April 2021 Outcrop by The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

OUTCROP Newsletter of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

Volume 70 • No. 4 • April 2021

The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

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OUTCROP | April 2021

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

1999 Broadway • Suite 730 • Denver, CO 80202 • 800-970-7624 The Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG) is a nonprofit organization whose purposes are to promote interest in geology and allied sciences and their practical application, to foster scientific research and to encourage fellowship and cooperation among its members. The Outcrop is a monthly publication of the RMAG.

2021 OFFICERS AND BOARD OF DIRECTORS PRESIDENT

2nd VICE PRESIDENT-ELECT

Cat Campbell ccampbell@caminoresources.com

Mark Millard millardm@gmail.com

PRESIDENT-ELECT

SECRETARY

Rob Diedrich rdiedrich75@gmail.com

Jessica Davey jessica.davey@sproule.com

1st VICE PRESIDENT

TREASURER

Nathan Rogers nathantrogers@gmail.com

Rebecca Johnson Scrable rebecca.johnson@bpx.com

1st VICE PRESIDENT-ELECT

TREASURER ELECT

Courtney Beck Antolik courtneyantolik14@gmail.com

Mike Tischer mtischer@gmail.com

2nd VICE PRESIDENT

COUNSELOR

Peter Kubik pkubik@mallardexploration.com

Jeff May jmay.kcrossen@gmail.com

RMAG STAFF DIRECTOR OF OPERATIONS

Kathy Mitchell-Garton kmitchellgarton@rmag.org DIRECTOR OF MEMBER SERVICES

Debby Watkins dwatkins@rmag.org CO-EDITORS

Courtney Beck Antolik courtneyantolik14@gmail.com Nate LaFontaine nlafontaine@sm-energy.com Wylie Walker wylie.walker@gmail.com DESIGN/LAYOUT

Nate Silva nate@nate-silva.com

ADVERTISING INFORMATION

Rates and sizes can be found on page 41. Advertising rates apply to either black and white or color ads. Submit color ads in RGB color to be compatible with web format. Borders are recommended for advertisements that comprise less than one half page. Digital files must be PC compatible submitted in png, jpg, tif, pdf or eps formats at a minimum of 300 dpi. If you have any questions, please call the RMAG office at 800-970-7624. Ad copy, signed contract and payment must be received before advertising insertion. Contact the RMAG office for details. DEADLINES: Ad submissions are the 1st of every month for the following month’s publication.

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RMAG Office: 800-970-7624 Fax: 323-352-0046 staff@rmag.org or www.rmag.org

The Outcrop is a monthly publication of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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Outcrop | April 2021 OUTCROP

Webinar Series Members in Transition

2021

Visit Petroleum Pivoters for more resources!

Rockies Members in Transition (MiT) is a joint effort of members of AAPG, COGA, CU Global Energy Manament, DERL, DIPS, DWLS, RMAG, SPE, WENCO, WGA, and WOGA in the Rocky Mountain region to help association members in the midst of a career transition.

April 15 12pm-1pm

Webinars are free and open to all

“What is Driving the Energy Transition? Cost, Climate, and Competition” Ken Regelson, Register at www.rmag.org

EnergyShouldBe

Rockies MiT Members in Transition

OUTCROP | April 2021

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP Newsletter of the Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists

CONTENTS FEATURES

DEPARTMENTS

6 RMAG Summit Sponsorship

10 RMAG March 2021 Board of Directors Meeting

16 Lead Story: Perseverance and the Red Planet

12 President’s Letter

34 Mineral Of The Quarter: Wollastonite

24 Online Lunch Talk: Ali Jaffri, Ph.D.

ASSOCIATION NEWS

28 Welcome New RMAG Members!

COVER PHOTO

2 RMAG Summit Sponsors

30 In The Pipeline

4 MiT April 15 talk

41 Outcrop Advertising Rates

11 MiT April 22 talk

43 Advertiser Index

The rim of Gale Crater on Mars is visible in the distance, through the dusty haze, in this Curiosity view of a sloping hillside on Mount Sharp.

13 RMAG Short Course: Fractures 101

43 Calendar

26 Online Lunch Talk: Dr. Steven A. Tedesco

Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS

15 RMAG Geohike Challenge 25 RMAG On-The-Rocks Field Trips 27 RMAG Sporting Clay Tounament 29 2021 RMAG Golf Tournament 32 Announcement of the 2021 Scholarship Winners

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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RMAG Summit Sponsorship

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2 0 2 1

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists 1999 Broadway, Suite 730 Denver, CO 80202 Phone: 800.970.7624 | email: staff@rmag.org

January 1, 2021 Ladies and gentlemen, RMAG could not exist without the very generous support of our Summit Sponsors, and we greatly appreciate all the companies that contributed as Summit Sponsors in 2020. As you know last year was challenging for everyone. When the stay-at-home order was enacted in March the RMAG quickly pivoted to online events to meet both the needs of our members and the greater geoscience community as well as to honor our sponsors’ commitment to the RMAG. Over the course of the year we hosted over 100 virtual events which included short courses, symposia, workshops, Members in Transition (MiT) talks, monthly member online lunch talks, virtual trivia and networking nights, the Geohike Challenge virtual scavenger hunt, and two virtual field trips. These events earned us new members while expanding our reach not only throughout the US but also internationally to England, Egypt, and Brazil, and we could not have achieved that without your help. With the assistance of the RMAG Foundation, we provided student scholarships and professional development reimbursements to assist our geologic community. Your sponsorship dollars also support our excellent publications including the monthly Outcrop newsletter, the quarterly Mountain Geologist journal, and our special publications such as Subsurface Cross Sections of Southern Rocky Mountain Basins. We recognized your financial commitment with website and publication advertising as well as through social media and before each online event. With a LinkedIn group of over 2600 members, in addition to the virtual events, we made our sponsors visible to the geoscience community in the absence of in-person gatherings. We are in the process of planning our continuing education calendar for 2021 and we need your help to continue our programs. We can’t wait to see you all in person again but until then we will not miss a beat! At this time we are planning both virtual and in-person events that will continue to prominently feature our Summit Sponsors. We have booked our annual golf tournament at Arrowhead Golf Club for September this year and are looking at dates for our sporting clay tournament. We will also have our Geohike Challenge and hope to host Trivia and Networking Night live monthly sometime in 2021. If you are already a Summit Sponsor, we look forward to your continued support in 2021. If you are not already a sponsor, please take a look at the many free benefits included with the sponsorship levels. Please feel free to contact our staff with questions about sponsorship by email: staff@ rmag.org or by phone at 800-970-7624. We and the staff of RMAG wish you all a successful and prosperous 2021 and look forward to seeing you at our events.

Jane Estes-Jackson

Cat Campbell

2020 RMAG President

2021 RMAG President

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP | April 2021

2021 RMAG Summit Sponsorship Platinum, Gold, & Silver Sponsors

Sponsorship Level

Platinum

Gold

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$10,000

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4 articles & 4 large ads

2 articles & 2 medium ads

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The Outcrop (receive benefits for 12 issues, monthly online publication)*

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RMAG Website Benefits Company logo on Summit Sponsor page on www.rmag.org Articles and Ads on special Advertisers’ web page Publication Advertising

Event Advertising (included for all events except where noted)

Opportunity to offer RMAG approved promotional materials

*12 months of Outcrop advertising: In order to receive 12 full months, company logos and ad art must be received no later than the 20th of the month in which you register. If received after the 20th of the month, ad will start in the month following the month after you register, and you will receive 11 total months (e.g., ads received March 25th will appear in the May issue and run through the following March). **Previous Summit Sponsors need to submit only advertising information.

