and Veracruz. Without surviving written documents, knowledge of America's earliest civilization must be gleaned from the pieces that have survived the ravages of time

an unforgiving tropical environment. The ephemeral nature of

most Olmec remains challenges archaeologists

meaning and

to discover their

function, but luckily their splendid stone sculptures survive intact, bearing

immutable testimony

to ancient aristocratic beliefs.

Between 1500 and 400 roundings with means

B.C.,

that,

the Olmec exploited their jungle-covered sur-

though

primitive,

were apparently quite

fruitful,

since food production sustained significant population concentrations (more

than 10,000 people)

and

and around each of the regional capitals of San Lorenzo fish, turtle, freshwater shrimp, and

The intense consumption of

La Venta.

other aquatic resources obtained

the bounteous

swamps, and

rivers, lakes,

was complemented by root crops, maize, palm, squash, chilies, and well as deer and other hunted fauna. The high grounds safe from

floodplains beans, as

flooding were used for swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture, and recession

techniques were implemented

The

1000

B.C.

the floodplains. sculptures, fashioned

the most privileged social sector,

for

about rulers and the

leaders'

between 1200 and

embody numerous concepts

political structure, origins, social relations,

Carefully devised images

Olmec

Olmec monumental stone

first

destined to aid in

and

religion.

managing and disseminating the

worldview were ostentatiously produced

in basalt, a

sacred vol-

canic stone. The transport of these monuments from basalt sources

the

neighboring Tuxtlas mountains to the capitals, a distance of 60 to 100 kilomerequired the efforts of hundreds, perhaps thousands, of subjects.

ters,

stag-

moving

human exertion and organization involved in minimum volume of stone- 150 cubic meters, or 450 tons-required making the 159 monuments present in the San Lorenzo region between

gering to imagine the

even the for

1200 and 800

Among

B.C.

the heaviest of

called "altars"),

monument r,

monuments

are the large thrones (previously

to a particular ruler, but also an icon of the office held by thai

The size of these cyclopean symbols of individual

office,

larger

all

each weighing more than 22 tons. Each sculpture was not only

was clearly related the monument, the

to the

rulers, also

greater the

human

exertion required For

Colossal heads are often considered the hallmark of :e, in

contrast to that of thrones, does

sovereign power, as

many were

icons ot the

magnitude of the sovereign's power, since the

Olmec

art

'is

transport.

and

culture,

he intensity ol

not sculpted from raw rock in the distant basalt

Olmec,

ca.

800

•

v .

some were made from

flows. Rather,

and thus did not each

1200-800

afar.

The production of nine colossal heads-

ruler-near the end of San Lorenzo's period of

a portrait of a

cence,

monuments, such as thrones,

previously existing

from

entail transport

seems an impressive

B.C.,

monument,

sculpted from a recycled

flores-

each head was

commemoration constituted

this allegorical

power by waning

singularly fictitious display of

maximum

feat; nonetheless, since

who perhaps

rulers,

could not mobi-

sufficient labor for long-distance conveyance.

lize

Olmec

who

rulers considered

dwelled

where

large thrones

mouth

cave, the society,

themselves the descendants of specific sacred ancestors

the underworld. The concept of divine right

of the earth monster deity and the entrance to the underworld. that social position

likely

ones to those lacking

Olmec

art

abounds

a real or fictive

human

blood relationship to a divine precursor.

figures depicting ideal physical forms. Robust bodies

monumental

small greenstone objects. Another major

theme

slit

eyes are salient

whereas bodies may be slender

art,

Olmec

art

thought to be shaman-

nature. Fantastic figures with gradations of anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, or

istic in

may

unnatural qualities

Embedded

in a social

and

provided the means to

game,

to the

ranged from royal and aristo-

and chubby faces with squared jaws, down-turned mouths, and elements of figures represented

In elite

was defined by the genealogical distance

apical lineage ancestor. Hierarchically ordered lineages cratic

patent on the front of

seated ancestor emerges from a niche symbolizing the origin

represent stages political milieu

commune

which the cosmic

The Olmec succeeded

nomic networks.

battle

Terrestrial

the ritualistic transformation process.

charged with mysticism, transformation

between the sun and darkness was reenacted.

uniting the vast coastal region

and water routes formed

and transportation system; long

artificial

located villages founded

were

built next to rivers

vital

and eco-

communication likely

task of governing strategically

remote portions of the vast landscape was achieved

and horizontal web of

a vertical

in social, political,

their elaborate

causeways

used as docks for dugout canoes. The difficult but

through

rites

with the supernatural, as did the ceremonial ball-

ideology. The distribution of utilitarian

network as well as with places as

far

and

social

political relations

and luxury resources took place

away

Salvador.

Among

and in

cohesive

the regional

the items traded

obsidian, a volcanic glass used for practical and ceremonial purposes, which

obtained from more than twenty quarries located Iron ores, used for

adornments,

tools,

was was

Central Mexico and Guatemala.

and ceremonial

objects,

were acquired from

Chiapas and Oaxaca. Native petroleum resources, such as bitumen (used as a sealant

and

resin),

were traded

locally

and to distant

places. Small statues, plaques, personal

adornments, and axes made from various kinds of greenstone procured from sources in

Guatemala and Mexico were widely exchanged outside the Gulf Coast

Olmec ways of

when set in

this culture

life

region.

and worldview did not completely disappear from Mesoamerica

drew

to a close

around 400

B.C.

Like the Aztecs, their origin

caves; the succession and legitimating of dynastic rulers

myth was

was based on

divine

genealogical rights; they occupied a region with abundant water and built transportation architecture; a

complex subsistence system based on agriculture, hunting,

and collecting underwrote the production of important used

fishing,

commodities, which were

craft

long-distance exchange; and the ritually and politically significant ballgame

embodied

ideological elements related to celestial struggles similar to those in Aztec

cosmology. As the

first

dominant

cultural

group

Mesoamerica, the Olmec were key

contributors to fundamental cultural processes implicated

Mesoamerican

historical traditions,

and

their influence

was

the early development of

felt

both near and

far.

Teotihuacan I.

WHEN

THE AZTECS ARRIVED

mild

Miiiiztmillii

TWO PROMINENT CULTURES-THE

THE BASIN OF MEXICO,

and Teotihuacan states-were collapsing or had already collapsed Teotihuacan, had dominated the economics,

earlier of these,

bolism of Central Mexico during the

centuries

first six

a.d.

politics, Its

TOLTEC

The

there.

and sym-

capital, a

huge

metropolis that controlled important resources such as obsidian (the basis of technology),

was

planned urban

site, a

multiethnic

city, a

crafts center,

its

and

sacred place, conceived as a model of the Mesoamerican cosmos. Because

was

and

a prestigious crafts center

sacred

city,

some

1960s have proposed that the mythical Tollan

a it

archaeologists since the

(the

archetypal

city)

was

Teotihuacan and not Tula, the seat of the Toltec empire, as was long believed.

When

the volcanic eruptions of the

part of the Basin of Mexico

century devastated the southern

first

and the slopes of Popocatepetl, many

deserted, their inhabitants fleeing to different regions.

where the Pyramid of the Sun was

Valley of Teotihuacan,

century as a temple of city of

fertility

sites

were

One such region was the built in the

intended to appease the violent

fire

second

gods. The

Teotihuacan eventually covered 20 square kilometers, the construction

material being quarried from underground tunnels. The city had an urban grid

with a main north-south

axis,

the Street of the Dead.

An east-west

axis origi-

nated from the Ciudadela and Great Compound, perhaps emulating a former east-west street that had departed from the Pyramid of the Sun.

Throughout Mesoamerica, the cosmos was conceived as three superimposed levels: at

the bottom, the underworld;

the middle, the earth, divided into the

four quarters of the universe; and at the summit, the sky. The symbolism of the

quartered world found expression

number four

are found

the glyph of the

city;

just

Many

references to the

may have been

the pre-Hispanic tunnel excavated by the Teotihuacanos

under the Pyramid of the Sun ends Xalla,

various forms.

Teotihuacan: The four-petaled flower

a four-petaled

the north of the Pyramid of the

making compound-had

chamber; the palace of

Sun-perhaps

a central plaza with four structures,

cardinal point, around a central temple; and

decision-

each directed to a

possible also that the city

was

coruled by four lords.

Many elements streets

of urban planning were present

and avenues arranged on

orthogonal

this

city:

a grid, a well-planned drainage system, large

basins for the storage of water, a center that included the main religious and

administrative structures, multifamily house-compounds, and distinct wards for

people of various trades or places

merchants' wards, as well

as,

tectural style of the tablero t

to a flat table, the tables

|in

.mall

which dy present

(such as the Oaxaca and

Michoacan enclave). The archi-

a sloping wall, the talud, leads in

was reproduced in most of the constructions throughout was then adapted to regional styles throughout Mesoamerica.

of Puebla-Tlaxcala,

iacan

of the Valley

the Format:

250-650

TTirijii

[|i<wmi1Â»n

Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs copied this style

some constructions

of the sacred

precinct to recuperate Teotihuacan's past. The division of Teotihuacan into four quarters

and

its

organization of wards

Teotihuacan housed around craftsmen, or constructors.

may

also have been emulated

25,000 inhabitants, most of

Among

Tenochtitlan.

whom

were bureaucrats,

the craftsmen were different groups of potters

manufacturing diverse wares, obsidian knappers, craftsmen polishing stone tools for grinding or woodworking, lapidaries,

tailors, shell

workers, and so on.

Some

of their

products, such as painted stucco tripod vessels or green obsidian prismatic blades, traveled far situ

Mesoamerica. Others, such as funerary masks, have not been found

known from private collections. Teotihuacan was profusely occupied by

The Valley of

on top of the ancient

city,

and there

the Aztecs,

either to extract stone for the construction of

new

Tenochtitlan).

placement of such objectsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; in front of temple

and other secular

houses

the periphery of Teotihuacan,

Throughout Mesoamerica,

example-but Teotihuacan objects such as agricultural fields

built

buildings or to recuperate objects

such as vessels, masks, portrait figurines, and other items

Templo Mayor

who

evidence of the extensive disturbance of Classic

contexts by these Postclassic inhabitants, particularly

but are largely

(like

those found

strict rules

the

temples themselves, for

stairs or in

portrait figurines are also

sites.

governed the

commonly found

Excavations inside quarry tunnels behind

the Pyramid of the Sun, where Aztec food-preparation areas were found, likewise

uncovered Teotihuacan portrait heads, perhaps used as small After Teotihuacan

fell

idols.

around 550-600, the quarry tunnels that had been exca-

vated to extract the volcanic scoria to build the ancient city were occupied by post-

Teotihuacan groups: the Coyotlatelco, Mazapa, and Aztecs. The Codex Xolotl depicts the two main pyramids (Sun and likely

The

Moon) on top of

a "cave"

that this figure represents the oracle mentioned

last

Aztec tlatoani, Motecuhzoma

with a person inside.

the Relaciones geograficas.

(reigned 1502-20), visited Teotihuacan to be

invested of the power to rule and to consult the oracle.

When

the Aztecs arrived, they interpreted the city of Teotihuacan-already an

archaeological site-as the mythical place where the gods assembled and sacrificed

themselves to create the

fifth

sun. Thus, Teotihuacan

was conceived as a place of It was visited as a

beginning for the Late Postclassic groups of the Basin of Mexico.

sacred place, a site of pilgrimage. The Postclassic tradition attributed to giants the construction of the metropolis. The Aztecs

place

where persons were converted

named

the site (Teotihuacan, meaning "the

into gods"), as well as the

main constructions and

axes (the Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and the Street of the Dead). The

Aztecs symbolically derived their ancestry from both Tula and Teotihuacan, but

Teotihuacan that inaugurated the era of large capitals Mexico, including the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.

was

and around the Basin of

40.

Fragment of a mural painting

Teotihuacan, ca. 100-600

(HI

41.

Plaque with an image

of a goddess with a reptile-eye glyph

Teotihuaean, ca. 250- 700

Tula and the Tolteca Richard

Diehl

THE AZTECS INHERITED A RICH CULTURAL AND ARTISTIC TRADITION FROM THEIR PREDECESSORS.

While

many elements

of this tradition were basic to

Aztec leaders deliberately chose certain others

all

Mesoamerican

cultures,

an effort to establish

real or

invented kinship with glorified ancestors. As Leonardo Lopez Lujan recently observed, these efforts included the reuse of older objects, often obtained

through excavations into ruined buildings, and the imitation or replication of ancient forms. While ers

some of these borrowings reached back 3,000

drew on more recent cultures-most

years, oth-

significantly, the giant Classic period

metropolis at Teotihuacan and the smaller but ideologically charged ruins at Tula, the ancient Toltec capital located 70 kilometers north of Tenochtitlan.

Tula occupied a defensible ridge overlooking the confluence of the Tula and

Rosas

rivers.

Founded during Central Mexico's "dark ages" following the demise

of Teotihuacan, Tula

emerged as Mesoamerica's

extensive empire by

a.d.

renowned At

its

1100. The Aztecs considered the Tolteca to have been

artisans, builders, warriors, merchants,

and philosophers.

height, Tula covered 13 square kilometers

inhabitants living

and had more than 50,000

packed multifamily compounds surrounding the

tightly

and the seat of an

largest city

main ceremonial precinct on the bluff overlooking the

The precinct con-

rivers.

tained temples, palaces, and other public buildings that formed the stage on

which Toltec

elites

enacted public

life

and formulated state

policy.

Terraced square or rectangular platforms (often referred

to,

mistakenly, as

"pyramids") topped with flat-roofed masonry buildings were the most Toltec architectural form.

the

city,

One unusual

incorporated round sections, which suggests that

the Mesoamerican deity Quetzalcoatl

common

structure, located at the north

his guise as the

edge of

was dedicated

wind god Ehecatl.

Public buildings included temples, ballcourts, skull racks, small open-air adoratories, "palaces" that

nitaries,

and

probably served as meeting halls for local and foreign dig-

elite residences.

public buildings, although

Masonry columns supported the roofs of most

Pyramids B and

employed round stone drums carved

Tula's

two

largest

buildings,

the likeness of atlantean Toltec warriors.

Smaller stone sculptures included bench facade tablets depicting ceremonial scenes,

wall

plaques,

roof ornaments, small

recumbent chacmool sculptures thought

atlantean altar supports, and

have served as

sacrificial altars.

polychrome paint

Plain or carved tablets covered with stucco and, at times,

decorated the exterior walls of platforms. Those on Pyramid B depict jaguars, coyotes, eagles, and vultures, perhaps emblematic of Toltec warrior societies, alternating with a fantastic creature that combines characteristics.

human,

feline,

and avian

freestanding eoatepantli (snake wall) covered with carved

polychrome panels on both sides closed off the northern side of Pyramid

hundred yea'

and even some

'/tecs replicated Toltec architectural ol

Four

forms and layouts,

the heart of Tenochtitlan.

III

Toltec art

often characterized as "crude" and

much

materials used as

skills

"stiff,"

attributions that reflect

the

of the artisans. Nevertheless, even the most avid

must concede that while Aztec forms and

Toltec enthusiast in

as the

style

were often grounded

Toltec prototypes, Aztec artisans far surpassed their Toltec ancestors' best efforts.

Toward the end of the twelfth century, the Toltec empire disintegrated and Tula

was abandoned. The causes.

facts of the matter are largely

intrigue and internal conflicts

about

unknown,

to say nothing of the

Legendary accounts written down by sixteenth-century Spaniards

among

between good and

a struggle

Quetzalcoatl, or a priest or ruler

who

The most

evil.

carries his

common

talk

factions, cloaked in a confusing overlay of

myths

of these has the deity

name, defeated or shamed by the dark

forces of Tezcatlipoca, god of night and sorcerers. Quetzalcoatl flees to the east and either sails off to Yucatan

a raft of

serpents or becomes the planet Venus, promis-

ing to return someday.

The archaeological evidence for Tula's demise

not

much more

enlightening than

the legends. Parts of the city apparently were sacked and burned, but these events

may

have postdated the actual abandonment by decades. Systematic looting of building facades, sculptures, and burial offerings complicate the matter. Graves inside "altars" in

house patios were destroyed and

their contents

abandoned, but these acts could represent reverential ing residents or desecration

mine abandoned buildings

removed when the houses were rituals

on the part of the depart-

and plunder by invaders. Later peoples did systematically

for sculptures

and facade

tablets, often leaving offerings of

Aztec-style pottery and stone sacrificial knives on the building surfaces.

Although Toltec itan

art

and architecture exerted

Aztec culture, the culture of the Aztecs was

what had

refined version of larger,

existed a

considerable influence on metropol-

much more than an expanded and

few centuries before. Aztec populations were

and Aztec society presumably more complex, than those of the

Furthermore,

lack reliable information

many

dangerous to compare the two societies

merce,

politics,

religion,

society

must have confronted

governance, militarism, different

aspects of Toltec

life,

far

Tolteca.

making

matters such as craft organization, comphilosophy, and worldview. Aztec

and perhaps

confronted by the Tolteca. Such challenges surely

far greater

summoned

challenges than those forth institutions that

arose out of the Aztec experience rather than any harking back to the past. However,

Aztec rulers never

were

danger of

lost sight of their Toltec ancestors.

falling into

When

their

most sacred

Spanish hands, they are said to have hidden them

cave near Tula, never to be seen again.

idols in a

^f<

44.

Chacmool

Toltcc, ca.

1100

K' ** R--IP t

R^t

*%.-

<Sfc-

Li*'

H ^B I 4

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"J"

The Templo Mayor

Excavations at the Templo Mayor ilium tin

Villas

\lni Irziiiiin

ON FEBRUARY

AT DAYBREAK

AN EXTRAORDINARY DISCOVERY WAS MADE

21, 1978,

DOWNTOWN

Workers from the Compania de Luz y Fuerza (Light and Power Company), carrying out installation work at the corner of calle de Guatemala Mexico

and

City:

de Argentina, came across a relief-covered stone

calle

Realizing that

their

path.

could be an ancient sculpture, they stopped work and the fol-

lowing day notified the Departamento de Rescate Arqueologico (Archaeological

Recovery Department) of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia

Department members knew immediately that

(INAH).

this

and commenced archaeological recovery without

relief

By February 23,

a very important

had been determined that the sculpture included

adornments on the head. Work continued

profile with

was

delay.

eventually revealing an

for

enormous monolith, 3.25 meters

a face in

another four days, in

diameter, with a

representation of a decapitated and dismembered nude female carved

confirmed that

visiting the site,

was

Soli's,

moon

goddess, Coyolxauhqui, who, according to myth, was

god of sun and

Huitzilopochtli, hill

known From

this

in relief.

a depiction of the

Felipe

Aztec

killed

by her brother

war, following a desperate battle

on the mythic

as Coatepetl.

this startling discovery, the

Templo Mayor Project was begun. For the

next five years, under the auspices of INAH, of

consisting

archaeologists,

biologists,

directed an interdisciplinary

chemists,

and

historians,

team

physical

anthropologists dedicated to unearthing the Templo Mayor and nearby buildings

order to understand the several stages of construction of the temple and

the Aztec people themselves. ings that had been placed

over

it:

Felipe

Tlaloc, deity of rain,

matically

new

the process,

Little

who

presided

Huitzilopochtli. Scholars have noted the dra-

parts: before

and

that research about the Aztecs can be

after the

Templo Mayor excavations.

not be forgotten, however, that important discoveries were also ago.

hundred offer-

perspective offered to Aztec studies by the project's findings.

two

divided into

honor of the temple and the gods

and

for example, has stated

Soli's,

we found around

little,

made

must

centuries

the Aztec past has been revealed by the important pieces that

have been found and that have enriched our knowledge of the Aztec people. In in

790,

on the orders

Count Revillagigedo, viceroy of Mexico, work began

the Zoealo (main square) of Mexico City to install water pipelines and to pave

the plaza. During these operations, various Aztec sculptures were unearthed,

among them

the famous statue of Coatlicue, the mother goddess, discovered

790, and the Sun or Calerni.ii '.tone, found on December 17 of same year. A contemporary account of these events appears in Antonio de Icon y Gama's famous work Description historica y cmnoloqica dc las dos

on Augusl

13,

the

piedras

,;â&#x20AC;˘

was

moved

to write this in order to reveal to the literary

world

Wall with stucco-covered stone skulls at the

Templo Mayor.

some

of the vast knowledge that the Indians of the

Americas possessed

of their heathendom, so ly

and sciences

in arts it

will

of the halls of the university over fears on the part of the clergy

the time

known how

that such

false-

"strange sculpture" could

provoke antagonistic

relates:

these enemies of our Spaniards are accused of

being irrational or simple,

this

way

the

Count Revillagigedo, Viceroy, had

discrediting

monument

transferred to the University of Mexico, which he

conquest of these kingdoms. This written

considered the most proper place to conserve one of

account and the pictures of the figures presented here

this

the glorious feats performed [by the Spaniards]

will

show

nal figures

that the people

were superior

no knowledge of

who made

artisans,

the rarest remains of American antiquity. The profes-

the origi-

sors, at that

although they had

their feigned images,

order to represent

and created other architectur-

of tempered chisels and steel

again

able

1803,

was

pleas,

and pre-Hispanic monuments,

ences

Views of the Mountain Ranges and

senous Peoples of America.

ones discovered

Among

Many

relating his experi-

Monuments of

the sculptures he

the Zbcalo

790, includ-

which had been moved to the Real y idad on orders of the viceroy, who had ha

the Coatlicue stone,

measured, weighed, and sketched before having

buried

halls of the building, at a

examine

Don

depth

would not have been

Feliciano

then

Marin,

his

way

to his diocese and, listening to

asked the rector of the university to have

up.-'

who

particularly interested in archaeo-

logical sites in his

Mexico on

solid, instead

dug ed Mexico

one of the

not want to

Bishop of Monterrey, had not been going through

like axes.'

The German explorer Baron Alexander von Humboldt,

priests, did

Mexican youth, so they buried

of half a meter. Consequently,

works, using as tools for these labors different

stones that were even harder and more

time Dominican

exhibit this idol to the

iron or steel; they carved statues of

hard rock with great perfection

Von Humboldt

ideas.

one

years passed before planned excavations

lexico City

were dug

the center

were undertaken, although when foundations

for buildings, fortuitous discoveries occasionally

shed

was made in 1825, when the head of Coyolxauhqui sculpted in diorite was uncovered. Antonio Penafiel states that this was unearthed light

below

on pre-Hispanic structures. A major

house on

calle

find

de Santa Teresa (now the continuation

of calle de Guatemala, east of the Zocjlo)

This building

Abo\< I.'..,,

'iq I

Mill

was the

page: Templo .ill

III

I'll

property of the Convento de

Concepcion, and the piece was

donated by the abbess to the National Museum. In

1897,

some carved stone

Among

the most important archaeological

carried out in 1913

pieces were found at the inter-

Manuel Gamio

the Zocalo area

was

at the corner of calle de Seminario

section of the Portal de Mercaderes (now the west side of the

Santa Teresa. Excavation became possible

Zocalo) and calle de Tlapaleros (now calle de 16 de Septiembre),

demolished, and as

the southwest corner of the Zocalo.

measured 1.65 meters ters high

One

of these sculptures

long, 1.22 meters wide,

and had on

its sides,

carved

and 68 centime-

relief,

armed warriors

with serpents above their heads. Another sculpture, 60 centimeters high,

was carved with representations of the four

cosmogonic

suns, or

were believed to have preceded the cre-

ages, that

ation of the fifth sun or the present world.

Leopoldo Batres,

who examined

de Escalerillas (Guatemala)

Archaeological Explorations

1900, described the objects

in Escalerillas Street, City

Batres mistakenly locates the Templo

and gives

Mayor under the Catedral

patio of the Marquis del Apartado's

de Relox (Argentina) and

calle

home-at

Jr.,

the corner of calle

was found, together

with a serpent's head with a "4 Reed" glyph carved

stone sculpture

the form of a jaguar.

1985, another sculpture representing an eagle

and

now

under the

de Cordobanes (Donceles)-part

of a stairway running from east to west

the collection of the

Museo

project, resulting

del

and

calle

was the southwest corner of the Templo a building

specialists in this

expert work on several different aspects of

the findings. For instance,

Hermann Beyer

studied the banquette

decorated with warriors and Moises Herrera classified the flora

and fauna. In

1933,

when some

buildings were demolished at the corner

Guatemala and

calle

de Seminario,

same block Gamio twenty

the

as the Catedral-opposite the area investigated by

years earlier-a team led by architect Emilio Cuevas excavated the vacant

lots.

Architectural features of particular

found by Cuevas included

a very elaborate balustrade

interest

and part

of a stairway, perhaps belonging to the platform that supported

Mayor in one of its latest stages of construction. Hugo Moedano and Elma Estrada Balmori explored this platform in 1948, finding that it was decorated in the middle of the south

the Templo

actually faces west.

1901, during work directed by Porfirio Diaz,

a great

in his

of Mexico.

southward orientation, even though, as with most

pre-Hispanic temples, In

calle

a result

when

Mayor was discovered. Gamio included various

of calle de

remains found beneath

investigations

that undertaken by

the

in relief

same

and

place,

was discovered,

Templo Mayor.

facade with snakes' heads, a great serpent's head, and a Objects unearthed.

from In

the

1964,

Argentina, where a

ancient

excavated

city a

have continued

brazier.

decorated altar on calle de

magnificent mural depicting Tlaloc was

found on one of the sloping

walls.

Eduardo Contreras discovered

an important offering within the pyramidal structure of the

Templo Mayor

way began

1966. In 1967. work on the Mexico City sub-

the Zoealo area and resulted

mation about the ancient

city.

much new

test pits in the parking lot of

Some

the Secretaria de Hacienda on calle de Guatemala.

were found, but unfortunately they had been

altars

pear cactus grows, build a small chapel where our

infor-

1973, the Archaeological

Reco^ry Department of INAH dug

destroyed during the construction of the parking

lot.

rest;

stone

made

let

we can do

is all

built a

dation

belonged to Hernan Cortes's palace.

was also discovered

altar

itself.

Monumentos

1975. the Departmento de

started the Basin of Mexico Project

down

prickly-

thick grasses

square base, which was to serve as the founchapel

the

built a

for

god to

the

poor but pretty

[T]hey

were so poor,

rest

house

little

place their god

mud

hut

and trepidation.

fear

and

destitute,

that they built even that small

Prehispanicos

purpose was to control

Its

Then everyone

where the

in; .

covered with the reeds they gathered from the water

NacionaL In

for the time being."

willingly to the place

and so they

circular pre-Hispanic

the rear courtyard of the Palacio

cannot be made of

of wattle and daub, since that

from the reeds that grew next to the cactus, they

later,

unearthed the remains of some columns that had probably

though

pear cactus grew, and, cutting

largely

the Ratio de Honor of the Palacio Nacional

excavations

went very

small

A year

god may now

fearful

which to

the constant and anarchic growth of the city and to halt the

Recent studies have shown that a solar eclipse took place

destruction of archaeological remains The metropolitan area

was divided

into four sections, each consisting of a

number of

zones and under the supervision of a different team of specialAt the Catedral. work was carried out by archaeologists

ists.

under the supervision of Constanza Vega. Here, beneath the

some Aztec

Catedral,

buildings and

ceramic remains were

found. The most interesting discovery was part of a inscribed with a glyph that

may correspond

to the

wall

Temple of the

1325,

very significant symbolic event

ancient Mexico.

were thought to be battles between the sun and the

Eclipses

moon from which

emerged triumphant. Struggles

the sun

between the powers of day and night were

related in Aztec

myths, including the story most closely associated with the

Templo

Mayor: the

between

battle

and

Huitzilopochtli

Coyolxauhqui.

Sun. By 1991. excavations under the Catedral had uncovered several buildings in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan,

Stage

including the ballcourt Shrines, offerings, and drains were also

This stage of construction

found, and several construction phases of the Templo Mayor

Tlaloc

wrrc located, dating between approximately 1450 and 1500. Another major find took place sculpture

lar

was

1988,

when

discovered. The sun appears

of the stone, which victories of

surrounded

Motecuhzoma

was located opposite the

a great circu-

the upper part

by depictions of the military

(reigned 1440-69). The sculpture

Moneda

Ten years prior to

lemplo Mayor the

Museum

this,

Project.

previous year with

museum

city [he

of excavating

where

the area

at the site illustrating

all

aspects of the ancient

seven distinct stages of construction.

lies

meters high at this stage. The two shrines at the

top, as well as the

two stairways that

lead to them, are fairly

well preserved.

