THE GLOBAL REPRODUCTION OF NEW YORK SKYSCRAPER SAHACHAI KUMALWISAI - 18052043
MANCHESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS 01 - INTRODUCTION
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02 - DELIRIOUS NEW YORK
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03 - THE GLOBAL REPRODUCTION OF NEW YORK SKYSCRAPER
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04 - THE GLOBAL REPRODUCTION OF NEW YORK SKYSCRAPER IN TRAFFORD
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05 - THE SUSTAINABLE CONGESTION
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06 - CONCLUSION
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07 - BIBLIOGRAPHY
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01 - INTRODUCTION Skyscraper is the architectural answer for New York from its limitation, the two-dimensional grid produces the possibility to maximize massing form in three dimensions from reproducing construction technique in London's International Exhibition for all 2,028 blocks in Manhattan which originates uniquely a Culture of Congestion. However, in 21st century, the culture from New York are now spreading globally, New York's skyscraper is being reproduced to be real estate's product in many metropolises by global investor. It seems that there might be no urban question about the effect of this phenomenon, even in Manchester where Rethinking Trafford project, studio A, takes place. Therefore, this essay will discuss about the global reproduction of New York's skyscraper. From Delirious New York, the reproduction of London in New York in the past which now spreads throughout the world will be firstly demonstrated in order to draw the secondary story of the global reproduction of New York's skyscraper and the situation in Trafford to show the effect of skyscraper and the domination of a Culture of Congestion. Then, the horizontal urban design will be studied as the cases to create alternative solution as the sustainable congestion. Finally, these will be summarized as conclusion for future urban strategy at the end of this essay.
Fig. 1. The Manhattan Skyline (source: Marc McAndrews/Bloomberg)
02 - DELIRIOUS NEW YORK Delirious New York is written in 1978 by Rem Koolhaas, who co-founds Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) as design studio and AMO as research studio with his partners. The delirious story of New York demonstrated through 7 parts which are Prehistory, Coney Island, The Skyscraper, The Creation of Rockefeller Center, European, Postmortem, and Fictional Conclusion to present the deliriousness.
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Fig. 2. Delirious New York (source: author)
PREHISTORY The beginning of deliriousness started from the purchase of the Manhattan island. In 1626, Peter Minuit made mistaken acquirement Manhattan island for 24 dollars with the Indian sellers who do not own the land. Continuously, the introduction of grid planning emphasizes the frenzy. In 1807, Simeon deWitt, Gouverneur Morris and John Rutherford were commissioned to propose the planning for Manhattan to be 12 avenues running from north to south and 155 streets running from east to west, which is 13 x 156 = 2,028 blocks were set on the island. Koolhaas stated that the facility of the 'buying, selling and improving of real estate' made Manhattan's planning based on grid. The Grid guides Manhattan's architecture to be a paradigm for the exploitation of congestion which originates a Culture of Congestion. There seems to be possible that the architectural history and all previous theories of urbanism irrelevant of Manhattan are made by its grid. The construction technologies are controlled following the Grid to develop a new system of formal values, to differentiate the unique strategies for one block. In the single block contains the largest possible area that can fit under architectural control, which develops a maximum unit of urbanistic ego. Since the Manhattan limitation and the number of its blocks are permanently fixed, the growth of the city cannot be in conventional manner. So, the city becomes a mosaic of episodes, each with its own particular life span, that contest each other through the Grid.
Fig. 3. Manhattan's Grid (source: Remkool Haas/Delirious New York)
CONEY ISLAND The catalyst of the madness in Manhattan is 'Coney Island'. The Manhattan incubator places on this island that originated Manhattan's themes and mythology. The development of Manhattan was caused by the laboratory of Coney Island where the strategies and mechanisms were tested in order to shape the larger island. There were three theme parks in the Island that were experimented technologies, which are Steeplechase, Luna Park, and Dreamland. The background of the dreamed city was invented in the theme parks from card boards with a narrow room as service function inside, which is the pioneer of creating city within a city, and much more technologies that were the prototype of Manhattan. So, the combination between these issues and the grid planning creates the beginning of skyscraper and emphasizes a Culture of Congestion in Manhattan which now influence the world.
Fig. 4. 3 theme parks: Steeplechase, Luna Park, Dream Land (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
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THE SKYSCRAPER New York's skyscrapers were started building from the first try to reproduce London's International Exhibition. In 1851, on the western part of the world, Manhattan started reproducing the model of the city inspired by the exhibition in the Crystal Palace. Single houses scattered on the grass-covered blocks in the north of Manhattan's grid at 42nd Street were removed to be alienated two colossal structures which originated the new scale of the island's skyline, which are the reproduction of London Crystal Palace and the Latting Observatory. The latest technologies of the 19th century was introduced through this construction. The new modes of mass transportation alone introduced, which proposes for underground, on-grade and elevated systems.
