Rammed earth-The relevance of rammed earth in hot arid zone- Kachchh, Gujarat by Ridhima Mehrotra

RAMMED EARTH Assessment Of The Relevance Of Rammed Earth Construction In Hot Arid Zones Of India- Kutch

RIDHIMA MEHROTRA A/1963/07 IVth YR SEC-A SPA, New Delhi GUIDE: Ms. Zeenat Niazi Ext Guide: Mr. Rafiq Kidwai Co-ordinators:Ms Jaya Kumar Prof. Ranjana Mital

PREFACE

Globally, significant proportion of humanity dwells in earthen buildings. Earthen structures are time tested, affordable, easily procurable and more responsive to the local environmental conditions. In our current pursuit of sustainable development, earthen structures hold a great significant. In India traditionally various kinds of earth techniques exist. In the dissertation, emphasis is laid on rammed earth construction and its benefits are explored over all other earthen techniques. Considerable amount of knowledge and expertise is available in the rammed earth constructions but due to lack of standardized technology and awareness among people these are not promoted. The aim is to assess the relevance of rammed earth construction in India and contribute in its field. The objective is to strengthen its relevance in a certain region in order to bring it into the mainstream line of construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research would not have been possible without the significant involvement and co-operation of the “hunnarshala foundation, bhuj” and the people of Kutch who assisted me and allowed me to study their spaces. I express heartiest gratitude to my guide Mrs. Zeenat Niazi. Without her guidance this research was not feasible. I am grateful to my external guide Mr. Rafiq Kidwai for his valuable comments and inputs. I am also thankful to my coordinators Mrs. Jaya Kumar and Prof. Ranjana Mital who allowed me to proceed with this topic and work on it. A very special thanks to Prateek Zaveri for providing valuable information related to subject matter, senior Sandal Kapoor for providing assistance and all my batch mates for their moral support. And finally the person who inspired and motivated me to work on rammed earth –Ar. Clifton Schooley, Canada.

Ridhima Mehrotra A/1963/07

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS USED TODAY

NEED OF SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

CONSTRUCTION IN EARTH

RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION - ITS ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER TECHNIQUES

CHAPTER 2- RESEARCH DESIGN

NEED FOR STUDY

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

SCOPE

LIMITATION

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER 3-HISTORY OF RAMMED EARTH

CHAPTER 4- MODERN RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION

SHUTTERING AND FORMWORK

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN & DETAILING

FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 5- STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN HOT ARID ZONES OF INDIA- KUTCH

INTRODUCTION

GROWTH OF CONSTRUCTION IN KUTCH REGION

PARAMETERS WHICH AFFECT THE USE AND CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL IN KUTCH.

CHAPTER 6-CASE STUDIES AND ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 7-CONCLUSION

APPENDIX

AVAILABILITY OF NATIONAL RAMMED EARTH CODES

RATE ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS (KUTCH)

ASSUMPTIONS MADE FOR THE CALCULATION OF TRANSPORT AND ENERGY IMPACTS

VALUES OF INDICATORS FOR VARIOUS TECHNOLOGIES

CRITERIA FOR CASE STUDY SELECTION AND ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE INTERVIEW OF ARCHITECTS IN INDIA AND ABROAD

WORKS CITED

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: RESTAURANT IN ADOBE, WOOD, STONE FLOORING PART OF WORLD’S FIRST PLATINUM RATED APARTMENTS. ROOF SLABS ARE A COMBINATION OF LATERITE SOIL BRICKS WITH PINE WOOD CLADDING AND REINFORCED CONCRETE (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.ECOBCIL.COM/) .......................................................................................................................................... 12 FIGURE 2 HOUSE IN COB (SOURCE: HTTP://LLOYDKAHN-ONGOING.BLOGSPOT.COM) .................................................................... 14 FIGURE 3: COB HOUSE INTERIOR(HTTP://LLOYDKAHN-ONGOING.BLOGSPOT.COM)........................................................................ 15 FIGURE 4: DOME IN ADOBE (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.CCATHSU.COM) ........................................................................................... 15 FIGURE 5WATTLE AND DAUB (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.DREAMSTIME.COM) .................................................................................... 16 FIGURE 6: TRADITIOANAL RAMMED EARTH (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GREENHOMEBUILDING.COM)................................................... 16 FIGURE 7: RESIDENCE BY BCIL, IN ADOBE(SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.ECOBCIL.COM)........................................................................ 17 FIGURE 8AUROBRINDAVAN IN CSEB (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.AUROVILLE.ORG) ............................................................................. 18 FIGURE 9: STABILIZED RAMMED EARTH (SOURCE: HTTP://AREWEGREENYET.BLOGSPOT.COM)...................................................... 18 FIGURE 10:BANOS DE LA ENCINA CASTLE, MORROCO (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/SITES.HTM) ........ 24 FIGURE 11HAUS RATH, THE TALLEST RAMMED EARTH BUILDING IN GERMANY (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/GERMANY.HTM) ........................................................................................ 25 FIGURE 12: ASSLIM KASBAH GARDEN, PREPARATION FOR THE RENDEVOUS-DE-LA-MUSIK FESTIVAL, MOROCCO .......................... 26 FIGURE 13: TABERNAS CASTLE, SOUTHERN SPAIN (SOURCE HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/SOUTHERNSPAIN.HTM) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 27 FIGURE 14: RAMMED EARTH SECTION OF GREAT WALL OF CHINA (SOURCE: HTTP://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/FILE:JIAYUGUANWALL.JPG) ............................................................................................. 27 FIGURE 15: SHEY PALACE, LADAKH (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/INDIA.HTM) ..................................... 28 FIGURE 16: BASGO FORT, LADAKH (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/INDIA.HTM) ...................................... 29 FIGURE 17: BASGO FORT, LADAKH (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/INDIA.HTM) ...................................... 30 FIGURE 18: NANGMAL TSEMPO, LEH, AND LADAKH (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.HISTORICRAMMEDEARTH.CO.UK/INDIA.HTM)............... 30 FIGURE 19: DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORMWORKS (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GREENSTONE.ORG) ...................................................... 35 FIGURE 20: PARTS OF A FORM WORK (SOURCE: A REVIEW OF RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION) ................................................ 36 FIGURE 21 DIRECTIONS OF MOVEMENT OF FRAME WORK VERTICALLY (SOURCE: SOURCE: EARTHEN STRUCTURES, 2009) ........... 36 FIGURE 22: PNEUMATIC RAMMER (SOURCE: DAVID EASTON) ....................................................................................................... 37 FIGURE 23: TYPE OF WOODEN RAMMERS (SOURCE: THE RAMMED EARTH HOUSE) ...................................................................... 37 FIGURE 24: MANUAL RAMMING (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.EARTHARCHITECTURE.ORG).................................................................... 38 FIGURE 25: METHOD OF RAMMING (HTTP://ENGEYEDESIGNTEAM.FILES.WORDPRESS.COM) ......................................................... 38 FIGURE 26: PNEUMATIC RAMMERS (SOURCE: DAVID EASTON) ..................................................................................................... 38 FIGURE 27: VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE: BHUNGA (SOURCE: NANDITA RAGHU) .......................................................................... 44

FIGURE 28: MINERALS PROFILE IN 2006(SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.VIBRANTGUJARAT.COM/DOCUMENTS/PROFILES/KUTCH-DISTRICTPROFILE.PDF) ................................................................................................................................................................. 45 FIGURE 29: BUILDINGSTOCKS 2001(HTTP://WWW.VIBRANTGUJARAT.COM/DOCUMENTS/PROFILES/KUTCH-DISTRICT-PROFILE.PDF)45 FIGURE 30: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL GROUND FLOOR PLAN (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ................................ 50 FIGURE 31: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) .................................................... 50 FIGURE 32: CSEB DOME (SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI) ................................................................................................................. 51 FIGURE 33: JUNCTION OF DOME, CEILING, AND WALL-THREE DIFFERENT MATERIALS (SOURCE: AUTHOR) .................................... 51 FIGURE 34: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL (SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI) ............................................................................................. 51 FIGURE 35: KHAMIR SITE PLAN (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ............................................................................. 53 FIGURE 36: KHAMIR-DURING CONSTRUCTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ........................................................ 53 FIGURE 37: KHAMIR TYPICAL WALL SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)......................................................... 54 FIGURE 38: RAMMED EARTH WALL (SOURCE: AUTHOR) ............................................................................................................... 55 FIGURE 39: SAND PLASTER FINISHING (SOURCE: AUTHOR) .......................................................................................................... 55 FIGURE 40: KHAMIR (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA) ........................................................................................................................... 55 FIGURE 41: TRADITIONAL PATTERN ON RAMMED EARTH WALL (SOURCE: AUTHOR) ...................................................................... 56 FIGURE 42: ELECTRICAL SERVICE (SOURCE: AUTHOR) ................................................................................................................ 56 FIGURE 43: WATTLE AND DAUB PANEL ON FIRST FLOOR, CSEB ABOVE LINTEL, RAMMED EARTH WALL AND STONE PLINTH (SOURCE: AUTHOR)......................................................................................................................................................................... 56 FIGURE 44: GIDC GROUND FLOOR PLAN (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) FIGURE 45: GIDC TYPICAL WALL SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ................................................................................................................. 58 FIGURE 46: GIDC AERIAL VIEW (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA) ........................................................................................................... 59 FIGURE 47: GIDC RAMMED EARTH HOUSE (SOURCE: AUTHOR) .................................................................................................... 59 FIGURE 48: GIDC RAMMED EARTH WALL FINISH AND CSEB BOUNDARY WALL (SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI) ................................... 59 FIGURE 49 CHAPEL OF RECONCILIATION (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GERMANY.INFO) ....................................................................... 62 FIGURE 50: SECTIONAL PLAN (SOURCE: CELINA RUSTUM) ........................................................................................................... 62 FIGURE 51:DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE CHAPEL (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.EARTHARCHITECTURE.ORG) ............................................ 63 FIGURE 52: PASSAGE BETWEEN RAMMED EARTH WALL AND OUTER SKIN (SOURCE: HTTP://FARM3.STATIC.FLICKR.COM) ............. 64 FIGURE 53: CHAPEL INTERIOR (SOURCE: HTTP://1.BP.BLOGSPOT.COM)....................................................................................... 64 FIGURE 54: TARRA WARRA MUSEUM (SOURCE: HTTP//WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT) .................................................... 65 FIGURE 56: APPROACHING THE MUSEUM (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT) .............................................. 66 FIGURE 55(PILLARS IN RAMMED EARTH (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT) ................................................ 66 FIGURE 57: GALLERY (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT) ........................................................................... 66 FIGURE 58: VERTICAL TRELLIS IN WOOD (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM) ................................................ 67 FIGURE 59: FRONT VIEW (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM) ...................................................................... 67 FIGURE 60: BEDROOM (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM)........................................................................... 68 FIGURE 61: SIDE VIEW OF THE HOUSE (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM) .................................................. 68