The side dedicated to Huitzilopochtli was found with rificial

stone it,

situ,

floor,

an offering of

were two funerary

as a small

golden

was found small

was

urns. One,

bell

and

made

nearby. Inside

greenstone

made

under the stuc-

of obsidian,

was

a small silver mask, as well

signs of having been

of alabaster with an obsidian

were burnt bones,

golden

bell,

ornaments, and obsidian

ear

disks,

bench on which

its feet,

number of bones, which showed

burnt. The second urn,

sac-

and green beads was

sacrificial knives

god must have stood. At

found to contain

its

opposite the entrance to the shrine.

a statue of the

the aim

at least

fifteen

calculated to have been

new undertaking incorporated Project, which had commenced the

excavations of the Templo Mayor Project would even-

uncover

tually

around

discovered. At the far end of the shrine

remains of the Templo Mayor had been found and then setting

lower part of the temple could not be excavated because

however, work had begun on the

This

of Tenochtitlan

associated with the shrines to

and Huitzilopochtli erected atop the Templo Mayor. The

Beneath

the Ar/obispado building.

1390)

below groundwater, but the building

front steps of the temple honoring

Tezcatlipoca. the remains of which are beneath calle de

(ca.

lid,

two

disks.

Recent studies have shown that the cremated bones inside the

two urns are

Staqrl(132S) Archaeologists have not yet uncovered the

of the

site

first

shrine built in Huitzilopochtli's honor, but historical sources State thai the reeds,

god ordered the

first

temple to be

and mud Fray Diego Dur^n describes how

wa*, erected. His description suggests that "let

t.36

built of

all

go, and, in that place

was

where the

this

wood,

temple

very small: prickly-

related,

and

that, given their

placement

at the feet

of the god, they must have belonged to a high-ranking Aztec.

The Aztecs were Azcapotzalco

still

under

1390, and so

belong to one of the

first

the

rule

we can assume

the

Tepaneca

that these remains

three rulers: Acamapichtli (reigned

1376-96), Huitzilihuitl (reigned 1396-1417), or Chimalpopoca (reigned 1417-27). Everything points to the remains belonging

:£»•£*"*.

L &

5fc

^m^^m

W*z. v+

^** I

Excavations at the Templo Mayor

1978 when the

stone depicting Coyolxauhqui was discovered.

to the last of these.

were found on the

total of six offerings

Huitzilopoehtli side of the temple, of which four were funerary

plumbate pot

urns. One, a

(the clay has a metallic sheen) in the

shape of a dog, was produced

the southeastern regions of

The date given to

was taken from

this stage of construction

glyph found on the highest step, on the same axis

with the sacrificial stone, which corresponds to the year 1390.

On the

recumbent figure with

Tlaloc side, a

stomach,

known

statue

that form the entrance to the shrine

On the

of painted decoration on them.

resembling eyes, under each of which

lies

black-and-white

pillar.

The

have their arms crossed over (According

heart.

their

beneath

a blue stripe;

stripes.

Remnants of paintings of

who

figure,

represent water,

at the back of

depicted walking on a blue

a yellow

line

bench at the

may

that

associated with the gods of maize. As

Huitzilopoehtli shrine, there

each

the

sap)

Tlaloc side of the temple:

one represents

body painted black and the other

a figure

half painted red.

found on the Tlaloc side was the body of

a stone serpent with a

total of thirteen offerings associated with this stage of

Some contained

construction were discovered.

offering of fifty-two green obsidian knives (fifty-two

was the

and forty-one stone

beads of the same color was discovered.

uncovered. This

lead

them

any of the offerings

not surprising, given the date ascribed to this

stage, as the Aztecs at this time

were

still

under the control of Azcapotzalco

and had not yet begun the expansion that would

dominate part of both

the remains of

marine animals; one of these, found at the rear of Stage the Tlaloc side, contained a sawfish

saw and

shells,

III

along with a

magnificent blue-painted pot with the raised face of Tlaloc.

the Aztec empire continued to expand, as

There were no marine remains found

its

end of the

far

Under the sculpture of the chacmool, an

"century")

with half

Another piece

face emerging from the jaws of an animal.

them

Nahua

fer-

and the moon.

Stages IV and IV(a)

the

figures were also found on the stairway on the

These stages are attributed to Motecuhzoma

story

made from

drink

Four offerings were found on this side of the temple, three of

number of years

their chest, as

the

Furthermore, several

chamber; here another sculpture of Tlaloc would have stood.

inside the shrine.

fig-

like a

god ate the hearts of the

in battle.)

associated with the gods of pulque

Recumbent

front are black circles

Huitznaua after defeating them

mented cactus

have the remains

still

ornaments on the forearms are

figure with

chest containing a greenstone,

of the figures wear a yacameztli, or lunar nose-ring, which

its

these blue stripes are two horizontal red stripes attached to vertical

protect

based on the fact that some of the

in their

heart, while others

opposite

container on

chacmool,

the entrance to the shrine. This has been identified as Tlaloc. The pillars

ures have a cavity

Huitzilopochtli's birth, the triumphant

Mesoamerica. a "Rabbit 2"

Coatepetl. This opinion

rials

(ca.

under whose rule

evident

the mate-

excavated. The richness of the building at this stage

made

symbolic and decorative elements, such as the great

clear by

its

braziers

and the serpents' heads found toward the center of the

north and south faces and at the back of the temple platform.

The braziers on the Huitzilopoehtli

side,

characterized by

bow

stood on either side of a serpent's head. The

tied to the front,

ones on the Tlaloc

side, in the

of the god on the front,

coasts.

1454)

still

shape of large pots with the face

have some of their original painted

decoration.

Stage

III

(ca.

The expansion of

1431)

This stage of construction completely covered Stage

and the

various unsuccessful attempts that had been

made

temple. The date assigned to this stage

derived from the

to build the

Stage

IV(a),

this stage of construction, referred to as

did not involve

only the main facade.

It is

inscription "4 Reed," carved on a stone set into the rear wall at

and

now

a significant quantity of items

which corresponds to the year 1431. Since the building grew

of Mixtec stone figures

the region of Oaxaca

that a large

number of workers were already in

kind and

the rule of Itzcoatl (reigned

in labor.

likely

available at this

time and therefore that Tenochtitlan had taxpayers obliged to pay both

Indeed,

who were

1428, under

1427-40), the Aztecs had freed

themselves from the yoke of Azcapotzalco, creating the

Triple

from the region of Mezcala-

Chamber

known

was

as penates indicates that part of

also ruled by Tenochtitlan at this time.

on the Huitzilopoehtli

side,

was found

a figure

made from a large piece of greenstone that undoubtedly came from the south of situated at the center of the stairway Mesoamerica. Chamber identified as Mayahuel, god of pulque,

II,

leading

the Tlaloc shrine, contained a

large quantity of

Mezcala-style masks. Another important offering was found

Alliance with Tetzcoco and Tlacopan.

Among

number

the state of Guerrero-south of Tenochtitlan. The presence

considerably

with this stage of construction,

four sides of the building, but

of offerings, a strong presence of fish remains, coral, and shells,

the base of the temple platform on the Huitzilopoehtli side,

size

all

characterized by a very large

the most significant finds at this stage were eight

Chamber

III,

on the Tlaloc

side,

which contained two multicol-

recumbent sculptures-some life-size-found on the stairway on

ored pots with images of Chicomecoatl, goddess of foodstuffs

the Huitzilopoehtli side of the temple.

and sustenance. Between the two pots were discovered

believe these stone fig-

feline

ures represent the Huitznaua, warriors from the south against

remains and a large quantity of objects and animals from both

whom

the coast and the highlands.

the god

Detail of cat. no. 63.

war had

battle

after

his

birth

I .

•

/•

In* 1 ,

w I r\u ft

ft/3 Ef J

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I i

Detail of cat. no. 64.

Stage

The majority of the offerings uncovered during the Templo

IV(b) (ca. 1469)

This stage, a partial extension to the western side of the

Mayor,

main facade,

its

the throne of Tenochtitlan

1469 and remained

1481. The dating of this stage

Templo

who came

attributed to Axayacatl,

power

until

derived from a "3 House" glyph

found on the south face of the temple base. Under Axayacatl, the Aztec empire conquered several regions and

when

only

One of the most

was defeated

overcome the Tarascans of Michoacan.

tried to

significant conquests

was

that of Tlatelolco

Mayor excavations were found Tenochtitlan

was

Stage

at the height of

confirming that

IV(b),

success and

its

in full military

expansion at this time. The number of tributary towns had increased,

both

sion,

and the contents of the offerings in

reflect this

the types of animals sacrificed and

deposited. The Templo

Mayor had increased

and

size

expan-

the objects

splendor, reflecting the empire's military might.

1473; the commercial success of this market town must have

Stage V(ca. 1482)

made

The part of the main platform upon which the Templo Mayor sat

tempting prospect for the people of Tenochtitlan.

The architectural remains of

con-

this stage of construction

of the main platform on which the temple base

sist

sat. This

platform has five steps leading up from the ceremonial square,

which

composed of

paved surface. The front steps have no

line

but are interrupted only by a small

with the center of the Tlaloc side. The altar

Altar of the Frogs because

it is

mals, which are linked to the

Toward the middle of the

altar, in

known

as the

decorated with two of these ani-

retains

some of

thought to date to the

reigned from 1481 to 1486. The platform

the stucco that covered

and four offerings

it,

were found within. The building known as the House of Eagles, north of the

Templo Mayor, may also have been constructed

at this time.

Here superb clay sculptures of eagle warriors were found, as well as sculptures of skeletons

and two

life-size

representations

of the god Mictlantecuhtli, lord of the underworld. The building

god of water. steps,

who

rule of Tizoc,

central division, as can be seen on those leading to the upper

part of the temple,

that remains of this stage, which

is all

on the Huitzilopochtli

side,

itself

consists of a vestibule area with

and

pillars,

a rectangular

an enormous sculpture of Coyolxauhqui was found. Various

chamber. A short corridor leads to an internal patio with rooms

offerings with rich contents are associated with this goddess,

at the north

among them two

benches decorated with processions of warriors,

ered with

funerary urns

made

of orange clay and cov-

which contained the cremated bones of two

lids,

adult males. Tests carried out on the bones

showed

might have belonged to people involved

military activities,

since there

was

clear evidence of

that they

original colors.

associated with war.

all

Stage

This stage

spears. Because of their placeside of the temple dedicated

to Huitzilopochtli, very close to the sculpture of Coyolxauhqui,

goddess who died

combat,

has been suggested that the

remains belong to high-ranking soldiers injured against Michoacan and brought to Tenochtitlan to

the war

differ

two

die.

were

offerings,

lids.

were

row facing south

The southward direction of the universe was ruled by the god

who was

closely connected to this quadrant in

accordance with the movement of the sun. At the north and south ends of the platform, chambers with floors

paved

marble were found. Two enormous serpents'

bodies met on the platform, one looking north and the other south. Between still

bear

some

them was

a serpent's head. The three snakes

of their original painted decora'

who

ruled from

1486 to

four sides at this time. The

main platform supporting the temple, one of the excavated remains,

characterized by decoration on the balustrades of

made up

the east-facing stairway consisting of a molding

light various shrines

important because

brought to

surrounding the Templo Mayor.

The Red Temples, the two shrines found on the north and

facing and both have a vestibule with a circular altar at the cen-

Inside each of the offerings, along with greenstone beads,

Huitzilopochtli,

all

between the

stone boxes with

thirteen Mexcala-style figures arranged in a

was extended on

south sides of the Templo Mayor respectively, are both east-

two of which stood out from

the others because they were placed

1486) attributed to Ahuitzotl,

god

side devoted to the water

from those on the side of the war god.

central heads

502. The edifice

each of the two stairways leading to the shrines of Tlaloc and

two on the

VI (ea.

three elements. This stage

Serpents' heads rested on the platform on either side of

Huitzilopochtli. The

their

musculature on the bones.

Furthermore, the urns were decorated with images of gods

still

The decorations throughout, including the rep-

resentations of eagle warriors, skeletons, and Mictlantecuhtli, are

armed with spear-throwers and

ment beneath the platform on the

and south ends. The whole complex has stone

Each vestibule

ter.

hoop

made up

of two walls topped by a stone

also painted red; the walls are decorated with paint.

offering containing a considerable

ments, both sculptural and the south temple. pies

Among

real,

number

was found on the upper

the other items discovered

were large painted ceremonial

knives.

A study

on these shrines shows that they were related

god of flowers, T

plants, song, dance,

of musical instru-

part of

the tern

carried out

to Macuilxochitl,

and games.

he Red Temple on the north side of the Templo Mayor, also

known

as Shrine C,

and

These stand on a paved stone floor that forms the floor

aligned with two other shrines: Shrines

of the ceremonial square. Shrine

A has two

stairways,

one fac-

ing its

west and the other walls. Shrine B its

skulls

east.

There

no particular decoration on

has a west-facing stairway and

decorated

three remaining walls with 240 stucco-covered stone

arranged close together

on which the

like a

tzompontli, a

skulls of sacrificial victims

wooden

rack

were displayed. Thus

Shrine B was probably associated with the northern sector of the universe, the region related to death.

On the upper

part of

Stage

1502)

VI I (ca.

What we

see of this stage

the main platform on which the

Templo Mayor stood. Attributed

to the

ground

dable challenge to the Spaniards.

upper

and has

well preserved

story, indicating that

once housed

the west-facing

a recess in

the floor of

a circular

was not found during the excavation. The House of Eagles, discussed in relation

its

sculpture

surmounted during Stage

to Stage V,

Among

pieces of paper fabrics,

made from

which seem to have formed part of the garb of

Almost two centuries passed between the supposed founding of 1325 and the destruction of the Templo Mayor

Tenochtitlan

patio,

by the Spaniards and their indigenous

pre-Hispanic

being

structure

reused

the

grandeur

facing stairway and

will

which

still

decorated at each end with

birds' heads,

have painted black-and-white feathers and yellow

paint on their beaks.

main platform.

was found

to be

and various offerings were discovered on the next stage of construction.

Page from Juan de Tovar, Tovar Codex, also

known

as Relacion delorigen de los Yndios

que havitan en esta Nueva Espana segun sus historias,

1583-87.

allies in

now

its

1521. Having fol-

beginning to the

had attained just before the Spanish invasion, we

turn our attention to the symbolism of the Templo

Mayor, and to the reasons

why

was the most important

build-

ing in the ceremonial complex.

Recent excavations have uncovered part of the stairway that led to the

lowed the building's development from

foundation for conquistador housing. The platform has a westis

a priest

Tlaloc.

was

by another similar building. Only

was found, on top of which was a colonial-style which must have belonged to one of Cortes's captains-an a

was one containing

ornate-tree bark and well-preserved

the platform

example of

a formi-

the most important

offerings found between Stages VI and VII

who worshiped

that

estimated to have

must have presented

of which only the platform exists,

Also to the north of the Templo Mayor

(reigned

been forty-five meters high. Destroying this architectural mass,

and objects related to

Shrine D.

the sixteenth century. The building extended

around eighty-two meters per side and

the shrine were offerings, one of which contained feline remains Tlaloc.

Motecuhzoma

1502-20), this was the stage that the Spaniards saw and razed

it.

good condition

These correspond to

According to the cosmovision of the Aztecs and other

Mesoamerican peoples, the universe was divided levels,

of which

the

central

inhabited by man. Above

levelâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; the

terrestrial

were thirteen

into

three

zone-was

levels, or skies,

the

^ipi^fWl E^fcr^i

iÂŁi

highest being Omeyocan, the place of duality. Below the terrestrial

zone was the underworld, consisting of nine

was

lowest of which

levels,

the

Mictlan, inhabited by Mictlantecuhtli and

Mictlancihuatl, the discarnate deities

who

ruled the world of

The center of

axis mundi.

a glyph.

and

was

identified with a god, a plant, a bird, a color,

and

The north, known as Mictlan, was the direction of death

cold. Its

glyph was a

and

sacrificial knife (or flint)

was

associated with the colors black and yellow and the xerophyte, a

Mictlan

tree native to the region.

Tezcatlipoca. The south

was the region

was

ruled

by the god

of dampness, identitinl

by the color blue and ruled by the god Huitzilopochtli.

was

departed the four directions of the uni-

a rabbit,

symbol of

fertility

and abundance. The

Its

east,

glyph

where

contained the forces of each.

Suggesting the centrality of the gods of rain and war

The cardinal points were the four universal directions. Each direction

was crossed by both the ascendant and descen-

dant forces and from

verse, with the result that

the dead.

cosmos was the Templo

of the

this vision

Mayor, center of centers, the most sacred place, the universal

Aztecs' worldview, symbolism related to Tlaloc and pochtli figured prominently

Mayor and

the

the architecture of the Templo

the elements that surrounded

it,

from the sculp-

tures with serpents' heads to the braziers that adorned the great

platform on which stood the four structures that formed the

pyramidal platform, to the upper shrines dedicated to the two deities,

painted red and black for Huitzilopochtli, blue for Tlaloc.

Each of the temple's two parts corresponded to a specific

hill:

and

the Huitzilopochtli side represented Coatepetl, the place where

was the path along which warriors, killed in combat or by sacrifice, traveled to accompany the sun from dawn until midday.

Coatlicue gave birth to the Aztecs' patron god to fight her ene-

the sun

rises,

was the masculine guadrant

of the universe

belonged to the red Tezcatlipoca or Xipe Totec, identified by I'olor

of the

midday

mies; the Tlaloc side represented Tonacatepetl, the

Women who

died during childbirth, which

was

to dusk,

(llaltecuhtli),

when

the Sun

was devoured by

earth goddess (Coatlicue) gave birth to ing in the east. The color oi the west

house, and

the earth

passing through the world ot the dead until the it

again the next morn-

was white,

its

corresponded to the god Quetzalcoatl

glyph was a

hill

where

grains of maize were stored and given to men.

The discovery of the sculpture of Coyolxauhgui on the main

and by a reed glyph. The west was the female sector

universe

considered a battle by the A/tec, accompanied the sun from

platform

the

foot

the

temple-hill

devoted

Huit/ilopochtli suggests that this platform represented the terrestrial level of tle,

the universe. According to the story of their bat-

Coyolxauhqui was captured

Huitzilopochtli,

side of the

who beheaded

hill;

the body

ground. Tins myth

the top of Coatepetl by

her and threw her body over the

was dismembered as

tell

to the

reproduced on the Huitzilopochtli side of

>n i|.>

as Historia

<//

Huitzilo-

f Isla

Dm, in, Cm/ex Damn,

jIso

de la Indiasde Nueva Espafla

ante,

1579-81.

the Templo Mayor: the victor

the top of the temple-hill,

sits at

and the vanquished goddess, beheaded and dismembered,

Notes 1

lies

Antonio de Leon y Gama, Description historica y cronologica de

las

dos piedras

(Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, 1990).

on the ground below. 2.

The four

pyramidal platform of the Templo

of the

tiers

Mayor may thus express

levels.

celestial

At the top, the two

shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc are the clearest

representation of the life-and-death duality: on one side

god of the sun and war; on the other

the god of water,

the

fertil-

Culturay 3.

and

life.

This reflects the essential needs of the Aztecs: war,

which provided Tenochtitlan with taxes extracted from the conquered regions, and agricultural produce. Moreover, each side of

was

the building

identified with a

who

after death: warriors

the sun along part of

place

where people went

battle or sacrifice

whose death was

related to water (from

waterborne disease, drowning, or lightning

summer

Tlalocan, the place of eternal

The two sacred

Mictlan, the place

strike)

went

god of water.

ruled by the

mountains represented by the Templo

hills

Mayor were one of the

accompanied

path and were therefore associated with

its

Huitzilopochtli; people a

died

steps a person had to take to reach

first

where those who died of any other causes

were destined. An Aztec poem speaks of the places where people

would go

after death:

Oh, where

Where Where

will

will is

go?

the duality?

Perhaps everyone's

home

oh so

Difficult, is

difficult!

there,

where those who no longer have

body

live,

inside the sky, or perhaps the place for those

no longer have

Who

would

body

say:

who

here on earth!

"Where are our friends?"

Rejoice!

In this

way, the Templo

Mayor was the

focal point of the Aztec

view of the cosmos, the survival of the Aztec people, and the order of the universe, and the unimpeded daily progress of

heavenly bodies, including the sun,

relied

on what

represented.

Coatlicue al Templo

Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, Las piedras

Mayor (Mexico

City:

Consejo Nacional para

las Artes, 1998).

Antonio

Penafiel, "Destruccion

Moctezuma,

ed.,

de Templo Mayor de Mexico,"

Eduardo Matos

Trabajos arqueologicos en el centro de la Ciudad de Mexico

(Mexico City:SEP-INAH, 1979), pp. 95-133. 4.

ity,

Alexander von Humboldt, quoted

negadas: de

Diego Duran, Historia de

las Indias

Nueva Espana e

3 vols. (Mexico City: Editorial Nacional, 1951).

islas

la tierra firme,

The Templo Mayor at Tenochtitlan Jmin

MID-NOVEMBER

Mbrriii

Human

Berrelleza

FROM THE HEIGHTS OF THE MOUNTAINS SOUTHEAST OF THE VALLEY OF

1519,

Mexico, Hernan Cortes was amazed to observe at his feet a panorama he could

never have imagined: an enormous lake with an incredible city rising out of This

was

and highly developed empire

it.

most sophisticated

Tenochtitlan, seat and capital of the Aztecs, the

pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica just prior to the

Conquest. The urban center occupied almost 12 square kilometers and had

approximately 200,000 inhabitants. the city center, the most remarkable buildings were those found

the

sacred precinct, an area of approximately 400 meters per side, where the Aztecs

worshiped and venerated their most important gods. On either side were broad

and well-built roads that

linked the city to the

mainland and to the many

neighboring peoples located on the shores of the great

Bernardino de

lake.

Sahagun mentions that within the precinct there were approximately seventyeight buildings, which probably corresponded to an equal

Standing out

among

the buildings because of

was the Templo Mayor,

its

number of gods.

great height and magnificence

seat of Tlaloc, the god of rain and the earth's

fertility,

and Huitzilopochtli, the god of sun and war, the Aztecs' main patron gods. It

would not be long before the amazing

vision of this city

would change

dramatically. History tells us that the military conquest of Tenochtitlan, which

occurred

was followed by the city's near-total destruction. way to a new colonial city that would rise there and would modern metropolis of Mexico City. the year 1521,

Tenochtitlan gave

become

the

The Origin of the Templo

Mayor

The origin of the Templo Mayor goes back to the very founding of the Tenochtitlan

in a.d.

city of

1325. According to contemporary chronicles, after a long

journey, the Aztecs were obligated to build a temple to the god Huitzilopochtli. It

was

to be erected at the site

given the priests:

where they would

an eagle standing on a nopal

serpent. The chronicles indicate that initially the

with impermanent materials, "since that After these

make

one of

god. This

his

main tasks

was written

i)f

to enlarge

we can do

the pyramid-temple,

of his letters to Charles

time being."

would

tlatoani (ruler)

and beautify the "house" of

power was obligated

their patron

"There are about forty very

taller

evny

to increase the size

whose grandeur was confirmed by Cortes

towers, and the greatest has fifty steps

most important tower

for the

various ethnohistorical sources, which stated that to

had

devouring a

Templo Mayor was constructed

humble beginnings, however, every Aztec

new governor who acceded beauty

is all

find a sign that the deity

(prickly pear) tree,

tall,

beautifully

the approai

than that of the greatest church

towei

and

one

worked

itself;

in Seville."

the

Archaeological Findings

500

For almost

years, the vestiges

and structures of the pre-Hispanic edifices remained

buried under the foundations of the buildings that occupy the space today. During this

many attempts

long period, there were

to reconstruct

and understand what the

Spaniards' feverish destruction had wrought. These efforts finally culminated

launching of the Templo Mayor Project for five years

the

1978, which carried out archaeological work

under the patronage of the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia

(National Institute of Anthropology and History). This work brought to light the architectural remains of the Aztecs'

main building, as well as

that were placed within. The project also

a large quantity of offerings

amassed valuable data and information about

the ceremonial and ritual activities performed there. This project confirmed that the plan,

Templo Mayor was

whose main facade looked toward the

a building with a

great platform from which rose four stepped-back tiers with the upper

where

level,

two stairways that

led to

temple dedicated to Tlaloc on the north and to Huitzilopochtli

on the south were located. Because of floods, structural tling,

quadrangular

west. The base of the pyramid sat on a

and sinking and set-

faults,

the building had been expanded on seven occasions on the four sides, and the

main facade had been added onto four times

successive phases of construction.

addition to determining the building's architectural features, the project established that over a construction period of less than to a size of

two hundred

had grown

years, the building

82 meters per side and an approximate height of 45 meters.

Symbolism of the Templo Mayor From

their beginnings, the

Aztec people had proclaimed themselves a warrior group,

destined by divine orders to conquer and subjugate other peoples

in a

broad region of

Mesoamerica. While the Aztecs concentrated the center of their imperial force Tenochtitlan, they also envisioned the city as the center of the world. vision of the cosmos, the

the Aztec

Templo Mayor was the symbolic nucleus of the universe. The

four horizontal directions of the universe radiated out from the building, correspon-

ding with the four cardinal points, each of which was associated color,

and

The world was also divided

Templo Mayor. The middle The

turn with a god, a

a glyph.

level

celestial level, projected

world, which

was

earth,

where humans and

beings

(place of duality). Projected

downward was

last

lived.

being

the under-

divided into nine levels, the last and deepest one being the dwelling

of the gods of death, a place

known

as Mictlan.

The building was further divided into two

and the other

living

all

upward, was divided into thirteen heavens, the

Omeyocan

the most sacred:

three great levels that started at the

vertically, into

to the

parts,

one dedicated

to the

god of water

god of war. The presence of these gods on the uppermost

level

the pyramid-temple symbolically marks the dual economic needs of Aztec society: on the one side, water, as the most essential element for the agricultural production that

sustained them; and on the other, war, as the method of subjugating neighboring groups, from Finally,

whom

the

they

demanded

pyramid-temple

tribute

and thus stocked the imperial

represents

two

hills.

On the

Tonacatepetl, the "mountain of sustenance," which contained including maize, that the rain gods would give to

coffers.

side

harvests.

was Coatepetl, the mythic "mountain of the serpent," of the god who became protector of the Aztecs after he defeated his

Coyolxauhqui,

who

lies at

was

kinds of foods,

humans through good

the Huitzilopochtli side place

all

Tlaloc

birthsister

the feet of her conquering brother.

Thus the Templo Mayor represented the Aztec model of the universe, the most sacred place and driv social, political,

economic,

behind a society that achieved enormous stature

religious,

and

military spheres.

-*** 1

-wkk

46. Huchuctcotl

Aztec, ca.

1486-1502

4Â£

y^MiS: Â£ i

-y

61.

Red God offering

Aztec, ca.

500

63. Eagle warrior

Aztec, ca.

1440-69

V Â£

ra 64. Mictlantccuhtli

Aztec, ca.

*&L'Jj

1480

Facing page, clockwise from top

left:

66. Scepters

Aztec, ca.

1325-1418

67. Scepter

Aztec, ca.

68.

shaped as a serpent

1325-1481

Anthropomorphic eccentric

(sacrificial knife)

Aztec, ca. 1500

65.

Anthropomorphic mask and ear ornaments

Teotihuacan, ca. 300-600

69.

Polychrome incense burner

Aztec, ca.

1250-1521

s*+i.

70. Xiuhcoatl

Aztec, ca.

1500

-,-

U.s A â&#x20AC;¢&

71.

Coyolxauhqui

Aztec, ca.

1250-1521

72. Butterfly

Aztec, ca.

nose ornament

500

-*••;.

Aztec Religion

Aztec Religion: Creation, Sacrifice, and

Renewa

kail Taube

DURING THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, THE SPANISH COLONIZERS OF MEXICO WERE BOTH FASCINATED

and

horrified by the intensely religious

of the Aztecs.

life

were intrigued by apparent shared

clerics

borns, oral confession, and the

fashioned from seed.

