Jnana

Jnana From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Jñāna) Jñāna or gñāna (/dʒəˈnɑːnə/,[1] Sanskrit; Pali: ñāna) is a Sanskrit word that means knowledge. It has various nuances of meaning depending on the context, and is used in a number of different Indian religions. The idea of jnana centers around a cognitive event which is recognized when experienced.[2] It is knowledge inseparable from the total experience of reality, especially a total reality, [2] or supreme being within Mahesha-dhama (and/or material world) such as Siva-Sakti.[3]

Contents • • • •

1 In Buddhist philosophy 2 In Vedic philosophy 3 See also 4 Notes

•

5 References

In Buddhist philosophy In Tibetan Buddhism, it refers to pure awareness that is free of conceptual encumbrances, and is contrasted with vijnana, which is a moment of 'divided knowing'. Entrance to, and progression through the ten stages of Jnana/Bhimis, will lead one to complete enlightenment and nibbana.[4] In the Vipassanā tradition of Buddhism there are the following ñanas according to Mahasi Sayadaw.[5] As a person meditates these ñanas or "knowledges" will be experienced in order. The experience of each may be brief or may last for years and the subjective intensity of each is variable. Each ñana could also be considered a jhāna although many are not stable and the mind has no way to remain embedded in the experience. Experiencing all the ñanas will lead to the first of the Four stages of enlightenment then the cycle will start over at a subtler level.[6]

1. Analytical Knowledge of Body and Mind (nama-rupa-pariccheda-ñana) (corresponds to 1st jhana) 2. Knowledge by Discerning Conditionality (paccaya-pariggaha-ñana) 3. Knowledge by Comprehension (sammasana-ñana) 4. Knowledge of Arising and Passing Away (udayabbaya-ñana) (corresponds to 2nd jhana) 5. Knowledge of Dissolution (bhanga-ñana) (corresponds to 3rd jhana) 6. Awareness of Fearfulness (bhayatupatthana-ñana) 7. Knowledge of Misery (adinava-ñana) 8. Knowledge of Disgust (nibbida-ñana) 9. Knowledge of Desire for Deliverance (muncitu-kamyata-ñana) 10. Knowledge of Re-observation (patisankhanupassana-ñana) 11. Knowledge of Equanimity about Formations (sankhar'upekkha-ñana) (corresponds to 4th jhana) 12. Insight Leading to emergence (vutthanagamini-vipassana-ñana) 13. Knowledge of Adaptation (anuloma-ñana) (one-time event) 14. Maturity Knowledge (gotrabhu-ñana) (one-time event) 15. Path Knowledge (magga-ñana) (one-time event) 16. Fruition Knowledge (phala-ñana) (corresponds to Nibbāna) 17. Knowledge of Reviewing (paccavekkhana-ñana)

In Vedic philosophy In Vedas it means true knowledge, that one's (jiva's) self, or he himself as soul (atman) is identical (in quality sense) with Ultimate Reality Brahman (Vishnu). It is also referred to as Atma Jnana which is frequently translated as self-realization. Jnana is very closely related to knowledge of Brahman. Real knowledge is that which leads to knowledge of Brahman (and all His gradations like Paramatma and Bhagavan), and false or speculative (material, atheistic) knowledge is one that diverts one from such transcendental knowledge of Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan.

Jnana Shakti is "the power of intellect, real wisdom, or knowledge".[7] Jñānālok is "the enlightenment that can be achieved through attainment of Knowledge and Truth".[7] One may also call brahmaloka, abode of Brahman or Vishnu a 'jnana-loka', at least that may be true if one follows advaita system of Shankaracarya: he is supreme jnani, best of all impersonalists, and ultimately Shiva/Shankaracarya says: worship Govinda (Krishna) - He is Supreme Brahman. And that Supreme Brahman has own abode, brahmaloka sanatana, that is Vaikuntha planet of Vishnu or Narayana (there are countless brahmaloka planets, abodes of Vishnu).[citation needed]

Jnana yoga is one of four general paths (margas), which are supposed to lead towards happiness and/or moksha (liberation) from material miseries. There are other three paths (for different temperaments etc.(quote?)) such as Karma, Yoga and Bhakti.[citation needed] As per Vedic philosophy, Jnana means a divine wisdom or total knowledge of everybody, everything, everywhere and every time in the entire cosmos. This wisdom can only be given by God, Bhagavan (when He comes personally or as avatara) to a qualified soul (usually through a chain of bona-fide spiritual masters: parampara, in five vaisnava sampradayas, including that from Sankaracarya, Shiva as vaisnava as well): demigod, human being etc., so believe the followers of the Dualist vedanta Philosophies, while the Nondual vedanta Philosophies(e.g. Advaita, and especially mayavada) posit that this knowledge is available to all, and that even the "gods" are but illusions (in this case this is close to materialism and atheism, which rejects souls, gods etc.).[citation needed] Narottama dasa Thakura compares the paths of karma-kanda and jnana-kanda to two pots of poison (karma-kanda, jnana-kanda, kevala visera bhanda). Liquor and poison are in the same category. According to this verse from Srimad-Bhagavatam, a person who has heard a good deal about the path of devotional service, but who is not attached to it, who is not Krsna conscious, is like a pot of liquor. Such a person cannot be purified without at least a slight touch of devotional service. Another comparison is to two witches: karma (exploitation of matter) and jnana (renunciation from matter without spiritual attachment and devotional service to Bhagavan) are chasing after devotee, but he is not interested in inferior levels of consciousness: karma, jnana, yoga - they all may go on for many lifetimes, but one is completely peaceful only in bhakti.[citation needed] Jnanis are those who cultivate jnana, speculative (that means it can be false or sometimes, rarely, if fortunate to be connected with bhakti - can be true) knowledge about Brahman. "There are two kinds of jnanis. One is inclined to devotional service and the other to impersonal realization. Impersonalists generally undergo great endeavor for no tangible benefit, and therefore it is said that they are husking paddy that has no grain (sthula-tushavaghatinah). The other class of jnanis, whose jnana is mixed with bhakti, are also of two kinds -- those who are devoted to the so-called "false form" (however, devotee knows that all forms of Supreme Bhagavan are eternal, even those which are in mode of goodness, sattva-guna) of the Supreme Personality of Godhead and those who understand the Supreme Personality of Godhead as sac-cid-ananda-vigraha [Bs. 5.1], the actual spiritual form." [8] Jnana refers to the cultivation of knowledge. The jnani sees the shortcomings of karma and begins to inquire into higher truth. Jnanis are generally philosophers and sometimes meditators (like Shankaracarya, Shiva or Patanjali, or Lord Buddha, avatara of Vishnu).

They are not interested merely in material results, but in knowledge for its own sake, because they realize knowledge is better than ignorance etc. By cultivating jnana through the study of Vedic sastras or through meditation (knowledge may come just like it came to Brahma when he meditated on Vishnu/Krishna), the jnani can come to the brink of spiritual knowledge, awareness of eternal Brahman. But unless he goes further and understands his relationship with the Supreme Personality of Godhead, he will suffer the same defeat as the karmi -- confinement within the cycle of birth and death. This is usually due to misunderstanding difference

between personal Brahman (Paramatma, Vishnu, Narayana) and brahmajyoti - so-called 'impersonal brahman', which is realized by impersonal philosophers which reject idea of God (Brahman) as Supreme Person or equalize brahmajyoti - rays of Vishnu with Vishnu Himself; but for devotee such equalization sounds hellish. A prayer to Krsna by the demigods points up the jnanis' shortcoming: "Oh, my dear lotus-eyed Lord, although nondevotees who accept severe austerities and penances to achieve the highest position may think themselves liberated, their intelligence is impure. They fall down from their position of imagined superiority because they have no regard for Your lotus feet." [Bhag. 10.2.32][9]

Hinduism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "Dancing Ganesh. Central Tibet. Early fifteenth century. Colours on cotton. Height: 68 centimetres".[1] This form is also known as Maharakta ("The Great Red One").[2] Hinduism is the predominant religion[3][4] of the Indian subcontinent, and one of its indigenous religions. Hinduism includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Ĺšrauta among numerous other traditions. It also includes historical groups, for example the Kapalikas. Among other practices and philosophies, Hinduism includes a wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of "daily morality" based on the notion of karma, dharma, and societal norms.[5] Hinduism is a conglomeration of distinct intellectual or philosophical points of view, rather than a rigid common set of beliefs.[6]

Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions and has no single founder.[7] Among its direct roots is the historical Vedic religion of Iron Age India and, as such, Hinduism is often called the "oldest living religion"[8] or the "oldest living major religion" in the world.[3][9][10] [11]

One orthodox classification of Hindu texts is to divide into Śruti ("revealed") and Smriti ("remembered") texts. These texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, rituals and temple building among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas, Upanishads, Purāṇas, Mahābhārata, Rāmāyaṇa, Bhagavad Gītā and Āgamas.

Hinduism, with about one billion followers, is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Contents • • • • •

•

•

• •

1 Etymology 2 History 3 Typology 4 Definitions 5 Beliefs o 5.1 Concept of God o 5.2 Devas and avatars o 5.3 Karma and samsara o 5.4 Objectives of human life o 5.5 Yoga 6 Practices o 6.1 Rituals o 6.2 Pilgrimage o 6.3 Festivals 7 Scriptures o 7.1 Shruti o 7.2 Smritis o 7.3 Order of precedence of authority 8 Demographics 9 Society

• • • •

9.1 Denominations 9.2 Ashramas 9.3 Monasticism 9.4 Varnas 9.5 Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs 9.6 Conversion 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Further reading

•

14 External links

o o o o o o

Etymology

Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama, composes the Ramayana.

The word Hindu is derived (through Persian) from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which is first mentioned in the Rig Veda.[12][13][14] The word Hindu was borrowed into European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, referring to the land of the people who live across the River Indus,[15] itself from the Persian term Hindﾅｫ, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustﾄ］ emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the "land of Hindus".[16] The term Hinduism also occurs sporadically in Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450), some 16th-18th century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts, including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata, usually to contrast Hindus with Yavanas or Mlecchas.[17] It was only towards the end of the 18th century that the European merchants and colonists referred collectively to the followers of Indian religions as Hindus. The term Hinduism was introduced into the English language in the 19th century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.

History Main article: History of Hinduism

Sacred Mount Kailash in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual abode of Lord Shiva.

The so-called Shiva Pashupati seal

Navy shoulderboard for Hindu military chaplain, South African military

The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India date back to the late Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).[18] [19] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". The Vedic religion shows influence from Proto-Indo-European religion.[20][21][22][23] The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[24] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-sacrifices, called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no temples or idols are known.[25] The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to the pre-Zoroastrian Proto-Indo-Iranian religion and other Indo-European religions. For example, the Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see ProtoIndo-European religion and Comparison of Greek and Hindu Gods.[26] The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.[27] They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against rakshasa.

The Brahmanical tradition was paralleled by the non-Vedic Shramana movement. The Buddha was a member of this movement.[28] Shramana also gave rise to Jainism,[29] yoga,[30] the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.[31] The Brahmanical ashrama system of life was an attempt to institutionalize Shramana ideals within the Brahmanical social structure.[32] The Shramana movement also influenced the Aranyakas and Upanishads in the Brahmanical tradition.[33] Buddhism was promoted by Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, PurvaMimamsa and Vedanta.[34] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.[35] Sanskritic culture went into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The early medieval Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.[36] In eighth century royal circles, the Buddha started to be replaced by Hindu gods in pujas.[37] This also was the same period of time the Buddha was made into an avatar of Vishnu.[38]

Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders and the conquest of Sindh, it started to become a major religion during the later Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[35] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly and many Hindus were forcibly converted to Islam.[39][40][41] Numerous Muslim rulers or their army generals such as Aurangzeb and Malik Kafur destroyed Hindu temples[42][43][44] and persecuted non-Muslims; however some, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[35] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.[45] Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by scholars such as Max MĂźller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period saw the emergence of movements which, while highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Aurobindo and Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON), translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West.

Typology Main article: Hindu denominations

The Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according the Guinness World Records is the World’s Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple[46]

Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, survive. The main divisions of Hinduism today are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Smartism and Shaktism.[47] Hinduism also recognizes numerous divine beings subordinate to the Supreme Being or regards them as lower manifestations of it.[48] Other notable characteristics include a belief in reincarnation and karma, as well as in personal duty, or dharma.

McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic "types" of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:[49] • • • • • •

Folk Hinduism, as based on local traditions and cults of local deities at a communal level and spanning back to prehistoric times or at least prior to written Vedas. Śrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practiced by traditionalist brahmins (Śrautins).

Vedantic Hinduism, for example Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), as based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads.

Yogic Hinduism, especially that based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

"Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on the notion of Karma, and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs).

Bhakti or devotionalist practices

Definitions

The Triveni Sangam, or the intersection of Yamuna River, Ganges River and mythical Saraswati river.

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed",[50] but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions.[51][52][53][54]

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and Hinduism's openness, makes it difficult to define as a religion according to traditional Western conceptions.[55] To its adherents, Hinduism is the traditional way of life,[56] and because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated within or covered by it, arriving at a comprehensive definition of the term is problematic.[50] While sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a religious tradition.[4] It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's religions, and the most diverse.[3][57][58][59] Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation, of sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists. Hinduism is sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara), determined by the law of karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this cycle of repeated birth and death.

However, other religions of the region, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of Hinduism.

[50] Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living, historical world religions.[60] Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only one of the numerically largest faiths, but is also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with roots reaching back into prehistory.[61] A definition of Hinduism, given by the first Vice President of India, who was also a prominent theologian, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, states that Hinduism is not "just a faith", but in itself is related to the union of reason and intuition. Radhakrishnan explicitly states that Hinduism cannot be defined, but is only to be experienced.[62] Similarly some academics suggest that Hinduism can be seen as a category with "fuzzy edges", rather than as a well-defined and rigid entity. Some forms of religious expression are central to Hinduism, while others are not as central but still remain within the category. Based on this, Ferro-Luzzi has developed a 'Prototype Theory approach' to the definition of Hinduism.[63] Problems with the single definition of what is actually meant by the term 'Hinduism' are often attributed to the fact that Hinduism does not have a single or common historical founder. Hinduism, or as some say 'Hinduisms,' does not have a single system of salvation and has different goals according to each sect or denomination. The forms of Vedic religion are seen not as an alternative to Hinduism, but as its earliest form, and there is little justification for the divisions found in much western scholarly writing between Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism.[11][64] A definition of Hinduism is further complicated by the frequent use of the term "faith" as a synonym for "religion".[50] Some academics[65] and many practitioners refer to Hinduism using a native definition, as Sanﾄ》ana Dharma, a Sanskrit phrase meaning "the eternal law", or the "eternal way".[66][67]

Beliefs

Temple carving at Hoysaleswara temple representing the Trimurti: Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu.

Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from within, and by assimilation of external traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to major religious movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent. The identification of Hinduism as an independent religion separate from Buddhism or Jainism consequently hinges on the affirmation of its adherents that it is such.[68] Hinduism grants absolute and complete freedom of belief and worship.[69][70][71] Hinduism conceives the whole world as a single family that deifies the one truth, and therefore it accepts all forms of beliefs and dismisses labels of distinct religions which would imply a division of identity.[72] Hence, Hinduism is devoid of the concepts of apostasy, heresy and blasphemy.[73][74][75][76] Prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include (but are not restricted to), Dharma (ethics/duties), SamsÄ ra (The continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth), Karma (action and subsequent reaction), Moksha (liberation from samsara), and the various Yogas (paths or practices).[77]

Concept of God Main article: God in Hinduism

Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.

Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism among others;[78][79][80][81] and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization.[82] The Rig Veda, the oldest scripture and the mainstay of Hindu philosophy does not take a restrictive view on the fundamental question of God and the creation of universe. It rather lets the individual seek and discover answers in the quest of life. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) of the Rig Veda thus says[83][84]: Who really knows?

Who will here proclaim it?

Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?

The gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.

Who then knows whence it has arisen?

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the ātman — is eternal.[85] According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as Advaita Vedanta school), this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Hence, these schools are called non-dualist.[86] The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's ātman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[87] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self realizes an identity with Brahman and thereby reaches moksha (liberation or freedom).[85][88] The schools of Vedanta and Nyaya states that karma itself proves the existence of God .[89][90] Nyaya being the school of logic, makes the "logical" inference that the universe is an effect and it ought to have a creator.[91] Dualistic schools (see Dvaita and Bhakti) understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. The ātman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace.[92] When God is viewed as the supreme personal being (rather than as the infinite principle), God is called Ishvara ("The Lord"),[93] Bhagavan ("The Auspicious One"[93]) or Parameshwara ("The Supreme Lord"[93]).[86] However interpretations of Ishvara vary, ranging from non-belief in Ishvara by followers of Mimamsakas, to identifying Brahman and Ishvara as one, as in Advaita.[86] In the majority of traditions of Vaishnavism he is Vishnu, God, and the text of Vaishnava scriptures identify this Being as Krishna, sometimes referred to as svayam bhagavan. However,under Shaktism, Devi or Adi parashakti is considered as the Supreme Being and in Shaivism Shiva is considered Supreme.

The multitude of devas are viewed as avatars of the Brahman.[94][95][96][97] In discussing the Trimurti, Sir William Jones states that Hindus "worship the Supreme Being under three forms — Vishnu, Siva, Brahma...The fundamental idea of the Hindu religion, that of metamorphoses, or transformations, is exemplified in the Avatars."[98] In Bhagavad Gita, for example, God is the sole repository of Gunas (attributes) also, as[99] His hands and feet are everywhere, He looks everywhere and all around, His eyes, ears and face point to all directions, and all the three worlds are surrounded by these.

Atheistic doctrines dominate Hindu schools like Samkhya and Mimamsa.[100] The Sāṁkhyapravacana Sūtra of Samkhya argues that the existence of God (Ishvara) cannot be proved and hence cannot be admitted to exist.[101] Samkhya argue that an unchanging God cannot be the source of an ever changing world. It says God was a necessary metaphysical assumption demanded by circumstances.[102] Proponents of the school of Mimamsa, which is based on rituals and orthopraxy states that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They argue that there is no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there is no need for an

author to compose the Vedas or a God to validate the rituals.[103] Mimamsa considers the Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of Gods.[104]

Devas and avatars

Detail of the Phra Prang, the central tower of the Wat Arun ("Temple of Dawn") in Bangkok, Thailand - showing Indra on his threeheaded elephant Erawan (Airavata)

Krishna, the eighth incarnation (Avatar) of Vishnu or svayam bhagavan, worshiped across a number of traditions The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devī in feminine form; devatā used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings".[105] The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their iṣṭa devatā, or chosen ideal.[106][107] The choice is a matter of individual preference,[108] and of regional and family traditions.[108] Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an Avatar. The most prominent avatars are of Vishnu and include Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Karma and samsara Main article: Karma in Hinduism

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed,[109] and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect".[110] According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual.[111] Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny.

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states: As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.(B.G. 2:22)[112] Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.[113][114] It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman).

The ultimate goal of life, referred to as moksha, nirvana or samadhi, is understood in several different ways: as the realization of one's union with God; as the realization of one's eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; as the attainment of perfect mental peace; and as detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from samsara and ends the cycle of rebirth.[115][116] Due to belief in the indestructibility of the soul,[117] death is deemed insignificant with respect to the cosmic self.[118] Thence, a person who has no desire or ambition left and no responsibilities remaining in life or one affected by a terminal disease may embrace death by Prayopavesa.[119] The exact conceptualization of moksha differs among the various Hindu schools of thought. For example, Advaita Vedanta holds that after attaining moksha an atman no longer identifies itself with an individual but as identical with Brahman in all respects. The followers of Dvaita (dualistic) schools identify themselves as part of Brahman, and after attaining moksha expect to spend eternity in a loka (heaven),[120] in the company of their chosen form of Ishvara. Thus, it is said that the followers of dvaita wish to "taste sugar", while the followers of Advaita wish to "become sugar".[121]

Objectives of human life

From Ramayana Main article: Purusharthas See also: Initiation, Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣa Classical Hindu thought accepts the following objectives of human life, that which is sought as human purpose, aim, or end, is known as the puruṣārthas:[122][123] Dharma (righteousness, ethikos) The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad views dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is sat (truth), a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-ConsciousnessBliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad's own words: Verily, that which is Dharma is truth, Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, "He speaks the Dharma," or of a man who speaks the Dharma, "He speaks the Truth.", Verily, both these things are the same.

—(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2) In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs. (Mbh 12.110.11). The word Sanātana means 'eternal', 'perennial', or 'forever'; thus, 'Sanātana Dharma' signifies that it is the dharma that has neither beginning nor end.[124] Artha (livelihood, wealth)

Artha is objective & virtuous pursuit of wealth for livelihood, obligations and economic prosperity. It is inclusive of political life, diplomacy and material well-being. The doctrine of Artha is called Arthashastra, amongst the most famous of which is Kautilya Arthashastra.[125][126][127] Kāma (sensual pleasure) Kāma (Sanskrit, Pali; Devanagari: काम) means desire, wish, passion, longing, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love.[128][129] Mokṣa (liberation, freedom from samsara) Moksha (Sanskrit: मोक mokṣa) or mukti (Sanskrit: मुक्ति​ि), literally "release" (both from a root muc "to let loose, let go"), is the last goal of life. It is liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and reincarnation.[130]

Yoga Main article: Yoga

A statue of Shiva in yogic meditation.

In whatever way a Hindu defines the goal of life, there are several methods (yogas) that sages have taught for reaching that goal. Texts dedicated to Yoga include the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, and, as their philosophical and historical basis, the Upanishads. Paths that one can follow to achieve the spiritual goal of life (moksha, samadhi or nirvana) include: • • • •

Bhakti Yoga (the path of love and devotion) Karma Yoga (the path of right action) Rāja Yoga (the path of meditation) Jñāna Yoga (the path of wisdom)[131]

An individual may prefer one or some yogas over others, according to his or her inclination and understanding. Some devotional schools teach that bhakti is the only practical path to achieve spiritual perfection for most people, based on their belief that the world is currently in the Kali Yuga (one of four epochs which are part of the Yuga cycle).[132] Practice of one yoga does not exclude others.

Many schools believe that the different yogas naturally blend into and aid other yogas. For example, the practice of jnana yoga, is thought to inevitably lead to pure love (the goal of bhakti yoga), and vice versa.[133] Someone practicing deep meditation (such as in raja yoga) must embody the core principles of karma yoga, jnana yoga and bhakti yoga, whether directly or indirectly.[131][134]

Practices Main articles: Puja (Hinduism), Yajna, Murti, Mandir, Hindu iconography, Japa, and Mantra See also: Initiation

The sacred Tulsi plant in front of the house.

Hindu practices generally involve seeking awareness of God and sometimes also seeking blessings from Devas. Therefore, Hinduism has developed numerous practices meant to help one think of divinity in the midst of everyday life. Hindus can engage in pūjā (worship or veneration),[93] either at home or at a temple. At home, Hindus often create a shrine with icons dedicated to their chosen form(s) of God. Temples are usually dedicated to a primary deity along with associated subordinate deities though some commemorate multiple deities. Visiting temples is not obligatory, [135] and many visit temples only during religious festivals. Hindus

perform their worship through icons (murtis). The icon serves as a tangible link between the worshiper and God.[136] The image is often considered a manifestation of God, since God is immanent. The Padma Purana states that the mūrti is not to be thought of as mere stone or wood but as a manifest form of the Divinity. [137] A few Hindu sects, such as the Ārya Samāj, do not believe in worshiping God through icons.

Hinduism has a developed system of symbolism and iconography to represent the sacred in art, architecture, literature and worship.

These symbols gain their meaning from the scriptures, mythology, or cultural traditions. The syllable Om (which represents the Parabrahman) and the Swastika sign (which symbolizes auspiciousness) have grown to represent Hinduism itself, while other markings such as tilaka identify a follower of the faith. Hinduism associates many symbols, which include the lotus, chakra and veena, with particular deities.

Mantras are invocations, praise and prayers that through their meaning, sound, and chanting style help a devotee focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras.[138] The epic Mahabharata extols Japa (ritualistic chanting) as the greatest duty in the Kali Yuga (what Hindus believe to be the current age).[139] Many adopt Japa as their primary spiritual practice.[139]

Rituals

Offerings to Agni during Vivah-homa in a Hindu wedding.The vast majority of Hindus engage in religious rituals on a daily basis.[140] [141] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[142] but observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals.

Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes

lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns, meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc.[142] A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralised before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[142] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[142] Vedic rites of fire-oblation (yajna) are now only occasional practices, although they are highly revered in theory. In Hindu wedding and burial ceremonies, however, the yajña and chanting of Vedic mantras are still the norm.[143] The rituals, upacharas, change with time. For instance, in the past few hundred years some rituals, such as sacred dance and music offerings in the standard Sodasa Upacharas set prescribed by the Agama Shastra, were replaced by the offerings of rice and sweets.

Occasions like birth, marriage, and death involve what are often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (a baby's first intake of solid food), Upanayanam ("sacred thread ceremony" undergone by upper-caste children at their initiation into formal education) and Śrāddha (ritual of treating people to a meal in return for prayers to 'God' to give peace to the soul of the deceased).[144][145] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[144] On death, cremation is considered obligatory for all except sanyasis, hijra, and children under five.[146] Cremation is typically performed by wrapping the corpse in cloth and burning it on a pyre.

Pilgrimage See also: Hindu Pilgrimage sites, Pilgrimage in Hinduism, Yatra, and Tirtha and Kshetra

Pilgrimage to Kedarnath Following pilgrimage sites are most famous amongst Hindu devotees: Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, and Badrinath (or alternatively the Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit.

Kumbh Mela: The Kumbh Mela (the "pitcher festival") is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held afetr every 12 years; the location is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.

Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi, Allahabad formerly known as Prayag, HaridwarRishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, and Ayodhya.

Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi, home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala,where Swami Ayyappan is worshipped.

Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.

While there are different yet similar pilgrimage routes in different parts of India, all are respected equally well, according to the universality of Hinduism.

Pilgrimage is not mandatory in Hinduism, though many adherents undertake them.[147]

Festivals Main article: Hindu festivals

The festival of lights- Diwali, is celebrated by Hindus all over the world.

Hindu festivals (Sanskrit: Utsava; literally: "to lift higher") are considered as symbolic rituals that beautifully weave individual and social life to dharma.[148] Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The Hindu calendar usually prescribe their dates.

The festivals typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes. There are festivals which are primarily celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent.

Some widely observed Hindu festivals are : • • • • • • • • • •

Maha Shivaratri Pongal Holi Vasant Panchami Thaipusam Ram Navami Krishna Janmastami Ganesh Chaturthi Shigmo Dussera

• • • • • • • • • •

Gudi Padwa Ugadi Bihu Bonalu Rath Yatra Guru Purnima Raksha Bandhan Onam Gowri Habba Chhath

•

Durga Puja

• •

Diwali Some widely observed Hindu festivals

•

Vishu

•

The Jagannath Puri with the three chariots of the deities with the Jagannath Temple, Puri in the background.

•

Goddess Saraswati during Vasant Panchami in the streets of Kolkata.

•

A procession of Akharas marching over a makeshift bridge over the Ganges river, Kumbh Mela at Prayag.

•

Ganesh Visarjan in Mumbai.

Scriptures Main articles: Śruti, Smriti, and List of Hindu scriptures Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times".[149][150] The scriptures were transmitted orally in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down.[151] Over many centuries, sages refined the teachings and expanded the canon. In post-Vedic and current Hindu belief, most Hindu scriptures are not typically interpreted literally. More importance is attached to the ethics and metaphorical meanings derived from them.[18] Most sacred texts are in Sanskrit. The texts are classified into two classes: Shruti and Smriti.

Shruti

The Rig Veda is one of the oldest religious texts. This Rig Veda manuscript is in Devanagari Shruti (lit: that which is heard)[152] primarily refers to the Vedas, which form the earliest record of the Hindu scriptures. While many Hindus revere the Vedas as eternal truths revealed to ancient sages (Ṛṣis),[150] some devotees do not associate the creation of the Vedas with a god or person. They are thought of as the laws of the spiritual world, which would still exist even if they were not revealed to the sages.[149][153][154] Hindus believe that because the spiritual truths of the Vedas are eternal, they continue to be expressed in new ways.[155]

There are four Vedas (called Ṛg-, Sāma-, Yajus- and Atharva-). The Rigveda is the first and most important Veda.[156] Each Veda is divided into four parts: the primary one, the Veda proper, being the Saṃhitā, which contains sacred mantras. The other three parts form a three-tier ensemble of commentaries, usually in prose and are believed to be slightly later in age than the Saṃhitā. These are: the Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and the Upanishads. The first two parts were subsequently called the Karmakāṇḍa (ritualistic portion), while the last two form the Jñānakāṇḍa (knowledge portion).[157] While the Vedas focus on rituals, the Upanishads focus on spiritual insight and philosophical teachings, and discuss Brahman and reincarnation.[18][158][159] A well known shloka from Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is: ॐ असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योितगर्गमय ।। मत्ृ योमार्गमत ृ ं गमय । ॐ शाि शन्त शाि शन्त शाि शन्त ।। – बह ृ दारण्यक उपनिनिषद् 1.3.28.

IAST: om asato mā sadgamaya | tamaso mā jyotirgamaya || mṛtyor mā amṛtaṁ gamaya | om śānti śānti śānti || – bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣada 1.3.28 Translation: Lead Us From the Unreal To the Real | Lead Us From Darkness To Light || Lead Us From Death To Immortality | OM Let There Be Peace Peace Peace.|| – Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28.

