The Failure of Bangkok Land-Use Plan by Sahachai Kumalwisai

THE FAILURE OF BANGKOK LAND-USE PLAN AND THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF LAT PHRAO SAHACHAI KUMALWISAI - 18052043

MANCHESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES

PAGES I - II

ABSTRACT

III

INTRODUCTION

01 - THE HISTORY OF BANGKOK LAND-USE PLAN

2-9

02 - THE FAILURE OF BANGKOK LAND-USE PLAN: THE SITUATIONS IN LAT PHRAO

10 - 13

03 - THE ADAPTIVE SOLUTIONS FROM CASE STUDIES 14 - 25 04 - THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ADATIVE SOLUTIONS TO THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF LAT PHRAO

26 - 34

CONCLUSION

35 - 36

BIBLIOGRAPHY

37 - 39

IMAGE REFERENCES

40 - 41

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES

PAGES

Fig. 1.1. Bangkok in the mid-19th century

Fig. 1.2. Bangkok at the end of the 19th century

Fig. 1.3. Ratchadamnoen Avenue in Rama V's era

Fig. 1.4. The Construction of Dusit Palace in Rama V's era

Fig. 1.5. The First Greater Bangkok Land-use Plan 1933

Fig. 1.6. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 1992

Fig. 1.7. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 1999

Fig. 1.8. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 2006

Fig. 1.9. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 2013

Fig. 1.10. The mixed zoning set along the main roads in Lat Phrao district

Fig. 1.11. The canal network in Lat Phrao district

Fig. 2.1. Administrative boundary of Lat Phrao District

Fig. 2.2. Housing along Lat Phrao road

Fig. 2.3. The worst flood of Bangkok in 2011, Lat Phrao district

Fig. 2.4. The Bangkok heat contour projection in 2015, green dash circle represents Lat Phrao district

Fig. 2.5. Land-use plan in Lat Phrao District

Fig. 2.6. MRT Lat Phrao station is not in Lat Phrao district

Fig. 2.7. Lat Phrao road on peak time

Fig. 3.1. Rotterdam's aerial view

Fig. 3.2. The map of land use in Rotterdam

Fig. 3.3. The flood map in Rotterdam

Fig. 3.4. Development options for climate change adaptation from Rotterdam's sustainability guide

Fig. 3.5. Stadshaven area in Rotterdam

Fig. 3.6. The proposal of water square in urban area, Stadshaven

Fig. 3.7. The proposal of water square in urban area, Stadshaven

Fig. 3.8. Marina bay, Singapore

Fig. 3.9. Heat reducing material of Park Royal Hotel in Singapore

Fig. 3.10. Green roof of Park Royal Hotel in Singapore

Fig. 3.11. Tree House in Singapore

Fig. 3.12. Orchard road's green pedestrian in Singapore

Fig. 3.13. Dubai's skyline

Fig. 3.14. The Dubai Metro Line

Fig. 3.15. The Dubai Bus Network

Fig. 3.16. RTA Dubai Application

Fig. 4.1. Lat Phrao's canal network

Fig. 4.2. The existing dikes along the canal network in Lat Phrao

Fig. 4.3. The future development of Lat Phrao's dikes along the canal network

Fig. 4.4. The future development of houses and housings along the flood protection in Lat Phrao

Fig. 4.5. Thai traditional house

Fig. 4.6. Thai traditional house in flooding situation

Fig. 4.7. The future development of inner area in Lat Phrao

Fig. 4.8. Lat Phrao's situation

Fig. 4.9. The implementation of green roof and green wall to the buildings in Lat Phrao

Fig. 4.10. The future development of green infrastructure in Lat Phrao

Fig. 4.11. Main road network connects Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS) and Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand (MRT) stations

Fig. 4.12. The historic transportation mode in Bangkok

Fig. 4.13. The integration of Lat Phrao canal network to other transportation network n Bangkok

Fig. 4.14. Three zones to exploit the modes of transportation

Fig. 4.15. The long section of future development in Lat Phrao

ABSTRACT This dissertation will firstly narrate the history of Bangkok land-use plan throughout the past to demonstrate the pre-existing urban agricultural pattern which was transformed to be land-based pattern originating its urban problems. The case of land-use plan in Lat Phrao will be evidenced to emphasize that the change of urban pattern produces urban problems, especially, flooding, urban heat island, and transportation. Secondly, these urban problems will frame the precedent studies to create adaptive solutions for Lat Phrao. Rotterdam, Singapore, and Dubai will be analyzed to find urban strategies for resolving flooding, urban heat island, and transportation problems. Finally, the adaptive solutions from the precedent studies will be implemented for the future development in Lat Phrao. In conclusion, the future development in the district will be concluded as the urban suggestions for the government and locals to redevelop the existing urban pattern in order to become sustainable.

III

INTRODUCTION The beginning of this dissertation will study the history of Bangkok, the urban pattern from the past to the present will be summarized. Bangkok's land-use plan will be evidenced the failure of landuse planning slowly generates its urban problems that affects the locals. These will create a concern to originate adaptive solutions for the future development. The Lat Phrao district will be identified to study and understand specifically the urban problems from the land use in order to be the case for the future development. The change of land use in the district will be analyzed the ignorance of pre-existing patterns of settlement to evidence the effect from the failure of land-use plan through its urban problems (flooding, urban heat island, and transportation). These will be originated the key factors to study the cases in order to resolve the existing urban problems which will be used as the sustainable solutions for the future development in Lat Phrao. The case studies will be researched in Rotterdam, Singapore, and Dubai to study urban solutions to deal with flooding, urban heat island, and transportation respectively. Rotterdam is wellknown as flooding resilient city will be explored for flooding solutions. The implementation of green infrastructure in Singapore will be studied as adaptive solutions to deal with urban heat island. In Dubai, the management of smart transportation will be analyzed as the strategies to solve transportation problem. So, these will be summarized to create adaptive resilient solutions for the future development in Lat Phrao district. The adaptive resilient solutions from the three case studies will be implemented with Lat Phrao district. Existing urban patterns and local culture will be considered to integrate with the resilient solutions. The resilient flooding solutions from Rotterdam will be combined with the existing land use of Lat Phrao to create resilient district to adapt with flooding. The use of green infrastructure strategies from Singapore will be an option to redevelop housings, traffics, and pedestrians in the district to mitigate urban heat island originated by the existing land use. Smart transportation from Dubai will be brought to blend into the existing urban pattern to develop the district in order to reduce the transportation problem. These will be the urban suggestions for the future development in Lat Phrao resolving the urban problems from existing land-use plan. In conclusion, all chapters will be summarized as the proposal for the future development in Lat Phrao as the urban suggestions which can be adapted to resolve urban problems from the failure of the existing land use.