RMAG Educational Events†

Platinum

Gold

Silver

Number of registrations for each type of educational event are suggested; however, you may use your registration points for any of RMAG’s 2021 symposia, core workshops or short courses. For example, a Gold sponsor may use 4 of their 6 points to send a group to the Fall Symposium. Symposium registrations

Core Workshop registrations

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RMAG Social Events†

Golf and Sporting Clay registration points may be used for RMAG educational event registrations. For example, a Platinum Sponsor may use one of their golf teams (4 points) to send 4 people to a short course. Golf Tournament player tickets Total Golf registration points Sporting Clay Tournament player tickets Total Sporting Clay Points RMAG Luncheons & Field Trips

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2 team of 5 players

1 team of 5 players

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Number of tickets for field trips and luncheons are suggested; however, you may use your tickets for any of RMAG’s 2021 field trips or luncheons. For example, a Gold sponsor may use all 3 of their points to send a group on a field trip. Field Trip tickets (may be used for any 1-day field trip)

RMAG Luncheon tickets

†Registration points may be used for any RMAG educational event. One registration point = one admission ticket to event. Luncheon and field trip tickets are not eligible to use for educational or social events. OUTCROP | April 2021

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

2021 RMAG Summit Sponsorship All sponsor benefit event tickets follow RMAG event registration deadlines. All benefits end 12 months after registration.

RMAG 2021 1 Summit Sponsorship Opportunities Platinum Sponsor Gold Sponsor Silver Sponsor

Summit sponsorship benefits term is for 12 months! Specify type of payment on signed form, and send logo to staff@rmag.org. Company: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Company Representative: ________________________________________________________________________________

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Signature: _________________________________________________________________________________________________ Payment by Check Mail checks payable to RMAG: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists (RMAG) 1999 Broadway, Suite 730 Denver, CO, 80202

RMAG events are subject to change. Cancellation or rescheduling of events does not give sponsor right to refund. Summit Sponsors will receive benefits at any new events added into the RMAG schedule.

email: staff@rmag.org

Thank you for your generous support!

phone: 800.970.7624

1999 Suite 730 Denver, CO, 80202 Vol. 70,Broadway, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

fax: 323.352.0046

web: www.rmag.org

follow: @rmagdenver OUTCROP | April 2021

RMAG MARCH 2021 BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING By Jessica Davey, Secretary jessica.davey@sproule.com

We are officially experiencing springtime in the Rockies! I don’t know about you, but I’m ready to put my snow shovel away and get out the field clothes. The 2021 RMAG Board of Directors met virtually at 4 pm on Wednesday, March 17. Everyone was present for the meeting (we have three months of perfect attendance so far this year!). Treasurer Rebecca Johnson Scrable reported that the RMAG financials are still looking good for 2021. Debby and Kathy continue to manage the RMAG operations remotely and safely from their homes. All of the committees are hard at work planning some fun and exciting in-person events, so we will have a full slate of engaging activities once we can safely gather in groups again. The Continuing Education Committee held the carbonates short course on February 17th and 18th, put on by Applied Stratigraphix, which received rave reviews. Keep an eye on the RMAG website for a handful of short courses in which RMAG is partnering with Applied Stratigraphix and RPS. The Membership Committee is busy pulling

together a fun kick-off event for the 2nd annual Geohike Challenge. The details will be announced soon, so get your fun hiking gear and cameras ready! The Publications Committee has a full slate of papers for the Outcrop but needs publications for the Mountain Geologist; if you’re working on something and would like to share it, get it submitted! The On the Rocks Committee has a full lineup of fieldtrips in the works; final details are being worked out, but keep an eye out for the registration information! The Educational Outreach Committee has made a big change to the Teacher of the Year Award; $1,500 to the teacher, and $1,500 to their school; what a great way to support a hard-working teacher! In the spirit of all things spring, this month, we have fresh baby rocks being born in Iceland! If you haven’t heard yet, a shield volcano near Fagradalsfjall started erupting after being dormant for 600 years. You can even live stream these newly formed baby rocks!

Well Log Digitizing • Petrophysics Petra® Projects • Mud Log Evaluation Bill Donovan

Geologist • Petroleum Engineer • PE

(720) 351-7470 donovan@petroleum-eng.com

OUTCROP | April 2021

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

Webinar Series Members in Transition

2021

Visit Petroleum Pivoters for more resources!

April 22 12pm-1pm

Webinars are free and open to all

“Geothermal 101: Resources, Utilization, and Project Development” Register at www.rmag.org

Dr. Amanda Kolker, National Renewable Energy Lab

Rockies MiT Members in Transition

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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PRESIDENT’S LETTER By Cat Campbell

Two truths and a lie?

Welcome to the month with a holiday celebrated the world over yet recognized in only one city in one country. By Matt Silverman, Dan Basset, and Cat Campbell and arid climate, what causes these rocks to move? Wind, water, earthquakes, aliens? For decades, geologists who studied the area remained puzzled. The mystery wasn’t solved until the late 1990’s when two geologists were sitting at a bar in Stovepipe Wells, doing what geologists do: having a cold beer at the end of a long, hot field day. As is the case with cold beverages on a hot day, the outside of the bottle began to sweat with condensation, leaving small puddles on the bar top. As the geologists continued their lively debate about the mechanism of the moving rocks at Racetrack playa, one of them noticed their beer was slowly sliding away from them, being rafted by the puddle of condensation. That was it! They realized that even a small amount of rain on the salt flat can quickly super-saturate the ground and create a glide plane where the coefficient of friction between the rock and the salt flat becomes essentially zero. Then, even moderate winds can push the rocks, leaving behind minor scoured trails. They tested their theory by camping out at Racetrack Playa during the “rainy” season, and sure enough, during an afternoon rainstorm, they were able to observe the rock in motion. This is yet another example of the importance of geologic debate at the end of a field day, drinking your cold beverage of choice with your colleagues.

As described by Chaucer (yes, that Chaucer from college lit) in the Nun’s Priest’s Tale, a vain rooster is fooled by a cunning fox on Syn March bigan thritty days and two. (Please note, nothing is being referenced in here because you should question everything we are writing.) This roughly translates to March 32nd, or April 1st. The fool’s day. Perhaps the origin more likely stems from celebrations of New Years in the Middle Ages that took place March 25 to, you guessed it, April 1st. Those traditionalists of the day who celebrated New Years on January 1st called April 1st the fool’s day. That brings us to the fun part: let’s play a game. Two of the three stories below are true, and one is false. You (NOT GOOGLE) need to decide which ones are true, and which one(s), see what I did there, makes you question the rules about two being true, is/are false. Make your decisions and let us know your answer on RMAG social media with #RMAGFoolsGOLD. We will pick a winner from all the correct answers and that lucky winner will receive a stuffed trilobite!

STORY 1: MOVING ROCKS AT RACETRACK PLAYA:

In the salt flats of California, just northwest of Death Valley National Park, there is a unique geologic location called Racetrack Playa. It is named for the mysterious moving rocks that leave trail of movement for hundreds of meters. In such a flat landscape OUTCROP | April 2021

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RMAG April Short Course

Fractures 101 Dr. Molly Turko, Applied Stratigraphix

4/28-29/21

2 half-days, 9am-12pm MDT $150 members $185 non-members $75 students Register at www.rmag.org email: staff@rmag.org | phone: 800.970.7624 Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

1999 Broadway, Suite 730, Denver CO 80202

Fractures are incredibly important in the subsurface, yet there is a vast range of topics to discuss regarding their origin, impact, and proper ways to model them. In this class we will discuss why fractures occur, including the basics of fracture mechanics and the relationship to both pale- and neo-stress (modern in situ stress fields). We will also look at fracture data from core, image logs, and outcrop which can be used to assess fractures in a reservoir. While some fracture types can act as fluid conduits, others may act as baffles or barriers to flow. We’ll look at what may cause these differences and how to predict which type may occur in a given reservoir. Fractured areas in a reservoir can also be predicted based on fault models and stress, therefore we will look at the concepts behind fault geometries, stress/strain, and fractured areas. We will discuss several of the tools that can be used to predict fracturing including software or by simply understanding the kinematics and several guidelines. We will also cover what it means for a fault or fracture to be critically stressed and the geohazards associated with the operation risks. By the end of the class the participants should have a basic understanding of fracture mechanics, be able to predict fractured areas in a reservoir based on kinematics, and be able to discuss potential impacts of fractures in a reservoir.