Fig. 5. The Reproduction of London (source: Rem Koolhaas/ Delirious New York)
From the reproduction of London in Manhattan, the combination of technologies against the gravity and the fixed grid, in early 20th century, introduced the Manhattan's skyscraper. The elevator was introduced to Manhattan in the 1870s, it has been the great freedom of all horizontal surfaces above the ground floor. Repetition and architectural capability are established as relationship by this vertical transport, the plenty of stacking floors around the shaft makes the more spontaneously they compact into a single form. Through this massive step of invention, all brownfield can now be multiplied endlessly to produce the increase of floor space called Skyscraper. Koolhaas emphasized that, in 1909 Theorem, the Skyscraper as utopian device to produce unlimited numbers of virgin sites on a single metropolitan location. Therefore, skyscraper is the product of a Culture of Congestion created from the limitation of Manhattan's grid and the vertical transportation which are the potential to develop the architecture on limited land in modern era.
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Fig. 6. The Begining of Skyscraper (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
THE CREATION OF ROCKEFELLER CENTER Rockefeller center is a masterpiece in Manhattan produced without a genius. A City within a city was repeated through this project based on the combination between the maximum of congestion with the maximum of light and space. Raymond Hood, who co-designed the center, proposed 'the Solution of New York's Problem of Overcrowding' in 1927. Hood's proposal utilized the Zoning Law, which controls a ratio between building volume and the street area, to offer the use of all brownfields in a district rather than single block in order to maximize building volume for the project.
Fig. 7. The maximum use of blocks in each district (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
Rockefeller center consisted 5 projects: Underground Beaux-Arts, Radio City Music Hall, tenstory extrusion, Elgin Botanic Garden, and a Garden City aloft, which show the maximum of the project based on 'the Solution of New York's Problem of Overcrowding'. So, the Rockefeller Center enhances a Culture of Congestion which made New York more delirious. EUROPEANS The arrival of Europeans. Dali Salvador and Le Corbusier introduced purism and surrealism to New York based on ParanoidCritical Method. There is the idea of alternative thinking of human brain in irrational way which reshuffles the message of things to discover the hidden meaning. Their arrival is the attempts to reclaim Manhattan, Dali purposed New York through his surreal art: reshuffling Millet's Angeluses as New York's skyscraper that they are ready to perform the sexual act. Meanwhile, Le Corbusier purposed his Radiant City as utopia for New York with the purpose that New York's Skyscrapers are lack of identity, it should be horizontal skyscraper in the center and increase green space as the idea of garden city. However, there was no attention on them, they are invisible in New York where is the city of invention. So, it seems to be clear that Manhattan has created its own culture, a Culture of Congestion, which cannot be influence by outsider.
Fig. 8. The Radiant City (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
Fig. 9. Dali's Purposal (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
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POSTMORTEM The Postmortem of Manhattan is demonstrated through the City of Light, which is the pavilion in World's Fair 1939. It is represented as trylon and perisphere which is designed by Wallace Harrison. All the inventions throughout Manhattan's past were used as elements of the pavilion. Cardboards were built to be the scene with narrow function inside which is the based design of a city within a city, circular corridor attached inside perisphere to roam the exhibition of Democracity, and vertical transport's technology was also combined to create this pavilion. Therefore, it seems that Manhattan is unstoppable to be developed, all invented resources Fig. 10. The City of Light (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York) throughout antiquity are not left behind. A FICTIONAL CONCLUSION In fictional conclusion, Koolhaas demonstrated the conclusion of Manhattan with 5 projects, which are the City of the Captive Globe, Hotel Sphinx, New Welfare Island, Welfare Palace Hotel, and the Story of the Pool, as a fiction. It is justified that the fictional conclusion of Manhattan is a Culture of Congestion, which explains that conscious theory is no longer limited to island of its invention. Therefore, Manhattan is continuing delirious.