01 - THE HISTORY OF BANGKOK LAND-USE PLAN The city of Bangkok has the history of land-use plan influencing the urban development throughout time. The study of its occurrence since 1782, the beginning of city's foundation, seems to be significant to understand the current situation of Bangkok land-use plan. FROM AYUTTHAYA TO BANGKOK Ginsburg (2000) discovered that 'Banckock' was the old name of Bangkok, which was recorded by Dutch in early 1642, where it was well-known as an agricultural field, fishing ground, and trading post. In 1782, the new ruling Chakri dynasty began Rattanakosin era (1782 - 2019) and established Bangkok to be the capital of Thailand for stabilizing and restoring the Siamese polity, after shocked from the devastating of Ayutthaya kingdom (1350 - 1767) by the Burmese (Wyatt, 2003). THE PHYSICAL LAND OF BANGKOK The physical land of Bangkok metropolitan area is on the flood plain of the Chao Phraya river which flows to the lower central plain of Thailand. The geological layers are transmitted and confined by groundwater in the Bangkok region which contain the complexity of geological layers and alluvial deposits that constitute the principal aquifers in Bangkok (Ramnarong and Buapeng, 1992). Zeitoun and Wakshal (2013) discovered that the thickness of the topmost sediments is 15 - 30 m consisting of soft clay above stiff clay called 'Bangkok clay'. BANGKOK URBAN PLAN IN EARLY RATTANAKOSIN ERA (1782 - 1851) Bangkok, which is known locally in Thais as 'Krungthep', manifested its role as the symbolic center of social order and culture (Sintusingha and Mirgholami, 2012). In the early Rattanakosin era, Bangkok was formed as universe following the Hindu and Buddhist cosmological models. Sintusingha and Mirgholami (2012) stated that the urban landscape was dominated by The Grand Palace of the king and the Front Palace of the heir (Fig. 1.1). Bangkok was replicated from the city of Ayutthaya which the royal center of power from the trading center and also in the cosmopolitan dramatically contrast to its agricultural area representing hinterland (Aeuosrivongse, 1984). The administrative core of the city was established on land while the rest was a water-based city, which responded to the seasonal change of the Chao Phraya river and provided land for commoner's amphibious dwellings. According to Aeuosrivongse, Bangkok's urbanism comprises the royal citadel, its trading areas, and its mosaic of villages networked by canals and river.

Fig. 1.1. Bangkok in the mid-19th century (source: Author's own)

BANGKOK URBAN PLAN IN TRANSITION (1851 - 1946)

Fig. 1.2. Bangkok at the end of the 19th century (source: Author's own)

Winichakul (1994) claimed that the permanent transformation began from the contact with European colonial powers and their 'superior' land-biased culture and industrial technologies. Colonial administration practices were adopted, and centrally appointed nobles replaced hereditary lords in the hinterlands. King (2011) stated that the arrival of the railways and roads announced the new 'landbased' era in Thailand through the construction of the first road 'Charoen Krung' in 1862 based on the concept the European quarters which was a major commercial route into the following century. This urban morphological change instigated a schism with the water-based urban practices which transformed the 'Venice of the East' from a water-based into a land-based city. In 1887, the light rail service was introduced to the public, but it was only for upper classes. Land-based architectural typologies, such as the Chinese shophouses and European mansions on the ground began to replace the agricultural land and fishing villages (Jumsai, 1997, p. 170-171). The defensive wall and towers were demolished to expand north and east via boulevards and roads lined with neo-classical structures designed by European architects and engineers. In 1915, the northeast expansion of the Grand Palace (Dusit Palace) was designed by Mario Tamagno, Italian architect, to be a new modern palace connected with Ratchadamnoen Avenue, planned by Thai Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning in that time, where was modeled on Paris' Champ Elysees (Fig. 1.2, Fig. 1.3, and Fig. 1.4). The traditional canals were subordinated by these new urban developments facilitated by land-based transportation of road and railway. 3

Fig. 1.3. Ratchadamnoen Avenue in Rama V's era (source: Foto_momo)

Fig. 1.4. The Construction of Dusit Palace in Rama V's era (source: Foto_momo)

THE FIRST GREATER BANGKOK PLAN

Fig. 1.5. The First Greater Bangkok Land-use Plan 1933 (source: Author's own)

In 1933, the Thai government was changed greatly from king-centric to be democratic (Ronghanam, 2015). Ronghanam demonstrated that the Bangkok plan was begun drawing to set the regulation of Bangkok land use by the collaboration of the government and Litchfield Whiting Bowne & Associates company. The urban data in every single parts of Bangkok was collected to set landuse plan, transportation plan, and public utility plan which are significant in order to originate The First Greater Bangkok Plan 1993. This plan contains the map of Bangkok which sets the regulation of land use by using 9 colorized symbols (yellow for less-populated area, orange for medium-populated area, brown for high-populated area, blue for government-owned area, red for business district, grey for public utility area, light purple for warehouses, dark purple for industrial area, and green for green space)(Fig. 1.5). THE DEVELOPMENT OF LAND-USE PLANNING AFTER WORLD WAR II Sintusingha and Mirgholami (2012) stated that the geopolitical power was changed after World War II, modernization's forms and practices were shifted from European to American. During this era, the development of Bangkok was dominated by an acceleration of market-driven urban expansion into the peripheral suburban which led to formation of specific urban morphologies in each city that connected modern highways with original rural forms and patterns especially the expansion of 'superblock', where is an urban area usually closed to through traffic, in Bangkok. After 1945, the reconstruction after World War II globally flourished driving urban growth, including Bangkok, highways and concrete buildings were built representing the modern format. During the first decade after the war, rural-urban migration drove the urban expansion of Bangkok, up to 50% of its population growth in 1960 and rose continuously until the 1970s (Archavanitkul, 1988, p. 8). Simultaneously, real-estate market in suburban area was established throughout the construction of new roads, displacing and turning prime agricultural lands and rural villages to be the city. The population in Bangkok and its suburbs grew dramatically from 400,000 people in the 19th century to six million in 1984 (Sintusingha and Mirgholami, 2012). Sintusingha and Mirgholami claimed that, by the late 2000s, Bangkok population grew over 10 million, the construction of the expressways and the first phases of the Skytrain and underground lines had been completed to serve the city's population. The metropolis was sprawling into suburbs, which concurrently produced high-rises, malls, factories, industrial estates, highways, and elevated expressways (Fig. 1.6, Fig. 1.7, Fig. 1.8, and Fig. 1.9). 5

Fig. 1.6. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 1992 (source: Author's own)

Fig. 1.7. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 1999 (source: Author's own)

Fig. 1.8. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 2006 (source: Author's own)

Fig. 1.9. The Bangkok Land-use Plan 2013 (source: Author's own)

However, it seems to be problem that major highways and roads dominate originally the pattern of Bangkok land-use development. Guerra (2004) claimed that Bangkok land-use plan unexpectedly originates its mistake, the lack of secondary infrastructure becomes the problem of urban growth, the inadequacy of access to distribute roads and the insufficiency of piped water and sewage systems generate obstacles to produce more efficient development patterns. The land usage of Bangkok presents two separated characteristics. The outstanding of mixed land use is the first characteristic. Residential zone, commercial zone and mixed-scale industrial zone seem to be increased only in a single district without efficient control on their land use. Drainage and waste management systems, which are the basic facilities, are not usually built without problems (Krongkaew, 1996). The lack of efficient roads in the majority of Bangkok's extended area is the second characteristic, streets were built by private contractors for their real estate projects because the government could not provide sufficient roads which emphasizes the remaining problem that many systematic and interconnected networks was not built efficiently (Ross et al., 2000; Webster 2000) (Fig. 1.10 and Fig. 1.11). These private streets, which were not built accordingly to the public road layout, caused critical traffic problems to public road network in many areas where can be defined as poor accessibility. Moreover, this ineffective road network causes severe traffic congestion concurrently increasing air pollution which damages the health of urban dwellers. The rapid growth of suburban areas also confronts the problem of inadequate water supply, as the increasing demand could not be fed by the limited supply. Suburban citizens are forced to consume underground water exacerbating land subsidence, which causes critical flooding in raining season (Krongkaew, 1996; Webster, 2004). So, it seems that Bangkok social and physical problems are led consequently by inappropriate land-use patterns.