Online 13

fax: 323.352.0046 | web: www.rmag.org

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follow: @rmagdenver

PRESIDENT’S LETTER resigned forever from teaching, struggled for years with Depression-era unemployment, painful notoriety, and debilitating illness, but finally achieved success and lifelong stability in his new profession: petroleum geology.

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STORY 2: MONKEYS ON TRIAL After getting a law degree from the University of Kentucky, John T. Scopes took his first job in 1924 in the little Bible Belt town of Dayton, Tennessee. He was hired to be the high school football coach. As a first-year substitute teacher in a science class, he taught the theory of evolution, which explains, of course, how new species or populations develop through natural selection from preexisting forms over successive generations. Scopes was promptly arrested. The Volunteer State had recently prohibited public school teachers from teaching the theory of human evolution, thereby denying the Biblical account of man’s creation. Religious fundamentalism was ascendant around the country, and many people equated evolution with the notion that man came from monkeys. He was tried over eight brutally hot summer days in what came to be known as the Monkey Trial. It was a national sensation, with celebrity lawyers on both sides, the first trial to be broadcast live coastto-coast by radio. Scopes was convicted by a jury of his peers after just minutes of deliberation. He

OUTCROP | April 2021

STORY 3: PUTTING THE ROCK IN ROCK AND ROLL Growing up in Texas can often lead to a stint in the oil patch, even if it’s merely a stepping stone to something else. This is true for Roy. He began his working days as a mud logger and with a diligent work ethic and strong grades, he got into the geology program at North Texas State. After a few classes on petroleum geology, Roy questioned the future of the science and decided to start singing in local honkytonks. He overheard the song Ooby Dooby at a frat party and immediately was captivated by the tune. Let’s just say Roy Orbison is no longer a scientist, but his version of Ooby Dooby does play in a bar fight scene in Star Trek: First Contact, forever linking fighting the Borg and studying geology in Denton, TX.

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

STARTING IN JUNE RMAG’s Geohike Challenge is back for 2021!

The 2021 RMAG Geohike Challenge is going to be bigger and better than ever! Get ready for new scavenger hunt items, new hats & t-shirts, monthly prizes, and a kick-off event in June (with COVID precautions in place as necessary). Registration opening soon— watch www.rmag.org for details.

HIKE IT

•

CLIMB IT

•

FIND IT

Get your hiking boots ready!

#rmaggeohikechallenge2021

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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LEAD STORY

PERSEVERANCE AND THE RED PLANET BY COURTNEY ANTOLIK, NATE ROGERS, WYLIE WALKER AND NATE LAFONTAINE

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new visitor landed on Mars this February: the Perseverance rover. It is accompanied by a robotic helicopter named Ingenuity and will explore Mars for the next Martian year (about 21 months on Earth). Perseverance is the fifth rover to land on Mars, following in the tracks of the Sojourner, Opportunity, Spirit and Curiosity rovers. Perseverance is a key part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program (MEP), a science-driven and technology-enabled study of the Mars planetary system. Why explore Mars? The Red Planet is one of the most accessible places in our solar system and has atmospheric, climatic and geologic systems similar to Earth’s. The planetary history and evolution of Mars can help answer questions on Earth about the origins of life, and the future of our home. If Mars proves to be hospitable to human life, it could one day become home to humans. Perseverance has a busy road ahead with four main mission goals: determine whether life ever existed on Mars, characterize the climate of Mars, characterize the geology of Mars, and prepare for human exploration.

Water is essential for all forms of life. Previous Mars explorations have found frozen water in polar ice caps, subglacial ice and ground ice. Although there is no liquid water on Mars today, there is evidence that it once existed. Deltas and river and lake valleys are surficial evidence for ancient water flow on Mars, while hydrated minerals provide chemical evidence. A recent paper in Science suggests that the water that used to flow on Mars is now trapped in the rocks on Mars. Perseverance is searching for biosignatures of life in the Martian soil and rocks. On Earth, biosignatures include carbon (or carbonate minerals) and fossils. The signs of ancient life on Mars may be quite different, but this is a good place to start. On a previous expedition, the Mars reconnaissance orbiter found evidence of clay minerals in the Jezero Crater–minerals that only from in the presence of water. Perseverance began its search for life in Jezero Crater, a 28-mile-wide crater just north of the Martian equator (Figure 2). Jezero is part of the Isidis Planitia region, a 750-mile-wide basin that formed from an ancient meteorite impact.

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SHUTTERSTOCK

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LIFE ON MARS

LEAD STORY An alternative theory suggests that some Martian river channels were formed by meltwater underneath glacial ice sheets, instead of flowing rivers (Figure 4). Researchers from the University of British Columbia, Western University and Arizona State University compared imagery of channels and valleys on Mars to glacially carved channels on Earth. They found striking similarities between Martian river channels and the glacially carved channels in the Canadian Arctic. The theory is coupled with ancient climate data suggesting the Martian climate was too cold to support running water when the valleys and channels formed. Data collected by the Perseverance rover should provide more insight into the origin of Mars’ valleys and channels.

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Scientists believe that a river once flowed into Jezero crater, making it an excellent place to explore.

WATER ON MARS

Imagery of the Jezero crater appears to show an ancient lake and river system (Figure 3). The fanshaped apron of debris and meandering channel patterns are characteristic of river deposits here on Earth. NASA scientists chose the Jezero crater as the Perseverance’s landing spot for several reasons. The rocks in the crater may have preserved ancient organic molecules or other microbial life forms from the river water that flowed into the crater billions of years ago. Carbonate and clay rocks in the Jezero crater are good candidates for preservation. The rocks in Jezero can also tell scientists about the conditions outside of the crater, since rocks and minerals from other areas were likely deposited in the crater by the ancient river.

CLIMATE OF MARS

The Perseverance rover will also help scientists characterize the climate of Mars. Data from previous

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FIGURE 1: Perseverance instruments. Many of the instruments aboard Perseverance are similar to those

geologists use on Earth. Photo from NASA.

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Figure 2A

Jezero Crater landing site. Image taken by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2019. Image from NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/JHU-APL.

FIGURE 2: (a) Jezero Crater landing site. Image taken

by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in 2019. Image from NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/JHU-APL.

Figure 2B

River deltas in the Lake Ayakum Tibetan Plateau. Photo courtesy NASA. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/50500/river-deltas-lakeLake Ayakum Tibetan Plateau. Photo courtesy NASA. ayakum-tibet

FIGURE 2: (b) River delta analogue on earth. River deltas in the

Figure 3

This ann could tak may hav delta pro then trav and then surround prime m crater ne

This mos Camera meters)

Photo fro

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FIGURE 3: This annotated mosaic depicts a possible route the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover could take across Jezero Crater as

it investigates several ancient environments that may have once been habitable. The route begins at the cliffs defining the base of a delta produced by a river as it flowed into a lake that once filled the crater. The path then traverses up and across the delta toward possible ancient shoreline deposits, and then climbs the 2,000-foot-high (610-meter-high) crater rim to explore the surrounding plains. About half of this traverse could be completed in Perseverance’s prime mission (one Mars year, or two Earth years). For reference, the prominent crater near the center of the image is about 0.6 miles (1 kilometer) across. This mosaic is composed of multiple precisely aligned images from the Context Camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and has a resolution of 20 meet (6 meters) per pixel. Photo from NASA/JPL-Caltech.

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LEAD STORY from -243° F at the poles to 68° F at the equator. The temperature differences create high wind speeds and the dust storms that give Mars its nickname. Dust storms are especially prevalent in the southern spring and summer and can encompass the entire planet. Data collected by Perseverance and other rovers will help scientists make detailed weather maps and understand how much dust and water vapor are in the Martian atmosphere. Just like on Earth, the Martian rock record holds clues to the planet’s climatic history.

