Map of the Research Expedition of CRCC 2024
Section One: Threats to Coral Reefs
“New Insights into The History of Warming and Marine Heatwaves”
Science Writing and Graphics by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
“Can Corals Thrive in Volcanically Acidified Reefs?” Science Writing by Sara Abraha
“Stony Coral Tissue Loss: ‘The Plague,’ ”
“The Sea Urchin Crisis”
“Can Coral Restoration Efforts Outpace Sea Level Rise?”
“Will Coral Reefs Continue to Grow to the End of this Century?” and “The Fate of Coral Reefs”
Section Two: Coral Conservation
“The Power of Film in Coral Conservation”
“Our Debt to The World’s Coral Reefs”
writing by Keegan Kukucka
Writing by Jeremy Kaufman
and GraphicPoetry by Katie Hallee
“Conservation and Restoration as Reparations”
Section Three: Island Experiences “The 80,000-foot View”
Section Four: SEA Partners
Section Five: Key Takeaways
The Sea Education Association (SEA), based in Woods Hole, MA, USA, offers ocean studies programs for undergraduate, gap year, and high school students.
Sea Education Association (SEA) approaches a dawn of new beginnings. Light is beaming from the horizon. Warm shades of orange, yellow, and pink intermingle with vibrant beauty A vision of radiating magnificence. Do you see it? The sun is rising, and with it, a new era of marine education.
This SEA program, Class L318, involved six-weeks of preparation and research in Woods Hole, MA, then a six-week field research expedition to St. Croix, Anguilla, Dominica, and then Barbados. Undergraduate students took classes in 'The Ocean and Global Change,' ‘Oceanographic Research,’ 'Marine Environmental History,' and ‘Environmental Communication.’
Since 1971, SEA has educated over 10,000 high school, undergraduate, and gap-year students by sailing across the ocean. For the first time, rather than sailing aboard the Westward, Corwith Cramer, or the Robert C. Seamans, students now have the opportunity to embark on entirely shore-based programs. We, the SEA Class L318, are the very first group of students to commence on this new journey in the Coral Reef Conservation: Caribbean (CRCC) Program. SEA has even emphasized this new transition by launching its new logo in the wake of this program and shore-based programs to follow. In this way, we are pioneers We are laying the foundation. We carry the weight of so many future generations of SEA students.
As a mere seven students, we soon became a very close-knit group. Beginning in Wood’s Hole Massachusetts at SEA’s campus we lived and learned together, quite literally. For the first six weeks of the CRCC program, we stayed in the
quaint cottage on campus named Capella. Cooking, cleaning, and studying together, we quickly created a sense of community, bonded by shared interests in the environment, long nights of homework, stargazing, frisbee, and, of course, laughter.
While in Wood’s Hole, we started the rigorous coursework in our four classes: The Ocean and Global Change, Marine Environmental History, Environmental Communication, and Practical/Directed Oceanographic Research. In these courses, we were preparing ourselves for our field component across the four Caribbean islands of St. Croix, Anguilla, Dominica, and Barbados. To do so, we learned local
and global factors impacting coral reefs, the history of the islands we were visiting, how to conduct an individual oceanographic research project, and how to effectively communicate scientific information in a diverse range of media.
However, with these lessons, there was always a deeper understanding that there is a responsibility on our shoulders. Compared to other SEA programs, ours is centralized around fieldbased snorkeling research, but also actively engaging with local communities. In this sense, our class was tasked with helping to begin to build lasting relationships with Caribbean partners and foster continued scientific collaboration
for the future.
With this weight on our shoulders, but brimming with excitement, we boarded the plane for the first leg of the program, St. Croix! The six weeks to follow were a whirlwind full of immersive snorkeling, meeting new people, and countless new experiences.
This whirlwind evolved my mindset and understanding of coral conservation When I told my friends and family about this program, I would often get a very similar response. When people heard the words coral, the Caribbean, and snorkeling, they would tend to tell me, “Ah, so you are going to be at the beach all semester. That sounds like a vacation!” Don’t get me wrong, I am incredibly grateful for this unique, diverse, and hands-on research experience However, what people do not realize is the field of coral reef conservation is incredibly bleak. From speaking to coral scientists across the Caribbean, I have learned that you have to be a strong-willed and resilient person to devote your life and career to coral conservation.
In the media, corals are often still perceived as vibrant and lively underwater ecosystems: an unrealistic beauty standard. The fact of the matter is corals are in crisis. Not just in the Caribbean, but globally. These remarkable animals who are capable of building complex marine habitats are threatened by intensifying stressors: ocean warming, acidification, sedimentation, pollution, fishing, nutrient runoff, and invasive
species. These stressors cause corals to bleach, the process of expelling their symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae and leaving their bare calcium carbonate skeleton. Without these algae, corals have to rely only on filter feeding for their energy instead of photosynthesis, previously performed by the zooxanthellae. As a result, corals are dying at an unprecedented rate. Coral scientists must be unyielding in their determination to conservation. They are forced to constantly deal with the reality that corals are disappearing before their eyes.
From speaking to coral scientists across the Caribbean, I have learned that you have to be a strong-willed and resilient person to devote your life and career to coral conservation.”
This is exactly the reality of Corina and Ryan, the stewards of the Feather Leaf Inn in St Croix In addition to running their eco-hotel, centralized around sustainable and plant-based living, Corina and Ryan are leading coral conservation efforts in Butler Bay As a class, we had the opportunity to stay in their inn, engage with their environmentally conscious lifestyle, and experience first-hand the implementation of coral restoration The Feather Leaf Inn uses a drone to conduct wide-scale aerial mapping of Butler Bay to monitor coral health. With this data, Corina and
Ryan are working to aid in the spawning of brain coral, replanting corals that have been dislodged, and using a strategy called fragmentation to repopulate the reef from broken elkhorn coral branches. Corina led us on a snorkel around Butler Bay to show us the outplanting they had done. As Corina showed us around the reef, it was shocking to see the extent of bleached coral Everywhere I turned, the absence of color was overwhelming. Desolate, bright white corals made my heart sink. But then, Corina would dive down and point to her small pockets of hope: successful outplants! I realized at that moment that it takes tremendous inner strength to be in the field of coral restoration, like Corina and Ryan. They continuously create glimmers of promise by persistently believing in the potential of their work.