Fig. 1.10. The mixed zoning set along the main roads in Lat Phrao district (source: Author's own)

Fig. 1.11. The canal network in Lat Phrao district (source: Author's own)

Therefore, the result of rapid population growth shows the opposite of land use from the past, which agricultural land was consumed to be brownfields and buildings. The major role of Bangkok's transportation was previously set along canals where are now filling and replacing to be road transportation. The inappropriate land use affects citizens socially and physically. These urban problems slowly demonstrate the failure of Bangkok land-use plan throughout each generation which is created concern for drawing a sustainable solution.

02 - THE FAILURE OF BANGKOK LAND-USE PLAN: THE SITUATIONS IN LAT PHRAO In order to study Bangkok land-use plan, Lat Phrao district, which is 'Ladprao' in Thai, seems to be appropriated because this district is 10 - 20 km from the city center and contains a population density about 10,000 per sq. km. The Core Planning & Development of Thailand classifies the district as being in a transition zone since 2001, which this district's area officially covers 21.851 sq. km., or around 1.4% of the Bangkok area (Fig. 2.1) (Teerarojanarat, 2007). However, the physical topography of Lat Phrao is relatively flat, which is approximately 0.3 0.5 m. over the sea level. The area, which especially was rice fields, is now converted to be buildings for residential use since rapid urbanization and the consequent real estate boom in the 1960s. As many districts in Bangkok, the area experiences a problem of land subsidence, at about 2.8 cm. per year due to its physical land is covered by concrete surface. The urban pattern of this district is massive village communities developed by private real estate developers that characterizes the horizontal development running along the major and secondary roads, creating wasted land behind the villages and row houses that are inaccessible with cheaper price (Core Planning & Development, 2001; Sharkawy and Chotipanich, 1998). Moreover, Pakarnseree et al. (2018) stated that Lat Phrao is now occupied by towering high-rise building which now concurrently affects local climate (Fig. 2.2). So, presently, it needs to be emphasized with more inaccessible land and row house owners who demand more sub roads for access. The situation creates more complexity of roads network that multiplies the existing urban problems in Lat Phrao district.

Fig. 2.1. Administrative boundary of Lat Phrao District (source: Sirivilai Teerarojanarat)

Fig. 2.2. Housing along Lat Phrao road (source: Find Your Space)

FLOODING SITUATION In 2011, there were the worst flooding in Bangkok for many decades. Over 800 people were killed, affecting millions, and, according to The World Bank in 2012, it costed the economy at least US$45 billion. This devastated Bangkok and its environments, especially Lat Phrao (Fig. 2.3). The floods were completely a result of heavy rainfall; in 2011, there was 43 percent more rainfall than the average collected from May to October. However, the city's western and northern suburbs, including Lat Phrao, experienced heavy flood for many weeks while the inner part remained dry even through the areas are based at similar elevations. These phenomena evidenced that this disaster was not only natural, but it also was a result of social processes, which remained despite after facing the flooding situation in 2011. The poor governance of flooding in the urban transition of Thailand's Central Plains causes mismanagement, failure of infrastructure, uncoordinated land use change, land subsidence, and the filling of canals, which mainly originated in these social processes. 10

Fig. 2.3. The worst flood of Bangkok in 2011, Lat Phrao district (source: Bangkok post)

Laeni (2019) claimed that the increase of physical and social vulnerabilities to floods has been contributed by the rapid urbanization. Roachanakanan (2013) and Sintusingha (2006) both claimed that, in Lat Phrao, the drainage capacity and flood protection systems are reaching the limitation which is the result of changing land use from agricultural land and floodplain to be commercial and residential. In fact, Lat Phrao is regularly impacted by major and minor flood events, but Mark (2015) demonstrated that the urban pattern of unregulated and sprawled-out urban growth following land use originated from many negative effects on the physical environment that itself is vulnerable to flood. So, Bangkok's land-use plan seems to be the key factor that makes Lat Phrao and other outskirts to be flooding vulnerabilities. URBAN HEAT ISLAND SITUATION In the 21st century, urbanization and industrial development caused one of the significant problems in Bangkok, which is urban heat island. Urban structures with the reflection of solar radiation generate man-made heat in the city. Urban heat island is defined as a volume of hot air in the of an inverted bowl covering the areas of crowed buildings and construction areas in the city. Pakarnseree demonstrated that the land-use changes from rice field to streets and construction since 2001 in Lat Phrao represents the rapid growth of Bangkok with the key cause of urban heat island, which is produced in this cluster, because of the increasing high-rise buildings. Thailand's temperature difference is between 3 °C-4 °C depending on the time period and season (Jongthanom, 2011). In Bangkok, the urban heat island intensity increases the local climate about 6 °C-7 °C in the dry season which Lat Phrao's average temperature is 0.8 °C higher than the surrounding areas but facing similarly as Chatu Chak district on the left (Fig. 2.4). Pakarnsenee assumed that increasing traffic, towering residential buildings, and increasing energy uses, which capture and emit the heat, cause the raising of city temperature affecting the thermal comfort and the spread of pollution. Massive group of skyscrapers change local wind pattern decreasing cooling rate and also condensing pollution in the area. So, these are the heat island effects of land-use change, following the urban growth from Bangkok and its land-use plan. 11

Fig. 2.4. The Bangkok heat contour projection in 2015, green dash circle represents Lat Phrao district (source: Thai Meteorological Department and the Pollution Control Department)

TRANSPORTATION SITUATION Similarly, Bangkok's land-use plan also affects to Lat phrao road network. Lat Phrao's existing sub roads have metamorphosed from the pre-existing patterns of dead-ended canal network connecting to rice fields and plantations for feeding water. This pattern evolved from boat transportation, which the agrarian lifestyle rarely found as long-distance travel, to be car-based transportation that enables and encourages much longer trips, but the mainly speculative canal replicating sub road network was not designed for vehicles (Sintusingha, p. 146). This replacement of sub roads on canal network limited itself to be narrow which is not related to the population following the land-use plan, people are afflicted with severe traffic congestions in this area. The fragmentation of Lat Phrao is the result of uneven transformation in the urban transportation system from canals to roads. Lat Phrao seems to have weak road systems, inaccessible land and 'superblock', where is an urban area usually closed to through traffic, with both valuable and unimportant land locked between and within themselves (Fig. 2.5). Kaothien and Webster (2000, p.29) stated that, in fact, the most of dead-ended sub roads within vast rectangular areas of Lat Phrao produced itself to be a 'superblock' bounded by only 2 major roads. Moreover, the public transportation also seems to be dramatic. The population in Lat Phrao district is over 210,000 but there is no Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS) and Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand (MRT) station in the area. According to Lat Phrao map in 2019, the closest station is on south-west of the district (Fig. 2.6). which mean people have to travel by local transportation (bus and motorcycle services) or private car on peak time when the traffic is fully congested (Fig. 2.7). 12