Smritis

Bhagavad Gita, a 19th-century manuscript Hindu texts other than the Shrutis are collectively called the Smritis (memory). The most notable of the smritis are the epics, which consist of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. The Bhagavad Gītā is an integral part of the Mahabharata and one of the most popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It contains philosophical teachings from Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu, told to the prince Arjuna on the eve of a great war. The Bhagavad Gītā, spoken by Krishna, is described as the essence of the Vedas.[160] However Gita, sometimes called Gitopanishad, is more often placed in the Shruti, category, being Upanishadic in content.[161] Purāṇas, which illustrate Hindu ideas through vivid narratives come under smritis. Other texts include Devī Mahātmya, the Tantras, the Yoga Sutras, Tirumantiram, Shiva Sutras and the Hindu Āgamas. A more controversial text, the Manusmriti, is a prescriptive lawbook which lays the societal codes of social stratification which later evolved into the Indian caste system.[162] A well known verse from Bhagavad Gita describing a concept in Karma Yoga is explained as follows[163][164] To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. (2.47)

Order of precedence of authority

The order of precedence regarding authority of Vedic Scriptures is as follows, • •

•

• •

Śruti, literally "hearing, listening", are the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law.[165] Smṛti, literally "that which is remembered (or recollected)", refers to a specific body of Hindu religious scripture, and is a codified component of Hindu customary law. Post Vedic scriptures such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and traditions of the rules on dharma such as Manu Smriti and Yaagnyavalkya Smriti. Smrti also denotes tradition in the sense that it portrays the traditions of the rules on dharma, especially those of lawful virtuous persons.)

Purāṇa, literally "of ancient times", are post-vedic scriptures notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.[166] Śiṣṭāchāra, literally "that which is followed by good (in recent times)".

Atmatuṣṭi, literally "that which satisfies oneself (or self validation)", according to which one has to decide whether or not to do with bona fide. Initially this was not considered in the order of precedence but Manu and Yājñavalkya considered it as last one.

That means, if anyone of them contradicts the preceding one then it disqualified as an authority. There is a well known Indian saying that Smṛti follows Śruti. So it was considered that in order to establish any theistic philosophical theory (Astika Siddhanta) one ought not contradict Śruti (Vedas).

Adi Sankara has chosen three standards and named as Prasthānatrayī, literally, three points of departure (three standards). Later these were referred to as the three canonical texts of reference of Hindu philosophy by other Vedanta schools.

They are: 1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthāna (injunctive texts), (part of Śruti) 2. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sādhana prasthāna (practical text), (part of Smṛti) 3. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyāya prasthāna or Yukti prasthana (part of darśana of Uttarā Mīmāṃsā) The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with many minor texts. The Bhagavad Gītā is part of the Mahabhārata.The Brahma Sūtras (also known as the Vedānta Sūtras), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gītā.

Demographics

Hinduism - Percentage by country Part of a series on

Hinduism by country

Africa[show] Asia[show] Europe[show] North America[show] Oceania[show] South America[show] This box: • view

•

talk

•

edit

Hinduism is a major religion in India and, according to a 2001 census, Hinduism was followed by around 80% of the country's population of 1.2 billion (2012 estimate) (960 million adherents).[167] Other significant populations are found in Nepal (23 million), Bangladesh (14 million) and the Indonesian island of Bali (3.3 million).

Countries with the greatest proportion of Hindus from Hinduism by country (as of 2008): 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Nepal 86.5%[168] India 80.5% Mauritius 54%[169] Guyana 28%[170] Fiji 27.9%[171] Bhutan 25%[172] Trinidad and Tobago 22.5% Suriname 20%[173] Sri Lanka 15%[174] Bangladesh 9%[175] Qatar 7.2% Réunion 6.7% Malaysia 6.3%[176] Bahrain 6.25% Kuwait 6% United Arab Emirates 5% Singapore 4% Oman 3% Belize 2.3% Seychelles 2.1%[177]

Demographically, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion, after Christianity and Islam.

Society Denominations Main article: Hindu denominations

Padmanabhaswamy Temple, the richest temple in India and the world[178] Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination.[179] However, academics categorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in the traditions that accompany worship of that god.

Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supreme God; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personified through a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartas believe in the essential oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata, as Tamil Hindus add Skanda)[180] deities as personifications of the Supreme.

The Western conception of what Hinduism is has been defined by the Smarta view; many Hindus, who may not understand or follow Advaita philosophy, in contemporary Hinduism, invariably follow the Shanmata belief worshiping many forms of God. One commentator, noting the influence of the Smarta tradition, remarked that although many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[181]

The Mother Temple of Besakih in Bali, Indonesia.

Other denominations like Ganapatya (the cult of Ganesha) and Saura (Sun worship) are not so widespread.

There are movements that are not easily placed in any of the above categories, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj, which rejects image worship and veneration of multiple deities. It focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire sacrifices (yajña).

The Tantric traditions have various sects, as Banerji observes: Tantras are ... also divided as āstika or Vedic and nāstika or non-Vedic. In accordance with the predominance of the deity the āstika works are again divided as Śākta (Shakta), Śaiva (Shaiva), Saura, Gāṇapatya and Vaiṣṇava (Vaishnava).[182]

Ashramas Main article: Ashrama

A Balmiki Ashram Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Āshramas (phases or stages; unrelated meanings include monastery). The first part of one's life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up the mind for spiritual knowledge. Grihastha is the householder's stage, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha in one's married and professional life respectively (see the goals of life). The moral obligations of a Hindu householder

include supporting one's parents, children, guests and holy figures. Vānaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This may involve giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in religious practices and embarking on holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sannyāsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for Moksha.[183]

Monasticism Main article: Sannyasa

A sadhu in Madurai, India.

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyāsa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[184] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi. A female renunciate is called a sanyāsini. Renunciates receive high respect in Hindu society because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their needs.[185] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a householder to provide sādhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus strive to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked, and to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.[184]

Varnas Main article: Varna in Hinduism

Hindu society has traditionally been categorized into four classes, called Varnas (Sanskrit: "colour, form, appearance"):[93] • • • •

the Brahmins: teachers and priests; the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings; the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen; and the Shudras: servants and labourers.

Hindus and scholars debate whether the so-called caste system is an integral part of Hinduism sanctioned by the scriptures or an outdated social custom.[186] Among the scriptures, the Varna system is mentioned sparingly and descriptively (i.e., not prescriptive); apart from a single mention in the late Rigvedic Purusha sukta, the rigid division into varnas appears to be post-Vedic, appearing in classical texts from the Maurya period. The Bhagavad Gītā (4.13) states that the four varṇa divisions are created by God, and the Manusmṛiti categorizes the different castes.[187] However, at the same time, the Gītā says that one's varṇa is to be understood from one's personal qualities and one's work, not one's birth.[188] Some mobility and flexibility within the varnas challenge allegations of social discrimination in the caste system, as has been pointed out by several sociologists,[189][190] although some other scholars disagree.

[191]

Many social reformers, including Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar, criticized caste discrimination.[192] The religious teacher Sri Ramakrishna (1836–1886) taught that Lovers of God do not belong to any caste . . . . A brahmin without this love is no longer a brahmin. And a pariah with the love of God is no longer a pariah. Through bhakti (devotion to God) an untouchable becomes pure and elevated.[193]

Ahimsa, vegetarianism and other food customs Main articles: Ahimsa, Vegetarianism and religion, and Cattle in Religion Hindus advocate the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence) and respect for all life because divinity is believed to permeate all beings, including plants and non-human animals.[194] The term ahiṃsā appears in the Upanishads,[195] the epic Mahabharata[196] and Ahiṃsā is the first of the five Yamas (vows of self-restraint) in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras.[197] and the first principle for all member of Varnashrama Dharma (brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra) in Law of Manu (book 10, sutra 63 : Ahimsa, satya, asteya, shaucam and indrayanigraha, almost similar to main principles of jainism).[198][199]

A goshala or cow shelter at Guntur In accordance with ahiṃsā, many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%.[200] The food habits vary with the community and region, for example some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood.[201][202] Some avoid meat only on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure,[203] and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving.[204] Cowslaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.[205] There are many Hindu groups that have continued to abide by a strict vegetarian diet in modern times. One example is the movement known as ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness), whose followers “not only abstain from meat, fish, and fowl, but also avoid certain vegetables that are thought to have negative properties, such as onion and garlic.”[206] A second example is the Swaminarayan Movement. The followers of this Hindu group also staunchly adhere to a diet that is devoid of meat, eggs, and seafood.

[207]

Rajasthani thali.

Vegetarianism is propagated by the Yajur Veda and it is recommended for a satvic (purifying) lifestyle.[208] Thus, another reason that dietary purity is so eminent within Hinduism is because “the idea that food reflects the general qualities of nature: purity, energy, inertia” It follows, then, that a healthy diet should be one that promotes purity within an individual.[206]

Based on this reasoning, Hindus should avoid or minimize the intake of foods that do not promote purity. These foods include onion and garlic, which are regarded as rajasic (a state which is characterized by “tension and overbearing demeanor”) foods, and meat, which is regarded as tamasic (a state which is characterized by “anger, greed, and jealousy”).[209] Some Hindus from certain sects - generally Shakta,[210] certain Shudra and Kshatriya castes[211][212] and certain Eastern Indian[213] and East Asian regions;[214] practise animal sacrifice (bali).[215] Although most Hindus, including the majority of Vaishnava and Shaivite Hindus abhor it.[216]

Conversion See also: Conversion to Hinduism and Religious_conversion#Hinduism Clear concepts of conversion, evangelization, and proselytization are absent from Hindu texts, playing a marginal role in practice.

Early in their history, in the absence of other competing religions, Hindus considered everyone they came across as Hindus and expected everyone they met to be Hindus.[217][218] Hindus today continue to be influenced by historical ideas of acceptability of conversion.[219] Hence, many Hindus continue to believe that Hinduism is an identity that can only be had from birth,[220] while many others continue to believe that anyone who follows Hindu beliefs and practices is a Hindu,[221] and many believe in some form of both theories. However, as a reaction to perceived and actual threat of evangelization, prozelyzation, and conversion activities of other major religions many modern Hindus are opposed to the idea of conversion from (any) one religion to (any) other per se.[222] In Southeast Asia the merchant, sailor, and priestly class accounted for much of the spread of the religion.[223] Many foreign groups including Gujjars, Ahoms, and Hunas converted to Hinduism after generations of Sanskritization.[224] In India and Indonesia today many groups still convert to Hinduism.[225] With the rise of Hindu revivalist movements, conversions to Hinduism have risen.[226] Reconversion of former adherents of Hinduism are well accepted since conversion out of Hinduism is not recognized.[227] There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called dīkshā ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life.[228] A ritual called shuddhi ("purification") sometimes marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion.[229] Most Hindu sects do not actively seek converts,[230][231][232][233] as they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any

religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.[230][234] However, some Hindu sects and affiliates such as Arya Samaj, Saiva Siddhanta Church, BAPS, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness accept those who have a desire to follow Hinduism.

Religion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about a general set of beliefs about life, purpose, etc.. For other uses, see Religion (disambiguation).

"Religious" redirects here. For a member of a Catholic religious institute, see Religious (Catholicism).

Symbols representing some world religions, from left to right: row 1: Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism row 2: Islam, Buddhism, Shinto row 3: Sikhism, BahĂĄ'Ă­ Faith, Jainism Religions by country North America[show] South America[show] Europe[show]

Middle East[show] Africa[show] Asia[show] Oceania[show] Religion Portal • v • t •

e

Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values.[note 1] Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to explain the origin of life or the universe. They tend to derive morality, ethics, religious laws or a preferred lifestyle from their ideas about the cosmos and human nature.

The word religion is sometimes used interchangeably with faith or belief system, but religion differs from private belief in that it has a social aspect.[1] Many religions have organized behaviors, clergy, a definition of what constitutes adherence or membership, congregations of laity, regular meetings or services for the purposes of veneration of a deity or for prayer, holy places (either natural or architectural), and/or scriptures. The practice of a religion may also include sermons, commemoration of the activities of a god or gods, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trance, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, music, art, dance, public service, or other aspects of human culture. However, there are examples of religions for which some or many of these aspects of structure, belief, or practices are absent.

Contents • • • • •

1 Etymology 2 Definitions 3 Origins and development 4 Types of religion 5 Religious movements o 5.1 Abrahamic religions o 5.2 Indian religions o 5.3 Iranian religions

• • • • •

5.4 Folk religions 5.5 New religions 6 Issues in religion o 6.1 Interfaith cooperation o 6.2 Secularism and irreligion 7 Related forms of thought o 7.1 Religion and superstition o 7.2 Myth 8 Religion and health 9 Religion and violence 10 Religion and the law 11 Religion and science 12 Religion as a Christian concept o 12.1 The social constructionists o 12.2 Other writers 13 Criticism 14 See also 15 References 16 Notes 17 Bibliography

•

18 External links

o o

•

•

• • • • •

Etymology Religion (from O.Fr. religion "religious community," from L. religionem (nom. religio) "respect for what is sacred, reverence for the gods,"[2] "obligation, the bond between man and the gods"[3]) is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possibility is derivation from a reduplicated *le-ligare, an interpretation traced to Cicero connecting lego "read", i.e. re (again) + lego in the sense of "choose", "go over again" or "consider carefully". Modern scholars such as Tom Harpur and Joseph Campbell favor the derivation from ligare "bind, connect", probably from a prefixed re-ligare, i.e. re (again) + ligare or "to reconnect," which was made prominent by St. Augustine, following the interpretation of Lactantius.[4][5] The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders: "we hear of the 'religion' of the Golden Fleece, of a knight 'of the religion of Avys'".[6]

According to the philologist Max M端ller, the root of the English word "religion", the Latin religio, was originally used to mean only "reverence for God or the gods, careful pondering of divine things, piety" (which Cicero further derived to mean "diligence").[7][8] Max M端ller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, and India, as having a similar power structure at this point in history. What is called ancient religion today, they would have only called "law".[9] Many languages have words that can be translated as "religion", but they may use them in a very different way, and some have no word for religion at all. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as "religion", also means law. Throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power.[10][11] There is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities.[12] One of its central concepts is "halakha", sometimes translated as "law"", which guides religious practice and belief and many aspects of daily life.

The use of other terms, such as obedience to God or Islam are likewise grounded in particular histories and vocabularies.[13]

Definitions There are numerous definitions of religion and only a few are stated here. The typical dictionary definition of religion refers to a "belief in, or the worship of, a god or gods"[14] or the "service and worship of God or the supernatural".[15] However, many writers and scholars have noted that this basic 'belief in god' definition fails to capture the diversity of religious thought and experience. Tylor defined religion as simply "the belief in spiritual beings".[16] He argued, back in 1871, that narrowing the definition to mean the belief in a supreme deity or judgement after death or idolatry and so on, would exclude many peoples from the category of religious, and thus "has the fault of identifying religion rather with particular developments than with the deeper motive which underlies them". He also argued that the belief in spiritual beings exists in all known societies.

The anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined religion as a "system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and longlasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic.[17] Alluding perhaps to Tylor's "deeper motive", Geertz remarked that "we have very little idea of how, in empirical terms, this particular miracle is accomplished. We just know that it is done, annually, weekly, daily, for some people almost hourly; and we have an enormous ethnographic literature to demonstrate it" (ibid, p.90).

The sociologist Durkheim, in his seminal book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, defined religion as a "unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things".[18] By sacred things he meant things "set apart and forbidden — beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them". Sacred things are not, however, limited to gods or spirits.[note 2] On the contrary, a sacred thing can be "a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house, in a word, anything can be sacred" (ibid, p.37). Religious beliefs, myths, dogmas and legends are the representations that express the nature of these sacred things, and the virtues and powers which are attributed to them (ibid, pp.40-41).

Echoes of Durkheim's definition are to be found in the writings of, for example, Frederick Ferré who defined religion as "one's way of valuing most comprehensively and intensively". [19] Similarly, for the theologian Paul Tillich, faith is "the state of being ultimately concerned",[20] which "is itself religion. Religion is the substance, the ground, and the depth of man's spiritual life".[21] When religion is seen in terms of 'sacred' or intensive 'valuing' or 'ultimate concern', then it is possible to understand why scientific findings and philosophical criticisms (e.g. Richard Dawkins) do not necessarily disturb its adherents.

Origins and development History of religions founding figures

Anthropology Comparative religion Development Neurotheology / God gene Origins Psychology Prehistoric Ancient Near East · Ancient Egypt · Semitic Indo-European · Vedic Hinduism · Greco-Roman · Celtic · Germanic

Axial Age · Vedanta · Shramana · Dharma · Tao · Hellenism · Monism · Dualism · Monotheism Christianization Islamization Renaissance · Reformation Age of Reason New religious movements · Great Awakening · Fundamentalism · New Age Postmodernism Abrahamic · Judaism · Christianity · Islam · Bahá'í Faith Indic · Hinduism · Buddhism · Jainism · Sikhism · Ayyavazhi · Taoism Neopagan · Wicca

There are a number of theories regarding the origins of religion. According to anthropologists John Monaghan and Peter Just,

Many of the great world religions appear to have begun as revitalization movements of some sort, as the vision of a charismatic prophet fires the imaginations of people seeking a more comprehensive answer to their problems than they feel is provided by everyday beliefs. Charismatic individuals have emerged at many times and places in the world. It seems that the key to long-term success – and many movements come and go with little long-term effect – has relatively little to do with the prophets, who appear with surprising regularity, but more to do with the development of a group of supporters who are able to institutionalize the movement.[22] The development of religion has taken different forms in different cultures. Some religions place an emphasis on belief, while others emphasize practice. Some religions focus on the subjective experience of the religious individual, while others consider the activities of the religious community to be most important. Some religions claim to be universal, believing their laws and cosmology to be binding for everyone, while others are intended to be practiced only by a closely defined or localized group. In many places religion has been associated with public institutions such as education, hospitals, the family, government, and political hierarchies.

Anthropologists John Monoghan and Peter Just state that, "it seems apparent that one thing religion or belief helps us do is deal with problems of human life that are significant, persistent, and intolerable. One important way in which religious beliefs accomplish this is by providing a set of ideas about how and why the world is put together that allows people to accommodate anxieties and deal with misfortune."[23]

Types of religion Further information: History of religions

Major denominations and religions of the world

Some scholars classify religions as either universal religions that seek worldwide acceptance and actively look for new converts, or ethnic religions that are identified with a particular ethnic group and do not seek converts.[24] Others reject the distinction, pointing out that all religious practices, whatever their philosophical origin, are ethnic because they come from a particular culture.[25][26][27] In the 19th and 20th centuries, the academic practice of comparative religion divided religious belief into philosophically defined categories called "world religions." However, some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies, and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy, or even calling a given practice religious, rather than cultural, political, or social in nature, is limited.[28][29][30] The current state of psychological study about the nature of religiousness suggests that it is better to refer to religion as a largely invariant phenomenon that should be distinguished from cultural norms (i.e. "religions").[31] Some academics studying the subject have divided religions into three broad categories: 1. world religions, a term which refers to transcultural, international faiths; 2. indigenous religions, which refers to smaller, culture-specific or nation-specific religious groups; and 3. new religious movements, which refers to recently developed faiths.[32] One modern academic theory of religion, social constructionism, says that religion is a modern concept that suggests all spiritual practice and worship follows a model similar to the Abrahamic religions as an orientation system that helps to interpret reality and define human beings,[33] and thus religion, as a concept, has been applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures that are not based upon such systems, or in which these systems are a substantially simpler construct.

Religious movements Main article: Major religious groups The list of still-active religious movements given here is an attempt to summarize the most important regional and philosophical influences on local communities, but it is by no means a complete description of every religious community, nor does it explain the most important elements of individual religiousness.

The five largest religious groups by population, estimated to account for between 5 and 7 billion people, are Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism (with the relative numbers for Buddhism and Hinduism dependent on the extent of syncretism) and Chinese folk religion.

Five largest religions

Adherents in 2000[34]

Christianity Islam Hinduism Chinese folk religion Buddhism

2.0 billion 1.2 billion 811 million 385 million 360 million

% of world population[34] 33% 19.6% 13.4% 6.4% 5.9%

Demographics Christianity by country Islam by country Hinduism by country Chinese folk religion Buddhism by country

Abrahamic religions

The patriarch Abraham (by József Molnár) Abrahamic religions are monotheistic religions which believe they descend from Abraham.

•

•

The Bahá'í Faith was founded in the 19th century in Iran and since then has spread worldwide. It teaches unity of all religious philosophies and accepts all of the prophets of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as additional prophets including its founder Bahá'u'lláh.

Christianity is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (1st century) as presented in the New Testament. The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God, and as Savior and Lord. Almost all Christians believe in the Trinity, which teaches the unity of Father, Son (Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead. Most Christians can describe their faith with the Nicene Creed. As the religion of Byzantine Empire in the first millennium and of Western Europe during the time of colonization, Christianity has been propagated throughout the world. The main divisions of Christianity are, according to the number of adherents:

o o o

Catholic Church, headed by the Pope in Rome, is a communion of the Western church and 22 Eastern Catholic churches.

Protestantism, separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th-century Reformation and split in many denominations, Eastern Christianity which include Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Church of the East.

There are other smaller groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses and the Latter Day Saint movement, whose inclusion in Christianity is sometimes disputed.

Muslims praying around Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam • Islam refers to the religion taught by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE. Islam is the dominant religion of northern Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. As with Christianity, there is no single orthodoxy in Islam but a multitude of traditions which are generally categorized as Sunni and Shia, although there are other minor groups as well. Wahhabi is the dominant Muslim schools of thought in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. There are also several Islamic republics, including Iran, which is run by a Shia Supreme Leader.

• Judaism is the oldest Abrahamic religion, originating in the people of ancient Israel and Judea. Judaism is based primarily on the Torah, a text which some Jews believe was handed down to the people of Israel through the prophet Moses. This along with the rest of the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud are the central texts of Judaism. The Jewish people were scattered after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. Today there are about 13 million Jews, about 40 per cent living in Israel and 40 per cent in the United States.[35] • Smaller regional Abrahamic groups, including Samaritanism (primarily in Israel and the West Bank), the Rastafari movement (primarily in Jamaica), and Druze (primarily in Syria and Lebanon).

Indian religions

Hindu statue of Rama in Kalaram Temple (India) Indian religions are practiced or were founded in the Indian subcontinent.

•

•

Buddhism was founded by Siddhattha Gotama in the 6th century BCE. Buddhists generally agree that Gotama aimed to help sentient beings end their suffering (dukkha) by understanding the true nature of phenomena, thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra), that is, achieving Nirvana. o Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia alongside folk religion, shares some characteristics of Indian religions. It is based in a large collection of texts called the Pali Canon. o Mahayana Buddhism (or the "Great Vehicle") under which are a multitude of doctrines that began their development in China and are still relevant in Vietnam, Korea, Japan and to a lesser extent in Europe and the United States.

Mahayana Buddhism includes such disparate teachings as Zen, Pure Land, and Soka Gakkai. o Vajrayana Buddhism, sometimes considered a form of Mahayana, was developed in Tibet and is still most prominent there and in surrounding regions. o Two notable new Buddhist sects are Hòa Hảo and the Dalit Buddhist movement, which were developed separately in the 20th century.

Hinduism is a synecdoche describing the similar philosophies of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and related groups practiced or founded in the Indian subcontinent. Concepts most of them share in common include karma, caste, reincarnation, mantras, yantras, and darśana.[note 3] Hinduism is the most ancient of still-active religions,[36][37] with origins perhaps as far back as prehistoric times.[38] Hinduism is not a monolithic religion but a religious category containing dozens of separate philosophies

• •

amalgamated as Sanātana Dharma, which is the name with whom Hinduism has been known throughout history by its followers.

Jainism, taught primarily by Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE), is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Jains are found mostly in India.

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak and ten successive Sikh Gurus in 15th century Punjab. Sikhs are found mostly in India.

Iranian religions

Zoroastrian Fire Temple Iranian religions are ancient religions whose roots predate the Islamization of Greater Iran. Nowadays these religions are practiced only by minorities.

•

• •

Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster in the 6th century BC. The Zoroastrians worship the Creator Ahura Mazda. In Zoroastrianism good and evil have distinct sources, with evil trying to destroy the creation of Mazda, and good trying to sustain it.

Mandaeism is a monotheistic religion with a strongly dualistic worldview. Mandaeans are sometime labeled as the "Last Gnostics".

Kurdish religions include the traditional beliefs of the Yazidi, Alevi, and Ahl-e Haqq. Sometimes these are labeled Yazdânism.

Folk religions

Folk religion is a term applied loosely and vaguely to less-organized local practices. It is also called paganism, shamanism, animism, ancestor worship, matriarchal religion, or totemism, although not all of these elements are necessarily present in local belief systems.

The category of "folk religion" can generally include anything that is not part of an organization. Modern neopagan movement draws on folk religion for inspiration to varying degrees.

•

• •

African traditional religion is a category including any type of religion practiced in Africa before the arrival of Islam and Christianity, such as Yoruba religion or San religion. There are many varieties of religions developed by Africans in the Americas derived from African beliefs, including Santería, Candomblé, Umbanda, Vodou, and Oyotunji.

Folk religions of the Americas include Aztec religion, Inca religion, Maya religion, and modern Catholic beliefs such as the Virgin of Guadalupe. Native American religion is practiced across the continent of North America.

Australian Aboriginal culture contains a mythology and sacred practices characteristic of folk religion.

Incense burner in China • Chinese folk religion, practiced by Chinese people around the world, is a primarily social practice including popular elements of Confucianism and Taoism, with some remnants of Mahayana Buddhism. Most Chinese do not identify as religious due to

•

•

the strong Maoist influence on the country in recent history, but adherence to religious ceremonies remains common. New religious movements include Falun Gong and I-Kuan Tao. Traditional Korean religion is a syncretic mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and Korean shamanism. Unlike Japanese Shinto, Korean shamanism was never codified and Buddhism was never made a social necessity. In some areas these traditions remain prevalent, but Korean-influenced Christianity is also influential in society and politics in South Korea.

Traditional Japanese religion is a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and ancient indigenous practices which were codified as Shinto in the 19th century. Japanese people retain nominal attachment to both Buddhism and Shinto through social ceremonies, but irreligion is common.

New religions

A Modern-style Unitarian Universalist sanctuary New religious movements, which may be novel in origin or part of a wider established religion, include: •

• • • •

Shinshūkyō is a general category for a wide variety of religious movements founded in Japan since the 19th century. These movements share almost nothing in common except the place of their founding. The largest religious movements centered in Japan include Soka Gakkai, Tenrikyo, and Seicho-No-Ie among hundreds of smaller groups.

Cao Đài is a syncretistic, monotheistic religion, established in Vietnam in 1926.

Hindu reform movements, such as Ayyavazhi, Swaminarayan Faith and Ananda Marga, are examples of new religious movements within Indian religions.

Unitarian Universalism is a religion characterized by support for a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning," and has no accepted creed or theology.

Scientology teaches that people are immortal beings who have forgotten their true nature. Its method of spiritual rehabilitation is a type of counseling known as auditing, in which practitioners aim to consciously re-experience painful or traumatic events in their past in order to free themselves of their limiting effects.

•

Eckankar is a religion with the purpose of making God an everyday reality in one's life.

Sociological classifications of religious movements suggest that within any given religious group, a community can resemble various types of structures, including "churches", "denominations", "sects", "cults", and "institutions".

Issues in religion Interfaith cooperation Because religion continues to be recognized in Western thought as a universal impulse, many religious practitioners have aimed to band together in interfaith dialogue, cooperation, and religious peacebuilding. The first major dialogue was the Parliament of the World's Religions at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, which remains notable even today both in affirming "universal values" and recognition of the diversity of practices among different cultures. The 20th century has been especially fruitful in use of interfaith dialogue as a means of solving ethnic, political, or even religious conflict, with Christian-Jewish reconciliation representing a complete reverse in the attitudes of many Christian communities towards Jews.

Recent interfaith initiatives include "A Common Word", launched in 2007 and focused on bringing Muslim and Christian leaders together,[39] the "C1 World Dialogue",[40] the "Common Ground" initiative between Islam and Buddhism,[41] and a United Nations sponsored "World Interfaith Harmony Week".[42][43]

Secularism and irreligion Main articles: Secularism and Irreligion See also: Criticism of religion, Atheism, Agnosticism, and Antireligion The terms "atheist" (lack of belief in any gods) and "agnostic" (belief in the unknowability of the existence of gods), though specifically contrary to theistic (e.g. Christian, Jewish, and Muslim) religious teachings, do not by definition mean the opposite of "religious". There are religions (including Buddhism and Taoism), in fact, that classify some of their followers as agnostic, atheistic, or nontheistic. The true opposite of "religious" is the word "irreligious". Irreligion describes an absence of any religion; antireligion describes an active opposition or aversion toward religions in general.

As religion became a more personal matter in Western culture, discussions of society found a new focus on political and scientific meaning, and religious attitudes (dominantly Christian) were increasingly seen as irrelevant for the needs of the European world. On

the political side, Ludwig Feuerbach recast Christian beliefs in light of humanism, paving the way for Karl Marx's famous characterization of religion as "the opium of the people". Meanwhile, in the scientific community, T.H. Huxley in 1869 coined the term "agnostic," a term—subsequently adopted by such figures as Robert Ingersoll—that, while directly conflicting with and novel to Christian tradition, is accepted and even embraced in some other religions. Later, Bertrand Russell told the world Why I Am Not a Christian, which influenced several later authors to discuss their breakaway from their own religious uprbringings from Islam to Hinduism.