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Mars exploration missions suggest that rivers and lakes once existed on Mars, but the planet is now dry. Understanding the climate history of Mars can give scientists insight on what the Earth’s future climate may be like, and if Mars is hospitable to human exploration. Mars has seasons similar to Earth’s, thanks to its axial tilt of 25°. However, the seasons on Mars are twice as long as seasons on Earth, as Mars is much farther away from the sun. The Martian atmosphere is composed of CO2 and very thin–only 1% as thick as the Earth’s atmosphere (Figure 5). Like Earth, Mars has polar ice caps, although they are primarily composed of CO2 with some frozen water. Seasonal changes in the polar ice caps and movement of large amounts of dust in the atmosphere control the climate on Mars. Atmospheric temperatures on Mars vary wildly,

GEOLOGY OF MARS

Mars and Earth are similar geologically. Both planets are terrestrial and have a core, mantle and crust. While the Earth’s plates are constantly moving, creating volcanoes and mid-ocean spreading centers,

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FIGURE 4:

Left: Glacier-cut channels on Devon Island in the Canadian Arctic. Right: channels on Mars in the Maumee Valles region. Photo from Cal-Tech CTX mosaic and MAXAR/Esri.

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LEAD STORY FIGURE 5

Source: Mars.Nasa.Gov FIGURE 5: Meteor impacts are frequent on Mars, due to its thin

Meteor Crater in Northern Arizona Source: Forbes

Mars is tectonically dead. Temperature differences between the Earth’s liquid outer core and the mantle drives convection in the mantle and plate tectonics. Although Mars is thought to have a molten core, there is no convection in the mantle, and thus, no plate tectonics. As a result, the crust of Mars is very thick compared to the Earth’s crust. The rocks that make up the surface of Mars are basalts, similar to Earth’s oceanic crust. Although Mars is about half the size of Earth in diameter, the two planets have roughly the same dry land surface area. This is because 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, while Mars has no liquid water on its surface. Despite the tectonic differences, the surface of Mars is similar to the surface of the Earth, suggesting that similar geologic processes occurred on both planets. Both planets have volcanoes, valleys, craters, layered sedimentary rocks, channels and deltas (Figures 6-9). However, it’s still not clear how geologic forces like wind, water and volcanoes have worked together to shape the surface of Mars. Understanding Martian geology is the key to understanding its formation and planetary evolution.

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The data collected by Perseverance will help scientists understand the timing and composition of Martian rocks, critical information in the search for life. Martian geology can also shed light on the origins of some of the key differences between Mars and Earth. For example, Mars does not have a convectively flowing liquid mantle and magnetic field like Earth, but magnetic materials on Mars suggest that it once did. An ancient magnetic field means Mars may have once been tectonically active like Earth, as magnetism would have affected Mars’ interior structure, temperature and composition. A magnetic field also has implications about life, as Earth’s magnetic field shields the planet from harmful cosmic rays.

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atmosphere. The post-depositional impact crater “Belva” sits within the fluvial delta bordering the Perseverance landing site. Unlike Earth, preservation of impact craters is extremely common on the surface of Mars, reflecting the low erosion rates. Note the presence of bedforms within the crater, likely reflecting aeolian sedimentary processes. Sources: Forbes and NASA.

WHAT’S NEXT ON MARS?

On April 8, 2021, the Ingenuity helicopter that accompanies Perseverance will take flight. Ingenuity will complete several test flights, operating autonomously and recharging its batteries with solar power. The purpose of Ingenuity is to test and develop powered flight on Mars–a tall order, given the drastic atmospheric and temperature differences between

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LEAD STORY

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Mars and Earth. If Ingenuity proves to be successful, this could pave the way for human exploration of Mars. Perseverance will continue exploring and collecting data on Mars for the next Martian year. Part of the rover’s duties is to collect core and soil samples and store them for the future return to Earth. The Mars Sample Return Mission, planned for 2026 or 2028, will send a Sample Retrieval Lander to Mars to collect the samples left by Perseverance. These samples will be dropped into orbit around Mars and collected by another spacecraft, the Earth Return Orbiter. If all goes according to plan, the samples will be back on Earth by 2031.

• https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210121131947.htm

• https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/19/science/ mars-water-missing.html

• https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capi-

tal-weather-gang/wp/2015/10/18/the-weath-

er-on-mars-is-both-totally-alien-and-somewhatearth-like-all-at-once/

• https://earthsky.org/space/mars-river-chan-

nels-ice-sheets-devon-island-canadian-arctic-archipelago

• https://www.cbsnews.com/news/na-

sa-mars-landing-perseverance-rover-rock-sam-

SOURCES AND FURTHER READING:

ple-return-mission/

• https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-prepares-for-first-flight • https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/

• https://www.popsci.com/story/space/ asteroid-impacts-moon-mars/

FIGURE 6: An image of the Mars Perseverance Landing Site at Jezero Crater (left) shows geomorphology similar to that found

on Earth, as shown in the desert of Coconino County, NE Arizona (right). The Mars image show characteristic signs of fluvial processes cutting through an escarpment and depositing in an interpreted delta front near the landing site. Off-axis of the deltaic deposits are arcuate-shaped deposits, possibly representing earlier deposition or aeolian processes acting at the base of the escarpment. These processes can be identified in the Coconino County analog, with fluvial deposits cutting through an escarpment and depositing at the toe of the escarpment. Similar arcuate deposits are observed here where aeolian processes redistribute sediment.

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Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

Layered sediments of the delta on Mars

Mancos shale, near Green River Utah

https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-56238018 FIGURE 7: Layered sediments in a delta on Mars (NASA) and layered sediments in the Mancos Shale, near Green

River, UT (photo by Nate Rogers). A Wind-Carved Rock

Figure 8

February 24, 2021 FIGURE 8: 360-degree panorama taken by the This wind-carved rock seen in first Mastcam-Z instrument shows just how much detail is captured by the camera systems. View full image and caption ›

Figure 7 A wind-carved rock on Mars (NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/ASU) compared to a wind-carved rock in the Altiplano region of Bolivia (Wikipedia).

A rock sculpted by wind erosion in the Altiplano region of Bolivia source : wikipedia

Credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS/ASU https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25642/a-wind-carved-rock/

Figure 10

Figure 9 https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25642/a-wind-carved-rock/

FIGURE 9: The Olympus Mons shield volcano on Mars is over

FIGURE 10: Ingenuity helicopter on Mars (NASA).

21 km tall and is the tallest planetary mountain in the solar system (NSF). Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP | April 2021

ONLINE LUNCH TALK

FREE!

Speaker: li Jaffri, Ph.D. April 7, 2021 | 12:00 pm - 1:00 pm

BERS MEM Y ONL

Putting the Sedimentology back into Sediment-Hosted Uranium-Vanadium Exploration Ali Jaffri, Ph.D., CEO Applied Stratigraphix boom which happened forty years ago. The goal of this presentation is to integrate our current understanding of sedimentary processes and plant taphonomy to not only explain trends observed by ‘old-timers’ but to provide predictive models that aid in future exploration efforts.

Geochemistry and basin hydrology are traditionally used for uranium exploration in the US. Predictive models are based on ‘old-timer’ principles based on sedimentological criteria that were passed from one generation of miners to the next. Unfortunately, these sedimentological models have not been updated since the last uranium

ALI JAFFRI, PH.D. is the CEO of US-based Applied Stratigraphix LLC, and has twenty-two years of international experience. He has worked on projects in the US, Norway, Angola, Kazakhstan, New Zealand, UK, Mozambique, Madagascar, Pakistan, and Equatorial Guinea. He has a doctorate from Colorado State, Masters from Oklahoma State and Bachelors from University of Colorado. Specializing in sediment-hosted metals and Potash he has trained over five hundred geologists and engineers from fifty-six companies in ten countries. He is currently serving on the AAPG-Energy Mineral Division’s Uranium Committee.

Are you following us on Instagram?

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FIELD TRIPS ARE BACK!