FIGURE 62: SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM ............................................................................................. 68 FIGURE 63: SECTIONAL PLAN (SOURCE:CELINA RUSTUM) ............................................................................................................ 69 FIGURE 64: INTERIOR (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM) ............................................................................ 69 FIGURE 65: INTERIOR VIEW (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM).................................................................... 69 FIGURE 66: ANALYSIS OF RATES ................................................................................................................................................ 71 FIGURE 67: TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTAINANCE (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 72 FIGURE 68: RENEWABLE, NON RENEWABLE AND TRANSPORT ENERGY CONSUMPTIONS (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ) ............................................................................................................................................................................. 72 FIGURE 69: TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS INCLUDING TRANSPORT (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)................................... 73 FIGURE 70: WATER CONSUMPTION FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTAINANCE (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)......... 73 FIGURE 71: ENVIRONMENT PROFILE (SOURCE: ECOLOGY OF BUILDING MATERIALS, 2009) ........................................................... 74

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: CASE STUDIES, KUTCH-ANALYSIS TABLE .................................................................................................. 60 TABLE 2: COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF RATES .......................................................................................................... 70

INTRODUCTION

Rammed earth is an ancient building material that is beneficial owing to its special characteristics which favour environment. It is a traditional technique known from ages. Its history lies in Europe, Morocco, Peru, China, and India, Nepal and Bhutan and its origin in the Rome. It is a solid form of unfired earth wall construction in which optimum moisture content prepared sub soil is compacted between temporary form works. A mould is usually formed with two parallel boards to compact the earth inside them to get a wall monolithic in nature. The process resembles the process of the formation of a sedimentary rock. Rammed earth is known with different names in different places like- “taipa” in Portuguese, “Pise De Terra” or simply “Pise” in French, “Tapia” in Spanish etc. It consists of a mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravels, chalk and lime. The important factors in the revival of rammed earth are its high aesthetic quality, low embodied energy and the opportunities to use locally sourced material. It is considered as an ideal material to reduce the environmental impacts and green house gas emissions. In India rammed earth has its root in the Himalayan regions in the Ladakh and Spiti valley area. Some of its traditional forms have been observed in the Rajasthan, Saurashtra and Haryana regions also. The modern revival of rammed earth happened after the India –Pakistan partition in 1947 for the rehabilitation of the migrants. Later on experimental buildings started coming up out of rammed earth at the centre of scientific research, Auroville. Rehabilitation work after Gujarat Earthquake also built rammed earth house which were successful but the lack of awareness of this material among all genre of people made it unpopular. The assessment of the relevance of this material will be an important step to contribute to the green building industry as well as to get into the mainstream of construction. Rammed earth represents an interesting alternative to the conventional materials and the only way is to explore it. This is the need of present and perhaps the most important one in future.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainability can be defined as a potential having continuous minimal long-term effect on the environment. According to L.P. Hedeberg of the movement “the natural steo”, “four conditions to achieve a sustainable society” (Berge, 2009)are: a)

Do not take more out of the crust of the earth than can be replaced.

Do not use man-made materials that take a long time to decompose.

Maintain the conditions needed for nature to keep its production and diversity.

Use resources sufficiently and correctly- stop being wasteful.

The building industry, after food production, is the largest consumer of raw materials in the world today. To attain sustainable future there should be a drastic reduction in the use of raw materials. Based on the above conditions, sustainable development can be achieved by (Berge, 2009): 1)

Conservation of resource by re-use, material recycling and energy recovery in the production of materials.

Using materials in ways that ensure their durability. It includes the life-span of materials which is governed by- the material’s physical structure and chemical composition, the local environment, climatic and other chemical or physical conditions, the construction, maintenance and management.

Thermal qualities and climatic parameters of temperature. Solar radiation, air pressure, humidity, wind rainfall and chemicals effect.

Reducing the extent of global warming.

Minimizing energy consumption for erection, maintenance and demolition of the building.

The realization of above points makes it clear that the use of building material can be sustainable or unsustainable to a particular context irrespective of its non- polluting properties. “The word sustainable development is dependent on three factors- the quality of architecture, social well-being and environmental responsibility. The question which bothers here is that whether the world really stepping towards a sustainable development!” 9

CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS USED TODAY

There are various aspects which determine the choice of materials in urban construction. Use of traditional materials like raw earth materials, bamboo, straw, cane etc is more sort of confined in rural areas due to their availability and cheapness. Construction with these materials is not engineered and is suspected to be weak. This makes them unpopular with people in cities. More emphasis is being laid on materials which are strong and engineered and eventually a terminology is developed- “kachcha” for rural constructions (unbaked earth) and “pucca” for urban constructions (baked earth). For streamline production and to achieve acceptance in marketplace and among people, quality and safety are ensured by providing benchmarks for regulators without which acceptance of new products would be difficult to achieve. The availability of codes for the material is also important. In the modern era the desire and innovation of architect, designer and builder has increased. New forms and concepts are turning into reality. So the focus of materials have shifted towards engineered materials which can be used in very high rise structures and various complex forms. Other aspects include the legal acceptance of the material, abundant manufacturers and suppliers and standardization. The availability of labour is important. As the conventional system used today does not require skilled labour whereas the traditional materials do require it, it has made certain materials popular among the urban crowd. According to the conventional system, the materials used today are (Jagdish, 2008): 230 mm brick wall laid in 1:6 cement mortar; 115mm thick brick wall laid in 1:4 cement mortar used as partition; 225mm thick brick wall non load bearing cavity wall; fly ash bricks; 350 mm random rubble masonry wall in 1:6 mortar; concrete; Solid/hollow cement block masonry in cement mortar . Gypsum boards; plywood as partitions in modern housing systems. Apart from this glass is being used as curtain walls. For the ease of construction, it is preferred to obtain prefabricated modules and install them directly onto the site. (ASTM, 2007)

NEED OF SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Alternative building technologies are low cost as well as eco-friendly. The major reason in the increase of carbon emissions and therefore the problems of global warming suffered is due to construction industry. For this reason, the old and traditional technologies of construction are being revived and approached in a modern way to change the perspective of people towards these old precious technologies. In a study, according to B.V. Venkatarama Reddy, IIS Bangalore, Indian construction industry is one of the largest in terms of economic expenditure. Brick, cement, aluminium, steel, are consumed in bulk quantities and the estimated amount of energy spent on them is huge. They contribute about 22%of GHGs in India. We have an arable land area of 1.62 Ă&#x2014; 106 sq km comprising alluvial soils, black soil, red soil, laterite soil and desert soil. Alluvial, laterite and red soils are suitable for brick making. Assuming area of soil, suitable for brick making, may not exceed 50% of the arable land, brick-making activity can consume 300 mm depth of fertile topsoil of arable land in about 90 years to meet the present and future demands (Reddy, 2003). The production of materials at present is machine intensive as well as highly centralized. The energy consumed in the transportation of raw materials to the manufacturers and then energy consumption in their manufacture and the transportation of the finished material again to the site of construction is alarming (Reddy, 2003) .Therefore there is a need of sustainable building alternatives. Earthen construction offers a good choice. It involves mud, bamboo, wood, sand etc.

(source:

http://www.ecobcil.com/)

CONSTRUCTION IN EARTH

"You can’t get more sustainable or renewable a resource than mud. Approximately 58 percent of all buildings in India today are made of mud brick, some as many as 50 to 100 years old. Mud is gathered either at the construction site or very nearby, formed into bricks and dried in the sun. It is readily available and can be made by people with limited initial training—all resulting in projects that can be built at a fraction of the cost of those using concrete and steel.” -

Laurie Baker

Earth construction technology is the largest and youngest field of research in present time. Since ancient times hundreds of ways of using mud has developed and still more than one-half of world’s population either live or work in mud constructed buildings. The most fascinating discovery is that mud is used in all sorts of purposes like for foundation, walls, floors and even in roofing, doors, wall plastering and over bamboo and cane (Baker, 2007). There are various earth technologies. The traditional techniques are given as under: 1.

COB: cob is generally good for curved walls but it fails when height of a building is talked about. Cob is a lump of stiff mud which is made into elongated eggs and then stacked one on other. For final finish the sides are smoothened. The limitation in this technique is that the first course should dry up before laying the other course and hence the process becomes slow.

RAMMED EARTH (PISE): this method originates from cob itself. The problem with cob is that the size of eggs varies in every course and hence to standardize on that, rammed construction came into practice. It regularizes the thickness of the wall and is also an attempt to increase the strength of wall by ramming it.

ADOBE: it is the technique of making mud bricks which are dried in sun. It is labour intensive and construction proceeds in the same way as of masonry. But the sun dried bricks are weak and also the construction process is slow as it takes time to dry the bricks in the sun.

WATTLE AND DAUB: this technique involves in the creation of the frame of the wall first which can be done either by using bamboo or cane which supports the roof. A mesh of cane is woven. Sometimes various other organic materials like straws are involved in weaving the structure. Then mud is plastered over the frame and smoothly finished. The limitation in this method is that in case of heavy rainfall the mud plaster gets washed away but it can be applied later, plastered and finished.

FIGURE 2 HOUSE IN COB (source: http://lloydkahn-ongoing.blogspot.com)

FIGURE 3: COB HOUSE INTERIOR( http://lloydkahn-ongoing.blogspot.com)

FIGURE 4: DOME IN ADOBE (source:

http://www.ccathsu.com)

FIGURE 5WATTLE AND DAUB (SOURCE: http://www.dreamstime.com)

FIGURE 6: TRADITIOANAL RAMMED EARTH (SOURCE: http://www.greenhomebuilding.com)

Owing to advancement in technology and change in living standards, new techniques are developed. Though lot of research is still going on improving the structural strength of earth, there are modifications in the traditional methods: 1.

PRESSED BRICKS: instead of sun dried bricks, there are machines which press the earth blocks. Hence it has speeded up the construction process.

RAMMED BRICKS (CSEB- compressed and stabilized earth blocks): in this technique, the mixture of earth stabilizer (93-94% of soil and 6-7% of cement) is mixed and sieved and is then put into compressed machine and is manually compressed. When the blocks are molded they are stacked on a platform and cured for 21 days.

STABILIZED RAMMED EARTH: it is same as the traditional one; only the difference is that it is stabilized with cement, lime, straw etc.