As depressing as the condition of coral health currently is, I have learned that these strong-willed scientists show up every day on the job, working diligently to combat such stressors. I think this program has brought me a newfound sense of consciousness concerning the complexity of coral conservation as a whole.
My SEA Oceanography Professor, Dr. Heather Page, has helped me to evolve my mindset to visualize coral conservation as multifaceted This is because one specific visualization from Heather’s lectures has stuck with me since I first saw it. Coral conservation is the main focus in
the center, with six different arrows pointing in. These arrows are labeled with restoration, monitoring, research, protection, training, and education. This attests to the network of factors all influencing coral conservation at once Therefore, I now have evolved my ideas to believe that we must approach conservation holistically.
For instance, outplanting thousands of coral fragments for restoration will fail to be successful without training more people on how to outplant, researching what areas need those corals the most, monitoring those corals, protecting those corals with legislative action against carbon emissions, and educational outreach to local communities. Each of these factors relies on each other, and to make strides in the field of coral conservation, it is vital to recognize these factors as a whole.
Gaining this newfound consciousness came from seeing and experiencing the reefs with my
own eyes. From coral depictions in the media, I also had an unrealistic understanding of what reefs really look like. I saw the massive extent of bleaching and the shift occurring to an algae-dominated ecosystem first-hand Truly seeing this destruction right in front of me did have the capacity to make me feel hopeless. I constantly would have an internal battle asking, “What can I, as one person, do to save this?”
But then, the fearless scientists I met across the islands, like Corina and Ryan, would pop into my head, reminding me of their persistence in the face of adversity This is what made me realize just how special this study-abroad opportunity was. CRCC prioritized community engagement and cultural interaction I think that is why I am walking away from this experience extremely hopeful. One can not be a changemaker all alone, it takes collaboration.
In this way, I am honored to have played a part in building connections for SEA across the Caribbean. As a class, we have set up the structure for ongoing scientific partnerships, in turn helping to create greater interconnectedness in the field of coral conservation. In this magazine, as a class, we have compiled a multitude of pieces in a diverse range of media. In our work, you will see our responses to coral reef conservation, the impacts of climate change, and our reflections throughout the program. So, at an epoch in SEA’s history and the rising sun across the horizon, can we take you along with us through our journey?
--Katie Hallee
Cover Art: Cayla Ossen-Gutnick Original Canva Template: Zuzanna Witek Editors: Katie Hallee and Richard King
Caribbean coral reefs may have been experiencing warming ocean temperatures related to human activity before Major League Baseball was established. According to a new study by researchers at the Bove Marine Ecology Lab at Ursinus College, “Caribbean reefs have been warming for at least a century,” with some reefs found to have experienced warming sea surface
temperatures (SSTs) as early as 1871, the year the first Major League Baseball game was played and only thirty years after the Industrial Revolution is considered to have ended That’s 5 years before Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, 25 years before Utah became a state, 74 years before the end of World War II, and 117 years before James Hansen testified to the U.S. Senate about the reality of anthropogenic climate change and global warming in 1988. The study
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
by Bove et al., titled “A Century of Warming on Caribbean Reefs” dives into the history of SST and marine heatwaves (MHW) in the Caribbean and analyzes regional warming trends over 150 years. Dr. Bove defines a MHW event as “anomalously warm sea-surface temperature events, with temperatures warmer than historical climatology for that specific time and location, lasting for at least a 5 day period.” Looking back to historical records of SST and MHW events in the Caribbean provides valuable insight into the rate of ocean warming and its change over time, and synthesizing that information in relation to Caribbean reefs had yet to be done prior to this study The dataset and analysis provided by the research of Dr. Bove and her team are important contributions to the documentation of the changing environmental conditions on Caribbean reefs
Researchers began with the identification and categorization of 5,326 unique Caribbean reefs into eight ecoregions based on marine ecoregion classification parameters provided by the World Wildlife Fund (Fig.2). This dataset of reefs and their broader ecoregions was used to look at trends in SST and MHW events across Caribbean reefs
To understand the trajectory of oceans warming on Caribbean coral reefs over time, Dr. Colleen Bove and her colleagues combined historical measurements taken in situ with satellite data to construct a 150-year long-term dataset of Caribbean SSTs. In total, three datasets with different resolutions and timeframes were compiled to do this: HadISST (from the UK Met Office), Pathfinder SST (from NOAA), and OISST (from NOAA and NASA). The HadISST dataset was a longterm account of Caribbean SST based on temperature reconstruction and observational
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
data collected in situ (although supplemental data, including some from satellites, were included to account for missing information throughout the dataset). The Pathfinder SST dataset included satellite measurements taken twice a day (in the morning and evening) using an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). The Optimum Interpolation Sea Surface Temperature (OISST) dataset combined infrared satellite data and in situ measurements taken daily to detect MHW events and monitor sea surface climatology. Overall, the data that were collected, calculated, and quantified included the rate of SST change through time, the total warming of the Caribbean basin, the total warming of coral reefs within the Caribbean basin, and characteristics of Caribbean MHW events, such as their duration, frequency, and the time between events.
Through the analysis of the data collected from the three databases, researchers at the Bove Marine Ecology Lab found that “Caribbean reefs have been warming for at least a century.” Beginning in 1871, four out of the eight ecoregions surveyed were found to have warmed, and by 1925, all ecoregions saw significant warming (Fig.3).
While there were a couple decades in the mid-20th century where there was no warming trend in Caribbean waters due to increased levels of sulfate aerosols suspended in the atmosphere reflecting solar radiation, data from studies on coral cores confirm longterm ocean warming as early as the 19th century. More recently, for the warming period stretching from 1994-2020, Caribbean reefs were found to have an average linear warming rate of 0 17 ˚C per decade, meaning that if this rate is maintained, Caribbean reefs in 2100 may be ~1.5˚ C warmer. While no widespread coral bleaching was
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
reported in the Caribbean during the 1920s and ‘30s, that’s not to say that the corals weren’t completely unaffected. Sublethal effects, such as negative impacts to coral growth, reproduction, and energy stores, are also detrimental to the health of reefs; and a question has arisen as to whether these sublethal effects would have contributed to the lowered resistance of Caribbean coral reef ecosystems to the MHW events of the 1980s.