RMAG On the ROcks Field tRips 2021 tentAtively plAnned tRips

We are moving ahead with planning and have set some dates for trips. Registration is not open yet, but we hope to finalize plans in May. Please be patient as we navigate this new Covid world. ¿ Corral Bluffs Fossils: Rise of the Mammals (date TBD) ¿ Cripple Creek/Victor Mine Tour (August 7) ¿ Detroit Rhodochrosite Mine Tour (limited to 6 people; July) ¿ Dinosaur Ridge (August)

email: | phone: 800.970.7624 Vol.staff@rmag.org 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org 1999 Broadway, Suite 730, Denver CO 80202

¿ Downtown Denver Building Stones (virtual trip; June) ¿ Paint Mines Interpretive Park (July) ¿ Picketwire Dinosaur Trackways (October) ¿ Sweetwater Valley/Eagle Basin Fossil Trip (July 10) fax: 323.352.0046 OUTCROP | web: www.rmag.org | April 2021 follow: @rmagdenver

ONLINE LUNCH TALK

FREE!

Speaker: Dr. Steven A. Tedesco May 5, 2021 | 12:00 pm - 1:00 pm

BERS MEM Y ONL

Helium Opportunity or False Hope for Operators By Dr. Steven A. Tedesco portable units that can vary from $750,000 (US) to $3,000,000 (US). The majority of remaining deposits in Canada and the US are relatively small in area extent, high grade and limited in helium reserves such as Harley Dome, Pinta-Navajo Springs-Navajo Springs East, Ryersee, Las Animas Arch, Rattlesnake, Keyes, Arrowhead, and DinahBi-Keyah to name a few. The likelihood of finding a substantially large in areal extent (township or bigger) deposits such as Reichel, Otis-Albert, Big Piney-La Barge, Hugoton and Texas Panhandle are remote considering the intensity of drilling that has occurred throughout US and Canadian petroleum basins. Exploring for helium has not proven to be simple as applying petroleum basin analysis techniques. The source of helium has been ascribed to the mantle, crustal and sedimentary rocks which all do contributed and the percentage of each types involvement in an accumulation tends to be area specific. Association with some helium accumulations and basement intrusions has been

Helium recovery in the US and Canada present unique but a difficult opportunity for oil and gas operators. Helium is an inert molecule, with the lowest temperature in which it will turn to liquid, does not combine with other elements or forms any compounds except at high temperatures and pressures. Helium is a critical element whose demand is constantly rising especially in semi-conductors, refrigeration, health care, welding and fusion. Production worldwide is generally from the US, Algiers, Qatar, Russia, Australia, Poland and Canada. Present helium prices are hovering around $300 an MCF and prior to the pandemic there was a significant and growing shortage. The majority of helium production in the US is from the Big Piney-La Barge Platform, Wyoming as the Cliffside Facility in the Texas Panhandle Field has shut down. Helium is extracted from the natural gas stream when it can be done economically. The cost of recovering helium from the natural gas stream is the additional expense for a cryogenic plant for generally limited reservoirs are small

» CONTINUED ON PAGE 28

DR. STEVEN TEDESCO is Managing Partner of StarFox Helium, Owner of Running Foxes Petroleum Inc. and President of Atoka Geochemical and has over 40 year’s experience in oil and gas, waterflooding, coalbed methane, renewables, nuclear and mining. Dr. Tedesco has a PhD from the Colorado School of Mines, MS from Southern Illinois University, a BS from Northeastern University in Boston. Dr. Tedesco has written several articles on surface geochemistry, operations related to coalbed methane, gas production, Pennsylvanian geology of the Cherokee, Forest City and southern Denver Basins, a textbook on surface geochemistry in petroleum exploration and an up an upcoming textbook to be published by Elsevier that is titled Helium, Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen deposits later this year. Dr. Tedesco has found several oil and gas deposits such as the Arikaree Creek Field in Lincoln County, Colorado, found new reserves in several fields in the Mid-Continent, and developed a number of waterfloods such as Devon Field in Kansas and Thomas Field in Missouri to name a few. OUTCROP | April 2021

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G eoloGisTs

n i g Cl t r o a p

T he R ocky M ounTain a ssociaTion

8/5/21 to

urname

t n

Kiowa Creek Sporting Club | August 5, 2021 • Prizes for individual high score and team 1st, 2nd, & 3rd flights • Includes 1 round of 100 sporting clays, lunch, and door prizes • Does not include ammunition (please bring enough ammo for 100 clays, or you may purchase ammo at Kiowa Creek) • You may rent a gun for $20 onsite (limited quantities)

5 person team (member): $425 5 person team (non-member): $500 Individual (member): $85 Individual (non-member): $100

Registration and sponsorships available at www.rmag.org! Thanks to our Premier Event Sponsor, Confluence Resources! email: staff@rmag.org | phone: 800.970.7624 Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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ONLINE LUNCH TALK: MAY is followed by seismic to define the structural relief and highest point of the target. There is potential growing helium supply from the Amur in Russia and Qatar that will come on line in 2021 and 2022 but it is probably a short-term solution. Areas such as South Africa and Tanzania while prospective, these types of deposits are either limited in repeatability and have production issues, the former, or already been historically tested, the latter. Then there are issues of governmental interference which typically occurs in non-democratic based economies such as the Middle East, Tanzania, Russia or China. Helium is a critical and strategic element that provides a unique opportunity but it takes significant exploration effort to find new reserves.

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documented but many deposits show no relationship. There is no set exploration model to follow and each area has different characteristics that actually are not always easily defined. Helium has a strong association with nitrogen in the gas stream but the reverse is not true as indicated by the nitrogen rich gas fields in Germany. Exploration methods has at many times been limited to published gas analysis by the USGS and USBM data which has focused helium drilling in certain areas such as Kansas, Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. Traps are generally structural or stratigraphic-structure as helium tends to accumulate in the highest point of the reservoir. Defining a potential target if no gas analysis for existing wellbores is available is to use surface geochemistry that specifically analyzes for helium. This sometimes

WELCOME NEW RMAG MEMBERS!

Daniel Amrine

is Owner of Grand River Analytics LLC and lives in Lochbuie, Colorado.

Jason Braden

lives in Tomball, Texas.

Hannah Cothren

is a student at Utah State University and lives in Pleasant Garden, North Carolina.

Tom Dimelow

lives in Denver, Colorado.

Nazzareno Diodato

is Research Director at Met European Research Observatory International Affiliates’ Program of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. OUTCROP | April 2021

Drew Drummond

is a student at the University of Glasgow and lives in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Sue Hirschfeld

Gary King

is President of Greenbriar Resources Corporation and lives in Edmond, Oklahoma.

Duncan MacKenzie

is a Professor Emerita at California State University, East Bay and lives in Boulder, Colorado.

is VP Geosciences with Global Helium Corp. and lives in Saint-Lambert, Quebec.

is Geological Consultant with Applied Stratigraphix in Westminster, Colorado.

is a Geologist with Oxy and lives in Houston, Texas.

Ali Jaffri

Ryan King

is a Geochemist with Ellington Geological Services and lives in Arvada, Colorado.

Cameron Ross Jill Thompson

is works at QEP Resources and lives in Denver, Colorado.

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S E P T E M B E R 15 2021

2021

RMAG GOLF

TOURNAMENT

1:30pm Shotgun at Arrowhead Golf Club

Registration includes entry, 18-holes of golf, cart, dinner, & entry to win great door prizes

Registration open! Teams of 4 and Individuals are welcome to register. Member Individual: $150 Non-Member Individual: $175

Member Team: $600 Non-Member Team: $700

email: staﬀ@rmag.org

phone: 800.970.7624

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1999 Broadway, Ste. 730, Denver, CO, 80202

fax: 323.352.0046

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IN THE PIPELINE APRIL 2, 2021

APRIL 9, 2021

APRIL 22, 2021

DAPL Ski Day.

DIPS Luncheon. Bits, Bytes, and Barrels: The Digital Transformation of Oil and Gas. Speaker: Geoffrey Cann

Denver Petroleum Club Cornhole Tournament. Denver Athletic Club, 4:30 PM-7:00 PM.