FIGURE 7: RESIDENCE BY BCIL, IN ADOBE(SOURCE: http://www.ecobcil.com)

FIGURE 8AUROBRINDAVAN IN CSEB (source: http://www.auroville.org)

FIGURE 9: STABILIZED RAMMED EARTH (SOURCE: http://arewegreenyet.blogspot.com)

RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION - ITS ADVANTAGES OVER OTHER TECHNIQUES

A lot of potential have been observed in rammed earth. For soil block to cure uncovered, at least 10 rain-free days are required. The origin of this technique could have been in the places where humidity and rainfall did not permit the production of soil block. The appealing quality of rammed earth is its monolithic appearance. Many people choose to leave the walls the colour of the earth used or add pigmentation to the rammed earth mix to give a variety of colours. The colour and textures which are seen on the rammed walls can be aesthetically appealing as they look like rhythmic sediment lines on sandstone. Rammed earth is like an outer skin to a building. Due to high thickness of rammed earth wall which generally varies from 280mm to 600mm depending on the soil, it is generally involved in the exterior wall constructions. It shields the building against weather, stores sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; heat in winters and blocks it during summer Hence it helps in providing an efficient shield to the building against weather. Its monolithic nature thereby contributes in insulating (others, 2009). The soil for construction used is the sub soil. Hence top soil can be preserved for vegetation purpose. Also transportation costs are reduced. Rammed earth wall has an excellent quality of controlling humidity. It is resistant to fire and pest and provides sound insulation. The maintenance of the structure is low. The ecological footprint of rammed earth may vary. The quality of construction is very well dependent on the natural availability of the soil. In comparison with other techniques, rammed earth is far superior in strength, durability, speed of construction and seismic considerations. In comparison to concrete (composition: cement, sand and aggregate), rammed earth (composition: gravel (small aggregates), sand and clay), the difference lies in the addition of clay and percentage of cement used. Consequently clay is the major factor which drastically changes the properties in rammed earth.

CHAPTER 2- RESEARCH DESIGN

NEED FOR STUDY

Rammed earth constructions have a long and continued history through out many regions of the world. In India the presence of rammed earth buildings since centuries has thrown up questions about its method of construction and techniques involved which made it withstand the natural forces for years. The history itself asks for the revival of modern rammed earth constructions as an alternative technique. New Zealand and Australia lead in contemporary rammed earth construction. Other major centres are North Africa, Australasia, regions of North and South America, China, France, Germany and Spain. India is still lagging behind. There are few organizations in India in Auroville, Bangalore and Kutch which are constructing rammed earth structures. Research on structural and technical aspects of rammed earth is happening at IISc, Bangalore. But still there is a need of immense study in this field and enormous efforts required to establish its identity in India. The need is to understand the demerits of conventional materials used in construction today, which have demanded the use alternative technologies, rammed earth being one of them. Solid rammed earth walls are best suited to hot arid climates, whereas thermal mass alone may not prove sufficient for damp colder climates. This eventually raises the need of studying rammed earth in the hot arid zones of India. Different properties of rammed earth, its structural behaviour in seismic and non seismic zones due to change in composition of various elements in it and the design considerations which makes it safe from rain water and pests has made it a significant field of study. Therefore, the main aim or objective of the dissertation will be to answer the following questionâ&#x20AC;&#x153;Is rammed earth construction relevant in the hot arid zones of India-Kutch?â&#x20AC;? 20

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To understand the factors which influence the use of materials in hot arid zones of India and the architecture of the place?

To analyze the factors which have caused rammed earth construction in hot arid zones of India and its connection with traditional and contemporary architecture of that zone?

To understand the various properties and structural behavior of rammed earth including the availability of codes and demerits of rammed earth.

Comparison of rammed earth with other conventional materials in that particular zone.

To assess the relevance of rammed earth by cost and energy analysis and whether it is a sustainable construction in that particular zone.

SCOPE

The intention of dissertation is to focus on rammed earth constructions and no other forms of earth construction techniques.

Due to presence of so many regions in the hot arid zones of India, the scope of study will only cover Kutch region in Gujarat, India.

Of all rammed earth techniques, only walling techniques will come under scope.

LIMITATION

The subject to be studied undoubtedly includes a vast range of studies. Hence, the limitation of the length of the report, the availability of text and the time factors could pose limitations to the study. The

physical presence on site is a limitation in cases shown in foreign context, which are based on information available on internet.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Selection of subject matter and identification of the requirement for the study through a literature review and field visits.

Constructing and refining of topic in order to ascertain objectives, and possible limitations.

Preliminary data compilation from secondary sources to establish a broad outline of work.

Proposed site survey -Kutch, Gujarat, India.

Data in form of text, tables and maps, recording, collection and compilation from the primary sources for analysis of rates and energy.

History around world Rammed earth technology has been around for thousands of years, as an ancient sustainable construction material, used to form monolithic walls. The use of rammed earth as a construction material dates back to ancient civilizations. It was first used in desert areas due to short supplies of lumber and limitation of trade. Long sections of the Great Wall of China, and famous buildings such as the Alhambra in Granada, and the Potala Palacein Lhasaare built in rammed earth. Many European castles and the cores of pyramids were made of rammed earth, and then faced with stone. One of the most famous historical example is the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Yemen city of Shibamâ&#x20AC;? which was built around 16th century of mud skyscrapers i.e. housing in rammed earth and also adobe with a height of over 300mtrs. It has almost stood the test of the time. (Tibbets, OCT,1998)

Figure 10:BANOS DE LA ENCINA CASTLE, MORROCO (source: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/sites.htm)

FIGURE 11HAUS RATH, THE TALLE ST RAMMED EARTH BUILDING IN GERMANY (SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/germany.htm)

FIGURE 12: ASSLIM KASBAH GARDEN, PREPARATION FOR THE RENDEVOUS-DE-LA-MUSIK FESTIVAL, MOROCCO

(SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/morocco.htm )

FIGURE 13: TABERNAS CASTLE, SOUTHERN SPAIN (SOURCE http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/southernspain.htm )

FIGURE 14: RAMMED EARTH SECTION OF GREAT WALL OF CHINA (SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:jiayuguanwall.jpg )

History in India In India historic rammed earth is found in the northern Himalayan region mainly in leh and bosgo .world heritage sites of Buddhist monasteries also have rammed earth structures in India. Traditionally rammed earth was used in the areas of Saurashtra, Rajasthan, and Harayana. Later on it was again introduced after the partition of India- Pakistan on 14th august, 1947 during the rehabilitation of the migrants from Sindh region. The fort (Basgo Rabtan Lhartsekhar Castle) is the only structure made from rammed earth at Basgo. Basgo was the capital of Ladakh before 1357 and so it is possible that the castle dates from this period. The castle withstood a three year siege in 1684. It might have been destroyed by invading Sikhs in around 1819 and definitely by 1843. The rammed earth sections stands in the centre of the site, and consist of a mainly ruined set of walls, with no roof structure. The monasteries and Buddha images at the site began to be constructed around 1450. The palace at Shey is another structure in rammed earth which was capital of Lower Ladakh until 1550, when the kingdom was consolidated and power moved to Leh. Only a single rammed earth wall, founded on bedrock and extending up from the road to the current monastery exists at present. Other structure is the fortress at Leh called Namgyal Tsempo (Victorious Castle), which was constructed in 1555, after the movement of the capital of Ladakh from Basgo to Leh.

FIGURE 15: SHEY PALACE, LADAKH (SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm)

FIGURE 16: BASGO FORT, LADAKH (SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm)

FIGURE 17: BASGO FORT, LADAKH (SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm)

FIGURE 18: NANGMAL TSEMPO, LEH, AND LADAKH (SOURCE: http://www.historicrammedearth.co.uk/india.htm)

MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN IN RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION

Rammed earth properties vary from places to places depending on the soil. Not all soils are suitable for rammed earth constructions. Rammed earth is a mixture of sand, aggregates with a certain size range, silt and gravel and a very small amount of clay which is rammed between flat panels called form work. There are few points which effect rammed earth technically1.

Type of mix and proportion

Types of rammers and number of strokes of each type of rammer.

Type of form work

Type of quality or finish required

Quality of soil

Length and height of rammed earth

The composition of sand and clay greatly affects the strength of earth. The unsuitable soil can be identified but the standard characterisation tests such as grading are not reliable to establish the soil suitability. Soils containing organic matter, clay, organic silt, organic silty clays, clean gravel, and water soluble soils to an extent, large aggregates are not suitable for construction (Walker, 2003). Rammed earth containing clay swell on contact with water and shrink on drying. In both cases failure might occur and hence swelling/shrinkage control is vital. Rammed earth is very weak in tension and therefore should not be designed for pure tension. The design characteristic shear strength and bending strength of natural rammed earth is normally taken as zero. Rammed earth has relatively good strength in compression. Density of the soil is a very important factor for the strength of the soil. It is difficult to give a specific value for the density, hence it is impossible to predict an exact value for the mechanical strength of a soil based on any kind of description with no prior testing (Walker, 2003). The laboratory tests used for determining the compressive strength of rammed earth are similar to the ones used for concrete, bricks and blocks. As rammed earth walls have low tensile strength, they can be reinforced by providing a bond or collar beam. Beams can be constructed of concrete, wood or 32

steel. Bamboo reinforcement monolithic stone foundation is also done to provide sufficient stability against horizontal loads created by seismic activity. Ring beams are also provided at the foundation, sill and lintel level in areas prone to seismic activities. The compressive strength which can be achieved from stabilisation is 70.32 Kg/m2- 211 Kg/m2. The main factors which influence the rammed earth construction in high seismic zones are: 1.

soil granulometry

humidity content

compaction level

use of natural additives

joint treatment

Joint is the most crucial point of a building where the horizontal loads act. Hence in seismic activity prone areas curved walls or particularly circular walls are constructed in order to avoid joints. The presence of clay in soil is good in such areas as it increases the shear strength of the soil. Also reinforcement in high tension materials like cane and wood, gaps should be provided equal to the thickness of the wall. These are tied together with nylon thread. This system improves the behavior walls to large extent. Therefore with little adaptations and considerations, rammed earth could be used in seismic zones also (Dr.J.Vargas, 1990).

Stabilization also helps to increase the strength and erosion resistance of rammed earth (building centre). With time, cement stabilization has proven to be more beneficial than lime, sodium silicate or fibre. Cement is typically used in proportions between 4% and 15%, with between 6% and 10% the most commonly specified. Lime seems to hold potential for future consideration. With lime, the curing period is around three times more with cement (Dr.J.Vargas, 1990).