As for MHWs; if the growing pressures of ocean warming and local stressors weren't enough, Bove’s research also reveals that not only are MHW events increasing in frequency and duration, but the decadal mean return time (the time in between MHW events) is becoming shorter and shorter.
According to Bove, “The average frequency of MHW events on Caribbean coral reefs has increased from about 1 per year in the 1980s to almost 5 per year in the 2010s, with current events lasting on average about 14 days each ”
Furthermore, instead of the decadal mean return time of MHW events spanning just over a year in the 1980s, the 2010s have seen that time reduced by about two-thirds to only 111 days between events, “suggesting that Caribbean reef organisms have approximately one third the time to recover” in between MHW events (Fig 3)
Dr. Bove’s research shows that not only is the Caribbean heating up, but that it has been for over 150 years; and the impacts of these warming ocean temperatures have been felt especially hard by corals in the Caribbean. Recent MHWs have led to extreme and widespread coral bleaching, and have been associated with the outbreak of diseases such as Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease
Dr. Bove’s research shows that not only is the Caribbean heating up, but that it has been for over 150 years.”
While bleached corals are not dead, they exist in a weakened state and cannot grow, as they no longer have their algal symbionts. Bleached corals can recover, but they need time and less extreme temperatures to do so. As MHWs increase in severity and frequency (Fig 3), more and more stress is being put onto coral reefs that have already been stressed by rising ocean temperatures for over a century. Bove mentions how changing thermal conditions, in conjunction with other stressors such as fishing pressure and pollution, have led to “dramatic” shifts in Caribbean coral reef ecosystems The common understanding of how these local stressors are impacting reefs is that they decrease the coral's ability to
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
endure warming ocean temperatures. However, Bove’s research claims that it is more likely the other way around, with warming making corals more sensitive and susceptible to local stressors.
In addition to providing vital habitat and supporting the marine ecosystem as a whole, Caribbean coral reefs provide many ecosystem services for people. These ecosystem services take many forms, such as supplying food for coastal communities and protecting coasts from erosion; however, all are dependent on the health of reefs. As a result, when coral reefs are threatened by the changing environmental conditions caused by anthropogenic ocean warming, so are the people that depend on them. Slowing the rate of global ocean warming through the regulation of carbon emissions (especially by major emitters in the Global North), is a step in the right direction to save coral reefs in the Caribbean and abroad.
“Corals, Zooxanthellae & Bleaching,” Coral World Ocean Park (2023): coralworldvi com/coralszooxanthellae-bleaching/
C B Bove, L Mudge, and J F Bruno, J F (2022) A century of warming on Caribbean reefs PLoS Climate, 1, no 3 (2022): doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000002.
L S Gardiner, “Six Months After the Heat Spiked, Caribbean Corals Are Still Reeling,” Hakai (March 11, 2024): hakaimagazine.com/news/six-monthsafter-the-heat-spiked-caribbean-corals-arestill-reeling
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
For the first time in 300 million years, ocean acidification is happening at an alarming rate, threatening coral reef ecosystems worldwide. These coral ecosystems are critical for marine biodiversity, supporting a wide array of marine life and coastal communities. But with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels rising, the oceans are absorbing this excess, leading to increased acidity a process that could be devastating for coral reefs
While laboratory experiments have been instrumental in understanding how individual species might respond to ocean acidification, they often lack the complexity of real-world ecosystems. That’s where naturally acidified environments, like those found near volcanic CO₂ vents, come in These sites serve as natural laboratories, allowing scientists to study entire ecosystems under conditions that mimic what may occur globally in the future. A study led by Dr Ian Enochs, a research
by Sara Abraha
ecologist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories (AOML), explored one such site near Mayreau Island in the Grenadines.
At the site that Enochs and his team chose, Mayreau Island, volcanic gasses seep up from the seafloor, creating localized acidic conditions in the water. This venting site allows researchers to observe how coral species react to conditions that resemble future ocean acidification scenarios. Enochs and his team used underwater cameras to create a
high-resolution photomosaic of the reef area, allowing them to map the site in detail. Divers collected water samples from various locations, carefully targeting areas directly influenced by the volcanic vent, as well as control samples from unaffected areas about 400 meters away.
Divers collected water samples with borosilicate glass bottles, carefully positioning them just above the seafloor to capture the water in direct contact with the corals. These samples were analyzed for carbonate chemistry, crucial for understanding how much CO₂ it contained and how acidic it was. Elevated levels of CO₂ increase the water’s acidity (lowering the pH), which can have harmful effects on corals. Higher acidity reduces the availability of aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate that corals need to build and maintain their skeletons. This can hinder coral growth and even lead to the dissolution of their structures over time
Analyses of the water samples included measuring the total alkalinity and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Total alkalinity reflects the water’s ability to neutralize acid, while DIC gives insight into the amount of carbon dioxide present in the system.
The DIC levels were found to be significantly higher than total alkalinity, particularly at the vent site. The researchers observed that DIC was elevated relative to total
alkalinity, with DIC levels reaching as high as 2.95 times the total alkalinity value. This imbalance suggests that the carbonate system was heavily influenced by the CO₂ venting, leading to conditions where the water became undersaturated with aragonite a form of calcium carbonate that corals use to build their skeletons.
Moreover, the most acidified water sample, with a total alkalinity value 399.2 µeq/kg higher than the control site, hinted at active carbonate dissolution. This suggests that the water was acidic enough to start dissolving calcium carbonate, further stressing the coral's ability to
Dr Enochs team storing the water samples Mayreau islands, Grenadines (Courtesy Ian Enochs)
to build their skeletons.
The team was particularly interested in how pH levels fluctuate with the tides, as slack tides appeared to worsen the acidification.
Temperature was another key factor, especially because volcanic
by Sara Abraha
activity can also heat the water. Enochs and his team measured temperatures both at the surface and a few centimeters below the sediment to see how the geothermal heat was affecting the reef. Surprisingly, the researchers found that while the surface temperatures were similar to the surrounding reef, the interstitial water just below the surface was significantly warmer, which could further stress the coral communities.