APRIL 7, 2021 RMAG Online Luncheon. Speaker: Ali Jaffri. “Putting the Sedimentology Back into SedimentHosted Uranium-Vanadium Exploration.” Online via RingCentral Meetings. 12:00 PM-1:00 PM.

APRIL 23, 2021 APRIL 20, 2021

Gas Processors Association. Rocky Mtn. Chapter Restoring Colorado’s Forest - Seedling Plantings. Pike National Forest, La Veta, CO. 8:00 AM- 6:00 PM.

DWLS Webinar. Speaker: TBA. Call Dominic Holmes at 303-770-4235. Or register online. APRIL 21, 2021

APRIL 28-29, 2021

Colorado Energy Foundation Webinar. “Oil and Gas 101.” 11 AM-12 Noon. Register at Coga.org.

RMAG Short Course Fractures 101

2019.3.2 Available for Download Peter Batdorf

CONTACT YOUR ACCOUNT MANAGER

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Senior Account Manager (GeoGraphix by LMKR) C : + 1 724 919 2506 | P : + 1 412 795 1271 pbatdorf@lmkr.com

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Proudly developing Colorado’s energy potential through innovation, safety and a commitment to our community l e a r n m o r e at : w w w . c r e s t o n e p e a k r e s o u r c e s . c o m Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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Announcement of the 2021 Scholarship Winners The RMAG Foundation is pleased to announce the winners of the 2021 scholarships. These students submitted the top applications from a total of 55 applications that were received this year. Congratulations to all of them!

• Elijah Adeniyi, a PhD candidate at Montana State University, is awarded the Norman Foster Scholarship. Elijah’s dissertation is entitled “Genetic origin of the Upper Devonian Duperow Formation CO2 and other gasses within Kevin Dome’s petroleum systems, Northwest Montana”. Elijah was also awarded the Norman Foster Scholarship in 2019. • Ryan Allen is a Masters’ student in the Museum and Field Studies Program at the University of Colorado, Boulder and is the winner of the Dudley and Marion Bolyard Scholarship. His research topic is “A Juvenile Cretaceous Crocodilian in an Enigmatic Concretion from Montana”. • Edward Berke is a Masters’ candidate at Iowa State University and is one of two Gary Babcock Scholarship winners. His thesis is entitled “Petrological, Mineralogical and Geochemical Studies of Proterozoic Copper-Zinc-Lead-GoldSilver Deposits, Colorado”. • Mitchell Grimm, a Masters’ student at Colorado School of Mines, is the Michael Johnson OUTCROP | April 2021

Scholarship awardee. His thesis focuses on “Calculating the “Collective Permeability” of the Natural Fractures within the Upper Cretaceous Pierre Shale, Denver-Julesburg Basin, Denver, Colorado”. • Adam Lane, a PhD candidate at the University of Kansas, has been awarded the Veterans’ Memorial Scholarship. His dissertation topic is “Possible Structurally Controlled Hydrothermal Dolomite and Mississippi Valley-Type Mineralization in Eastern Colorado: Investigations and Implications of the Arikaree Creek Field, Denver Basin”. • Hanaga Simabrata is a Masters’ candidate at Colorado School of Mines (CSM) and the winner of the CSM Scholarship. His thesis topic is “Multi-Scale Characterization of Deformation of Mixed Carbonate-Siliciclastic Mass Transport Deposits, Cutoff Formation, Guadalupe Mountains, Texas”. • Alexa Socianu, a PhD student at Colorado School of Mines, has been awarded the Robert M. Cluff Scholarship. Her dissertation

research is entitled “From Pore to Production: A Multiscale Assessment of Mudrock Heterogeneity Within the Mowry Shale, Powder River Basin, Wyoming”. • Haley Thoresen is a PhD student at the University of Idaho and is one of two Gary Babcock Scholarship winners. Her dissertation title is “Eocene Extensional Basins in the Western United States Cordillera: Timing of Basin Formation and Hydrocarbon Potential”. • Haley Thorson, a Masters’ student at Colorado School of Mines, is the Stone-Hollberg Scholarship awardee. Her thesis research focuses on “Structural deformation and geologic history of the Pre-Laramide salt tectonics in the Eagle Basin, Garfield County, Colorado”. • Luke Gezovich, a Masters’ candidate at Colorado School of Mines, has been awarded the RMAG Foundation’s first Publication Charge Grant for his research paper on “Machine Learning Differentiation of Fluvial Fans and Deltas”.

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

Mallard Exploration is a Denver-based upstream Oil & Gas Exploration and Production company focused on the DJ Basin of Colorado. We are building a successful business with strong ethics, hard work and industry-leading technology.

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

OUTCROP | April 2021

MINERAL OF THE QUARTER By Ronald L. Parker Senior Geologist, Senior Geologist, Borehole Image Specialists, P. O. Box 221724, Denver CO 80222 | ron@bhigeo.com

WOLLASTONITE The Most Versatile Pyroxenoid

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Translucent, white, prismatic wollastonite crystals and blue calcite. Boreas River, Minerva, Essex County, New York. Photo with permission from John Betts Fine Minerals

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE

Wollastonite, CaSiO3 is a common calcium silicate mineral that is truly remarkable as one of the world’s most useful minerals. Wollastonite is primarily derived from medium- to high-temperature contact metamorphism of silica-bearing carbonate rocks. Wollastonite is a single-chain inosilicate that has a structure like the pyroxenes – with a twist! The larger ionic radius of Ca, when compared to the divalent Fe and Mg of pyroxenes, causes the silica tetrahedral backbone of wollastonite to kink. Inosilicates with this departure are termed pyroxenoids. Wollastonite possesses a range of physical properties that make it an extremely useful industrial mineral. Consequently, wollastonite is distributed far and wide in materials and products that people use every day and this omnipresence is almost universally unrecognized. Without wollastonite, the modern world would be a lesser place. Wollastonite is named for Sir William Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828), an English mineralogist and chemist, who was an eminent scientist in his day (USGS, 2001). Initially a physician, he abandoned medicine to pursue his interests in chemistry, crystallography, metallurgy and physics. Developing chemical processes for purifying platinum led to his discovery of the elements palladium (Pd) in 1804 and rhodium (Rh) in 1809 (Bonewitz, 2005). He did not discover wollastonite, but it was named for him in 1818, 10 years before his death. Wollaston is also noted to have invented the reflecting goniometer (1809) and the camera lucida (1812), both inventions that made great contributions to scientific advance (Mindat, 2021). Because of this, in 1831, the Geological Society of London established the Wollaston Medal as its highest award. Wollastonite is a pyroxenoid, a single-chain inosilicate that bears a crystal structure that is similar to, but not exactly like, the structure of pyroxene-family minerals. In pyroxenes the silica tetrahedral backbone is straight; in pyroxenoids the tetrahedral chain is bent or twisted. In both the pyroxenes and pyroxenoids, silica tetrahedra (SiO44-) are lined up so that alternating tetrahedra share two of the three basal oxygen atoms. The two oxygens shared with adjacent tetrahedra contribute a ½ mass unit to the silicon atom in the tetrahedral center. Combined with the two unshared oxygens, these total 3 (1 + 1 + ½ + ½) to give the Si:O

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Unusual long brown wollastonite crystal. Grenville Province, Quebec, Canada. Long dimension is ~6 cm. Photo used with permission from John Betts Fine Minerals. of 1 to 3. Largely due to the twisted silicate backbone of the structure, wollastonite has the lowest mineral symmetry (bar-1, triclinic). There are six wollastonite polymorphs (1A, 2M, 3A, 4A, 5A and 7A polytypes, Mineral Data Publishing, 2001). Only the 1A polytype (aka, wollastonite-Tc) is common (Chang, 2002; Nesse, 2004). Wollastonite is often quite close to stoichiometric CaSiO3, and purer crystals appear white or colorless (Klein and Philpotts, 2013). Substitution of Ca2+ by up to 20 mole percent Fe2+, and Mn2+ (and lesser Mg2+) is noted from some wollastonites (Klein, 2002; Nesse, 2004). Other elements noted in smaller amounts include aluminum, potassium, sodium and strontium (IMA-NA, 2021). Impurities impart slight coloration to gray, brown or pale-green. Wollastonite is sometimes observed to display orange-red or yellow fluorescence (Battey and Pring, 1997). Wollastonite rarely forms euhedral crystals, but