Fibres are used to improve the thermal performance, bending and tensile strength of soil. Natural fibres used are straw, sisal fibres and timber. One disadvantage of fibre stabilization is that the compressive strength of soils decreases as the straw content increases. Sodium silicate is used at quantities of around 5% to act as a binding agent to increase compressive strength in sandy and silty soils (Dr.J.Vargas, 1990). 33

SHUTTERING AND FORMWORK

FORMWORK Formwork in rammed earth construction is used as a temporary support during soil compaction. Like concrete formwork it is required to have sufficient strength, stiffness and stability to resist pressures it is subjected to during erection, placement of the soil, and dismantling. However, unlike concrete, rammed earth formwork can be removed almost immediately after compaction, enabling much faster re-use (Easton, 1996). There are several types of formwork and the selection of the appropriate type of moulding system for each application is important. Typically 50% of site time is spent erecting, aligning, checking, stripping, cleaning, moving and storing the formwork (Rauch, 2002). Similarly Easton (1996) noted it can take up to three times longer to set the formwork than to ram the wall. When making a choice of formwork the following general criteria should be kept in mind: 1.

strength

stiffness

durability

adaptability

ease of handling

ease of alignment

ease of compaction

The basic elements of a formwork system (traditional or modern) are: shutters, end stops, props/strays, spacers and wedges (Keable, 1996). A variety of materials can be used for formwork, including wood, aluminium, steel, or glass fibre. With a special formwork, rounded corners and curved walls can also be formed, by varying the size of the boards and spacers. There are different types of formwork -small units frame work, integral formwork and specialty formwork which is further sub dived according to their uses. Details of formwork are provided in the appendix (G. Pearson, 1992).

FIGURE 19: DIFFERENT TYPES OF FORMWORKS (SOURCE: http://www.greenstone.org)

FIGURE 20: PARTS OF A FORM WORK (SOURCE: A REVIEW OF RAMMED EARTH CONSTRUCTION)

FIGURE 21 DIRECTIONS OF MOVEMENT OF FRAME WORK VERTICALLY (SOURCE: SOURCE: EARTHEN STRUCTURES, 2009)

RAMMERS Ramming can be accomplished manually or mechanically. Manual ramming is an ancient technique using a large, specially shaped tool with a long handle called a rammer. Rammers weigh around 18 pounds, and have heads of wood or metal. Differently shaped heads are designed to perform ramming for various form shapes, especially for corners (Middleton, 1952). Pneumatic or electric rammers are also used today is speed up the ramming process generating jackhammer-like actions, strengths, and results. A pneumatically powered backfill tamper is then used to compact the material to around 50%of its original height. Mechanical impact ramming uses pneumatic ramming machines. Only rammers specifically designed for soil are effective (rammers which are too powerful or too heavy will not work) (Keable, 1996).Such equipment is quite expensive, but impact ramming is highly effective, and if the soil mixture is good, creates high quality rammed earth. The forms can be removed immediately after ramming so that if necessary wire brushing can be done, which is not possible after 6o minutes, to reveal texture on the wall. Walls take some time to dry out completely, but this does not prevent further work on the project. The ease of transporting soil from the mixing area into the formwork depends on the type of formwork used. The problem of transporting the soil is one of the major problems in rammed earth technology. Inclement wet weather has a significant influence on programming and progress of rammed earth works. Control of soil moisture during compaction and subsequent drying is essential to success. Walls need protection from wet weather and frost. Consequently walls need a temporary shelter (Easton, 1996).

FIGURE 22: PNEUMATIC RAMMER (SOURCE: DAVID EASTON)

FIGURE 23: TYPE OF WOODEN RAMMERS (SOURCE: THE RAMMED EARTH HOUSE)

FIGURE 24: MANUAL RAMMING (SOURCE: http://www.eartharchitecture.org )

FIGURE 26: PNEUMATIC RAMMERS (SOURCE: DAVID EASTON)

FIGURE 25: METHOD OF RAMMING (http://engeyedesignteam.files.wordpress.com)

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN & DETAILING

Site characteristics, including local climate, topography, wind direction, and sunlight orientation, have an important influence in the design of successful rammed earth buildings. The very basic principles of good architectural design as a response to the local climate, in the context of rammed earth, as follows (Easton, 1996): 

In hot humid climates, provisions for wide porches and large screened windows with ventilation should be made.



In hot dry climates, thick walls, small windows and night-time ventilation should be utilized to reduce cooling loads.



in climates where the demand for winter heating exceeds that for summer cooling and the winter days are typically clear and sunny, large south-facing windows (in the northern hemisphere) and thermal mass floors should be used to reduce heating loads.



In regions where winters are long, cold and grey the best approach is to build small wellinsulated buildings with low ceilings and a minimum of exterior wall surface exposed to the weather.

The detailing of window and door openings, lintels, wall plates, roof anchorages, electrical and water services, and wall fixings in rammed earth buildings are governed by: 

low strength



shrinkage



relatively poor water resistance of the material

Openings may be formed by creating full-height or partial-height sections when building individual freestanding panels of solid earth; by using block out forms or using structural lintels. Lintels may be formed from solid timber, concrete, stone or other suitable materials or by incorporating steel rebars or rolled sections (Tee or Angle section) inside the rammed earth directly over the opening. Lintels require adequate bedding length to avoid bearing problems, and can span over 3 metres in both natural or cement stabilized rammed earth. For roofing, lightweight timber roofs are most widely used. 39

Water is a major agent of decay for earth walls. Therefore, plumbing is generally not recommended to be placed within earthen walls (Standards, 2002). Ideally these services should be placed below the ground but above the foundation level at a location where it is easy to be maintained and repaired. In case plumbing is installed in earth walls, pressure testing of the pipes should be performed. They can be installed by any of the following ways (Walker, 2003): 1. By cutting or coring the earth wall. 2. By placing the pipes directly in the earth prior to compaction 3. By creating cavities within the walls with block out forms. Conduits for electric cables can be placed: 1. Directly within the earth walls during construction but it should be able to withstand compaction and accommodate any expected shrinkage of the earth wall without damage. 2. In surface mounted conduit (Easton, 1996). 3. In conduit which are placed in chased cut rammed earth and later in filled, but poor colour match makes this an unpopular solution. Also, any holes for services should not be wider than 300mm and deeper than 50mm (Standards, 2002). For fastening non structural wall fixing to the wall following ways are adopted: 1. For light fixtures (photo-frames, paintings etc.) nails, screws and hooks, at least 50mm long, can be used. 2. For heavier fixtures, such as shelving, triple wedge anchors used. Proprietary mechanical or chemical anchors, such as rawl bolts, have also been used successfully. Longer nails or screws can also be used (Middleton, 1952).

FOUNDATIONS

Rammed earth walls are typically built on shallow strip footings or stiffened ground slabs. Walls are generally built on raised plinths. A variety of damp proofing materials, including slate, plastic membranes and bituminous paints have been used successfully. Damp proof courses should be able to withstand the impact of compaction and shrinkage without damage. Damp proofing should usually be a minimum 150 mm above ground level. Footings are mainly concrete, though may also be limecrete and masonry. The ground immediately adjacent to the base of a rammed earth wall should be well drained and footings protected from water infiltration. Provision of surface and subsurface drains together with damp-proof coursing is generally essential (Walker, 2003).

Introduction

Kutch is the largest district of India, located on the western-most tip of India in Gujarat. The district has 10 talukas, of which the major ones are Bhuj (district headquarter), Anjar, Mandvi, Mundra and Gandhidham. Focus Industry Sectors â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Minerals, Port based industries, Marine Chemicals, Engineering, Infrastructure Projects, Chemicals, Ceramics and Textiles Kandla and Mundra are the two ports. Kutch is famous for its palaces, museums, handicrafts (Ajrakh & Bandhani), royal heritage, pilgrimage, fairs, festivals, beaches, resorts and wildlife (IndexTb, 2008). The Gulf of Kutch divides Kutch from the Kathiawar peninsula. It is separated from Pakistan by the Great Rann of Kutch which is a seasonal marshy region and salty lowland. During rainy season Rann becomes completely filled with water isolating Kutch region from rest of the state. Because of this people of Kutch have preserved their local customs and traditions and has provided it with lots of tourist attraction. Consequently, traditional handicrafts and tourism are the major source of revenue and livelihood (IndexTb, 2008). The climate of Kutch district is hot. It lies in the hot arid zones of India. The year can be divided into three seasons: 1)

Hot and moistrous season between July and September.

Cold and dry season between October to February

Hot and dry climate between March and June.

Major disasters of the region include cyclones droughts and earthquake. Water is a perennial problem in this region. The zone contains sand dunes, marshy land, black cotton soil and hilly region (IndexTb, 2008).

Growth of construction in Kutch region

Kutch region has two different eras of construction. Early construction took place under royal families that lived in the region for over a period of five centuries. The second era commences with IndiaPakistan partition which was responsible in driving the most recent and significant construction in the region. Rehabilitation has been the main reason which has a major impact on the type of construction in Kutch whether after partition or the severe earthquake of 2001 (masonry structureschapter 11). On the recommendation of Mahatma Gandhi, the government of India granted 6,070 hectares of land near the port of kandla to develop township with an aim of resettling the migrants. These regions now are the cities of Adipur and Gandhidham. But the fear of Anjar earthquake made the area scarcely populated with people and discouraged them to stay there. However in 1980s there was a major influx of people in the region due to introduction of railways. Relatively little construction took place during 1960-1995. But after the earthquake 2001, there is an upsurge of construction in Kutch (masonry structureschapter 11).

FIGURE 27: VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE: BHUNGA (SOURCE: NANDITA RAGHU)

Parameters which affect the use and choice of construction material in Kutch.

In India, the building stocks are divided into four categoriescategory A (buildings made of field stones, un-burnt bricks, and clay structures), category B (mainly brick buildings), category C (reinforced concrete buildings and well constructed wooden buildings) and category X (made up of informal materials like thatch, grass etc).the building stocks of FIGURE 29: BUILDINGSTOCKS 2001(HTTP://WWW.VIBRANTGUJARA T.COM/DOCUMENTS/PROFILES/KUTC H-DISTRICT-PROFILE.PDF)

Kutch before 2001 earthquake are clearly shown in the figure. Due to lack of trained masons

in the region the traditional techniques of construction lacks engineering and also is the reason of low awareness and often not transferred to the local community (BMTPC).

FIGURE 28: MINERALS PROFILE I N 2006(SOURCE:HTTP://W WW.VIBRANTGUJARAT.COM/DOCUM ENTS/PROFILES/KUTCH-DISTRICT-PROFILE.PDF)

Limestone, china clay, silica sand: -local availability in abundance During 1880s, due to shortage of cement countrywide, use of lime became famous. Furthermore Kutch has largest reserves of limestone in India and highest production of china clay. Most of the masonryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s found are in lime mortar.