Fig. 2.5. Land-use plan in Lat Phrao District (source: Sirivilai Teerarojanarat)

Fig. 2.6. MRT Lat Phrao station is not in Lat Phrao district (source: Author's own)

Fig. 2.7. Lat Phrao road on peak time (source: PPTV)

So, this is the evidence that the evolution from agricultural area to be residential area in Lat Phrao according to land-use plan, shows an unorganized management of land-use plan, road network plan, and mass transportation plan that presently generates traffic congestions which is being increased following the growth of population. THE SOLUTION FOR LAT PHRAO Lat Phrao district was the floodplain is now changed to be massive residential zone. The land is being congested itself with residential buildings following Bangkok land-use plan. The ignorance of pre-existing patterns of settlements causes Lat Phrao district and its urban environment with a high cost. The land-use change generates many urban problems such as flooding, urban heat island, and transportation. Thus, these urban problems need solutions from studying urban precedents to renew Lat Phrao in order to create an appropriate land-use plan for sustainability in this district. 13

03 - THE ADAPTIVE SOLUTIONS FROM CASE STUDIES From the previous chapter, there are three main problems (flooding, urban heat island, and transportation) in Lat Phrao, which seem to be originated by the urban development following Bangkok land-use plan, that are needed to find the solutions for the future. This chapter is about the case studies of land-use plan, that will be researched to analyze sustainable urban strategies which can be adapted as a resilient solution for Lat Phrao. ROTTERDAM

Fig. 3.1. Rotterdam's aerial view (source: Gerhard van Roon).

Rotterdam is well-known as the largest port in Europe sited at the mouth of the New Meuse River locally known as 'Nieuwe Maas', where is one of the river channels in the delta naturally formed by Rhine and Meuse rivers. In addition, Rotterdam's port also locates at the junction of the River Meuse and the North Sea considered with great economic importance for the city, the nation and the surrounding countries. Moel et al. (2013) claimed that this city is concerned as vulnerable area to flooding due to its setting along the rivers, and closeness to the sea. This area is considered as unembanked with some elevated area which the major land use is mostly industrial and harbor zones, but some residential zone is also situated outside the embankments with about 64,000 people (Meijers et al. 2011). Due to the expansion of harbor to welcome bigger and deeper cargo ships, many spaces are simultaneously increasing to be available for new development expected rising the number of populations and residents. According to the new development in Rotterdam, Nicholls et al. (2007) demonstrated that the Rotterdam city has prepared their long-term resilience to deal with flooding vulnerability following the impacts of climate change. Levees and dike networks are mainly provided to manage flood risk as technical flood prevention measures, which shows that Rotterdam owns the sustainable advance of local mitigation and adaptation strategies (van den Berg, 2010). This flooding strategy is made to protect over half a million inhabitants of Rotterdam, the second city of the Netherlands, forming one of the most high-urbanized parts of the country. So, the case study in Rotterdam will mainly focus to research flooding strategy in order to create adaptive flooding solution for Lat Phrao. 14

THE FLOOD SOLUTION OF ROTTERDAM As many cities in the Netherland, according to Amsterdam Ordnance Datum, Rotterdam's physical land is approximately +3.25 m. higher than mean sea level and in some area is +2.50 m. that results to flood typically once or twice a year (Stead, 2014). The prediction of climate change is prepared to understand the severity and number of flooding scenes, the flooding prevention's development in the low-lying areas are planned with huge investments. The city vision of Rotterdam in 2030, the government plans to identify several vulnerable areas for substantial new development of the city that is not covered by dike networks. Stead emphasized that Rotterdam's urban coastal delta is being impacted by climate change in numerous ways. The rise of sea level is a major problem, especially if combined with possible changes of storm surge conditions. Flood risks will be increase following the strength of the heaviest storms (Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.2. The map of land use in Rotterdam (source: Moel et al., 2013)

Fig. 3.3. The flood map in Rotterdam (source: Moel et al., 2013)

Since 2007, The Rotterdam Climate Initiative (RCI) involved the cooperation between the Port of Rotterdam, the City of Rotterdam, the Rijnmond Environmental Protection Agency (DCMR), and a group of local employers (Deltalings) to established the agreement for reducing carbon emissions and increasing energy efficiency from renewable energy supported by Clinton Climate Initiative and the Large Cities Climate Leader Group (since renamed C40). Throughout a reduction target of climate, the RCI concurrently aimed to increase the resilience of the city due to climate change and becoming a leading city on water innovation. The aim of making a more 'climate proof' Rotterdam is implemented itemized in RCI's annual programme titled 'Rotterdam Climate Proof'. According to the Rotterdam Climate Proof report in 2009, the protection against flooding of Rotterdam's city and port is particularly prioritized for the climate proof, both inside and outside the dikes, prepared and reflected in future spatial plans, implementation projects, and management activities from 2012 onwards. Stead demonstrated that Stadshavens area in Rotterdam received significant concern in the Climate Proof programme that it is industrial harbor front entirely located outside the dike, but it has considerable potential for new development in the city. According to the report, climate resilience and sustainability are essential preconditions of any development. In the past, the main sustainable development in Rotterdam planned to protect flooding with dike systems in most of the floodplains, which build-up zones will be set between the rivers and the dikes. As Nicholls et al. (2007) write, if the new development in Rotterdam is only based on the existing river and dike systems, it will not seem enough to adapt for further development. So, the Sustainability Guide for Rotterdam (Rotterdam Duurzaam Wijzer) was purposed, in 2010, following the Climate Proof programme to assist designer, project managers, and policymakers translating sustainable concepts into practice in the specific areas of climate adaptation, energy use, transport and mobility, rainwater, materials, and greenspaces. Practical examples of development are identified as 4 options which are at region, city, district, and building to be design strategy that would lead to sustainable urban development. Due to the issue of climate adaptation, three distinct types of 15

measures were identified accordingly in the Guide to contribute more climate-proof development: 1. measures that minimize the probability of flooding; 2. measures that minimize the consequences of flooding; and 3. measures that stimulate recovery from floods (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4. Development options for climate change adaptation from Rotterdam's sustainability guide (source: Municipality of Rotterdam 2010).