Some modern-day critics, such as Bryan Caplan, hold that religion lacks utility in human society; they may regard religion as irrational.[44] Nobel Peace Laureate Shirin Ebadi has spoken out against undemocratic Islamic countries justifying "oppressive acts" in the name of Islam.[45]

Related forms of thought Religion and superstition Further information: Superstition, Magical thinking, and Magic and religion Superstition has been described as "the incorrect establishment of cause and effect" or a false conception of causation.[46] Religion is more complex and includes social institutions and morality. But religions may include superstitions or make use of magical thinking.

Adherents of one religion sometimes think of other religions as superstition.[47][48] Some atheists, deists, and skeptics regard religious belief as superstition.

Greek and Roman pagans, who saw their relations with the gods in political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods (deisidaimonia), as a slave might fear a cruel and capricious master. The Romans called such fear of the gods superstitio.[49] Early Christianity was outlawed as a superstitio Iudaica, a "Jewish superstition", by Domitian in the 80s AD. In AD 425, when Rome had become Christian, Theodosius II outlawed pagan traditions as superstitious.

The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110). "Superstition," it says, "is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to

their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:1622" (para. #2111)

Myth Main article: Mythology The word myth has several meanings.

1. A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon; 2. A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence; or 3. A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being.[50]

Urarina shaman, 1988 Ancient polytheistic religions, such as those of Greece, Rome, and Scandinavia, are usually categorized under the heading of mythology. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or cultures in development, are similarly called "myths" in the anthropology of religion. The term "myth" can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. By defining another person's religious

stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own religious stories and beliefs. Joseph Campbell remarked, "Mythology is often thought of as other people's religions, and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology."[51] In sociology, however, the term myth has a non-pejorative meaning. There, myth is defined as a story that is important for the group whether or not it is objectively or provably true. Examples include the death and resurrection of Jesus, which, to Christians, explains the means by which they are freed from sin and is also ostensibly a historical event. But from a mythological outlook, whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant. Instead, the symbolism of the death of an old "life" and the start of a new "life" is what is most significant. Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations.

Religion and health Main article: Impacts of religion on health Mayo Clinic researchers examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality, and physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. The authors reported that: "Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide."[52] An analysis of data from the 1998 US General Social Survey, whilst broadly confirming that religious activity was associated with better health and well-being, also suggested that the role of different dimensions of spirituality/religiosity in health is rather more complicated. The results suggested "that it may not be appropriate to generalize findings about the relationship between spirituality/religiosity and health from one form of spirituality/religiosity to another, across denominations, or to assume effects are uniform for men and women.[53]

Religion and violence Main article: Religious violence See also: Christianity and violence, Judaism and violence, and Islam and violence

The Crusades were a series of a military campaigns fought mainly between Christian Europe and Muslims. Shown here is a battle scene from the First Crusade. They were inspired at the jihad of the Islam civilization.

Charles Selengut characterizes the phrase "religion and violence" as "jarring", asserting that "religion is thought to be opposed to violence and a force for peace and reconciliation. He acknowledges, however, that "the history and scriptures of the world's religions tell stories of violence and war as they speak of peace and love."[54]

Hector Avalos argues that, because religions claim divine favor for themselves, over and against other groups, this sense of righteousness leads to violence because conflicting claims to superiority, based on unverifiable appeals to God, cannot be adjudicated objectively.[55] Critics of religion Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins go further and argue that religions do tremendous harm to society by using violence to promote their goals, in ways that are endorsed and exploited by their leaders.[56][page needed][57][page needed] Regina Schwartz argues that all monotheistic religions are inherently violent because of an exclusivism that inevitably fosters violence against those that are considered outsiders.[58] Lawrence Wechsler asserts that Schwartz isn't just arguing that Abrahamic religions have a violent legacy, but that the legacy is actually genocidal in nature.[59] Byron Bland asserts that one of the most prominent reasons for the "rise of the secular in Western thought" was the reaction against the religious violence of the 16th and 17th centuries. He asserts that "(t)he secular was a way of living with the religious differences that had produced so much horror. Under secularity, political entities have a warrant to make decisions independent from the need to enforce particular versions of religious orthodoxy. Indeed, they may run counter to certain strongly held beliefs if made in the interest of common welfare. Thus, one of the important goals of the secular is to limit violence."[60] Nonetheless, believers have used similar arguments when responding to atheists in these discussions, pointing to the widespread imprisonment and mass murder of individuals under atheist states in the twentieth century:[61][62][63] And who can deny that Stalin and Mao, not to mention Pol Pot and a host of others, all committed atrocities in the name of a Communist ideology that was explicitly atheistic? Who can dispute that they did their bloody deeds by claiming to be establishing a 'new man' and a religion-free utopia? These were mass murders performed with atheism as a central part of their ideological inspiration, they were not mass murders done by people who simply happened to be atheist. —Dinesh D'Souza[63] In response to such a line of argument, however, author Sam Harris writes: "The problem with fascism and communism, however, is not that they are too critical of religion; the problem is that they are too much like religions. Such regimes are dogmatic to the core and generally give rise to personality cults that are indistinguishable from cults of religious hero worship. Auschwitz, the gulag and the killing fields were not examples of what happens when human beings reject religious dogma; they are examples of political, racial and nationalistic dogma run amok. There is no society in human history that ever suffered because its people became too reasonable."[64]

Richard Dawkins has stated that Stalin's atrocities were influenced not by atheism but by dogmatic Marxism,[65] and concludes that while Stalin and Mao happened to be atheists, they did not do their deeds in the name of atheism.[66] On other occasions, Dawkins has replied to the argument that Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin were antireligious with the response that Hitler and Stalin also grew moustaches, in an effort to show the argument as fallacious.[67] Instead, Dawkins argues in The God Delusion that "What matters is not whether Hitler and Stalin were atheists, but whether atheism systematically influences people to do bad things. There is not the smallest evidence that it does."[68] D'Souza responds that an individual need not explicitly invoke atheism in committing atrocities if it is already implied in his worldview, as is the case in Marxism.[69]

Religion and the law This section requires expansion. (August 2010) There are laws and statutes that make reference to religion.[note 4] This has led scholar Winnifred Sullivan to claims that religious freedom is impossible.[70] Others argue that the Western legal principle of separation of church and state tends to engender a new, more inclusive civil religion.[71]

Religion and science Main articles: Relationship between religion and science and Epistemology Religious knowledge, according to religious practitioners, may be gained from religious leaders, sacred texts, scriptures, or personal revelation. Some religions view such knowledge as unlimited in scope and suitable to answer any question; others see religious knowledge as playing a more restricted role, often as a complement to knowledge gained through physical observation. Adherents to various religious faiths often maintain that religious knowledge obtained via sacred texts or revelation is absolute and infallible and thereby creates an accompanying religious cosmology, although the proof for such is often tautological and generally limited to the religious texts and revelations that form the foundation of their belief.

In contrast, the scientific method gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop theories through elucidation of facts or evaluation by experiments and thus only answers cosmological questions about the universe that can be observed and measured. It develops theories of the world which best fit physically observed evidence. All scientific knowledge is subject to later refinement, or even outright rejection, in the face of additional evidence. Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of favorable

evidence are often treated as de facto verities in general parlance, such as the theories of general relativity and natural selection to explain respectively the mechanisms of gravity and evolution.

Religion as a Christian concept The social constructionists In recent years, some academic writers have described religion according to the theory of social constructionism, which considers how ideas and social phenomena develop in a social context. Among the main proponents of this theory of religion are Timothy Fitzgerald, Daniel Dubuisson and Talal Asad. The social constructionists argue that religion is a modern concept that developed from Christianity and was then applied inappropriately to non-Western cultures.

Dubuisson, a French anthropologist, says that the idea of religion has changed a lot over time and that one cannot fully understand its development by relying on etymology, which "tends to minimize or cancel out the role of history".[72] "What the West and the history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion'", he says, " is ... something quite unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history."[72] He notes that St. Augustine's definition of religio differed from the way we used the modern word "religion".[72] Dubuisson prefers the term "cosmographic formation" to religion. Dubuisson says that, with the emergence of religion as a category separate from culture and society, there arose religious studies. The initial purpose of religious studies was to demonstrate the superiority of the "living" or "universal" European world view to the "dead" or "ethnic" religions scattered throughout the rest of the world, expanding the teleological project of Schleiermacher and Tiele to a worldwide ideal religiousness.[73] Due to shifting theological currents, this was eventually supplanted by a liberal-ecumenical interest in searching for Western-style universal truths in every cultural tradition.[74] Clifford Geertz's definition of religion as a "cultural system" was proposed in the 20th century and continues to be widely accepted today.

According to Fitzgerald, the history of other cultures' interaction with the religious category is not about a universal constant,[clarification needed] but rather concerns a particular idea that first developed in Europe under the influence of Christianity.[75] Fitzgerald argues that from about the 4th century CE Western Europe and the rest of the world diverged. As Christianity became commonplace, the charismatic authority identified by Augustine, a quality we might today call "religiousness", exerted a commanding influence at the local level. This system persisted in the eastern Byzantine Empire following the East-West Schism, but Western Europe regulated unpredictable expressions of charisma through the Roman Catholic Church. As the Church lost its dominance during the Protestant Reformation and Christianity became closely tied to political structures, religion was recast as the basis of national sovereignty, and religious identity gradually became a less universal sense of spirituality and more divisive, locally defined, and tied to nationality. [76] It was at this point that "religion" was dissociated with universal beliefs and moved closer to dogma in both meaning and practice.

However there was not yet the idea of dogma as personal choice, only of established churches. With the Enlightenment religion lost its attachment to nationality, says Fitzgerald, but rather than becoming a universal social attitude, it now became a personal feeling or emotion.[77] Friedrich Schleiermacher in the late 18th century defined religion as das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl, commonly translated as "a feeling of absolute dependence".[78] His contemporary Hegel disagreed thoroughly, defining religion as "the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit."[79] Asad argues that before the word "religion" came into common usage, Christianity was a disciplina, a "rule" just like that of the Roman Empire. This idea can be found in the writings of St. Augustine (354–430). Christianity was then a power structure opposing and superseding human institutions, a literal Kingdom of Heaven. It was the discipline taught by one's family, school, church, and city authorities, rather than something calling one to self-discipline through symbols.[80] These ideas are developed by S. N. Balagangadhara. In the Age of Enlightenment, Balagangadhara says that the idea of Christianity as the purest expression of spirituality was supplanted by the concept of "religion" as a worldwide practice.[81] This caused such ideas as religious freedom, a reexamination of classical philosophy as an alternative to Christian thought, and more radically Deism among intellectuals such as Voltaire. Much like Christianity, the idea of "religious freedom" was exported around the world as a civilizing technique, even to regions such as India that had never treated spirituality as a matter of political identity. [28] In Japan, where Buddhism was still seen as a philosophy of natural law,[82] the concept of "religion" and "religious freedom" as separate from other power structures was unnecessary until Christian missionaries demanded free access to conversion, and when Japanese Christians refused to engage in patriotic events.[83]

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song Dynasty

Other writers Similar views have been put forward by writers who are not social constructionists. George Lindbeck, a Lutheran and a postliberal theologian, says that religion does not refer to belief in "God" or a transcendent Absolute, but rather to "a kind of cultural and/or linguistic framework or medium that shapes the entirety of life and thought ... it is similar to an idiom that makes possible the description of realities, the formulation of beliefs, and the experiencing of inner attitudes, feelings, and sentiments.�[84] Nicholas de Lange, Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at Cambridge University, says that "The comparative study of religions is an academic discipline which has been developed within Christian theology faculties, and it has a tendency to force widely differing phenomena into a kind of strait-jacket cut to a Christian pattern. The problem is not only that other 'religions' may have little or nothing to say about questions which are of burning importance for Christianity, but that they may not even see themselves as religions in precisely the same way in which Christianity sees itself as a religion."[85]

Criticism Main article: Criticism of religion Religious criticism has a long history, going back at least as far as the 5th century BCE in ancient Greece with Diagoras "the atheist" of Melos, and 1st century BCE in Rome with Titus Lucretius Carus's De Rerum Natura, and continuing to the present day with the advent of New Atheism, represented by such authors as Sam Harris, Daniel Dennett, Richard Dawkins, Victor J. Stenger, and Christopher Hitchens.

Critics consider religion to be outdated, harmful to the individual (e.g. brainwashing of children, faith healing, circumcision), harmful to society (e.g. holy wars, terrorism, wasteful distribution of resources), to impede the progress of science, and to encourage immoral acts (e.g. blood sacrifice, discrimination against homosexuals and women). A major criticism of many religions is that they require beliefs that are irrational, unscientific, or unreasonable, because religious beliefs and traditions lack scientific or rational foundations.

See also Religion portal Spirituality portal

Main articles: Outline of religion and Index of religion-related articles

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Belief Economics of religion Faith Humility Life stance List of religious populations List of religious texts Morality and religion Nontheistic religions Philosophy of religion Prayer Priest Religion and business Religion and happiness Religion and peacebuilding Religions by country Religious conversion Sociology of religion Temple Theocracy Timeline of religion Wealth and religion Worldview

References 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

^ Durkheim, E. (1915) The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin. ^ Harper, Douglas. "religion". Online Etymology Dictionary. ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary ^ In The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Toronto. Thomas Allen, 2004. ISBN 0-88762-145-7 ^ In The Power of Myth, with Bill Moyers, ed. Betty Sue Flowers, New York, Anchor Books, 1991. ISBN 0-38541886-8 6. ^ Johan Huizinga, The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919) 1924:75.

7.

8.

9.

10.

^ Max Müller, Natural Religion, p.33, 1889 ^ Lewis & Short, A Latin Dictionary ^ Max Müller. Introduction to the science of religion. p. 28. ^ Kuroda, Toshio and Jacqueline I. Stone, translator. "The Imperial Law and the Buddhist Law." Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 23.3-4 (1996) 11. ^ Neil McMullin. Buddhism and the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1984.

12. ^ Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit, History of Zionism: A Handbook and Dictionary, p.3, citing Solomon Zeitlin, The Jews. Race, Nation, or Religion? ( Philadelphia: Dropsie College Press, 1936).

13. ^ Colin Turner. Islam without Allah? New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 11-12.

14. ^ The Chambers Dictionary. Chambers.

15. ^ Religion. Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

16. ^ Tylor, E.B. (1871) Primitive Culture: Researches Into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom. Vol. 1. London: John Murray; (p.383).

17. ^ Geertz, C. (1993) Religion as a cultural system. In: The interpretation of cultures: selected essays, Geertz, Clifford, pp.87-125. Fontana Press.

18. ^ Durkheim, E. (1915) The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin.

19. ^ Frederick Ferré, F. (1967) Basic modern philosophy of religion. Scribner, (p.82).

20. ^ Tillich, P. (1957) Dynamics of faith. Harper Perennial; (p.1).

21. ^ Tillich, P. (1959) Theology of Culture. Oxford University Press; (p.8).

22. ^ Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). Social & Cultural Anthropology. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 126.

ISBN 978-0-19-285346-2.

23. ^ Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). Social & Cultural Anthropology. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 124.

ISBN 978-0-19-285346-2.

24. ^ Hinnells, John R. (2005). The Routledge companion to the study of religion. Routledge. pp. 439–440. ISBN 0-41533311-3. Retrieved 2009-09-17.

25. ^ Timothy Fitzgerald. The Ideology of Religious Studies. New York: Oxford University Press USA, 2000.

26. ^ Craig R. Prentiss. Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity. New York: NYU Press, 2003. ISBN 0-81476701-X 27. ^ Tomoko Masuzawa. The Invention of World Religions, or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 0-226-50988-5 28. ^ a b Brian Kemble Pennington Was Hinduism Invented? New York: Oxford University Press US, 2005. ISBN 0-19516655-8

29.

^ Russell T. McCutcheon. Critics Not Caretakers: Redescribing the Public Study of Religion. Albany: SUNY Press, 2001.

30.

31.

^ Nicholas Lash. The beginning and the end of 'religion'. Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-521-56635-5 ^ Joseph Bulbulia. "Are There Any Religions? An Evolutionary Explanation." Method & Theory in the Study of Religion 17.2 (2005), pp.71-100 32. ^ Harvey, Graham (2000). Indigenous Religions: A Companion. (Ed: Graham Harvey). London and New York: Cassell. Page 06.

33. ^ Vergote, Antoine, Religion, belief and unbelief: a psychological study, Leuven University Press, 1997, p. 89 34. ^ a b Darrell J. Turner. "Religion: Year In Review 2000". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 June 2012.

35. ^ [1] 36. ^ P. 484 Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions By Wendy Doniger, M. Webster, Merriam-Webster, Inc 37. ^ P. 219 Faith, Religion & Theology By Brennan Hill, Paul F. Knitter, William Madges 38. ^ P. 6 The World's Great Religions By Yoshiaki Gurney Omura, Selwyn Gurney Champion, Dorothy Short 39. ^ A Common Word 40. ^ C1 World Dialogue 41. ^ Islam and Buddhism Common Ground 42. ^ World Interfaith Harmony Week 43. ^ UN resolution 44. ^ Bryan Caplan. "Why Religious Beliefs Are Irrational, and Why Economists Should Care". The article about religion and irrationality.

45. ^ Earth Dialogues 2006 Conference, Brisbane. "In these countries, Islamic rulers want to solve 21st century issues with laws belonging to 14 centuries ago. Their views of human rights are exactly the same as it was 1400 years ago."

46. ^ Kevin R. Foster and Hanna Kokko, "The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour", Proc. R. Soc. B (2009) 276, 31–37[dead link] 47. ^ Boyer (2001). "Why Belief". Religion Explained.

48. ^ Fitzgerald 2007, p. 232 49. ^ Veyne 1987, p 211[clarification needed] 50. ^ Joseph Campbell, The Power of Myth, p. 22 ISBN 0-385-24774-5 51. ^ Joseph Campbell, Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor. Ed. Eugene Kennedy. New World Library ISBN 1-57731-202-3.

52. ^ Paul S. Mueller, MD; David J. Plevak, MD; Teresa A. Rummans, MD. "Religious Involvement, Spirituality, and Medicine: Implications for Clinical Practice". Retrieved 13 November 2010. "We reviewed published studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and subject reviews that examined the association between religious involvement and spirituality and

physical health, mental health, health-related quality of life, and other health outcomes. We also reviewed articles that provided suggestions on how clinicians might assess and support the spiritual needs of patients. Most studies have shown that religious involvement and spirituality are associated with better health outcomes, including greater longevity, coping skills, and health-related quality of life (even during terminal illness) and less anxiety, depression, and suicide" 53. ^ Maselko, J. and Kubzansky, L. D. (2006) Gender differences in religious practices, spiritual experiences and health: Results from the US General Social Survey. Social Science & Medicine, Vol 62(11), June, 2848-2860.

54. ^ Selengut, Charles (2008-04-28). Sacred fury: understanding religious violence. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7425-6084-0.

55. ^ Avalos, Hector (2005). Fighting Words: The Origins of Religious Violence. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.

56. ^ Hitchens, Christopher (2007). God is not Great. Twelve.

57. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Bantam Books.

58. ^ The Curse of Cain: The Violent Legacy of Monotheism By Regina M. Schwartz. University of Chicago Press. 1998.

59. ^ Wechsler, Lawrence. "Mayhem and Monotheism".

60. ^ Bland, Byron (May 2003). "Evil Enemies: The Convergence of Religion and Politics". p. 4.

61. ^ John S. Feinberg, Paul D. Feinberg. Ethics for a Brave New World. Crossway Books. Retrieved 2007–10–18. "Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.' Since then I have spend wellnigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.'"

62. ^ Gregory Koukl. "The Real Murderers: Atheism or Christianity?". Stand To Reason. Retrieved 2007–10–18.

63. ^ a b Dinesh D'Souza. "Answering Atheist’s Arguments". Catholic Education Resource Center. Retrieved 2007–10–18.

64. ^ 10 myths and 10 truths about Atheism Sam Harris 65. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006-09-18). The God Delusion. Ch. 7: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9.

66. ^ Interview with Richard Dawkins conducted by Stephen Sackur for BBC News 24’s HardTalk programme, July 24th 2007. [2] 67. ^ The Video: Bill O'Reilly Interviews Richard Dawkins 68. ^ Dawkins 2006, p. 309 69. ^ Answering Atheist’s Arguments Dinesh D'Souza 70. ^ Winnifred Fallers Sullivan, The Impossibility of Religious Freedom. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.

71. ^ Ronald C. Wimberley and James A. Christenson. "Civil Religion and Church and State". The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Winter, 1980), pp. 35-40

^ a b c Daniel Dubuisson, The Western Construction of Religion ^ Daniel Dubuisson. "Exporting the Local: Recent Perspectives on 'Religion' as a Cultural Category", Religion Compass, 1.6 (2007), p.792.

74. ^ Tomoko Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

75. ^ Fitzgerald, Timothy (2007). Discourse on Civility and Barbarity. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46.

76. ^ Fitzgerald 2007, p. 194 77. ^ Fitzgerald 2007, p. 268 78. ^ Hueston A. Finlay. "‘Feeling of absolute dependence’ or ‘absolute feeling of dependence’? A question revisited".

Religious Studies 41.1 (2005), pp.81-94.

79. ^ Max Müller. "Lectures on the origin and growth of religion."

80. ^ Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1993 p.34-35.

81. ^ S. N. Balagangadhara. The Heathen in His Blindness... New York: Brill Academic Publishers, 1994. p.159.

82. ^ Jason Ānanda Josephson. "When Buddhism Became a 'Religion'". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 33.1: 143– 168.

83. ^ Isomae Jun’ichi. "Deconstructing 'Japanese Religion'". Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 32.2: 235–248.

84. ^ George A. Lindbeck, Nature of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1984), 33.

85. ^ Nicholas de Lange, Judaism, Oxford University Press, 1986 72.

73.

Notes 1.

^ While religion is difficult to define, one standard model of religion, used in religious studies courses, was proposed

by Clifford Geertz, who simply called it a "cultural system" (Clifford Geertz, Religion as a Cultural System, 1973). A critique of Geertz's model by Talal Asad categorized religion as "an anthropological category." (Talal Asad, The Construction of Religion as an Anthropological Category, 1982.)

2. ^ That is how, according to Durkheim, Buddhism is a religion. "In default of gods, Buddhism admits the existence of sacred things, namely, the four noble truths and the practices derived from them" (ibid, p.45).

3. ^ Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. René Guénon in his Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).

4. ^ An example is the Establishment Clause in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. However the US Supreme Court has intentionally not pinned down a precise legal definition to allow for flexibility in preserving rights for what might be regarded as a religion over time. [3]

Bibliography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Saint Augustine; The Confessions of Saint Augustine (John K. Ryan translator); Image (1960), ISBN 0-385-02955-1.

Descartes, René; Meditations on First Philosophy; Bobbs-Merril (1960), ISBN 0-672-60191-5.

Barzilai, Gad; Law and Religion; The International Library of Essays in Law and Society; Ashgate (2007),ISBN 978-0-75462494-3 Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); Our Oriental Heritage; MJF Books (1997), ISBN 1-56731-012-5.

Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); Caesar and Christ; MJF Books (1994), ISBN 1-56731-014-1 Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); The Age of Faith; Simon & Schuster (1980), ISBN 0-671-01200-2.

Marija Gimbutas 1989. The Language of the Goddess. Thames and Hudson New York Gonick, Larry; The Cartoon History of the Universe; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1978) ISBN 0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN#0385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN 0-393-05184-6.

Haisch, Bernard The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All -- discussion of science vs. religion (Preface[dead link]), Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, ISBN 1-57863-374-5 Lao Tzu; Tao Te Ching (Victor H. Mair translator); Bantam (1998).

Marx, Karl; "Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right", Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, (1844).

Saler, Benson; "Conceptualizing Religion: Immanent Anthropologists, Transcendent Natives, and Unbounded Categories" (1990), ISBN 1-57181-219-9 The Holy Bible, King James Version; New American Library (1974).

The Koran; Penguin (2000), ISBN 0-14-044558-7.

The Origin of Live & Death, African Creation Myths; Heinemann (1966).

Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia; Penguin (1971).

The World Almanac (annual), World Almanac Books, ISBN 0-88687-964-7.

The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences - American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1965-1969, November 2003.

United States Constitution Selected Work Marcus Tullius Cicero The World Almanac (for numbers of adherents of various religions), 2005 Religion [First Edition]. Winston King. Encyclopedia of Religion. Ed. Lindsay Jones. Vol. 11. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. p7692-7701.

World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective by Andrey Korotayev, Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7734-6310-0.

Brodd, Jefferey (2003). World Religions. Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5.

On religion definition: • • • • • • •

The first major study: Durkheim, Emile (1976) The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. London: George Allen & Unwin (in French 1912, English translation 1915).

Wilfred Cantwell Smith The Meaning and End of Religion (1962) notes that the concept of religion as an ideological community and system of doctrines, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. A distillation of the Western folk category of religion: Geertz, Clifford. 1993 [1966]. Religion as a cultural system. pp. 87–125 in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays. London: Fontana Press.

An operational definition: Wallace, Anthony F. C. 1966. Religion: An Anthropological View. New York: Random House. (p. 62-66) A recent overview: A Scientific Definition of Religion. By Ph.D. James W. Dow. Origines de l'homme - De la matière à la conscience, Yves Coppens, De Vive Voix, Paris, 2010 La preistoria dell’uomo, Yves Coppens, Jaka Book, Milano, 2011

Studies of religion in particular geographical areas: •

A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris; 2006) 268 pages. Social, political and cultural history of religious minorities in Iran, c. 226-1722 AD.

External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Religion Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Religion • • • • • •

Religion Statistics from UCB Libraries GovPubs Religion at the Open Directory Project Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents by Adherents.com August 2005 IACSR - International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion Studying Religion - Introduction to the methods and scholars of the academic study of religion A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right - Marx's original reference to religion as the opium of the people.

• •

The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion” in International Law Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College(2003) The Big Religion Chart detailed facts on major religions [hide] • • •

v t e

Religion • •

• •

Major groups Abrahamic •

Bahá'í Faith Christianity o Anglicanism o Catholicism o Orthodoxy o Protestantism o Mormonism Druze Islam o Sunni o Shia o Sufi Judaism o Masorti Judaism (Conservative Movement) o Karaite o Orthodoxy  Modern Orthodox  Chassidic  Charedi o Reform Movement

o •

Mandaeism

• •

• •

Ayyavazhi Buddhism o Theravada o Mahayana o Vajrayana Hinduism o Shaktism o Shaivism o Smartism o Vaishnavism Jainism Sikhism

•

Ravidassia religion

• • • • • • •

Ahl-e Haqq Bahá'í Faith Manichaeism Mazdak Mithraism Yazidi Zoroastrianism

•

Dharmic

Iranian

o

East Asian

Samaritanism

• • • •

Zurvanism

Confucianism Shinto Taoism Zen

Recent

Indigenous

• •

Hoa Hao Cao Dai

•

Muism

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Cheondoism Discordianism Eckankar I-Kuan Tao Neopaganism New Age New Thought Raëlism Rastafari Scientology Seicho-no-Ie Tenrikyo Thelema Unification Church Unitarian Universalism

•

Wicca

• • • • • • • • •

African Afro-American Indigenous Australian Chinese Finnish-Estonian Gurung Javanese Native American Philippine

•

Tibetan (Bön)

•

Polynesian

Prehistoric

Near East

Ancient religions

Indo-European

Aspects

• • • • • • • • • •

•

Paleolithic

• •

Egyptian Mesopotamian

•

Semitic

• • •

• • • •

Celtic Germanic Greek o Gnosticism o Neoplatonism Illyro-Thracian Mithraism Roman Slavic

•

Vedic Hinduism

Apostasy / Disaffiliation Behaviour Beliefs Clergy Conversion Deities Denomination Faith Fire God

• • • • •

Meditation Monasticism o monk o nun Mysticism Mythology Nature Ordination Orthodoxy Orthopraxy Prayer Ritual o liturgy o sacrifice Spirituality Supernatural Symbols Truth Water

•

Worship

• • • • • • •

Animism Deism Monotheism Nontheism Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism

•

Transtheism

•

Anthropology

• •

• • • • • • • •

Theism

Religious studies

• • • • • • • • • • •

Comparative Development Evolutionary origin Evolutionary psychology History Philosophy Neurotheology Psychology Sociology Theology Theories

•

Women

• • •

Agriculture Business Clergy o Monasticism o Ordination Conversion o Evangelism o Missionary o Proselytism Education Fanaticism Freedom o Pluralism o Syncretism o Toleration o Universalism Fundamentalism Growth Happiness

•

Religion and society

• • •

• • •

Secularism and irreligion

Lists

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Homosexuality Minorities National church Neo-fascism Political science Populations Schism Science State Theocracy Vegetarianism Violence o Persecution o Terrorism o War

•

Wealth

• • • • • • • • • • •

Deism Agnosticism Atheism Criticism LaVeyan Satanism Deconstruction Irreligion by country Objectivism Secular theology Secularization Separation of church and state

•

Unaffiliated

•

Index

•

Category

•

Portal

• • • • • • • • • •

Outline Timeline Abrahamic prophets Deification Deities Founders Mass gatherings New religious movements Organizations Religions and spiritual traditions

•

Scholars

[show] • v • t • e

Philosophy of religion [show] • v • t • e

Philosophy

Bhagavad Gita

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Gita" redirects here. For other uses, see Gita (disambiguation).

Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra, c. 1830 painting This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

The Bhagavad Gita (pronounced: [ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːˈt̪aː] ( listen)), also referred to as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahabharata. Due to its presence in the epic, it is classified as a Smṛiti text. However, those branches of Hinduism that give it the status of an Upanishad also consider it a Śruti or "revealed text".[1][2] As it is taken to represent a summary of the Upanishadic teachings, it is also called "the Upanishad of the Upanishads."[3] The context of the Gita is a conversation between Krishna and the Pandava prince Arjuna taking place in the middle of the battlefield before the start of the Kurukshetra War with armies on both sides ready to battle. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma about fighting his own cousins who command a tyranny imposed on a disputed empire, Lord Krishna explains to Arjuna his

duties as a warrior and prince, and elaborates on yoga, Samkhya, reincarnation, moksha, karma yoga and jnana yoga among other topics.[4]

Contents • • • •

• • •

• • •

•

1 Date and text 2 Background o 2.1 War as allegory 3 Overview of chapters 4 Major themes of yoga o 4.1 Karma yoga o 4.2 Bhakti yoga o 4.3 Jnana yoga o 4.4 Eighteen yogas 5 Message of the Gita 6 Influence 7 Commentaries and translations o 7.1 Classical commentaries o 7.2 Modern Commentaries o 7.3 Independence movement o 7.4 Hindu revivalism and Neo-Hindu movements o 7.5 Scholarly translations 8 Adaptations 9 See also 10 References o 10.1 Citations o 10.2 Sources 11 External links

Date and text

Bhagavad Gita, a 19th-century manuscript Scholars roughly date the Bhagavad Gita to the period between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the Gita having been influenced by the soteriologies of Buddhism, Jainism, Samkhya and Yoga.[5] Though the Bhagavad Gita, as a smrti, has no independent authority from the Upanishads (sruti), the Gita is in many respects unlike the Upanishads in format and content.[6] The Bhagavad Gita occurs in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata and comprises 18 chapters from the 25th through 42nd and consists of 700 verses.[7] The authorship of the Mahabharata as a whole is attributed to Vyasa, however in actuality it is a composite work of many authors over a period of time.[8] The Gita itself is also the product of more than one author.[9] Because of differences in recensions, the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25–42 or as chapters 6.23–40.[10]

According to the recension of the Gita commented on by Adi Shankara, the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence to show that old manuscripts had 745 verses.[11] The verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit Anustup meter (chhandas) with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted.[12]

A manuscript illustration of the battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the MahÄ bhÄ rata.

Background

Bronze statue representing the discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, in Kurukshetra

The Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra war, with the Pandava prince Arjuna becoming filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realizing that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice.

War as allegory There are many scholars and researchers who regard the story of the Gita as an allegory. For example, Swami Nikhilananda, founder of the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York, takes Arjuna as an allegory of Ātman, Krishna as an allegory of Brahman, Arjuna's chariot as the body, etc.[13] Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, in his commentary on the Gita,[14] interpreted the battle as "an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna, man's higher impulses struggling against evil."[15] Swami Vivekananda also said that the first discourse in the Gita related to war can be taken allegorically.[16] Vivekananda further remarked, "this Kurukshetra War is only an allegory. When we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil."[17] In Sri Aurobindo's view, Krishna was a historical figure, but his significance in the Gita is as a "symbol of the divine dealings with humanity",[18] while Arjuna typifies a "struggling human soul."[19] However, Aurobindo rejects the interpretation that the Gita, and the Mahabharata by extension, is "an allegory of the inner life, and has nothing to do with our outward human life and actions":[19]

“

...That is a view which the general character and the actual language of the epic does not justify and, if pressed, would turn the straightforward philosophical language of the Gita into a constant, laborious and somewhat puerile mystification....the Gita is written in plain terms and professes to solve the great ethical and spiritual difficulties which the life of man raises, and it will not do to go behind this plain language and thought and wrest them to the service of our fancy. But there is this much of truth in the view, that the setting of the doctrine though not symbolical, is certainly typical...

Overview of chapters

�

Krishna displays his Vishvarupa (Universal Form) to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra (Bhagavad-Gita, chapter 11).

Sample Of Gita Sloka Recitation A 1 minute 36 seconds sample of recitation of Gita Sloka — Chapter 2: Slokas 19-23 Problems listening to this file? See media help.

The Gita consists of eighteen chapters[20] in total: Gītā Dhyānam: (contains 9 verses) The Gītā Dhyānam is not a part of the main Bhagavad-Gītā, but it is commonly published with the Gītā as a prefix. The verses of the Gītā Dhyānam (also called Gītā Dhyāna or Dhyāna Ślokas) offer salutations to a variety of sacred scriptures, figures, and entities, characterize the relationship of the Gītā to the Upanishads, and affirm the power of divine assistance.[21] It is a common practice to recite these before reading chapter(s) of the Gita itself.[22][23] 1. Arjuna-Visada Yoga: (contains 47 verses) Arjuna requests Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies. When Arjuna sees his relatives on the opposing army side of the Kurus, he loses morale and decides not to fight.

2. Sankhya Yoga:: (contains 72 verses) After asking Krishna for help, Arjuna is instructed that only the body may be killed, as he was worried if it would become a sin to kill people (including his gurus and relatives), while the eternal self is immortal.

Krishna appeals to Arjuna that, as a warrior, he has a duty to uphold the path of dharma through warfare. Krishna told Arjuna the three principles dharma, Atman and the Sharira (body).

3. Karma Yoga: (contains 43 verses) Arjuna asks why he should engage in fighting if knowledge is more important than action.

Krishna stresses to Arjuna that performing his duties for the greater good, but without attachment to results, is the appropriate course of action.

4. Jnana-Karma-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru.

5. Karma-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 29 verses) Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act ("renunciation or discipline of action"[24]). Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficent, but that acting in Karma Yoga is superior.

6. Dhyan Yoga or Atmasanyam Yoga: (contains 46 verses) Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and the process of how to achieve Samādhi.

7. Jnana-Vijnana Yoga: (contains 30 verses) Krishna teaches the path of knowledge (Jnana Yoga).

8. Aksara-Brahma Yoga: (contains 28 verses) Krishna defines the terms brahman, adhyatma, karma, atman, adhibhuta and adhidaiva and explains how one can remember him at the time of death and attain his supreme abode.

9. Raja-Vidya-Raja-Guhya Yoga: (contains 34 verses) Krishna explains panentheism, "all beings are in me" as a way of remembering him in all circumstances.

10. Vibhuti-Vistara-Yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna describes how he is the ultimate source of all material and spiritual worlds. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme Being, quoting great sages who have also done so.

11. Visvarupa-Darsana Yoga: (contains 55 verses) On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays his "universal form" (Viśvarūpa), a theophany of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all other beings and material in existence.

12. Bhakti Yoga: (contains 20 verses) In this chapter Krishna extols the glory of devotion to God. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti Yoga). He also explains different forms of spirtual disciplines.

13. Ksetra-Ksetrajna Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 34 verses) In this chapter Krishna describes the (human) body as Kshetra, and tells one who knows this fact is a Ksetrajna. Krishna describes nature (prakrti), the enjoyer (purusha) and consciousness.

14. Gunatraya-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 27 verses) Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature.

15. Purusottama Yoga: (contains 20 verses) Krishna describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence), its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. Krishna explains that this tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment", after which one can go beyond to his supreme abode.

16. Daivasura-Sampad-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 24 verses) Krishna tells of the human traits of the divine and the demonic natures. He counsels that to attain the supreme destination one must give up lust, anger and greed, discern between right and wrong action by discernment through Buddhi and evidence from scripture and thus act correctly.

17. Sraddhatraya-Vibhaga Yoga: (contains 28 verses) Krishna tells of three divisions of faith and the thoughts, deeds and even eating habits corresponding to the three gunas.

18. Moksha-Sanyasa Yoga: (contains 78 verses) In conclusion, Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of dharma and simply surrender unto him. He describes this as the ultimate perfection of life.

Major themes of yoga

Krishna and Arjuna at Kurukshetra war field.

Part of a series on

Hindu scriptures

Vedas Rigveda 路 Samaveda Yajurveda 路 Atharvaveda

Divisions Samhita · Brahmana Aranyaka · Upanishads Vedangas Shiksha · Chandas Vyakarana · Nirukta Kalpa · Jyotisha Upanishads Rig vedic Aitareya Yajur vedic Brihadaranyaka · Isha Taittiriya · Katha Shvetashvatara Sama vedic Chandogya · Kena Atharva vedic Mundaka · Mandukya Prashna Puranas

Brahma puranas Brahma · Brahmānda Brahmavaivarta Markandeya · Bhavishya Vaishnava puranas Vishnu · Bhagavata Naradeya · Garuda · Padma · Agni Shaiva puranas Shiva · Linga Skanda · Vayu Itihasa Ramayana Mahabharata (Bhagavad Gita) Other scriptures Manu Smriti Artha Shastra · Agama Tantra · Sūtra · Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramcharitmanas Yoga Vasistha

Scripture classification Śruti · Smriti Timeline Hindu texts

v • t

•

•

e

The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections, each of six chapters. According to his method of division, the first six chapters deal with Karma yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he says is Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with bhakti.[25] Swami Gambhirananda characterizes Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga.[26]

Karma yoga Main article: Karma yoga Karma Yoga is essentially Acting, or doing one's duties in life as per his/her dharma, or duty, without attachment to results – a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affect one's actions. Krishna advocates Nishkam Karma (Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. The very important theme of Karma Yoga is not focused on renouncing the work, but again and again Krishna focuses on what should be the purpose of activity. Krishna mentions in following verses that actions must be performed to please the Supreme otherwise these actions become the cause of material bondage and cause repetition of birth and death in this material world. These concepts are described in the following verses: "Work done as a sacrifice for Vishnu has to be performed, otherwise work causes bondage in this material world. Therefore, O son of Kuntī, perform your prescribed duties for His satisfaction, and in that way you will always remain free from bondage."[27]

"To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction"(2.47)[28] "Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga"(2.48)[29] "With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward selfpurification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..."[30] In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. The following verses illustrate this:[31] "When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger."(2.62)[31] "From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes"(2.63)[31]

Bhakti yoga Main article: Bhakti yoga According to Catherine Cornille, Associate Professor of Theology at Boston College, "The text [of the Gita] offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (jnana), action (karma) and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation."[32] In the introduction to Chapter Seven of the Gita, bhakti is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. As scholar M. R. Sampatkumaran explains in his overview of Ramanuja's commentary on the Gita, "The point is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. Devotion, meditation and worship are essential." [33] As Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita: •

"And of all yogins, he who full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him, I hold to be the most attuned (to me in Yoga)."(6.47) [34]

•

"After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection.(8.15)"[35]

•

"... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter.(12.6)"[36]

•

"And he who serves Me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for liberation in Brahman." (14.26) [37]

•

"Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend."[38]

•

"Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just surrender completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation).

I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear."(18.66)[39]

Jnana yoga Main article: Jnana yoga Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not.

When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception.

—13.31, [40] Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal.

—13.35, [41]

Eighteen yogas

In Sanskrit editions of the Gita, the Sanskrit text includes a traditional chapter title naming each chapter as a particular form of yoga.

These chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.[42] Since there are eighteen chapters, there are therefore eighteen yogas mentioned, as explained in this quotation from Swami Chidbhavananda: All the eighteen chapters in the Gita are designated, each as a type of yoga. The function of the yoga is to train the body and the mind.... The first chapter in the Gita is designated as system of yoga. It is called Arjuna Vishada Yogam – Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection.

[43]

In Sanskrit editions, these eighteen chapter titles all use the word yoga, but in English translations the word yoga may not appear. For example, the Sanskrit title of Chapter 1 as given in Swami Sivananda's bilingual edition is arjunaviṣādayogaḥ which he translates as "The Yoga of the Despondency of Arjuna".[44] Swami Tapasyananda's bilingual edition gives the same Sanskrit title, but translates it as "Arjuna's Spiritual Conversion Through Sorrow".[45] The English-only translation by Radhakrishnan gives no Sanskrit, but the chapter title is translated as "The Hesitation and Despondency of Arjuna".[46] Other English translations, such as that by Zaehner, omit these chapter titles entirely.[47] Swami Sivananda's commentary says that the eighteen chapters have a progressive order to their teachings, by which Krishna "pushed Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another."[48] As Winthrop Sargeant explains, "In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gītā, every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation."[49]

Message of the Gita Advaita Vedanta uses the Bhagavad Gita in conjunction with the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras to arrive at its message.[50] Some commentators have attempted to resolve the apparent conflict between the proscription of violence and ahimsa by allegorical readings. Gandhi, for example, took the position that the text is not concerned with actual warfare so much as with the "battle that goes on within each individual heart". Such allegorical or metaphorical readings are derived from the Theosophical interpretations of Subba Row, William Q. Judge and Annie Besant. Stephen Mitchell has attempted to refute such allegorical readings.[51] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan writes that the verse 11.55 is "the essence of bhakti" and the "substance of the whole teaching of the Gita": [52]

“

He who does work for Me, he who looks upon Me as his goal, he who worships Me, free from attachment, who is free from enmity to all creatures, he goes to Me, O Pandava.

”

Ramakrishna said that the essential message of the Gita can be obtained by repeating the word several times,[53] "'Gita, Gita, Gita', you begin, but then find yourself saying 'ta-Gi, ta-Gi, ta-Gi'. Tagi means one who has renounced everything for God." According to Swami Vivekananda, "If one reads this one Shloka — one gets all the merits of reading the entire Gita; for in this one Shloka lies imbedded the whole Message of the Gita.[54]

“

क्लैब्यं मा स्म गमः पनाथ र्ग निैतत्त्वय्युपनपनद्यते । कुद्रं हृदयदौर्बल् र्ग यं त्यक्त्वोि शत्तष्ठ पनरं तपन॥ Translation: Do not yield to unmanliness, O son of Prithâ. It does not become you. Shake off this base faint-heartnedness and arise, O scorcher of enemies! (2.3)

”

Swami Chinmayananda writes, "Here in the Bhagavad Gita, we find a practical handbook of instruction on how best we can reorganise our inner ways of thinking, feeling and acting in our everyday life and draw from ourselves a larger gush of productivity to enrich the life around us, and to emblazon the subjective life within us." [55] Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi writes, "The object of the Gita appears to me to be that of showing the most excellent way to attain self-realization" and this can be achieved by selfless action, "By desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him body and soul." Gandhi called Gita, The Gospel of Selfless Action.[56] Eknath Easwaran writes that the Gita's subject is "the war within, the struggle for self-mastery that every human being must wage if he or she is to emerge from life victorious",[57] and "The language of battle is often found in the scriptures, for it conveys the strenuous, long, drawn-out campaign we must wage to free ourselves from the tyranny of the ego, the cause of all our suffering and sorrow".[58]

Influence Main article: Influence of Bhagavad Gita

It has been highly praised not only by prominent Indians such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi but also by Aldous Huxley, Henry David Thoreau, Albert Einstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer,[59] Ralph Waldo Emerson, Carl Jung, and Herman Hesse.[3][60] The Bhagavad Gita's emphasis on selfless service was a prime source of inspiration for Mahatma Gandhi.[56] Mahatma Gandhi told, "When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to BhagavadGita and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. Those who meditate on the Gita will derive fresh joy and new meanings from it every day."[61] • •

•

•

Albert Einstein told- "When I read the Bhagavad-Gita and reflect about how God created this universe everything else seems so superfluous." [61] Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India commented on Gita, "The Bhagavad-Gita deals essentially with the spiritual foundation of human existence. It is a call of action to meet the obligations and duties of life; yet keeping in view the spiritual nature and grander purpose of the universe." [61] J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project, learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's first nuclear test in 1945, he later said he had thought of the quotation "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds", verse 32 from Chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.[62][63] A 2006 report suggests that the Gita is replacing the influence of The Art of War (ascendant in the 1980s and '90s) in the Western business community.[64]

Commentaries and translations Classical commentaries Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools (sampradaya) and Guru lineages (parampara), which claim to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be faithful to the original message. In the words of Mysore Hiriyanna, "[The Gita] is one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it – each differing from the rest in an essential point or the other."[65] Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the Vedanta school[66] of extreme 'non-dualism", Shankara (788–820 A. D.),[67] also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Śaṅkarācārya).[68] Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and

that recension has been widely adopted by others.[69] Ramanujacharya's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.[70] The commentary by Madhva, whose dates are given either as (b. 1199 – d.

1276)[71] or as (b. 1238 – d. 1317),[49] also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvācārya), exemplifies thinking of the "dualist" school.[68] Madhva's school of dualism asserts that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."[49] Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the Vedanta school.[72] Madhva has written two commentaries on Bhagavadgita : Bhāshya and Tātparya. They have been explained further by many ancient pontiffs of Dvaita School like Padmanabha Tirtha, Jayatirtha and Raghavendra Tirtha.

In the Shaiva tradition,[73] the renowned philosopher Abhinavagupta (10–11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.

Other classical commentators include Nimbarka (1162 CE), Vidyadhiraja Tirtha, Vallabha(1479 CE)., Madhusudana Saraswati, Raghavendra Tirtha, Vanamali Mishra, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 CE),[74] while Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296 CE) translated and commented on the Gita in Marathi, in his book Dnyaneshwari.

Modern Commentaries Swami Chinmayananda wrote a highly acclaimed commentary in which the Gita is presented as a universe text of spiritual guidance for humanity. Written for a modern intellectual, He gives an in-depth view of the Gita in the light of science and rationality without ignoring the original intent of the text and the traditional commentaries of the great Vedantin Adi Shankaracharya. In his effortlessly polished English, Swami Chinmayananda brings the message of Gita alive to the modern reader. [75] Paramhansa Yogananda wrote a two-volume translation of and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita named - "God Talks with Arjuna: Bhagavad Gita", offering a comprehensive examination of the science and philosophy of yoga. He outlines the Gita's balanced path of meditation and right activity, and shows how we can create a life of spiritual integrity and joy. "Wherever one is on the way back to God, the Gita will shed its light on that segment of the journey... It is at once a profound scripture on the science of yoga, union with God, and a textbook for everyday living." - Paramahansa Yogananda The book offers a translation and commentary of wide scope and vision. Exploring the psychological, spiritual and metaphysical depths of the Bhagavad Gita - from the subtle springs of human action to the grand design of the cosmic order.[76]

Independence movement

In modern times, notable commentaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, who used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[77][78] Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition.[79] While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.[80] No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".[81] During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929,[82] Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a foreword by Gandhi in 1946.[83][84] Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words: "I find a solace in the Bhagavadgītā that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavadgītā. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies – and my life has been full of external tragedies – and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavadgītā."[85]

Hindu revivalism and Neo-Hindu movements

Three translations: Bhagavad Gita As It Is, a Gujarati translation by Gita Press, and another English one published by Barnes & Noble.

Other notable modern commentators include Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda, and Swami Chinmayananda who took a syncretistic approach to the text.[86][87] Swami Vivekananda, the follower of Sri Ramakrishna, was known for his commentaries on the four Yogas – Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. Swami Sivananda advises the aspiring Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. Swami Chinmayananda viewed the Gita as a universal Scripture to turn a person from a state of agitation and confusion to a state of complete vision, inner contentment and dynamic action. Paramahamsa Yogananda, writer of the famous Autobiography of a Yogi, viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's most divine scriptures. A.C.

Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, wrote Bhagavad-GÄŤtÄ As It Is, a commentary on the Gita from one of many perspectives of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.

Scholarly translations The first English translation of the Bhagavad Gita was done by Charles Wilkins in 1785.[88][89] In 1981, Larson listed more than 40 English translations of the Gita, stating that "A complete listing of Gita translations and a related secondary bibliography would be nearly endless" (p. 514[90]). He stated that "Overall... there is a massive translational tradition in English, pioneered by the British, solidly grounded philologically by the French and Germans, provided with its indigenous roots by a rich heritage of modern Indian comment and reflection, extended into various disciplinary areas by Americans, and having generated in our time a broadly based cross-cultural awareness of the importance of the Bhagavad Gita both as an expression of a specifically Indian spirituality and as one of the great religious "classics" of all time." (p. 518[90]) The Gita has also been translated into other European languages. In 1808, passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.[91] Swami Rambhadracharya released the first Braille version of the scripture, with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi commentary, on 30 November 2007.[92]

Adaptations Philip Glass retold the story of Gandhi's early development as an activist in South Africa through the text of the Gita in the opera Satyagraha (1979). The entire libretto of the opera consists of sayings from the Gita sung in the original Sanskrit.[93] In Douglas Cuomo's Arjuna's dilemma, the philosophical dilemma faced by Arjuna is dramatized in operatic form with a blend of Indian and Western music styles.[94] The 1993 Sanskrit film, Bhagavad Gita, directed by G. V. Iyer won the 1993 National Film Award for Best Film.[95][96]

See also Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Bhagavad Gita

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Bhagavad Gita • • • • • • • •

Ashtavakra Gita Avadhuta Gita The Ganesha Gita Gita Dhyanam Puranas Uddhava Gita Vedas Vyadha Gita

Mahabharata From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Sanskrit epic. For other uses, see Mahabharata (disambiguation).

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra

Krishna, Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18–19th century painting.

The Mahabharata (Sanskrit Mahābhārata महाभारत, IPA: [məɦaːˈbʱaːrət̪ə]) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa.[1] Besides its epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, the Mahabharata contains much philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas (12.161). The latter are enumerated as dharma (right action), artha (purpose), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation). Among the principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated version of the Ramayana, and the Rishyasringa, often considered as works in their own right.

Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are not thought to be appreciably older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the story probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.[2] The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (ca. fourth century CE).[3] The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". According to the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.[4] The Mahabharata is the longest Sanskrit epic.[5] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 shloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahabharata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Ramayana.[6][7] W. J. Johnson has compared the

importance of the Mahabharata to world civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Qur'an.[8]

Contents •

• •

•

• • • • •

1 Textual history and structure o 1.1 Accretion and redaction o 1.2 Historical references o 1.3 The 18 parvas 2 Historical context 3 Synopsis o 3.1 The older generations o 3.2 The Pandava and Kaurava princes o 3.3 Lākṣagṛha (The House of Lac) o 3.4 Marriage to Draupadi o 3.5 Indraprastha o 3.6 The dice game o 3.7 Exile and return o 3.8 The battle at Kurukshetra o 3.9 The end of the Pandavas 4 Versions, translations, and derivative works o 4.1 Critical Edition o 4.2 Modern interpretations o 4.3 Persian translation o 4.4 English translations o 4.5 Abridged versions o 4.6 Derivative works 5 Jain version 6 Kuru family tree 7 Cultural influence 8 See also 9 Notes

•

10 References

•

11 External links

Textual history and structure

Depiction at Angkor Wat of Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, his scribe.

The epic is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, who is also a major character in the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Ganesha who, at the request of Vyasa, wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only on condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa agreed, provided Ganesha took the time to understand what was said before writing it down.

The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and secular works. It is recited to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of Arjuna, by Vaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa. The recitation of Vaisampayana to Janamejaya is then recited again by a professional storyteller named Ugrasrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sages performing the 12 year long sacrifice for King Saunaka Kulapati in the Naimisha forest.

Jaya, the core of Mahābhārata is structured in the form of a dialogue between Kuru king Dhritarashtra and Sanjaya, his advisor and chariot driver. Sanjaya narrates each incident of the Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as and when it happened. Dhritarāshtra sometimes asks questions and doubts and sometimes laments, knowing about the destruction caused by the war, to his sons, friends and kinsmen. He also feels guilty, due to his own role, that led to this war, destructive to the entire Indian subcontinent.

In the beginning, Sanjaya gives a description of the various continents of the Earth, the other planets, and focuses on the Indian Subcontinent and gives an elaborate list of hundreds of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, forests, etc. of the (ancient) Indian Subcontinent (Bhārata Varsha). He also explains about the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the death of each hero and the details of each war-racings. Some 18 chapters of Vyasa's Jaya constitutes the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred text of the Hindus. Thus, this work of Vyasa, called Jaya deals with diverse subjects like geography, history, warfare, religion and morality. According to Mahabharata itself, Vaisampayana's Bharata expanded on the story, with Vyasa's Jaya embedded within it. Ugrasrava eventually composed the final Mahabharata, with both Vyasa's Jaya and Vaisampayana's Bharata embedded within the epic.

Accretion and redaction Research on the Mahabharata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating various layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahabharata can be traced back to Vedic times.[9] The background to the Mahabharata suggests the origin of the epic occurs at a time "after the very early Vedic period" and before "the first Indian 'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.". That this is "a date not too far removed from the eighth or ninth century B.C."[2][10] is likely. It is generally agreed that "Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style,"[10] so the earliest surviving components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest external references we have to the epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's fourth century BCE grammar (Ashtādhyāyī 4:2:56).[2][10] It is estimated that the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a "final form" by the early Gupta period (about the 4th century CE).[10] Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata, commented: "It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum. What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach on the basis of the manuscript material available."[11] That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given its material composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.

The Mahabharata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses, the Bharata proper, as opposed to additional secondary material, while the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least three redactions of the text are commonly recognized: Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, Bharata with 24,000 verses as recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the Mahabharata as recited by Ugrasrava Sauti with over 100,000 verses.[12][13] However, some scholars such as John Brockington,

argue that Jaya and Bharata refer to the same text, and ascribe the theory of Jaya with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in Adiparvan (1.1.81).[14] The redaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18[15] and 12. The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anushasana-parva and the Virata parva from the "Spitzer manuscript".[16] The oldest surviving Sanskrit text would date to the Kushan Period (200 CE).[17] From this evidence, it is likely that the redaction into 18 books took place in the first century. An alternative division into 20 parvas appears to have co-existed for some time. The division into 100 sub-parvas (mentioned in Mbh. 1.2.70) is older, and most parvas are named after one of their constituent sub-parvas. The Harivamsa consists of the final two of the 100 sub-parvas, and was considered an appendix (khila) to the Mahabharata proper by the redactors of the 18 parvas.[citation needed] According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with Manu (1.1.27), Astika (1.3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition of one and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin with the account of the birth of Vyasa. The astika version would add the sarpasattra and ashvamedha material from Brahmanical literature, introduce the name Mahabharata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors of these additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control over the text until its final redaction. Mention of the Huna in the Bhishma-parva however appears to imply that this parva may have been edited around the 4th century[citation needed].

The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya The Adi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) of Janamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes in existence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, there are still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was often considered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahabharata by "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have a particularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature. The Panchavimsha Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priests of a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhrtarashtra and Janamejaya, two main characters of the Mahabharata's sarpasattra, as well as Takshaka, the name of a snake in the Mahabharata, occur.[18] The state of the text has been described by some early 20th century Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragic force", but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."[19] The judgement of other early 20th century Indologists was even less favourable. Moritz Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur 1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the various parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole.

Historical references

See also: Bhagavad Gita#Date and text The earliest known references to the Mahabharata and its core Bharata date back to the Ashtadhyayi (sutra 6.2.38) of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE), and in the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4). This may suggest that the core 24,000 verses, known as the Bharata, as well as an early version of the extended Mahabharata, were composed by the 4th century BCE. A report by the Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (ca. 40-ca. 120 CE) about Homer's poetry being sung even in India[20] seems to imply that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit. However, scholars have, in general, taken this as evidence for the existence of a Mahabharata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources identify with the story of the Iliad.[21] Several stories within the Mahabharata took on separate identities of their own in Classical Sanskrit literature. For instance, Abhijñānashākuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (ca. 400 CE), believed to have lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahabharata. Urubhanga, a Sanskrit play written by Bhāsa who is believed to have lived before Kālidāsa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhana by the splitting of his thighs by Bhima.

The copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533–534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District, Madhya Pradesh) describes the Mahabharata as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (shatasahasri samhita).

The 18 parvas The division into 18 parvas is as follows: Parva

Title

Subparvas

1

Adi Parva (The Book of the Beginning)

2

Sabha Parva (The Book of the 20–28 Assembly Hall)

3

Vana Parva also Aranyaka-

1–19

29–44

Contents How the Mahabharata came to be narrated by Sauti to the assembled rishis at Naimisharanya. The recital of the Mahabharata at the sarpasattra of Janamejaya by Vaishampayana at Takṣaśilā. The history of the Bharata race is told in detail and the parva also traces history of the Bhrigu race. The birth and early life of the Kuru princes. (adi means first) Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha), at Indraprastha. Life at the court, Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yajna, the game of dice, and the eventual exile of the Pandavas.

The twelve years of exile in the forest (aranya).

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

parva, Aranya-parva (The Book of the Forest) Virata Parva (The Book of Virata) Udyoga Parva (The Book of the Effort) Bhishma Parva (The Book of Bhishma) Drona Parva (The Book of Drona) Karna Parva (The Book of Karna) Shalya Parva (The Book of Shalya)

45–48 49–59 60–64 65–72 73 74–77

Sauptika Parva (The Book of 78–80 the Sleeping Warriors) Stri Parva (The Book of the 81–85 Women) Shanti Parva (The Book of Peace)

86–88

Anushasana Parva (The Book 89–90 of the Instructions) Ashvamedhika Parva (The Book of the Horse Sacrifice) 91–92 [22]

15

Ashramavasika Parva (The Book of the Hermitage)

16

Mausala Parva (The Book of 96

93–95

The year spent incognito at the court of Virata.

Preparations for war and efforts to bring about peace between the Kurus and the Pandavas which eventually fail (udyoga means effort or work).

The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kauravas and his fall on the bed of arrows. (Includes the Bhagavad Gita.)

The battle continues, with Drona as commander. This is the major book of the war.

Most of the great warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this book.

The battle again, with Karna as commander.

The last day of the battle, with Shalya as commander. Also told in detail is the pilgrimage of Balarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the mace fight between Bhima and Duryodhana which ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by smashing him on the thighs with a mace.

Ashvattama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the remaining Pandava army in their sleep. Only 7 warriors remain on the Pandava side and 3 on the Kaurava side.

Gandhari, Kunti and the women (stri) of the Kurus and Pandavas lament the dead.

The crowning of Yudhisthira as king of Hastinapura, and instructions from Bhishma for the newly anointed king on society, economics and politics. This is the longest book of the Mahabharata (shanti means peace).