Cement: -locally produced Due to presence of lime and silica in abundance, cement production is easy and local. Introduction of new technology and modern constructions, made excessive use of cement based masonry and gradually excluded lime from masonry.

Earth: CSEB, cob, rammed earth, adobe -Locally available and produced -Traditional influence -aesthetics involved -Climatic factors: low rainfall-easy to construct earth walls, heat insulation -Financial reason China clay is available locally in abundance, hence used in ramming, CSEB. In the urban areas, stabilized clay blocks with cement, lime, bitumen are produced and used. In rural constructions mud blocks are used.

Burnt clay bricks: -local availability -wisdom and general aspirations of people The bricks produced have low compressive strength of 25-40 kgfcm2 and high water absorption. Burnt clay bricks in cm1:6 are very common in the masonry construction.

Stone: -local availability - Aesthetics involved -traditional influence

Due to low compressive strength of bricks, stones were used in the masonry. Stone masonry is heavy and in the recent earthquake, it failed to take the seismic load therefore not many people build in it today.

Concrete: solid, hollow blocks - Locally produced -time of construction -time and cost of maintenance -Structural efficiency -Modern aspirations of people

Introduced in place of stone masonry as it saves cubic content of masonry, thereby reducing weight on foundations. Also saving can be done in foundation as well as masonry walling. It also provides faster construction and makes greater floor area for the same plinth area.

Fly ash: -locally available -time and cost of construction -modern aspirations of people

Fly ash for clay-fly ash bricks or fly ash sand- lime bricks is in practice. Used for units production for producing building components. RCC: - Structural efficiency -Modern aspirations of people After the earthquake in 2001, RCC is used in institutional, residential apartments and commercial buildings in urban areas. The construction is costly. RCC bands are compulsory to be given at plinth, sill and lintel level of each building in Kutch for earthquake safety. (BMTPC) 47

1. MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL, KUTCH Designed by :Satish Madiwala and Hunnarshaala Foundation Location :

Address :

Mangal Mandir-Bhujodi.Bhuj, Gujarat, India

Post Bhujodi Taluka, Bhuj

Name of the Agency / Client / Employer : Mangal Mandir Trust Start Date

Completion Date

Approx. Value

(Month / Year) :

(In Rs.) 3,86,571

April 2003

December 2003

Narrative Description : Mangal Mandir is a primary school for the pastoral Rabari children in Bhujodi village. The residential school has circular rammed earth walls with a space frame roof. Some of the classrooms are made in wattle and daub. The library building is made in rammed earth using china clay waste and has domes made from stabilized earth blocks. The louvered windows and bamboo pergola in the court gives a beautiful play with shadow and light.

Comments: i.

There is an integration of different techniques of earth- rammed earth for walls, CSEB dome, wattle and daub for space frames and bamboo in interiors.

ii.

Impressions created by formwork on the wall are used for placing electrical conduits.

iii.

Lintels are done in RCC.

iv.

The structure requires maintenance.

If a better quality of earth mix or some sort of finishing would have been used, it could have increased the aesthetics of the walls, which is not present at the moment.

FIGURE 30: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL GROUND FLOOR PLAN (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 31: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 34: MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL ( SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI)

FIGURE 32: CSEB DOME (SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI)

FIGURE 33: JUNCTION OF DOME, CEILING, AND WALL-THREE DIFFERENT MATERIALS (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

2. KHAMIR CRAFT PARK, KUTCH Designed by:

prof. N D Chaka

Location : Kukma, bhuj, Gujarat, India

Constructed by: Hunnarshaala foundation

Address: Thertej Tekra, Satellite, Ahmedabad.

Name of the Agency / Client / Employer :Nehru Foundation For Development & Kutch Nav Nirman Abhiyan Start Date :

Completion Date

(Month / Year) :

March 2004

March 2007

Approx. Value (in Rs.) 2 crore Financed by: Govt. of Gujarat, Confederation of Indian Industries.

Name of the Associated Consultants: Mr.Neelkanth Chhaya (CEPT-Ahmedabad)

Narrative Description : The Craft Park is a campus that facilitates the handicraft artisans in Kutch with designs, technology and marketing support. The design is organic which puts together of independent buildings that make interlocking courts and streets. The materials are a combination of random stone, earth and lime technologies. The roof is covered with country and Mangalore tiles. The walls are made of rammed earth, wattle and daub and recycled china clay waste bricks. The doors and windows are made of local wood with metal work. Rain water harvesting is system is present.

Comments: i.

There is an integration of different techniques of earth at different levels of wall-stone till plinth level, rammed earth till lintel , CSEB till roof , if 1st floor , if present, in wattle and daub panels.

ii.

In construction of toilets, CSEB is used.

iii.

Electrical conduits are exposed and not incorporated with the rammed earth design.

iv.

Use of CSEB after lintel level and wattle and daub at first floor walls indicate the lack of technology in Kutch to construct rammed earth at first floor.

v. vi.

Slope of the land has been very crucial in the design of campus and has been managed well. Finishing is also experimented on the rammed earth walls like sand plaster, painting, murals, and some places left exposed.

FIGURE 35: KHAMIR SITE PLAN (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 36: KHAMIR-DURING CONSTRUCTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 37: KHAMIR TYPICAL WAL L SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATIO N, BHUJ)

FIGURE 40: KHAMIR (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA)

FIGURE 39: SAND PLASTER FINISHING (SOURCE: AUTHOR )

FIGURE 38: RAMMED EARTH WALL (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

FIGURE 41: TRADITIONAL PATTERN ON RAMMED EARTH

FIGURE 42: ELECTRICAL SERVICE (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

WALL (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

FIGURE 43: WATTLE AND DAUB PA NEL ON FIRST FLOOR, CSEB ABOVE LINTEL, RAMMED EARTH WALL AND STONE PLINTH (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

3. SARDAR NAGAR HOUSING, KUTCH Designed by: Hunnarshaala foundation

Location :

Address :

Sardar Nager Relocation Site, Bhuj, Gujarat, India

c/105-106 Royal Chinmay, opp Judges bunglow road, Vastrapur, Bodak dev, Ahâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;d 380054

Name of the Agency / Client / Employer : Janvikas Start Date

Completion Date

Approx. Value

Name of the Associated Consultants:

(Month / Year) :

(In Rs.) : Phase 1 -3:

ISC â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (structural expert) Dr.

6/2/2003

6/2/2005

2,88,64,000

Yogananda, Prof. Dr. K S Jadish

Narrative Description: Sardar Nagar is a relocation site developed for the earthquake affected poor families of Bhuj city. Hunnarshala developed the master plan for the 21 acre site and has built 280 homes and a waste water treatment system this far. The master plan to house 1200 homes is developed as an adaptation to the falia (cluster) and seri (street) concept of the old city of Bhuj. The homes are made of stabilized earth blocks and rammed earth from recycled china clay waste. Each house including the land costs between Rs 1-1.25 lakhs.

Comments: i.

No integrated system followed, walls are completely rammed in recycled china clay waste.

ii.

The quality of wall could have been better.

iii.

The inmates of some houses were so disappointed with the wall quality and finishing that they themselves painted it.

iv.

The inmates are deeply satisfied with the pleasant indoor environment of the house.

Another issue faced by them is that the nailing in the wall is difficult due to its hardness.

vi.

The roofs are flat and do not provide any overhand or chajja to protect the walls from rain. Walls wear dirty watermarks on them.

vii.

The design detailing is not appropriate affecting the maintenance of the walls.

FIGURE 44: GIDC GROUND FLOOR PLAN (S OURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ )

FIGURE 45: GIDC TYPICAL WALL SECTION (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 47: GIDC RAMMED EARTH HOUSE (SOURCE: AUTHOR)

FIGURE 46: GIDC AERIAL VIEW (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA)

FIGURE 48: GIDC RAMMED EARTH WALL FINISH AND CSEB BOUNDARY WALL (SOURCE: PRATEEK ZAVERI)

SL NO.

CASE STUDY, KUTCH

MANGAL MANDIR SCHOOL

KHAMIR NGO

GIDC HOUSING

STRUCTURE

LOAD BEARING

STRCTURAL MEMBER

WALL

WALL TILL LINTEL HT.

WALL

WALLING MATERIAL

RAMMED EARTH

RAMMED EARTH MAJORLY, CSEB, WATTLE AND DAUB PANELLING ON 1ST FLOOR

RAMMED EARTH

MATERIAL

CHINA CLAY, CEMENT,SAND

SUB-SOIL, CLAY, SAND, CEMENT

CHINA CLAY,SAND, CEMENT

WALL FINISH

EXPOSED

CEMENT SLURRY SAND PLASTERPLASTERFINISH/PAINT/ EXPOSED

EXPOSED/PAINT

ROOF

CSEB DOME

SLOPING ROOF WITH MANGLORE /COUNTRY TILES

RCC

HT. OF RAMMED EARTH WALL

3MTRS

2.88 MTRS

WALL THICKNESS

300 MM

300MM

530MM

FOORING

IPS

CEMENT SLURRY

PLINTH+DPC

PCC AND RUBBLE SOLING WITH LIIME PLASTER

PCC AND RUBBLE SOLING WITH LIME PLASTER

LIME STONE

10.

FOUNDATION

SAND PIT

PILE

UCR MASONARY WITH SAND PIT

11.

NO. OF STOREYS

12.

TYPE OF RAMMING

MANUAL

13.

ELECTRICAL SERVICE

FRAMEWORK DEPPRESSIONS USED FOR LAYING OUT WIRING

EXPOSED PVC CONDUITS WIRING

EXPOSED WIRING

14.

COST/CUFT (AS PER YEAR OF CONSTRUCTION)

Rs70/CUFT

Rs 70/CUFT

Rs 60/CUFT

TABLE 1: CASE STUDIES, KUTCH-ANALYSIS TABLE

Analysis from case studies: 1. Manual ramming in practice. 2. None of the cases represented the example of placing plumbing or electrical services inside the wall. No example of chase cutting is observed. 3. Walls have resisted weather till present even on the absence of overhangs by roofs. 4. None of the structures go multi-storey in rammed earth. Maximum height achieved is 3 meters. 5. Different wall finishes can be achieved on rammed earth walls. 6. Wall thickness is high but thermal comfort is achieved in all cases. 7. China clay has been extensively used in all projects. 8. Integration of different earth techniques is found common in all. 9. Clients who chose rammed earth are either from low â&#x20AC;&#x201C;income group or environment conscious. Government also took interest during rehabilitation.