The guide for new development at a region scale, the plan should improve dike network to receive the rising sea level and seasonal rain which, in term of dike expansion, will create cool recreational opportunities through the network. New areas along the rivers should be planned understanding to seasonal flooding to minimize the probability of flooding. In order to minimize flooding consequences, dikes should be compartmentalized between themselves in order to expand catchments, vulnerable areas should be plotted on flood risk map, and early warning system and evacuation plan should be prepared in the case of flooding. The success of stimulating recovery will need the prioritized recovery from societal disorder and flooding refuges. According to the city scale's guide, replacing hardscape with softscape, increasing public green and water zones, leaving areas to be catchments, and avoiding to vulnerable functions on vulnerable areas will minimize flooding probability. The preparations of public infrastructure to alleviate masses, traffic management during evacuations, and heat stress plan are the strategies to minimize flooding effects. In term of stimulating recovery, public space will be needed to prioritize the recovery, heat stress victims during flooding should be accommodated to reduce stress atmosphere, water nuisance fund should be sufficiently provided to aid citizens, and the backup of energy and water systems should be prepared as urban necessities. In term of district scale, the features to minimize flooding probability, district should frame the rule following 4 features: integrating buildings into dikes, heightening integrally areas, planning more collective green garden, and providing lands in public areas to be wadis for infiltering rainwater. In order to minimize flooding consequences, safe shelters, green walks, and elevated pedestrians should be arranged. The stimulation of public recovery in the city scale is the preparation of passive water drains in the area avoiding hardscape. 16

The design guide for building scale to minimize flooding possibility, buildings should be planned on high ground with green facade buildings and passive cooling system. For minimizing flooding effects, buildings should be designed as self-reliance, floorings should be appropriated for wet and dry proof. The preparation of building equipment for flooding, especially pumps, should be provided in order to stimulate its recovery. In Stadshavens area, the easternmost part of the Port of Rotterdam area was planned in 2011 referring directly to climate change and resilience issues (Fig. 3.5). Due to its location, this area is more vulnerable to flooding than other parts of the city because it entirely locates outside the protective dikes. There is also long-term sustainable policy in Stadshaven as the Structural Vision for the Stadshavens area (Ontwerp Structuurvisie Stadshavens Rotterdam) which is a mandatory plan describing general planning policy for the area up to 2025, and also considering certain development issues up to 2040. According to the Structural Vision document, the development of climate proof strategy created the principle for Stadshavens that is a significant essential to produce sustainable business and residential environment.

Fig. 3.5. Stadshaven area in Rotterdam (source: Port of Rotterdam)

Fig. 3.6. The proposal of water square in urban area, Stadshaven (source: De Urbanisten)

Fig. 3.7. The proposal of water square in urban area, Stadshaven (source: Sierra Club)

So, these development options will be the increase of resistance and resilience that is the key aim to reduce impacts of climate change and define the effect of the impacts, which the resilience is originally focused in the long-term sustainable policy for urban adaptation. RESILIENT FLOODING SOLUTION Therefore, from the research of flooding plan in Rotterdam, the city is planned to follow the Sustainability Guide for Rotterdam (Rotterdam Duurzaam Wijzer) based on the Climate Proof programme in order to assist designer, project managers, and policymakers translating sustainable concepts into practice. This strategy covers all scales of planning (region, city, district, and building) to minimize flooding possibility, flooding consequences, and the stimulation of public recovery that can be set as a precedent to improve Bangkok, especially in Lat Phrao, land-use plan in term of flooding solution. SINGAPORE

Fig. 3.8. Marina bay, Singapore (source: Royal Caribbean)

Singapore is a southern island of the Malaysian peninsula where the total land area of the island is 660 km Â˛. Neo (2007) stated that the country had been changed to be independent since the withdrawal from the Malaysian Federation in 1965. Lee Kuan Yew, who was the first prime minister of Singapore, embarked on the policy to modernize and industrialize the country to survive lack of resources (Doner et al., 2005). Wong and Yu (2005) claimed that there are only two existing predominant green areas in Singapore where a primary forest, about 75 ha, locates at the center of the island and the recreation area at the northeast. The majority of land use is occupied by commercial and residential areas due to its housing demands, which caused the change of urban pattern from plant-based to building-based as same as surrounding countries. These made Singapore known as one of the most urbanized countries in Southeast Asia (SEA), and a compact and high-density city (Tan and bin Abdul Hamid, 2014). Due to the limitation of green space, the initial environmental campaign, named 'Green and Clean City', was developed along the civilization of the city by the Environmental Public Health. The growth of green space has been increasing along the development of land use in Singapore since 1962, with the number of newly planted trees rising from 440 to 2,668 in a year after the policy's announcement, establishing parks and green spaces for locals (Barnard and Heng, 2014, p. 287). Moreover, Singapore announced 'the Singapore Green Plan: Towards a Model Green City' by 2000 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The plan proposed the land-use plan of the nation following environmental governance to improve green infrastructure, pollution monitoring and control, resource conservation, recycling, education, and technology along the development of housing in the country. 18

THE GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE OF SINGAPORE The Building and Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore established building regulation controlling buildings and urban equipment as green infrastructure to reduce the effect of urban heat island. Building materials, green roofs, vertical greenery, and green pavement are mainly controlled as the major role to solve urban heat island (Aflaki et al., 2017).

Fig. 3.9. Heat reducing material of Park Royal Hotel in Singapore (source: Eco-Business)

In Singapore, building materials are essentially used as facades to balance the urban thermal in the areas. The absorption of the solar radiation transfers heat through building material which releases afterward to urban atmosphere increasing air temperature. The study of material code in Singapore depicts that appropriate building material will provide the reduction of energy consumption as well as generating the comfort conditions of individual buildings and urban spaces (Santamouris et al., 2011). The mitigation of energy consumption will reduce heat release from each building cooling the temperature in the city (Fig. 3.9). So, the building material's code in Singapore is developed and combined into the land use plan to draw an overview of the city as one of the effective factors to solve urban heat island. 19

Tan et al. (2015) demonstrated the green roof study in Singapore, it evidenced that a radiant temperature of building with green roof is significantly lower than concrete roof. Ghaffarianhoseini et al. (2013) and Berardi (2016) both assumed that the mitigation of urban heat island is potentially led by greenery on the surface of building in Singapore (Fig. 3.10). The local temperature reduced by the utilization of green roof because roofs in urban context absorb heat radiation up to 25% of the area in the city and releasing less heat wave, which reduces condensing heat (Takebayashi and Moriyama, 2007). The vegetated roof also has high rate evaporation to cool down the surrounding air which mitigates the impacts of urban heat island. So, the finishing material of building's roof should be designed as green roof with trees and planting, following land-use plan, in order to increase the absorption of heat radiation with less release to the urban context.

Fig. 3.10. Green roof of Park Royal Hotel in Singapore (source: Eco-Business)

Fig. 3.11. Tree House in Singapore (source: Eco-Business)

The reduction of urban heat island impacts in metropolis can be partly created by the vertical greenery of building's elements. Wong et al. (2009) stated that many buildings with vertical plantation in Singapore evaluated the effects of plants, they reduce air temperature and energy consumption which is the main role of urban heat island generator from building (Fig. 3.11). The decrease of energy consumption of air conditioner in buildings with vertical greenery is about 30% (Cheng et al., 2010). So, it seems that vertical green wall in Singapore is the adaptive strategy for the land-use plan to mitigate urban heat island from buildings in existing urban context.