In fact,

of Spanish

communionlike consumption of god images

addition, the early chroniclers wrote approvingly of the

the Franciscan Colegio de Santa Cruz

the schooling of native children,

There were,

A number

such as the baptism of new-

of children, including the school for

strict religious training

calmeeae.

traits,

nonetheless,

was based conceptually on

many Aztec

traditions

youths, the

elite

Tlatelolco,

devoted to

this institution.

were antithetical to

that

Spanish religious perceptions, including necromancy and the worship of multifarious deities and their graven images. The sixteenth-century chroniclers were especially concerned by

human

which they often described

sacrifice,

gruesome images of

"el

diablo"â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the netherworld death god, Mictlantecuhtli-

doused with buckets of human blood.

human

tions of

sacrifice

were used to

Clearly,

justify

such descriptions and

an important component of Aztec

religion,

how

terms of creation mythology and

illustra-

both the Spanish Conquest and

human

the suppression of native religious traditions. Nonetheless,

in explicit

The early colonial Codex Magliabechiano and the Codex Tudela portray

detail.

not only as a

the Aztecs

sacrifice

ritual offering,

saw themselves

was

but also

relation

to the surrounding world.

somewhat

vilified

ironic that

many

of the sixteenth-century chroniclers

who

Aztec religious practices also provided detailed perceptions of the Aztec

worldview, or cosmovision, including sacrifice.

some

of the underlying reasons for

human

Two works probably based on the early research of the Franciscan Fray

Andres de Olmos, the Historia de

los

mexicanos por sus pinturas and the

Histoyredu Mechique, contain detailed accounts of Aztec creation mythology. The studies by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, especially the Primeros memoriales

and the Florentine Codex, are unparalleled sources of information concerning Aztec

ritual

and mythology.' The magnificent Codex Borbonicus- rendered

essentially pure Aztec style even

though

was painted

period-contains detailed portrayals of deities and the the

New

Fire

years. The Borgia

of pre-Hispanic screenfolds, comprising the Borgia, Vaticanus illustrate

ritual calendar, including

ceremony performed once every fifty-two

and Fejervary- Mayer codices, also

the early colonial

Aztec gods and

rites,

Group

Cospi, Laud,

although they

are not painted in the imperial Aztec style found in the Codex Borbonicus, and cular deities, such as the maize

goddess Chicomecoatl and the tutelary god

Huitzilopochtli, are entirely missing

from them. Pre-Hispanic Aztec sculpture

likewise offers a wealth of vivid material pertaining to gods, ritual,

and creation

mythology.

Numerous aspects

of Aztec religion were innovative and unique, but the

ecs also took part in the broader traditions of Mesoamerica. Certain Aztec

"AW-

*•••****•.

Page from the Codex Fejervary-Mayer, before 1521.

and

religious traditions, both general

specific,

occurred-and

occur-in other cultures of Mesoamerica. Although the

still

Classic

Maya

(ca.

250-900) possessed an

from that of the Aztecs, many

tinct

including

calendrics,

and

ritual,

However, Teotihuacan

art style strikingly dis-

of their religion,

traits

mythology,

were

similar.

the Classic-period culture that most

directly relates to Aztec traditions. Located

some 50

kilometers

north of Tenochtitlan, the future Aztec capital, Teotihuacan

much

exerted a powerful influence over the Early Classic period tecture

(ca.

of Mesoamerica during

250-600), and Aztec art and archi-

freguently displayed

evocations of the earlier

clear

ancient style of Teotihuacan.

addition, certain Aztec gods,

making and destruction of four previous worlds was

suns, the

described

ongoing cosmic war between

terms of an

complemen-

Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl." As symbols of the

and Quetzalcoatl

tary forces of creation, however, Tezcatlipoca

also acted as

much

allies,

creation mythology.'

Maya

the hero twins of ancient

one important Aztec creation episode,

Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl were said to have

done

battle

against a monstrous being floating on the primordial sea.' This

known

creature,

was

Cipactli,

devouring mouths on

its

joints.

serpents, Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl tore Cipactli part of the

with

crocodile

fishlike

Transforming themselves into

body forming the earth and the

in half,

one

From

other, the sky.

including the plumed serpent Quetzalcoatl, the rain god Tlaloc,

the body of the earth deity, Tlaltecuhtli, the natural world flow-

and the old

ered, the eyes

god Huehueteotl, can be traced to Teotihuacan.

fire

According to Aztec mythology, Teotihuacan was the place where the present world began, and

many Aztec

beliefs

and

was the canonical source of

and the origin of music.

ing to heart sacrifice, sacred bundles,

including those pertain-

ritual practices,

dualism, including such binary oppositions as

male and female,

light

and

dark,

and

fire

for example,

god who was

believed to reside

male and female

the uppermost heaven of

Omeyocan/ The dualistic principles of Aztec religion were by no means conceived of as static; complementary opposites interacted actively, and this dynamic tension was the ultimate and continually abiding source of creation. One Aztec cosmogonic myth described the birth of four original gods from Tonacatecuhtli In

and Tonacacihuatl-male and female aspects of Ometeotl/

Aztec manuscripts and the Borgia Group, the primordial

human couple was

depicted beneath a blanket to denote the

original act of conception.

interaction of creation

supreme

effort

and

for this

dynamic

battles created

through

Another metaphor

was war-cosmic

sacrifice.

The making of the ordered world

out of primordial chaos was seen as an inherently heroic and

courageous lives

act. In the

same manner, Aztec warriors gave

their

not only for the growth of the Aztec state, but for the con-

tinuity of this created

hair.

The origin of the heavens and earth was often portrayed

to nourish Tlalte-

"We

eat of the earth then the earth eats us.'"

Aztec thought, the created universe had three realms. The

uppermost was the particular

gods and

and wind. The llhuican,

died

composed of

sky,

brilliant,

was the

celestial

afterlife

in childbirth.

thirteen levels occupied by

phenomena, including the sun,

celestial

stars,

paradise of the sun, Tonatiuh

abode of valiant warriors and

women

The lowest realm of the universe was the

nine-leveled underworld, Mictlan, ruled by the crafty death god, Mictlantecuhtli,

and

to sickness or old age

went

and dusty region, from which there was no

was another netherworld

there rain

god

Tlaloc.

Unfortunate

his consort, Mictlan-cihuatl.

who succumbed

souls

Here people

lightning lived amidst

to this dark

return.

However,

region: Tlalocan, paradise of the

who

died by drowning or from

abundant food and vast

Between the underworld and the sky

riches.'-

lay the surface of the

earth, Tlalticpac, the place of the living. The act of creation

divided the world into four quarters, each with ic tree.

At the center stood a

offering

fifth tree,

its

Aztecs, this middle place

B.C.),

had

own symbol-

the pivotal axis mundi,

access to both sky and underworld.

Formative Olmec (900-500

cosmos.

humans had

result,

hearts and blood to placate the violated

Contemporary Nahua, close descendants of the ancient

Aztecs, note:

who

own

cuhtli with their

and death,

and water. The Aztec

was Ometeotl,

supreme god,

life

forming pools and springs, the mouth becoming

and caves, and trees and blossoming plants growing from

the flowing

earth.

underlying Aztec religious thought was

basic concept

rivers

the Middle

the Classic Maya, and

the

was often portrayed as maize, much as

the four-cornered world constituted a symbolic corn field."

Aztec mythology as a cosmic battle between a pair of gods,

Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Together, these two beings repre-

An Aztec casket from Tizapan contains

sented the concept of complementary opposition: Tezcatlipoca

image of the Aztec maize goddess Chicomecoatl, with four

was the

other

fateful

god of

conflict, darkness,

shifting earth, while Quetzalcoatl

was

dawning east and the ethereal but bolized by breath this

and the

but

a celestial being of the

also eternal

and wind. Rufino Tamayo

complementary opposition

solid

his

life

force

sym-

vividly portrayed

remarkable

painting

black, yellow,

quadripjM

Tlaloc

some

nig^

Tlalocâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; painted

te,

known

as the myth of the five

and white on the underside of the capping

red,

lid.

commonly

"presenting rains of the four cardinal directions.

had four water basins, each with ol

beneficial

a specific type of rain,

and others famine-producing.

Pages 27 and 28 of the Codex Borgia portray

the Aztec creation cycle

greenstone

According to the Historia de los mexicanos por sus pinturas,

laguar) locked in battle as opposing forces of

aspects

Aztec and other Mesoamerican rain gods were

Duality (1963-64), with Quetzalcoatl (the plumed serpent) and

day and

deities-directional

a central

surrounded by four Tlalogue, each of

whom

a central Tlaloc

dispenses either

life-giving or destructive rain.

The four Tlaloque were also iden-

with directional mountains,

tified

and peaks being the

hills

dwelling place of the rain gods and the source of water and

Among

abundance.

the Aztecs, the most important mountain

was Mount

pertaining to the rain god

Tlaloc, located east of

the

numerical position

first

day name.

treeenaâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; along with a specific

addition to the god and directional orientation

associated with that day name, each

was presided

treeena

over by a pair of gods as well as by another deity; by the birds identified with

each of the thirteen day positions; and by an

Tenochtitlan. According to the Dominican cleric Fray Diego

independent sequence of nine

Duran, a square stone enclosure atop the summit contained

extraordinarily complex, the combinations of gods, numbers, and

moun-

directions providing nuanced and subtle auguries for the days.

a central

image of Mount Tlaloc surrounded by

lesser

tains.

reconnaissance

Archaeological

Felipe

Soli's

and

calendar was

deities. Clearly, this

Whereas the 260-day calendar frequently pertained

to the

Richard Townsend has documented a series of boulders-one

private affairs of individuals, such as personal well-being, the

on the eastern

outcome of business

one on the western

side,

the four corners, and one

Townsend notes that

within the enclosure.

to the arrangement, in the

ilar

Codex

this plan

very sim-

the Primeros

debt-payment of children to

sacrificial

stone enclosure atop a

Tlaloc, a victim lies in a

at each of

Borgia, of a central Tlaloc

surrounded by four others at the corners.

memoriales scene of the

one

side,

the center-surrounding a shrine

hill.

Behind the

ventures, or the compatibility of particular

spouses, the 365-day calendar expressed the cosmic processes of the sun, the seasons, and the primordial doings of the gods.

Since this calendar conformed vaguely to the solar year, of the deities evoked were beings of agricultural ing maize, the earth,

fertility,

many

includ-

and water. The 365-day calendar was com-

posed of eighteen twenty-day months (often referred to as

head of the victim, three mountain gods, the tepietoton, are

veintenas) and five extra days (the nemontemi). During veintena

shown

celebrations, particular deities

this

positioned on three sides of the enclosure; quite possibly

scene refers to Mount Tlaloc and

its

shrine of directional

was

one version of the

Cipactli

said to have occurred

myth, the creation of the earth

on the

The origin of the world was thus

first

day of the

first year.

tied to the creation of the

calendar-the integration and organization of time and space.

One

of the most complex portrayals of this cosmological order-

on page

ing appears

of the Codex Fejervary-Mayer, where

world trees grow toward each of the sides and corners of the quartered world. As this

ordered space

the myth of Tlaltecuhtli, the creation of

depicted as the result of cosmic battle and

sacrifice': at the outer

edges of the plan are the dismembered

remains of Tezcatlipoca, the powerful deity embodying conflict

and change

the universe.-

Beginning with the eastern tree at

the top of the scene and moving counterclockwise from there, the body parts of Tezcatlipoca

lie

to the left of each tree-arm,

leg, torso,

and head. Gouts of blood from the four quarters of

the world

fall

to the central warrior figure, Xiuhtecuhtli,

god of

time and the pivotal world centerof the Codex

Fejervary-Mayer portrays the combination of two calendrical systems, the 260-day and 365-day years. The eight-lobed band

framing the eight world trees denotes the 260-day divinatory or calendar,

which combined twenty day names-Tochtli

(Rabbit), Atl (Water), Itzcuintli (Dog),

bers

to 13. Each of the

and cardinal

and so on-with the num-

twenty day names had

direction, with the

days running

a specific

in a

god

continuously

counterclockwise motion (from east to north and so on). This cycle a

was combined with the

day named

for

striking

examples of deity imper-

cycle of thirteen numbers, so that

Rabbit would be followed by 2 Water, then 3 Dog,

example. The 260-day calendar was divided into twi

thirteen-day treeena (weeks), each

during which devotees of the god Xipe Totec would don the skins of sacrificial victims.

named by

the

number 1-

Temporary embodiments of the gods,

deity impersonators were frequently sacrificed, releasing the

divine spirit so that

could be renewed the following yea-

Aside from timing the annual solar year, the

Years

annals.

historical

and celebrations of the

rites

365-day calendar served as the

basis for Aztec

were named using the numbers

through 13 and four of the twenty day names of the 260-day cycle-Acatl (Reed), Tecpatl (Rabbit).

own

(Flint),

Cat

(House), and Tochtli

Each of these year bearers, as they were

called,

had

its

directional association: east for Reed, north for Flint, west

for House,

on page

descending square. As

and south

the 260-day calendar, the cycle of

combined with the

cycle of year bearers, so that

Flint,

facing,

numbers was 1

Reed would

3 House, and so on. The combination of

four year bearers and thirteen cycle of distinctly Far

The year bearers are depicted

one near each of the four corners of the

birds, in

for Rabbit.

Codex Fejervary-Mayer as inwardly

of the

be followed by 2

Aside from illustrating the cosmos, page

ritual

were often portrayed by deity

One of the most

sonation occurred during the veintena called Tlacaxipehualiztli,

mountains. In

impersonators.

numbers created

named 365-day

a fifty-two-year

years.

more than simply marking the succession

of years, the

Aztec year bearers were tied to basic concepts of Aztec creation

and cosmology, as each was tional

god and

identified with a specific direc-

tree that supported the

sky As with other Meso'

american peoples, the Aztecs considered both spans of time and public offices as cargos, heavy burdens to be supported and carried.

Although the Aztec

deities

known

as sky bearers had the

weighty responsibility of supporting the firmament, they could .form into fierce star demons, the tziztimime, during periods

of darkness, as

in solar eclipses.

depicted as spiders hanging

The tzitzimime were sometimes

down from

the sky, or as skeletal

beings with sharp talons.

a tzitzim ime

one Aztec scene,

sham4

bles in the starry night sky

toward the sun god,

menacing being

upper portion of the Bilimek Pulque

Vessel,

recalls the

Tonatiuh.-'

This

which portrays two figuresâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl and

pulque god-attacking

sun with wooden

partially eclipsed

For the Aztecs, an especially feared calendrical event

the completion of the fifty-two-year cycle, occurring

was

this

momentous ceremony xiuhmolpia, meaning

"the

binding of the years." The termination of the fifty-two-year cycle appeared

Aztec stone sculpture

bundles called xiuhmolpilli, each

the form of

wood

correspon-

stick symbolically

ding to a completed year. Although "binding" surely alluded to the tying up of

sticks,

probably had other meanings, including

the making of a package to carry as a burden and the bundling

of the "dead" calendrical cycle.

Recalling the Aztec practice of

the east, but

through the

sky.

move and

did not

path

its

To ensure the creation of the world, other gods

then sacrificed themselves and offered their hearts to the sun.

mantles and other remains, priests fashioned the

their

tlaquimilolli (sacred bundles).

2 "

According to Aztec accounts, the

the

veintena of Panquetzaliztli during the year 2 Reed. The Aztecs

termed

appeared

born. After

and Tecuciztecatl, the sun

the self-sacrifice of Nanahuatzin

From

clubs and stones.

was thus

died freely for the empire and the sun,

huacan marked the

shift

world of historical

reality.

dawning

first

at Teoti-

from the mythic time of the gods to the 29

Thereafter, as can be seen

their

sacred mortuary bundles and stone images, the gods remained silent

and immobile,

much

but,

honored ancestors, they

could be invoked by incense, music, and clothing and other articles

sacrificial offerings.

deity impersonation, by which the deities were manifested porarily

The

the tlaquimilolli were used for

tem-

the world of mortals. Elizabeth Boone notes the close

between the

relationship

inert

god bundle and the

teixiptla,

the

cremating the bound and shrouded dead, wood bundles were

"image" or physical manifestation of the god. 30 The term teixiptla

cast into a hearth at the Temple of Darkness during xiuhmolpia.

also referred to

cosmos through the

This act represented the renewal of the

making of new tle,

fire,

an event expressed

terms of

cosmic bat-

the forces of darkness and night versus the resplendent sun. preparation,

all

the city of Tenochtitlan were extin-

fires in

guished, with the hearthstones, ceramic vessels, and other old objects of the household discarded and replaced. At night, the

inhabitants of the city waited anxiously for

on the chest of the southeast.

new

fire

fire to

made

atop Huixachtecatl, located to

a sacrificial victim If

new

were not created, the world would be

destroyed by the tzitzimime:

Thus was

said:

was claimed that

fire

would be ended; there would evermore be

Nevermore would the sun come prevail forever,

out.

myth of the creation of the

This

the

contained

hearts

the

first

Mesoamerica.

Moreover, Teotihuacan art and writing portrayed eagles and jaguars devouring

human

hearts, a

convention also known

Mexico (900-1521). The Aztecs replicated

Postclassic Central

the original sacrifice of the gods with the ritual offering of

human

hearts to the sun. Hearts were placed

basins

known

human

name

stone

sacrificial

were ornamented

as cuauhxicalli. These vessels

hearts and had an

carved on the underside.

deity, Tlaltecuhtli,

Nahui

interior displayed a central sign, the glyph

calendrical

and the demons of darkness would

who wore

world suggests that the

fifth

portrayals of sacrificial

image of the earth

Night would

those

the tlaquimilolli.

ancient art of Teotihuacan

the

fact,

widespread

The

night.

is,

Aztec institution of heart sacrifice also began at Teotihuacan.

with portrayals of eagle plumes and

could not

be drawn, then [the sun] would be destroyed forever; all

god impersonators-that

mantles and other raiments contained

Ollin

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the

of Tonatiuh. Just as the gods presented their

hearts to the sun at Teotihuacan, the Aztecs placed sacrificial

descend to eat men. 26

hearts atop these images of Tonatiuh to revive the dawning sun. In

both form and function, the xukuri of the contemporary

During this terrifying night, the primordial battle of creation

Huichol of Nayarit closely resemble Aztec cuauhxicalli.- As well

began anew.

as being used to present sacrificial blood to the gods, they often

As part of the nocturnal

New

Fire

ceremony, the

fire priests

display images of the sun

women, and the

impersonated the gods as they proceeded to Huixachtecatl; the

to water,

Codex Borbonicus

of the underworld

leading

other

illustrates a

priest dressed as Quetzalcoatl

godly beings to

the

pyre

the

Temple of

Darkness. This nocturnal meeting recalled the mythical creation of the fifth and present sun at Teotihuacan,

vened to

light the

great pyre,

was

world anew.-'

said,

when

the gods con-

By throwing himself into

the humble Nanahuatzin

became the sun

god, Tonatiuh. Since the haughty but timid Tecuciztecatl hesitated, he

became the weaker moon. Out of

this fire also

emerged

the eagle and the jaguar, symbols of the sun and famed Aztec military orders; the

code of the courageous warrior, one

who

their interior.

earth:

a blood-filled xukuri.'

that cuauhxicalli symbolized the earth, the place

The xukuri

one Huichol myth, the

womb

Similarly,

and

womb

likely

birth canal of the

from which the sun was daily born. Page 32 of

the Codex Borgia portrays a birthing figure

the squatting

position of Tlaltecuhtli, with the hips depicted as a sacrificial

basin lined with

flints. In fact,

quently resembles

bowl or

basin,

the skirt

much

worn by

Tlaltecuhtli fre-

her hips constituted a

a bucket.

The Classic Maya also had

bowls marked

the

form of the four-lobed

k'in

sacrificial

interior with solar images, here in the

Maya sun sign. In Classic Maya art, such bowls commonly appeared as censers containing hearts and other sacrificial offerings. One incised earspool portrays a Maya cosmic monster in the same squatting position in which the later Aztec Tlaltecuhtli was depicted; the hips are portrayed as a solar sacrificial bowl. Like the Aztec cuauhxicalli, these Classic Maya glyph, the

womb

bowls also denoted the The

sacrificial birth

shared by

many

from which the sun emerged.

was

of Tonatiuh at Teotihuacan

creation account, this one referring to the ongoing

myth

peoples of highland Mexico. However, another

expansion of the Aztec

state,

hegemonic

was wholly Aztec; the

characters had no obvious precursors

principal

the art and ideology of

Central Mexico. The preeminent character, the fierce and belli-

cose Huitzilopochtli, served as the

solar,

tutelary

god of the

Aztecs and their empire. Also known as the Blue Tezcatlipoca,

embodied

Huitzilopochtli

conflict, strife,

and the fate of the

Aztec people. Huitzilopochtli was magically conceived while his mother, Coatlicue, was sweeping

her temple. Coatlicue's

daughter, Coyolxauhqui, and her four hundred brothers, the

Centzon Huitznaua, were enraged by

and prepared

emerged

armed and slew

fully

Almost

mother's pregnancy

their

However, at

for battle.

his birth Huitzilopochtli

his older siblings at Coatepetl.

hundred years ago, Eduard Seler suggested that

the mythic battle at Coatepetl symbolized the dawning of the

sun out of the earth and the defeat of the beings of night and darkness, with Coyolxauhqui being the

Huitznaua, the innumerable this

episode

Coyolxauhqui tral

stars."'

remains obscure,

monument

importance

moon and

the Centzon

Although the meaning of

1978 discovery of the

the

Templo Mayor revealed

at the

its

cen-

Aztec ideology. Located at the base of the

Huitzilopochtli side of the

Templo Mayor, the monument fea-

tures Coyolxauhqui stripped and dismembered, her head and

limbs severed from her torso. Clearly, this her defeat at Coatepetl, where she tumbled hill.

Due

to this major discovery,

monument portrays in pieces down the

evident that the sacrifice

of captives atop the Huitzilopochtli side of the Templo

Mayor

reenacted the defeat of Coyolxauhqui and her brothers: Just as the mythic enemies of Huitzilopochtli were slain at Coatepetl, captives from

enemy

states were sacrificed and cast

down

the

temple steps. Directly

below the Coyolxauhqui stone

of the defeated goddess rendered

stone monument, she

lies

earlier version

sculpted stucco. As

the

nude and dismembered, her head and

limbs cut from the central trunk." Howevei, the stucco example portrays the severed limbs well

away from

the torso and ori-

ented to the four quarters of the world, recalling both the I

laltecuhtli

on page

myth and the of the

sacrifice of Tezcatlipoca as

dered as the earth, dismembered and fashioned into ordered world

appears

Codex Fqervary-Mayer. Coyolxauhqui

Hie birth of Huitzilopochtli

ren-

new,

was thus associated

with the creation of both the Aztec sun and

its

earthly domain:

Page from Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Rorentinc Codex, also

Nueva

known

a\ Historia general de las cosas

Espafia,

575-77.

from the dismembered Coyolxauhqui and the bodies of van-

responds well with Aztec concepts of music and conjuring

quished enemies, the Aztec world was made.

ancestral souls. According to John Bierhorst, the early colonial

The symbolic axis mundi of the Aztecs, the Templo Mayor at

lay

the center of the four quarters not only of the city of

Tenochtitlan but of the entire Aztec world.

supported two

ure.

the northern structure to Tlaloc. The two temples have been

interpreted

in a

to the Aztecs of both agriculture

and war,

for example, or of the

new Aztec

contrast of ancient traditions to the

world. The tem-

ples

have also been interpreted as representing

two

distinct mountains, Coatepetl

nance dedicated to

Tlaloc,

and

merging of

mountain of suste-

with Coatepetl relating to the earth's

moun-

surface and the historical doings of the Aztecs and the tain of Tlaloc

concerning the interior of the mountain and the

ancient paradise of Tlalocan. tions of the

Templo Mayor, an

During one of the

renova-

later

altar with steep steps, centered at

drums portrayed

aztli

temples, the southern structure dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and

number of ways-as symbolic of the importance

who

Cantares mexicanos concerned the conjuring of revenants,

descended as birds from the heavens. 44

At times, Aztec tepon-

flying individuals similar to the Borgia fig-

excellent example occurs on an Aztec ceramic

Although

teponaztli.

probably

still

covered

by a

Xochipilli

this object

model of

not a true teponaztli,

almost

position

identical

that

the Codex Borgia image. Both wear the

collar of shell tinklers.

the Codex Borgia image.

bird,

same

similarly flying figure appears

containing flowers and a tropical

side of this

tympanum. The drum's surface portrays

skin

another Aztec drum-this one an actual teponaztii-m

ceramic drum, the open mouth originally being

flying

Quetzalcoatl

dance

band

elements also appearing

Whereas the

central scene

drum portrays the sun engaged

on one

celestial battle,

the other side depicts the eagle and jaguar, symbols of the Aztec

was added. Topped by

a pair of

military orders dedicated to the sun. Bierhorst notes that a cen-

frogs, this altar recalls a description of Tlalocan in the

Primeros

tral

the base of the Tlaloc temple,

memoriales, according to which two frogs

mark the entrance

to Tlalocan.

The frog

sit

altar

atop

may

wall to

thus have

represented a symbolic entrance to Tlalocan, a realm perhaps

thought to have been located

Many

Mayor.

the Templo

have referred to

well

may

The Aztecs were very aware of

their historical past,

and many

Templo Mayor

ation of the present sun at Teotihuacan. Although this episode

also have been identi-

and the ancestral

ritually attracted

and compelled

using wind instruments, such as conch trumpets and flutes.'

According to Fray Geronimo de Mendieta, the priests

was

clearly tied to Aztec militarism

and the solar war

also connected to the practice of heart sacrifice, the

past.

Aside from sacrificial offerings, music was also an essential

gods were

aspects of their religious traditions related mythically to the cre-

Aztec means of contacting the gods and ancestors. Guilhem Olivier notes that the

realm closely identified with Teotihuacan, the mythic birthplace of the sun and the eagle and jaguar military orders.

this paradisiacal

place of wealth and plenty. Earlier phases of the

buried by subsequent construction fied with the realm of Tlaloc

the interior of the Templo

of the rich offerings buried within both sides of

Mayor may

theme of the Cantares mexicanos was the summoning

warrior souls from the flower paradise of the sun, a celestial

who

fash-

cult,

was

making of

sacred bundles, and music. Like the sun, the earth and sky were also created through sacrifice, by the

dismemberment of the

primordial Cipactli. The birth of Huitzilopochtli similarly involved

human

that this wholly Aztec

myth con-

cerned both the origin of the sun and the Aztecs'

terrestrial

sacrifice,

and

it is

likely

ioned the original tlaquimilolli at Teotihuacan sought music to

realm. For the act of heart sacrifice, four priests held the limbs

conjure and communicate with the gods after their mass sacri-

of the victim, thereby creating a

fice.

Two

accounts of

describe either the wind or

this

mythic origin of music

priest of Tezcatlipoca traveling

across the sea to the house of the sun to obtain music. sion of this episode appears on pages 35 to Borgia.*'

On page

35, Tezcatlipoca

4 '

ver-

38 of the Codex

and the wind god,

Ehecatl,

Yucatan, the four priests

Aztec

dane event.

great stream of wind exiting a red flute at the center of this

opening

Xochipilli,

related to

drums, flowers.

played by the god of music,

on page 37. Within the stream of wind appear items music and dance, including ceramic and

flutes, In

and dance

staffs, as well

addition, there are five

with his eyes shut, denoting death

turtleshell

as precious birds

images of Quetzalcoatl or,

likely,

and

flying

ecstatic trance

achieved through music and dance.

The

flight of Quetzalcoatl

the Codex Borgia scene cor-

grasped the limbs were referred to Jr

During

were played to mark the numinous period of contact with the

the attributes of both Tonatiuh and Tlaloc. Page 36 depicts a

flute

who

of sacrifice, conch trumpets and other instruments

rites

deities.

same

of the four quar-

as chakoob, the four directional rain gods of the Maya.

obtain a bundle from a temple occupied by a figure displaying

bundle; the very

cosmogram

ters with the victim's heart at the center. In sixteenth-century

To the Aztecs,

was an

doorway

human

sacrifice

was anything but

mun-

act that restored the violence of creation,

into the original world of the gods.

Notes

Sacrifice: The

Beacon 2.

Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence

in Civilization (Boston:

Angel Garibay, Teogonia e historia de los mexicanos: Tres opusculos delsiglo City: Editorial Porrua, 1979).

and Fray Bernardino de

1997);

Press,

Sahagun, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of Arthur

Anderson and Charles

New

Spain, 13

Dibble (Santa Fe: School of

American Research, 1950-82). The Histoyredu Mechique

the thirteenth and

"In

and his/her realm:

explicitly describes this deity

last

(Garibay, Teogonia e historia

[heaven],

the highest, there

los

mexicanos,

god

called

goddess"

103, trans, author). For Aztec

concepts of dualism, see Miguel Leon-Portilla, Azfec Thought and Culture:

Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind (Norman: University of Oklahoma 1963); and Alfredo Lopez Austin, The

Richard

Human Body and Ideology:

Press,

Concepts of

The Book of the Gods

Diego Duran,

Fray

15.

Oklahoma

Change

Garibay, Teogonia e historia de los mexicanos,

The portico murals of Structure A

1975, more than ten years after

Townsend, "The Mount Tlaloc

Cacaxtla-discovered

at Late Classic

Tamayo painted Duo//fy-feature

same

the

The Maya eagle warrior of the east stands upon a plumed

serpent, while the Mexican jaguar warrior of the west

atop a jaguar serpent;

and

month of

the later

child sacrifices

solescosmogonicos,"ÂŁsfud/osdeCu/fura/Vdhuof/7(1969), pp. 183-210; and Henry Nicholson, "Religion

Pre-Hispanic Central Mexico,"

Handbook of Middle American Indians, 395-446.