This comprehensive approach allowed for not only documentation of the current state of the reef but also to understand the underlying environmental factors that are shaping the coral’s ability to survive in such an extreme environment. Despite the extreme conditions, including pH levels as low as 6.54 far more acidic than normal seawater (8 1) “At least three species of corals (Orbicella faveolata, Montastraea cavernosa, Porites astreoides) were observed living in areas that periodically experienced vent-associated acidification,” the study explains. These corals showed signs of resilience, adapting to the periodic acidification brought on by tidal flows and volcanic activity. However, the study also revealed the fragility of this balance. While some coral species adapted to the fluctuating acidity, the overall health of the reef was still compromised. Enochs' team observed that the corals at the vent site were not fully developed, with some appearing as just surface tissue rather than
building substantial skeletal structures. This suggests that while they survive, they are not thriving to the degree seen in less acidic environments. The intermittent nature of the acidification at Mayreau, combined with other stressors like temperature fluctuations, could potentially drive shifts in the reef community, favoring more resilient species while others fade away
Seeing an ecosystem so fundamentally impacted by CO₂ was powerful. I still get goosebumps thinking, ‘Oh my God, this is real'.”
While some species adapted to the fluctuating acidity, the overall health of the reef was still compromised “At Mayreau, I was just really blown away that there was some persistence of some of those corals,” Enochs explained to SEA Writer. “It was interesting that the corals in the vent site weren't super developed, more like tissue on the surface with not a lot of skeleton," Enochs told me.
Enochs emphasized the variability of coral responses to these conditions, stating, “The point is, ecosystems can all take weird directions to different places. There's not just one way that the stressor affects coral reefs it depends on what species they are, how bad the stressor is, and all the
by Sara Abraha
other stressors it's experiencing as well."
The intermittent nature of the acidification at Mayreau, combined with other stressors like temperature fluctuations, might eventually shift the reef community, favoring species that can tolerate these conditions while others decline.
Enochs also highlighted the emotional impact of witnessing these changes firsthand at the Mayreau site. "Ocean acidification has the potential for really impacting the growth of coral... Seeing an ecosystem so fundamentally impacted by CO₂ was powerful. I still get goosebumps thinking, 'Oh my God, this is real.'"
The findings at Mayreau Island present a complex picture of coral resilience. While some species can adapt to the periodic acidification brought on by volcanic activity, the long-term sustainability of these adaptations remains uncertain. "We need to do a better job facilitating and helping a lot of Caribbean nations with ocean acidification and climate work," Enochs said, stressing the disparity in resources. "We are quite privileged in the U.S. with respect to the science we are able to accomplish."
Ultimately, the study at Mayreau raises crucial questions: Are there more sites like this one that might offer further insights into coral adaptation? And how can we better support vulnerable nations facing the brunt of climate change? The
by Sara Abraha
answers remain elusive, but they are vital for understanding the future of coral reefs in an acidifying ocean.
Ian Enochs, et al , “Coral Persistence Despite Extreme Periodic pH Fluctuations at a Volcanically Acidified Caribbean Reef,” Coral Reefs 39 (2020): doi.org/10.1007/s00338-02001927-5
L A Enzor, et al , “Calcification in Caribbean reefbuilding Corals at High pCO2 Levels in a Recirculating Ocean Acidification Exposure System,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, vol 499 (2018): doi org/10 1016/j jembe 2017 12 008
A medieval story on the dynamics and impacts of stony coral tissue loss disease
The waves crashed above, and Baron Peter of Clivosa leaned awake, not from the crashing but from a sharp knock at his chamber door. His hair stood up like a load of tentacles. He hadn’t slept especially well, and this was too early for his liking.
“There’s been an outbreak in the Intersepta kingdom.”
He slunk out of bed and didn’t bother to change out of pajamas before hustling to the meeting room where his advisors had already gathered.
“There hadn’t been an outbreak in a new kingdom in several weeks, I thought it was quarantined,” he said, as he slid into his seat
“Since Stokesii and Strigosa were overcome with it a month ago and it spread like wildfire through seven of the twenty-one kingdoms of Coralea,” the chief medical officer, James, explained, “We hoped it would stop there There were no cases outside of those areas until this morning. We can only hope this is a one-off occurrence and doesn’t
by Claire Lee
spread any further, but it’s not a good sign.”
After the meeting cleared, Peter left to ponder the future of his kingdom. He stopped and peered out of a tower window over Clivosa. It was a beautiful kingdom. It was laid out across a large series of lumpy hills, with houses and buildings scattered winding in maze-like lines inside the walls. These people were his responsibility. He needed to keep
There’s been an outbreak in the Intersepta kingdom.”
them safe Less than a year ago, a major heat wave had caused much of their farmland to dry up, and some sectors had only recently had a successful harvest again. He wasn’t sure if they could handle another crisis like that.
“Sir?”
He turned to see James walk in. “We’ve made some discoveries
about the plague, sir.”
“How? What is it? Will it come here?” Peter inquired quickly.
“We don’t know. We haven’t discerned a pathogen yet, and it seems to travel over both small scales and large ones Latest reports are coming in from the kingdoms of Reefland with new information, though.”
“It made its way to Reefland already?!”
They stood in silence for a minute as Peter thought. Then, he turned to James.
“I want you to visit Strigosa. We need to figure out how this disease works.”
It was the first place the plague had emerged in Coralea. The narrow, winding streets they walked were reminiscent of the streets of Clivosa, yet eerily empty They were
Peter was shocked. It spread more than he had thought.
“It turns out it was there first, and then it traveled coastward to us. Anyways, there are several unaffected kingdoms over there that have sent important data to us.”
“Are we going to be okay?”
“I don’t want to give you unfounded hope. Clivosa is one of the biggest kingdoms in this country, and it infects larger kingdoms more readily Also, the wider range of kingdoms in an area, the more threatening it is, and we live in a very diverse land.”
by Claire Lee
sister kingdoms, built neighboring each other, but Strigosa sat atop a single, hemispherical hill as opposed to the lumpy chaos of Clivosa’s terrain. The king of Strigosa was Peter’s cousin, Paul.