Lessons from interviews of Indian and foreign architects practising in rammed earth 1. Rammed earth is very different from mud and similar to concrete. 2. It is possible to go five floors with rammed earth but there is a need to understand whether high rise buildings are necessary. Large cities with large population and huge high rise structures are not sustainable in themselves. Hence there is choice whether we want them at all. 3. The cost is an issue in Indian context but does not seem to be in some of the other countries. 4. Skilled labour is also a problem in Indian context. 5. In order to promote the technology, architects and engineers need to be hands on practioners. Market has enough deliverables but finance is an issue. 6. Context is the most important element for designing and evaluating the cost and energy efficiency of the place.

SOME EXAMPLES OF RAMMED EARTH BUILDINGS FROM COUNTRIES OTHER THAN INDIA........................................................................................................ 1. Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin, Germany Architect: Reitermann and Sassenroth Completion: 2000

structural consultant: Martin Rauch Area: 315 m2

Narrative description:

source: http://www.eartharchitecture.org

The Chapel of Reconciliation is both Germany's first public rammed earth building in over 150 years as well as the first rammed earth German church. The building was built on the site of the former Church of Reconciliation, which was built in 1894 and was later destroyed, as it was surrounded by the wall dividing east and west Germany. The rammed earth walls in the new church are made using clay mixed with the ground up remains of the former church. The interior is of oval shape, and is delimited by a rammed earth wall 7.2m in height and .6m in thickness. Curved formwork was used for construction. Structure is known for its structural strength.

FIGURE 50: SECTIONAL PLAN (SOURCE: CELINA RUSTUM)

FIGURE 49 CHAPEL OF RECONCILIATION (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.GERMANY.I NFO)

FIGURE 51:DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE CHAPEL (SOURCE: HTTP://WWW.EARTHARCHITECTURE.ORG)

FIGURE 52: PASSAGE BETWEEN RAMMED EARTH WALL AND OUTER SKIN (SOURCE: HTTP://FARM3.STATIC.FLICKR.COM)

FIGURE 53: CHAPEL INTERIOR (SOURCE: HTTP://1.BP.BLOGSPOT.COM)

2.TarraWarra Museum of Art, Victoria, Australia Architect: Allan Powell Completion: 2003

founders: Eva and Marc Besen

Narrative description: The TarraWarra Museum of Art is the first privately funded, significant public visual arts museum to be set up under the Australian Government's philanthropic measures announced in March 1999. TWMA operates as a not-for-profit institution, with a charter to display Australian art from the second half of the twentieth century to the present day. . Sensually curved around the site, the building is primarily of dressed stone and rendered walls, coloured rendered concrete walls, and rammed earth walls FIGURE 54: TARRA WARRA MUSEUM (SOURCE: HTTP//WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Allan Powell has constructed a simple shape with the effect of a half built or buried building, which confounds the eye and engages the sensesâ&#x20AC;?quoted www. eartharchitecture.org Source: http://www.peterbennetts.com/project

FIGURE 56: APPROACHING THE MU SEUM (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT)

FIGURE 57: GALLERY

FIGURE 55(PILLARS IN RAMMED E ARTH

(SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.PETERBENNETTS.COM/PROJECT)

3.Vineyard Residence Architect: John Wardle Architects "â&#x20AC;Ś The strikingly beautiful and monumental rammed earth wall is relieved of detail revealing it as an autonomous and crafted object..." RAIA Awards Jury Location: Victoria, Australia

Area: 400 m2

Completion: 2002

Awards:

Project Attributes:

Best Residential Building, Cityscape Architectural Review Award, Dubai

Natural ventilation

Best Residential Building, Architectural Excellence in the South East Award

Low embodied energy

Harold Desbrowe-Annear award for Best Residential Building, RAIA Award

Solar passive design

Narrative description: Materials: Steel, Glass, concrete, wood and rammed earth

This house has splendid panoramic views across vineyards to rolling hills. According to the architect, the house draws on an analogy of grafting new vines on to old root stock, and gives expression to this in the planning of the building and the elaboration of the verandah framing. Rammed Earth Walls angling outward evokes the impression of continuing into the landscape. Cross ventilation is achieved throughout all the areas, between the walls.

Source: http://www.johnwardlearchitects.com

Figure 59: front view (source: http://www.johnwardlearchitects.com)

FIGURE 58: VERTICAL TRELLIS I N WOOD

(SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.J OHNWARDLEARCHITECTS. COM)

FIGURE 61: SIDE VIEW OF THE H OUSE

FIGURE 62:

(SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.J OHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM)

SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JO HNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM

FIGURE 60: BEDROOM (SOURCE:HT TP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM)

FIGURE 64: INTERIOR (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.J OHN WARDLEARCHITECTS.COM )

FIGURE 63: SECTIONAL PLAN (SOURCE:CELINA RUSTU M)

69 FIGURE 65: INTERIOR VIEW (SOURCE:HTTP://WWW.JOHNWARDLEARCHITECTS.COM)

COST ANALYSIS OF BUILDING MATERIALS IN KUTCH

Cost has been found one of the important factors which affect the use of material in Kutch. From the findings of previous chapters, the walling techniques to be taken in account for the cost analysis are: wattle and daub, adobe, UCR with cement mortar, UCR with mud mortar, sand stone in cement mortar, rammed earth, CSEB blocks, Adobe, concrete blocks- solid, concrete blocks hollow, fly ash bricks cement stabilized in cement mortar, burnt brick industrial in cement mortar, and RCC. Calculation is done as per the cost of 1cubic meter of the wall. THE COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF RATES IS AS FOLLOWS: TABLE 2: COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF RATES

MATERIAL ALTERNATIVES

Total cost in Rs/cu.mt

Uncoursed Rubble Masonary in C.M. 1:6

990.69

Uncoursed Rubble Masonary in cement mortar C.M. 1:4

1192.04

Pink Bela Stone Masonary in C.M 1:6

1121.28

Burnt Brick Masonary with approved quality bricks in C.M. 1:6

2189.4415

Stabilized earth block (23 x 19 x 10 cm) masonry using block made using 8 %

2208.87

cement in C.M. 1:4 Adobe wall using soil bricks 18" x 8.5" x 4"

905.7

concrete hollow block (40x 20 x 10 cm) masonry in C.M. 1:4

2278.72

concrete solid block (30 x 20 x 15 cm) masonry in C.M. 1:4

2240.4

clay flyash brick (20x10x10) with approved quality bricks in C.M. 1:6

1828.13

Rammed earth

2222.23

RCC work

3195.44

Total cost in Rs/cu.mt

RCC

Rammed earth clay flyash brick C.M. 1:6 concrete solid block C.M. 1:4 concrete hollow block in C.M. 1:4 Adobe wall Stabilised earth block in C.M. 1:4 Burnt Brick Masonary C.M. 1:6 Stone Masonary in C.M 1:6 Uncoursed RubbleC.M. 1:4 Uncoursed Rubble 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

FIGURE 66: ANALYSIS OF RATES

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF BUILDING MATERIALS IN KUTCH Energy analysis is an important criterion to justify the relevance of a particular material. From the previous chapters, sustainable development has been accepted as a need of the time. In order to analyze the energy efficiency and environmental impacts of a building material, life cycle assessment is important. The life cycle is divided into 3 phases: pre-use (embodied energy), use (operating energy, maintenance) and post-use (demolition, possible recycling and reuse). Here again, contextual characteristics in terms of climate, construction technologies, living culture and standards, can signify drastic variations in terms of phases shares of environmental impacts. The LCA concept and methodology is thoroughly addressed in ISO (2006; 2008) where it is structured into four phases: goal and scope definition; life cycle inventory; impact assessment; interpretation. Structural elements are also included such RCC columns (if part of the wall only), RCC reinforcement bands at sill, lintel and roof level. Elements like boundaries: windows, doors, sun protections, electric appliances and all secondary equipments, elements that are part of the roofing system, groundwork (foundations)

elements are not included (Daniel Pittet, 2010). Assumptions made in the calculation are given in the appendix.

FIGURE 67: TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTAINANCE (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 68: RENEWABLE, NON RENEWABLE AND TRANSPORT ENERGY CONSUMPTIONS (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 69: TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS INCLUDING TRANSPORT (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

FIGURE 70: WATER CONSUMPTION FOR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTAINANCE (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

Environmental evaluation of the materials In the following table, calculation of global warming potential GWP include carbonation (50 years), storing of carbon dioxide (50years) and emissions from final incineration of products based on fossil fuels. The storing of carbon is calculated from net weight of the material (exclusive losses).

Material

Environmental potential

Environmental

Global warming

profile

potential (GWP)

Recycling local production In situ RCC

Concrete block work

Lime sandstone

Earth ,compressed

Fired brick

FIGURE 71: ENVIRONMENT PROFILE (SOURCE: ECOLOGY OF BUILDING MATERIALS, 2009)

The environment evaluations are rated with best=1, average=2, worst alternative =3

Relevance of rammed earth in Kutch Positive conclusions are drawn from analysis of the case studies, comparative analysis of costs and energy efficiency of rammed earth in Kutch. Therefore rammed earth is relevant in Kutch. Rammed earth is comparable to fly ash bricks and cement blocks but RCC, concrete blocks and burnt clay bricks seem to be the worst alternative in terms of embodied energy and environmental impacts. The inhabitants of rammed earth buildings are satisfied with the indoor thermal comfort it provides especially during hot and dry seasons. Rammed earth does not require mortar and external finishing (which is done if desired). This makes it acceptable as the cost is reduced. Strength is still an issue but the stabilization of earth with cement increases the compressive strength of material making it not as high to concrete blocks but yet comparable. The technique is labour intensive, hence opens a lot of employment opportunities to the local people. Also, the climate is suitable to construct in rammed earth as it offers maximum rain free days and there is no need of temporary shelter while construction.

Constraints in rammed earth construction in Kutch 

Multi- storey construction absent : due to lack of awareness of the present technology, in Kutch



Time of construction is a constraint: still manual hand ramming in practice. Pneumatic rammers not used because they increase the embodied energy of the material.



Fear of seismic activity: lack of awareness of technology and research



Difficult to drill or fix a door, roof, shelves and electrical services: the walls become hard with time



Shrinkage cracks on wall: problem with earth mix and proportions of different constituents



Thickness of earth walls: space is a concern.



Technique not being promoted in the region: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.

No connection between the architects and the material. Non-availability of the contractors for its construction Non- availability of stake holders and entrepreneurs. There is no standardization of material. Not included in NBC. BMTPC does not include it in its alternative construction list. No emphasis on it in the green rating system of LEED. Psychology of people towards earth. 76

Recommendations There is advancement in technology of rammed earth. Some countries are leading in rammed earth construction. Hence either new technology can be innovated in the region itself or imported from other nations. 