The final instructions (anushasana) from Bhishma.

The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha (Horse sacrifice) conducted by Yudhisthira.

The world conquest by Arjuna. The Anugita is told by Krishna to Arjuna.

The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti in a forest fire when they are living in a hermitage in the Himalayas. Vidura predeceases them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra's bidding goes to live in the higher Himalayas.

The infighting between the Yadavas with maces (mausala) and the eventual destruction

the Clubs) Mahaprasthanika Parva (The 17 97 Book of the Great Journey) Svargarohana Parva (The 18 Book of the Ascent to 98 Heaven) Harivamsa Parva (The Book khila 99–100 of the Genealogy of Hari)

of the Yadavas.

The great journey of Yudhisthira and his brothers across the whole country and finally their ascent of the great Himalayas where each Pandava falls except for Yudhisthira.

Yudhisthira's final test and the return of the Pandavas to the spiritual world (svarga).

This is an addendum to the 18 books, and covers those parts of the life of Krishna which is not covered in the 18 parvas of the Mahabharata.

Historical context Further information: Epic India The historicity of the Kurukshetra War is unclear. Many historians estimate the date of the Kurukshetra war to Iron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[23] The setting of the epic has a historical precedent in Iron Age (Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE.[24] A dynastic conflict of the period could have been the inspiration for the Jaya, the foundation on which the Mahabharata corpus was built, with a climactic battle eventually coming to be viewed as an epochal event.

Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahabharata narrative. The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds.

Of the first kind, there is the direct statement that there were 1015 (or 1050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna's grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma Nanda, commonly dated to 382 BCE, which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for the Bharata battle.[25] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies. [26] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[27] B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.[28]

Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid 2nd millennium BCE.[29] The late 4th millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by Aryabhata (6th century). His date of February 18 3102 BCE has become widespread in Indian tradition (for example, the Aihole inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle.[30]) Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira (author of the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place the Bharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.[31] The Mahabharata offers one of the first instances of theorizing about "Just war", illustrating many of the standards that would be debated later across the world. In the story, one of five brothers asks if the suffering caused by war can ever be justified. A long discussion ensues between the siblings, establishing criteria like proportionality (chariots cannot attack cavalry, only other chariots, no attacking people in distress), just means (no poisoned or barbed arrows), just cause (no attacking out of rage), and fair treatment of captives and the wounded[32].

Synopsis

Ganesa writing the Mahabharat The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava. Although the Kaurava is the senior

branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhisthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.

The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.

The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), the fourth and final age of mankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue.

Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Mahabharata, as well as the Ramayana, is respectively Krishna's and Rama's hidden divinity and its progressive revelation.[33]

The older generations

Shantanu woos Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

King Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees Satyavati, the daughter of the chief of fisherman, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.

Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī arranges a

swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.

The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to King Drupada as Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.

The Pandava and Kaurava princes When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa to father children with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'[34]). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest characters in the Mahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.

When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal.

He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who curses him that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.

Draupadi with her five husbands - the Pandavas. The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two on the bottom are Bhima and Arjuna.

Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are standing.

Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra.

Kunti uses this boon to ask Dharma the god of justice, Vayu the god of the wind, and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons, Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies. Madri dies on his funeral pyre out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.

Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishtira. These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers were Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the Kurukshetra war.

LÄ kᚣagáš›ha (The House of Lac) After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur.

Yudhisthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his kingdom. Dhritarashtra wanted his own son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preserving justice.

Shakuni, Duryodhana and Dusasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purvanchan to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding. Back at Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.[35]

Marriage to Draupadi

Arjuna piercing the eye of the fish as depicted in Chennakesava Temple built by Hoysala Empire.

During the course of their hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī. The Pandavas enter the competition in disguise as Brahmins. The task is to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which is the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below. Most of the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow. Arjuna succeeds however. The Pandavas return home and inform their mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever it is Arjuna has won among themselves. On explaining the previous life of Draupadi, she ends up being the wife of all five brothers.

Indraprastha After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining a new territory. Yudhishtira has a new capital built for this territory at Indraprastha.

Neither the Pandava nor Kaurava sides are happy with the arrangement however.

Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhishtira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent among kings.

The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.[36] They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha.

Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in. Draupadi laughs at him and ridicules him by saying that this is because of his blind father Dhritrashtra. He then decides to avenge his humiliation.

The dice game

Draupadi humiliated.

Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishtira with loaded dice. Yudhishtira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. He then even gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but her honour is saved by Krishna who miraculously creates lengths of cloth to replace the ones being removed.

Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year must remain hidden. If discovered by the Kauravas, they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and are discovered just after the end of the year.

At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as Duryodhana objects that they were discovered while in hiding, and that no return of their kingdom was agreed. War becomes inevitable.

The battle at Kurukshetra Main article: Kurukshetra war

A scene from the Mahabharata war, Angkor Wat - A black stone relief depicting a number of men wearing a crown and a dhoti, fighting with spears, swords and bows. A chariot with half the horse out of the frame – is seen in the middle.

The two sides summon vast armies to their help, and line up at Kurukshetra for a war. The Kingdoms of Panchala, Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandya, Telinga, and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clans like the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas. The allies of the Kauravas included the kings of Pragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (including Sindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti in Madhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlikas, Kambojas and many others. Prior to war being declared, Balarama, had expressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict, and left to go on pilgrimage, thus he does not take part in the battle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, as charioteer for Arjuna.

Before the battle, Arjuna, seeing himself facing his great grandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona on the other side, has doubts about the battle and he fails to lift his GÄ ndeeva bow. Krishna wakes him up to his call of duty in the famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.

Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare, both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end of the 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa, Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.

The end of the Pandavas

Gandhari, blindfolded, supporting Dhrtarashtra and following Kunti when Dhrtarashtra became old and infirm and retired to the forest.

A miniature painting from a sixteenth century manuscript of part of the Razmnama, Persian translation of the Mahabharata After "seeing" the carnage, Gandhari who had lost all her sons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stopping the war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.

The Pandavas who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags they retire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one the brothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishitra gives the rest the reason for their fall (Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and

Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, Bhima and Arjuna were proud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhisthira, who had tried everything to prevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as Yama Dharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the nature of the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to the underworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama then assures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld for measures of time according to their vices.

Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides to perform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of his ancestors is narrated to him.

Versions, translations, and derivative works Many regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses or subsidiary stories being added. These include some versions from outside the Indian subcontinent, such as the Kakawin Bharatayuddha from Java. The plays of the Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu and kattaikkuttu, use themes from the Tamil language versions of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi.[37]

Critical Edition Between 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the various manuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000 pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the text that is usually used in current Mahabharata studies for reference.[38] This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or 'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata.

Modern interpretations

Krishna as portrayed in Yakshagana from Karnataka which is based largely on stories of Mahabharata The Tamil writer S. Ramakrishnan has written a critically acclaimed book based on the Mahabharata called "Uba Paandavam". It discusses the story in a non-linear manner from a traveller's point of view.

The Kannada novelist S.L. Bhyrappa wrote a novel in Kannada (now translated into most Indian languages and English) titled Parva, giving a new interpretation to the story of Mahabharata. He tried to understand the social and ethical practices in these regions and correlate them with the story of Mahabharata.

Malayalam writer M. T. Vasudevan Nair's novel Randamoozham (English: Second Turn) tells the Mahabharata from Bhima's point of view. Mrityunjay (English: Triumph Over Death) written by Shivaji Sawant is a novel with Karna as the central character of Mahabharata.

In Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic exist, dating back to 1920.[39] The internationally acclaimed parallel Bengali film director Satyajit Ray also intended to direct a theatrical adaptation of the epic, but the project was never realized.[40]

In the late 1980s, the Mahabharat TV series, directed by Ravi Chopra,[41] was televised and shown on India's national television (Doordarshan). In the Western world, a well-known presentation of the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version The Mahabharata (1989).[42] Among literary reinterpretations of the Mahabharata is Shashi Tharoor's major work entitled The Great Indian Novel, an involved literary, philosophical, and political novel which superimposes the major moments of post-independence India in the 20th century onto the driving events of the Mahabharata epic.

Mahabharata was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in Kalyug. Kalyug is a modern-day replaying of the Mahabharata.[43] Amar Chitra Katha published a 1,260 page comic book version of the Mahabharata.[44] Western interpretations of the Mahabharata include William Buck's Mahabharata and Elizabeth Seeger's Five Sons of King Pandu.

Persian translation

Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the Pandavas and Krishna. Folio from the Razmnama (1761–1763), Persian translation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal emperor Akbar. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour and robes.[45] It was translated into Persian at Akbar's orders, by Faizi and `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni (1761–1763) and named Razmnameh .[46]

English translations The first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,[47] published between 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers). Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli's translation is in the public domain and is available online:[48] but compare with the contemporary Pratap Chandra Roy's complete translation, also in the public domain.[49]

Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is also in progress, published by University Of Chicago Press, initiated by Chicago Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1–5) and, following a 20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D. Gitomer of DePaul University (book 6), J. L. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11–13) and Wendy Doniger of the University of Chicago (books 14–18).

An early poetry translation by Romesh Chunder Dutt and published in 1898 condenses the main themes of the Mahabharata into English verse.[50] A later poetic "transcreation" (author's own description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal is complete, and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhyming verse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work (not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010. Sixteen of the eighteen volumes are now available.

A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from the Clay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is based not on the Critical Edition but on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected 32-volume edition.

Indian economist Bibek Debroy has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: Adi Parva was published in March 2010.

Abridged versions Many condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published in English, including works by Ramesh Menon, William Buck, R.K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, K. M. Munshi, Krishna Dharma, Romesh C. Dutt, Bharadvaja Sarma, John D. Smith and Sharon Maas.

A Kawi version is found on the Indonesian island of Bali and was translated by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi. Of the eighteen parvas, only eight Kawi manuscripts remain.

Derivative works Bhasa, the 2nd or 3rd century AD Sanskrit playwright, wrote two plays on episodes in the Marabharata, Urubhanga (Broken Thigh), about the fight between Duryodhana and Bhima, while Madhyamavyayoga (The Middle One) set around Bhima and his son, Ghatotkacha. The first important play of 20th century was Andha Yug (The Blind Epoch), by Dharamvir Bharati, which came in 1955, found in Mahabharat, both an ideal source and expression of modern predicaments and discontent. Starting with Ebrahim Alkazi it

was staged by numerous directors. V. S. Khandekar's Marathi novel, Yayati (1960) and Girish Karnad's debut play Yayati (1961) are based on the story of King Yayati found in the Mahabharat.[51] Bengali writer and playwright, Buddhadeva Bose wrote three plays set in Mahabharat, Anamni Angana, Pratham Partha and Kalsandhya.[52] Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni wrote a version from the perspective of Draupadi entitled The Palace of Illusions: A Novel, which was published in 2008.

Jain version Further information: Salakapurusa

Depiction of wedding procession of Lord Neminatha. The enclosure shows the animals that are to be slaughtered for food for weddings. Overcome with Compassion for animals, Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a Shramana Jain version of Mahabharata can be found in the various Jain texts like Harivamsapurana (the story of Harivamsa) Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (Hagiography of 63 Illustrious persons), Pandavacaritra (lives of Pandavas) and Pandavapurana (stories of Pandavas).[53] From the earlier canonical literature, Antakrddaaśāh (8th cannon) and Vrisnidasa (upangagama or secondary canon) contain the stories of Neminatha (22nd Tirthankara), Krishna and Balarama.[54] Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (3–4 century BCE).[55] According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set of Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva.[56] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishna and Jarasandha who is killed by Krishna.

Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monks and are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna

and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.[57] In keeping with the law of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Prof. Jaini admits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. The Jain texts predict that after his karmic term in hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will be reborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain liberation.[56] Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousins of 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.[58] According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath’s marriage with Rajamati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered for the marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.[59]

Kuru family tree Kurua

Gangā

Shāntanua

Bhishma

Dhritarāshtrab

Satyavati

Chitrāngada

Gāndhāri

Shakuni

Pārāshara

Ambikā

Vichitravirya

Kunti

Pāndub

Ambālikā

Vyāsa

Mādri

Karnac Duryodhanae

Dussalā

Yudhisthirad Dushāsana

Bhimad

Arjunad

Subhadrā

Nakulad

Sahadevad

(98 sons)

Abhimanyu

Uttarā

Parikshit

Janamejaya Key to Symbols • • • •

Male: blue border Female: red border Pandavas: green box Kauravas: yellow box

Notes •

a: Shantanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestor called Kuru.

His marriage to Ganga preceded his marriage to Satyavati.

• • • •

b: Pandu and Dhritarashtra were fathered by Vyasa after Vichitravirya's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura were the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively. c: Karna was born to Kunti through her invocation of Surya, before her marriage to Pandu. d: Yudhistira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were acknowledged sons of Pandu but were begotten by Kunti's invocation of various deities. They all married Draupadi (not shown in tree). e: Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their Pandava cousins.

The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for Vyasa and Bhishma whose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya who was born after them. The fact that Ambika and Ambalika are sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna, Yudhishtira and Bhima, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.

Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include Chitrāngada, the eldest brother of Vichitravirya. Vidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.

Cultural influence In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic[60] and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life.[61] In modern times, Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[62][63]

See also • • •

Kakawin Bhāratayuddha Mahabharat (TV series) Mahabharat (1965 film)

Ramayana

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Ramayana (disambiguation).

Rama with Sita on the throne, their children Lava and Kusha on their laps. Behind the throne, Lakshamana, Bharata and Shatrughna

stand. Hanuman bows to Rama before the throne. Valmiki to the left Ramayana Scene, Gupta Art, Indian National Museum, New Delhi.

The Ramayana (Sanskrit: रामायण, Rāmāyaṇa, IPA: [rɑːˈmɑːjəɳə] ?) is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon (smṛti), considered to be itihāsa.[1] The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata.[2] It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king.The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound of Rāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to "Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos (sargas),[3] and tells the story of Rama (an avatar of the Hindu preserver-God Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the king of Sri Lanka, Ravana. Thematically, the Ramayana explores human values and the concept of dharma.[4] Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Indian life and culture. Like the Mahābhārata, the Ramayana is not just a story: it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages(Vedas) in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and devotional elements. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India and Nepal.

There are other versions of the Ramayana, notably Ramavataram in Tamil, the Buddhist (Dasaratha Jataka No. 461) and Jain in India, and also Cambodian, Indonesian, Philippine, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale.

Contents • • •

• •

1 Textuality o 1.1 Period 2 Characters 3 Synopsis o 3.1 Bala Kanda o 3.2 Ayodhya Kanda o 3.3 Aranya Kanda o 3.4 Kishkindha Kanda o 3.5 Sundara Kanda o 3.6 Lanka Kanda o 3.7 Uttara Kanda 4 Influence on culture and art 5 Variant versions o 5.1 India

5.2 Buddhist version 5.3 Sikh Version 5.4 Jain version 5.5 In Nepal 5.6 Southeast Asian versions 6 Theological significance 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links o 11.1 Translations (English) o 11.2 Research articles o o o o o

• • • • • •

o

11.3 Other

Textuality Traditionally, the Ramayana is ascribed to Valmiki, regarded as India's first poet.[5] The Indian tradition is unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama and a peripheral actor in the drama.[6] The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana, dating to approximately the 5th to 4th century B.C.[7][8] While it is often viewed as a primarily devotional text, the Vaishnava elements appear to be later accretions possibly dating to the 2nd century BC or later.[8] The main body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's divinity, and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare and subdued even in the later parts of the text.[9] According to Indian tradition, and according to the Ramayana itself, the Ramayana belongs to the genre of itihāsa, like the Mahabharata. The definition of itihāsa has varied over time, with one definition being that itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life.[1] According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[10] In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which appears to date from the 11th century A.D.[11] The text has several regional renderings,[12]

recensions and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions: the northern (N) and the southern (S).[11] Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."[13] There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author.

Some still believe they are integral parts of the book in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.[14][15] Famous retellings include the Ramayanam of Kamban in Tamil (ca. 11th–12th century), the Saptakanda Ramayana of Madhava Kandali in Assamese (ca. 14th century), Shri Rama Panchali or Krittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha in Bengali (ca. 15th Century), and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Awadhi which is an eastern form of Hindi (c. 16th century).[12]

Period Some cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggests that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata.[16] However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of North India, while the Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.[17] By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the Treta Yuga to King Daśaratha in the Ikshvaku vamsa (clan).[18] The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vasishta, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature, older than the Valmiki Ramayana.[19] However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.[20] According to the modern academic view, Vishnu, who according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama, first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the 'Puranic' period of the later 1st millennium CE. There is also a version of Ramayana, known as Ramopakhyana, found in the epic Mahabharata. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishtira.[21] There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kanda and the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions.[22] The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is known about the region. However, when the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn abruptly into fantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic creatures. The geography of central

and South India is increasingly vaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Sri Lanka also lacks detail.[23] Basing his assumption on these features, the historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the composition of the text.

[24] A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.[25]

Characters

Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshmana, while Hanuman pays his respects. • Rama is one of the protagonists of the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of the God Vishnu, he is the eldest and favorite son of the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha, and his Queen Kausalya. He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced

by Kaikeyi, one of his wives, to command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile.

Rama and monkey chiefs • Sita is one of the protagonists and the beloved wife of Rama and the daughter of king Janaka. Rama went to Janakpurdham, current city of Janakpur, Nepal, and got a chance to marry her by lifting a heavy Bow in a competition organized by King Janaka. The competition was to find the most suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to win her. Sita is the avatar of Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and virtue.

She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka until Rama rescues her by defeating the demon king Ravana. Later, she gives birth to Lava and Kusha, the heirs of Rama.

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

Hanuman is the tritagonist and a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is portrayed as the eleventh avatar of God Shiva (He is also called Rudra) and an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as the son of Kesari, a vanara king, and the Goddess Anjana. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle.He is believed to live until our modern world.

Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasaratha and Queen Sumitra, and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshmana is portrayed as an avatar of the Shesha, the nāga associated with the God Vishnu.

He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama during which he fought the demoness Surpanakha. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon him leaving her. He was married to Sita's younger sister Urmila.

Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-God Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by Gods, demons, or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the penances of Rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given

by Brahma.

Jatayu, the son of Aruṇa and nephew of Garuda. A demi-god who has the form of a eagle that tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Rama and Lakshmana chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs them the direction in which Ravana had gone.

Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra, and three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him to make his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.

Bharata is the son of Dasharatha and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals, and places them on the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years. He was married to Mandavi.

Satrughna is the son of Dasharatha and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and also the twin brother of Lakshmana. He was married to Shrutakirti.

Sugriva, a vanara king who helped Rama regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Rama through which Vaali Sugriva’s brother and king of Kishkindha-would be killed by Rama in exchange for Sugriva’s help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vaali, and fulfils his promise by putting the Vanara forces at Rama’s disposal[26]

•

•

• •

Indrajit, a son of Ravana who twice defeated Lakshmana in battle, before succumbing to him the third time. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on the Vanara army before his death.[26] Kumbhakarna, a brother of Ravana, famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him. His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana’s army. During the war, he decimated the Vanara army before Rama cut off his limbs and head.[26] Surpanakha, Ravana's demoness sister who fell in love with Rama, and had the magical power to take any form she wanted.

Vibhishana, a younger brother of Ravana. He was against the kidnapping of Sita, and joined the forces of Rama when Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the war, and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana.

[26]

Synopsis The Epic is traditionally divided into several major kāṇḍas or books, that deal chronologically with the major events in the life of Rama—Bāla Kāṇḍa, Ayodhya Kāṇḍa, Araṇya Kāṇḍa, Kishkindha Kāṇḍa, Sundara Kāṇḍa, Yuddha Kāṇḍa, and Uttara Kāṇḍa.[12] The Bala Kanda describes the birth of Rama, his childhood, and marriage to Sita.[27] The Ayodhya Kanda describes the preparations for Rama's coronation, and his exile into the forest.[27] The third part, Aranya Kanda, describes the forest life of Rama, and the kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.[27] The fourth book, Kishkindha Kanda, describes the meeting of Hanuman with Rama, the destruction of the vanara king Bali, and the coronation of his younger brother Sugriva on the throne of the kingdom of Kishkindha.

[27] The fifth book is Sundara Kanda, which narrates the heroism of Hanuman, his flight to Lanka, and meeting with Sita.[27] The sixth book, Yuddha Kanda, describes the battle between Rama's and Ravana's armies.[27] The last book, Uttara Kanda, describes the birth of Lava and Kusha to Sita, their coronation on the throne of Ayodhya, and Rama's final departure from the world.[27]

Bala Kanda Main article: Balakanda

The birth of the four sons of Dasharatha Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three queens and they are Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and, anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice known as Putra-Kameshti Yagya.[28] As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, and Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra.[29][30] These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the God Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality in order to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the Gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal.[31] The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16 years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons, who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra, and proceed to destroy the demons.[32] Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough.

Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow.[33] Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was of marriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which included a contest. The king was in possession of an immensely heavy bow, presented to him by the God Shiva: whoever could wield the bow could marry Sita. The sage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama wields the bow and breaks it. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughan to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya. [32]

Ayodhya Kanda

Bharata asks for Rama's paduka (footwear) After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support.[34][35] On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands.[36] Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout the story.[37] He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me." [38] After Rama's departure, king Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away.[39] Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest.

He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals, and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.[36][39]

Aranya Kanda

Ravana fights Jatayu as he carries off the kidnapped Sita, painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

Rama, Sita and Lakshmana journeyed southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they built cottages and lived off the land.

At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and, failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organizes an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates Khara and his demons.[40] When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha.

Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Lord Rama, aware that this is the play of the demons, is unable to dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life she insists that

Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible, and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana rekha around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. Finally with the coast clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and then forcibly carried away by the evil Ravana.[40][41] Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses.[39] Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu, and immediately set out to save her.[42] During their search, they meet the demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.[43][44]

Kishkindha Kanda

A stone bas relief at Banteay Srei in Cambodia depicts the combat between Bali and Sugriva (middle). To the right, Rama fires his bow. To the left, Vali lies dying.

Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on the tree.

The Kishkindha Kanda is set in the monkey citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatest of monkey heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha.[45] Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.[46] However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in debauchery. The clever monkey Queen, Tara, aunt of Sugriva, calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the monkey citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge.

Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west.[47] The southern search party under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati that Sita was taken to Lanka.

[47][48]

Sundara Kanda Main article: Sundara Kanda The Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana[49] and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures.[45] After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores the demon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allow herself to be touched by a male other than her husband. She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.[45]

Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings, and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and, leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island.

The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.[45][50]

Lanka Kanda

The War of Lanka by Sahibdin.It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left, blue figure) fighting the demon-king of the king of Lanka, Ravana in order to save Rama's kidnapped wife Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left – Trisiras is beheaded by the monkey-companion of Rama – Hanuman.

This book describes the battle between the army of Rama constructed with the help of Sugriv and Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined

by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The monkeys named "Nal" and "Neel" construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the ocean, and the princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy battle ensues and Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.[51] On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo agni pariksha (test of fire) to prove her purity, since she had stayed at the demon's palace.

When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity. [52] The episode of agni pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.[53] The above version is from Valmiki Ramayana. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas Sita was under the protection of Agni so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.[51] This is the beginning of Ram Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals.

Uttara Kanda

Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki The Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki.[12] and concerns the final years of Rama, Sita, and Rama's brothers. After being crowned king, many years passed pleasantly with Sita. However, despite the Agni Pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumours about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya. [54] Rama yields to public opinion and banishes Sita to the forest, where sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who became pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.

Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, which the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grievous, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it.[54][55] Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger from the Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial abode.[52]

Influence on culture and art

A Ramlila actor wears the traditional attire of Ravana

One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably the Kambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, the Telugu-language Molla Ramayana, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana, and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.

The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.

Variant versions See also: Versions of Ramayana

The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shown here is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama and Ravana.

As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in North India differs in important respects from that preserved in South India and the rest of South-East Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives.[citation needed] Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.[56]

India The 7th century CE "Bhatti's Poem" Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.[57] There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century AD, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Valmiki's

Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti. It is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsikrta Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittivas in the 14th century, in Oriya by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, in Maithili by Chanda Jha in 19th century, a Telugu version by Ranganatha in the 15th century, a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th century poet Narahari and in the 20th century Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshnam, Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by the 14th century poet Madhava Kandali and Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by Tunccattu Ezhuttaccan in the 16th century.

There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the Goddess Kali.

Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally.[56] In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama which is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community. [56] ram

Buddhist version In the Buddhist variant of Ramayana, Dasaratha was the king of Benares and not Ayodhya. According to Romila Thapar: "Rama, Sita and Lakshmana were the siblings born to the first wife of Dasaratha. To protect his children from his second wife, the king sent the three in exile to the Himalayas. Twelve years later,the trio came back to the kingdom with Rama and Sita ruling as consorts. The abduction of Sita did not find a place in this version."[58]

Sikh Version In Guru Granth Sahib, there is description of two types of Ramayana. one is spiritual Ramayana which is actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravan is Ego, Seeta is Budhi(Intellect), Raam is Inner Soul and Laxman is Mann(Attention, Mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in existence of Dasavtara who were Kings of there times which tried there best to bring revolution in the world. King Ramchandra was one of those and It is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states:

ਹੁਕਮਿਮ ਉਪਾਏ ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰਾ ॥ हुकिम उपनाए दस अउतारा ॥

By Hukam(Supreme Command), He created His ten incarnations,[59] ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰ ਰਾਜੇ ਹੋਇ ਵਰਤੇ ਮਹਾਦੇਵ ਅਉਧੂਤਾ ॥ दस अउतार राजे होइ वरते महादे व अउधूता ॥ There were ten incarnations; and then there was Shiva, the renunciate.[60] Ramayana was written by Guru Gobind Singh, which is part of Dasam Granth, The Second scripture of Sikhs[61]. He also mentioned that Guru Nanak was from same family tree of King Ramchandra, which makes Sikhs the historical heritor of Ayodhya, Lahore and Kasur City. The Ramayana of Guru Gobind Singh is more straight forward in nature. In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh also explained that he does not believe Ramchandra as a God. He is equating Ramchandra with a common man by calling him Insect, though he call himself Insect too.

Jain version Further information: Salakapurusa Jain version of Ramayana can be found in the various Jain agamas like Padmapurana (story of Padma or Rama), Hemacandra’s Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa’s Vasudevahindi and Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara.[62] According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of Balarama, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Prativasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule the half the earth as halfchakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra (lives of the Jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3–4th century BCE).[63] In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hindu version. [64] In the end, Rama who lead an upright life renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to hell.[65] However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.[66]

The Jain versions has some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma, and he became known by the name of Rama.

Sumitra's son was Narayana: he became to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna.[67] Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to Jain version, Rama had four chiefqueens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in Heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Ganadhara.[68]

In Nepal See also: Bhanubhakta Acharya and Nepali literature Two versions of Ramayana are present in Nepal. One is written by Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa. The other one is written by Bhanubhakta Acharya. The Nepal Bhasa version by Siddhidas Mahaju marks a great point in the renaissance of Nepal Bhasa, whereas Bhanubhakta Acharya's version is the first epic of Nepali.[citation needed]

Southeast Asian versions

Hanuman discover Shinta in her captive in Lanka depicted in Balinese dance.

Lakshmana, Rama and Shinta during their exile in Dandaka Forest depicted in Javanese dance.

Many other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other national epics. In Indonesia, Kakawin Ramayana is an old Javanese rendering; Yogesvara Ramayana is attributed to the scribe Yogesvara circa 9th century CE, who was employed in the court of the Medang in Central Java. It has 2774 stanzas in manipravala style, a mixture of Sanskrit and Kawi language. The most influential version of the Ramayana is the Ravanavadham of Bhatti, popularly known as Bhattikavya. The Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from the original Hindu prototype. The 9th century Javanese Kakawin Ramayana has become the reference of Ramayana in the neighboring island of Bali. The bas reliefs of Ramayana and Krishnayana scenes is carved on balustrades wall of 9th century Prambanan temples in Yogyakarta. In Indonesia, Ramayana has been integrated into local culture especially those of Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and also entertainment. Cultural performances such as Wayang shadow puppet and traditional dances often took their story from Ramayana. In Bali as well as in Java, the dances based on the episode of Ramayana often performed in temples such as Prambanan in Java and Pura in Bali.

Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam.

Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma.[69] In many Malay language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.[citation needed]

The Thai retelling of the tale, the Ramakien, is popularly expressed in traditional regional dance theatre.

Rama (Yama) and Sita (Me Thida) in the Burmese version of the Ramayana, Yama Zatdaw The Cambodian version of Ramayana, the Reamker, is the most famous story of Khmer Literature since the Funan era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original Ramayana, including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre known as Lakhorn Luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and Angkor wat.

Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien (Thai: รามเกียรติि์, from Sanskrit rāmakīrti, "Glory of Rama") is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (Thotsakan and Montho). Vibhisana (Phiphek), the astrologer

brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. Ravana has her thrown into the water, who, later, is picked by Janaka (Chanok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia), Maharadya Lawana and Darangen of Mindanao (Philippines), and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar.

Theological significance

Deities Sita (far right), Rama (center), Lakshmana (far left) and Hanuman (below seated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford, England.

Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace his journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integral part of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener.

According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of the God Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth.

Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Ramayana, as well as the Mahabharata, is respectively Ram's and Krishna's hidden divinity and its progressive revelation.[70]

See also • •

Genealogy of Rama Versions of Ramayana

Upanishads From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Upanishad) The Upanishads (Sanskrit: उपनिनिषदि्, IAST: Upaniṣad, IPA: [upəniʂəd]) are a collection of philosophical texts which form the theoretical basis for the Hindu religion. They are also known as Vedanta, the end of the Veda. In the purest sense, they are not Sruti (revealed truths) but rather commentaries which explain the essence of the veda (revealed knowledge). The Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and in the Aranyakas.[1] All Upanishads have been passed down in oral tradition.

More than 200 are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most important, are variously referred to as the principal, main (mukhya) or old Upanishads. With the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi),[2] the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for several later schools of Indian philosophy (vedanta), among them, two influential monistic schools of Hinduism.[note 1][note 2][note 3] Historians believe the chief Upanishads were composed over a wide period ranging from the Pre-Buddhist period[6][7] to the early centuries BC[7] though minor Upanishads were still being composed in the medieval and early modern period.[8] However, there has been considerable debate among authorities about the exact dating of individual Upanishads. The Upanishads were collectively considered amongst the 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written by the British poet Martin Seymour-Smith.[9] Their significance has been recognized by writers and scholars such as Schopenhauer, Emerson and Thoreau, among others. Scholars also note similarity between the doctrine of Upanishads and those of Plato and Kant [10][11]

Contents •

1 Etymology

• • • • • • •

2 Classification 3 Mukhya Upanishads 4 New Upanishads 5 Philosophy 6 Metaphysics 7 Schools of Vedānta o 7.1 Pure Monistic school:Advaita o 7.2 Dualistic school o 7.3 Qualified Monistic school:Vishishtadvaita o 7.4 Development o 7.5 Number of Upanishads o 7.6 Authorship o 7.7 Chronology and geography o 7.8 Development of thought o 7.9 Worldwide transmission o 7.10 Global scholarship and praise 8 Criticism 9 Association with Vedas 10 See also 11 Footnotes 12 Citations 13 References 14 Further reading

•

15 External links

• • • • • •

Etymology The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad derives from upa- (nearby), ni- (at the proper place, down) and ṣad (to sit) thus: "sitting down near", implying sitting near a teacher to receive instruction[12] or, alternatively, "sitting at the foot of ..(teacher)", or "laying siege" to the teacher.[13] Monier-Williams' late 19th century dictionary adds that, "according to native authorities Upanishad means 'setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit.'"[14] A gloss of the term Upanishad based on Shri Adi Shankara's

commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad equates it with Ātmavidyā, that is, "knowledge of the Self", or Brahmavidyā "knowledge of Brahma". Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine".[15]

Classification There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktikā, gives a list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponding to the holy Hindu number of beads on a mala or Hindu rosary. Modern scholars recognize the first 10, 11, 12 or 13 Upanishads as principal or Mukhya Upanishads and the remainder as derived from this ancient canon. If a Upanishad has been commented upon or quoted by revered thinkers like Shankara, it is a Mukhya Upanishad,[1] accepted as shruti by most Hindus.

The new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā probably originated in southern India,[16] and are grouped according to their subject as (Sāmānya) Vedānta (philosophical), Yoga, Sanyasa (of the life of renunciation), Vaishnava (dedicated to the god Vishnu), Shaiva (dedicated to Shiva) and Shakti (dedicated to the goddess).[17] New Upaniṣads are often sectarian since sects have sought to legitimize their texts by claiming for them the status of Śruti.[18] Another way of classifying the Upanishads is to associate them with the respective Brahmanas. Of nearly the same age are the Aitareya, Kauṣītaki and Taittirīya Upaniṣads, while the remnant date from the time of transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit.[19]

Mukhya Upanishads Main article: Mukhya Upanishads The Mukhya Upanishads can themselves be stratified into periods. Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka, Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana and the Chandogya, the most important and the oldest, of which the two former are the older of the two,[20] though some parts were composed after the Chandogya.[note 4] It is alleged that the Aitareya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Mundaka, Prasna, and Kathaka Upanishads show Buddha's influence, and must have been composed after the 5th century BC, but it could just as easily have been the other way around. It is also alleged that in the first two centuries A.D., they were followed by the Kena, Mandukya and Isa Upanishads.[22] Not much is known about the authors except for those, like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka, mentioned in the texts.[1] A few women discussants, such as Gargi and Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkayva,[23] also feature occasionally.

Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (shakhas).[24] Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads, being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.[25]

An early 19th century manuscript of the Rigveda Veda-Shakha-Upanishad association Veda Recension Shakha Principal Upanishad Rig Veda Only one recension Shakala Aitareya Kauthuma Chāndogya Sama Veda Only one recension Jaiminiya Kena Ranayaniya Katha Kaṭha Taittiriya Taittirīya and Śvetāśvatara Yajur Veda Krishna Yajur Veda Maitrayani Maitrāyaṇi Hiranyakeshi (Kapishthala)

Atharva

Kathaka Vajasaneyi Madhyandina Shukla Yajur Veda Kanva Shakha Shaunaka Two recension Paippalada

Isha and Bṛhadāraṇyaka Māṇḍūkya and Muṇḍaka Prashna Upanishad

The Kauśītāki and Maitrāyaṇi Upanishads are sometimes added to the list of the mukhya Upanishads.

New Upanishads There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones have continued to be composed.[26] On many occasions, when older Upanishads have not suited the founders of new sects, they have composed new ones of their own.[27] 1908 marked the discovery of four new Upanishads, named Bashkala, Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, by Friedrich Otto Schrader,[28] who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.[29] The text of three, the Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, was reportedly corrupt and neglected but possibly re-constructable with the help of their Perso-Latin translations. Texts called "Upanishads" continued to appear up to the end of British rule in 1947.

The main Shakta Upanishads mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas and therefore, its status as shruti and thus its authority.[30] The text composed by Vaishnava saint Namalvar (Satkopa) is also known as the Dravidopanisatsangati.

Philosophy

Impact of a drop of water, a common analogy for Brahman and the Ātman Two words that are of paramount importance in grasping the Upanishads are Brahman and Atman.[31] The Brahman is the universal spirit and the Atman is the individual Self.[32] Differing opinions exist amongst scholars regarding the etymology of these words.

Brahman probably comes from the root brh, which means "The Biggest ~ The Greatest ~ The ALL". Brahman is "the infinite Spirit Source and fabric and core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and unmanifested and the formless infinite substratum and from whom the universe has grown". Brahman is the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent, the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or shall be. The word Atman means the immortal perfect Spirit of any living creature, being, including trees etc. The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.[33][34][35][36] The Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the most important of the mukhya Upanishads. They represent two main schools of thought within the Upanishads. The Brihadaranyaka deals with acosmic or nis-prapancha, whereas the Chandogya deals with the cosmic or sa-prapancha.[1] Between the two, the Brihadaranyaka is considered more original.[37] The Upanishads also contain the first and most definitive explications of the divine syllable Aum, the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence. The mantra Aum Shānti Shānti Shānti, translated as "the soundless sound, peace, peace, peace", is often found in the Upanishads. The path of bhakti or "Devotion to God" is foreshadowed in Upanishadic literature, and was later realized by texts such as the Bhagavad Gita.[38] Some of the Mahāvākyas (Great Sayings) from the Upanishads Sanskrit quote English meaning Upanishad

Prajñānam brahma Aham brahmāsmi Tat tvam asi Ayamātmā brahmā

"Consciousness is Brahman" Aitareya Upanishad[39] "I am Brahman" Brihadaranyaka[40] "That Thou art" Chandogya[41] "This Atman is Brahman" Mandukya[42]

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan notes that the Upanishads are primarily presented as conversations between two persons or animals rather than expository statements of philosophy or ideology. He contends that the frog's metaphorical speech the Mandukya Upanishad (manduka means frog in Sanskrit) is a common source of confusion.[43]

Metaphysics The three main approaches in arriving at the solution to the problem of the Ultimate Reality have traditionally been the theological, the cosmological and the psychological approaches.[44] The cosmological approach involves looking outward, to the world; the psychological approach meaning looking inside or to the Self; and the theological approach is looking upward or to God. Descartes takes the first and starts with the argument that the Self is the primary reality, self-consciousness the primary fact of existence, and introspection the start of the real philosophical process.[45] According to him, we can arrive at the conception of God only through the Self because it is God who is the cause of the Self and thus, we should regard God as more perfect than the Self. Spinoza on the other hand, believed that God is the be-all and the end-all of all things, the alpha and the omega of existence. From God philosophy starts, and in God philosophy ends. The manner of approach of the Upanishadic philosophers to the problem of ultimate reality was neither the Cartesian nor Spinozistic. The Upanishadic philosophers regarded the Self as the ultimate existence and subordinated the world and God to the Self. The Self to them, is more real than either the world or God. It is only ultimately that they identify the Self with God, and thus bridge over the gulf that exists between the theological and psychological approaches to reality. They take the cosmological approach to start with, but they find that this cannot give them the solution of the ultimate reality. So, Upanishadic thinkers go back and start over by taking the psychological approach and here again, they cannot find the solution to the ultimate reality. They therefore perform yet another experiment by taking the theological approach. They find that this too is lacking in finding the solution. They give yet another try to the psychological approach, and come up with the solution to the problem of the ultimate reality. Thus, the Upanishadic thinkers follow a cosmo-theo-psychological approach.[45] A study of the mukhya Upanishads shows that the Upanishadic thinkers progressively build on each others' ideas. They go back and forth and refute improbable approaches before arriving at the solution of the ultimate reality. [46]

Schools of Vedānta

Adi Shankara Bhagavadpada, expounder of Advaita Vedanta and commentator (bhashya) on the Upanishads The source for all schools of Vedānta are the three texts – the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.[47] Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads:[48] • •

The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and The one in which all reality in the universe is but an illusion

The later theistic (Dvaita and Visistadvaita) and absolutist (Advaita) schools of Vendanta are made possible because of the difference between these two views. The three main schools of Vedanta are Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtadvaita. Other schools of Vedanta made possible by the Upanishads include Nimbarka's Dvaitadvaita, Vallabha's Suddhadvaita and Chaitanya's Acintya Bhedabheda.[49] The philosopher Adi Sankara has provided commentaries on 11 mukhya Upanishads.[50]

Pure Monistic school:Advaita Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy,[51] though whether it represents the mainstream Hindu position has been debated.[52] Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the apparently conflicting statements of the Upanishads.[53] Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.[51] It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. The Advaita school is said to have been consolidated by Shankara. He was a pupil of Gaudapada's pupil. Radhakrishnan believed that Shankara's views of Advaita are

straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra and he offered no innovations to these,[54] while other scholars found sharp differences between Shankara's writings and the Brahmasutra,[55][56] and that there are many ideas in the Upanishads at odds with those of Shankara.[57] Gaudapada lived in a time when Buddhism was widely prevalent in India, and he was at times conscious of the similarity between his system to some phases of Buddhist thought.[53] His main work is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.[58] Towards the end of his commentary on the topic, he clearly said, "This was not spoken by Buddha". Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealist monism as the dominant force.[note 5][note 6][note 7][note 8][note 9]

Dualistic school The Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya. Born in 1138 near Udipi,[63] Dvaita is regarded as the best philosophic exposition of theism.[64] Sharma points out that Dvaita, a term commonly used to designate Madhava's system of philosophy, translates as "dualism" in English. The Western understanding of dualism equates to two independent and mutually irreducible substances. The Indian equivalent of that definition would be Samkya Dvaita.[65] Madhva's Dvaita differs from the Western definition of dualism in that while he agrees to two mutually irreducible substances that constitute reality, he regards only one – God, as being independent.[65]

Qualified Monistic school:Vishishtadvaita The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Traditional dates of his birth and death are given as 1017 and 1137, though a shorter life span somewhere between these two dates has been suggested. Modern scholars conclude that on the whole, Ramanuja's theistic views may be closer to those of the Upanishads than are Shankara's, and Ramanuja's interpretations are in fact representative of the general trend of Hindu thought. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.[52] Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy of love that tries to reconcile the extremes of the other two monistic and theistic systems of vedanta.[64] It is called Sri-Vaisanavism in its religious aspect. Chari claims that has been misunderstood by its followers as well as its critics. Many, including leading modern proponents of this system, forget that jiva is a substance as well as an attribute and call this system "qualified non-dualism" or the adjectival monism. While the Dvaita insists on the difference between the Brahman and the Jiva, Visistadvaita states that God is their inner-Self as well as transcendent.[64]

Development Number of Upanishads

New Upanishads were still composed in the medieval and early modern period: discoveries of newer Upanishads were being reported as late as 1926.[8] One, the Muktikā Upanishad, predates 1656[66] and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads,[67] including itself as the last. However, several texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated right up to the first half of the 20th century, some of which did not deal with subjects of Vedic philosophy. [68] The newer Upanishads are known to be imitations of the mukhya Upanishads.

Dara Shikoh, son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, translated 50 Upanishads into Persian in 1657. The first written English translation came in 1805 from Colebrooke,[69] who was aware of 170 Upanishads. Sadhale's catalog from 1985, the Upaniṣad-vākyamahā-kośa lists 223 Upanishads.[70]

Authorship The Upanishads have been attributed to several authors: Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni feature prominently in the early Upanishads.[71] Other important writers include Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada and Sanatkumara. Important women discussants include Yajnavalkya's wife Maitreyi, and Gargi.

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan considers authorship claims in the text to be unreliable, believing the supposed authors to be fictional characters. An example is Shvetaketu from Chāndogya Upaniṣad for whom there are no sources or books which mention him nor any other works attributed to him.[43]

Chronology and geography Scholars disagree about the exact dates of the composition of the Upanishads. Different researchers have provided different dates for the Vedic and Upanashic eras. Some authors believe the oldest of these, the Brihadaranyaka, Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana and the Chandogya Upanishads, were composed during the pre-Buddhist era of India,[6][7][note 10] while the Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kausitaki, which show Buddhist influence, must have been composed after the 5th century BCE.[7] The remainder of the mukhya Upanishads are dated to the last few centuries BC.[7] Ranade criticizes Deussen for assuming that the oldest Upanishads were written in prose, followed by those that were written in verse and the last few again in prose. He proposes a separate chronology based on a battery of six tests.[74] The tables below summarize some of the prominent work:[75] Dates proposed by scholars for the Vedic and/or Upanishadic era

Dates and chronology of the Principal Upanishads Deussen (1000 or 800 – 500 Ranade (1200 – 600 Radhakrishnan (800 – 600

Author

Start End (BC) (BC)

Tilak (Winternitz expresses 6000 200 agreement) B. V. Kameshwara 2300 2000 Aiyar Max Muller 1000 800 Ranade

1200 600

Radhakrishnan

800

600

BC) Group I: Brihadaranyaka, Ancient prose Upanishads: Chāndogya Astronomical Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Group II: Isa, Kena Taittiriya, Aitareya, Group III: Astronomical Kaushitaki, Kena Aitareya, Taittiriya, Poetic Upanishads: Kena, Kaushitaki Linguistic Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, Group IV: Katha, Linguistic, Mundaka Mundaka, ideological Later prose: Prasna, Maitri, Svetasvatara development, etc. Mandukya Group V: Prasna, Ideological Mandukya, development Maitrayani Method employed

BC)

BC) Pre-Buddhist, prose: Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Taittiriya, Chāndogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kena Transitional phase: Kena (1–3), Brihadaranyaka (IV 8–21), Katha, Mandukya Elements of Samkhya and Yoga: Maitri, Svetasvatara

The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there were a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Map of northern India showing kingdoms in which the oldest Upanishads – the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya were composed. River Indus is shown by its Sanskrit name Sindhu The general area of the composition of the early Upanishads was northern India, the region bounded on the west by the Indus valley, on the east by lower Ganges river, on the north by the Himalayan foothills, and on the south by the Vindhya mountain range. There is confidence about the early Upanishads being the product of the geographical center of ancient Brahmanism, comprising the regions of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha together with the areas immediately to the south and west of these.[76] While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad. Yajnavalkya is another individual who features prominently, almost as the personal theologian of Janaka.[77] Brahmins of the central region of Kuru-Panchala rightly considered their land as the place of the best theological and literary activities, since this was the heartland of Brahmanism of the late Vedic period. The setting of the third and the fourth chapters of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads were probably intended to show that Yajnavalkya of Videha defeated all the best theologians of the Kuru Panchala, thereby demonstrating the rise of Videha as a center of learning. The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an Eastern location, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country. [78] The great Kuru-Panchala theologian Uddalaka Aruni who was vilified in the Brihadaranyaka features prominently in the Chandogya Upanishad.

Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the MuktikÄ belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.[16] Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan claims that most of the Upanishads were kept secret for centuries, only passed on to others orally in the form of Shloka, and that it difficult to determine how much the current texts have changed from the original.[43]

Development of thought

While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.[79] The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chﾄ］dogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om! Let's eat.

Om! Let's drink. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[79] The opposition to the ritual is not explicit all the time. On several occasions the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horsesacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.[79] In similar fashion, the pattern of reducing the number of gods in the Vedas becomes more emphatic in the Upanishads. When Yajnavalkaya is asked how many gods exist, he decrements the number successively by answering thirty-three, six, three, two, one and a half and finally one. Vedic gods such as the Rudras, Visnu, Brahma are gradually subordinated to the supreme, immortal and incorporeal Brahman of the Upanishads. In fact Indra and the supreme deity of the Brahamanas, Prajapati, are made door keepers to the Brahman's residence in the Kausitaki Upanishad.[79] In short, the one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva a-dvitiyam or "the one and only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.[79]

Worldwide transmission

The Upanishads impressed Schopenhauer. He called them "the production of the highest human wisdom" Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan claims that translation often requires difficult research and subjective choices because most of the Upanishads were written in an old Sanskrit (comparable to Old Latin), which is no longer spoken and has a complicated sentence structure.[43] However, the Upanishads have still influenced world culture in part through later Hindu texts, such as the Bhagavad Gītā, which Radhakrishnan says conveyed a "message based on the ancient wisdom, prajñā purāņī, of the Upaniṣads."[80]:13 The Gītā Dhyānam, a 9-verse poetic invocation that is often published with the Gītā,[81] celebrates the purported Upanishadic influence in a famous verse stating that "The Upaniṣads are the cows... and the nectar-like gitā is the excellent milk."[80]:13 Given that Indian Brahmin seers are reputed to have visited Greece, it may be that the Upanishadic sages influenced Ancient Greek philosophy.[82] Many ideas in Plato's Dialogues, particularly, have Indian analogues – several concepts in the Platonic psychology of reason bear resemblance to the gunas of Indian philosophy. Professor Edward Johns Urwick conjectures that The Republic owes several central concepts to Indian influence.[82][83] Garb and West have also concluded that this was due to Indian influence.[84][85]

A. R. Wadia dissents in that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in this life,[82] the primary aim being an ideal state. He later proposed a state less ordered but more practicable and conducive to human happiness. As for the Upanishadic thinkers, their goal was not an ideal state or society, but moksha or deliverance from the endless cycle of birth and death. Wadia concludes that there was no exchange of information and ideas between Plato and the Upanishadic thinkers: Plato remains Greek and the Indian sages remain Indian.[82] The Upanishads were a part of an oral tradition. Their study was confined to the higher castes of Indian society.[86] Sudras and women were not given access to them soon after their composition. The Upanishads have been translated in to various languages including Persian, Italian, Urdu, French, Latin, German, English, Dutch, Polish, Japanese and Russian.[87] The Moghul Emperor Akbar's reign (1556–1586) saw the first translations of the Upanishads into Persian,[88][89] and his great-grandson, Dara Shikoh, produced a collection called Sirr-e-Akbar (The Greatest Mysteries) in 1657, with the help of Sanskrit Pandits of Varansi. Its introduction stated that the Upanishads constitute the Qur'an's "Kitab al-maknun" or hidden book.[90][91] But Akbar's and Sikoh's translations remained unnoticed in the Western world until 1775.[88] Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron, a French Orientalist who had lived in India between 1755 and 1761, received a manuscript of the Upanishads in 1775 from M. Gentil, and translated it into French and Latin, publishing the Latin translation in two volumes in 1802–1804 as Oupneck'hat.[92] The French translation was never published.[93] The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer's English version appeared in 1853. However, Max Mueller's 1879 and 1884 editions were the first systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads.[87] After this, the Upanishads were rapidly translated into Dutch, Polish, Japanese and Russian.

[94]

Global scholarship and praise The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851).[95] He found his own philosophy was in accord with the Upanishads, which taught that the individual is a manifestation of the one basis of reality. For Schopenhauer, that fundamentally real underlying unity is what we know in ourselves as "will". Schopenhauer used to keep a copy of the Latin Oupnekhet by his side and is said to have commented, "It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death".[96] Another German philosopher, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, praised the mystical and spiritual aspects of the Upanishads.[97] Schelling and other philosophers associated with German idealism were dissatisfied with Christianity as propagated by churches. They were fascinated with the Vedas and the Upanishads.[97] In the United States, the group known as the Transcendentalists were influenced by the German idealists. These Americans, such as Emerson and Thoreau, were not satisfied with traditional Christian mythology and therefore embraced Schelling's interpretation of Kant's Transcendental idealism, as well as his celebration of the romantic, exotic, mystical aspect of the Upanishads. As a result of the influence of these writers, the Upanishads gained renown in Western countries.[98]

One of the great English-language poets of the 20th century, T. S. Eliot, inspired by his reading of the Upanishads, based the final portion of his famous poem The Waste Land (1922) upon one of its verses.[99] Erwin Schrödinger, the great quantum physicist said, "The multiplicity is only apparent. This is the doctrine of the Upanishads. And not of the Upanishads only. The mystical experience of the union with God regularly leads to this view, unless strong prejudices stand in the West."[100] Eknath Easwaran, in translating the Upanishads, articulates how they "form snapshots of towering peaks of consciousness taken at various times by different observers and dispatched with just the barest kind of explanation".[101]

Criticism John Murray Mitchell, a Western writer, asserts that by suggesting that all appearance is an illusion, the Upanishads are potentially overturning ethical distinctions.[102] A.E. Gough, an early European orientalist, remarked that the Upanishads were "the work of a rude age, a deteriorated race, and a barbarous and unprogressive community."[103] About the Indian Philosophy in general, Gough continued to say, "In treating of Indian Philosophy a writer has to deal with thoughts of lower order than the thoughts of the every day life of Europe. The great difficulty lies in this, that a low order of ideas has to be expressed in a high order of terms, and that the English words suggest a wealth of analysis and association altogether foreign to thoughts that are to be reproduced. The effort is nothing less than an endeavour to revert to a ruder type of mental culture and to become for the time being barbarous."[103] According to another writer, David Kalupahana, the Upanishadic thinkers came to consider change as a mere illusion, because it could not be reconciled with a permanent and homogeneous reality. They were therefore led to a complete denial of plurality. [104] He states that philosophy suffered a setback because of the transcendentalism resulting from the search of the essential unity of things.[105] Kalupahana explains further that reality was simply considered to be beyond space, time, change, and causality. This caused change to be a mere matter of words, nothing but a name and due to this, metaphysical speculation took the upper hand. As a result, the Upanishads fail to give any rational explanation of the experience of things.[105] Paul Deussen criticized the idea of unity in the Upanishads as it excluded all plurality, and therefore, all proximity in space, all succession in time, all interdependence as cause and effect, and all opposition as subject and object.[106]

Association with Vedas All Upanishads are associated with one of the five Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 10 as mukhya, 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 23 as Sannyāsa, nine as Shākta, 13 as Vaishnava, 14 as Shaiva and 17 as Yoga.[107] The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.[108][109] The mukhya Upanishads are highlighted.

Veda

Mukhya

Ṛigveda

Aitareya

Samaveda

Chāndogya, Kena

Veda-Upanishad association Sannyāsa Śākta Tripura, Saubhāgya, Nirvāṇa Bahvṛca Āruṇeya, Maitrāyaṇi, Vajrasūchi, Maitreyi, Sannyāsa, Mahad, Sāvitrī Kuṇḍika Sāmānya Kauśītāki, Ātmabodha, Mudgala

Sarvasāra, Śukarahasya, Brahma, Śvetāśvatara, Skanda Garbha, Tejobindu, (Tripāḍvibhūṭi), Avadhūta, Kaṭharudra, Śārīraka, Varāha Ekākṣara, Akṣi, Prāṇāgnihotra

Krishna Yajurveda

Taittirīya, Śvetāśvatara, Kaṭha

Shukla Yajurveda

Subāla, Mantrikā, Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Nirālamba, Īśa Paiṅgala, Adhyātmā, Muktikā

Muṇḍaka, Atharvaveda Māṇḍūkya, Praśna

Sūrya, Ātmā

Śaiva

Vaiṣṇava

Yoga

-

Akṣamālika (Mālika)

Nādabindu

Vāsudeva, Avyakta

Rudrākṣa, Jābāla

Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana

Amṛtabindu, Amṛtanāda, Kaivalya, Nārāyaṇa Kālāgnirudra, Kṣurika, (Mahānārāyaṇa), Dhyānabindu, Sarasvatīrahasya Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Brahmavidyā, Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa Rudrahṛdaya, Yogatattva, (Kali) Pañcabrahma Yogaśikhā, Yogakuṇḍalini

Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Advayatāraka, Bhikṣu, Turīyātīta, Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyani

Tārasāra

Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripādvibhuti), Parivrāt Sītā, Annapūrṇa, Rāmarahasya, (Nāradaparivrājaka), Devī, Rāmatāpaṇi, Paramahaṃsaparivrājaka, Tripurātapani, Gopālatāpani, Parabrahma Bhāvana Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva, Dattātreya, Gāruḍa

-

Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa

Śira, Atharvaśikha, Śāṇḍilya, Bṛhajjābāla, Pāśupata, Śarabha, Mahāvākya Bhasma, Gaṇapati

See also Hinduism portal • • •

100 Most Influential Books Ever Written Bhagavad Gita Hinduism

Śruti From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Sruti) Śruti (Sanskrit: शुति​ि, IAST: śrúti, lit. "hearing, listening"), often spelled shruti or sruthi, is a term that describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is one of the three main sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law.[1] These sacred works span much of the history of Hinduism, beginning with some of the earliest known Hindu texts and ending in the early modern period with the later Upanishads.[2] This literature differs from other sources of Hindu Law, particularly smṛti or “remembered text”, because of the purely divine origin of śruti. This belief of divinity is particularly prominent within the Mimamsa tradition.[3] The initial literature is traditionally believed to be a direct revelation of the “cosmic sound of truth” heard by ancient Rishis who then translated what was heard into something understandable by humans.[4]

Contents • • • • • •

1 Distinction between Sruthi and Smriti 2 Texts 3 Role in Hindu Law 4 Ethics or moral values in Hinduism 5 Quotation 6 See also

• •

7 Notes 8 References

•

9 External links

Distinction between Sruthi and Smriti Both Sruthi and smriti represent categories of texts that are used to establish the rule of law within the Hindu tradition. However, they each reflect a different kind of relationship that can be had with this material.[5] Śruthi is solely of divine origin and contains no specific concepts of law. Because of the divine origin, it is preserved as a whole, instead of verse by verse. With śruthi, the desire is more towards recitation and preservation of its divine attributes and not necessarily towards understanding and interpreting the oral tradition like that found in smṛti.[6]

Texts For more information on the textual nature of Śruti see main article for Veda Pre-eminent in śruti literature are the four Vedas:[7] • • • •

Rig-Veda (hymns recited by the hotar) Yajur-Veda (hymns recited by the adhvaryu) Sama-Veda (hymns recited by the udgatr) Atharva-Veda (a collection of ancient spells and charms, brahma)

The liturgical core of each of the Vedas are supplemented by commentaries on each text which all belong to the śruti canon: • • •

Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads

The literature of the shakhas, or schools, further amplified the material associated with each of the four core traditions.[8]

Role in Hindu Law The idea of śruti established a set group of people who were granted access to the information contained in the Vedas. Because of its divine nature and of Achara, or regional customary laws developed by a person who reads and interprets the Vedas, began to be understood. This, in conjunction with Smrti texts that provide further human interpretation of Śruti, developed the information hierarchy that Hindus looked toward to dictate the proper conduct of their lives. The specific information regarding such proper conduct was not found directly in the Vedas because they do not contain explicit codes or rules that would be found in a legal system.

[9] However, because of the Vedas’ divine and unadulterated form, a rule that claims connection to this literature is given more merit even if it does not cite a specific passage.[10] In this sense, Śruti exists as a source for all Hindu Law without dictating any specifics.

Ethics or moral values in Hinduism A person who follows Hinduism is someone who follows the teachings of the Srutis (Vedas). Vedas teach non duality or advaitha, realizing the self – Brahman.

Sri Adi Sankara and Sri Ramana Maharshi have explained the ways to realize the self – the Brahman in their works.

Ethics or moral values in hinduism are mentioned in the yamas (restraints) and the niyamas (observances from following the restraints), which are considered a prerequisite to realize the self – the Brahman.

The ten traditional yamas (restraints) are: 1. Ahimsa (अिहंसा): Nonviolence. Abstinence from injury; harmlessness, the not causing of pain to any living creature in thought, word, or deed at any time. This is the "main" yama. The other nine are there in support of its accomplishment.

2. Satya (सत्य): truthfulness, word and thought in conformity with the facts.

3. Asteya (अस्तेय): non-stealing, non-coveting, non-entering into debt.

4. Brahmacharya (ब्रह्मचर्यर्ग): divine conduct, continence, celibate when single, faithful when married.

5. Kshama (कमा): forgiveness, patience, releasing time, functioning in the now.

6. Dhriti (धिृ त): steadfastness, overcoming non-perseverance, fear, and indecision; seeing each task through to completion.

7. Daya (दया): compassion toward all beings.

8. Arjava (आर्जर्गव): honesty, straightforwardness, renouncing deception and wrongdoing.

9. Mitahara (िमताहार): moderate appetite, neither eating too much nor too little; nor consuming meat, fish, shellfish, fowl or eggs.

