History of Alexandria by School of Art, George Mason University

THE HISTORY OF ALEXANDRIA ILLUSTRATED & WRITTEN MICHELLE LEGUIA

The History of Alexandria

Copyright © 2021 Michelle Leguia No part of this book may be reproduced, stored, and transmitted in any manner without the permission of the author. This book is strictly used for my final senior project.

Written and Illustrated by: Michelle Leguia

This book wouldn't be made without the help of my family who's always cheered me on. I'm also grateful for the university's awesome professors and peers that helped me developed as a designer.

Contents 8

10 Pre-Columbian 18 Colonial Era 26 New Nation 34 Civil War & The Aftermath 42 20th Century and Now 52 Bibliography

Intoduction | Table of Contents

Table of Contents | Introduction

1 10

Chapter 1 | Pre-Columbian

PRECOLUMBIAN

Pre-Columbian 11

ative Americans remain often forgotten when it comes to American history, leading to little information and representation. However, the commitment to recovering this lost data through archaeology has proven successful. Artifacts discovered across Virginia, including Alexandria, has indicated a Native American presence that goes as far back as 17,000 years ago. Before the arrival of European settlers to the newly found continent, the land was already filled with a variety of Native communities. This era before European Contact known as the Pre-Columbian Era consists of three periods: the Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Woodland.

CLOVIS POINT

THE PALEO-INDIAN

The Paleo-Indian Era approximately started 17,000 years ago during the final day of the last ice age. During this period the first inhabitants had crossed into North America via the Bering Land Bridge. These first people to traverse the Americas preferred a nomadic lifestyle, roaming the open lands. Around 15,000 years ago is thought to be when the first Native Americans settled in Virginia, where hunting animals and foraging for plants was common practice in this era. The oldest evidence of human interaction in modern-day Alexandria is a broken speartip called a Clovis Point and was a common indicator of human activity in the late period of the PaleoIndian Era. The Clovis Point, along with many other crafted points and implements made from stone, wood, bone, and antlers highlight the importance of hunting and survival in this era.

THE ARCHAIC

The Archaic Era is estimated to have begun around 10,000 years ago. Hunting and foraging would continue as the climate got warmer. Due to the warming climate and the subsequent glacial melt, steady sea level and the release of melted ice created a myriad of lakes and marshes throughout Virginia. These emerging locations

Chapter 1 | Pre-Columbian

KIRK POINT

became major hotspots where future Native American communities would thrive. As a result of this change in climate, equipment changed as well to help with the evolving cultures. Tools like axes became popular for woodworks and were used to create equipment and shelter. The weighted spears (Atlatl) assisted with hunting. In addition to hunting, this period saw the first domestication of plants for agriculture. Excavations found at Jones Point near Hunting Creek uncovered tools like the Kirk Spear that emphasized the continuation of hunting and foraging in Alexandria throughout much of this era.

THE WOODLAND

The Woodland Era started around 3,000 years ago, which by this time the climate of Virginia began to resemble our modern ambiance. During this period the most significant development for Native Americans was the production of clay pottery used predominantly for cooking and storage. Simultaneously large communities and populations began to settle more permanently, particularly around bodies of water. Fishing and agriculture would become more prominent activities during this time as a result of these larger and more stable lifestyles. Ingredients like maize, squash, and beans would become the main staples cultivated by Virginian tribes. In the Alexandria area, the Potomac Creek pottery is the first known item to be discovered that indicates Native American interactions during this period.