He approached the doors to the main castle where Paul lived The gate creaked open, and he entered the main hall. Staring him down from the throne was a humanoid form. A pristine skull sat atop slumped shoulders Paul’s skin and muscles had all but melted off of his body.
“Oh my god, ” James gasped.
cont'd >
“It’s–”
He leaned on a column and looked away. He knew this was likely what he would see. He had come here with the assumption everyone was dead already, but he had yet to see the true horror of the plague in person. He gathered himself, and started moving to gather a survey of the dead.
It was an unpleasant endeavor to say the least He swept across the kingdom to note the state of the bodies and to get an idea of how long ago each person was infected. He searched the far reaches, hoping to find anyone unaffected There was no one.
“What have you found?” Peter asked, a day or so later when James had returned.
“It’s odd, it seems to have spread out evenly in a circle from the first case, who was affected here,” he explained, pointing to a map he had written numbers and drawn lines all over. “And then, just two weeks ago it slowed down You can see there’s almost nobody infected in that time range.”
“Isn’t that when there was a minor heat wave?”
“Yes, so the disease must be weakened by the heat. At least, it’s slowed down by higher temperatures, but it doesn’t eradicate it.”
“But we can’t deal with too many heat waves, they might cause another drought, another famine, another wave of death in our crop fields!”
“It’s not a suggestion to stop it,” James explained, “We cannot control the heat. It’s an important interaction to take note of, though. I also took some samples, and we may be able to start developing a cure.”
As the month rolled by, Peter looked out across the realm at the wild diversity of kingdoms visible from atop the hill more and more. Some were round, with wavy mazes of streets like his. Some centered on tall, branching towers that spread out as they reached for the heavens. Others were more spread out, with large, round community centers, or tall, cylindrical houses. He looked hopeful. After all, only seven, or, now eight, of the twenty-one kingdoms here had fallen to the disease. Although his land was perhaps the largest one still unaffected, there was always a chance it would stay that way.
The days continued to pass. James’s staff worked tirelessly to develop a treatment from what little they knew As they researched herbs, grasses, or foods to help them, their clock was ticking.
As the fifth week since the outbreak in Intersepta began, harrowing news arrived at Peter's door.
“Report from the Southeastern quarter! A farmer has the plague! It’s arrived!”
End Chapter 1
by Claire Lee
The 2018–2019 SCTLD outbreak in the lower Florida Keys over time and in relation to temperature The red line represents the sea surface temperature (SST, °C), the blue line represents the degree heating weeks (DHW, °C weeks) Average percent of coral tissue loss recorded between surveys per colony and disease incidence are shown in the gray bars This graph exemplifies the negative correlation with incidences of SCTLD and heat stress (Williams, et al , 2021)
The previous story is based on a 2021 study by Sara Williams, et al., “Fine Scale Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of the Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease Outbreak Within the Lower Florida Keys” published in Frontiers in Marine Science. The article lays out the outbreak and spread of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease, one of the deadliest epidemics for stony corals that has been ravaging the Florida Keys and the Caribbean. The primary and most effective treatment for Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease is a base 2B and Amoxicillin paste, which when applied to the area between diseased and healthy parts of a coral consistently halts its progression, although it has been controversial
by Claire Lee
since an antibiotic treatment runs risks of the disease vector adapting to survive and wreak more havoc. Research is still needed in this area to help save the coral reefs from this disease and to stop it from spreading more than it already has
S D Williams, Cory S Walter, and Erinn M Muller, “Fine Scale Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of the Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease Outbreak Within the Lower Florida Keys,” Frontiers in Marine Science 8 (2021): doi org/10 3389/fmars 2021 631776
Aldo Cróquer, et al., “Similarities and Differences between Two Deadly Caribbean Coral Diseases: White Plague and Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease,” Frontiers in Marine Science 8 (2021): doi org/10 3389/fmars 2021 709544
NOAA, ”Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease,” www coris noaa gov
In February of 2022, the Caribbean coral reefs experienced their second mass mortality event in recorded history. The loss of the keystone species, Diadema antillarum, is devastating for coral reefs. This is because sea urchins play a major role in maintaining ecosystem balance.
The first mass mortality event took place in 1983 to 1984 due to an unidentified, species-specific, waterborne pathogen This marked the deaths of over 95% of the sea urchin population in the Caribbean coral reefs, and the absence of sea urchins has allowed blooms of algae to take over coral real estate. The recent event has been even more catastrophic.
by Keegan Kukucka
Dr. Don Levitan led a study that disclosed the severity of the 2022 event. His research showed that sea urchin population densities were reduced by 98% compared to 2021 and by an astonishing 99.96% compared to 1983 The majority of the surviving sea urchins left were juvenile, being less than 20mm in diameter. After surveying 5,000m² of reef, researchers found only six adult sea urchins larger than 20mm, highlighting the drastic population loss (Fig. 3).
The per capita mortality from 2021 to 2022 was 0.998, surpassing the previous mass mortality that had a per capita of 0.996. This difference may seem insignificant, however, in 1984, 94% of 100m 2 quadrats had at least two sea urchins present, some with up to 37 individuals. In the summer of 2022, only 10% of quadrats contained two sea urchins and only one contained two adult individuals (Fig 4). These numbers could get even worse as th i lik l
Comparison of sea urchin diameter between 1983 and 1984 in A and 2021 and 2022 in B
decline in sea urchins has led to the bulk of the population to be juveniles, these juveniles can’t control the algae population effectively. The low population density also contributes to the failure of finding mates and increasing population size. This creates a cycle where the population can’t expand because there aren’t enough individuals reproducing to increase numbers
The major loss of sea urchins has directly led to coral reefs being dominated by algae. Many of the Caribbean’s iconic corals are broadcasters This means that they release either male or female gametes into the water where they will be externally fertilized. Once fertilized these eggs will settle down on the reef. These corals need algaefree spaces to grow, but the increasing density of algae on the reefs are taking up needed real estate, which is why these corals are rarely recorded on present-day reefs.