8. For the

Maya hero

1993), pp. 56-67;

Robert Wauchope, gen.

10 (Austin: University of Texas Press,

vol.

twins, see Michael D. Coe, 'The

Justin Kerr, ed., The

pp. 161-84; Karl

upon Mount

vol. 2, pp. 1-2,

42-44; and Duran, The Book of the

los

mexicanos,

a.d..

105.

Maya had portrayed

the ancient

of a mythical

reptile, clearly a

myth were

Maya

Vase Book,

vol.

Hero Twins: Myth and Image,"

(New

York: Kerr Associates, 1989),

Museum

Taube, Aztec

and Maya Myths (London:

and Dennis

Tedlock, Popol Vuh: The Definitive Edition of the

episode appear

and the Histoyre du Mechique

British

Press,

debs mexicanos porsuspinturas

the Historia

(see Garibay, Teogonia e historia

los

mexicanos,

pp. 26, 105, 108). 10.

From the two creation metaphors of copulation and

violent conflict arises a

by which the creation of the earth can be seen as a form of cosmic rape. For

dismemberment

discussions of the mythic

Elizabeth del Rio, Bases psicodinamicas

Amic

Editores, 1973);

of Tlaltecuhtli as rape, see

la cultura

Azteca (Mexico

and Michel Graulich, "Myths of Paradise

City:

Alma Costa-

version of the Cipactli myth. Versions of the

This statement, by a

Puebla,

contemporary Nahua informant of the

was recorded by Tim Knab and

as Ritual Space,"

and Periphery

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987),

Sierra de

uma,

the Aztec World

20.

traveling to Tlalocan (pp. 179-83). Tim

imong

Pueb<

und-

->g

described as a "mirror that gives off smoke," probably

an allusion to Tezcatlipoca (see Michael

Hernando Ruiz de Alarcon

Coe and Gordon Whittaker, Aztec

Superstitions that Today Live

and

trans.

mod

n Broda,

''eltsand

Nahua

among

thought, see Karl A. Taube,

pment an Southvs

the Indians to this

Press, 1984],

New Spain,

1629, ed.

95).

common metaphor for in native New

the creation of the universe and the division of the seasons

"Ballgames and Boundaries,"

World mythologies (Susan

Gillespie,

Scarborough and David

Wilcox, eds, The

Vernon L

Mesoamerican Ballgame [Tucson:

University of Arizona Press, 1991], pp. 317-45). 22. See David Carrasco, City of Sacrifice, pp. 130-32. 23. For a discussion of sky bearers, see

and

Directions in

Maya and Mexican

Thompson, Sky

Eric S.

Bearers, Colors

Religion (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie

of Washington, 1934), pp. 209-42;

and

Karl A. Taube, "The Bilmu-k

entral

Mexico," Ancient Mesoamerica 4 (1993). pp. 1-15. 24.

drawing

this

scene published by Hasso von Winning {Pre-

Columbian Art of Mexico and Central America [New York 1968], plate 397),

read

wraparound image on a

to face

tii-

Harr\

Abrams,

away from the sun Howi

cylindrical bone, the figure

can be

award the sun. Given the fundamentally antagonistic nature iht,

the lattei

seems the most

likely

25. For the

mortuary symbolism

of year bundles, see Alfonso Caso, Los calen-

danos prehispamcos{Mc>

p. 108).

York at Albany,

on the Heathen

Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig [Norman: University of

As Susan Gillespie notes, dismemberment was

realm occupies the center of the

"Templo Mayor as Ritual Space,"

New

Treatise

[Albany: State University of

and Hernando Ruiz de Alarcon,

1982], pp. 131, 304;

Knab has documented a form

the contemporary

-'i

of M,j

Dumbarton Oaks,

the colonial Nahuatl chants recorded by Hernando Ruiz de Alarcon, the

since this

p. 107.

The Primeros memoriales contains a remarkably detailed description of a

woman

D.C.:

Pulque Vessel: Starlore, Calendrics, and Cosmology of Late Posl

Johanna Broda, "Templo Mayor

cited in

Broda, David Carrasco, and Eduardo Ma'

The Great Temple of Tenochtitlon: Center

12.

also present in Late Postclassic Yucatan (see Karl A. Taube,

surface of the earth

Lost in Pre-Hispanic

Central Mexico," Current Anthropology 2A, no. 5 (1983). pp. 575-81. 11

their

the days

1992]), pp. 128-31).

21.

third,

David Stuart has determined that a text from the recently dis-

sacrificed.

Oklahoma

this

much

cartouche denoting blood,

covered Late Classic bench from Temple 19 at Palenque refers to the chopping

Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life and the Glories of Gods and Kings (New York: Simon Accounts of

Atlcahualo,

Tlaloc occurred during

Rites, p. 425).

day names surrounded by

and Schuster, 1996). 9.

Sorcerers in Seventeenth Century Mexico: The Treatise on Superstitions by

1971), pp.

Press

Ochpaniztli (see Sahagun, Primeros memoriales, pp. 55-56;

Sahagun, Florentine Codex,

were

month of

sacrifice of children to Tlaloc during the

Duran mentions that the

The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan [Washington, los Arcos, "Los cinco

the Ancient

Although the Primeros memoriales and the Florentine Codex describe the

mountain

pent of the nocturnal west. suns myth, see Roberto Moreno de

and

University

(Niwot:

Cipactli

five

Rites

Colorado, 1991), pp. 26-30.

thus the murals depict a plumed serpent of the dawning east and a jaguar ser-

accounts of the

cis-

Project," in David Carrasco, ed., To

Place: Aztec Ceremonial Landscapes

19. Since at least the first century

23.

and the four

Press. 1971), p. 156.

18. Garibay, Teogonia e historia

Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1988).

edâ&#x20AC;&#x17E;

cis-

Calendar, trans. Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden (Norman: University

Montellano

The four large

1999), pp. 137-44.

Gods and

7. For

26.

Townsend, The Aztecs (London: Thames and Hudson,

the Ancient Nahuas, trans. Thelma Ortiz de Montellano and Bernard Ortiz de

dualistic opposition.

Mesoameriec

rains of the four directions. For a description of Tetzcotzingo

16. Richard

Ometecuhtli [Ometeotl], which means two gods, and one

(Salt

National Gallery of Art, 2000), pp. 296-337.

D.C.:

See Garibay, Teogonia e historia de los mexicanos,

terns, see

Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Primeros memoriales, trans. Thelma D. Sullivan

(Norman: University of Oklahoma

vols., trans.

Olmec Art and Archaeology

Pye, eds.,

(Washington,

cat.

terns oriented to the cardinal points atop Tetzcotzingo probably refer to the

Press, 1999).

XVI (Mexico 3.

and Mary

Clark

For a recent discussion of Aztec sacrifice, see David Carrasco, City of

1967), pp 26.

Sahagun, Florentine Codex,

27.

the

onal

Autbnoma de Mi

129

New

Fire

vol. 7, p. 27.

ceremony and the Teotihuacan creation myth, sec

Karl

Taube, "The Turquoise Hearth:

of War,"

David

Fire,

Carrasco,

and the Central Mexican Cult

Self Sacrifice,

and Scott Sessions,

Lindsay Jones,

eds.,

County Museum of

Art, 2001), pp.

43. Cantares mexicanos:

102-23.

Songs of the Aztecs,

trans.

John Bierhorst (Stanford:

Mesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs (Boulder:

Stanford University Press, 1985),

University Press of Colorado, 2000), pp. 315-16.

44. For examples of flying figures on teponaztli, see Marshall H. Saville, The

28.

On the making of god

Geronimo de Mendieta,

bundles, see Fray

Historia

eclesiastica indiana (Mexico City: Editorial Porrua, 1980), pp. 78-79.

29. Similarly, in the sixteenth-century Popol

and the

Vuh of the Quiche Maya, the gods

animals were turned into stone at the

spirits of

sun (Tedlock, Popol Vuh,

first

dawning of the

30. Elizabeth H. Boone, Incarnations of the Aztec Supernatural: The

and Europe

Huitzilopochtli in Mexico Society, 1989),

(Philadelphia:

Image of

American Philosophical

31. For the original identification of heart sacrifice in Teotihuacan art, see

Laurette Sejourne, Burning Water: Thought

(New

York:

Vanguard

and

Religion in Ancient Mexico

compared the gourd bowls of the

Cora, close

neighbors of the Huichol, to the ancient Aztec cuauhxicalli (Preuss, "Die der

Mexikaner erlauter

alten

Indianer," Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie

nach Angaben

der

Cora-

43 [1911], pp. 293-308). For discussions of

Huichol xukuri, see Carl Lumholtz, Symbolism of the Huichol Indians (New

Museum

York: American

of Natural History, 1900), pp. 161-66; Robert M.

The Huichol: Primitive Artists (New York: G.

Zingg,

634-35; and Johannes Neurath, Las

fiestas

Stechert,

1938),

pp.

Casa Grande: Procesos

rit-

cosmovision y estructura social en una comunidad Huichola (Mexico

uales,

Nacional de Antropologia, 2002), pp. 175-76.

City: Institute

33. Juan Negrin, The Huichol Creation of the World (Sacramento,

Calif.: E. B.

Crocker Art Gallery, 1975), pp. 82-84. 34.

In this

regard,

also

noteworthy that Classic Maya

elite

women were

often portrayed wearing the sacrificial offering bowl as a headdress, denoting

the relation of this vessel to Centrality, Rulership,

Dumbarton Oaks, Eduard

35.

1998),

Seler,

women. See

in p.

Classic

Maya

Taube, "The Jade Hearth:

Karl A.

and the Classic Maya Temple,"

Function and Meaning

Stephen

Houston,

Architecture (Washington,

ed.,

D.C.:

464.

"Eineges uber dei naturlichen Grundlagen

mexikanisher

mythen," Zeitshcrift fur Ethnologie 39 (1907), pp. 1-41. 36. Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, "Las seis Coyolxauhqui: Variaciones sobre un

mismo

tema," Estudios de Culture Azteca 21 (1991), pp. 15-30.

37. For a recent discussion of these interpretations of the

Carrasco, City of Sacrifice,

Templo Mayor, see

72.

38. Sahagun, Primeros memoriales,

mentioning to

181.

indebted to Alan Robinson for

the similarity of the Templo Mayor altar to the Primeros

memoriales account.

Guilhem

39.

Olivier,

"The Hidden King and the Broken Flutes: Mythical and

Royal Dimensions of the Feast of Tezcatlipoca Keber, ed., Representing

in Toxcatl," in Eloise

Aztec Ritual: Performance,

Text,

and Image

Quihones the

Work

of Sahagun (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002). 40. Mendieta, Historia eclesiastica indiana,

80. Excavations in the sacred

precinct of Tenochtitlan also suggest that the Aztecs related music to ancient

Teotihuacan. Clearly evoking the architectural and mural style of Teotihuacan, the Red Temple structures at Tenochtitlan contained offerings of musical

instruments, including miniature forms (see Bertina rojos del recinto

sagrado de Tenochtitlan [Mexico

Olmedo

Vera, Los templos

Nacional de

City: Instituto

Antropologia e Historia, 2002]; and Leonardo Lopez Lujan, for the Past," in

Eduardo Matos Moctezuma and Felipe

,,T

he Aztecs' Search /Aztecs

Soli's, eds.,

[New

York: Harry N. Abrams, 2002]). 41. See Mendieta, Historia eclesiastica indiana; ria

los

42. Karl A. Taube, 'The Breath of Life: The

eds.,

and Garibay, Teogonia e histo-

mexicanos, pp. 111-12.

and the American Southwest,"

cat.

(New

York:

Museum

of the

addition,

appears that the Aztec concepts of the flower paradise and

was already present

Ideologies of Sacred Warfare and Teotihuacan,"

Pre-Columbian

Symbolism of Wind

Virginia M. Fields

The Road to Aztlan:Art From a Mythic

BAR

Art: Essays

Berlo, ed., Text

and Image

on the Interrelationship of the Visual and Verbal Arts

nternational Series,

983], pp. 70-

1 1

;

and Taube, "The Turquoise

Hearth," pp. 269-340).

46. Alfred M. Tozzer, Landa's Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan:

Translation

(Cambridge, Mass.: Peabody Museum, Harvard University, 1941), pp. 112, 119.

Press, 1956), pp. 119-27.

32. Long ago, Konrad Preuss

Opferblutschale

Ancient Mexico, exh.

Indian, 1925), plates 33a-b.

the relation of warrior souls to birds and butterflies

[Oxford

29.

45.

19.

Teotihuacan (see Janet Berlo, "The Warrior and the Butterfly: Central Mexican

161).

Wood-Carver's Art

American

Mesoamerica

and Victor Zamudio-Taylor,

Homeland (Los Angeles:

Los Angeles

Mundi

Axis

Roberto Velasco uonso

THE AZTECS CONCEIVED OF A COMPLEX ORDERING SYSTEM TO ORGANIZE THE DIFFERENT PLANES

and paths of the universe. These planes were interconnected to bring order to the present and can be understood as realities with alignments vertically super-

imposed, divided into four sections oriented to the four cardinal directions. Each had a different magnitude, interpolation, and proximity to the various

domains comprising the world of humans. The biggest of these realms was the sphere of the Ometeotl (God-Two), all

ruler of the universe,

was contained by

dual principle that both contained and

aspects of the Aztec worldview. Ometeotl was the primordial axiom whose

existence could not be represented (and thus there are only symbolic representations of his perceptible manifestation

the

cosmos and/or

physical world).

He was understood as an all-embracing and all-embraced premise that preceded everything. Ometeotl conceived the four Tezcatlipocas (Smoking Mirrors),

among which directions,

the contents of the universe were divided and ordered into four

each marked by dual divisions of essence and influence, extending

inward toward a center. These four divine offspring would impose themselves

upon

reality

from

their individual spheres,

would be marked by through

their

own

smoking-mirror

distinct

reflection,

and each

level

features,

which they would create

each of

of subsequent reality

a different color

and with

different nature.

Xiuhtecuhtli (Turquoise Lord; god of

fire

and

time), the focus or center

where the four directions united, was determined by the balanced meeting of these four possibilities and shared the quintessential characteristics with the primordial sphere, differing only according to longitudinal and temporal rank.

The Aztecs believed that

this equilibrium

ing order to a given era, itself.

From

this

focal

was the determining

factor for bring-

and Xiuhtecuhtli was regarded as the

fusion,

which would be subject

ruler of order

the approval of

Ometeotl himself, the four Smoking Mirrors created within the borders of sphere the original elemental substances-Huehueteotl

fifth

(fire),

Tlaloc

this

and

Chalchiuhtlicue (water), and Cipactli-Tlaltecuhtli (earth)-that were preceded by the element of In

air

as Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, the White

Mirror.

the vortex created between essential force and elemental substances

(always

dual form), four eras arose, each presided over by a sun, each charged

by an element. Earth was the by wind, and then

had

Smoking

its

own

fire

first

element to dominate an

and water. According

followed

beginning, and once the equilibrium of the reigning element

disrupted, the era suffered a violent end

humanity or

era,

to the notion of duality, each era

its

was

marked by the extermination of

transformation into various creatures With the creation of

life,

was the need to create death. Nine levels were established beneath the terrestrial plane where existence unfolded. When a human being died, it would there

encounter the nine requirements that would cause

to shed

its

singular virtue.

// Cihuacoatl plaque, detail A/trr, ra

1200-1521

78. Relief of the five

Aztec, ca.

1400-1521

ages

tf&

when

This might be understood on an individual level as well: deliver nine of

nonmaterial properties that once gave

its

gathering of

agreed to create

the creative forces

all

new

Ometeotl for consent.

"sun,"

being dies,

the virtue of

must

life.

the universe then took place, and they

and the Smoking Mirrors once again had

to return to

they divided Cipactli-Tlaltecuhtli, erecting the heavens

First

(separated by thirteen levels of proximity) and establishing the earth (with four horizontal, perpendicular influences restricted only by the dual sphere of Ometeotl). This

separation was achieved by the establishment of four supports, either trees, gods, or

men, located

at the

the form of

boundaries of the focus or center-the domain of

Xiuhtecuhtli.

Then the Smoking Mirrors ordered the Earth to create sustenance converting

its

earth goddess

various parts into mountains,

showed

her great discontent at having sacrificed

condition for the continued growth of

the form of

human

which represented, through

their

of the physical world, such as fertility

caves,

on earth, the gods established the

Once again the Smoking

era.

own immediate

fertility,

a pre-

required a tribute

of the categorical numina,

rise

proximity, intelligible manifestations

and war.

ritual for

through

Mirrors,

ion over this sun by bloodletting

mankind,

and as

its unity,

human nourishments, she

blood and hearts. Thus began the

for

By weeping, the

rivers, caves, plants, etc.

their

order to bring light and ensure

bringing about the fifth "sun" or

numenic

entities, vied for

and autosacrifice (not only as

a gift of blood,

dominbut sig-

nifying acceptance of death for the birth of this sun).

Due

to the deteriorated state of the astral deity prior to this ritual,

the gods give up their tained. This sun

lives,

so that

its

was characterized,

daily path

first,

demanded

that

through the heavens could be main-

by the fusion of

and elemental

essential

all

new focus (the gods' renunciation of their state of absolute purity). Secondly, this sun was charged (or defined) by the rotating dominion of the cardinal influences included in every daily completion of its trajectory through the sky, whose charting and measurements were taught to the first human couple. The men of the

vital liquids into a

four previous eras had been formed from the multiple combinations of elemental sub-

stances that occurred

those preceding eras. Their bones were jealously guarded by

the Lord of Mictlan. Once again Quetzalcoatl, with the help of Xolotl, his proximal deity (but of a lower magnitude), descended into the realm of the dead to retrieve these

bones. The divine essence had already departed from the skeletons, and

of this

bones

numen until

to shed

own

its

was the

task

blood and that of Cihuacoatl to be ground with the

created the mass from which the

first

human couple

of the fifth era

would be formed. They then gave the humans maize, instructed the people

of days). With

most perfect form of sustenance, and

their

the arts of divination and the reading of the tonalamatl (book

this, a strict

retribution covenant

was made: veneration for the gods, the humans lived in the

use of incense, and the rituals of self-sacrifice or bloodletting. The

mythic land of Aztlan, where th^y reproduced and grew instructed to migrate.

patron

venerate

(Hummingbird on the immediately after

was during

the

Left),

being

sun,

this long

with

its

who was devoted born,

numbers,

until

they were

journey that the Aztecs found a new categorical to war.

Huitzilopochtli

numen, Huitzilopochtli

According to the mythic model,

decapitated

his

sister

the

moon,

Coyolxauhqui (She of the Rattles on her Cheeks), and devoured the blood and hearts of the vanquished lunar people, and

army

they obeyed his

(the countless stars). will,

From then

on, he

would guide the

he promised them the conquest of the world.

As an ultimate reflection of these influences, the Aztecs validated and reinforced this

mythic model by orienting the structures of their capital

practices,

city,

toward the perceptible cosmic structures, devoting

all

and

all

of their social

their tasks to

them

and considering themselves as anointed with the duty of providing tribute

the form

of blood and hearts. They also devoted themselves to providing sustenance for the

other gods.

their ritual center, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, they built

adorned with the symbols related to the residing ous moments or times

when

temple-pyramids

They also marked the vari-

divinity.

which the gods' proximity was made perceptible, namely, those points

they became phenomenologically present on Earth.

During the major

festivals, rituals

were given added

spiritual

emphasis through

instruments and symbols associated with the particular deity being venerated, as well as those associated with his or her path of influence.

Due

to their

knowledge of the

tonalpohuolli (the divinatory calendar), the Aztecs were able to locate themselves within this celestial and temporal cycle with a complete understanding of both the tial

ini-

point of origin and the rhythms and trajectories of the heavenly bodies, which

were also reflected aligned with

the physical world. They

what proximal patrons

knew

exactly

what

distal divinities

any given moment. This imbued the

the possibility of creating a portal through which

all

ritual

were with

transcendental manifestations

could be briefly focused on a given essential direction (categorical, proximal, numenic, elemental, distal) through

its

with an axis for participating in

phenomenological presence. This provided the Aztecs

the sacred, thereby complying fully with their mission

the cosmos: that of erecting, maintaining, and perpetuating the fifth support, the

great cosmic tree, ences, and

whose

among whose deep

roots converged a balance of

who

branches sheltered the universal birds,

energy of the hearts and blood to

its

all

cardinal influ-

carried the primordial

dominant essences.

--â&#x20AC;˘â&#x20AC;˘

â&#x20AC;˘

too

82. Atlantean figure (north)

Aztec, ca.

500

83. Atlantean figure (center)

Aztec, ca.

500

Following pages:

84. Atlantean figure (west), detail

Aztec, ca.

500

85. Atlantean figure (south), detail

Aztec, ca.

500

3Â«e?

ÂŤoC

â&#x20AC;˘

86. Tizapan casket

and maize goddess figure

Aztec, ca. 1250-1521

87. Tlaltccuhtli

Aztec, ca.

1200-1521

"%*

88.

Fragment of anthropomorphic

brazier

Aztec, ca. 1300

89. Life-death figure

Aztec, ca.

1440-1521

90. Duality

Aztec, ca.

1500

91. Solar disk with calendar date

Aztec, ca.

1500

try

Gods and

Rituals <

HOW

ANCIENT MESOAMERICAN MYTHS TELL

tiitlltriit

Olivier

THE SUPREME DIVINE COUPLE CREATED OR BEGAT

who

various gods (two, four, or thirteen, depending on the particular myth)

formed the

first rites

to thank their creators

and acknowledge

per-

their superiority.

The myths mention prayers and offerings of copal and of blood from autosacrifices

creation

and from animals immolated

myths

moon were generated fice to feed the

among

example,

telling, for

how

honor of the supreme

also explain the origins of certain rituals.

sun and the earth

an especially prominent

deities.

Human

sacri-

ritual, particularly

the Aztecs.

numerous

Besides the mythic prototypes that mortals reenacted during feasts,

Other

the sky and the earth, the sun and the

time was the fundamental element that ruled the entire

system.

ritual

Every ritual had to conform to a precise time frame determined by different cal-

endar calculations. Myths speak of the creation of these calendars by the gods,

who were

patrons of their

many

attributes, including individual days, trecenas

(the thirteen-day weeks), solar, lunar,

and Venusian

earth, aged, died,

and were reborn only on

eras. Yet

came down

specific dates.

The Mesoamerican belief system was based pohualli, a solar calendar of

and

cycles, suns,

the gods themselves were affected by time. They were born,

two calendars: the xiuh-

365 days comprising eighteen veintenas (months)

of twenty days each, plus the nemontemi, five extra fateful or dangerous days;

and the tonalpohualli, this ritual calendar

a divinatory or ritual

were

identified by

calendar of 260 days. The days

twenty signs

numbers. One feast cycle was developed based on the solar calendar;

was celebrated trast,

each of the eighteen months. The "movable

were celebrated

famous toxiuhmolpia

the

was

a festival

feasts,"

accordance with the divinatory calendar.

calendars coincided, that

combination with thirteen

When

by conthe

two

every fifty-two years (the so-called Aztec century),

New

(the Binding of the Years, or

Fire,

ceremony)

carried out.

The tonalpohualli, the older of the calendars, was used days.

Its

reference to birth

connotations influenced the character and fate of individuals, as well

as those of

all

kinds of beings and other things created, including the gods.

Important rituals dedicated to specific gods were held on their individual anniversary dates. The tonalpohualli was also used to select the best days

any number of

ncluding going on

trips,

forming cures, inaugurating buildings, and enthroning

were accompanied by complex The eighteen feasts

were held vest.

rulers.

Such

ntcnas, ordered according to the solar calendar,

tandem with the main

a*.

activities

ritu

agricultural cycles of planting

and the har-

During these feasts, there were reenactments of creation myths

ple,

(such

foi

hunting, getting married, per-

of sacred war) and important events

ica-Aztec migration). The different

(for

exam-

the history ot the people

iroups participated

92. Ehecatl

vr'i

s»v

;

-1.- -•..

>JKrl "&."•

'&?&.

\teitem *&&.%•

% >^ ig

«s fW-

>y&m

some

these festivals; whereas

included

all

the groups, others were

select, as in

the case of the veneration of particular patron gods by nobles, priests, artisans, prostitutes, or

other subdivisions of Aztec society.

these celebrations were characterized by a great variety of prayers, chants, pro-

All

and

cessions, dances, offerings, autosacrifices,

and people. These

sacrifices of animals

two practices attracted more attention from sixteenth-century conquistadores

last

and monks, and even today's

any other Aztec

scholars, than

own body

extraction of blood from different parts of one's

with various cutting instruments (awls of bone or obsidian,

spread throughout Mesoamerica beginning

Autosacrifice, the

ritual.

(tongue, penis, ears, legs)

maguey

thorns),

was wide-

Preclassic times. The purposes of this

were varied: to do penance and have one's offenses forgiven, to acquire merit

practice

and thereby prolong one's

life,

to feed the gods, to boost the fertility of the earth, and

so on. There seems to have been a symbolic equivalence between autosacrifice

and human

While autosacrifice represented a

sacrifice.

also die symbolically through sacrificing a victim (ixiptla)

"partial" death, a

who was

person could

believed to be an "image"

both of him- or herself and of a particular god.

During the veintena of Toxcatl (Dryness), a young warrior representing Tezcatlipoca

was

ruler,

closely linked to royal

power and acted as the protector

or tlatoani. The ruler in turn acted for the

the ruler

val,

was

sacrificed. This deity

of the

was the

the young warrior,

between the

"sacrificer"; in other

who was

Mesoamerican

sacrificed

one of the ideological foundations of

sacrifice.

The gods themselves were revived through the Children, youths,

mature women,

girls,

sacrifice of their

own

images.

or old people stood in for the deities for a pre-

determined time and at the end of that period were different

earth. During this festi-

the image of the god Tezcatlipoca. The shared identity

and the

sacrificer

god on

words, he died or sacrificed himself through

sacrificed. To be

specific, the

gods were represented by the appropriate groups: prisoners of war

for the

warrior gods, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli; old people for the god of the underworld, Mictlantecuhtli;

young women

for the

goddess of maize, Chicomecoatl; children a ritual

death would

also allude to the particular divinity's characteristics. For example, victims

were burned

to personify the rain

god

honor of the god of

assistants, the Tlaloque.

fire,

The procedure of

Xiuhtecuhtli-Huehueteotl; skinned for Xipe Totec, whose

name means "Our Flayed Lord"; and shot with arrows for the god of hunting, Mixcoatl. By means of autosacrifice and sacrifice, the sun, earth, and gods were fed. After all, these very gods had given their lives so the stars could move at Teotihuacan, and had given their own blood to create humankind. In Mesoamerican thinking, the idea that life arises out of death was fundamental. A significant example is that bones were considered to be seeds, and ated.

was from those "seeds bones"

that living

humanity was

Another essential concept was

gods were governed by exchange. Mortals delivered offerings and gods,

who needed them

for their

own

cre-

that the interrelationships between people and

renewal;

sacrifices to the

return, the divinities granted

humans

and earthly goods.

life

Parallel to all these majestic public rites,

attended by thousands, were numerous

private rites performed in various spaces. These occurred

occasion of births; tain

gods and

private rites

the fields to foster the land's

to ask for rain.

Although

fertility; in

private houses on the

caves to thank

local authorities participated

from time

were not carried out under state control. Many of these

of course, with

some changes,

rites

present-day indigenous communities.

still

mounto time,

survive,

:-^

)

o, +•*i-

•

%• »C*JS ***<>»•3?y

3»*S _

%J*

93. Seated Xipe Totec

Aztec-Matlatzinca. ca. 1250-1521

96. Figure of Xipe To tec

Aztec, ca.

1500

97. Figure of Xipe Totec

Aztec, ca.

500

100. Ehecatl

monkey

Aztec, ca. 1500

104. Chalchiuhtlicue

Aztec, ca.

aloe

500

mask

106.

Pumpkin

Aztec, ca.

1500

Facing page, clockwise

from top

left:

107. Agriculture

Aztec, ca.

108.

goddess

500

Teomama

Aztec, ca.

500

109. Tlaltelcuhtii

Aztec, ca.

110.

500

Cihuateteo

111. Skull

500

Aztec, ca.

goblets 1

500

*v< ^*v

^p. V

V SW S3

/*"'/"

112. Xochipilli

Aztec, ca.

1500

Facing page:

Detail of cat. no. 112

Jr 5Pj

fjjWBi

JS )P*A

';'

•

—*4»

*rj

flft

f^^|

1^^

ft.

113. Deified warrior brazier

Aztec, ca. 1500

114. Techcatl

Aztec, ca.

1500

115. Autosacrifice casket (tepctlacalli)

Aztec, ca.