THE POTOMAC CREEK POTTERY

Pre-Columbian 13

At the beginning of the 17th-century, villages in modernday Northern Virginia (Alexandria) would be visited by John Smith. The three villages called Namoraughquend, Assaomeck, and Namassingakent. The translation from Algonquian: Fishing Place, Middle Fishing Place, and Plenty of Fish. These villages were known more for fishing rather than planting crops. The first Native Americans that moved to the east coast of North America traveled through waterways and trekked through forests as they explored the land. Subsequently, these traveled paths would become the first routes and trails for hunting, migration, and trade. The European settlers saw the passages used by Native Americans as an organized and safe way to traverse the new continent. The roads and railroads built in the following decades would use these same paths as a framework. The Potomac Path is the first known passage used in the region of Northern Virginia. This pathway was massive and accompanied the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers. The path was a crucial route used among the Native Americans in the region, and would later become the roads we know today. Route One is just one of the legacies that the Potomac Path created. British settlement became more prominent in the 1600s. Interactions with the Native people became more frequent. The settler carried Old World diseases that Native Americans had no immunity to. As a result of these diseases tens of thousands of Native Americans would die out during these early decades of European settlement.

Chapter 1 | Pre-Columbian

Pre-Columbian 15

Chapter 1 | Pre-Columbian

10,000 BCE

1600 CE

THE ARCHAIC

THE CONTACT

The Archaic period began in 10,000 BCE as the human population increased. This era marked the rise of civilization development.

The contact period started once the first interaction with European settlers occur. It is also the end of the Pre-Columbian era.

1 THE PALEO-INDIAN

THE WOODLAND

The Paleoindian period began in 17,000 BCE as the ice age was ending. The first people to arrive in the Americas use the Bering Land Bridge. That event marked the beginning of the era.

The Woodland period began in 3,000 BCE as pottery made its appearance. The Woodland is the last period before contact with Europeans happened.

17,000 BCE

3,000 BCE

Pre-Columbian 17

2 18 Chapter 2 | Colonial Era

COLONIAL ERA

Colonial Era 19

VIRGINIA HOUSE OF BURGESSES

n 1608, John Smith surveyed and mapped out the Potomac River and the surrounding land area. That map became the first well-known map of colonial Virginia and featured Native American settlements present in Virginia at the time. It would take around 50 years before any permanent British settlement occurred in northern Virginia. In 1654 Margret Brent, known as America’s first female lawyer, received a patent for 700-acre that included present-day Alexandria. However, Governor Berkeley granted Robert Howson, English Sailor, land that overlapped Margret Brent’s patent. Robert Howson only managed to keep the property for a month before selling it off to John Alexander. It wouldn’t be until 1696 when the first permanent settlement appeared. The Daingerfield Island saw the establishment of the first settlement by Simon Pearson. Native Americans would still inhabit the area, living alongside European settlers as the 17th century ended.

20 Chapter 2 | Colonial Era

The construction of Colonial Fort was approved by the Virginia House of Burgesses. The purpose of the construction was to defend the colony of Virginia from attacks by the Susquehannocks and other native tribes. Militiamen from the surrounding area guarded the fort. The colonial Virginia Governor, William Berkeley, wanted it to be a buffer, thereby making the Native Americans and English coexist conflict-free. However, many settlers at this time favored conflict against the Native Americans. The beginning of the 18th century saw land used for tobacco cultivation. The population of the time was landowners or indentured workers on the plantations. Slavery was present at this time, the majority compromising of African origin. Tobacco was a crucial part of the local economy in what we now know as Alexandria, with its main purpose being a port city that exported tobacco. In the mid-1700s the city was

headquarters for British soldiers participating in the French and Indian War. General Edward Braddock was in charge and occupied Carlyle House, which still is present in Alexandria today. The British victory brought prestige and prosperity to Alexandria. As a result, demand increased for slave laborers as (former indentured) free white workers had money to buy properties. By the 1760s, Alexandria saw its first shipbuilding industries created, in addition to other career opportunities that didn’t include tobacco agriculture.