The need of multi-storey or high rise need to be identified. At present Kutch is filled with low rise structures. Rammed earth could be easily used for two to four storeys’ structures from the examples seen in case studies.



If mass construction happens in rammed earth, then use of machinery and high end techniques is viable. This will reduce the embodied energy. It also introduces the concept of modularity where form-works, rammers and grade of earth for ramming could be fixed for different purposes and used again and again. Consequently the technology will become convenient and cheaper for people. The forms and sizes of framework and shuttering could be standardized for different parts of a building.



To increase the seismic performance, documents are available and some have been discussed in previous chapters.



Integrated structures can be done in rammed earth. Integrating different earth technologies in construction is interesting. E.g. CSEB can be used around places where the door or window fixings have to be done. As observed in the case studies in Kutch, CSEB is used after lintel level. Thereby the fixing of roof becomes easy and it could also be used for placing electrical conduits and other services.



By experimenting with formwork different textures on walls can be achieved.



With new technology, minimum thickness of earth wall achieved is 150 mm. For external walls, thermal mass is an advantage. In case of interior walls, thickness could be decreased by increasing stabilization of earth.



The holes attained in the walls due to formwork used in Kutch have potential to be used for services or other design innovations. i. ii.

In order to promote the technology: There is a need for more coordinated research activities —including inputs coming from architects Dissemination of technology by the participation of the manufacturing entrepreneurs. 77

iii. iv. v.

vi. vii. viii.

Awareness among masons through training activities and workshops on rammed earth architecture. Awareness among architects. There is a need to develop curricula at all levels of education, incorporating hands-on training, from primary school to universities, certification programs for professionals and lectures for the general public. Government should participate in the promotion. One way is by providing subsidy. Spreading awareness of rammed earth as an eco-friendly construction through media. Proposal of building codes of rammed earth to the government.

Future perspective and area of research 

If Fly ash is mixed with earth to be rammed to provide stabilization, it may open new area of research.



Hybrid structures might have potential which means amalgamation of different techniques in earth and thus, obtaining a hybrid technique to construct.



Use of tensile in the formwork is another area of research.



Instead of compressing earth vertically, ways can be developed to do it horizontally. This will ease the process of construction in many ways. Therefore research is needed to examine the behavior of rammed earth in the above case under vertical and horizontal forces.

APPENDIX A. Availability of national rammed earth codes

In 2001 the Earth Building Association of Australia published a draft document outlining. The organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s proposed alternative design guidelines for adobe and rammed earth. The proposed draft guidelines include guidance on appropriate materials and methods for evaluation. Design guidance for rammed earth includes footings, damp proof courses, openings; wall slenderness limits, lintels, joints, and recommended details for connections. To date the document remains a draft proposal. West Germany was one of the first countries in the world to draw up standards for earthen construction. Documents covering earthen construction, including rammed earth, were published between 1947 and 1956. However, these standards were withdrawn in 1970. In New Zealand the design of unfired earthen wall building materials (adobe, pressed brick, poured earth and rammed earth), with or without chemical stabilisation, is governed by three separate codes published in 1998 by Standards New Zealand: __ NZS 4297:1998, New Zealand Standard. Engineering Design of Earth Buildings. Standard New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand; __ NZS 4298:1998, New Zealand Standard. Materials and Workmanship for Earth Buildings. Standard New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand; and __ NZS 4299:1998, New Zealand Standard. Earth Buildings Not Requiring Specific Design. Standard New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand. The US State of New Mexico has its own building code for adobe and rammed earth. The building code provides some very limited Guidance on soil suitability and moisture content, and sets out requirements for. Formwork, methods of construction, testing and curing of rammed earth. The Zimbabwe Standard Code of Practice for Rammed Earth Structures was published in 2001. The document bases much of its content on the Code of Practice for Rammed Earth Structures published by Julian Keable (1996). At various times a number of other countries that have produced codes or national reference documents 79

for earthen construction. These include France, India, Tanzania, Mozambique, Morocco, Tunisia, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Turkey and Costa Rica. Many of these documents do not cover rammed earth, while others have been withdrawn .In recent times CRATerre has led development of regional standards for pressed earth block construction. Over the past fifty years a number of standards and national reference documents have been published in Australia, Germany, New Zealand, Spain, USA and Zimbabwe and hence many of these countries have led the modern revival of rammed earth construction (Walker, 2003). In India ,Auroville and Kutch have developed codes and guidelines but again no formal publishing is there , they are very site specific, general and formulated on a hit and trial basis by doing number of construction. Lot of organisations in India work on rammed earth but they develop their thumb rules on the basis of prior constructions and experience.

B. Rate analysis of materials (Kutch)

Rate analysis is based on the calculations prepared by the Hunnarshala foundation, Kutch taking in account the labour cost of the place. (SOURCE: HUNNARSHALA FOUNDATION, BHUJ)

Item Name : Uncoursed Rubble Masonary with hard stone of approved quality in C.M. 1:6 including curing, finishing, joints etc complete

Per 1 Cu. m

Sr.No.

Description

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

1 » » »

Material Rubble Sand Cement

Cu. m Cu. m Each

1.367 0.35 1.7

225 106 170

307.575 37.1 289

2 » »

Labour Mason 1st Class Helper

day day

0.4 1.5

250 80

100 120

Basic Cost Rs.

853.675

•

Contingency 3 %

25.61025

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

21.34188

Total Rs.

900.627125

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

90.06271

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

990.69

Uncoursed Rubble Masonary with hard stone of approved Item Name quality in cement mortar C.M. 1:4 including curing, finishing, joints etc complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

Rubble

Cu. m

1.367

225

307.575

Sand

Cu. m

0.35

106

37.1

Cement

Each

2.5

170

425

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

0.55

250

137.5

Helper

day

1.5

120

Basic Cost Rs.

1027.175

•

Contingency 3 %

30.81525

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

25.67938

Total Rs.

1083.669625

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

108.367

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

1192.04

Item Name : Pink Bela Stone Masonary in super structure with stone of approved quality in C.M 1:6 including racking the joints etc

Sr.No.

Description

Material

» »

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

Pink Bela Stone

Cu. m

550

Sand

Cu. m

0.2

106

21.2

Cement

Each

170

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

0.5

250

125

Helper 2nd Class

day

100

Basic Cost Rs.

966.2

•

Contingency 3 %

28.986

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

24.155

Total Rs. •

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 % Total Cost Rs.

1019.341 0 101.9341 Cu.mt.

1121.28

Item Name : Burnt Brick Masonary with approved quality bricks in C.M. 1:6 including curing, finishing, joints etc. complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

» »

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

Brick

Cu. m

500

2.5

1250

Sand

Cu. m

0.3

106

31.8

Cement

bag

1.05

170

178.5

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

1.5

250

375

Helper

day

240

Basic Cost Rs.

2075.3

•

Contingency 3 %

62.259

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

51.8825

Total Rs. •

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 % Total Cost Rs.

2189.4415 0

218.9442 Cu.mt.

2408.39

Item Name : Stabilized earth block (23 x 19 x 10 cm) masonry using block made using 8 % cement in C.M. 1:4 including curing, finishing of joints as directed etc complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

» » »

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

S.E.Block

210

1050

Sand

Cu. m

0.23

106

24.38

Cement

Each

1.2

170

204

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

1.5

250

375

Helper 2nd Class

day

2.5

100

250

Basic Cost Rs.

1903.38

•

Contingency 3 %

57.1014

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

47.5845

Total Rs.

2008.0659

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

200.8066

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

2208.87

Per 1 cft Item Name : Adobe wall using soil bricks 18" x 8.5" x 4" and masonry with clayey soil

Sr.No.

Description

Material

Bricks

Labour

incl. labour and material

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

2.85

6.00

17.10

L.S.

Basic Cost Rs. •

Contingency 3 %

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

22.1 0.663 0.5525

Total Rs.

23.3155

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

2.33155

Total Cost Rs.

Cft Cu. Mt.

25.65 905.7

Item Name :concrete hollow block (40x 20 x 10 cm) masonry in C.M. 1:4 including curing, finishing of joints as directed etc complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

» » »

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

CC Block

1430

Sand

Cu. m

0.1025

106

10.865

Cement

Each

1.6

170

272

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

1.5

250

375

Helper 2nd Class

day

2.5

100

250

Basic Cost Rs.

2337.865

•

Contingency 3 %

70.135

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

58.45

Total Rs.

2466.446

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

246.6

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

2713.04

Item Name :concrete solid block (30 x 20 x 15 cm) masonry in C.M. 1:4 including curing, finishing of joints as directed etc complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

CC Block

1386

Sand

Cu. m

0.12

106

12.72

Cement

Each

1.5

170

255

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

1.5

250

375

Helper 2nd Class

day

2.5

100

250

Basic Cost Rs.

2278.72

•

Contingency 3 %

68.3

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

56.97

Total Rs.

2403.99

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

2240.4

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

2644.388

Item Name : clay flyash brick (20x10x10) with approved quality bricks in C.M. 1:6 including curing, finishing, joints etc. complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

Fly ash Brick

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Amount

Cu. m

500

1.5

750

Sand

Cu. m

0.3

106

31.8

Cement

bag

1.05

170

178.5

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

1.5

250

375

Helper

day

240

Basic Cost Rs.

1575.3

•

Contingency 3 %

47.25

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

39.38

Total Rs.

1661.93

•

Overhead Charges %

•

Profit 10 %

166.2

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

1828.13

Item Name : Reinforced Cement Work with proportion 1:1.5:3 including cost of formwork and shuttering with proper vibration excluding cost of reinforcement and steel binding etc complete

Sr.No.

Description

Material

Per 1 Cu. m

Unit

Quantity

Rate

Lift

day

0.09

500

Vibrator

day

0.09

200

Formwork Shuttering

day

100

Concrete Mixer

day

0.09

1000

Aggregate

Cu. m

0.9

270

243

Cement

Each

170

1360

Sand

Cu. m

0.5

106

Labour

Mason 1st Class

day

0.35

250

87.5

Mason 2nd Class

day

0.35

200

Helper 2nd Class

day

1.2

100

120

Helper

day

1.5

120

Basic Cost Rs.

Amount

700

2753.5

•

Contingency 3 %

82.605

•

Water Charges 2.5 %

68.8375

Total Rs. •

Overhead Charges %

2904.9425 0

â&#x20AC;˘

Profit 10 %

290.4943

Total Cost Rs.

Cu.mt.