10. Shaucha (शौर्चर्): purity, avoidance of impurity in body, mind and speech. (Note: Patanjali's Yoga Sutras list Shaucha as the first of the Niyamas.)

The ten traditional Niyamas (observances from following the restraints) are: 1. Hri(ह्री): remorse, being modest and showing shame for misdeeds; 2. Santosha(संतोष): contentment; being satisfied with the resources at hand – therefore not desiring more; 3. Dana(दानि): giving, without thought of reward; 4. Astikya(आर्ि शस्तक्य): faith, believing firmly in the teacher, the teachings and the path to enlightenment; 5. Ishvarapujana(ईश्वर पनूजनि): worship of the Lord, the cultivation of devotion through daily worship and meditation, the return to the source; 6. Siddhanta shravana(िसद्धान्त शवण): scriptural listening, studying the teachings and listening to the wise of one's lineage;

7. Mati(मित): cognition, developing a spiritual will and intellect with the guru's guidance; 8. Vrata(व्रत): sacred vows, fulfilling religious vows, rules and observances faithfully; 9. Japa(जपन): recitation, chanting mantras daily; 10. Tapas(तपन) : the endurance of the opposites; hunger and thirst, heat and cold, standing and sitting etc.

Quotation Max Müller in an 1865 lecture stated "In no country, I believe, has the theory of revelation been so minutely elaborated as in India. The name for revelation in Sanskrit is Sruti, which means hearing; and this title distinguished the Vedic hymns and, at a later time, the Brahmanas also, from all other works, which however sacred and authoritative to the Hindu mind, are admitted to have been composed by human authors. The Laws of Manu, for instance, are not revelation; they are not Sruti, but only Smriti, which means recollection of tradition. If these laws or any other work of authority can be proved on any point to be at variance with a single passage of the Veda, their authority is at once overruled. According to the orthodox views of Indian theologians, not a single line of the Veda was the work of human authors. The whole Veda is in some way or the other the work of the Deity; and even those who saw it were not supposed to be ordinary mortals, but beings raised above the level of common humanity, and less liable therefore to error in the reception of revealed truth. The views entertained by the orthodox theologians of India are far more minute and elaborate than those of the most extreme advocates of verbal inspiration in Europe. The human element, called paurusheyatva in Sanskrit, is driven out of every corner or hiding place, and as the Veda is held to have existed in the mind of the Deity before the beginning of time..."[11]

See also • • • •

Hindu Law Smṛti Upanishads Vedas

Rishi From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Rshi" redirects here. For other uses, see Hrishi (disambiguation).

Look up rishi in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

A view of the upper Ganges area of Rishikesh in the Himalaya. Regarded by tradition as the abode of Vedic rishis.

Rishi (Sanskrit: ṛṣi, Devanagari: ऋषिष) denotes the composers of Vedic hymns. However, according to post-Vedic tradition, the rishi is a "seer" to whom the Vedas were "originally revealed" through states of higher consciousness. The rishis were prominent when Vedic Hinduism took shape, as far back as some three thousand years ago.

Many ancient rishis were in fact women rishikas in Sanskrit.[1] According to the late Vedic Sarvanukramani text, there were as many as 20 women among the authors of the Rig Veda, known as rishika. According to modern teachers Deepak Chopra and Swamini Mayatitananda, this number could be as high as 35.

One of the foundational qualities of a ṛṣi is satyavāc (one who speaks truth) when composing Vedic hymns. According to tradition, other sages might falter, but a ṛṣi was believed to speak only truth, because he or she existed in the Higher World (the unified field of consciousness). Ṛṣis provided knowledge to the world which included the knowledge of Vedas.

Contents

• • • • •

1 Etymology o 1.1 Other uses 2 "Seer" of the Vedas 3 Female Rishis (Rishikas) 4 Astronomy 5 See also 6 Notes

•

7 References

•

Etymology According to Indian tradition, the word was derived from the two meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians[2] derive this word from the second root which means (1) "to go, to move" (- Dhātupāṭha of Pānini, xxviii). V. S. Apte[3] gives this particular meaning and derivation, and Monier-Williams[4] also gives the same, with some qualification.

Another form of this root means (2) "to flow, to move near by flowing". (All the meanings and derivations cited above are based upon Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams).[4] Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great (Sanskrit-toSanskrit) dictionary named "ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram" (i.e., "one who reaches beyond this mundane world by means of spiritual knowledge").

More than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś "to see".[5] Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian (Irish) form arsan (a sage, a man old in wisdom) and arrach (old, ancient, aged) as related to rishi. In Sanskrit, forms of the root rish become arsh- in many words, (e.g., arsh. Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish (to see) might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning "to see".

However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš[6] "an ecstatic" (see also Yurodivy, Vates). Yet, the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning "rise, protrude", in the sense of "excellent, egregious".

Modern etymological explanations such as by Manfred Mayrhofer in his Etymological Dictionary[7] leave the case open, and do not prefer a connection to ṛṣ "pour, flow" (PIE *h1ers), rather one with German rasen "to be ecstatic, be in a different state of mind" (and perhaps Lithuanian aršus).

Other uses In Carnatic Music, "Rishi" is the seventh chakra (group) of Melakarta ragas. The names of chakras are based on the numbers associated with each name. In this case, there are seven rishis and hence the 7th chakra is "Rishi".[8][9]

"Seer" of the Vedas In the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Ṛgvedic hymns, who alone or with others invokes the deities with poetry. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda. Post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as "sages" or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men.

The main rishis recorded in the Brahmanas and the Rigveda-Anukramanis include Gritsamada, Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishta, Angiras, Kaṇva.

Seven Rishis (the Saptarshi) are often mentioned in the Brahmanas and later works as typical representatives of the pre-historic or mythical period; in Shatapatha Brahmana 14.5.2.6 (Brhad Aranyaka Upanisad), their names are Uddālaka Āruni (also called Gautama), Bharadvaja, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Vasishtha, Kashyapa, and Atri. Daksha, Bhrigu and Nārada were also added to the saptarshis riṣis in Āshvalāyana-Shrauta-Sutra, where these ten principals were created by the first Manu (Svāyambhuva Manu) for producing everyone else.

In Mahabharata 12, on the other hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vasishtha. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara[4] and not to those of the present manvantara. Each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated.

In addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi. Devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa.

The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts 'riṣi' at the seventh place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha[10] (the famous Sanskrit synonym lexicon compiled by Amarasimha) mentions seven types of riṣis : Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi. Amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc.

Female Rishis (Rishikas) There are several notable female rishikas who contributed to the composition of the Vedic scriptures.

The Rig Veda mentions Romasha, Lopamudra, Apala, Kadru, Visvavara, Ghosha, Juhu, Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Yami, Indrani, Savitri, and Devajami.

The Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana.

Astronomy In Hindu astronomy, the Saptarṣi (seven rishis) form the constellation of Ursa Major,[11] which are distinct from Dhruva (Polaris).

See also • • • • •

Saptarshi Apaurusheyatva Yogini Vedas Hindu sages

Vedas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search "Veda" redirects here. For other uses, see Veda (disambiguation).

Part of a series on

Hindu scriptures

Vedas Rigveda · Samaveda Yajurveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana Aranyaka · Upanishads Vedangas Shiksha · Chandas Vyakarana · Nirukta Kalpa · Jyotisha Upanishads Rig vedic Aitareya Yajur vedic Brihadaranyaka · Isha Taittiriya · Katha

Shvetashvatara Sama vedic Chandogya · Kena Atharva vedic Mundaka · Mandukya Prashna Puranas Brahma puranas Brahma · Brahmānda Brahmavaivarta Markandeya · Bhavishya Vaishnava puranas Vishnu · Bhagavata Naradeya · Garuda · Padma · Agni Shaiva puranas Shiva · Linga Skanda · Vayu Itihasa Ramayana

Mahabharata (Bhagavad Gita) Other scriptures Manu Smriti Artha Shastra · Agama Tantra · Sūtra · Stotra Dharmashastra Divya Prabandha Tevaram Ramcharitmanas Yoga Vasistha Scripture classification Śruti · Smriti Timeline Hindu texts

v • t

•

•

e

The Vedas (Sanskrit वेदाः véda, "knowledge") are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.[1][2] The Vedas are apauruṣeya ("not of human agency").[3][4][5] They are supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard"),[6][7] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered").

The Vedic texts or śruti are organized around four canonical collections of metrical material known as Saṃhitās, of which the first three are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical Vedic religion:

1.

2.

3.

4.

The Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ; The Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest; The Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ.

The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, apotropaic charms and speculative hymns.[8]

The individual verses contained in these compilations are known as mantras. Some selected Vedic mantras are still recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions in contemporary Hinduism.

The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[9][10] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism[11][12] and Brahmoism,[13] many non-Brahmin Hindus in South India [14] do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Certain South Indian Brahmin communities such as Iyengars consider the Tamil Divya Prabandham or writing of the Alvar saints as equivalent to the Vedas.[15]

Contents • • •

• •

• • •

1 Etymology and usage 2 Chronology 3 Categories of Vedic texts o 3.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus o 3.2 Shruti literature 4 Vedic schools or recensions 5 The four Vedas o 5.1 Rigveda o 5.2 Yajurveda o 5.3 Samaveda o 5.4 Atharvaveda 6 Brahmanas 7 Vedanta 8 In post-Vedic literature o 8.1 Vedanga

• • • • •

8.2 Parisista 8.3 Puranas 8.4 Upaveda 8.5 Buddhist and Jain views  8.5.1 Buddhism  8.5.2 Jainism o 8.6 "Fifth" and other Vedas 9 Western Indology 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Literature

•

14 External links

o o o o

Etymology and usage The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning "see" or "know".[16] As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore": yáḥ samídhā yá âhutī / yó védena dadâśa márto agnáye / yó námasā svadhvaráḥ "The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice."[17] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form" . Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc., Latin videō "I see", etc.[18] In English, the term Veda is often used loosely to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).

The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[19]

Chronology Main article: Vedic period The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.[20] The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Pataùjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[21] Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[22] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[23] The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

Categories of Vedic texts The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings: 1. Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India) 2. Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[24]

Vedic Sanskrit corpus The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: •

•

•

• •

The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[25] The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.

The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature.

Some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha).[26][27] Certain Sūtra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.[27][28] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period, and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods.

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten Mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism.

The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts.

Volume I: Samhitas Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas Volume III: Upanishads Volume IV: Vedangas A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.

Shruti literature Main article: Shruti The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. These texts are by many Hindu sects considered to be shruti (Sanskrit: śruti; "the heard"), divinely revealed like the Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti are known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti; "the remembered"), of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains: These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas...; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature." [26] The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school.

Vedic schools or recensions

Main article: Shakha Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.[29] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See also: Vedic chant) Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[30] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text.

The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order.[31] That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Ṛigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings.[31]

The four Vedas

Rigveda (padapatha) manuscript in Devanagari, early 19th century Part of a series on Hindu scriptures

Vedas and their Shakhas

Rig Veda[32][show] Sama Veda[32][show] Krishna Yajurveda[32][33][show] Shukla Yajurveda[33][show] Atharvaveda[33][show]

Hinduism portal

v • t

•

•

e

The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz.,[34] 1. Rigveda (RV) 2. Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS)

3. Sama-Veda (SV) 4. Atharva-Veda (AV) Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī vidyā", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[35][36] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras.

Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies.

The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively.

The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing.

However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanātanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn Śrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies.

Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men).

Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.

Rigveda Main article: Rigveda

The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.[37] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[38] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[39] The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[40] There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-IndoIranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca. 2000 BCE.[41] Rig Veda manuscripts have been selected for inscription in UNESCO's "Memory of the World" Register 2007.[42]

Yajurveda Main article: Yajurveda The Yajurveda Samhita consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Samaveda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna. There are two major groups of recensions of this Veda, known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White" (Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively). While White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary.

Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).

Samaveda Main article: Samaveda The Samaveda Samhita (from sﾄ［an, the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[43]) consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[26] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[44] Two major recensions remain today, the

Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests who took part in the sacrifice.

Atharvaveda Main article: Atharvaveda The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[45] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[45] It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,[46] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[45] though not in linguistic form.

The Atharvaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka.[45] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[47] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.

Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.[48][49] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[45][50] The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[51] The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas".

This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[52] The Atharvaveda is concerned with the material world or world of man and in this respect differs from the other three vedas.

Atharvaveda also sanctions the use of force, in particular circumstances and similarly this point is a departure from the three other vedas.

Brahmanas Further information: Brahmanas

The mystical notions surrounding the concept of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (ŚBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vāc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda").

Vedanta

Veda Vyasa attributed to have compiled the Vedas Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyakas While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Śrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhuvaḥ is the Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (ॐ). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has: "The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1.2.15)

In post-Vedic literature Vedanga Main article: Vedanga Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this group of works as: "N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials."[53] These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.

The six subjects of Vedanga are: • • • • • •

Phonetics (Śikṣā) Ritual (Kalpa) Grammar (Vyākaraṇa) Etymology (Nirukta) Meter (Chandas) Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)

Parisista Main article: Parisista Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras.

Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.

• • • • •

The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.

The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.

The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha)and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.

The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[54]

Puranas Main article: Puranas A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period[55]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[56] Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.[57]

Upaveda The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[58][59] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas: • • • •

Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources.

Buddhist and Jain views Buddhism and Jainism do not reject the Vedas, but merely their absolute authority. [citation needed] Buddhism Buddhism does not deny that the Vedas in their true origin were sacred although have been amended repeatedly by certain Brahmins to secure their positions in society. The Buddha declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by Kashyapa to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes.[60] In the Buddhist Vinaya Pitaka of the Mahavagga (I.245)[61] section the Buddha names these rishis, and declared that the original Veda the Vedic rishis "Atthako, Vâmako, Vâmadevo, Vessâmitto, Yamataggi, Angiraso, Bhâradvâjo, Vâsettho, Kassapo, and Bhagu"[62] but that it was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices. The Vinaya Pitaka's section Anguttara Nikaya: Panchaka Nipata says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that the Buddha refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.[63] Also in the "Brahmana Dhammika Sutta" (II,7)[64] of the Suttanipata section of Vinaya Pitaka[65] there is a story of when the Buddha was in Jetavana village and there were a group of elderly Brahmin ascetics who sat down next to the Buddha and a conversation began.

The elderly Brahmins asked him, "Do the present Brahmans follow the same rules, practice the same rites, as those in the more ancient times?"

The Buddha replied, "No." The elderly Brahmins asked the Buddha that if it were not inconvenient for him, that he would tell them of the Brahmana Dharma of the previous generation.

The Buddha replied: "There were formerly rishis, men who had subdued all passion by the keeping of the sila precepts and the leading of a pure life...Their riches and possessions consisted in the study of the Veda and their treasure was a life free from all evil...The Brahmans, for a time, continued to do right and received in alms rice, seats, clothes, and oil, though they did not ask for them. The animals that were given they did not kill; but they procured useful medicaments from the cows, regarding the as friends and relatives, whose products give strength, beauty and health."

So in this passage also the Buddha describes when the Brahmins were studying the Veda but the animal sacrifice customs had not yet began.

In the Mahavagga,[66] the Buddha declares: The one who annihilates the sings in himself, who is not proud, who is passionless, whose spirit is humble, who has comprehended the Vedas and is chaste, for whom no joy exists in the world,: that one is lawfully called a brahman.

The Buddha was declared to have been born a Brahmin trained in the Vedas and its philosophies in a number of his previous lives according to Buddhist scriptures. Other Buddhas too were said to have been born as Brahmins that were trained in the Vedas.

The Mahasupina Jataka[67] and Lohakumbhi Jataka[68] declares that Brahmin Sariputra in a previous life was a Brahmin that prevented animal sacrifice by declaring that animal sacrifice was actually against the Vedas.

Further, the Suttanipata 1000 declares that 32 mahapurusha lakshana (auspicious symbols of the Buddha) that Buddhism uses, are declared in the Vedic mantras.[69] Jainism A Jain sage intereprets the Vedic sacrifices as metaphorical: "Body is the altar, mind is the fire blazing with the ghee of knowledge and burning the sacrificial sticks of impurities produced from the tree of karma;..."[70] Further, Jain Sage Jinabhadra in his Visesavasyakabhasya cites a numeber of passages from the Vedic Upanishads.[71] Jain are in conformity with the Vedas in reference to both the Vedas' and Jainism' acceptance of the 22 Tirthankaras: Of Rishabha (1st Tirthankara Rishabha) is written:

"But Risabha went on, unperturbed by anything till he became sin-free like a conch that takes no black dot, without obstruction ... which is the epithet of the First World-teacher, may become the destroyer of enemies" (Rig Veda X.166) Of Aristanemi (Tirthankara Neminatha) is written: "So asmakam Aristanemi svaha Arhan vibharsi sayakani dhanvarhanistam yajatam visvarupam arhannidam dayase" (Astak 2, Varga 7, Rig Veda)

"Fifth" and other Vedas Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".[72] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts.[citation needed] Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra.[73]

Western Indology Further information: Sanskrit in the West The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910.[74] Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.

See also • • • •

Hindu Philosophy Historical Vedic religion Pandit Shakha

•

Vedic chant

International Society for Krishna Consciousness From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

The International Society for Krishna Consciousness

Krishna and Radha with Gopis, image at ISKCON Mayapur temple Abbreviation ISKCON Motto Hare Krishna Formation 1966 Type Religious Educational Purpose/focus Religious Studies Spirituality Headquarters Mayapur, India Region served Worldwide

Founder-Acharya Affiliations

Bhaktivedanta Swami Gaudiya Vaishnavism

The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava religious organization.[1] It was founded in 1966 in New York City by "His Divine Grace" Abhay Caranaravinda Bhaktivedanta Svami "Prabhupada".[2] Its core beliefs are based on traditional Hindu scriptures such as the Śrīmad Bhāgavatam and the Bhagavad-gītā,[3] both of which, according to the traditional Hindu view, date back more than 5,000 years. The distinctive appearance of the movement and its culture come from the Gaudiya Vaisnava tradition, which has had adherents in India since the late 15th century and Western converts since the early 1930s.[4] ISKCON was formed to spread the practice of bhakti yoga, in which aspirant devotees (bhaktas) dedicate their thoughts and actions towards pleasing the Supreme Lord, Krishna.[5][6] ISKCON today is a worldwide confederation of more than 400 centers, including 60 farm communities, some aiming for self-sufficiency, 50 schools and 90 restaurants.[7] In recent decades the movement's most rapid expansions in terms of numbers of membership have been within Eastern Europe (especially since the collapse of the Soviet Union) and India.[8]

Contents •

• • • • •

1 Beliefs and history o 1.1 Hare Krishna mantra o 1.2 Seven purposes of ISKCON o 1.3 Four regulative principles 2 Preaching activities 3 Bhaktivedanta Institute 4 Food for Life 5 Management structure o 5.1 Influential leaders since 1977 6 Internal problems and controversy o 6.1 Origin of the soul o 6.2 Rasika-bhakti o 6.3 The Guru and the Parampara o 6.4 Issues within the society

• • •

o 6.5 Rath Yatra controversy 7 In popular culture 8 Notes 9 References

•

10 External links

Beliefs and history

Pancha-Tattva deities: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Nityananda, Advaita Acharya, Gadadhara and Srivasa, installed in a Gaudiya Vaishnava temple

ISKCON's Bhajan during Navratri Golu at Coimbatore, India For further information see: Achintya Bheda Abheda and Gaudiya Vaishnavism

ISKCON devotees follow a disciplic line of Gaudiya Bhagavata Vaishnavas and are the largest branch of Gaudiya Vaishnavism.[9] Vaishnavism means 'worship of Vishnu', and Gau�a refers to the area where this particular branch of Vaishnavism originated, in the Gauda region of West Bengal. Gaudiya Vaishnavism has had a following in India, especially West Bengal and Orissa, for the past five hundred years. Bhaktivedanta Swami disseminated Gaudiya Vaishnava Theology in the Western world through extensive writings and translations,[10] including the Bhagavad Gita, Srimad Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana), Chaitanya Charitamrita, and other scriptures.

These works are now available in more than seventy languages and serve as the canon of ISKCON. Many are available online from a number of websites.[11][12] Early Western conversions to monotheistic Krishna Vaisnavism or the Bhagavata Vaisnava line which forms the basis of the ISKCON philosophy were recorded by the Greeks and are reflected in the archaeological record.[13][14] Krishna is described as the source of all the avatars.[15] Thus ISKCON devotees worship Krishna as the highest form of God, svayam bhagavan, and often refer to Him as "the Supreme Personality of Godhead" in writing, which was a phrase coined by Prabhupada in his books on the subject. To devotees, Radha represents Krishna's divine female counterpart, the original spiritual potency, and the embodiment of divine love. The individual soul is an eternal personal identity which does not ultimately merge into any formless light or void as suggested by the monistic (Advaita) schools of Hinduism. Prabhupada most frequently offers Sanatana-dharma and Varnashrama dharma as more accurate names for the religious system which accepts Vedic authority.[16] It is a monotheistic tradition which has its roots in the theistic Vedanta traditions.[17]

Hare Krishna mantra

Mahamantra in Bengali script Main article: Hare Krishna (mantra)

The popular nickname of "Hare Krishnas" for devotees of this movement comes from the mantra that devotees sing aloud (kirtan) or chant quietly (japa) on tulsi mala. This mantra, known also as the Maha Mantra, contains the names of God Krishna and Rama.

The Maha Mantra: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare

Seven purposes of ISKCON

Ratha Yatra festival in Moscow, Russia.

ISKCON Vrindavan

Public street festivals are a significant part of ISKCONs outreach programmes. Seen here is a Ratha Yatra festival in central London.

When Srila Prabhupada first incorporated ISKCON in 1966, he gave it seven purposes:[18] 1. To systematically propagate spiritual knowledge to society at large and to educate all people in the techniques of spiritual life in order to check the imbalance of values in life and to achieve real unity and peace in the world.

2. To propagate a consciousness of Krishna, as it is revealed in the Bhagavad-gita and the Srimad-Bhagavatam.

3. To bring the members of the Society together with each other and nearer to Krishna, the prime entity, thus to develop the idea within the members, and humanity at large, that each soul is part and parcel of the quality of Godhead (Krishna).

4. To teach and encourage the sankirtana movement, congregational chanting of the holy names of God as revealed in the teachings of Lord Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu.

5. To erect for the members, and for society at large, a holy place of transcendental pastimes, dedicated to the personality of Krishna.

6. To bring the members closer together for the purpose of teaching a simpler and more natural way of life.

7. With a view towards achieving the aforementioned purposes, to publish and distribute periodicals, magazines, books and other writings.

Four regulative principles Bhaktivedanta Swami prescribed four regulative principles, in relation to the four legs of dharma,[19] as the basis of the spiritual life: • • • •

No eating of meat (including fish) or eggs (lacto-vegetarianism) No illicit sex No gambling No intoxication (including alcohol, caffeine, tobacco and other recreational drugs).

The four legs of Dharma are:[19] • • • •

Daya: Mercy Tapas: Self-Control or Austerity Satyam: Truthfulness Śaucam: Cleanliness of body and mind

Preaching activities ISKCON is known for their energetic active preaching. Members try to spread Krishna consciousness, primarily by singing the Hare Krishna mantra in public places and by selling books written by Bhaktivedanta Swami.[20] Both of these activities are known within the movement as Sankirtan. A study conducted by E. Burke Rochford Jr. at the University of California found that there are four types of contact between those in ISKCON and prospective members. Those include: individually motivated contact, contact made with members in public arenas, contact made through personal connections, and contact with sympathizers of the movement who strongly sway people to join.[21] According to the doctrine of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, one does not need to be born in a Hindu family to take up the practice of Vaishnavism. There are ISKCON communities around the world with schools, restaurants and farms. In general, funds collected by ISKCON are treated as communal property and used to support the community as a whole and to promote the preaching

mission.[22] Many temples also have programs (like Food for Life) to provide meals for the needy. Also, ISKCON has recently brought the academic study of Krishna into western academia as Krishnology.

Bhaktivedanta Institute The Bhaktivedanta Institute (BI) is the scientific research branch of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness. Founded in 1976 by Bhaktivedanta Swami, it advances the study of the nature and origin of life, utilizing Vedic insights into consciousness, the self, and the origin of the universe. BI motto in Sanskrit language: "Athato brahma jijnasa" "One should inquire into the Supreme." BI has established the world's first graduate degree program (M.S./Ph.D) in consciousness studies at Mumbai in collaboration with the Birla Institute of Technology and Science, one of India's top technical schools. Subjects include Life Sciences, Artificial Intelligence, Mathematics and Philosophy of Science. Currently Ravi Gomatam is the Director of Bhaktivedanta Institute.

Food for Life Main article: Hare Krishna Food for Life

Member of Food for Life Russia giving food ISKCON has inspired, and sometimes sponsored, a project called Food for Life. The goal of the project is to "liberally distribute pure vegetarian meals (prasadam) throughout the world", as inspired by Bhaktivedanta Swami's instruction, given to his disciples in 1974, "No one within ten miles of a temple should go hungry . . . I want you to immediately begin serving food".[23] The international headquarters known as Food for Life Global site, established by Paul Rodney Turner (ref) and Mukunda Goswami,[24] coordinates the project. Food for Life is currently active in over sixty countries and serves up to 2 million free meals every day. [24] Its welfare achievements have been noted by The New York Times and other media worldwide.[25][26][27][28]

Management structure

Satsvarupa dasa Gosvami (left) one of the original members of the Commission, in 1970 known under alias Sriman Satsvarupa Das Adhikary, with his disciple Yadunandana Swami (right), principal of Bhaktivedanta College Bhaktivedanta Swami spent much of the last decade of his life setting up the institution of ISKCON. As a charismatic leader, Bhaktivedanta Swami's personality and management had been responsible for much of the growth of ISKCON and the reach of his mission.[29][30] The Governing Body Commission (or GBC) was created by Bhaktivedanta Swami in 1970.[31] In a document Direction of Management written on 28 July 1970 Prabhupada appointed the following members to the commission, all of them non sannyasi:[29] 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Sriman Rupanuga Das Adhikary Sriman Bhagavan Das Adhikary Sriman Syamsundar Das Adhikary Sriman Satsvarupa Das Adhikary Sriman Karandhar Das Adhikary Sriman Hansadutta Das Adhikary Sriman Tamala Krsna Das Adhikary Sriman Sudama Das Adhikary

9. Sriman Bali Mardan Das Brahmacary 10. Sriman Jagadisa Das Adhikary 11. Sriman Hayagriva Das Adhikary 12. Sriman Kṛṣṇadas Adhikary The letter outlined the following purposes of the commission: 1) improving the standard of temple management, 2) the spread of Krishna consciousness, 3) the distribution of books and literature, 4) the opening of new centers, 5) the education of the devotees.

GBC has since grown in size to include 48 senior members from the movement who make decisions based on consensus of opinion rather than any one person having ultimate authority.[29][32] It has continued to manage affairs since Prabhupada's passing in 1977 although it is currently a self-elected organization and does not follow the provision where Srila Prabhupada instructs that members be elected by temple presidents.

Influential leaders since 1977 See also: Principal disciples of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami.

Before his death, Prabhupada "deputed"[33] or appointed the following eleven of his disciples to serve as gurus[34][35] or to continue to direct the organization:[36] Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami,[37][38] Jayapataka Swami,[39] Hridayananda Dasa Goswami, Tamal Krishna Goswami,[40] Bhavananda Goswami, Hansadutta Swami, Ramesvara Swami, Harikesa Swami, Bhagavan Dasa, Kirtanananda Swami, and Jayatirtha Dasa. These eleven "Western Gurus were selected as spiritual heads" of the ISKCON after 1977, however "many problems followed from their appointment and the movement had since veered away from investing absolute authority in a few, fallible, human teachers",[41] however of these eleven, the first three have remained prominent leaders within the movement, as was Tamal Krishna Goswami until his death in a car accident in March 2002. Bhavananda no longer holds the post of an initiating guru.

Ramesvara, Bhagavan and Harikesa resigned as spiritual leaders in 1985, 1987 and 1999 respectively and the remaining three were all expelled from the movement by the Governing Body Commission during the 1980s.[42][not in citation given] Of Prabhupada's disciples, who number 4,734 in total,[43] approximately 70 are now acting as diksha gurus within ISKCON. As of April 2011, ISKCON had a total of 100 sannyasis, most of whom were acting as gurus (see List of International Society for Krishna Consciousness sannyasis).

Internal problems and controversy Part of a series on

Vaishnavism

Supreme Deity •

Vishnu

•

Krishna

•

Narayana

Important deities Dashavatara •

Matsya

•

Kurma

•

Varaha

•

Narasimha •

Vamana

•

Parasurama •

Rama

•

Krishna

•

Buddha •

Kalki

Other Avatars • •

Mohini

Nara-Narayana •

Balarama

•

Hayagriva Related

•

Lakshmi •

•

Sita Hanuman

•

Shesha

Texts • • •

Vedas Upanishads

Bhagavad Gita

•

Divya Prabandha

•

Ramcharitmanas Puranas •

Vishnu

•

Bhagavata

•

Naradeya •

Garuda

•

Padma

•

Agni

Sampradayas • •

Sri (Vishishtadvaita)

Brahma (Dvaita, Acintyabhedabheda) • •

Rudra (Shuddhadvaita) Nimbarka (Dvaitadvaita)

Philosopher-Acharyas •

Nammalvar

•

Yamunacharya •

Ramanuja

• •

Chaitanya

•

Vallabha

•

Nimbarka

•

Pillai Lokacharya •

• •

Madhva

Prabhupada Vedanta Desika

Manavala Mamunigal Related traditions

•

Bhagavatism •

•

ISKCON Swaminarayan

• •

Ekasarana Pranami

•

Ramanandi

•

Vaikhanasas

Hinduism portal

v • t

•

•

e

In the years following Bhaktivedanta Swami's death in November 1977, a number of theological controversies arose:[44]

Origin of the soul Bhaktivedanta Swami explained that the soul falls from the spiritual world to this material world and that the supreme objective of the human life is to become Krishna-conscious to be able to return "Back to Godhead" (also the title of the official ISKCON magazine).