1500

Painted Books

and Calendars Elizabeth Hill Boone

WAS

AZTEC MEXICO, WRITING

painted books

now

AND KNOWLEDGE WAS RECORDED GRAPHICALLY

PAINTING,

called "codices." These painted

books recorded almost every

aspect of Aztec culture. They told of the creation of the world, the beginnings of the Aztecs, and the deeds and conquests of their rulers. Religious books

how

explained the nature of the sacred,

how

the gods should be worshipped, and

the feasts and religious rituals should be observed. Divinatory codices

described which supernatural forces governed the various periods of time, and

when the fates were most auspicious for different activities; they indihow to live a correct life. Practical manuscripts listed tributes and taxes,

thus told cated

described the allocation of lands to be farmed, and recorded the cases and decisions of the legal courts. There

not addressed

some

was

fashion

little in

the

life

of the Aztec empire that

was

the painted books.

The author-painters and reader-interpreters of these books were called tlamatinime. They were the sages,

the wise

guardians of community knowledge.

form the to read

ideals,

was

understandings, and facts of Aztec culture, and

and interpret the painted books

tem was

men and women who were

their task to record in pictographic

for their people.

fell

them

The Aztec writing sys-

pictographic system that employed both figural elements and

abstract symbols, combining carried meaning.

them

Although the

structured compositions that themselves

figural

images generally stood

for

what they

represented, their precise, conventional meanings had to be learned, as did the

meaning of the abstract symbols.

were arranged

All

spatially according to a

well-developed visual grammar. Physically, the books were usually composed of long pieces of bark paper (amate) or deer hide, which were folded back and forth like a screen or accordion to form pages. Sized with gesso to achieve a stiff,

gleaming, white surface, they were painted on both sides and preserved

between wood covers. Other manuscripts were made of

woven

paper, hide, or

large sheets of bark

cotton, on which the painters could extend their picto-

graphic messages into great diagrammatic compositions.

The painted histories were especially important to codices explained the present through cate

how

and how lished. c

the people

Almost

from

all

way,

occupy

the histories begin

their ancient

to the Valley of

the

came

their relations with the other

homeland

their

communities,

their territory,

from whence they came,

communities around them were estabthe mythic past, with the Aztecs' depar-

of Aztlan. They then track the long migration

this

the

momentous

founding

the

new

capital,

Tenochtitlan.

founding, the histories then detail the creation

unsion of the empire. They record the successive reigns of conquests, and natural affected the

for the

to the past. The histories indi-

Mexico and the great hardships the Aztec people suffered along

culminating

Beginning with

its links

community

phenomena !â&#x20AC;˘

rulers, their

(such as earthquakes and eclipses) that

Kually

composed as annals ordered year by

116 Xiuhmolpilli, i

ca.

500

Death

โ ขSSA

% L I

40*fยง S *

-**

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

year

long continuous

in a

these histories present the Aztec empire as an ongoing

line,

began with Aztlan and continues as long as time

entity that

As valuable as these histories were for the Aztec Aztec society as

human

whole were the

behavior by indicating

religious

how

itself

endures.

the most

rulers,

vital

books for

and divinatory books. These books guided

every being and every action was governed by time

and the prophetic forces attached to time. Time for the Aztecs was measured by two interlocking calendrical systems. The seasonal or solar calendar, called the xihuitl,

months

was

365-day

composed of eighteen

cycle

of twenty days each, followed by five extra days, which were useless and

unlucky. This calendar controlled the monthly feasts to the gods and paralleled the agricultural (literally,

cycles.

The more important calendar, however, was the tonalpohualli

the "count of the days"), the divinatory or

fates and actions.

was

a cycle

ritual

thirteen numerical coefficients. Each of the days

way, the day

Crocodile

was followed by

set

number from one through

repeated. Each day also had a In this

human

was assigned one of the twenty

symbols and the corresponding name, which followed

repeated.

calendar that shaped

of 260 days, composed of twenty day signs linked with

sequence and then

thirteen,

which likewise

2 Wind, 3 House, 4 Lizard,

and so on. Four of the day signs (Reed, coefficients also served as the

numbers created tury.

The

Flint,

names

House, and Rabbit) linked with their thirteen

of years. This meshing of four signs and thirteen

fifty-two-year cycle, called a xiuhpohualli, equivalent to our cen-

brilliance of

Mesoamerican calendrics

that the xihuitl and the tonalpohualli

cycled together every fifty-two years. Each day had both a place

and

day name

the solar calendar

the divinatory calendar, which repeated every fifty-two years, just

as the year count repeated every fifty-two years.

The divinatory calendar governed of

its

parts

directions,

all

human and

was associated with and influenced by and other

qualities.

cultural happenings, because each

gods, supernatural forces, cardinal

The divinatory codices, called tonalamatls

(literally,

"book of the days"), recorded these prognosticatory elements and showed

were attached to the different units of time. Multiple almanacs

how

the

they

the tonalamatls pic-

tured the gods and prophetic forces that were associated with the individual day signs,

with the day coefficients, with the periods of thirteen days, and with other internal cycles

the divinatory calendar.

was the goal of the calendar

priest or

daykeeper to

consult these different almanacs to discover the multiple influences affecting a particular

day or group of days. He or she would identify and interpret the distinct gods,

symbols, and elements painted alongside the day glyphs, would weigh and judge their relative merits,

and would seek

balanced reading of the

fate.

Every child had

its

fate

read shortly after birth, and every Aztec consulted the calendar priests at significant

moments throughout

his or her

life.

day, just as rulers timed battles to

Farmers planted corn according to the fates of the

correspond to the dictates of the tonalamatls.

Although most of the religious and divinatory books were destroyed as the Spanish Conquest, Aztec secular manuscripts (histories, maps, tribute like)

continued to be painted and valued for another eighty years,

until

a result of

lists,

and the

about 1600.

Manuscript painting endured because the Aztecs and Spaniards both recognized the painted books as containers of knowledge and authentic records of Aztec culture.

»'•'/?

''**&&

;!/^

w& :t"

.«>

120. Altar with calendar dates

Aztec, ca.

1325-1521

i% i

feÂŤJE^.'

ti**^iB

Ir^ "

121. Xiuhmolpilli

Aztec, ca.

1500

M&l**

Aztec Society

Commoners

Nobles and Michael

Smitli

AZTEC SOCIETY

WAS COMPOSED OF TWO UNEQUAL

commoners. Although nobles made up

many

less

AND THE

SOCIAL CLASSES, THE NOBLES

than 5 percent of the population,

they were

owned

the land and con-

trolled the

government. Despite the taxes they had to pay to

their rulers, nobles

were

charge of

aspects of society. They

than commoners. Commoners, on the other hand, had to

far wealthier

provide labor service to nobles, pay taxes to their city-state governments, and

obey the laws and rules set by the ruling that Aztec lives.

know, for example, that they had access to

either as items used in their

of their daily lives Distinctions

and

nobility. This

commoners were poor and downtrodden,

society.

Aztec

homes

does not mean, however,

anonymous

leading bleak,

many

fine artistic objects,

or as public art encountered

the course

cities.

between nobles and commoners influenced many aspects of

life

look at the varied lifestyles and social roles of both groups helps

us understand the ways art

was created and used

the Aztec empire.

The Network of Nobles

The power and wealth of the nobility rested upon labor. All the land in a city-state

their control of land

belonged ultimately to the tlatoani

and but

(ruler),

he granted estates to high lords called tetecuhtin (singular: tecuhtli) and to

important temples. These estates were passed on to the

maintained

often residing

myths,

descendants or

perpetuity by the temples. Below the rank of tecuhtli

Most

a regular noble (plural: pipiltin).

pilli,

lords'

around

rituals, calendrics,

his palace.

was

that of

served a tecuhtli or tlatoani,

pipiltin

Nobles received specialized training

and they learned

and other esoteric

disciplines,

read and use painted books (codices) that recorded rituals, dynastic history, and additional information.

The Aztec nobility comprised a hereditary social ited to the offspring of

from different

two noble

city-states. In

one

class;

membership was

parents. Nobles' spouses frequently

respect, this

was done

for

lim-

came

simple demographic

reasons: Most city-states were small, and their noble classes simply did not have

enough members

for

everyone to find an appropriate spouse. But the marriage

of nobles across city-state lines, particularly

form of diplomacy. Rulers wanted to an important goal

ally

royal families,

the atmosphere of competition and war

among the Aztec city-states. A basic form of marriage alliance was ful

between

was

also a

themselves with powerful neighbors,

that

state and a daughter of a more powerful

between

ruler.

that existed

a ruler of a less

Indeed,

power-

one can trace the

power of the Mexica dynasty of Tenochtitlan by noting

its

rise

patterns of mar-

riage alliances. Before the formation of the empire in 1428, the Mexica rulers i

advance by marrying the daughters of several powerful

cities,

including

Azcapotzalco and Cuauhnahuac. Once the Mexica ruled the empire, however,

ICUC

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Page from Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Florentine Codex, also

known as

Historic

general de las cosas de Nueva Espana,

575-77.

1X111

+ ill

T/4

'Xftlit/n

fc&L

the rulers of subordinate city-states vied with one another to

marry

women

from the Mexica dynasty.

many A shrewd ruler

Nobles

practiced

and powerful lords had numerous

polygamy, and

rulers

wives.

could use strategic marriages to advance

his standing

and power. in

royal funerals,

documented

best

of these

at major state ceremonies. Rites of accession,

states to gather

from many different

for nobles

city-

and celebrate together. These events included elaborate feasting, public oratory, and the

rituals,

exchange of valuable

gifts

among

Such ceremonies took

nobles.

Marriage alliances, diplomatic events, and attendance at state

ceremonies

all

link

polit-

inten-

highlands, uniting local elites from

Tenochtitlan, other parts of the Valley of Mexico, and surround-

Once the

empire was formed by the

Triple Alliance

Mexica, Acolhua, and Tepaneca,

many

areas. Local rulers

empire bought their loyalty with perquisites.

When

gifts,

left in

Conquered

retain their seats; they

and other

rulers put these

its

were allowed to

rulers

were given precious

state

power, and the

privileges,

the empire expanded,

to work.

sionally attended

were

gifts;

and they occa-

ceremonies or engaged

marriage

was an important component of the

processes that integrated the Aztec nobility.

exchanged

Many

social

of the gifts

at state ceremonies were valuable items of jewelry

and clothing made from exotic lowland materials, such as tropical bird

feathers and greenstone. The elaborate clothing

to such events

was expensive and

exclusive.

extensive network of elite interaction

mon

interactions led to the production of a

stone sculptures Calixtlahuaca

One

was the

worn

result of this

creation of

com-

material styles throughout the diverse regions of the Aztec

and painted documents, the material culture of the Aztec

the Mexica style

the

same

number of

Tenochtitlan and transported to Calixtlahuaca

some 50

kilometers), carved by local sculptors, or

carved locally by sculptors from the imperial capital. That

some

of the true masterpieces of Aztec art-such as a sculpture of

Malinalco-come from

Ehecatl or the Huehuetl of

areas

provincial

material proof of the importance of elite networks

structuring Aztec society and

art.

Palaces

While nearly

Aztec palaces conformed to

all

they varied greatly mirrored

in size

the variation

archy.

Although these

wealth

nobles. Provincial pipiltin

were

larger

hier-

their control, lived in palaces

much

and more luxurious than the houses of commoners, and

participated

palaces,

the exchanges and interactions of the Aztec

Archaeologists

networks.

which range

Artifacts from

nobles used

size

several

elite

their

from 350 to 550 square meters.

garbage deposits suggest that provincial

their

much

have excavated

same

the

kinds of domestic objects as

commoners, although these nobles had more decorated and imported ceramic serving vessels. Wealthier and more powerful than nobles of the tecuhtli rank,

the

rulers

of provincial

elaborate. The rulers of Calixtlahuaca lived

pilli

and

city-states controlled

numbers of subjects-both noble and commoner-and

network and a by-product of that integration. This

amounts

of tribute and taxes from those

were correspondingly larger and more

compounds on

palace

and Yautepec,

for

example,

the order of 5,000 to 6,000

square meters. These palaces were constructed with fine mason-

"jduced here their great importance to us today. I

bottom of the noble

urban commoners (such as merchants and luxury artisans), they

subjects. Their palaces

one example, are remarkable

layout,

were often poorer than some

rural lords

a force that contributed to the integration of the Aztec elite latter role of

common

and power among Aztec

at the

larger

material culture-as a signal of elite social processes-gives the

and elaboration. This differentiation

received far greater

to take

provincial cities. At

in human sacrifices at this we do not yet know if these

empire revealed impressive commonalities over large distances.

cities,

used

style

city exists as well. Unfortunately,

The nobles' use of objects conforming to shared styles was both

Aztec

style of

Mexica-style sculptures of deities have been excavated, and a

empire. From buildings and city planning to clothing, jewelry,

obj'

common

the Valley of Toluca, for example, a

had groups of farmers under

alliances with nobles of the Aztec heartland.

Material culture

political

regional nobles.

advantage of

rulers took

its

these patterns of noble solidarity and instituted a policy of indi-

same processes

Elite

were carved

transcended the

among

painted codices throughout the empire and the appearance of

distance of

borders of city-states. These processes operated most

rect rule in

than a century. They were thus not the products of coercion but rather of interaction

com-

empire by more

styles in fact predate the formation of the

Aztec society:

sively within the central

ing regions.

mon

the nobles of the diverse Aztec city-states into a

served an important function

single, tightly integrated social class that ical

the similarities of Aztec provincial buildings and city layouts to

stone altar

place out of public view.

They helped

rooms

plan, with

with a single entrance. Although writers sometimes attribute

temple dedications, and celebrations of military

were occasions

sacrificial

other kinds of activities that cut

One of the

across city-state borders.

victory

common

to a

on elevated platforms that surround an enclosed courtyard

the imposition of styles by the conquering empire, these

Nobles also engaged

was attendance

and nonroyal, conform

royal built

in-

and had

amp

ilaster

floors

and

walls.

Around the

open courtyards were numerous rooms and

sistency of their building forms and stylesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; as well as of their

requisite

large,

principles of urban planning-across a large geographical area.

chambers

for the royal family, servants, wjrriors, administrators,

One

of the best examples

the palace.

All

known /

.ices,

and others. The palaces also featured

altars

and

shrines.

At the top of the hierarchy of nobles were the rulers of the imperial capital cities of Tenochtitlan and Tetzcoco (modern-day

was considerably

Texcoco). (Tlacopan, by comparison, erful

and wealthy than

its allied capitals.)

palaces have not been excavated, written

pow-

Although these

cities'

documents

give

some

and sumptuous nature of these

idea of the size, complexity, structures. The chronicler

less

Fernando de Alva

Ixtlilxochitl, a

dant of the rulers of Tetzcoco, compiled a number of

descen-

neighborhood within obligations toward

belong to a but

calpulli. Theoretically,

management

practice

members had

a city. Rural calpulli

nobles than their cousins nobles

of the land

who

lighter

not

did

owned the farmland, was left in the hands

of a calpulli's governing council. This council assigned plots of land and organized joint tasks. Urban

commoners

also varied in

the extent of their freedoms and economic well-being.

The larger Aztec

historical

were home to several categories of

cities

accounts a century after the Spanish Conquest. After examining

commoners who stood above

the ruined palace of his ancestors (now destroyed or buried

status.

under the modern city), he described it as a huge compound of some 800,000 square meters. Within an outer wall, the palace contained many buildings, gardens, temples, a ballcourt, a zoo,

belonged to exclusive guilds and traded expensive goods over

and

private entrepreneurs. Their trade expeditions, consisting

a marketplace. In addition to the living quarters for the

ruler

and

royal family, there

were servants' quarters;

room; chambers for judges and section for scientists and

throne

officials; a hall for warriors; a

musicians and another for poets,

and historians; archives; and storehouses

philosophers,

for

weapons, food, and other goods. One can only imagine how elaborate the palaces of the yet

more powerful Mexica

rulers

must have been.

Many used

of the works of art

precious stones were most

palaces,

objects

were

this exhibition probably

and the

also these.

Commoners'

Lives

was

nobility,

to serve

palaces.

had access to jewelry,

meals

ceremonies

the other hand,

and

vessels,

The Aztec nobility did not have

ritual

monopoly

and

wealth and power within the

commoners

so too did Aztec

lifestyles.

vary

wealth,

their

At the bottom of the hier-

archy were the tlacotin, or slaves. This was not a large social

was not

category, and slavery

as punishment for crimes or

times of famine or

slaves

order to save themselves during

Owners were responsible

crisis.

for slaves.

became

hereditary. People

for feeding

Most of them labored as domestic

vants; female slaves were particularly valued for their

macehual. This was

ser-

fit

a highly varied

known as

the category

group, but

its

distinctions

not correspond to clearly labeled subcategories. At the lower

end of the scale were

rural

peasants

dependent upon

a lord

who were

medieval

and without independent

access to agricultural land. Higher up within the macehual cat-

egory were the members of

common

who

show

human

carriers

and armed guards, could be

off wealth, the

pochteca usually returned from

when they

their

could secretly enter their houses

with high surrounding walls) and escape the notice of

nobles.

Many

of the objects illustrated here, from gold jewelry to

lived

occupation.

and sold

some

point by the pochteca.

The luxury craft worker was another special category of

commoner. The

of Aztec utilitarian

fields

goods were organized very tilla

and obsidian tools were produced by part-

griddles, baskets,

time specialists

products

the

working

near

ealpullis.

calpulli

was

group of

one another and often shared a

calpulli could be a rural village or a

and luxury

crafts

differently. Practical items like tor-

who worked out of their homes and sold their markets. Many of these crafters were farmers

their spare

time or during the dry season. Luxury

as stone sculptures, jewelry, and featherwork-on

the other hand, were produced by full-time specialists

who

Although they sold some of

their

worked

for noble patrons.

output

the

who

directly for their patrons,

selves or presented craft

them as

workers were highly

worked

the royal

most pieces

these artisans created

markets,

either used the products

gifts to other nobles.

skilled,

them-

The luxury

and many of them

palace, along

lived

and

with their families (who

and the luxury

assisted in the workshops). The pochteca

craft

workers were wealthier than other commoners, and they interacted with nobles on a more regular basis. Rural

commoners, that

is,

peasants, lived

houses of adobe

brick with stone foundations. In provincial areas

The majority of commoners

families

as agents of

months. Because commoners were not allowed

expeditions at night,

skills in

spinning and weaving.

serfs: heavily

Some pochteca found employment

for

goods-such

fine art.

a hierarchy of

status, independence,

and caring

on the road

and

nobles. The poly-

and pipes were played

flutes

on valuable objects and

Just as there

worn by

likely

may have been employed

vessels

that might have been conducted

commoners

wealth and

merchants who

buying and selling on consignment, but most worked as

teams of specialized

(built

their

professional

polychrome pottery to stone sculptures, were probably bought

nobles' palaces. The fine jewels of gold, obsidian,

chrome ceramic

long distances. rulers,

the rest

pochteca were

The

most of these

houses were small, one-room structures, which were arranged in

groups of several houses around

structure

was home

common

to a family group.

Sometimes

generation family shared a single house.

moners

lived in larger,

multiroom

sum

lines.

patio.

Each

a big, multi-

Tenochtitlan

com-

The different rooms

may have housed separate families, so that a single urban house may have contained numerous residents from several family units

the

provincial

houses were almost idem

city-states, u :al

however,

commoners'

those of rural peasants

com-

spite of their duties to lords

and

maeehual means

social control in Aztec society

and the prevalence of marketplace

the minds of Aztec nobles, the peasants and other

moners

existed to serve them. While the term

commoners

"subject,"

varied

their degrees of subjugation,

from the heavy burdens of slaves to the

relative

merchants. Most commoners, however, had

number of

tions to their lords, first and foremost of which

them with ily,

regular tribute

payments

was

obliga-

to provide

goods. Assessed by fam-

The indirect nature of

exchange gave commoners opportunities for economic and advancement outside the control of nobles.

most commoners

did not have to interact

they were free to

make

their

own

much

activity

daily

life,

with nobles, and

decisions on

many matters

without worries about interference from their betters.

form of

The Aztecs used several kinds of objects for money, most

the Aztec economy), food items, or specific goods pro-

commonly cacao beans for small purchases, and cotton textiles for larger items. Money was used to buy goods and services in

these payments consisted of cotton textiles

money

freedom of

rulers.

duced by the

families.

regular labor service.

Commoners also Men cultivated a

provided their lords with lord's land;

women spun

and wove for him; both sexes worked as domestic servants.

Such duties

typically rotated

among

a lord's subjects, with

each

week

the marketplaces that sprang up each

days long)

five

located

most towns and

cities.

(the Aztec

week was

The largest market,

Tenochtitlan's twin city of Tlatelolco and open every

family contributing several weeks of work per year. These pay-

day of the week, overwhelmed the Spanish conquerors with

ments of goods and

size,

of nearly In

all

labor, called tequitl,

were basic obligations

commoners.

addition to tequitl,

complexity, and

60,000 buyers and

commoners were

called

upon

to serve

good

sellers

order.

attended this market every day.

organized and run by the pochteca merchants,

the ruler for various special activities. The Aztecs did not have a

a judicial court to settle disputes

standing army, and troops were conscripted for each campaign.

economic

When

a real problem.)'

a large project

was

to be carried out, such as the con-

commoners were

struction of a temple or canal system,

Although nobles were

charge of

Most managed

meet

to provide themselves with

their

some

many

own

level

aspects of society,

known

own

des-

economic comfort

as Historic general de las cosas de

Nueva Espana, 1575-77.

their

basic needs and even

Page from Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Florentine Codex, also

For

tem

a labor draft for the task at hand.

most commoners had considerable control over tinies.

called

and

commoners, the key

wove cotton

production of

cloth

their

advancement textiles.

who

was

from

cacao beans were

via the

Aztec

maintained

to try cases arising

activities in the market. (Counterfeit

lay in the

its

Hernan Cortes wrote that

market sys-

women spun and

homes, work they interspersed with

other domestic tasks, such as food preparation and child care. Textile

production was an important part of the gender identity

of Aztec

women, both nobles and commoners. Commoner

c "S

;

;C X-

<*^v

women

had

choice

little

producing

cotton cloth was the major tax item well as to the emperor.

produce more cloth than

exchanged

of a household could

tax obligation, the excess could be

its

the market for whatever goods were needed.

house excavated by archaeologists has

Virtually every Aztec

yielded

paid to the local rulerâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; as

women

the

however, since

textiles,

numerous ceramic

spindle whorls and small spinning

Note 1.

should be emphasized that although the Aztec economy was a commer-

cialized one, with

was not

prominent

a capitalist

roles for

money, marketplaces, and merchants,

economy. The major feature of capitalism

wage

labor. In

the Aztec economy, land and labor were not commodities; they could not be

bought and sold

cooking pots, dogs, or obsidian jewelry. Confusing capi-

talism with commercial institutions,

of the latter

some authors have denied

ancient economies. The Aztec system

was

the existence

similar to a

number

of other ancient commercial economies, including those of Mesopotamia,

bowls, evidence of cloth production at the household level.

Greece and Rome, and the Swahili of Africa. These can be contrasted with

Most goods used jewelry,

Aztec society, from stone tools to gold

were bought and sold

were amazed

the markets. The Spaniards

at the variety of items for sale in the Tlatelolco

market, and several commentators produced long

goods.

commoner wanted

lists

of these

obsidian earspools, there

law prohibiting him or her from buying a pair

was no

the market.

Such items were expensive, however, and vendors of exotic jewfound more customers among the nobility than among the

elry

commoners. Nevertheless, many sometimes

and commoners. houses,

many

finely

were

labeled "elite" items

made

objects that are

fact used by both nobles

have excavated numerous Aztec

commoner

of which have yielded complexly polychromed

ceramic serving vessels, tools and ornaments of bronze, musical

instruments

including

obsidian, rock crystal,

and

flutes

and jewelry of

whistles,

and greenstone. The palaces of nobles had

large quantities of these items, but such objects

commoners. Goods

basic domestic inventory of Aztec

were even excavated

at provincial villages, far

Nobles,

these

Commoners, and Aztec Art

social

ditions

and economic dynamics of Aztec society created conwhich few material objects were used exclusively by

nobles. While certain

goods

we know

few sumptuary laws-rules

made

greater use of things

stone sculptures.

class. Nevertheless,

noble patrons, and the nobility could in

much more comfortably

the market. The elaborately

polychromed ceramic serving ware of Cholollan,

for example,

served as the everyday dinnerware of nobles and as

the rarely used "fine china" of

One

the

objects were produced directly for

afford to purchase such items

likely

nobles clearly

gold jewelry, featherwork, and

Many such

limiting

goods were available

to the nobility-most

markets to buyers of any social

most

from the large

and central marketplaces.

cities

The

were part of the

some commoners.

of the remarkable characteristics of Aztec art

is its

wide-

spread distribution across the Aztec empire. Codices, sculptures, ritual items, jewelry,

empire, not just

and the

the capital and

were a

all

used throughout the

few large

and markets dispersed such goods, and the

cities.

Merchants

social interactions of

nobles disseminated shared tastes and styles. The combined actions of these two forces distributed the corpus of objects that

known today

as Aztec

art.

Page from Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Florentine Codex, also

known

as Historic general de las cosas de

Nueva Espana, 1575-77.

ancient,

noncommercial economies

which lacked both money and markets.

those of the Inca and Egyptian cultures,

Everyday

Life

Tenoehtitlan

Michael E. Smith

EVERYWHERE TAKES PLACE

DAILY LIFE

people use to the houses they

A WORLD OF MATERIAL OBJECTS. FROM THE TOOLS

human

the street, material objects frame Tenoehtitlan,

day

life

many

were the

down

to the things they see as they walk

live in

existence. For the inhabitants of

of the material objects that played prominent roles

every-

craftsmanship and high aesthetic values.

result of proficient

made

During the day-as people ate their tacos, burned incense to the gods,

purchases

the market, and carried out innumerable other basic activities of

daily life-they

came

across and interacted with numerous objects that today

classify as "art." Aztec art

daily

life.

cannot be understood without

This text looks at a

a consideration of

number of events from the everyday

lives

Tenochtitlan's inhabitants, with particular attention to the material objects that

people used, encountered, and talked about.

Regular mealtime. The utensils used to prepare and cook food

Aztec

kitchens-such as ceramic cooking pots and stone metates to grind maize-

were

for the

most part

plain, utilitarian objects rarely classified

today as

The ceramic vessels used to serve food, on the other hand, were more

"art."

finely

finished, often with colorful surfaces painted in geometric designs using a vari-

ety of organic and inorganic pigments. Complexly polychromed plates and

bowls were used

the houses of nobles and

houses are remarkable

commoners

alike.

Excavated Aztec

for the quantity of painted serving dishes

and

for the

variety of decorative styles encountered at a single structure. Each region of central

Mexico had

its

own

distinctive, painted serving ware,

and these vessels

were widely traded between regions. Many Aztec families-both nobles and

commoners-must have

eaten their dinner from imported, painted vessels.

Feasts. Special-purpose

meals punctuated the daily routines of Aztec fami-

Monthly calendrical ceremonies and

lies.

life-cycle celebrations,

such as wed-

dings and funerals, were occasions for larger groups to gather at the house of a host family. Feasts called for out-of-the-ordinary foods served vessels or containers.

Cups and goblets were used

to drink cacao

special

festive

occasions, and bright red pitchers were used to serve either cacao or pulque.

Polychrome serving vessels may have been used at feasts more commonly than at regular meals.

An enigmatic

vessel

form-an

oval, bilevel dish

on three

legs

with painted decoration-was perhaps part of a serving set for celebrations.

Domestic

rituals.

Inside Aztec

homes,

a series of religious offerings

made, mostly by women. Incense was offered to the gods censers similar to those used lacking the colorful

paim

temples.

Numerous fragments

was

long-handled

of such censers,

he temple examples but identical

form, have

been excavated from the domestic deposits at Aztec houses. These censers were basic household items, as were small lity.

used

Musical instruments, including

'ines used in rituals ot curing flutes, whistles,

Aztec homes, probably for fundamental

ritual

and

rattles,

events.

and

were also

Some

of the

;

â&#x20AC;¢

123. Funerary casket

Aztec, ca.