Fig. 11. More delirious Manhattan's projects (source: Remkool Haas/ Delirious New York)
03 - THE GLOBAL REPRODUCTION OF NEW YORK SKYSCRAPER From Delirious New York, there is pointed out that Manhattan is the result of an unformulated theory to exist in a world totally fabricated by man to live inside fantasy, which is programmed ambitiously to be realized that it could never be openly stated. The insistent themes of Manhattan, from now on each new building of the mutant kind, strives to be 'a City within a City'. This truculent aspiration makes the Metropolis to be a collection of architectural city-states, all potentially at war with each other, a Culture of Congestion. This statement from Rem Koolhaas will be brought to discuss with the academic article named 'Vertical capitalism: Skyscrapers and organization' by Martin Parker in 2013 to understand the effect of Manhattanism 5
Fig. 12. New York Skyscrapers (source: Sean Pavone/ Shutterstock)
From the beginnings of the skyscraper, the symbol of skyscraper presented economic aspiration through their height. The architectural expression commands the modernity through the height skyscraper which also concurrently reveals an example of greed on an inhuman scale (Parker, 2013). The survival of high-rise building represents the balance of cultural and economic forms of demonstration with its organization as a mediating term, which Willis (1995) defined a skyscraper as 'a machine that makes the land pay' by using the Woolworth Building (one of the 100 tallest buildings in the United States) in Manhattan as an instance. Meanwhile, Landau and Condit (1996) argued that the influence of skyscraper as concrete forest, which covers globally the land in many countries, illustrates the neglectful arrogancy of modernity and capitalism. The streets were surrounded by high-rise wall filled with congestion and pollution, which pedestrian is possibly blocked from the sunshine by towers. Parker demonstrated skyscraper through 'The Yellow Devil', which is the book from Maxim Gorki telling about the visit to New York in 1905, as a city made of 'walls of stone' where citizens were 'so insignificant, so enslaved'. However, the increase of skyscraper is presently more dramatic around the world. Skyscraper was used only as office function in New York and Chicago before the most of them are now being constructed as residential buildings. Parker claimed that tall buildings rapidly tower over the masses, and over the steeples of their old churches, reducing most people to be labor as worker ant who provide a platform that seems to allow the billionaire to enjoy the scenery while sipping champagne, or planning global domination. The residential across the world providing the plenty of housing to welcome working classes into towers whether cheap peripheral slums in the sky or expensive condos with great scenery. These might be the proof that the urban now moves upwards. Ballard (2006) stated that the high-rise residential building produces a new social type which the psychological pressures of high-rise life shape residents to be a cool unemotional personality with minimal needs for privacy. It seems that the effect of skyscraper thrives human life to be an advanced species of machine in the moderate atmosphere. Surprisingly, the global trend of skyscraper does not seem to worry the effect of skyscraper. There are remarkable on the world's map that the majority of skyscraper is not in the place they were originated. According to the statistic of skyscraper's population conducted by Emporis found that, in 2019, 69 percent of skyscraper are now in Asia, 20 percent in North America, 5 percent in Europe, 3 percent in South America, 2 percent in Oceania, while Africa has only 1 percent. In the present, there are only 7 skyscrapers out of the 50 tallest buildings are in the USA. The ranking of tallest skyscraper is now dominated by China, Asia and the Bay States that are endlessly listed as part of their announcement as the tallest in the city, state, region, continent and planet. Therefore, it seems that the increase of skyscraper is being continued globally without concerning of its effect that might damage the humanity, in term of more congestion and pollution, from the few of men who are powerful to dominate the world. 6
Fig. 13. The Reproduction of New York Skyscraper in Hong kong (source: Seeingeastasia)
Fig. 14. The Reproduction of New York Skyscraper in Beijing, China (source: Michelin)
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Fig. 15. The Reproduction of New York Skyscraper in Bangkok, Thailand (source: Jackie Chen)
04 - THE GLOBAL REPRODUCTION OF NEW YORK SKYSCRAPER IN TRAFFORD The Reproduction of New York Skyscraper can be linked to Studio A project, Rethinking Trafford, which this repeat also roots at Trafford, Manchester. The current situation in Trafford is the same as New York, a Culture of Congestion is being generated along the towering of buildings. The roads are full of traffic jams, the tram carriage is overcrowded, car parking dominates public roads, and public green space is being reduced to be brownfields in order to rocket skyscrapers by billionaire investors.
Fig. 15. The Reproduction of New York Skyscraper in Salford Quay, Manchester (source: Ray King)
Simultaneously, the research of Trafford found that the northern area of Trafford is being covered by air pollution, such as NO2, PM10, and PM2.5, which is produced from after-burnt machine engine in many construction sites and car engine on the roads, can cause lung cancer to locals. There is the effect from a Culture of Congestion which is widening along the growth of skyscraper. Green spaces in Trafford, which was on duty to purify air pollution, are now deforested to be brownfields serving the increase of skyscraper.