Brooding corals are settling in the algal-free zones of the Caribbean reefs. These corals reach maturity quickly and have a small adult colony size. Brooding corals produce eggs that are internally fertilized, this allows a high success rate of reproduction at low densities. After fertilization occurs, larvae are produced, they typically settle immediately after release close in proximity to their parent This allows for brooding corals to prevail in these algal-free zones. Even these more resilient corals, however, are
threatened by the unchecked spread of algae due to the lack of sea urchins.
This study by Dr. Levitan uses long-term monitoring and has been collecting data on these reefs
Without this keystone grazing species, algae will continue to outcompete coral species, especially broadcasters, preventing coral recruitment.”
since 1983. Over this time valuable data about sea urchin population and coral health have led to a better understanding of current reef health.
There were five sites established in 1983 at two to six meters in depth. This was then expanded to twentytwo transects in 1996 at five to fourteen meters in depth These sites provided important data on sea urchin density, diameter, as well as coral recruitment trends.
The decline of sea urchins has led to fewer corals settling on the reefs, because algae outcompetes them for space. This trend highlights the importance of sea urchins within coral reef ecosystems and their recovery, as well as the potential long term consequences of their continuing decline in population density.
This drastic reduction of the sea urchin population presents a major threat to the future of Caribbean coral reefs. Without this keystone grazing species, algae will continue
by Keegan Kukucka
to outcompete coral species, especially broadcasters, preventing coral recruitment. To combat this urchin crisis, researchers are exploring ways to restore populations. One major way is the cultivation and release of the Diadema species. Dr. Levitan says “People have been trying to culture and release juvenile Diadema since the 1990s. This is a problem of scale. When you put 1000s in a small area, most get eaten right away. Hard to think about doing this at a meaningful geographic scale.”
The continued research by scientists like Dr Levitan is vital to understanding the complex dynamics of these marine ecosystems and searching for solutions to preserve the biodiversity of coral reefs for future generations to enjoy.
by Keegan Kukucka
D.R. Levitan, R. Best, and P.J. Edmunds, “Sea Urchin Mass Mortalities 40 years Apart Further Threaten Caribbean Coral Reefs,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120, vol 10 (2023): doi org/10 1073/pnas 2218901120
Hylkema, et al , “The 2022 Diadema antillarum Die-Off Event: Comparisons With the 1983-1984 Mass Mortality,” Frontiers in Marine Science 9 (2023): doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.1067449.
For millennia, Caribbean coral cover kept pace with erosion until the 1970s, when the first dramatic decline in elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata), an Atlantic reefbuilding coral, resulted from whiteband disease. After the dramatic decline, reef erosion became and continues to be the most dominant process affecting Caribbean coral reefs.
Increased erosion in Atlantic reefs presents complex, multifaceted issues. Coral reef erosion means reefs deteriorate faster than they can create (or build calcium carbonate), thereby slowly dying. Dying coral reefs provide less protection against rising sea levels, causing more erosion and creating a positive feedback loop. Thus, increased erosion driven by rising sea levels clears entire biological communities, vibrant cultures, and local people alongside their reefs
To tackle and potentially save coastal low-lying land, Dr. Lauren Toth, a research physical scientist at
by Jeremy Kaufman
the St. Petersburg Coastal and Marine Science Center, took on the challenge. The article "The Potential for Coral Reef Restoration to Mitigate Coastal Floods as Sea Levels Rise," led by Dr. Toth alongside other researchers, analyzed the needed restoration efforts of elkhorn coral at multiple locations along the Buck Island Reef National Monument to outpace rising sea levels by 2100. In order to calculate the numerical value of elkhorn coral that needs to be planted to outpace rising sea levels, the study gathered and computed census-based carbonate budget models and hydrodynamic modeling.
a ) A bird's eye view of Buck Island with all 54 sites plotted with reef-accretion potential indicated by shades and sizes of Blue (positive potential) versus Red (negative potential) dots calculated from the 2016 carbonate census data b ) The variance in taxa's carbonate production on the north side of Buck Island versus the south side was determined from the 2016 carbonate budget census data (Toth, et al , 2023)
Census-based carbonate budget models calculate the pace of erosion vs. the pace of accretion within coral reefs, basically determining whether a reef is building on itself or eroding Meanwhile, hydrodynamic modeling uses projected elevation change in the seafloor from reef erosion or restoration alongside rising sea levels to determine potential flooding. The study chose fifty-four sites at a variety of depths and distances on the north, south, and east sides of the island to calculate values for a census-based carbonate budget and imaging for hydrodynamic modeling by the end of the century.
The 2016 Carbonate Budget Reef Census results did not look promising for elkhorn coral or coral reefs on Buck Island in general, with an average of 1 56 millimeters of elevation lost. Interestingly enough,
by Jeremy Kaufman
91% of the erosion happening in Buck Island reefs was not due to increasing storm intensity or rising sea temperatures but rather to the parrotfish. However, parrotfish are not to blame for the erosion, but rather a decline in coral accretion due to rising ocean temperatures. The resulting evidence shows Caribbean reefs simply can not keep pace with the changing waters as of today, let alone in the future
As seen in the figures above, the reefs on the south side of Buck Island seem far healthier than those on the north, but this is due to higher coral cover to begin the study. In other words, the south side of the island will face the same fate as the north, delayed by a couple of years, suggesting restoration efforts are not only needed for the worstaffected areas but also for the entire island
Rising sea levels bring worsening storms, which in turn contribute to coastal erosion and the death of elkhorn coral, which, as Dr. Toth and her team state, is a process "not considered explicitly in our carbonate budget " Thus, the data is most likely even more bleak than the initial figures above suggest.
In a private interview with Dr. Toth, I asked if she could ever see her work coming to fruition.”
Restoration efforts of elkhorn coral took place from 2019 to 2021 with promising results; according to the study, "the average planar surface area of the colonies increase[d] by 196.21 centimeters^2 per year," along with 6.99 cm being added to their height per year
After analyzing the carbonate budget models, Toth and her team conducted testing of coral aquaculture. Then, after calculating elkhorn coral's growth rate, accretion vs. erosion (carbon budget census), rising sea levels, and worsening storms in combination, they calculated the number of fragments needed They proposed that if average growth rates continued and a large-scale restorative planting took place (500,000 fragments ) in the near future (before 2030), then the most optimistic" modeled scenarios showed nearly a 30% increase in coral cover by the year 2100.