However when translations of important Vaishnava texts began to appear that seemed at variance with these teachings[clarification needed], controversy arose.[44][45]

Rasika-bhakti The elder sannyasi Bhaktivedanta Narayana Goswami was a disciple of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami's sannyasa guru and was long a well-wisher of ISKCON. A small group of prominent ISKCON leaders were closer to his association and Bhaktivedanta Narayana made no effort to conceal his relationship with them, which as time went on became increasingly intimate. His emphasis on gopibhava, the mood of Krishna's cowherd lovers, particularly disturbed his ISKCON audiences since Bhaktivedanta Swami had stressed

that the path of spontaneous devotion was only for liberated souls. At the annual GBC meeting in 1993, members questioned their affiliation with Bhaktivedanta Narayana. Those involved minimised the seriousness of the relationship, though for some it had been going on for as long as five years. By the next annual meeting, the GBC forced the involved members to promise to greatly restrict further association with their new teacher. Though adhering externally, their sympathies for Bhaktivedanta Narayana's teachings were unabated. In 1995 GBC position was firm and the controversy was first on the 1995 annual meeting's agenda. A week of thorough investigation brought the implicated members in line. Asked to suggest what they might do to make amends, the leaders involved with the controversy tendered their resignations, which the GBC promptly refused. They further volunteered to refrain from initiating new disciples or visiting Vrindavana until their case could be reassessed the following year and at the March 1996 meeting GBC insisted on maintaining most of the restrictions.[44] While the capitulation of the GBC members previously following Bhaktivedanta Narayana has certainly demonstrated GBC solidarity it was insufficient to prevent a continued exodus of devotees who feel unable to repose full faith in the ISKCON Governing Body Commission authority.[44]

The Guru and the Parampara ISKCON adheres to the traditional system of paramparÄ , or disciplic succession, in which teachings upheld by scriptures are handed down from master to disciple, generation after generation.[46] A minority of people who express faith in Srila Prabhupada's teachings say that Srila Prabhupada, in contrast to the tradition, intended that after his physical demise he would continue to initiate disciples through ceremonial priests, called ritviks. One version of this idea is espoused by a group calling itself the ISKCON Revival Movement.[47] ISKCON's Governing Body Commission has rejected all such ideas. [48]

Issues within the society ISKCON also experienced a number of significant internal problems, the majority of which occurred from the late seventies onwards, and especially within the decade following Prabhupada's death.[49] In 1976 a case involving allegations of "brainwashing" involving a minor named Robin George and her parents went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1983, a California jury awarded the family more than $32 million in damages for false imprisonment and other charges, which was reduced to $485,000 in 1993.[50][51]

Also ISKCON has been subject matter of discussion in some anti-cult movements.[52][53][54] Indologist Klaus Klostermaier has described ISKCON as "the most genuinely Hindu of all the many Indian movements in the West",[55] and as to its fortieth anniversary in America, as "having been successful on the basis of longevity", having "undergone changes to its goals and identity". [56] Stories of child abuse at the society's boarding schools in India and America began to emerge in the 1980s, with cases dating back from the mid-1970s onwards.[57] Some of these cases later appeared in print, such as in John Hubner and Lindsay Gruson's 1988 book Monkey on a Stick. In 1998 an official publication produced by ISKCON detailed the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse of children at the society's boarding schools in both India and the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s.[58] Later ISKCON was sued by 95 people who had attended the schools. Facing the fiscal drain likely to ensue from this legal action, the ISKCON centers involved declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy. This allowed them to work out a settlement of US$9.5 million, meant to compensate not only the former students who had brought the suit but also any others who had undergone abuse but had not sued.[59] To guard against further abuses, ISKCON has established a child protection office with teams worldwide, meant to screen out actual or potential abusers, educate children and adults on child abuse, and encourage due vigilance.[60] A petition circulating (as of July 2006) among ISKCON members calls for "zero tolerance" for past offenders.

In response to the need to establish transparency and accountability among its members, ISKCON encouraged the establishment of an ombudsman organization, ISKCON Resolve.[61] There have been also allegations in relation to murders and fraud linked to the ISKCON movement, with ex-member and guru Kirtanananda Swami convicted.[62]

Rath Yatra controversy

An ISKCON Rath Yatra festival in New York City, USA ISKCON organises Rath Yatra festivals in different countries around the world, including India. Although held once annually in each location, these festivals occur on different dates throughout the summertime, which is marked difference from the Rath Yatra as held at the Jagannatha temple in Puri (where the festival originates). At this temple, the Rath Yatra festival is held once each year on a specific date in July, and complaints have recently been made regarding ISKCON's having their international festivals at significantly different times to this.[63] On December 20, 2007 the Puri priests held a demonstration alleging "a number of non-Hindus foreigners under the cover of ISKCON were trying to enter the temple", which is not allowed by that temple's tradition (only Hindus, whether Indian or foreigners are traditionally allowed in that temple).[64] In two incidents, the priests drove out nine Indonesian men who were allegedly tourists with no link to Hindu beliefs. The validity of this temple policy has been questioned in the media on a number of occasions,[65] especially since this ban was imposed by a British collector in 1805.[66]

In popular culture Main article: Hare Krishna in popular culture The Hare Krishna mantra appears in a number of famous songs, notably those sung by The Beatles (and solo works of John Lennon, George Harrison, notably on his hit "My Sweet Lord", and Ringo Starr). There is a reference to singing kirtan of Hare Krishna mantra in The Beatles' "I Am The Walrus" (the line "Elementary penguins singing Hare Krishna"). Ringo Starr's song "It Don't Come Easy" contains the words "Hare Krishna!" and was written with the help of George Harrison. Later Paul McCartney produced a single with a picture of Krishna riding on a swan on the cover, although there was not any chanting of Krishna's names inside. Of the four Beatles members, only Harrison was actually a member of ISKCON, and after he posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2009, his son Dhani Harrison uttered the phrase "Hare Krishna" during the ceremony. [67]. The contemporary Broadway Musical Hair also included a song (credited as "Be-In") that included the mantra.

H端sker D端's 1984 album Zen Arcade combines portions of the Hare Krishna mantra with the melody of The Strangeloves' "I Want Candy" in the song "Hare Krishna". In one of Aerosmith's songs off of their 1997 album, Nine Lives, whose original cover caused some controversy with Hindus, a line in the song, 'The Farm', says, "I wanna be a Hare Krishna, tattoo a dot right on my head, and the prozac is my fixer, I am the living dead". The mantra also appears in The Pretenders' Boots of Chinese Plastic.[68] One song from 1969 by the Radha Krishna Temple, simply entitled Hare Krishna Mantra reached no. 12 in the UK music chart and appeared on the music show Top of the Pops. It also made the no. 3 slot in German and no. 1 in Czechoslovakian music charts. Less well-known but equally

relevant to fans of pop music culture are recordings of the Hare Krishna mantra by The Fugs on their 1968 album Tenderness Junction (featuring poet Allen Ginsberg) and by Nina Hagen.[69] The 1980 film Airplane! features several Hare Krishnas, led by the actor David Leisure. The 1979 The Muppet Movie has a running gag where someone always says "Have you tried Hare Krishna?" every time someone mentions that they are lost. In the 1978 movie Dawn of the Dead, a Hare Krishna zombie can be seen. In the 1981 movie Stripes, the character of Russell Ziskey played by Harold Ramis is seen dancing around and chanting 'Hare Krishna! Hare Krishna!' after having his head shaved upon entering basic training for the U.S. Army. Also, in the 2001 television series Scrubs, the character JD is seen dancing, chanting and playing the tambourine with a group of Hare Krishnas after having his head shaved to support a patient with Leukaemia.

Dev Anand in 1971 directed movie "Hare Rama Hare Krishna". Although the movie talked about the hippie culture, the movie has a famous song based on the words "Hare Rama Hare Krishna".

The Rockstar game Grand Theft Auto features groups of Hare Krishna throughout its fictional cities. The game controversially gives the player a 'GOURANGA' bonus for running over an entire procession.

In a fifth-season episode of Mad Men ("Christmas Waltz," May 20, 2012), set in December 1966, it is revealed that the character Paul Kinsey (played by Michael Gladis) has joined the Hare Krishna movement. He is depicted as having shaved his head and participates in early ISKCON meetings led by Prabhupada in New York City.

Notes

Part of a series on Vaishnavism • Vishnu • Krishna • Narayana Important deities Dashavatara • Matsya • Kurma • Varaha • Narasimha • Vamana • Parasurama • Rama • Krishna • Buddha • Kalki Other Avatars • Mohini • Nara-Narayana

Supreme Deity

• •

Balarama Hayagriva

Related • Lakshmi • Sita • Hanuman • Shesha Texts • • • • •

Vedas Upanishads Bhagavad Gita Divya Prabandha Ramcharitmanas

Puranas • Vishnu • Bhagavata • Naradeya • Garuda • Padma • Agni Sampradayas • Sri (Vishishtadvaita) • Brahma (Dvaita, Acintyabhedabheda) • Rudra (Shuddhadvaita) • Nimbarka (Dvaitadvaita) Philosopher-Acharyas • Nammalvar • Yamunacharya

• • • • • • • • •

Ramanuja Madhva Chaitanya Vallabha Nimbarka Pillai Lokacharya Prabhupada Vedanta Desika Manavala Mamunigal

Related traditions • Bhagavatism • ISKCON • Swaminarayan • Ekasarana • Pranami • Ramanandi • Vaikhanasas Hinduism portal

Chaitanya Charitamrita From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

The Caitanya Caritamrita as published by the BBT. The Caitanya Caritamrta is one of the primary biographies detailing the life and teachings of Caitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), a Vaisnava saint and founder of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya. It was written by Krishna Das Kaviraja (b1496), primarily in the Bengali language, but also including a great number of Sanskrit verses within its devotional, poetic construction. Intertwined with the stories of Caitanya Mahaprabhu's life are philosophical conversations detailing the process of Bhakti Yoga, with special attention given to congregational chanting of Krishna's names and the Hare Krishna mantra.

Contents •

• • •

1 Contents o 1.1 Adi-lila o 1.2 Madhya-lila o 1.3 Antya-lila 2 Composition of the Caitanya Caritamrta 3 Modern publication 4 See also

• •

5 References 6 Bibliography

•

7 External links

Contents The Chaitanya Caritamrta is divided into three sections: the Adi-lila, Madhya-lila and Antya-lila. Each section refers to a particular phase in Shri Caitanya Mahaprabhu's life:

Adi-lila The Adi-lila explains Caitanya's unique theological identity as an Avatar of Krishna in the mood of Radharani (a combined avatar of both personalities), his personal lineage, his closest childhood companions and their paramparas (desciplic succession), and the characters of his devotional associates. This section ends with a brief summary of Caitanya's life up to his acceptance of sannyasa (the renounced order of life).

In the conversation with Chand Kazi the word 'hindu' is used repeatedly for inhabitants of Navadvipa who were not Muslims.[1]

Madhya-lila The Madhya-lila details Caitanya Mahaprabhu's sannyasa pastimes; the life of Madhavendra Puri; a philosophical conversation with the Advaitin scholar Sarvabhauma Bhattacharya (wherein the supremacy of bhakti is promoted by Mahaprabhu against the arguments of impersonal advaita); Caitanya’s pilgrimage to South India; examples of the daily and annual activities of Caitanya and his devotees during the Ratha-yatra festival of Jagannatha near the Jagannath Temple in Puri, Orissa; their observance of other festivities; and his detailed instructions on the process of Bhakti Yoga to both Rupa Goswami and Sanatana Goswami.

Antya-lila The Antya-lila gives a survey of the devotional plays composed by Rupa Goswami, activities of various devotees and occasional critics and their interactions with Caitanya; Caitanya’s interactions with Raghunatha dasa Goswami, and Jagadananda; Caitanya's

increasing experience of the searing agony of separation from Krishna (viraha or vipralambha bhava) and concludes with the famous Siksastaka (eight verses of poetic instruction), the only thing personally written by Shri Caitanya Mahaprabhu himself.

Composition of the Caitanya Caritamrta Although the author, Krishna Dasa Kaviraja, never met Caitanya personally, his guru Raghunatha dasa Goswami (1494–1586 CE) was an associate of Caitanya and was close to others who were intimates of his. In composing his work, Krishna Dasa Kaviraja also referred to the shrIkr^ShNachaitanyacharaNAmr^ta of Murari Gupta and also the works of Swarupa Damodara, both of whom knew Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.

Krishna Dasa Kaviraja composed the Caitanya Caritamrta in his old age after being requested by the Vaishnavas of Vrindavana to write a hagiography about the life of Caitanya. Although there was already a biography written by Vrindavana Dasa, called the Chaitanya Bhagavata, the later years of Caitanya’s life were not detailed in that work. Krishna Dasa’s Caitanya Caritamrta covers Caitanya’s later years and also explains in detail the rasa philosophy that Caitanya and his followers expounded. The Caitanya Caritamrta also serves as a compendium of Gaudiya Vaishnava practices and outlines the Gaudiya theology developed by the Goswamis in metaphysics, ontology and aesthetics.

The Caitanya Caritamrta was frequently copied and widely circulated amongst the Vaishnava communities of Bengal and Orissa during the early 17th Century. Its popularity during this period can be attributed to the propagation of three Vaishnava preachers called Narottama Dasa, Shyamananda and Srinivasa who were trained by Jiva Goswami and Krishna Dasa Kaviraja himself. However, during the 18th Century, copies of the Caitanya Caritamrta became rare. In his autobiography, Kedarnatha Dutta Bhaktivinoda writes that for many years he found it difficult to procure a copy of the book. Upon finally finding a copy of the Caritamrta, Bhaktivinoda reprinted it along with his Amrita Pravaha commentary. After his death, his son Bimala Prasada (later to become known as Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati) printed the Caitanya Caritamrita en masse. He also wrote his Anubhasya commentary to this book.

Modern publication In the 1970s Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati’s disciple A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, founder of ISKCON (also known as the Hare Krishna movement), popularised the Caitanya Caritamrta in the West. He published a deluxe 17-volume English edition of the work through his Bhaktivedanta Book Trust with his own commentary based upon the Amrita Pravaha and Anubhasya commentaries of Bhaktivinoda Thakur and Srila Bhaktisiddhanta. This edition has been distributed in mass quantities worldwide and is the bestknown and most influential English-language edition of Caitanya Caritamrta today. [citation needed]

See also • • • • • • • •

Bhagavad Gita Bhagavata Purana Chaitanya Bhagavata Gouranga Hare Krishna (mantra) Nityananda Pancha Tattva Six Goswamis of Vrindavan

References 1. ^ Caitanya Caritamrta 1.17.174-215

Bibliography • • •

Sri Chaitanya-charitamrta (Bengali), Published by Sri Chaitanya Matha, Kolkata, W.Bengal, 1992.

Chaitanya Charitamrita : Edition of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Online Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh

External links • • •

Śrī Caitanya-caritāmṛta - latest Online English edition by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada The Complete Chaitanya Charitamrita Online - A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Krishna.com - Official site of the Bhaktivedanta Book Trust

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Caitanya Mahaprabhu) Jump to: navigation, search

Chaitanya Mahaprabhua

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu 1486 Born Nabadwip, present day Nadia, West Bengal, India 1534 Died Puri, present day Orissa, India Birth name Vishvambar Followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism Titles/honours believe him to be the full incarnation of Lord Krishna.

Philosophy Bhakti yoga Part of a series on

Hindu philosophy

Schools

Samkhya · Yoga · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Mimāṃsā · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita · Dvaitadvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda)

· Saiva (Pratyabhijña · Pasupata · Siddhanta) · Tantra Personalities Philosophers-Acharyas Samkhya Kapila · Yoga Patañjali · Nyaya

Akṣapāda Gotama · Jayanta Bhatta · Raghunatha Siromani · Vaiseshika Kanada · Mimamsa Jaimini · Kumārila Bhaṭṭa · Prabhakara · Maharshi Dayananda · Advaita Vedanta Gaudapada · Adi Shankara · Vachaspati Mishra · Vidyaranya · Madhusudana · Vivekananda · Nigamananda · Ramana Maharshi · Narayana Guru · Sivananda · Chinmayananda · Nisargadatta Maharaj · Swami Dayananda · Vishishta-Advaita Nammalwar · Alvars · Yamunacharya · Ramanuja · Pillai Lokacharya · Vedanta Desika · Manavala Mamunigal · Dvaita Madhvacharya · Jayatirtha · Vyasathirtha · Raghavendra Swami · Dvaita-Advaita Nimbarka ·

Shuddha-Advaita Vallabha Achintya-Bhedabheda Chaitanya · Nigamananda · Prabhupada · Tantra / Shakta Abhinavagupta · Nigamananda · Ramprasad Sen · Kamalakanta Bhattacharya · Bamakhepa · Anandamayi Ma · Poet-Saints Purandara Dasa · Kanakadasa · Jagannatha_Dasa · Basava · Dnyaneshwar · Srimanta Sankardeva · Jayadeva · Namdev · Ramananda · Kabir · Tulsidas · Guru Ravidas · Mira Bai · Narsinh Mehta · Surdas · Samarth Ramdas · Tukaram · Tyagaraja · Annamacharya · Bhadrachala Ramadas · Nayanmars · Muthuswami Dikshitar · Syama Sastri · Yoga-Guru Nigamananda · Integral-Yoga Sri Aurobindo · Kriya-Yoga Yogananda · Academician-Philosophers Coomaraswamy · Radhakrishnan ·

v • t

•

•

e

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Caitanya, IAST caitanya mahāprabhu) (1486–1534) was a Vaishnava saint and social reformer in eastern India (specifically present-day Bangladesh and states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Manipur, Assam, and Orissa of India) in the 16th century,[1] worshipped by followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism as the full incarnation of Lord Krishna.[2] Sri Krishna Chaitanya was a notable proponent for the Vaishnava school of Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion to Krishna/God) based on the philosophy of the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita.[3] Specifically, he worshipped the forms of Krishna, popularised the chanting of the Hare Krishna maha mantra[4] and composed the Siksastakam in Sanskrit. His line of followers, known as Gaudiya Vaishnavas, revere him as an Avatar of Krishna in the mood of Radharani who was prophesied to appear in the later verses of the Bhagavata Purana.[5] He was also sometimes referred to by the names Gaura (Sanskrit for golden one) due to his light skin complexion,[6] and Nimai due to his being born underneath a Neem tree.[7] There are numerous biographies available from the time giving details of Chaitanya's life, the most prominent ones being the Chaitanya Charitamrita of Krishnadasa Kaviraja Goswami, the earlier Chaitanya Bhagavata of Vrindavana Dasa[8] (both originally written in Bengali but now widely available in English and other languages), and the Chaitanya Mangala, written by Lochana Dasa.[9]

Contents • • • • • • • •

1 Chaitanya's life 2 Identity 3 Teachings 4 Chaitanya's tradition 5 Cultural legacy 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References

•

9 External links

Chaitanya's life

Claimed birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu in Pracheen Mayapur area, Nabadwip, West Bengal, India.

According to Chaitanya Charitamrita, Nimäi was born on the full moon night of February 18, 1486, at the time of a lunar eclipse.[10] His parents named him 'Vishvambhar'. Sri Chaitanya was the second son of Jagannath Mishra and his wife Sachi Devi who lived in the town of Nabadwip in Nadia, West Bengal.[11][12] Chaitanya's ancestry is a contentious issue between the people of Orissa and West Bengal with Shree Chaitanya having family roots in Jajpur, Orissa, from where his grandfather, Madhukar Mishra had emigrated to nearby Bengal.[12] In his youth, Chaitanya Mahäprabhu was primarily known as an erudite scholar, whose learning and skills in argumentation in his locality were second to none. A number of stories also exist telling of Chaitanya's apparent attraction to the chanting and singing of Krishna's names from a very young age,[13] but largely this was perceived as being secondary to his interest in acquiring knowledge and studying Sanskrit. When traveling to Gaya to perform the shraddha ceremony for his departed father Chaitanya met his guru, the ascetic Ishvara Puri, from whom he received initiation with the Gopala Krishna mantra. This meeting was to mark a significant change in Mahäprabhu's outlook[14] and upon his return to Bengal the local Vaishnavas, headed by Advaita Ächärya, were stunned at his external sudden 'change of heart' (from 'scholar' to 'devotee') and soon Chaitanya became the eminent leader of their Vaishnava group within Nadia.

After leaving Bengal and receiving entrance into the sannyasa order by Keshava Bharati,[15] Chaitanya journeyed throughout the length and breadth of India for several years, chanting the divine Names of Krishna constantly. He spent the last 24 years of his life in Puri, Orissa,[16] the great temple city of Jagannäth. The Suryavanshi Hindu emperor of Orissa, Gajapati Maharaja Prataparudra Dev, regarded the Lord as Krishna's incarnation and was an enthusiastic patron and devotee of Chaitanya's sankeertan party.[17] It was during these years that Lord Chaitanya is believed by His followers to have sank deep into various Divine-Love (samādhi) and performed pastimes of divine ecstasy (bhakti).[18]

Identity

Sri Chaitanya and Nityananda, is shown performing a 'kirtan' in the streets of Nabadwip, Bengal.

According to beliefs of orthodox followers Caitanya Mahaprabhu united in himself two aspects: ecstatic devotee of Krishna and Krishna himself in inseparable union with Radha. According to the hagiographies of 16th c. authors he has exhibited his Universal Form identical to that of Krishna on a number of occasions, notably to Advaita Ācārya and Nityānanda Prabhu.[19][20][21]

Teachings Chaitanya has left one written record in Sanskrit called Siksastakam.

Chaitanya's epistemological, theological and ontological teachings are summarized as ten roots or maxims dasa mula:[22] 1. The statements of amnaya (scripture) are the chief proof. By these statements the following nine topics are taught.

2. Krishna is the Supreme Absolute Truth.

3. Krishna is endowed with all energies.

4. Krishna is the ocean of rasa (theology).

5. The jivas (individual souls) are all separated parts of the Lord.

6. In bound state the jivas are under the influence of matter, due to their tatastha nature.

7. In the liberated state the jivas are free from the influence of matter, due to their tatastha nature.

8. The jivas and the material world are both different from and identical to the Lord.

9. Pure devotion is the practice of the jivas.

10. Pure love of Krishna is the ultimate goal.

11. Krishna is the only lovable blessing to be received.

Chaitanya's tradition

This is an interactive (clickable) image-map. Click on lotus feet. Sri Krishna Chaitanya (centre), Sri Nityananda Prabhu (wearing blue), Sri Advaita Acharya (with beard), Sri Gadadhara Pandit (purple dhoti), Sri Srivas Pandit (with shaven head and saffron dhoti).

Pancha-Tattva deities: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Nityananda, Advaita Acharya, Gadadhara and Srivasa, installed on a Vaishnava altar.

Part of a series on

Hindu philosophy

Schools Samkhya · Yoga · Nyaya · Vaisheshika · Mimāṃsā · Vedanta (Advaita · Vishishtadvaita · Dvaita · Dvaitadvaita · Achintya Bheda Abheda)

· Saiva (Pratyabhijña · Pasupata · Siddhanta) · Tantra Personalities Philosophers-Acharyas Samkhya Kapila · Yoga Patañjali · Nyaya

Akṣapāda Gotama · Jayanta Bhatta · Raghunatha Siromani · Vaiseshika Kanada · Mimamsa Jaimini · Kumārila Bhaṭṭa · Prabhakara · Maharshi Dayananda · Advaita Vedanta Gaudapada · Adi Shankara · Vachaspati Mishra · Vidyaranya · Madhusudana · Vivekananda · Nigamananda · Ramana Maharshi · Narayana Guru · Sivananda · Chinmayananda · Nisargadatta Maharaj · Swami Dayananda ·

Vishishta-Advaita Nammalwar · Alvars · Yamunacharya · Ramanuja · Pillai Lokacharya · Vedanta Desika · Manavala Mamunigal · Dvaita Madhvacharya · Jayatirtha · Vyasathirtha · Raghavendra Swami · Dvaita-Advaita Nimbarka · Shuddha-Advaita Vallabha Achintya-Bhedabheda Chaitanya · Nigamananda · Prabhupada · Tantra / Shakta Abhinavagupta · Nigamananda · Ramprasad Sen · Kamalakanta Bhattacharya · Bamakhepa · Anandamayi Ma · Poet-Saints Purandara Dasa · Kanakadasa · Jagannatha_Dasa · Basava · Dnyaneshwar · Srimanta Sankardeva · Jayadeva · Namdev · Ramananda · Kabir · Tulsidas · Guru Ravidas · Mira Bai · Narsinh Mehta · Surdas · Samarth Ramdas · Tukaram · Tyagaraja · Annamacharya · Bhadrachala Ramadas · Nayanmars · Muthuswami Dikshitar · Syama Sastri · Yoga-Guru Nigamananda · Integral-Yoga

Sri Aurobindo · Kriya-Yoga Yogananda · Academician-Philosophers Coomaraswamy · Radhakrishnan ·

v • t

•

•

e

Despite having been initiated in the Madhvacharya tradition and taking sannyasa from Shankara's tradition, Chaitanya's philosophy is sometimes regarded as a tradition of his own within the Vaishnava framework - having some marked differences with the practices and the theology of other followers of Madhvacharya. He took Mantra Upadesa from (Isvara Puri) and Sanyasa Diksha from Kesava Bharathi. Both these gurus are of Sankarite order of Advaita.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is not known to have written anything himself except for a series of verses known as the Siksastaka, or "eight verses of instruction",[23] which he had spoken, and were recorded by one of his close colleagues. The eight verses created by Mahaprabhu are considered to contain the complete philosophy of Gaudiya Vaishnavism in condensed form. Chaitanya requested a select few among his followers (who later came to be known as the Six Gosvamis of Vrindavan) to systematically present the theology of bhakti he had taught to them in their own writings.[24] The six saints and theologians were Rupa Goswami, Sanatana Goswami, Gopala Bhatta Goswami, Raghunatha Bhatta Goswami, Raghunatha dasa Goswami and Jiva Goswami, a nephew of brothers Rupa and Sanatana. These individuals were responsible for systematizing Gaudiya Vaishnava theology.

Narottama Dasa Thakur, Srinivasa Acarya and Syamananda Pandit were among the stalwarts of the second generation of Gaudiya Vaishnavism. Having studied under Jiva Goswami, they were instrumental in propagating the teachings of the Goswamis throughout Bengal, Orissa and other regions of Eastern India. Many among their associates, such as Ramacandra Kaviraja and Ganga Narayan Chakravarti, were also eminent teachers in their own right.[25] The festival of Kheturi, presided over by Jahnava Thakurani,[26] the wife of Nityananda Prabhu, was the first time the leaders of the various branches of Chaitanya's followers assembled together. Through such festivals, members of the loosely organized tradition became acquainted with other branches along with their respective theological and practical nuances.[27] Around these times, the disciples and descendants of Nityananda and Advaita Acharya, headed by Virabhadra and Krishna Mishra respectively, started their

family lineages (vamsa) to maintain the tradition. The vamsa descending from Nityananda through his son Virabhadra forms the most prominent branch of the modern Gaudiya tradition, though descendants of Advaita, along with the descendants of many other associates of Chaitanya, maintain their following especially in the rural areas of Bengal. Gopala Guru Goswami, a young associate of Chaitanya and a follower of Vakresvara Pandit, founded another branch based in Orissa. The writings of Gopala, along with those of his disciple Dhyanacandra Goswami, have had a substantial influence on the methods of internal worship in the tradition.

From the very beginning of Chaitanya's bhakti movement in Bengal, Haridasa Thakur and others Muslim or Hindu by birth were the participants. This openness received a boost from Bhaktivinoda Thakura's broad-minded vision in the late 19th century and was institutionalized by Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in his Gaudiya Matha in the 20th century.[28] In the 20th century the teachings of Chaitanya were brought to the West by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a representative of Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura branch of Chaitanya's tradition. Bhaktivedanta Swami founded his movement known as The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) to spread Chaitanya's teachings throughout the world.[29] Saraswata gurus and acharyas, members of the Goswami lineages and several other Hindu sects which revere Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, including devotees from the major Vaishnava holy places in Mathura District, West Bengal and Orissa, also established temples dedicated to Krishna and Chaitanya outside India in the closing decades of the 20th century. In the 21st century Vaishnava bhakti is now also being studied through the academic medium of Krishnology in a number of academic institutions.[30]

Cultural legacy In addition to his deep influences on Hinduism, Chaitanya's cultural legacy in Bengal and Orissa remains deep, with many residents performing daily worship to him as an avatar of Krishna. Some attribute to him a Renaissance in Bengal,[31] different from the more well known 19th century Bengal Renaissance. Salimullah Khan, a noted linguist, maintains, "Sixteenth century is the time of Chaitanya Dev, and it is the beginning of Modernism in Bengal. The concept of 'humanity' that came into fruition is contemporaneous with that of Europe".

See also • • • • •

Achintya Bheda Abheda Acyutananda Adi Shankara Chaitanya Charitamrita Gouranga

• • • • •

Hare Krishna (mantra) Jagannath Temple (Puri) Madhvacharya Nityananda Pancha Tattva (Vaishnavism)