Fig. 16. Air pollution in Trafford (source: DEFRA)
Therefore, there seems to be the time to rethink of skyscraper. Congestion and pollution are the main problems which are the side effect from the increase of skyscraper that are needed to be concerned. The Rethinking Trafford project in Studio A studies urban precedents to be the alternative way in order to solve a Culture of Congestion generating the sustainable congestion. 8
05 - THE SUSTAINABLE CONGESTION From the precedent studies of Rethinking Trafford, there are many possibilities to make the sustainable congestion. Urban life might not only be specified to be just vertical living, in modern time, the mode of transportation has been improved to connect the city from the left to the right by rapid mass transport which means residential building can be widened horizontally to allow people enjoy the nature and, simultaneously, nature has its space to live with human. Sunlight is allowed to shine on the street and building gap will be opened to let the plant grows to be green space for people. These are many case studies to originate open-end strategy for designing the city horizontally. Patchwork City is one of case studies designed by OOIIO. This proposal generates a big green area in order to connect the old town center, the university, other spread housing areas, and the proposed construction area. The damaged canal is resurrected to link a succession of parks and open areas. All the zones are plan dividing as an imaginary 6x6 meters grid which organize the public space and the private constructions. All of the existing natural surroundings and the old city there will be build based on the grid 6x6 structures to be bought for citizens or city to a special designed catalogue where the prefabricated ecologic panels are welcomed citizen to plug in their own structure area. So, with this special urban growth and construction system people are allowed to be a part for generating a new kind of city, based on the personalization of every space, a better and controlled administration of natural resources, high flexibility and space recycling possibilities, a clean and cheap low zero emissions constructions and over all a new way of understanding contemporary city.
Fig. 17. Patchwork City Site plan(source: OOIIO architect)
Fig. 18. Patchwork City Isometric(source: OOIIO architect)
Similarly, Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology designed by WilkinsonEyre, also proposes the horizontal living, the village is designed as the high-quality living pods to accommodate staffs and students based on the concept of modular system for rapid on-site assembly. The pods are arranged in units as two to three-stories high maximum to create a welcoming social space and green space.
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Fig. 19. University's Stacking Accomodation(source: WilkinsonEyre architect)
Therefore, these are the alternative solution to create the sustainable congestion. Housing can be congested as low-rise building horizontally spreading on land leaving the gap between building to welcome natural elements. This kind of urban design would bring people and nature back to live as unity and solving congestion and pollution problems from skyscraper, which may create the sustainable congestion.
06 - CONCLUSION From Delirious New York, Koolhaas demonstrated that the conclusion of Manhattan is a Culture of Congestion, which explains that conscious theory is no longer limited to island of its invention. The skyscrapers are being towered and Manhattan is continuing delirious. The Manhattan's culture, it globally launches the alternative urban strategy, which housing can be vertical as high-rise residential building, that originates commercial plan to global investor. The reproduction of New York skyscraper now affects the world in many ways, especially congestion and pollution, but it seems that the increase of skyscraper is ceaselessly continued without concerning of its effect that might damage the humanity from the few of men who are powerful to dominate the world. Trafford in Manchester is also influenced by a Culture of Congestion. Locals are facing the reproduction of New York skyscraper which congestion and pollution problems affect their daily life and it seems to be the time to rethink about skyscraper. This is the problems, which is needed to be concerned, that Rethinking Trafford project in Studio A finds the precedents to make solution. Patchwork City by OOIIO and Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology by WilkinsonEyre can be the urban precedents for solving vertical city. These are the proposal of horizontal city that concerns the living between human and nature. The sustainable congestion would be the alternative solution to create the sustainable solution. Housing can be congested as low-rise building horizontally spreading on land leaving the gap between building to welcome natural elements. This kind of urban design would solve the problems of congestion and pollution. In conclusion, this essay has discussed throughout the reproduction of London in New York, the global reproduction of New York skyscraper, the confrontation of a Culture of Congestion in Trafford, and the precedent urban study to draw the alternative solution in order to create sustainability. City can be sustainably grown horizontal to answer congestion and pollution problems creating the sustainable congestion. This would let people and nature becoming unity solving the side effect of skyscraper.
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07 - BIBLIOGRAPHY ArchDaily. (2019) Dyson Institute of Engineering and Technology / WilkinsonEyre. [Online] [Accessed 11 January 2020] https://www.archdaily.com/919886/dyson-institute-of-engineering-and-technology-wilkinsoneyre ArchDaily. (2012) Patchwork City Masterplan / OOIIO Architecture. [Online] [Accessed on 11 January 2020] https://www.archdaily.com/275041/patchwork-city-masterplan-ooiio-architecture?ad_medium=gallery Ballard JG. (2006) High-Rise. London: Harper Perennial. Koolhaas, R. (2014) Delirious New York: a retroactive manifesto for Manhattan. The Monacelli Press, LLC. Landau, S. and Condit, C. (1996) Rise of the New York Skyscraper. New Haven and London. Parker, M. (2013) Vertical capitalism: Skyscrapers and organization. Culture and Organization, 21(3), pp.217-234. Willis, C. (1995) Form follows finance: skyscrapers and skylines in New York and Chicago. Princeton Architectural Press.
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