However, average modeling showed a 10% increase in coral cover. They found that a minimum 25% increase in coral cover is necessary to outpace rising sea levels combined with increasing erosion, an unlikely scenario even with 500,000 fragments planted. The modeling does not factor in coral disease, further casting doubt on the feasibility of this scale of restoration outpacing rising sea levels
Planting 500,000 elkhorn coral fragments is a labor-intensive task, with each fragment needing to be hand-planted. Thus, in a private interview with Dr Toth, I asked if she could ever see her work coming to fruition. She responded, "There is ongoing coral restoration effort by the national park service, including Buck Island. To be able to get to that scale of restoration would take a lot more effort and a lot more money, frankly."
Putting a monetary value on the restoration of the Buck Island’s scale is a complex task due to the resources necessary According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA), each elkhorn coral fragment is $25 USD. Thus, the planting of fragments of 500,000 would cost 12 5 million dollars. Other monetary factors that will increase the restoration cost on Buck Island are the manual labor of planting and transportation of resources
However, Toth and her team defend the point that the expensive investment is actually worth it in the
by Jeremy Kaufman
long run The study adds that Buck Island alone "generates 2 million dollars in tourism per year," nearly all of which would vanish if the reefs were too. Buck Island is also home to sea turtle breeding grounds and three endangered sea turtle species that can not be valued monetarily.
In the most optimistic scenario, again, which is a 30% increase in coral cover by 2100 and sea level rise not exceeding 0.5 to 1 meters, then this "could allow Buck Island National Monument to keep pace with sea level rise by 2100." In addition, if a 30% increase in coral cover is achieved, then storm surges from a would-be category five hurricane would equate to that seen by a category one hurricane, overall decreasing erosion and death of restored elkhorn coral. If the restoration is successful, it would create a negative feedback loop where diverse coral species could
by Jeremy Kaufman
continue to grow without the need for continued restoration. So, what do coastal Caribbean nations do?
"Resources are limited," Toth says "Do you spend money on coral restoration, or do you spend money on other things that are going to more quickly and more directly help people on the islands?" said Dr. Toth. "That is a decision for people above my pay grade," she added.
NOAA Fisheres, “Elkhorn Coral,” www fisheries noaa gov
Toth, Lauren, et al., “The Potential for Coral Reef Restoration to Mitigate Coastal Floods as Sea Levels Rise,” Nature Communications 14, no 2313 (2023): doi org/10 1038/s41467-023-37858-2
Rogers, Caroline, et al “Coral Reefs of the US Virgin Islands,” in Coral Reefs of the USA, Riegel and Dodge, eds (Springer Science: 2008): 303373.
A recent study quantifies coral reef calcium carbonate projections for the years 2050 and 2100 under different climate models.
Imagine a coral reef, visualize the complex and vibrant underwater structures beaming with life. However, you can’t seem to preserve this image. The corals are losing all their color, bleaching until nothing remains but a bleak white skeleton. This dire outlook is already happening globally within our
oceans. Dr. Christopher Cornwall, Senior Lecturer in Marine Biology at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand told the SEA Writer in an interview that it is likely “by the end of the century coral cover will be less than 10% of most reefs, if not zero.”
Cornwall and his international team of scientists conducted a study to assess the future of coral reef
by Katie Hallee
calcium carbonate production under different climate models. What is the fate of these vibrant ecosystems, once beaming with life?
Coral reefs are marine ecosystems comprised of colonies of individual animals called polyps Corals create their skeletons by producing calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium carbonate production is important because it creates habitats for biodiverse species, protects shorelines from storms and erosion, and generates 3.4 billion dollars for the U.S. economy from fisheries and tourism However, coral reefs are largely threatened by global factors such as ocean acidification and warming. Due to rising ocean temperatures, more and more carbon dioxide is being absorbed. When dissolved in seawater, increased carbon dioxide causes fewer carbonate ions that corals need to build their skeletons. Furthermore, corals become stressed as ocean temperatures rise from human activities. Due to their low heat tolerance, corals will
bleach. During this process, corals expel algae called zooxanthellae, which have a symbiotic relationship with the coral polyps. These zooxanthellae are vital for coral health because they provide food, energy for growth, and waste removal services. Other local factors such as pollution, overfishing, and disease also negatively impact coral reef health.
Despite the significance of calcium carbonate production for
coral reefs, the global-scale impact of ocean warming and acidification on coral reef net carbonate production rates remained largely unexplored. To address this knowledge gap, Cornwall and his team completed a study in 2021 that used data from 233 locations to project the impact of ocean acidification and warming on net carbonate production for coral reefs in all ocean basins under different climate change scenarios
Cornwall’s team used data from more than “800 empirically measured changes in net calcific-
by Katie Hallee
Location of study regions and their net carbonate production (kg CaCO3 m 2 y 1) in the present (A), in 2050 under each RCP model (B, C, D), and in 2100 under each RCP model (E, F, G) The color spectrum shows negative and positive net carbonate production, with red shades representing negative production and green/blue shades representing positive production (Cornwall, et al , 2021)
ation rates,” bioerosion rates, and sediment dissolution in 98 studies across 183 coral reefs to investigate the fate of calcium carbonate production The study also used previously published ocean acidification and temperature data to calculate future ocean pH and temperature estimates. This allowed them to project global coral reef net calcification measurements and accretion using a regression-style approach. For each of the 98 studies, the research team linearly regressed net calcification measurements for each coral species against pH and temperature values to find a slope
by Katie Hallee
and intercept for current ocean conditions. The study used these regressions to estimate calcification response to different future climate change scenarios
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Emissions developed climate models in 2014 called Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5. RCP2.6 is a low-emission scenario, RCP4.5 is an intermediate-emission scenario, and RCP8.5 is a highemission “business as usual” scenario. These models were used to estimate CaCO3 production and vertical accretion for the years 2050
and 2100. The Cornwall study also accounted for reduced coral cover due to coral bleaching in their 2050 and 2100 estimates of net carbonate production and potential accretion. This is an important consideration because bleached corals struggle to have the energy to produce calcium carbonate without having zooxanthellae living in their tissues.