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE

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when they appear, they are most often tabular forms dominated by {100} and {001} (Johnsen, 2002). Wollastonite is usually found as bladed, columnar, acicular (needle-like) or radiating aggregates without good crystal faces. Elongation in wollastonite crystals occurs parallel to the b-crystallographic axis. Wollastonite has a hardness between 4.5 and 5.5, a specific gravity of 2.86-3.09 and a vitreous to pearly luster that is often silky when the material is fibrous. Wollastonite displays perfect cleavage on {100} and {001}; these cleavages intersect at 84° - a characteristics that permits it to be distinguished from look-alike tremolite which it can superficially resemble (Klein and Philpotts, 2013). Wollastonite forms as a primary mineral from highly alkaline igneous rocks, like carbonatites, from carbonate contamination of plutonic melts and, as minerals that form in high-grade, regionally metamorphosed rocks. By far, the most common geological occurrence of wollastonite is as a high-temperature, contact-metamorphic alteration product of silica-bearing carbonate rocks (sandy limestones and dolomites). Silica combining with a carbonate is called a decarbonation reaction (because it yields CO2 gas) and these only occur at elevated temperatures. The fundamental decarbonation reaction is: CaCO3 (calcite) + SiO2 (quartz) ↔ CaSiO3 (wollastonite) + CO2 (gas)

Sample of wollastonite (white), grossularite-andradite garnets (red-brown) and diopside (green) from Lewis, Essex County, NY. Specimen is 15 cm across at the widest. Photo by Ronald L. Parker.

The reverse reaction – carbonation – is the fundamental pathway of chemical weathering of silicate minerals by atmospheric carbon dioxide. CaSiO3 (wollastonite) + CO2 (gas) ↔ CaCO3 (calcite) + SiO2 (quartz)

Both of these reactions are fundamental parts of the geochemical carbon cycle that is indispensable for maintaining a planetary environment that is capable of hosting life (Stewart et. al., 2019). Incidentally, the wollastonite in these reactions is representative of many decarbonation/carbonation reactions with other cations and other silicates. In some contact-metamorphic locales, wollastonite may comprise almost 100% of the rock mass. In other places, wollastonite is found with a many other minerals. Wollastonite associates are usually dominated by other skarn regulars like calcite, dolomite,

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Blue calcite, wollastonite and graphite from the Valentine Quarry, Gouverneur Talc Company, New York. The specimen is 14 cm in long dimension. Photo by Ronald L. Parker. tremolite-actinolite, diopside, grossularite-andradite series garnets, epidote-zoisite, scapolite, augite, monticellite, forsterite, plagioclases, vesuvianite and other calc-silicates (Chang, 2002, Klein, 2002; Nesse, 2004; Bonewitz, 2005). A feature often seen in skarn mineralization is large, completely unoriented, interlocking crystals (Chang, 2002). In the United States, although wollastonite is

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE

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found in several parts of the country, it is only produced from two locations in New York state. Both occurrences are peripheral to the granulite and amphibolite-grade Grenvillian gneisses of the Adirondack massif. Both of these wollastonite deposits are associated with marbles and a range of other calc-silicate minerals. The mines and processing facilities in Essex County, N.Y., tap the largest wollastonite resource on Earth. These mines are operated by Imerys Performance Minerals, the largest industrial mineral supplier (Imerys, 2021). I spoke with Salvatore LaRosa, Quality Manager at Imerys Performance Minerals from the processing facility in Willsboro, N.Y. A 35+ year employee, Mr. LaRosa gave me a ton of great information about wollastonite and mining history. He also sent me some photographs to include in this article. The list of properties that make wollastonite so useful is spelled out on the Imerys Performance Minerals wollastonite webpage (Imerys, 2021). Although I have changed the order somewhat, these properties include: high melting point, low water solubility, relatively high hardness (4.5-5.0), high brightness,

Hand sample of wollastonite and green diopside from Gouverneur, NY. Sample is 11 cm across. Photo by Ronald L. Parker

» CONTINUED ON PAGE 38 Zoom of a fracture face on a boulder from the Lewis, Essex County, NY wollastonite district. Minerals consist of wollastonite (white), grossulariteandradite garnets (red-brown) and diopside (green) in an unoriented aggregate. Field of view is ~10 cm across. Photo by Ronald L. Parker.

Vol. 70, No. 4 | www.rmag.org

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of acicular wollastonite cleavage fragments. From from, Essex County, New York. Magnification 100X. Photo used with permission from Imerys Performance Minerals.

alkalinity, and low moisture and oil absorption. Possibly the most important physical property is that wollastonite readily breaks into acicular (needle-like) fragments when crushed. Another important property is that wollastonite is chemically inert, resisting chemical reaction with other components of manufacturing processes. Importantly, the useful properties of wollastonite are maintained, even at elevated temperatures (USGS, 2001). Wollastonite has a wide variety of industrial applications. These include: ceramic filler and glaze material, additive to paints, adhesives, sealants, plastics and electronics, as biomaterials, and as asbestos replacements. The multitudinous uses of wollastonite were not imagined until the 1950s, and not fully appreciated until the late 1970s. Thus, wollastonite is also singular in being a mineral commodity with a comparatively short exploitation history (Chang, 2002). In ceramics, the acicular crystal habit of wollastonite reinforces the strength of the material, acting as an analogue to rebar in concrete (USGS, 2001). Wollastonite incorporation also imparts fire-resistance, replacing asbestiform minerals without equivalent

OUTCROP | April 2021

health risks. With a low Loss-on-Ignition (LOI), wollastonite diminishes problems attributed to gas bubble generation, migration and capture during kiln firing, resulting in consistently smooth finishes with no pinholing. The low thermal expansion of wollastonite reduces kiln-induced shrinkage and speeds firing time (Chang, 2002). In addition to ceramic body material, wollastonite is used in glazes, enamels, frits and fluxes (IMA-NA, 2021). Ceramic products utilizing wollastonite include floor and wall tiles, large electric insulators, porcelain fixtures and specialty refractory ceramics, like the white tops of spark plugs (Kesler, 1994; Bonewitz, 2005). As a substitute for asbestos in fire-resistant construction applications, wollastonite augmentation is commonplace in interior and exterior construction boards, roof tiles, sheets, panels and sidings (IMA-NA, 2021). Wollastonite is used as a filler in paints, providing brightness and whiteness, which act to lend paint a high tint retention when additional colors are added. This character reduces the consumption of pigment materials. The acicular particles in wollastonite provide strength, hardening and crack reduction.