1500

implements of domestic items used

household

eral different types of

Many

the home.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; particularly

the

long-handled eensers-duplieated

Others-most notably the small

clay figurines-were

domestic realm. This suggests that people participated

largely restricted to the

Work

ritual

public rituals.

rituals

wove

the markets.

produced

goods

into textiles that

Many other Aztec homes

utilitarian

women spun

Many

cotton

were used to pay taxes and to spend as money

goods-pottery, basketry, stone tools-were also

by part-time crafters. Family

the marketplace.

sev-

Aztec craft items were produced within homes. The most

widespread and important domestic craft was cloth production; thread and

with differing practices and meanings.

members would then

sell

worked out of their homes, which either were located within

these

who

luxury goods were produced by specialists

also

were sep-

royal palaces or

arate dwellings.

trip to

the market. Marketplaces were major

Along with foodstuffs,

cities.

all

components of

Aztec towns and

all

kinds of goods, from the fanciest and

most expensive

luxuries (featherwork

and greenstone jewelry) to the most mundane household imple-

ments, were for sale

but most

nobility,

works

did not have the funds to purchase luxury items very

most elaborate offerings from the Templo Mayor and

often. Except for the objects, the

the markets. Only a few goods were restricted by law to the

commoners in this

exhibition probably

few other

changed hands one or more times

Aztec marketplace. Marketing was not only an economic activity but also event, a time to

meet friends and associates and

gossip. People probably put

market day,

for

weekly occurrence.

and nobles, objects that were probably obtained

trip to

the

the palace.

the market.

ruler,

went

trip to

to see a judge,

commoners

the houses of both

at the markets.

the royal palace

was where people

their jewelry

excavations at Aztec sites have turned up

jewelry (of obsidian, rock crystal, and greenstone)

trip to

news and

to catch up on the latest

good clothes and perhaps even

their

at an

a social

was probably not

as enjoyable as a

paid their taxes, fulfilled their labor duties to

and took care of minor administrative matters. Palaces

were large complexes, and commoners there on everyday business were able to see neither the interior living quarters of the royal family nor their luxurious furnishings

and

art objects,

trip to

such as sculptures and featherwork.

the temple. Public ceremonies at the

numerous temples

were regular occurrences. Since few people had time to attend

all

of Tenochtitlan

the ceremonies, indi-

viduals probably selected events of particular personal significance.

the temple

precincts and on top of the pyramids, large stone sculptures, braziers burning with

perpetual flames, and flutes

variety of ritual implements, from long-handled censers to

and drums, could be seen by

However,

visitors.

many

material objects at Aztec

temples were not meant to be seen by casual visitors and supplicants.

Some

sculptures

monkey with an Ehecatl mask was buried next to a small circular temple (which can now be seen, restored, in the Pino Suarez metro station in MeAico City), and a life-size Ehecatl sculpture was buried next to a large round temple at Calixtlahuaca. Likewise, many of the elaborate objects excavated at the Templo Mayor were used in ceremonies for restricted audiences and of deities were buried as offerings; for example, a stone

then buried as offerings. Thus they were probably never viewed by anyone other than their creators

Daily

were

and

life in

a select

few

priests

and nobles.

Tenochtitlan took place

finely crafted

in a

access to most kinds of Aztec objects and in

their

homes were

of the objects

in this

realm of material objects,

many

of which

and aesthetically appealing. Commoners as well as nobles had

typically

on display

art;

exhibition were public art

and discussed by large numbers of people

items that people did not

public places or

in this

own

or have

temple compounds. Most

sense, and they were used, seen,

the course of their daily

lives.

(nihil ,

ca.

uhlh prndjnl

1500

126. Jaguar pectoral

Mixtec.ca. 1200-1500

127. Xiuhtecuhtli

Aztec, ca. 1200-1521

f?C

m ~ i

*<\

128. Ear

ornaments

Aitec-Mixtec, ca. 1400-1500

3 L^

**»

w7 \ l*ii^*fci' -

«l

129. Ring with the figure

of a descending eagle Mixtec, ca.

1325-1521

W Mt

-L^

••new f

•

•*•»-•»

««>>*.'

-«•

130. Pendant with the

figure of Xiuhtecuhtli

Aztec, ca.

1500

131. Ring with serpents in filigree

Aztec,

900-1521

132. Xiuhtecuhtli

Mixtec, ca.

1500

pendant

vVÂťU

or,.*

sfri

133. String of snail-shaped beads

Aztec-Mixtec, ca. 1300-1521

134. Lip-plug in the shape of a

serpent with Aztec, ca.

its

tongue out

900-1521

, I

135. Ear

ornaments

Mixtec, ca. 1500

,\*

136.

Pendant with the

head of a cox-cox bird Mixtec, ca. 1200-1521

Following pages:

137. Ahuitzotl plaque, detail

Aztec, ca.

1500

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The Aztec Empire /in

hard /â&#x20AC;˘ Townsend

DAWN

THE CLEAR

OF A NOVEMBER DAY

snowcapped volcanoes east of the

THE YEAR 1519, AS THE SUN ROSE OVER THE

Valley of Mexico, illuminating the gleaming

and white pyramid-temples of Tenochtitlan, thousands of people

lake basin

dugout canoes were swarming the island

to line the long southern

At the center of the capital,

city.

nobles and warriors were assembling

into

the patio of the royal palace,

ceremonial finery:

their

all

causeway leading

brilliant

feathers, golden jewelry, obsidian earspools, jade labrets, cloaks with heraldic

designs, embroidered loincloths, and high-backed sandals. patio, a splendid litter lay waiting.

Motecuhzoma plaza

would soon appear,

II,

On the

floor of the

The huey tlatoani (great speaker or to be borne by nobles to the

ruler),

wide

city

front of the palace. Nearby, to the north, lay the walled ritual precinct

with the looming

bloodstained

tzompantli

tiers

Mayor and other

of the Templo

stairways,

the

ballcourt,

(skull rack), a tall rack

council

tall

houses,

temples with wide,

and

the

fearsome

of poles strung with the heads of thousands

of sacrificed victims. The royal procession would turn southward, advancing at a

through the

stately pace

respectful throngs toward

silent,

appointment, where the long causeway reached the imperial

the place of

city.

short distance to the south, by the town of Ixtapalapan, a different host

was assembling. A high

wail of fifes

and the beat of marching drums sounded

the signal, and the strangers stepped out onto the causeway toward the heart of the Aztec capital. Sunlight glistened on their polished steel armor, and horse-

men scouted files

the vanguard. Then

came

the waving banner of Spain, followed by

of pikemen, crossbowmen, harquebusiers, and artillerymen, and then the

party of Hernan Cortes and his captains. They

numbered

barely 500. The crowds

wondered and whispered, watching the outlandish procession. A disquieting rustle

and murmur swept through the throng when they saw a raised White

Heron standard leading some 3,000 Tlaxcalan Indian warriors-arch enemies of the Aztecs,

now

allies

The parties met litter,

of the strangers-forming the rear of the column.

at the place called Xoloco.

Motecuhzoma stepped from

wearing the gold and turquoise diadem of supreme

office.

his

Ceremonially

supported by nobles, he approached the dismounted Spaniards. Greetings were

exchanged

Nahuatl and Spanish, translated by Malintzin, the remarkable

high-born Indian lady Spanish. Cortes

was

who became

Cortes's consort

politely restrained

from giving

and was now learning Motecuhzoma a formal

embrace, for the Aztec tlatoani was considered semidivine by

his people; yet

reached out to bestow upon Motecuhzoma a necklace of fine Venetian glass

beads strung on gold filament and scented with musk. The parties turned to continue

in prot

nto the

ed to a servant,

city,

who brought two

and, during a pause,

Motecuhzoma ges-

necklaces of red shells and eight golden

shrimps a span long, which Motecuhzoma himself put on Cortes's neck. Hie â&#x20AC;˘qers were

invited

quarter their

army

the old

royal

palace of

Page from Fray Diego Duran, Codex Duron, also

known

as Historia de las Indies de

e Islas de Tierra Fume,

579-81.

Nueva Espana

Axayacatl, just east of the ritual enclosure Tenoehtitlan,

the middle of

where more formal discourses were made before

Spaniards and Aztecs were both gambling

their

employed unsuccessfully

mutually

the prospect of total success. From Motecuhzoma's outlook, the

hostile intentions with diplomatic overtones since first learning in

the preceding months. After the Spanish landed

at Veracruz, the reception of Aztec

tacular gifts and

ambassadors bearing spec-

Motecuhzoma's message discouraging

a visit

only encouraged Cortes to burn his ships and dare to lead his

toward the fabulous

tiny force

Then came

tlefield discipline drill

city far in the

his victory over a Tlaxcalan army,

combining

highland

bat-

and close-order

pikes proved superior against open formations of charging

warriors-foes the Aztecs had never vanquished. Cortes's diplomatic genius was subsequently displayed

making the

when he succeeded

fierce Tlaxcalteca his allies, creating a base for the

next stage of the journey. These events were duly reported by spies to

Motecuhzoma. The massacre

Cholollan

(modern

Cholula) followed: secretly directed by Aztec overlords, Cholollan chiefs planned to trap the Spaniards their city, assaulting

tactics of

the narrow streets of

them from rooftops and

open maneuver. The

less Cholollan leaders

were

plot

killed

was

nullifying their

discovered, and the hap-

without quarter

in their

own

among

rebellion

Cortes and

held the initiative. Yet

Motecuhzoma met it

at Xoloco, Cortes

still

cannot be imagined that Motecuhzoma,

a highly successful ruler

was

that

dissident tribute-paying

tried again,

with

might encourage

towns

the Aztec

empire. For Cortes, the conquest of Tenoehtitlan would yield for the crown of Hapsburg Spain an empire surpassing that of

ancient Rome.

The Conquest of Mexico has been vividly described by many, beginning with Cortes's Five Letters of Relation to the Emperor Charles

Bernal Diaz del Castillo's classic True History of the

Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, and, from the Aztec point of by Fray Bernardino de Sahagun's Indian

view, the narration

informants

book twelve of the Florentine Codex. Such records

portray one of the most dramatic and moving events

The

initial

months

of residence

uprising

and

the

disastrous

their recovery in Tlaxcala;

Motecuhzoma; the Aztec of

retreat

Tlaxcaltecal as they barely escaped

allies joining

in history.

Tenoehtitlan; mounting ten-

sions and the capture and death of

the

Spaniards and

from Tenoehtitlan by night;

and the renewal of the campaign with

from many Indian communities seeking to over-

throw hated Aztec overlords-all

and

warrior,

was unduly frightened

starvation, smallpox,

led

Mediterranean

civilization taking

indigenous ways of

years

ence from Spain

was supposed in accounts written Motecuhzoma was pragmatically reluctant open field combat and had resolved to allow

later. In fact,

army

and other diseases

The colonial centuries began, with

superstitiously affected, as

sk his

might be

the final siege and

destruction of Tenoehtitlan by force and the devastations of

city plaza.

When

at Cholollan

real threat of Cortes's small force

interior.

when Spanish

cavalry, firearms,

the tens of thousands. Aztec tactics

meeting,

in this

and Motecuhzoma had been masking

of each other

rounded by some 250,000 to 300,000 people, among them warriors numbering

the formalities ended.

for Cortes

the alien force into Tenoehtitlan, where they would be sur-

life.

shape

August 1521.

new form in

of Hispanic

association with old

From the time of Mexican independ-.

1821 to the present, Mexico has sought to

develop a view of the past that acknowledges the heritage of

from the Codex Boturim, also known Tira

la peregrination, ca.

520-40.

<r.

its

tin

many

among whom

peoples,

the Aztecs have special signifi-

cance. Archaeological excavations

downtown Mexico

City

and

around the Valley of Mexico continue to reveal foundations of Aztec buildings, sculptures, ing sites,

and areas of

artifacts, residential

and manufactur-

These remains are interpreted

cultivation.

contexts and detailed sixteenth-century

using archaeological

was

the early thirteenth century, the future site of Tenochtitlan a

unclaimed

cluster

and

islands

reedbeds

the

brackish

Lake

Tetzcoco, inhabited by the teeming waterfowl and aquatic

life

wetland environment. The southern lake basin,

where marshes were fed by freshwater

had been

aquifers,

prosperous zone of settlement long before the

millennium

first

records written by Spanish and Indian scholars, as well as infor-

B.C.

mation from other, pre-Aztec societies of Mesoamerican

had been densely populated since the flourishing of Teotihuacan,

lization

fall

whose remains extend

beyond 2000

well

civi-

centuries

was

course for

readily

matched by that of

their extraordinary rise,

from

the thirteenth century to their position by

the time of Cortes's arrival as rulers of an empire covering vast

by the empire of the Incas religion,

with

its

domain surpassed

Peru.

The

sacrificial

only

aspects of their

seeming indifference to human

and repelled the Spaniards.

in size

But, as historical texts

life,

appalled

and modern

archaeology continue to show, beyond the ritualized violence there are a

easily

apprehended achievements: the formation

highly specialized and stratified society and an imperial

administration; the extension of far-reaching trade networks

and tribute systems; the development of agricultural

economy

highly productive

carefully adjusted to the land;

and the

adaptation of an ancient, inherited Mesoamerican worldview

intimate contact with the earth, the sky, and the changing seasons. a

An annual round of

agricultural

and state

rituals

provided

powerful means for maintaining social and cultural cohesion,

and the

brilliant

imagery of Aztec

visual expression to an their imperial society

art

and architecture gave

awareness of the interdependence of

and the larger cosmology of nature.

Page from the Tovar Codex,

583-87.

a.d.

first

and

its

The

saw

later

urbanism, yet no single city had dominated the

monuments

disintegration into smaller townships. rise

of Toltec Tula between the tenth and twelfth centuries

the creation of a

new

some 70 kilometers to the monuments at Tula speak of

military state

north of the valley. Harsh sculptural a

and seventh

The prestige and model of Teotihuacan set the

basin since the destruction of Teotihuacan's central

regions of central and southern Mexico. Fearless warriors and practical builders, they created a

well-watered northeastern part of the valley

the grandest city of Mesoamerica, between the

B.C.

These diverse sources reveal that the drama of the Aztecs'

an immigrant tribe

Similarly, the

warrior aristocracy seeking wealth and power through the con-

quest of tribute-paying domains. Their empire

life

among

stantially

may have

included

rhythm of communal

parts of the Valley of Mexico, but the slow

the small lakeshore towns appears not to have sub-

changed.

Yet, as

had periodically occurred

the past,

the valley continued attracting immigrant populations. The violent downfall of Toltec Tula tribal

produced refugees and

set in

motion

peoples moving south from desert regions. The histories of

incoming groups preserved

traditions recorded by Indian reflect

idealized,

"official"

pictorial

manuscripts and

oral

and Spanish historians tended

migration

legends,

with

formulaic

episodes, legendary happenings, and mythic occurrences inter-

woven with events able locations.

that

may

actually have

Such conventions portrayed

happened tribal

in identifi-

protagonists as

legitimate heirs to a prestigious, hallowed ancestral past.

cxrzm

*=Âť

/..

Page from the Matriculadc

Tributes, early 16th century.

Among

these groups migrating to the valley, four were to

play especially important roles

The

first

the

rise

of the Aztec empire.

group was the Tepaneca, who probably arrived during

the twelfth century, settling

among

older communities around

Tlacopan and Azcapotzalco on the west side of the basin. The

second group, the Chichimeca,

times settling for years, raising crops of maize, beans, squash,

amaranth,

status given by the spirit of Huitzilopochtli through priestly

mediums. The migration entered the realm of history when the

northwestern

filtered into the

and tomatoes. But they always moved

chia, chilies,

on, curiously propelled by prophecies of their future "imperial"

arrived

dynastic seat at Tetzcoco on the less-inhabited eastern side.

Tetzcoco was destined to become the second most important

uncouth and dangerous squatters and were soon violently

and

city in the basin

ing the Aztec empire.

major partner, with Tenochtitlan,

The

tled the volcanic peninsula dividing the

more properly

the Aztecs,

Today the term Aztec of the valley is

different

last to arrive

generically applied to

with

ethnicities, itself.

episodes

the

origins to

some communities antedating is a com-

The Mexica -Aztec migration legend

and

posite of stories assembled long after they arrived

not

are

sequential,

settled;

expressed

are

facts

Chapultepec,

persed

the

Mexica-Aztecs were seen

primitive

nearby Tepanec chieftains of Tlacopan

by the

as dis-

and

Azcapotzalco. The tribe begged protection from the Acolhua lords of Culhuacan,

who

granted them land

old lava flows by

the brackish shore of Lake Tetzcoco. Courageously, the outcasts

adapted to the inhospitable environment and began serving as the peoples

all

episode of Mesoamerican history, but

in this last

Teotihuacan

were

called the Mexica-Aztecs.

remember that the many towns traced

well to

build-

southern and central

was Culhuacan. The

basin; their principal city

group was the Acolhua, who set-

third

tribe

the Valley of Mexico around 1300. Settling by springs

valley during the thirteenth century, eventually establishing a

warriors

petty wars between Culhuacan and

Soon they were trading

frogs, fowl,

fish,

its

neighbors.

and produce

the

marketplace and began to intermarry, but the Culhuacan chieftains perceived a future threat

and the Mexica-Aztecs were

again violently forced to

time to the unclaimed marshy

flee, this

islands offshore. The circumstances

were humiliating, and

legend was proclaimed to explain the foundation

later years a

was

metaphoric terms, and there are magical and fabulous events

of Tenochtitlan as the fulfillment of a sacred vision:

that cannot be explained historically. The story says that the

that long before, Huitzilopochtli had prophesied that an eagle

Aztecs originally lived on an island

a lake far to

the north.

perched on

wandering

second group, known as the Mexica,

to have witnessed this hallowed sign

Huitzilopochtli. tion legend

The most

vivid

by the chieftain

event associated with the migra-

the magical birth of Huitzilopochtli at Coatepetl

(Serpent Mountain),

in a

remote, mythical time.

It is

said that an

summit of the mountain was

earth temple at the

aged

priestess, Coatlicue, a

dess.

She

kept by an

metaphoric name for the earth god-

woman, named the

described as the mother of a powerful

Coyolxauhqui, and

host of warriors, collectively

should

tribe

A branch

beds.

said

nopal cactus would signal the place where the

After departing from this island, they were soon joined by a led

settle;

sure enough, the leaders were said

amid the desolate reed-

of the tribe established themselves on another

island,

nearby to the north, where the future town of Tlatelolco

would

flourish before

forcible incorporation into the larger

its

urban zone of Tenochtitlan during the fifteenth century.

From the outset, the refugees made the best of

women lake

established a marketplace, while the

it.

men gleaned

and continued to serve as occasional warriors

The the

for locally

Centzon (Four Hundred) Huitznaua. Coatlicue was sweeping the

quarreling warlords. By the end of the fourteenth century, the

when she was impregnated by a ball of feathers from the sky. This was the supernatural conception of

ascendant

shrine one day

Huitzilopochtli.

Coyolxauhqui,

and

kill

their

Her

pregnancy

who summoned

threatened

the

outraged

the Huitznaua to assault the

dishonored mother. However, one of the Huitznaua

ran to whisper of the

impending attack to Huitzilopochtli

mother's womb. As the Huitzilopochtli

enemy

force

was suddenly born

Wielding a xiuhcoatl

(fire

reached

in his

the summit,

invincible

warrior.

serpent, or ray of the sun), he dis-

patched Coyolxauhqui, whose dismembered body rolled to the base of the mountain. The Huitznaua his

hill

down

were scattered with

spearthrower and darts. Eventually, this story became the

Mexica-Aztec hero myth and would find powerful symbolic expression

the

fierce

imagery of the Templo Mayor

Tenochtitlan.

The Mexica-Aztecs wandered across the sere tablelands of north Central Mexico, hunting and gathering yet also some-

Mexica-Aztecs were fatefully bound as tribute payers to the Azcapotzalco. There, the tlatoani Tezozomoc,

city of

a ruler of ruthless genius,

region since the

fall

was

building the first empire in the

of Toltec Tula, using flattery, bribery, assas-

and treachery, combined with acute military strategy,

sination,

to break the balance of

towns of the nities as a

valley.

power among the contentious small

Requiring warriors from defeated

commu-

form of tribute payment, he also motivated them by

offering part of the spoils of conquest. The Mexica-Aztecs participated

Tezozomoc's campaigns and learned new

intimidation, statecraft, ticeship

ended

and

levels of

military organization. Their appren-

1426 when Tezozomoc died; the

ruler Itzcoatl

of Tenochtitlan, prince Netzahualcoyotl of Tetzcoco, and the dissident Tepanec

ruler

Tlaluacpan of Tlacopan successfully

rebelled, laid claim to the empire,

and

1428

set out to extend

their conquests. First

they secured the agricultural southern lake district and

Following pages: after 1521.

Map

of Siguenza. from the Codex Ramirez,

;

•«*•• «

•

^ r< i

J -

f»-

• ••»

.f-

;

MMua -•<;

S »

• i

* '

"T ./.N

•»&•*

ift i.

* .••• • ••••

liar'

*»:

•*

>•

s ft

•

«~«

••

I.• <>••

•

4JB N

** ~*f»»

.»

fel

Wfc*

initiated the

long-term conversion of marshland into a zone of

chinampas (from

intensively productive raised-field

fence of cane). These plots of digging a grid of canals

first

chinamitl,

farmland were made by

fertile

the shallow marsh, then fencing

the resulting rectangles with cane walls and stakes. The enclo-

sures were

filled

ing platforms

above water

gave the

vegetal matter, creat-

the adjacent canals, the raised

The attendance of

lesser

was

and pre-

also required, as this tended to consolidate control

vent thoughts of insurrection and rebellion. Lesser lords were further obliged to pay

and to

homage

to their ruler

them with men and supplies

assist

on state occasions war.

the time of turmoil and rapid change between the late

1420s and 1460s, as Aztec society grew increasingly diverse with residents from different ethnic groups bringing regional

gardens.

illusion of floating

relations.

lords or their children in the courts of their respective capitals

Each plot measured some 100

level.

by 10 meters. From canoes fields

mud and

with layers of

through networks of blood

Spheres of influence and rights of conquest were established by the allied leaders for their respective cities.

Schedules

customs and

Netzahualcoyotl

mores,

1431-72) devised standardized

of Tetzcoco

laws governing

(reigned

the

diverse

payments from subjected communities were

groups. These laws favored the rule of the state, establishing

affirmed, Tenochtitlan and Tetzcoco each receiving 40 percent

order by defining behavior and responsibilities through punish-

tribute

for

of the spoils

and Tlacopan, the junior member, receiving the

ments

to be

meted out with

Rules prescribed

strict impartiality.

remaining 20 percent. The aims of conquest were unlike those

exclusive and

of Old World empires,

and were mechanically applied with no regard

that the Aztecs did not primarily seek

permanently garrison troops

to incorporate territory or to

conquered lands; if

aim was to obtain tribute by intimidation

their

possible or by force

and punitive retribution

conquest campaigns began extending

far

necessary. The

beyond the Valley of

Mexico, south into the Valley of Cuernavaca, east and northeast

and southwest over the mountains

to the tropical Gulf Coast,

concrete solutions for specific types of disputes

circumstances. Yet

judged

was apparent

so strictly a legalist manner;

was necessary

certain traditional tribal aspects of justice,

widely

notions

held

new codes

Nevertheless, the

handed out

reasonable

to keep

which held no

prescriptions for crime and punishment but

according

for mitigating

that not everything could be

rigid

justice

behavior.

controlled judges, curbed corrup-

deep into Oaxaca. A pattern was established, to be followed by

tion

successive warrior-rulers throughout the fifteenth century and

the courts while limiting the influence of dissident lords. The

into the reign of

Motecuhzoma

(reigned

502-20). By the late

1430s and into the 1440s, wealth poured into the

a regular basis, enabling the rulers

riors to build

allied capitals

and high-ranking war-

impressive establishments with elaborate courts

through the use of labor and materials from

their tributary vas-

and other abuses of power, and increased the efficiency of

legal

system thus contributed to the breakdown of old

society

and

built greater

tralized state authority.

this period,

(reigned

from

tribal

regimentation and submission to cen-

On many levels, the great rulers during and Motecuhzoma of Tenochtitlan

Itzcoatl

1427-40 and 1440-69,

respectively) to Netzahualcoyotl

round of agricultural and state cere-

of Tetzcoco and the lesser lords of Tlacopan, were taking control

monies, which began to be held with increasing ostentation,

of the resources of a vast landscape, distributing goods within

public display, and

their hierarchy,

and providing

sals,

for the

ceremonial gift giving.

Already, the old society, with

its

communal

traditional

elders participated

was changing as new, emerging. As the

conquered directly

stratified

commanded income from power

lands, they also acquired the

for

the

from

whose

socioeconomic classes began

to influence or

decisions and set policy goals, diminishing

the governing role of the calpullis.

(clans)

an egalitarian form of decision making,

rising military class

make major

ted,

structure of Mexica -Aztec

tribal

system of calpullis

rulers

derived

their erstwhile

A form their

of aristocracy already

legitimacy

antagonists

having

Culhuacan, that

the prince Acamapichtli (of mixed Mexica and Culhua descent) serve as their tlatoani

1375. The royal family of Culhuacan

their personal

The immense, thriving market of Tenochtitlan was located Tlatelolco, the

larger

city

town

forcibly incorporated as a district

during the reign of Axayactl (reigned

had long attracted

local

producer-vendors due to the easy

o' â&#x20AC;˘'

sphere.

those

commanders thus became bond-

with lead

lies

ibling

them

of principal to

maim.

also

the valley by lines of porters led by the long-distance traders called pochteca.

Pochteca acted as agents

as independent traders, dealing

and turquoise, exotic

furs,

in tropical

ignated wards

under

their

in Tlatelolco.

own

was

for

inherited

lived in

des-

Pochteca administered the market A/tec capitals to

where warehouses were

route led to the Gulf Coast and

and

making the beverage and they

legal system, hails linked the

distant ports of trade

of Guatemala,

for the nobility

feathers, greenstones

copper and obsidian, cotton gar-

chocolate. Their occupation

means

was

luxury merchandise brought far from the confines of

Concentration of power was also accomplished by the Tlacopan by

the

1469-81).

transportation of goods over the lake by canoe. There trade

most famous market

Vividly described in Spanish accounts, this

ments, and cacao beans and vanilla

power and that of

their nations.

'ned descent from an old Toltec lineage.

ndant rulers of Ten-

and extending

its rivers,

kept.

One major

into the Peten region

to the Caribbean coast of Honduras.

|li

l, ill

ill

tin

Another

Mum

ill

li/nc.

^ tm

route

down

led

and

Oaxaca

across

Isthmus

the

Tehuantepec, to Xoeonochco on the Pacific shore of Guatemala. Traders

probably also

reached

Queretaro, Zacatecas, and

turquoise

sources

pochteca were not

north

to mining

districts

Durango, perhaps even as

Cerrillos,

a rising

New

Mexico.

far

However,

forces of nature

assumed profound

functions of rulers and their priests were

the

critical in

through

sacrificial

rites,

the regularity of the seasons, the pro-

improve economically but could not

states

higher social posifor social,

and economic advance.

The land and

quest were not the only determining factors shaping Aztec society.

The force of an ancient worldview and

â&#x20AC;˘ssion also

its

powerful

maintained Aztec cultural, economic, and social

cohesion. Since remote times, the rhythm of Mesoamerican

had been embedded annual cycle of

rain

farming people as

the land and the changing seasons. The

and drought determined the

nee,

essential to regulating ent.

activities of

had for the hunter-gatherers long before.

Obtaining food went hand

and regular

life

hand with

a sense of pei

and calendrical observations were

human par

the natural envi-

The interaction of the community with the deified

and animals, and the

well-being of their communities throughout the year. In

Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco, Tlacopan, and elsewhere, artists,

and choreographers of

architects,

of designing a

ritual

these ancient cosmological themes

and

their

were assigned the task

new, distinctive visual vocabulary to express in

terms of the Aztec

city-

was correspondingly

Tenochtitlan

interests.

planned as a cosmic diagram, with four avenues leading to the cardinal directions, the east-west line

resources and income from trade and con-

its

maintaining

these relationships, for they were traditionally obliged to ensure,

ductivity of the land, the fertility of crops

remained the principal avenue

and

commoners below the nobility. The Aztec market system linked many sectors and regions within a highly commercialized economy, yet it was not wholly a capitalist system: there was no wage labor, land was rarely bought and sold, and investment by nobility or wealthy commoners was limited to pochteca expeditions. Commoners and merchants could

political,

ritually

cities

through selected features of the surrounding landscape. Religious

zation of high-ranking

tions; the military

middle class but a guildlike organi-

rise to

was

significance and

affirmed through festivals held at sacred places

assuming

special impor-

tance as a reflection of the daily passage of the sun. The great ritual precinct in

defined the middle, with the Templo Mayor rising

four great tiers as an axis

and the underworld region.

mundi between the sky, the earth, the reign of Motecuhzoma

pyramid was notably enlarged, following adding a new outer

layer.

re of

The pyramid was a dual structure with

the symbolic configuration of twin sacred mountains. The (north) half stood as the

left

"mountain of sustenance," supporting

the temple of the rain god Tlaloc, representing the seasonal for-

mation of right

half

rain clouds

on the mountains rimming the

represented

Huitzilopochtli's

mythical

valley.

The

mountain

Coatepetl and supported the temple of the deified hero.