Fig. 3.12. Orchard road's green pedestrian in Singapore (source: Eco-Business)

The impact of urban heat island is effectively reduced by green pavement as infrastructure in urban context. According to Wong et al. study about Singapore's green pavement in 2010 conducted through field measurement in green area, the result shows that the temperature was 25.2 °C-27.5 °C in park and 25.6 °C-29.2 °C in green pavement surrounding building. This pedestrian strategy seemed to be effective when compared with the average temperature (Climate Data in 2010) in Singapore, annually about 25 °C-31 °C. This shows the positive effect of green pavement which reduces the impacts of urban heat island (Fig. 3.12). So, the pedestrian canyons should be designed as green pavement along with the development of land use in order to provide sufficiently comfortable outdoor thermal conditions for urban area.

So, this building regulation from BCA in Singapore will be effective solution to adapt resiliently with the urban context of Lat Phrao where new building and existing building can be developed following the combination of land-use plan and green infrastructure in order to mitigate the problem of urban heat island. RESILIENT URBAN HEAT ISLAND SOLUTION Therefore, the use of appropriate materials as facades should be adapted with the existing land use in Lat Phrao where existing housing can be developed. Green roof should be concerned to reduce heat absorption and release in urban context. High-rise building should be designed following the idea of vertical greenery to support the heat reduction. In terms of walkway in Lat Phrao, it should be developed to be green pavement along the development of land-use and transportation plan in Lat Phrao. All of these will be green infrastructure for Lat Phrao to tackle the problem of urban heat island. 21

DUBAI

Fig. 3.13. Dubai's skyline (source: Gulf News)

The case study in Dubai will mainly focus to research transport strategy in order to create resilient transportation network and the concept of smart city as a transportation solution for Lat Phrao. The United Arab Emirates were founded in 1971 by a highly regarded Bedouin leader and monarch H.H. Sheik Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan consisted of the Union of seven emirates (states) (Keilo, 2012). Road infrastructure has mainly driven Dubai development throughout their history. The construction of highways, flyovers, main roads, and sub roads have been concentered by most of Dubai investment since 2004. However, the growth of traffic created the problem of congestion generating more pollutions to the residents. In 2005, due to the growing traffic congestion, Road and Transport Authority of Dubai (RTA) had been transformed from the planning department of Dubai Municipality to control the growth of traffic and solve its problems. The RTA plays the supervising role of transport's strategy cooperating with governance, administrative support services, technical support services, public transport agency, traffic and road agency, rail agency, Dubai taxi, and licensing agency. The Dubai Executive Council has published many specific laws to control the real estate developers that a transport masterplan has to be submitted in every large development. Concurrently, since 2000 the launch of a new bus system has been started, there is an informal transport system to solve the daily traffic congestion. Afterward, in 2009, the metro system has been launched, the red line stretches over 52 km. with 29 stations and the green line runs over 23 km. with 19 stations. In general, Keilo stated that Dubai metro is not only a public transport system, but it is one of the outcomes of the revitalization of post-crisis Dubai City where the economy was mostly depended on civic consideration and real-estate boom. The metro is a resilient solution, which is beyond its functional role as a transportation mode, for solving the crisis of mobility choices and generating a car-free society. According to RTA official in 2007, the Dubai Metro is introduced as a world class infrastructure connecting major commercial zones and touristic attractions of the city as well as the supporting mass transit services to link suburbs to city center, especially bus services. Presently, the smartphone era influences the world that Dubai also exploits the potential of smartphone to improve the city in order to become a smart city. 22

THE SMART TRANSPORTATION OF DUBAI Narayanaswami (2015) demonstrated that the Sheik Zayed road, which runs from Dubai to Jebel Ali as the main road connecting the industrial belt and free zone of Dubai and Abu Dhabi, is considered as a high traffic density that transportation services have been provided by Dubai Metro to the area. However, in the other areas, especially, the Central Business District (CBD) was also found dense population, the traffic volume was more congested. In order to reduce the congestion, RTA announced the project to develop the transportation in the rest of the areas. A Blue Line project is planned to connect the CBD and communities along Emirates Road, Purple Line is aimed to be commuter line and the airport express service, Yellow Line project is a light rail (tram services) to be support service of the Metro, and the extension of Red Line expands the service to Abu Dhabi border (Fig. 3.14).

Fig. 3.14. The Dubai Metro Line (source: RTA)

RTA reported the success of the Metro project which the achievements are the increase of average speed on Dubai's roads, the saving of millions of man-hours per day, the saving of fuel cost in millions, the reduction in pollution by using electrical energy, and the reduction in road accidents. In addition, Keilo emphasized that the transportation's gaps between the Metro line and the rest of the city are filled with RTA Bus. They are a piece of jigsaw puzzle of Dubai's transportation. The city of Dubai has been split into 7 zones which 3 of these zones are located outside the Dubai metro area. Zone 3, 4, and 7 are the areas that RTA provides bus services to transport people from suburb to the city center (Fig. 3.15). It seems that Dubai Metro and RTA services are focused as the path to evolve its public transportation in the bay region. So, the understanding of land-use plan in Dubai, which is divided into zones, solves traffic problem in terms of the density of population that boosts a mass transit system to work perfectly. 23

Fig. 3.15. The Dubai Bus Network (source: RTA)

Moreover, in 2014, the concept of smart city had been launched officially by Dubai. Major development projects of the city were implemented directly and indirectly following a smart concept. Dubai represented itself to international recognition which the city earned as one of the major smart cities of the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA) (Khan et al., 2017). Major infrastructure, especially transport services, is developed to be smart to connect public facilities and touristic attractions for locals and tourists. It significantly enhances Dubai's international profile as a smart city and a smart tourism destination. Simultaneously, the advantage of IT infrastructure in United Arab Emirates (UAE) has the potential to improve the concept of smart city along the public transportation. 8.81 million out of a total UAE population of 9.58 million, in 2015, became active internet users, which is 91.8 percent. 7.27 million are mobile internet users (75.9 percent). Remarkably, 5.4 million active social accounts exist, out of which 4.6 million (85.2 percent) are mobile accounts. According to the report of the World Economic Forum, UAE is announced as the top ranking of Importance of ICT to Government Vision and the 2nd in the rank of Government Success in IT Promotion. These reflect that Dubai owned IT opportunity which the city implements and adapts IT potentials to the transport services. According to the RTA advertisement in 2017, RTA Dubai is the application which provides road and transportation information about metro station, bus stop, marine station, road and tunnel status, parking system, and taxi for residents and visitors (Fig. 3.16). In terms of mass transit, it is well-known application because it shows and manages a real-time transportation of the journey with estimate time function for departure and arrival, depicting stops throughout the journey, the status of carriages, and travel cost. The application originates convenience to locals and tourists following the concept of smart city in Dubai. As road and tunnel status, the application collects the data from cars on the road, which is signaled inclusively by the satellite, to estimate the congestion of traffic. The parking lots are built with the censor to show available parking slot for private-car convenience. So, the application represents a smart system in the city of Dubai showing the improvement of transportation that is resilient to develop for the future.