STAMP ACT ITEM’S TAXED

Participating in war costs large sums of money during and after the war ends. The British participation in the French and Indian War (The Seven Year War) caused increased taxation on the colonies that were received negatively by colonists. The Stamp Act of 1765 increased the tax price of stamps, newspapers, and documents. While the Townshend Act of 1767 increased tax on tea and goods like card games. These acts led to protests and boycotts of British goods eventually resulting in the lessening or removal of some taxes initially. Tensions didn’t stop between Britain and the American Colonies and as a result, local armed militias formed in preparation for conflict. Once the first violent conflicts had commenced in Lexington, Massachusetts on April 19, 1775, other colonists were willing to join the fight. Plenty of residents from Alexandria joined like James Craik and was handselected by George Washington as the chief physician and surgeon to the army. In 1776, the 13 colonies declared their independence from the British. The Revolutionary War continued until 1783 and was eventually won by the colonies thanks in part to aid from the French and Spanish. The 1779 Act gave Alexandria’s rich white men the ability to elect their government. Many of the men were able to serve as a common councilman or even mayor. As the United States declared independence from the British and war continued into the 1780s, the Alexandrian economy saw prosperity thanks to wheat production that the army

Colonial Era 21

bought. Alexandria also held prisoners of war, the majority of them being mercenaries hired by the British. As the British remained in the Potomac and conducted raids, militias protected Alexandria as there were attempts to cut vessels off from the harbor. The southern states became the final scene of the Revolutionary War. The American and French coalition in Yorktown saw the defeat of the British. The British and Americans negotiated a treaty to put an end to the war in 1783. In the mid-1780s, Alexandria went through changes that affected the layout of the city. The city borders expanded in 1785 thanks in part to sales, as the Virginia General Assembly declared Alexandria as an international port. The demand for tobacco and wheat in Europe brought money into the city. Although later in the decade, tobacco and similar produce saw decreased production in large part to

soil depletion. The 1790s saw a new age for Alexandria as the port became the most important one in the Potomac. The imports and export of goods changed the city’s appearance. The construction of new houses and industries saw the population increasing as indicated during the population participated in the first national census in 1790. The African American population grew along with the white residents. Alexandria was a hotspot for free blacks and slaves to practice trades. A lot of slaves used their skills to earn money and eventually buy their freedom. The 1790s also saw itself become part of territories donated by Virginia to establish Washington D.C. Many Alexandrians expected a bright future being part of metropolitan D.C. The city of Alexandria officially became part of the Capitol in 1801, with a charter passed by congress in 1804 making it official.

ADAM THOROUGHGOOD HOUSE

The Hall and Parlor Plan

22 Chapter 2 | Colonial Era

ARCHITECTURE OF THE COLONIAL ERA

The Architecture during the beginning of the colonial Virginia era was primitive. It showed little to no interest in style. The settlers constructed timber frame houses that consists of one room. The hall and parlor plan was a popular plan that consisted of two rooms. Building with brick became more widespread as wood could become defenseless against termites. Virginia was using bricks

before New England, thanks to clay being available. The 1740s would see the creation of Alexandria, the first blueprints for the town layout as well. The straightforward grids with right angles facing the riverbank were a popular layout. Georgian architecture became very popular in Alexandria in the mid-1700s.

GEORGIAN HOUSE

Colonial Era 23

24 Chapter 2 | Colonial Era

1696 CE

1776 CE

SETTLEMENT

INDEPENDENCE

The area that would eventually become Alexandria had its first permanent settlement.

1776 saw all the colonies declare independence from Britain. The US would no longer a colony but a nation.

2 SURVEYED

FOUNDED

John Smith surveyed and mapped out the Potomac and native American settlement for the Virginia company. Becaming the first known colonial Virginia.

The city of Alexandria was founded officially in 1749. The area before 1749 saw few inhabitants living there.

1608 CE

1749 CE

Colonial Era 25

3 26 Chapter 3 | New Nation

NEW NATION

New Nation 27

he war of 1812 was horrible towards Alexandria’s economy that was dependent on trading. The British disrupted American boats causing Alexandria’s local economy to suffer. It would be President James Madison who declared war as retaliation for the damages caused. 1814 wasn’t a good year for Washington D.C. who saw the British invade and set the city ablaze. Alexandria’s mayor knew they were next causing him to surrender to the British. Surrendering spared Alexandria from destruction but it didn’t stop the looting by British forces. The war would continue until December 24 of the same year saw an end to the war. There were no winners as it was a stalemate leading to the Treaty of Ghent. Said treaty guaranteed Alexandria would be safe again. However, the looting and financial loss caused by the British set Alexandria back. 1830 saw 12.9 million inhabitants in the United States. There was an estimate of 600,000 European predominantly from Ireland and Germany. Most migrants moved to the US for economic purposes. The increase of immigration saw anti-immigration and anti-black sentiments grow. A lot of immigrants saw opportunities in cities. The four major cities at the time were Philadelphia, New York,