Two

wide stairways on the west facade ples

led to

the side-by-side tem-

on the upper platform of the pyramid. At the foot of the

stairway on the Huitzilopoehtli side, bered Coyolxauhqui

walk by this fearful

was

monument on

sacrificed. Their blood

power of the looming,

sculpture of the

dismem-

prisoners were obliged to

their

was intended fetishlike

War

placed.

way up the

to fertilize

stairs to be

and increase the

pyramid mountain. During one

of the later renovations of the pyramid (date unknown), a colos-

head of Coyolxauhqui carved

sal

the

theme of Coatepetl was very

green diorite was added. Yet

old

Mesoamerica and was

certainly adapted into the Aztec symbolic vocabulary as

the ways

which they signaled

power and prestige of the

their position as heirs to the

commemo-

monuments. The Stone of Tizoc and Ahuitzotl portrays the

deceased Tizoc (reigned 1481-86) on the

left,

confronting his

cial

temple

within

Tenochtitlan. Yet

all

life,

pierces his ear, the blood flowing into the

open mouth of the

date 8 Reed (1486), of

when

Ahuitzotl

assumed

office.

power was thus consecrated and confirmed by

ing the earth,

and the earth

itself

The passage

ritually feed-

was simultaneously claimed

As the

allied capitals

sans, traders,

grew cosmopolitan with incoming

arti-

diplomatic delegations, and others from client

Views of Malinalco.

fire;

wind, and groundwater;

rain,

was the

Some

of their cult names,

deified sun, a primary source

The earthly

representative

of the

sun

was

fire,

Huehueteotl, whose annual midnight renewal was celebrated by being

fire

kindled

the

Huixachtecatl before being brought

summit of the

down

ners to relight the temples and hearths basin. Tlaloc

was the

cities

summon

tall

festival, in late

made

Tlaloc,

effigy of Tlaloc, enthroning sacrifices

and spread out

clouds

rain

highland mountains.

May

or early June,

was

a pilgrimage to the

remote shrine

where they ceremonially dressed an him as

sacred tlatoani, and

made

a great feast offering of food. This rite

was immediately followed by Lake Tetzcoco. Ehecatl

the towns of the

the rainy season: four rulers from the

of the valley

on the top of Mount

in all

named because

summit of the

most important

designed to

main

deity of rain, so

called

hill

by torch-bearing run-

that of Chalchiuhtlicue, the god-

dess of groundwater, at a shrine marked out

the Aztec empire.

spe-

precinct

often depicted as a solar disk with rays to the cardinal

directions.

Tlaloc's

earth between the rulers. The large cartouche below has the

in a

these deities reflected the worship of the

Nahuatl, follow. Tonatiuh

ceremonial

principal

earth and the fertility of plants.

They stand on

Twin

the

forces of nature: sun and

take form upon the

a strip representing the face of the earth.

custom of housing

sacred effigies and the ritual bundles of subject nations

successor-brother Ahuitzotl (reigned 1486-1502) on the right.

incense burners rest on the ground before them. Each tlatoani

peoples also arrived and found

the program of annual festivals. The protean vari-

ety of these diverse cults reflected the Aztec

new

past.

Cosmic themes were also expressed by imperial rative

one of

many

nations, the deities of

expression

was the wind

the middle of

that sweeps

gusts and claps of thunder, bringing curtains of

down rain.

with

one

M .

was represented wearing the

guise, he

of an aquatic bird,

bill

name

suggesting the swift flight of wind-borne water; another

was

associated with these forces

Quetzalcoatl, alluding to the

symbol of royalty and

long, iridescent-green quetzal feather, a

name

was

Quetzalcoatl

or legendary heroes

a giver

tually claims

all

life,

the source of

was

Coatlicue

fertility,

that grows or walks on

its

effigies of Coatlicue often display skulls or feet. Tlaltecuhtli

was another

was Tonantzin. Among the xilotl,

war as

well

Aztecs

summer

woman

and

times,

also even-

tivals

was

September rainy season

of a cycle of

life,

was

She

essential.

holding the

many

tender

first

other deities

performers at

ritually attired

city.

principally keyed to the

for planting, cultivating,

June through

and harvest,

and war. The year was thus seen

were also linked to the annual which

rulers

were

Coronation

lar.

terms

death, and renewal. As a matter of course, rites

of passage marking transitions

individual

cycle. In

initiated into office

rites

and

collective

Aztec society, the

life

rites

were the most spectacu-

encompassed vast

resources,

mobilized

hundreds of thousands of people, and unfolded over several

months of elaborate pageantry with solemn ceremonies, and the giving of

withdrew on the

royal

gifts.

From the

outset,

when

feasts,

the ruler-elect

ceremonial retreat, to his public investment with to

regalia,

the coronation

war,

the bestowing

emblems of office, and the victory sacrifices of prisoners, the new warrior-king followed the mythic model of the archetype hero

Huitzilopochtli

slaying

doubt, the vast apparatus of

formance created determining role

and

enemies on Coatepetl. Without art,

architecture,

and

ritual

at the imperial capitals played a central in

per-

and

maintaining the cohesion of Aztec society

state.

When

the Mexica-Aztecs and their neighbors migrated into the

Valley of Mexico, they were determined to win a place for selves in that

fertile,

luminous

setting.

Many

them-

factors contributed

to the subsequent rise of their empire: the role of imaginative

and forceful

rulers; the

for ritual

reciprocity

which

toward the

way

never

life.

But for

outgrew

really

all

these integrating features, the

their

predatory instincts. They

enriched themselves principally by capturing wealth with the

menace

of violent retribution. Within the expansive

empire building, there existed

a great

dynamic of

and constant mass of

dis-

war but not those of government. So on that November day

and to the lengthy dry season that followed, which was the time for long-distance trade

answered the need

clawed hands and

the cities of the Valley of Mexico, the annual cycle of fesof these deities

manner of Tula and Teotihuacan centuries

affection and antagonism. The Aztecs had mastered the arts of

Aztec sculptors fashioned as permanent effigies of the gods the temples and shrines of the

the

surface; hence the

these attired impersonators that the

doll)

season. These and

were impersonated by masked and festival

deities of vegetation, Xilonen (from

tender ear of maize, and nenen,

green corn of the

but

the deified earth, as

ritual title for

took the form of an adolescent

an obedient and fanatical population inured to bloodshed and

deity by virtue of their closeness to the earth's surface. The earth

not only

sacrifice

represented. Serpents, spiders, and centipedes were signs of this

Tolteca

sun, water, earth, and food sources, while also serving to create

among which

titles,

new

before; and the unifying force of their cosmovision,

of ruler-

title

ancient Mexico. The earth, conceived

many

female terms, had

far-reaching system of trade; the idea of making themselves

the

also associated with historical

the sweeping, flowing force of wind and water. ship, the

extension of tribute networks through

force of arms; the creation of a firm agricultural

base; the

proclamation of laws favoring the centralized rule of the state;

1519,

when

meet Motecuhzoma

the causeway to Tenochtitlan,

and

many their

upheaval was set 1521 was as

lost in

the entrance of

subject or threatened people felt a tremor;

the events that followed, they

and reclaim

the Spanish and allied Tlaxcalan warriors crossed

pride,

saw the chance

property,

to arise

and power. A seismic

motion. The collapse of the Aztec empire

much an

Indian revolt as

was

Spanish conquest.

The Provinces I of the Aztec Empire /nun

WAS

THE AZTEC EMPIRE

es I

Berdan

THE LAST OF THE GREAT MESOAMERICAN EXPANSIONIST POLITIES,

dominating Central Mexico from 1430

conquest by the Spaniards

until its

1521. Fundamentally, the empire reflected older Mesoamerican political patterns.

was

built

were

capitals

on widespread city-state organizations. The three imperial

were likewise city-states of varying

Mesoamerica throughout volatile, political

matic

rise

and

and the bodies they conquered

at the center of city-states,

all

and military

fall

its

sizes

history

relations.

and power.

was characterized by dynamic, even was

a region that experienced the dra-

of city-states and of empires. The fluidity of the political

sit-

uation cannot be overemphasized. City-states fighting each other to the death

one year might have been

relatively

amicable

experienced unpromising beginnings could cal entity. This

Aztecs,

the next.

develop into

who began

city-state that

powerful

politi-

as poor mercenaries

comparatively young city-state yet emerged as military head of the

a small,

largest

was the case with the

allies

still

empire

Mexica, as these

The capital

city of the

people called themselves, was the huge and

impressive

Mesoamerica's pre-Hispanic

Tenochtitlan, which had as

many

history.

as 250,000 inhabitants

1519,

when

the

Spaniards arrived.

The Valley of Mexico was the setting In

for the

emergence of

the early fifteenth century the valley's strongest polity

this great empire.

was Azcapotzalco,

the west of Lake Tetzcoco. The death of that city-state's ruler

subsequent bickering between

his

1428 and the

power-hungry sons offered the Mexica of

Tenochtitlan an irresistible opportunity. They joined with their neighbors, the

Acolhua of Tetzcoco, and conquered the divided Azcapotzalco. By adding the Tepaneca of Tlacopan as

Now

widely

known

allies,

they established the powerful Triple Alliance.

as the Aztec empire, this Triple Alliance began almost

immediately to overwhelm

its

neighbors

already making aggressive military

When

the Spaniards arrived,

the

the Valley of Mexico. By 1450

moves against alliance

city-states

controlled

beyond the

thirty-eight

was

basin.

tributary

provinces and had established asymmetrical, clientlike relations with city-states in

another twenty-three provincial regions. The client states were located

some distance from

the imperial core and effectively served to insulate the trib-

utary provinces, which were closer to Tenochtitlan and

its allies.

To further their wars of conquest, the Aztecs offered valuable economic and social rewards, tle

such as elaborately decorated capes and specially designed bat-

costumes, to inspire their warriors

unclear

opposition forces were motivated by similar reward arrangements.)

addition, they

n e

ferocious hand-to-hand combat,

were usually capable of amassing

nple Alliance

larger armies than their ene-

norated warriors from already conquered

â&#x20AC;˘

tai

with

procession of warriors ca

200- 1521

TRIBUTARY PROVINCES OF THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE

TRIBUTARY REGIONS

TRIPLE ALLIANCE

The North

Oxitipa,

{Codex Mendoza,

Luis Potosi

Tuchpan, Veracruz

Atlan, Puebla (folio 31)

folio 57)

(folio 30)

Atotonilco, Hidalgo (folio 10)

Tlapacoyan, Puebla

Acolman/Acolhuacan, State of Mexico

(folio 28) (folio 5)

The Ancient Tepaneca Empire

II.

Tetzcoco

San

Tziuhcoac, Veracruz (folio 32)

Xilotepec, State of

Axocopan, Hidalgo

Mexico

(folio 11)

(folio 29)

State oe

Mexico

Tlacopan Federal District

10. Atotonilco

â&#x20AC;¢

Mexico-Tenochtitlan

de Pedraza, Hidalgo

(folio 30)

Xocotitlan, State of Mexico (folio

Hueypochtlan, State of Mexico

(folio 9)

Federal District 13.

Quahuacan, State of Mexico

14.

Quauhtitlan, State of Mexico (folio 8)

(folio

Tlatlauhquitepec, Puebla (folio 29)

Cuauhtochco, Veracruz

(folio 26)

Cuetlaxtla, Veracruz (folio 27)

Tochtepec, Oaxaca

(folio 48)

The Heart of the Empire

IV.

19 Citlaltepec, State of

Mexico

(folio 17)

20. Petlacalco, State of

Mexico

(folio 4)

Mexico-Tlatelolco, Federal District (folio 3)

TheTarascan Frontier

22. Tolloacan, State of Mexico (folio 23. Ocuyllan, State of

Mexico

24. Malinalco, State of

(folio

Mexico

25. Tlachco, Guerrero (folio

(folio

4) 1

26. Tepecoacuilco, Guerrero (folio 17) 27. Cihuatlan, Guerrero (folio 18)

The Southwest

VI.

28. Chalco, State of Mexico (folio 21)

Cuauhnahuac, Morelos

29.

30. Huaxtepec,

Morelos

(folio 6)

(folio 7)

31. Tlalcozauhtitlan, Guerrero (folio 20)

Quiyauhteopan, Guerrero

32.

VII.

(folio 20)

The Mixteca-Zapoteca Zone

33. Tepeyacac, Puebla (folio 22)

ihualtepec, Oaxaca (folio 20) 35. Coaxtlahuacan,

Oaxaca

36 Tlauhpan, Guerrero 37. Tlaxiaco,

Oaxaca

(folio

38 Coyolapan, Oaxaca 39.

(folio 23)

(folio 19)

47)

(folio 24)

Xoconochco, Chiapas

(folio 25)

distant campaigns,

providing substantial rewards for their participation as well. This

was one important

from within the Valley of Mexico)

city-states (most

way

its

which conquered city-states within and near the Valley of Mexico were more

and goals than were

closely integrated into the Triple Alliance's imperial structure

farther-flung provinces. Imperial

mented

goals were predominantly economic, and the alliance's rulers imple-

and

a variety of military

A primary aim was

political strategies to control a vast array of resources.

the assurance of a regular and predictable flow of utilitarian and

luxury goods into the three imperial capitals. Diverse resources were provided by the tributary provinces brought into the imperial

these

goods-such as shimmering

web through

tropical feathers,

military conquest.

Some

adornments of precious stones,

decorated clothing, and cacao-enhanced the sumptuous

lifestyle

of the ruling

othersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; especially massive quantities of staple foodstuffs-supplied the

elite;

with a

cities

hedge against possible famine. As the empire expanded, rulers. Early

rial

conquests

a greater variety of

goods became available to the impe-

highland regions yielded tribute such as bins of maize

and beans, maguey-fiber clothing, honey, and wood products. Later conquests land zones provided stones, gold, cacao,

payment

and jaguar

low-

cotton and cotton clothing, precious feathers and

skins,

among

other goods. Almost

all

provinces turned

over feathered warriors' costumes; highland peoples would have had to import the tropical feathers to

meet these demands. The

institution of imperial tribute practices

therefore would have stimulated, or at least sustained, established trading patterns.

The Aztec imperial powers developed another significant strategy to achieve their

economic goals when, instead of outright conquest, they established tions with outlying areas. These resembled alliances, yet the clearly asymmetrical; this rulers.

their clients

clients

system was more efficient and inexpensive

was understood, however, if

tribute. Clients

gifts, reflecting a

reciprocal

arrangement than the payment of

were also expected to provide the essential service of protection.

was

located along an important trade route,

Aztec merchants on their dangerous treks; it

for the imperial

that the Aztec powers could at any time conquer

served their economic and military purposes. The Aztecs and the

exchanged

client city-state

clientlike rela-

power relationships were

if it

was

warfare with the

enemy

territory,

assured the safety of

situated close to a critical resource,

protected that resource for the empire; and, most commonly,

adjacent to an unconquered

a client city-state lay

maintained the border through intermittent

that frontier zone. Combined, these requirements relieved

the Aztecs of the need to directly protect and sustain trade routes, critical resources,

and

tended to insulate the

volatile imperial borders. Additionally, the client states

trib-

utary provinces from incursions by long-standing enemies.

The empire as a whole was loosely organized. in

In strategic

provinces, and typically

tributary provinces, local city-state rulers retained their right to rule even after being

incorporated into the imperial net. This hegemonic arrangement continued as long as tributary obligations lectors

were met and the city-states refrained from

were usually stationed

and garrisons had

A more

conquered regions;

less

rebellion. Tribute col-

commonly, Aztec governors

to be installed.

subtle imperial strategy involved establishing marriage bonds between

imperial rulers

and the

ruling

houses of conquered or

client

city states.

arrangements, any offspring would carry royal legitimacy from both imperial and

Page

these local

1541

heritages.

future ruler from such a pairing would be enculturated with loyalties to

the imperial powers, while also enjoying local support.

The

Triple Alliance

city-states into

economic and participation

political

its

social

empire thus employed several strategies for integrating outlying

web and achieving

were

elite

formed

marriages between imperial and

emperor Motecuhzoma

client relations with city-states that

II,

rebellions,

who

resources quelling revolts

ruled in

local ruling

encouraged by

loose structure. The Mexica a great deal of his mil-

already conquered provinces. These were sparked

addition, the empire's military energies

clusive battles with

its

and they

houses. Nonetheless, the

from 1502 to 1520, spent

part by the annoying presence of tribute collectors In

They provided

goals.

the Valley of Mexico for their

strategic positions to aid the empire in protecting critical areas;

empire experienced numerous

itary

economic in

distant military conquests; they established tributary provinces that

paid specified and scheduled tribute; they

arranged

its

rewards to conquered peoples

and the draining tribute payments.

were devoted to fighting recurring, incon-

unconquered enemies, such as the Tlaxcalteca. Under these varied

pressures, the empire had probably reached

its

maximum

expansion by the time of the

Spanish Conquest.

A-

Âť c

> it

-V

The Population of the Mexico and Toluca Valleys IWI,i\â&#x20AC;&#x17E;ll,

Pen

THE SUCCESSIVE ARRIVAL OF TRIBES MIGRATING TO THE VALLEY OF MEXICO CONFIGURED A

human geography

during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

NEW

the north-

west, the Chichimeca and Acolhua, tribes of hunter-gatherers, began to settle in

the extensive territory of Acolhuacan, where they engaged

intertribal skirmishes.

such as Huexotla, Papalotla, and Tepetlaoztoc, while the important. They constructed

increasingly

expand cultivation

continuous

These peoples subsequently founded other urban centers city of

Tetzcoco became

noteworthy hydraulic systems to

the plains near the lakeshores and

the highlands near

the mountains bordering the valleys of Puebla and Tlaxcala. During Netzahualcoyotl's reign, its

Acolhuacan was considered an advanced cultural center because of

achievements

the arts and literature, specialized crafts, and the construc-

tion of public works.

had also

up considerable

built

quering far-off provinces to the east of the

military power, con-

Along with the Mexica of

valley.

make

Tenochtitlan and the Tepaneca of Tlacopan, the Acolhua would eventually

up the

Triple Alliance.

The Tepaneca reached the valley during the thirteenth century, occupying southern sites such as Tacubaya and Coyoacan, around the same time as the Otomi,

who

settled

various northern areas.

toward Xaltocan, the Tepaneca occupied

When

the Otomi retreated

territory to the north

and west of the

Valley of Mexico, disregarding the prior occupation of these areas, especially

who had come from Teotihuacan. among the Nahua

Azcapotzalco and Tlacopan, by people

Bernardino de Sahagun considered the Tepaneca to be peoples centers

who came from Chicomoztoc. They soon conquered both

beyond

and

within

the

neighboring urban

valleyâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Cuauhtitlan,

Xaltocan,

and

Tepozotlan to the north and Cuitlahuac and Chalco to the far south of the lake

area-and established

their

capital

who

Azcapotzalco. The Aztecs,

and seat of government

settled

on the

the city of

island within the lake,

were sub-

jugated by the Tepaneca, forced to pay tribute to them and serve as warriors in their

battles of conquest. The

Tepaneca controlled most of the valley

eral decades during the fourteenth century, and

fifteenth century that the Aztecs gained their

war against Azcapotzalco

was not

until

for sev-

the early

freedom and participated

the

which the Tepaneca were conquered.

According to the Memorial de Culhuacan, the Culhua settled on the lake on a site near Huixachtecatl,

founding of Culhuacan

known today

as Cerro de

believed to have taken place

The

Estrella (Star

the twelfth century, by

Hill).

which time Xochimilco and Tacubaya were already populated. Other important nearby Culhua urban centers were Ixtapalapan, Mexicaltzingo, and Huitzilo pochco, agricultural towns that also produced of Tolteca emigrated

Mexico settled

When

salt

various directions; those

After the

who

fall

of Tula, groups

reached the Valley of

such places as Chapultepec, Culhuacan, and Huitzilopochco.

the Aztecs reached the valley

the last stage of their peregrinations,

143. Serpent warrioi M.jtl.il/mrj. ca

'*W

"^-SSpif^^fc:

&sm^ma •^x^

***&-*

V»H

AN 7.'i

t.M •

..V;!

^££

they were unable to find a suitable territory at Chapultepec, they

which to

were subjects of Culhuacan for

settle. After

New

founded. Every fifty-two years, they held the ceremony of the with important

Estrella,

rites

being defeated

was

a time, until Tenochtitlan Fire

on Cerro de

that helped maintain the status of the Culhua

among

the

four peoples that were heirs of the Toltec culture.

The Cuitlahuaca and the Mixquica settled respectively,

each located on a different

the towns of Cuitlahuac and Mixquic,

of land between lakes Chalco and

strip

Xochimilco. For the most part, these were insular settlements, with the advantage of

being located

chinampo area with

in a

culture. Although both

tribes

spoke Nahuatl, they were from different ethnic groups

and had different customs and forms of government: formed

ters

was

when

Alliance

Itzcoatl in the fifteenth

expand

their territory.

century and were

The two peoples were

paying tribute to the Triple

still

the Spanish conquistadores arrived.

The Xochimilca were one pated

manage

and although the Cuitlahuaca made some

tinually skirmished with their neighbors,

conquered by

Cuitlahuac, four urban cen-

Both the Mixquica and the Cuitlahuaca con-

a sole tlatoani (ruler).

limited conquests, they did not

governed by their four representatives, while

a single organization

Mixquic, there

adequate for intensive agri-

irrigation canals

group of Nahuatl speakers who

tribe in a larger

the migrations, leaving from Aztlan and finally settling

partici-

Xochimilco. This

urban center had a large territory that extended southeast from the shores of the fresh-water lake bordered by Coyoacan on the west and Cuitlahuac and Chalco on the east.

power extended south beyond the

Its

subject towns. The

first

Xochimilca settlement

agriculture, Xochimilco

numerous

the valley, requiring

flotillas

Olac,

and Tecpan, with numerous subject

fifteenth century;

town was

when

its

contribution to the develop-

was considered the greatest food

of canoes to transport

was organized

or altepetl (city-state), Xochimilco

and several

the region dated back to the tenth

century, after which time they migrated. Because of

ment of chinampa

and

to Totolapan, Tlayacapan,

lakes,

Yecapixtla, an area that included lakeside chinampas, highland forests,

its

goods. As

supplier a

town

into three urban centers: Tepetenchi,

districts.

was conquered by

the Spanish conquistadores arrived

Itzcoatl in the

the Valley of Mexico the

Tenochtitlan tributary.

The Chalca were next to arrive

the Valley of Mexico after the Xochimilca.

According to the Anales de Cuauhtitlan, they

left

Xico

1150 to found Chalco; the

seventeenth-century Nahua historian Domingo Chimalpahin confirms this event but

does not specify the

year.

The Chalca settled well to the southeast of Lake Chalco,

stretch of land near the Sierra tribes

from other regions,

political

Nevada volcanoes. Due

their ethnic

makeup was

to the

continuous

very complex; similarly, their

organization required numerous administrative categories and levels of gov-

ernment. Their economy balanced an exploitation of the tivation of

chinampas with

was

local trade. This

lake's

resources and the cul-

carried out at the four major urban

centers-Amaquemecan, Tlalmanalco, Chimalhuacan, and Tenanco-and

was conducted with other

cities in the valley. In 1445,

Chalco, a battle that would continue for ing

in a

arrival of

more than twenty

on the participation of other ethnic groups

external trade

Motecuhzoma declared war on years, with the rulei

the Valley of Mexico to aid

it-ly-

in his

conquests. After their defeat, the Chalca were subjugated by Tenochtitlan, living under

Mexica military rule

until the

Spanish Conqu<

The Otomi settled not only Cuauhtitlan, but also

urban centers such as Xaltocan, Otumba, and

other locations around the Valley of Mexico: to the north,

the Teotlalpan region; to the west,

the Sierra de las Cruces, a

wooded

the valleys of Mexico and Toluca (Cuauhtlalpan); and to the east, region,

which borders the Valley of

Tlaxcala.

Otomi also

lived side

area between

the Acolhuacan

by side with Nahua

-w

>*Â£; 4

peoples

other populated areas of the valley:

Tlacopan (Taeuba), Tacubaya, and the

area between Tacubaya and Coyoaean. Other Otomi centers developed

the Sierra de Guadalupe and to the east,

assumed that ward city

after the

into the Valley of

of Tula

fall

the thirteenth century, the Otomi migrated east-

Mexico and settled

whose hegemony extended

the towns of

the mountain ranges near Tetzcoco.

Xaltocan, which

came

to be an important

east to the Sierra de Puebla and Meztitlan. In the

following century, however, Azcapotzalco attacked and conquered Xaltocan, which

became

Tepanec dependency, and Azcapotzalco's growing power

led to the decline

who spoke

of other sites settled by Otomi. The language of these settlers,

not Nahuatl

but Otomi, belonged to the Otomi/Pame linguistic family. Although they were considered underdeveloped by contemporary tribes, they did practice seasonal agriculture as

and gathering, and they made

well as hunting, fishing,

ginal areas,

textiles

the Otomi of the Valley of Mexico lived

fibers. In 1519,

and

from cotton and tough

mountainous

regions,

mar-

Nahua towns.

The Tenochca Mexica and the Tlatelolca Mexica migrated together from Aztlan, eventually settling

same developmental textual sources

and

the Valley of Mexico. Both tribes spoke Nahuatl and were at the level in

terms of material culture and ideology, as indicated

However, once Tenochtitlan was founded

Mexica and established the island, divided

when

the Tlatelolca,

two

site

toward the north of the

some

time, during the period

nearby

a channel. For

vassals of Azcapotzalco, the

paths sharply diverged

1325, the Tlatelolca split off from the

city of Tlatelolco

from the Tenochca by just

when both were

pictorial narrations in codices as well as archaeological materials.

tribes

had

a similar history, but their

who had no government

of their own,

asked the Tepaneca to provide them with one, which initiated the Tlatelolca lineage.

Under Tepanec leadership, the battles until 1428,

when

Tlatelolca paid tribute

Tepaneca, they were forced to participate as the

famous conquest of

Finally, in

and served as warriors

Tepanec

the Triple Alliance defeated Azcapotzalco. Once freed from the in

the imperialistic plans of the Aztecs, such

Cotastla, a victory that brought

1473, Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan faced

off,

fame

to the Tlatelolca army.

and with the Tenochca victory

the Tlatelolca lost their independence and their government. The conquerors placed

them under

military rule subject to Tenochtitlan,

ple until the arrival

and they remained

subjugated peo-

of Hernan Cortes. Nonetheless, several sources praise the valor of

the Tlatelolca warriors

downfall of Tenochtitlan

defending their in

city

during the final battle that led to the

1521.

nli.HHiuJ.il In .I

1200-1521

147. Xilonen ceremonial vessel, detail

Aztec, ca.

500

i is

l L

-oT

148. Chicomccoatl ceremonial vessel

Aztec, ca.

1500

fa 149. Nappatecuhtli ceremonial vessel

Aztec, ca.

1500

The Puebla and Tlaxcala Valleys I

THE CULTURES OF THE POSTCLASSIC PERIOD EMPLOYED A religious concepts

the various elites

eronica

etdsquez

COMMON ICONOGRAPHY

and established the foundations

who

THAT FUSED

worldview shared by

for a

inhabited the region of Puebla and Tlaxcala during the

diaspora that followed the

of Teotihuacan.

fall

The valleys of Puebla-Tlaxcala are located

a temperate region, bordered by

the volcanoes Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl, and Malinaltepec. People began to settle

the area

the Preclassic period, at such sites as Las Bocas, Tlalancaleca,

and Tetimpa, which were part of vast trade networks across

Xochitecatl,

Mesoamerica. During the Postclassic period, groups from the Chichimec culture migrated

from northern Mexico. These peoples comprised

five different tribes,

mostly of

the Nahuatl language group, and, to a lesser degree, speakers of Otomi and

Popoloca. They established settlements of a ceremonial nature along the hilltop ridges of Tlaxcala and eventually created one of the

most important domains

Central Mexico.