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE

High aspect ratio fibers also induce paint flattening and settling to facilitate drying with a uniform thickness (IMA-NA, 2021). Wollastonite has a low moisture and oil absorption rate, which reduces the quantity of binders necessitated in the paint formulation. The alkalinity of wollastonite also acts as a pH buffer for the liquid paint, increasing the life in the can. These properties also act to improve paint weathering Wollastonite is used extensively as a filler and an extender in plastics manufacturing. As in other applications, the acicular habit of the wollastonite fragments act to increase the scratch, impact, tensile and flexural strengths of the plastic. Plastic hardness is increased, which improves wear resistance and durability. Wollastonite addition to plastics decreases resin consumption and improves thermal and dimensional stability with increase in temperature. With low impurities, wollastonite magnifies the electrical insulating properties of plastics and adds fire resistance. A more recent advance in this arena is using nano-scale (as opposed to micro-scale) additives to plastics, yielding high-level reinforcement with smaller amounts of additives (Luyt, 2009) The plastics augmented by wollastonite include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon, polyesters, polyurethanes, polyureas and phenolic molding compounds, (USGS, 2001; Chang, 2002; IMA-NA, 2021). Wollastonite microfibers are being scrutinized as potential replacement material for cement. A primary benefit of such a replacement is an 80% decrease in the amount of expelled CO2 - concrete plants are substantial sources of CO2 pollution (He, 2020). The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) has studied the potential of wollastonite to facilitate CO2 capture and storage via mineralization (NYSERDA, 2012). More recent work by Haque et. al., 2020, demonstrates that wollastonite added as a soil amendment can lead to significant CO2 sequestration. Wollastonite is increasingly being used as a substitute for asbestiform minerals. Wollastonite imparts low thermal conductivity fire-resistance and increases flexural strength and impact resistance. Because wollastonite is stable to temperatures of 1,120°C (2,048°F), it finds use in temperature-related

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Hand-sample of wollastonite with a sprinkling red-brown garnets (grossularite-andradite series) and diopside (green) from Essex County, New York. Used with permission by Imerys Performance Minerals.

applications such as insulating products and automotive semi-metallic, non-asbestos friction devices like clutches and brakes (USGS, 2001; IMA-NA, 2021). As a replacement for asbestiform minerals, wollastonite avoids the adverse health effects of asbestos. An extensive review of wollastonite toxicity (Maxim, et. al., 2014) concludes that wollastonite exhibits comparatively low toxicity and no evidence of carcinogenicity. Wollastonite is an alkaline material that yields a pH near 10 when added to water. This permits it to act as an acid neutralizing medium (USGS, 2001). Aqueous geochemical studies over the last several decades have demonstrated the potential of wollastonite to act as a remedial material for removing specific contaminants from polluted waters. (Chang, 2002). Brooks et. al., 2000, demonstrated profound removal of phosphate from wastewater flushed through soil columns amended with wollastonite. Wollastonite has also been demonstrated to be an efficient sequestering agent of nickel (Sharma et. al., 1990). The high alkalinity of wollastonite in aqueous solutions is thought to promote heavy metal precipitation, and removal, as hydroxides (Maxim et. al., 2014). Wollastonite

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE REFERENCES

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is a highly bioactive material that is finding application as bone cement, bone implants, bone grafts, joint replacements and dental root material (Maxim et. al., 2014). Wollastonite has worldwide distribution, primarily in contact-metamorphosed skarns. Important localities for wollastonite occurrence include China (six provinces), Italy (Sardinia and Campania), Germany (Harz Mountains), France (Brittany), Romania (Cziklova), Mexico (Chiapas), Finland (Tammela), Canada (Oka and Asbestos), India (Rajasthan), Ireland (Antrim Co.), Japan and, Australia (Chang, 2002: Bonewitz, 2005). In the United States, wollastonite is known from occurrences in Utah, Michigan, California (Crestmore), Arizona (Sierrita Mountains) and New York (Adirondack Lowlands). The entirety of U.S. mining production for wollastonite over the last 65 years derives solely from the two mines around the perimeter of the Adirondack Mountains in Upstate NY: Lewis (and Willsboro) in Essex County and Diana in Lewis County (Klein, 2002). Wollastonite! A highly versatile pyroxenoid that is all around you without you knowing it. I’d like to extend special thanks to Salvatore LaRosa and Alice Grimes of Imerys Precision Minerals for providing me with valuable information about wollastonite. Mr. LaRosa also provided the photographs credited to Imerys Performance Minerals.

Battey, M. H., and A. Pring, 1997, Mineralogy for Students, 3rd Edition, Essex, England: Addison Wesley Longman, 363 pp. Bonewitz, Ronald Louis, 2005, Rock and Gem: The Definitive Guide to Rocks, Minerals, Gems and Fossils, New York, New York: Dorling-Kindersley Limited, 360 pp. _______________, 2013, Smithsonian Nature Guide: Gems, New York, New York: Dorling-Kindersley Limited, 224 pp. Brooks, Andrea S., Melissa N. Rosenwald, Larry D. Geohring, Leonard W. Lion and Tammo S. Steenhuis, 2000, Phosphorus Removal by Wollastonite: A Constructed Wetland Substrate, Ecological Engineering, 15: 121-132. Chang, Luke L.Y., 2002, Industrial Mineralogy: Materials, Processes and Uses, Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 472 pp. Haque, Fatima, Rafael M. Santos and Yi Wai Chiang, 2020, Optimizing Inorganic Carbon Sequestration and Crop Yield with Wollastonite Soil Amendment in a Microplot Study, Frontiers in Plant Science, 11:1012. https://www.frontiersin. org/journals/plant-science He, Ziming, Aiqin Shen, Zhenghua Lyu, Yue Li, Hansong Wu and Wenzhen Wang, 2020, Effect of Wollastonite Microfibers as Cement Replacement on the Properties of Cementitious Composites: A Review, Construction and Building Materials, 261:19920 IMA-NA, 2021, What is Wollastonite? https://www. ima-na.org/page/what_is_wollastonite Webpage, accessed 3/18/2021. Imerys Performance Minerals, 2021, website https://www.imerys-performance-minerals.com/ our-minerals/wollastonite accessed 3/17/2021. Johnsen, Ole, 2002, Minerals of the World: Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 439 pp. Kesler, Stephen A., 1994, Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment, New York: MacMillan College Publishing Company, Inc., 391 pp. Klein, Cornelis, 2002, The 22nd Edition of the Manual of Mineral Science: New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 641 pp.

ON-LINE REFERENCES

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollastonite • https://www.mindat.org/min-4323.html • https://rruff.info/doclib/hom/wollastonite.pdf • http://webmineral.com/data/Wollastonite-1A.shtml#.YFOSiK9KiHs • https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/ commodity-statistics-and-information • https://www.imerys-performance-minerals.com/ our-minerals/wollastonite • https://www.ima-na.org/page/ what_is_wollastonite • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ William_Hyde_Wollaston • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollaston_Medal OUTCROP | April 2021

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MINERAL OF THE QUARTER: WOLLASTONITE Nesse, William D., 2004, Introduction to Optical Mineralogy, 3rd Edition: New York: Oxford University Press, 348 pp. NYSERDA, 2012, Disposing of Greenhouse Gases Through Mineralization Using the Wollastonite Deposits of New York State, Final Report, New York State Energy Research and Development Authority Report 12-14, 28 pp. Sharma, Y.C., G. S. Gupta, G. Pradad and D. C. Rupainwar, 1990, Use of Wollastonite in the Removal of Ni (II) from Aqueous Solutions, Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 49:69-79. Stewart, E. M., Jay J. Ague, John M. Ferry, Craig M. Schiffries, Ren-Biao Tao, Terry T. Isson and Noah J. Planavsky, 2019, Carbonation and Decarbonation Reactions: Implications for Planetary Habitability, American Mineralogist, 104: 1369-1380. United States Geological Survey, 2001, Wollastonite – a Versatile Industrial Mineral, USGS Fact Sheet FS-002-01, 2 pp.

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Klein, Cornelis, and Anthony Philpotts, 2013, Earth Materials: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology, Cambridge University Press, 536 pp. Liu, Xuanyong, Chuanxian Ding and Paul K. Chu, 2004, Mechanism of Apatite Formation on Wollastonite Coatings in Simulated Body Fluids, Biomaterials, 25:1755-1761. Luyt, A. S., M. D. Dramicanin, Z. Antic and V. Djokovic, 2009, Morphology, Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Composites of Polypropylene and Nanostructured Wollastonite Filler, Polymer Testing, 28: 348-356. Maxim, L. Daniel, Ron Niebo, Mark J. Utell, E. E. McConnell, Salvatore LaRosa and Alan M. Segrave, 2014, Wollastonite Toxicity: An Update, Inhalation Toxicity, 26(20: 95-112. Mindat, 2021 Wollastonite, webpage https://www. mindat.org/min-4323.html , accessed 3/18/2021. Mineral Data Publishing, 2001, Wollastonite, webpage https://rruff.info/doclib/hom/wollastonite. pdf , accessed 3/18/2021.

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