28 Chapter 3 | New Nation

Baltimore, and Boston. Alexandria had a history of imitating Philadelphia throughout its existence. Yet they were being compared to Baltimore. Many Alexandrians felt offended by the comparison to Baltimore. The city’s principal economy revolved around exporting good particular flour. Yet another industry, this one being immorally unethical. The firm of Franklin and Armfield specialized in the slave trade. The firm started operating in the late 1820s and became the biggest slave-trading center within a few years. Slaves brought from Africa were sent to Alexandria and eventually to Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama. Many residents in Alexandria and northern Virginia wanted slavery to end. Yet many wanted them to resettled back to Africa or the Caribbeans. There were abundant proposals to end slavery in Virginia. Sadly none of them succeeded and made the situation worse for many African Americans. Retrocession was popular among Alexandrians in the late 1830s and early 1840s. Being part of Washington sounded nice for many Alexandrians in the beginning. It changed when the residents were unable to participate in national elections. On July 9, 1846, Alexandria was allowed by congress to be a part of Virginia again.

CANAL

Many Alexandrians during this era wanted a canal constructed to connect to Georgetown. The Erie Canal built in New York sparked that desire for many. Alexandrians felt that other cities were developing while they remain stagnant. The canals started construction on

July 4, 1831. Said project brought the economic issue in large part of its expensiveness. The building of the canal finished in 1845. It proved useful for the residents until 1886. The need for toll bridges got rid of the canal.

New Nation 29

RELIGION

In 1767, Christ Church began its construction. The Georgian-style church took six years to assemble. The Church of England was in charge of the churches in the colonies. Therefore, a big part of religious and political life in Alexandria revolved around the Church of England.

30 Chapter 3 | New Nation

New Nation 31

32 Chapter 3 | New Nation

1814 CE SURRENDERED DC was set on fire by the British causing Alexandria to surrounder to avoid destruction. That being one of the reasons Alexandria has been able to maintain its colonial architecture.

1846 CE RETROCESSION Alexandria saw itself return to Virginia as they hated the idea of being in D.C. as they weren’t allowed to vote for the president.

3 WAR

CANAL

The US declares war on Great Britain. British had disrupted the American routes and ports.

The canal opened after 14 years of construction. The canal was useful until 1886 saw an increase of roads being built.

1812 CE

1845 CE

New Nation 33

4 34

Chapter 4 | Civil War & The Aftermath

CIVIL WAR & THE AFTER EFFECTS

Civil War & The Aftermath

DOUBLE-EDGED FIGHTING KNIFE

COLT NAVY REVOLVER CAL .44

1861 U.S. SPRINGFIELD

1842 HARPERS FERRY

Chapter 4 | Civil War & The Aftermath

he Civil War impacted Alexandria more than any other war. The Election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 intensified tensions between northern and southern states. Many states in the south feared that Abraham Lincoln would liberate the slaves. The atmosphere in Alexandria differed from many Virginians. The vast majority of business owners favored being in the Union. One of the main reasons they voted for John Bell for the presidency of 1860. John Bell was one of a few slave owners that opposed the expansion of slavery. He was against succession in the beginning before siding with the confederacy. Said climate would change overnight when shots occurred in Fort Sumter in 1861. President Lincoln responded by sending being sending 75,000 to crush the rebellion. That action triggered many states’ secession from the Union, including Virginia. Locals celebrated Virginia’s secession from the Union by raising the Confederate flag. The overwhelming majority of Alexandrians approved the articles of secession as 958 favored while 106 opposed it. The location of Alexandria was too crucial for the Union to ignore. The troops wasted no time invading the city by land and water. Colonel Elmer Ellsworth marched through the city once captured. Colonel Elmer would die trying to take down a confederate flag flying over a hotel. James Jackson’s shots killed Colonel Elmer. The Union troops would retaliate by bayoneting Jackson. Both individuals became martyrs for their respective causes. The occupation of Alexandria from union forces lasted four years. As a result, there was little to no fighting in Alexandria. However, the inundation of union soldiers to the city erodes the city’s atmosphere. Under occupation, Alexandria had a curfew and banning of sales of alcohol to soldiers. Even with the rules set, the streets of Alexandria saw drunk soldiers loitering. Besides intoxicated soldiers, the streets persistently saw murders, robbery, and riots break out. Alexandrians couldn’t recognize their city