Fig. 3.16. RTA Dubai Application (source: RTA)

SMART TRANSPORTATION SOLUTION The obvious similarity between Bangkok and Dubai, from the past, is these cities were mainly developed following the order of the ruler. However, after 1993, Bangkok had transformed the landuse plan from king-centric to be democratic. So, the context of urban development seems different afterward. The reproduce of transportation plan on existing land-use plan in Lat Phrao will be based on the agreement between the government and locals. Mass transportation modes and roads should be understood appropriately to develop the existing urban equipment rather than fully replace. Therefore, from the research of transportation strategy in Dubai, the concept of smart city has been being adapted concurrently through the development of public infrastructure. Road and mass transit should be understood and planned properly in each area rather than widening only the road for increasing capacity, which will generate car-free society later. City center and landmarks should be linked by the rapid mass transit. Suburban zones should be connected inclusively by the bus network. The data from these should be collected in order to show real-time transportation promoting a smart transportation and infrastructure. These transportation strategies will be adapted appropriately to the Lat Phrao land-use plan to network the transportation solving the existing problems.

04 - THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ADAPTIVE SOLUTIONS TO THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF LAT PHRAO From previous chapter, the adaptive solutions to resolve urban problems in Lat Phrao have been researched through the case studies in Rotterdam, Singapore, and Dubai. These solutions will be integrated accordingly into the existing urban patterns in Lat Phrao as the urban strategies for the future development. APPLYING RESILIENT FLOODING SOLUTION TO LAT PHRAO In order to adapt resilient flooding solution from Rotterdam, the understanding of the canal network in Lat Phrao seems to be significant. The area is surrounded by 4 canals, Lat Phrao canal is set as a major canal on the west that is branched to be minor canals in the north, east, and south of the district. The north canals are named as Sam Kha, Khok Khram, and Bang Khuat. The canals on the east are Suea Yai and Chan canals and in the south the canals are Nam Kaeo and Song Krathiam canals (Fig 4.1).

Fig. 4.1. Lat Phrao's canal network (source: Author's own)

Fig. 4.2. The existing dikes along the canal network in Lat Phrao (source: Naew Na)

Presently, the existing flood protection system does not seem to be built sustainably. The dikes are built with concrete retaining wall which blocks the flow of water to the canal network (Fig. 4.2). Moreover, the canal network reaches the limitation of drainage capacity caused by the increase of hardscape, sinking land, and storm surge (Roachanakanan, 2013). Thus, the focus area to adapt the resilient flooding solution will be the area along the canal at the north, west, and south (Fig 4.3).

Fig. 4.3. The future development of Lat Phrao's dikes along the canal network (source: Author's own)

In the future development of flood protection along Lat Phrao's canals, the dikes should be changed from concrete-based material to be plant-based dikes to let the groundwater flows to the canals (Rotterdam's sustainability guide in 2010). According to the guide, houses and housings on the canal boundary should be compromised with the locals and understood flooding situation to integrate buildings to the dikes. This integration would make amphibious houses to let locals living with flooding generating resilient living in the case of disaster. The pavements and roads in the area should be redesigned with grass blocks and natural planter to be collective green garden. These strategies will minimize flooding probability and consequences in the flood protection area of Lat Phrao (Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4. The future development of houses and housings along the flood protection in Lat Phrao (source: Author's own)

In the inner area of Lat Phrao, all buildings should be redeveloped with their ground floor to be flood adaptive as in the Thai traditional dwelling (Fig. 4.5 and Fig. 4.6). As Aeuosrivongse (1984) demonstrated that the ground floor would be designed with its function to be ready to flood. Elevating the main function to upstairs will reduce the loss from flooding damage to building equipment. According to Rotterdam sustainability code, most ventilation and cooling systems should be based on passive design. Roads and pedestrians should be combined with green infrastructure as secondary water barriers for the building in the case of the overflow of general flooding (Fig 4.7). The future development in residential land use of Lat Phrao will change the overall buildings to be an amphibious district generating contemporary lifestyle for the local to live with water.

Fig. 4.5. Thai traditional house (source: Jim Thompson)

Fig. 4.6. Thai traditional house in flooding situation (source: Author's own)

Fig. 4.7. The future development of inner area in Lat Phrao (source: Author's own)

Therefore, the adaptation of resilient flooding solutions from Rotterdam to Lat Phrao would make the district becoming resilient to adapt with flooding, which would provide new option for the existing land use. Buildings along the flood protection of Lat Phrao's canal network would become adaptive with the integration to the dikes compromising the existing local houses and housings. Inspired by Thai traditional house, the ground floor with flexible function may reduce the damage from flooding, which will create contemporary urban lifestyle to live with water. Likewise, in the inner area of Lat Phrao, all buildings would be elevated and leave ground floor function to become resilient. Infrastructure in the area would be changed to be green surfaces as a secondary water barrier to let rainwater be absorbed to the ground following the water cycle process. This future development in Lat Phrao would minimize flooding probability and consequences resolving the flooding problem of existing land use. APPLYING RESILIENT URBAN HEAT ISLAND SOLUTION TO LAT PHRAO With the implementation of urban heat island solutions from Singapore in Lat Phrao, the solutions could be developed along the resilient flooding solution of inner area of the district. The understanding of overall existing situations seems to be necessary. As Pakarnseree (2018) demonstrated the change of Lat Phrao's land use from agricultural to street and construction shows rapid growth causing an urban heat island in the area. The existing urban context of Lat Phrao is mainly concretebased residential and commercial buildings, the traffic is extremely congested as mentioned in the transportation problem. So, these factors multiply the effect of urban Fig. 4.8. Lat Phrao's situation heat island in the district. (source: Author's own) 29

According to the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore, most existing building in the district should be redeveloped and adapted to have green roof and vertical plantation (Fig. 4.9), as Tan et al. (2015) stated that vegetated roof will absorb the reflection of solar radiant with less release to urban area. It would mitigate the impact of urban heat island in the district as well with vertical green walls. From BCA's code, green wall could be designed with the existing building. Wong et al. (2009) evidenced that the vertical plantation would reduce air temperature and energy consumption to the buildings and surroundings. So, these building strategies would be the option to mitigate the problem of urban heat island in Lat Phrao from the failure of its land use.

Fig. 4.9. The implementation of green roof and green wall to the buildings in Lat Phrao (source: Author's own)

Likewise, the pedestrian canyon in Lat Phrao should be reconsidered, and redesigned to be a green pavement following BCA's code. As Wong et al. (2009) note the concept of a green footpath would effectively decrease the impact of urban heat island in Lat Phrao, the difference at peak temperature would be reduced by 1.7 Â°C, absorbing the heat radiation and cooling the temperature as a passive cooling system for the district. Moreover, the heat radiation from car engine would be blocked by these trees along the pedestrian canyon and traffic island (Wong et al., 2009) (Fig. 4.10). So, green pavement option would support Lat Phrao to reduce urban heat island from its failure of planning street canyon following the district's land use.

Fig. 4.10. The future development of green infrastructure in Lat Phrao (source: Author's own)

Therefore, the use of green infrastructure strategies from BCA's code in Singapore would be an option for the future development in Lat Phrao. Buildings, pedestrians, and traffic would be redeveloped to mitigate the urban heat island generated by its land use. APPLYING SMART TRANSPORTATION SOLUTION TO LAT PHRAO In the utilization of smart transportation solution from Dubai in Lat Phrao, the understanding current situation of urban transportation network in the area seems to be prioritized. According to the transportation problem in Lat Phrao in Chapter 2, the population in Lat Phrao district is over 210,000 but there is no Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS) and Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand (MRT) station in the area. According to Lat Phrao map in 2019, there are 8 stations adjacent to the district (Fig. 4.11). which means people have to travel to the stations by local transportation (only bus and motorcycle services) or private car in peak time when the traffic is fully congested. In addition, the new development in the district seems to be complex. The demolition of existing roads and buildings will affect the locals especially if the future development does not study and communicate with them.