The Tlaxcala domain, which dominated the valleys of Puebla and Tlaxcala,

was organized around

four main urban centers,

of which maintained a

all

degree of hostile autonomy from the Triple Alliance. Tlaxcala was associated at various times with Cholollan (modern Cholula) and Huexotzinco, thus forming

which developed into the most powerful and, geo-

a type of counter-alliance,

graphically, the closest

enemy

of the Triple Alliance. They also allied themselves

with the Spanish forces during the defeat of the Mexica-Aztec empire. The wars

between the Tlaxcalteca and the Tenochca Mexica continued

for a long period,

during which the former were cut off from access to a wide range of essential

goods such as cacao and

as well as luxury items such as

salt,

silver,

cotton, and

featherwork. Cholollan

was located

one of the most

an area that has been continuously inhabited It

was

also within

one of the

fertile

regions

for nearly three

Mesoamerica,

thousand

Coast with the Valley of Mexico, Tehuacan, and the Mixteca region

Made up

more than

gious center

fifty

communities, the

Mesoamerica.

years.

principal trading corridors, connecting the Gulf

city

was here that an important

worship of Quetzalcoatl developed. Cholollan, which

enormous pyramid, was governed by

Oaxaca.

was the most important cult

also

a theocracy of high priests

reli-

devoted to the

famous

for

who performed

ceremonies and undertook pilgrimages to neighboring kingdoms. Aside from ritual

importance, the city became widely

occupation for

its

known during known

lying elements of the Postclassic period.

its

the later period of

production of polychrome earthenware.

characteristic type of ceramic work, also

bols uniq

its

ritual

as laca, serves as one features idiosyncratic

that had been established over the years

Mesoamerica. Dating from the

-'nth

century (after the

fall

150 Kipr .-.,,,,

Intel I'.llll

iW *k^

v%*

>'^if/

C^r-SsW vs>.

m**j*l*

fffcr

the Toltec state), this style has been found at various

from the areas north of

sites,

Oaxaca to the south of Puebla and Chalco. Due to the formal similarities between this symbolic system and the glyphs and signs found

manuscripts such as the Codex

Borgia, this style has also been referred to as "codex type."

has been applied

murals found at Ocotelulco, Tizatlan, Tlaxcala, and Tehuacan

on the

earthenware produced

fine

extensive trade

the

was evidently

explaining

these regions. This style spread through the

Valley of Mexico.

style evolved into a useful

ious peoples seeking a dition

way

means of communicating the

to unify ethnically

interests of var-

heterogeneous communities. This

tra-

quite freely adopted, without any force or imposition, thus

presence at numerous Late Postclassic

its

demonstrated,

the

ceramics to such distant areas of Mesoamerica as the Gulf Coast,

Maya dominions, and the The codex

Viejo, Puebla, as well as

neutron

activation

analysis

As some authors have

sites.

polychrome ceramic remains has

allowed for the identification of various production centers: Huexotzinco, TizatlanOcotelulco, the Valley of Mexico, and Tehuacan. Huexotzinco

was probably the main

production area for the Puebla region.

From the evidence

retrieved,

believe that these ceramics

may have

arrived in

Tenochtitlan through trade or as payment of tributes, and that ceramic workshops

away from

were found

tinctions

iconography found on vessels originating

areas both close to and far

various regions, as well as on

common

those attributed to local workshops, they had a referred to as "international." This style

the imperial capital. Despite dis-

style,

combines the use of

red,

which has been

orange, white, and

black pigments to create frets and xicalcoliuhqui (stepped frets); zoomorphic repre-

sentations

such forms as coyotes, serpents,

and fantastic figures; the

skulls

Nahua pantheon; the eye of the

ritual

religious

nature of this ceramic work

and

political

and

night; military

or symbolic signs associated with gold, hearts,

The

rabbits, deer,

and frogs; phytomorphs

and chalchihuitl (symbols of preciousness);

deities

from

and glyphs

sacrificial motifs;

and blood.

undeniable, and

was probably employed

ceremonies. Incense burners, cups, effigy vessels, and tripod

serving bowls with animal or

mushroom-shaped supports were used

for burning

incense, drinking chocolate or pulque, or containing the blood from autosacrifice or

bloodletting ceremonies.

Based on the decorative designs found on such vessels, particularly on cups, three possible ceremonial functions have been proposed for these objects: sacrifice, indicated

by a band of plumes running along the vessels' outer surface, simulating the form of a cuauhxicalli (container for holding sacrificial blood),

drops of blood,

stellar

eyes,

and jaguar

pelts,

all

which

possible to identify

associated with the rituals of

Tezcatlipoca; sacred war, implied by the appearance of chalchihuitls, which

may

rep-

resent the vessels' intended use for drinking sacred substances such as pulque or

blood before entering into battle; and

fertility rites.

Although much remains unknown about the function of

work

Postclassic societies,

we do know

and military ceremonies, and that

this

earthenware ceramic

that such pieces were used

their decorative

both religious

iconography served as

language

unifying the elite during a period of diaspora for the peoples of Mesoamerica. This

medium allowed them to ancient family

to create a

code through which they could establish

and state lineages, thus legitimizing

affiliations

their status as rulers.

The Domain of Coatlalpan Luis Rojas Martinez

Josi

THE PRESENT-DAY CITY OF IZUCAR DE MATAMOROS, PUEBLA,

LOCATED

A REGION KNOWN

pre-Hispanic times as Coatlalpan, which translates from the Nahuatl as

the

"in

was inhabited by various

land of the serpents" or "land of serpents." This area

indigenous settlements and domains concentrated along the Nexapa River basin.

Among

the more important of these settlements were Epatlan, Tatetla,

Tepapayeca, Tlapanala, Tilapan, Itzocan),

which

described

Citela,

Colucan, and Izucar de Matamoros

(or

sixteenth-century ethnohistorical sources as the

main urban center of the Coatlalpanecas. In

regard to the cultural development of this area,

we must remember

that

although the presence of humans has been confirmed from very early times

Mesoamerica, only

Coatlalpan have material remains survived from every

period of Mexico's pre-Hispanic history. In texts

by such sixteenth-century chroniclers as

Tomas de Torquemada,

Fray

and Geronimo de Mendieta, the large amount of overlap-

Toribio de Motolima,

ping information indicates that they were based on privileged access to the

same

first-hand sources, which have unfortunately disappeared. These texts

relate

how

Izucar de

the eleventh century

Matamoros was founded

the Postclassic period, during

They report various migrations from

a.d.

Tula, Hidalgo, that

would eventually lead to settlements such as Izucar de Matamoros and Epatlan in

the southern region of what

now

the state of Puebla. They also mention

group of people related to the Nonohualca-Chichimeca and the route they through the areas of present-day Cuernavaca, Amecameca, and

followed

Huaquechula,

they finally reached Tehuacan, Puebla.

until

recounting this

migration, the religious chroniclers mention Xelhua as the leader of the group that

came

to establish Izucar de

Matamoros and other

that inhabited pre-Hispanic Central Mexico

were said

settlements. The nations to have

descended from

the ancient god Iztac Mixcoatl, a native of the legendary Chicomoztoc ("place of the seven caves"); his sons-Xelhua, Tenuch, Ulmecatl, Xicalancatl, Mixtecatl,

and Otomotl-were Because of

its

said to be the founders of these settlements.

importance and strategic location, the

Matamoros appears

such as the Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca, known as Codex

maps

tioned, that migratory

dominant groups, thus

waves spread from the northern and territorial

colonial period, by the Belgian geographer

important

and

territory

in this

central parts of

boundaries of the

justifying the rights corresponding to the

these large tracts of land. The cartography published -â&#x20AC;˘arly

Xolotl,

and

Mesoamerica. Contemporary texts delineate the

ularly

Izucar de

Totimehuacan-doeuments from the Late (1200-1521). It was during this time, as previously men-

Cuauhtinchan

Postclassic period

city of

both pre-Hispanic and colonial cartographic sources,

ownership of

the sixteenth century,

Abraham Ortdius

partic-

regard.

for external influences,

two factors were decisive

the development of

153. Bcakrr with upplird figure

Coatlalpaneca, ca. 1500

Kftt*'

Matamoros. The

Izucar de

Coatlalpaneca, which alone area, as a

first

was

means of extending

was the

strategic location

city's

sufficient for the Triple Alliance to set

its

the region of

its

sights on this

realm of influence and obtaining resources through

trade and the levying of tributes. The date of the Triple Alliance's incursion

but

began sometime during

its

unknown,

period of territorial expansion and culminated

between the years 1458 and 1466. As an immediate consequence of the invasion, the Coatlalpanecas were forced to pay tribute and Izucar de Matamoros was absorbed into the Mexica-Aztec tributary province of Tepeyacac.

The main urban center of Tepeaca,

this province

was located

at the present-day city of

the central region of the current state of Puebla. Plate 22 of the Matricula

de tributos (Tribute Register), which corresponds to page 42-[obverse] of the Codex

Mendoza, contains

list

of the towns

were required to present to the

in this

vide large contingents of soldiers to fight

Aztec empire

were

critical

in in

province.

Triple Alliance, the in

addition to the products they

Coatlalpanecas were forced to pro-

the military campaigns undertaken by the

areas to the south and north of Izucar de Matamoros. These campaigns

conquering additional territory and subduing revolts

Chiapas,

Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, Coixtlahuaca, Huexotzinco, Cholollan, and Tlaxcala.

The predominant cultural manifestation of Izucar de Matamoros was the

formed during the 1960s by the National Museum of Anthropology

lections

City

and through exhibitions at other museums, primarily

States.

Due

to the lack of research

city's

become widely known through

intensive production of ceramic work, which has

and publications on

col-

Mexico

Mexico and the United such

this style of ceramics,

pieces have often been mistakenly identified as Toltec or Mexica, overlooking their

obvious identification as Coatlalpaneca, or more precisely, from Izucar de Matamoros.

The singular features of

own

this

ceramic

style, a

determining factor

cultural identity, include a significant variety of

which were applied on the vessels using incising,

this group's

forms and decorative motifs,

wide range of techniques, such as painting,

and stamping. The elements displayed on these ceramic vessels have allowed

us to identify their origin and chronology, and have also enabled us to determine

the existence of a tradition that manifestations,

whose

was shared by

utterly distinctive style

a single

group with similar cultural

unique to Izucar de Matamoros and

the Coatlalpanecas.

Among

the most important and exceptional examples of this ceramic ware,

both

formal and decorative aspects, are those that harmoniously combine graphite black with bright red or cherry red pigments. This combination

found primarily on tripod

serving bowls with crenellated, cylindrical, or zoomorphic supports and polished or

burnished surfaces, as well as on anthropomorphic effigy vessels, pitchers with raised or protruding central tional

ceremonies to

bands of motifs or with incised necks, which were used

Ome

Tochtli, the

devo-

god of pulque. The Coatlalpanecas also crafted

ceramic bowls with bottoms decorated with protruding, button-shaped knobs and outer surfaces adorned with incised hook motifs.

These are some of the salient characteristics of one of the Late Postclassic ceramic traditions of Mesoamerica's Central Plateau region. Identification of these elements

has helped us to rescue the Coatlalpanecas, "the people of the land of serpents," from oblivion.

The Mixteca 1/

\<7/i

THE MIXTECA ARE MEMBERS OF AN ETHNIC GROUP THAT SETTLED

became home

the areas that

to the high culture of

themselves Nuu Savi ("people of the ancient myth that related trees

whose

first

roots

how

Robles Garcia

NORTHERN OAXACA, ONE OF

Mesoamerica. They called

proclaiming their origin

rain"),

their ancestors

emerged out of the legendary

grew from the caves of Apoala, located

what

now

Nochixtlan, Oaxaca.

Though

relatively

little

archaeological work has been done

enough information has been gathered

show

this region,

that the Mixteca created a

complex culture and that as they migrated throughout the Valley of Oaxaca and Central Mexico, Mixtec culture had a decided influence on other groups area. Mixtec cultural traditions are

a par with other

the

important groups, such

as the Zapoteca, the inhabitants of Teotihuacan, and the Maya. The settlements established over time by the Mixteca have recently begun to be documented.

Mixtec artifacts recovered through archaeology are known for the fine finishing techniques

employed by the artisans who created them,

particularly in

works of architecture, jewelry and ornaments made of precious metals, stoneworking, and mural painting. Mixtec artworks, such as the funerary objects

found in

Tomb

Monte Alban and

7 at

Tombs

and

2 in Zaachila

located

(all

the Valley of Oaxaca), were exquisitely designed, and as a whole they con-

veyed an extraordinary impression of the culture. Characterized by tremendous religious devotion and a highly cooperative collective spirit, the culture of the late Mixtec era (Late Postclassic, to the Valley of Oaxaca, specifically to Xoxocotlan,

250) spread

on the mountainsides to the

south of Monte Alban, and to nearby Cuilapam. Archaeological findings at both sites

have uncovered diverse materials associated with Mixtec culture.

The Mixteca were able to royal families

settle in

Zapotec

territory by

through marriage and other means. Their

the Valley of Oaxaca

was due

tated by a migratory

spirit,

partly to the overall

forming alliances with relatively late arrival in

dynamics of

an expansionist philosophy

their culture, dic-

in their political

domains

and kingdoms, and the constant threat posed by the Mexica-Aztecs, who consought improved trade and exchange conditions.

tinually

emerging domains forced the Mixtec

expand

their territories.

royal

addition, other

families to seek better

ways

They ultimately came to dominate an area that reached

from Oaxaca's northeastern border to the

Pacific coastal region

known

as the

Costa Chica (home to the Tututepec empire), and west to the territories comprising the

With in

modern

their

state of Guerrero.

profoundly religious perspective, the Mixtec groups that settled

the Valley of Oaxaca attributed sacred qualities to the ancient city of

Monte

Alban, an ancestral Zapotec stronghold that had been gradually abandoned

beginning

tomb

ad. 850. Mixtec royal remains have been found inside the

156. Xo<

hipilli

Mixtec, ca. 1200-1521

! 1

ill

(

known today as Tomb 7, which was constructed by the Zapoteca. The offerings placed inside this tomb to honor the Mixtec dead constitute some of the richest treasures of Mesoamerican history. Currently housed at the Museo de las Culturas de Oaxaca, the objects include gold,

and mixed-metal jewelry

silver,

ated by weaving together metallic threads

traditional filigree designs, cre-

an embroidery-like

style.

Another Mixtec achievement was the creation of masks using the lost-wax method. This highly ing

complex technique involved coating models with beeswax and then cover-

them with ceramic molds. When molten metal was poured

would melt and be deities,

was of an extremely high

coral, rock crystal,

shells,

raw material for extraordinary pieces of jewelry and

Examples of such

their

articles,

and ceramics, were found these and other sites

journey to

ritual

objects that were

and

2 in Zaachila, to the

south of Oaxaca. At

it is

apparent that the Mixteca

Xoxocotlan-at the foot of the mountain on the south side of Monte Alban,

Mixtec style that

Postclassic sites of Mitla

ture meeting a Zapotec

distinct

territory. This

hostile

was the

environment-a challenge

difficult to deteris

the case of the

abundant evidence of Mixtec

the Valley of Oaxaca formed a complex social

attempts at conquest, strategic

alliances,

and the defense of

situation that greeted the Spanish conquistadores,

a territory ripe for

that the Mixteca remained

who found

the Valley of Oaxaca for at least part of the colonial period.

who comprised

this

magnificent culture retreated to

the place of their origin: the high mountains of northeastern Oaxaca, like

domination and settlement. Linguistic evidence indicates

Eventually, however, the peoples

clouds,

cul-

for archaeologists in their efforts to

articles.

The Zapoteca, Mixteca, and Mexica

dynamic based on

it is

from that of the Zapoteca. Such

and Yagul, where there

decipher the origin of specific

Oaxaca

has been difficult to establish the extent to which the Zapotec

the areas of Yucu Saa, Cuilapam, and Zaachila-at other sites

mine

meant

including a variety of fine precious metalwork objects

Tombs

and pearls were used as the

eternity.

and Mixtec cultures had blended with each other. While settled in

wax

such as alabaster, turquoise,

quality. Exotic materials

jaguar bones and teeth, conch

accompany the dead on

into the mold, the

The workmanship on these masks, which represented various

"lost."

true lords of the rain.

among

the

158. Lip-plug with the figure of a cox-cox bird

Mixtec.ca. 1200-1521

%""

159. Bell

pendant with the figure of a bat

Mixtec, ca.

500

163. Ehccatl bell pendant

Mixtec, ca. 1200-1521

164. Butterfly nose

ornament

Mixtec, ca. 1200-1521

Wrf?

V-

<^ ;-

t#«

•

*''

*1U.'~

165. Shield pectoral

Mixtec, ca.

^^^r^'s*

s*^

'Tj^r*

x...

.-.'" "

_ rS^SsiSs^Ss^-L.^.

^i-4*=

^* -

*--^=-

J PL

r3|^L*r

900-1200

S~5

;

—— -

'^1

A*^*

J&'

^c^ssSi^

^^Mbs!' 166. Disk

Mixtec, ca. 1325-1521

» jr

170. Temalacatl

Mixtec, ca. 1250-1521

»^i

'JOUB** '*&

•^~~

• '*

U!t\

4-tf}

x**

'T\

^ws^w^

172. Plaque with ritual scenes

Mixtec, ca.

1325-1521

The Huaxteca and the Totonaca /•(•///«•

THE EASTERN COASTAL REGION OF MESOAMERICA

WAS

INHABITED BY VARIOUS PEOPLES

were contemporaries of the Aztecs during the

who were

those

notable for their warlike

spirit

Solis

late Postclassic period.

WHO

Among

as well as their dazzling art were

the Huaxteca and the Totonaca. While the Huaxteca, linguistically linked with the great

Maya

family,

have

history that dates back to very early

a cultural

times, linguistic studies indicate that the Totonaca are late arrivals, with a cul-

ture dating only back to the eighth century

a.d.,

name Huaxtecapan

Nahuatl speakers gave the

at the earliest. to the large area that included

the central eastern part of the state of San Luis Potosi, the southern part of

Tamaulipas to the northern part of Veracruz on the Gulf Coast. The region had a range of ecological environments, from coastal plains and basins of mighty the Panuco, to vast highlands with tropical climates and the

rivers, particularly

region bordering the eastern Sierra

Madre mountains. The Huaxteca adapted

these various ecological niches with extraordinary

ing the resources offered by the sea, the mountains,

successfully exploit-

facility,

and the

tropics.

Although

they never constituted a unified political entity, they achieved a firm cultural

went beyond language. They were

identity that

also recognizable by their reli-

gious pantheon and distinctive artworks: sculptures displaying the features of their

main

and other

ceramic vessels, and ingenious ornaments worked

deities,

Huaxtec archaeological

sites

are

still

called

Tanquian, Tancahuitz, Tamuin, Tamposoque, and Tantoc Luis Potosi, ple

conch

shells.

Tabuco

Veracruz, and Tancol

their in

names:

ancient

today's state of San

Tamaulipas. Today's country peo-

(campesinos) use the word "cues," what the Spaniards called the indigenous

pyramids with temples

built

on top, to

refer to the

mounds and platforms

constituted Huaxtec religious buildings or constructions This

because of

their curious shape,

rounded corners on

its

plinth.

which looks

Important

that

Precolumbian times.

an elevated cone with

artistic treasures

have been discovered

was contemporary

with the Aztec period,

the only mural painting preserved from the Huaxtec world

was discovered on

these locations.

an elongated

Tamuin, a

altar.

site that

procession of characters

attire that

may

represent

deities or their personifications, outlined in red, stands out against the

stucco It

layer.

was

Consuelo, a settlement near Tamuin, where the extraordinary

Postclassic sculpture rying a child

its

known

as The Adolescent-a young nude male figure car-

back-was

discovered. This

one of the most refined works

not just of Huaxtec art but of pre-Hispanic Mexican art

he great majority of Huaxtec sculptures, which

uncovered, evidence of phallus worship ins in -•rns

show

general.

typical

lie cranial deformation and perta-

the ears and nostrils are linked to the

common

the male sexual organs

to this coastal society. Figures

known

jnd ornamental as Old Sowers are also

Detail of rat

no.

177

Based on their wrinkled faces, these pieces represent individuals of advanced

typical.

age who performed

with a sacred staff that was used for sowing the earth.

rituals

Huaxtec sculptures of females are generally shown with nude torsos and both hands placed on their abdomens. With their conical caps, zoomorphic bodies, they have been

patron of

fertility

and an eater of

Huaxtec sculpture of the Brooklyn a skeleton

round

who was

Along with The Adolescent, the most famous

York. This figure, set

the collection

an elegant hieratic pose, carries

which forms part of the ornamentation while adding symbolic

back,

value. The sculpture has life

full,

goddess

undoubtedly the Life-Death Figure (Apotheosis),

Museum, New

its

filth.

and

attire,

identified as Tlazolteotl-lxcuiname, the

been interpreted as representing the very essence of duality-

and death, creation and destruction-that

always present according to Meso-

the late Postclassic period are styled

american thought.

The ceramic vessels typical of the Huaxteca with

designs

brilliant

brown

black or dark

tonalities that stand out against the

whitish color of the clay. These tones are consistent on both the traditional globular

and phytomorphic forms and those that represent human beings and animals. The creations of these coastal people demonstrate the international style of the period that

was dominant throughout most of Mesoamerica. The symbols on

polychromatic

their

would have been recognized by different peoples of the time:

vessels

and so on. Conches and other

eagles,

shells,

solar disks,

which were so abundant on the gulf coasts

of Mexico, were used as the raw material for striking objects. The Huaxteca also

made

earspools or circular disks and elegant breastplates resembling ladles that contain

complex regions

scenes bearing

ritual in

resemblance to images

the codices from other

Mesoamerica.

The Totonaca occupied

known

a vast territory

as Totonacapan

the center of

Veracruz, extending from the foothills of the eastern Sierra Madres to the coastal plains of the gulf. This people had linguistic links with the Tepehuan,

neighbors, and the

name

Zoqueana

family,

some

suggests, according to

which reached as

who were

their

The enigmatic

far as Chiapas.

authors, the three principal places of their origin.

Totonac objects continued the traditions of societies that previously inhabited the coastal region. Although ples,

we do

not

know

the specific identity of those ancestral peo-

they are archaeologically recognized as a Remojadas culture, characterized by the

extensive production of figures

made

of clay decorated with paint

very peculiar sculptural artwork reached

found

at the

Zapotal site

This people also

its

most sophisticated

made

tar.

This

level in life-size figures

Veracruz.

made works

the international style, and their clay sculptures

represent deities characteristic of the Aztec world: Tlaloc, Xochipilli, Xipe Totec, Xilonen, and so on. Such figures can be recognized by the attire and ornamentation

popular throughout

late

all

Mesoamerica. Some of these stone sculptures appear to

have come from the same However, they survived

haps the

workshops

Tetzcoco or

artists

from the Nahua world

Mexico-Tenochtitlan.

of clay. The figures

may

traveled to the coast, or perin

he Aztec

sites exci

Cempoala, located to the north

the codices, which could

domuut um

at Tenochtitlan,

instances,

Ehecatl. The

second

and sculpture

where the primary

find the typical site

ritual

double pyramid and

Castillo

of the port of Veracruz.

familiar urban pattern, with a walled ceremonial precinct

Mayor

numbers than those made

have been transported from the center of the Veracruz region.

Two archaeological first is

art

smaller

who images were reproduced from drawings made

have been executed by

easily

the Totonac region. The

There

recognize the

that recalls the

constructions are housed.

Templo In

some

plinth with a circular plan relatni to

de Teayo, an Aztec mihtjry camp with architecture

typical of the central highland style rendered by coastal

arti:

T-*

i f

9 JP-Â«=^

177. Life-Death figure (Apotheosis)

Huaxtec.ca. 900-1250

I V -

178.

Goddess with descending

god headdress Huaxtec, ca. 1250-1521

The Tarascan Empire

The Tarascan Empire Phil

eigand

WHEN

THE EUROPEANS ARRIVED ON THE SHORES OF MESOAMERICA

who were

IN 1519,

AMONG

THE GREAT

encountered north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepee were the Aztecs,

polities they

predominant, the Cholollans and Tlaxcalteca within Central Mexico,

and the Purepecha, or Tarascans, as the Spanish

The

called them, to the west.

Aztecs' astounding run of military successes prior to 1519 did not include vic-

along

tories

western

their

Tarascans had developed. resistance

tle

when

lapse of the Tarascan

when

military

stalemate with

the

therefore ironic that the Tarascans offered so

the Spanish penetrated their heartland

lit-

1522. The col-

empire-occupying roughly the same area as the present-

day state of Michoacan-was 1521

where

frontier, is

walkover compared with what had happened

the Aztecs were defeated after the bloody, prolonged siege of

Tenochtitlan. Of course, there

an explanation: the Euroafrican diseases, which

had already heavily weakened the Aztecs,

infiltrated the

Tarascan empire prior

to the actual presence of Spaniards. Having been brought back to Tzintzuntzan,

the Tarascan capital,

sometime

1519, these diseases

after

court, thus especially impacting the nobility ruler at Tzintzuntzan,

stage

Zuangua, was

felled

and

first

appeared at

by the epidemic then

in its

West Mexico. The consequent confusion and disorientation

ty so structured in the nobility's favor

meant

Tarascan

military. In 1520, the

incipient

socie-

in a

that the capacity to resist

was

nonexistent by the time the direct confrontation with Europeans materialized in

1522.

The Spanish soon discovered

how

politically, socially,

and

militarily

the Tarascan state had been. Relacion de Michoacan, compiled

among

the very

first

advanced

1539-41 and

post-Conquest codices documenting pre-

extensive

Conquest customs, offered the Spanish detailed insights into the

social

system

was perhaps the most "modern" of those they encountered in Mesoamerica. Relacion and a number of other codices and primary sourcesCodice de Cutzio and Codice de Huetamo (both 1542), Lienzo de Jicalan (ca. 1565; also known as Lienzo deJucutacato),' Codicede Tzintzuntzan (ca. 1567),

that

Informe de Vaseo de Quiroga

Michoacan uments and in

its

533),'

and Relaeiones geografieas del

siglo XVI:

(various dates, mostly around 1580)'-are the basic historical doc-

for our

present-day understanding of the pre-Conquest Tarascan state

sociocultural order. The pioneering research published by Nicolas Leon

1904 was the

first

modern attempt

at a systematic analysis of the ancient

Tarascan social and cultural order.'

Although archaeological research concerning the origins of the Tarascans only a few decades old,

Complex .

cultural

life

haft-tor

These tombs had rid

there are a growing number of excellent

began early

Michoacan, js evidenced by the spectacu-

1800-800 is,

field studies.

B.C.,

found

the

Jacona-Zamora

area."

often having served as crypts for burials over a

long period of time. They clearly indicate the early existence of social systems

Page from Fray Jeronimo de Alcala, La Relation de

Michoacan, 1539-41.

beginning to rank or stratify themselves, and which had the

Mesoamerica before the central and southern zones. By 900,

power

West Mexico was

to attract exotica from far away. Simpler versions of such

shaft-tombs have been found Formative periods

In later

well-developed

regional

various localities

650

(ca.

in Jalisco.

began to

The

flourish.

revolution, as

ical

number of

b.c.-a.d. 100), a

traditions

elsewhere

tion

research has focused upon settlement patterns and architec-

empire

and the

tural complexes,

received an extended

was

Epiclassic periods

valley

(especially the

millennium

a.d.

the

comof

Jalisco

this vast

never isolated from the rest of Mesoamerica,

its

Lerma

tierra caliente

a character that

from Central Mexico. While

that

in a series

Bajfo,- the

and the

*),

sociocultural

approaches to the

of Tingambato

site

clear

By the Classic and

patterns.

distinctive

few centuries

speakers.

orientation

from the Olmec world were almost

bow-and-arrow tech-

now do

many

raphy, sharing

bors

further

and was also

east,

Mesoamerican trade Archaeology as

cultural

geog-

basic cosmological concepts with neigha

full

player

within

the

applies to the Tarascan origins per se sites in the

Urichu. Tarascan origins are probably related to

ation

two

distinct but

phenomena: growing populations throughout the

interrelated

accompanied

lin-

fashion as an

sion.

so,

a.d.

than

then the

far

that

likely

correct,

might be

wider distribution during the

a far

first

had at the time of the European intru-

new migrants-carrying

Nahuatl

a version of

along the northern frontier (Caxcan) and Totorame elsewhere

(including Cora, Tequal, and Huchol as today's only survivors) into

West Mexico may have actually reduced the area of proto-

guistic

speech

while,

certain

that even

lin-

and research,

for further discussion

the Tarascan heartland

around the Patzcuaro basin there was diversity,

the

stimulating

time,

development of the region that remained. The

arguments are up

but what

same

the

and ethnic

linguistic

probably as early as 1200, just as

much

some

areas by population nucle-

defendable locations; and, between

a.d.

Relacion de Michoacan offers the

700 and 900

of the Tarascan

origins

While

state.

official

this

completely with the archaeological record,

confirm the parts where confirmation

of the rest

important as

western

Mesoamerica.

opposition

and cultural centralism into the pre-Hispanic

clearly

the far older metallurgical traditions of northernmost South

enough

cial

critical

essay collections on

polity,

has seriously affected studies of

clearly was,

West Mexico were probably already experimenting with copper, introduced from

concerning the uniqueness and centrality of the Aztec

Octavio Paz was severely

much more advanced technology was

history of the

does not dovetail

most important. Dogma

the appearance of metallurgy. While the indigenous cultures of

Many

general, occurred.

Joseph Greenburg

Chibcha-had

millennium

Patzcuaro basin that have

received professional attention are Tzintzuntzan, Ihuatzio, and

entire region,

not accept what for decades was

of Mesoamerica.

structure.

The Aztec empire

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