and felt like strangers. Many Alexandrians fleed south before the curfew locked down the city at night. Those who sought to enter Washington had to get passes for fear of letting spies through. Those who failed to swear alliance towards the United States were charged with treason and arrested. The city became a supply center for the union army. Alexandria’s location was ideal in large parts of the train and ports it held. Homes, churches, and government buildings became barracks, jails, and hospitals. They confiscated Robert E. Lee’s house to accommodate wounded soldiers. The US government ordered warehouses and the construction of barriers to protect the railroads. As Confederate soldiers knew the importance railroads had on the union supplies and troops. African American refugees escaping the south sought Alexandria and Washington. The expansion of Union soldiers into northern Virginia saw more slaves heading to occupied areas. They contributed by working on the labor force. The influx of refugees leads to informal settlements built as the city couldn’t accommodate all. The newly built informal infrastructure lacked plumbing. The war didn’t end until April 9, 1865, when Robert E. Lee surrendered. That day saw many Alexandrians in dread as many sympathized with the confederate cause. The Union soldiers and a few Alexandrian residents celebrated the victory. The end of the war didn’t see Alexandria return to its previous state of four years ago. Union forces left while many confederate soldiers return home with an economy in disarray. Plus the influx of new refugees, white and black, saw the city provided for the displaced. The end of the war saw the African American population compromise 50% of the population. That angered many confederates returning from war. Tension increased causing a riot between African Americans and exconfederate soldiers that occurred on Christmas day in 1865. That riots forced more union troops into the city.

Civil War & The Aftermath

The reconstruction act was introduced in 1866. This act dramatically changed the southern states. Southern states were divided into districts governed by the military. They enforced peace and prevented former confederates soldiers and sympathies from holding power. Military presence remained for the next three years until 1869. Many states at this time were trying to reenter the Union. Virginia wasn’t able to reenter the Union until 1870. Tensions persisted prompting military personal to enforce the law. The reconstruction era brought racial equality that benefited African Americans. Sadly It wouldn’t last long as many southerners pushed for segregation. Alexandria in the 1870s was starting to recuperate slowly compared to other cities. Alexandria spent most of the decade improving the infrastructure especially installing trains. It also tried to attract immigrants from Europe to migrate but it wasn’t successful. The economy halted in 1873 when a recession happened (Panic of 1873). Unemployment increased as well as poverty that leads to a rise in food banks. The remaining years left in the century saw the city adopting new technologies like the telephone. The economy starts to pick up ensuring the construction of new suburbs.

Chapter 4 | Civil War & The Aftermath

Civil War & The Aftermath

Chapter 4 | Civil War & The Aftermath

1861 CE

1870 CE

THE BEGINNING

REENTER

Fort Sumter is under fire forcing Abraham Lincoln to send troops to stop the rebellion. Southern states outraged, leave the union to form the confederate.

It took about five years before Virginia is accepted back into the union. This year also saw Alexandria recovery economically.

4 ELECTION

THE END

Abraham Lincoln becomes President of the United States in 1860. This leads to tensions increasing in the southern states.

Robert E. Lee surrenders to Grant, which ends the Civil War. Many Alexandrian and southern dread and the road to recovery starts.

1860 CE

1865 CE

Civil War & The Aftermath

5 42