Fig. 4.11. Main road network connects Bangkok Mass Transit System (BTS) and Mass Rapid Transit Authority of Thailand (MRT) stations (source: Author's own)

However, Lat Phrao has the potential to develop its traditional transportation which is the canal network that will feed locals to the surrounding mass transit stations (Fig. 4.13). The historic transportation mode, when people travelled by boat through the canal network in the era of agricultural land, should be brought back to improve the local transportation (Aeuosrivongse, 1984) (Fig. 4.12). The future development of Lat Phrao should exploit the canal potential to solve its current transportation problem which originated in its land-use plan. 31

Fig. 4.12. The historic transportation mode in Bangkok (source: Manager Online)

Fig. 4.13. The integration of Lat Phrao canal network to other transportation network (source: Author's own)

The Dubai's idea of dividing mass transportation operation into zone from could be adapted with the district. Lat Phrao would be divided in to three zones (North zone, Middle zone, and South zone) as same as RTA transportation planning in Dubai (Fig. 4.14). Northern area would be set to be mainly transport the people by rapid canal boat to reduce the overcrowding of car on the two main roads in the district. The congestion of people at the peak time would be decreased by the exploitation of Lat Phrao's canal network. At the middle area would be the zone for road transportation (bus and motorcycle) where the area is surrounded by two main roads. South zone would exploit both canal and road transportations. So, these may support the district reducing traffic congestion, the prime urban problem from Lat Phrao land use.

Fig. 4.14. Three zones to exploit the modes of transportation (source: Author's own)

In term of the applying of smart mobile phone application to Lat Phrao, the data from canal express, bus, and traffic report should be collected in order to show real-time transportation promoting a smart transportation in the district. So, locals would access the transportation system convenience by this online infrastructure from the future development. Therefore, the utilization of smart transportation solution from Dubai with the future development in Lat Phrao may improve the transportation quality for the locals, which would reduce the effect of current transportation problem from Lat Phrao's land-use plan.

THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF LAT PHRAO

Fig. 4.15. The long section of future development in Lat Phrao (source: Author's own)

Rotterdam, Singapore, and Dubai have been analyzed as optional solutions for the existing problems from Lat Phrao's land use. These strategies from the precedent studies have been developed adaptively with the existing urban patterns and local cultures to originate the future development in Lat Phrao (Fig. 4.15). The flooding problem would be relieved with the resilient flooding solution creating the contemporary urban lifestyle to live with water. Green infrastructure might mitigate the urban heat island in the district. The transportation on the canal network, the zoning of mass transit, and real-time transportation may decrease Lat Phrao's transportation problem. Thus, the future development would present the adaptive solution to redevelop the failure of existing land use in Lat Phrao.

CONCLUSION The study of the history of Bangkok land use has been summarized. From the past, the rapid population growth resulted in the opposite land use from agricultural land to brownfields and buildings. The canal network, which was the major role of Bangkok's transportation, was replaced by road transportation. These inappropriate land uses have affected socially and physically to the locals. The urban problems slowly have been being generated by the failure of its land-use plan through each generation which was created concern to draw solutions for the future development. The Lat Phrao district has been identified to study and understand the urban problems from the land use in order to be the specific case for the future development. The floodplain has been changed to be massive concrete-based residential zone following the land use, while the land is being congested throughout by population growth per annum. The ignorance of pre-existing patterns of settlement imposes Lat Phrao district and its urban environment with a high cost. The land-use change generates its urban problems such as flooding, urban heat island and transportation. These urban problems will be the key factors to find the case studies to create sustainable solutions for the future development in Lat Phrao. The case studies have been researched in Rotterdam, Singapore, and Dubai. Rotterdam has been considered as the flooding solution for the future development. The city is planned to follow the Sustainability Guide for Rotterdam (Rotterdam Duurzaam Wijzer) based on the Climate Proof programme as a sustainable guideline for designer, project managers, and policymakers for the city. The strategy covers all scales of planning (region, city, district, and building) to minimize the flooding possibility, flooding consequences, and the stimulation of public recovery that can be set as a precedent to create resilient flooding strategy for the future development in Lat Phrao. Green Infrastructure in Singapore has been researched to find the mitigation of urban heat island. The study of the Building and Construction Authority (BCA) of Singapore has demonstrated the guidelines to reduce urban heat island. The use of appropriate materials, green roofs, green walls, and green pavements should be implemented to reduce heat absorption and release to cool down the temperature. All of these will be green infrastructure for the future development in Lat Phrao to tackle the problem of urban heat island. For the future development of transportation in Lat Phrao, Dubai has been studied. Their RTA smart transportation system suggests the strategy for the district. Their development of road and mass transit in the city center and suburbs demonstrated the proper planning for the transportation systems, which will originate in a car-free society for future development. The idea of zoning could be developed with the future development in Lat Phrao to improve the public transportation network. The data from these should be collected in order to show real-time transportation promoting smart transportation and infrastructure. These transportation strategies would be the option to solve the traffic problems in Lat Phrao. The implementation from the three case studies to the urban problems in Lat Phrao has been combined. The resilient flooding solutions from Rotterdam has been integrated into the existing land use of the district. The future development in Lat Phrao would turn the district becoming resilient to adapt with flooding. The integration of buildings and dikes along the flood protection of Lat Phrao's canal network would create adaptive housing for the locals generating contemporary urban lifestyle to live with water. Likewise, the future development of the inner area of Lat Phrao would be redeveloped with the idea of Thai traditional house, buildings with elevated to let the ground floor function become sacrificial. Roads and pedestrians would be changed to be green surfaces as a secondary water barrier to let rainwater be absorbed to the ground following the water cycle process. This future development in Lat Phrao would minimize the flooding probability and consequences resolving the flooding problem of existing land use. From the case study in Singapore, the use of green infrastructure strategies from BCA's code would be an option for the future development in Lat Phrao. Buildings, pedestrian, and traffic island would be redesigned to mitigate the urban heat island, the problem is generated by its land use. The utilization of a smart transportation solution from Dubai has been redeveloped with the future development in Lat Phrao. The transportation would be improved in quality for the locals, the idea of public transportation zoning and real-time transportation has been exploited with the future development. It would reduce the effect of current traffic and public transportation problems from Lat Phrao's land-use plan. 35

In conclusion, this dissertation has demonstrated the failure of Bangkok land-use plan with the case of Lat Phrao with the future solutions to resolve the urban problems in the district from the case studies. The government and locals should draw according agreement to set the appropriated legislation as the plan following the suggested future development in order to redesign the existing buildings and the existing urban patterns. Lat Phrao would become resilient with the creative solutions from case studies, moreover, it could be adapted into the other districts of Bangkok. Therefore, the future development in Lat Phrao would be the adaptive urban strategies created by the cooperation between the government and the locals to resolve the urban problems from the failure of the existing land-use plan. Lat Phrao would become sustainable

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