3195.44

C. Assumptions made for the calculation of transport and energy impacts

OBJECTS

ASSUMPTIONS

Transportation distance for cement

Average distance of 450 km is considered for all applications

Transportation distance for steel

Average distance of 1500 km is considered for all applications

Transportation distances for other materials

According to actual distances of case studies

Energy for water supply (pumping)

Average energy consumption based on: Î&#x201D;h=120 [m], discharge=ca. 80 [lt/min.], E=ca. 6.3 [kJ/lt], considered for all applications

Electricity mix

Electricity mix corresponding to the national mix average is considered. Electricity is generated in India by 80% of thermal, 17% of hydro and 3% of Nuclear power plants. This mix is generating a very high amount of CO2 emissions equal to 1, 37 [kg (CO2)/kWh] or 0.3806 [kg (CO2)/MJ]. (TERI)

CO2 emissions for Coal

0.1127 [kg (CO2)/MJ]. Average between the values given by (IPCC) and (VSBK, 2008)

CO2 emissions for Lignite

0.1668 [kg (CO2)/MJ] (Sarkar, 1988)

CO2 emissions for Diesel

0.0809 [kg (CO2)/MJ] Average between the values given by (IPCC) and (VSBK, 2008)

CO2 emissions for Wood

Considered zero

D. Values of indicators for various technologies E Const MJ/m2

E Maim. MJ/m2

NRE without transp. MJ/m2

RE without transp. MJ/m2

NRE With trans. MJ/m2

RE. With trans MJ/m2

CO2 maint Kg/m2.

Water const. t/m2

Water maint. t/m2

236

171

202

4’477

Cobwall,mudrnortar,2mudpl ast,45cm

179

236

166

502

4’477

Adobe,mudmoitar,2mudplas t.,4Scrn

183

236

187

420

4’477

UCR,mudmortar,2cernplast, 45cm

327

174

335

103

225

124

Sandstone hand dr., cern. mortar, 2 cern. plast., 23 cm

353

170

379

110

124

Sandstone mach, dr., cern. mortar, 2 cern. plast.. 23 cm

413

170

388

125

110

124

Rammed earth, 2 cern. plast ,23cm

426

208

456

144

186

CCB hand m., cern. mortar, 2 cern. plast., 23cm

519

139

511

112

385

124

CCB md, solid, cern. mortar, 2 cern. Plast., 23cm

532

139

485

109

107

335

124

CCB md, hollow, cern mortar, 2 cern. plast., 23 cm

540

139

498

104

108

329

124

Fly ash B. cern. stab., cern. mortar, 2 sides cern. plaster, 23 cm

559

139

482

138

110

255

124

CSEB, cern. mortar, 2 cern. plast., 23cm

492

208

524

103

377

186

UCR,cem.mortar,2cem.plast, 38cm

548

170

524

116

112

191

124

Fly ash B, lime stab., cern. mortar, 2 sides cern. pSaster, 23 cm

603

139

525

151

255

124

Burnt brick local, cern. mortar, 2 sides cern. plaster, 23 cm

717

139

524

227

124

RCC,2sides cern. plaster, 15 cm

774

139

722

161

108

124

Burnbt brick industrial, cern. mort&, 2 sides cern. plaster, 23 cm

895

139

857

114

127

227

124

Technologies

Wattle and Daub, no plast. 15cm

CO2 Const. Kg/m2

E. Criteria for case study selection and analysis framework

The buildings which currently exist in Kutch in rammed earth have been selected as case study. There is an attempt to incorporate buildings of different functional typologies like housing, library and craft centre. Foreign case studies are also chosen because of their different typologies of religious, institutional and residential building. They represent example of urban constructions high in aesthetics and to show that rammed earth is not a vernacular, low cost and “kachcha” construction anymore. Analysis is based on the observation of scale of current practice, technology and quality of rammed earth in Kutch, the gaps in construction and how can they be filled. The foreign case studies only provides an awareness of rammed earth to show its potential, advance in technology, quality of walls and integration of rammed earth with different contemporary materials. The following parameters were chosen to assess the relevance of rammed earth in Kutch region, Gujarat, India: 

Analysis from the case studies.



Analysis of rates for wall construction in Kutch for all present walling techniques practiced in Kutch as established in chapter 3 and then a comparative analysis to judge the economic viability of rammed earth. The analysis is site specific.



Analysis of energy consumption for different walling materials and a comparative analysis to judge the energy efficiency and eco-friendliness of the material. The analysis is site specific.



Environmental evaluation of materials.

F. Questionnaire for the interview of architects in India and abroad

Name:____________________________________________ Organization: _____________________________ Years of experience in rammed earth construction: _____________________ Questions asked (via e-mail) are as follows: 1.

Could you comment on your typical experience in construction of rammed earth walls? - the advantages and the problems faced.

In comparison to other walling constructions is it a fast and cost effective construction?

What is the typical cost of construction for walls per sq. ft?

Does it hold the potential as a futuristic material?

Do you recommend your clients/people to build in it? why? Are your clients satisfied?

Is rammed earth safe in earthquakes? is it efficient in hot climates?

What do you think is the market status of rammed earth? what are the gaps which need to be filled?

What do you think should be done to make it mainstream/ how can it be standardized/ will subsidies help in making it mainstream?

Do you fancy going high rise with earth?

WORKS CITED ASTM. (2007, september). MODERN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS. Retrieved AUG 17, 2010, from ASTM INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE: http://WWW.ASTM.COM Baker, L. (2007). Alternative Building Materials: Timeless Mud. Retrieved JUNE 12, 2010, from www.alternativebuildingmaterial.com: www.MUD/Alternative%20Building%20Materials%20%20Timeless%20Mud.htm Berge, B. (2009). The Ecology Of Building Materials. Italy: Architectural Press, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford, UK. BMTPC. (n.d.). Choice of construction Technologies Region Wise. Retrieved December 21, 2010, from BMTPC: http://www.bmtpc.org/pdf-misc/Region_wise.pdf building centre, a. (n.d.). rammed earth construction. Retrieved june 12, 2010, from www.earthauroville.com: www.earth-auroville.com/ maintainance uploaded_pics Rammed.earth-modern.in Daniel Pittet, K. J. (2010). Environmental impact of building technologies-A comparative study in Kutch District, Gujarat State, India. Retrieved december 28, 2010, from http://www.kfh.ch/dc: http://www.kfh.ch/uploads/dcdo/doku/0710_11_India_Pittet_DFT.pdf Dr.J.Vargas. (1990). earthquake resistant earthquake buildings. Retrieved june 20, 2010, from http/www.cridorcrdigitalizacionpdfeng.com: http/www.cridorcrdigitalizacionpdfeng/doc/3295/doc/3295/contenido Easton, D. (1996). The Rammed Earth House. Chelsea Green Publications Company. EDM IIT Report. (2001, April). the bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001. Retrieved December 21, 2010, from google docs: http://www.hyogo.uncrd.or.jp/publication/pdf/report/PNYPDF/PNY-1.pdf G. Pearson, .. .. (1992). Conservation of clay and chalk buildings. Donhead. IndexTb. (2008). Kutch. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from Vibrant Gujarat: http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/documents/profiles/kachchh-district-profile.pdf

Jagdish, K. S. (2008). Building Alternatives for Housing. Alternative constrution technologies . Bangalore, Karnataka, India: Gramavidya, Bangalore, India. Keable, J. (1996). Rammed Earth Structures , A code of Practice. London: Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. masonry structureschapter 11. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2010, from slide share: http://www.slideshare.net/tejaandeiitm/chapter11-masonry Middleton, G. F. (1952). Earth-Wall Construction. PisĂŠ or Rammed Earth; Adobe orPuddled Earth; Stabilised Earth. Bulletin No. 5, First edition . Sydney, Australia: Department of Works and Housing, Sydney, Australia. Molly, E. (2010). How Rammed Earth Homes Work. Retrieved aug 17, 2010, from TLC: http://tlc.howstuffworks.com/home/rammed-earth-home.htm others, E. b. (2009, august 20). EXPERTS WORKSHOP ON STUDY AND CONSERVATION OF EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE. Retrieved june 20, 2010, from httpwww.getty.educonservationfield.com: http/www.getty.educonservationfield/projectsearthenmediterra/finalreport.pdf Rauch, M. (2002). Rammed Earth . Berlin: Proceedings Moderner Lehmbau, Berlin. Reddy, B. V. (10 OCTOBER 2004). Sustainable building technologies. CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 87, NO. 7 . Reddy, B. V. (2003). Sustainable building technologies. Energy and Buildings, Vol. 35 , 129-137. Standards, A. (2002). The Australian earth building handbook. Sydney: Standards Australia,Sydney, Australia. Tibbets, J. M. (OCT,1998). rammed earth-developing new guidelines for old materials. building standards , 16. Walker, V. M. ( 2003, MAY). A Review of Rammed Earth Construction. DTi Partners in Innovation Project . BATH, UK.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ASTM. (2007, september). MODERN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS. Retrieved AUG 17, 2010, from ASTM INTERNATIONAL WEBSITE: http://WWW.ASTM.COM Baker, L. (2007). Alternative Building Materials: Timeless Mud. Retrieved JUNE 12, 2010, from www.alternativebuildingmaterial.com: www.MUD/Alternative%20Building%20Materials%20%20Timeless%20Mud.htm Berge, B. (2009). The Ecology Of Building Materials. Italy: Architectural Press, Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford, UK. BMTPC. (n.d.). Choice of construction Technologies Region Wise. Retrieved December 21, 2010, from BMTPC: http://www.bmtpc.org/pdf-misc/Region_wise.pdf building centre, a. (n.d.). rammed earth construction. Retrieved june 12, 2010, from www.earthauroville.com: www.earth-auroville.com/ maintainance uploaded_pics Rammed.earth-modern.in Daniel Pittet, K. J. (2010). Environmental impact of building technologies-A comparative study in Kutch District, Gujarat State, India. Retrieved december 28, 2010, from http://www.kfh.ch/dc: http://www.kfh.ch/uploads/dcdo/doku/0710_11_India_Pittet_DFT.pdf Dr.J.Vargas. (1990). earthquake resistant earthquake buildings. Retrieved june 20, 2010, from http/www.cridorcrdigitalizacionpdfeng.com: http/www.cridorcrdigitalizacionpdfeng/doc/3295/doc/3295/contenido Easton, D. (1996). The Rammed Earth House. Chelsea Green Publications Company. EDM IIT Report. (2001, April). the bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001. Retrieved December 21, 2010, from google docs: http://www.hyogo.uncrd.or.jp/publication/pdf/report/PNYPDF/PNY-1.pdf G. Pearson, .. .. (1992). Conservation of clay and chalk buildings. Donhead. IndexTb. (2008). Kutch. Retrieved December 23, 2010, from Vibrant Gujarat: http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/documents/profiles/kachchh-district-profile.pdf