Cornwall and his team found that for the coral reefs at every site, the net carbonate production was projected to decline. Using the intermediate-emission model, the average decline in net carbonate production is projected to be 119% by 2050 and 148% by 2100. Even more devastating, the average decline in net carbonate production using the “business as usual” model is projected to be 149% by 2050 and 155% by 2100. Therefore, for intermediate and “business as usual” climate model scenarios, calcium carbonate production will not be possible in a mere twenty-six years. Cornwall told the Sea Writer when a reef “is no longer able to accrete vertically or produce calcium carbonate, what happens is that reef slowly will start to crumble.”
Without new carbonate production, this could lead to the eradication of coral reefs. The declines in coral reef net carbonate production were found to be so extreme that there will be no reef accretion globally by the year 2100 using the intermediate and “business as usual” models. This means that coral reefs will cease to grow by the
end of this century, only seventy-six years away under these projections. Using the low-emission model, the average reduction in global net carbonate production for coral reefs is projected to be 71% by 2050 and 77% by 2100 These projected declines in carbonate production are largely due to estimated coral bleaching events. It is also worth noting that since this paper was published, NOAA announced a 4th mass bleaching event.
Without new carbonate production, this could lead to the eradication of coral reefs.”
Dr. Cornwall says “The reality of the situation is that in our model we also apply reductions in coral cover that kept to a certain level of heat stress and that’s around a 10-degree heating wave. I think in Florida it was something like a 28-degree heating wave so 2 8x the maximum magnitude that we account for.”
This emphasizes the severity of coral bleaching impacts on calcium carbonate production, which may be even more extreme than the models quantified. At the same time, the RCP2.6 model sparks hope for coral reef calcification in the future under a low-emission climate model.
These study results demonstrate that higher emission scenarios exacerbate negative impacts on coral health and lead to the greatest
by
Katie Hallee
reduction in net carbonate production. If our carbon emissions are not reduced, leading to an intermediate or high emissions scenario, coral reefs will not be able to have positive net carbonate production This will cause coral reefs to be unable to fortify their skeleton and cease to accrete vertically. Dr. Cornwall says “Think of it as a piece in a big pie and you kind of have to make up all those pieces of the pie in order to solve the problem.” Pieces of this “pie” include phasing out coal, oil, and gas, to renewable energy, developing technology to draw out CO2 from the atmosphere, switching to electric cars, and curbing emissions. Under the lowest emissions model, RCP2.6, coral reefs have the potential to maintain positive net carbonate production. Therefore, if climate mitigation is prioritized by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, coral reefs would have greater potential to survive and continue to offer their benefits of harboring biodiversity, protecting our coastlines, and supporting our economy. This study's global projections of how ocean acidification and warming will impact coral reef calcium carbonate production attest to the significance of a future aimed toward achieving net zero carbon emissions in order to give fragile ecosystems, like coral reefs, the best chance at survival Cornwall emphasized the importance of halting our emissions immediately, saying “Coral reefs as
we know them will not exist in the future if we continue to burn fossil fuels at the present rate. There's no way around it.”
Cornwall, C E , et al , “Global Declines in Coral Reef Calcium Carbonate Production under Ocean Acidification and Warming,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 21, no. 118 (2021): doi org/10 1073/pnas 2015265118
Fezzi, C , D J Ford, and K L L Oleson, “The Economic Value of Coral Reefs: Climate Change Impacts and Spatial Targeting of Restoration Measures,” Ecological Economics 203, no 107628 (2023): doi org/10 1016/j ecolecon 2022 107628
US Department of Commerce, NOAA, “How do Coral Reefs Benefit the Economy?” October 9, 2008): oceanservice noaa gov/news
by Katie Hallee
By:KatieHallee
“CoralReefsasweknowthemwillnotexistinthefutureif wecontinuetoburnfossilfuelsatthepresentrate.Thereis nowayaroundit.”Dr.ChristopherCornwall
Halttheemissions andthereefwillbeteeming withlifeandbeauty.
Continuetoburn andwewillnolongersee thereefweonceknew.
Date: September 19, 2024
Location: SEA campus, Woods Hole, MA
Weather: 68˚F and rainy
My name is Keegan
Kukucka. I am a junior at Syracuse University majoring in Biology with a focus in Environmental Science. My experience at SEA has been great so far It is much different than the 200-person lectures that I normally attend at my home institution. The small class sizes mean that class time is more discussion focused, which is something that I have been getting used to, coming from large class sizes that are heavily focused on lectures.
Our group is particularly small compared to the other group on campus, which is split up between two houses. I think this allows for a tightly woven sense of community, as the seven of us are basically always together. Whether it is preparing food, studying, just hanging out, or going on late night walks in the rain. This sense of community is something that SEA really focuses on. The relationships we build on the shore component will allow us to work better as a team
while doing our field work. This sense of community isn't confined just within our program, however. On Tuesday we had the chance to have a guest speaker, Richard Vevers, come talk to us about a documentary that he was a part of. Vevers now works at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a local research facility within the scientific community of Woods Hole.
Before being an ocean conservationist, Vevers had a
successful life in advertising. He talked about his work and how one day he decided he could be doing more and making a difference. He dropped advertising and in 2010 founded The Ocean Agency. Vevers’ background in advertising allowed
by Keegan Kukucka
him to communicate environmental issues in a way that would resonate with the general population. This is seen in the documentary Chasing Coral, which we had the pleasure of watching a couple days after hearing Vevers speak. This documentary takes a deep dive into a major environmental crisis, the rapid declining of coral reefs This film captivates viewers by using beautiful underwater cinematography, while focusing on the message that these reefs are essential to marine life, and they are dying at an increasing rate
The part that stuck with me the most from this film was seeing the time lapses that they showed during the climate conference. These time lapses showed corals degrading from their vibrant colors and start to bleach, and then become fully white, then covered with algae, and then
by Keegan Kukucka
dead. This stuck with me because the clips that they were using for these time lapses were only months apart start to finish.
This documentary is not just a showcase of the environmental crisis that is currently occurring around the world, but it is a call to action. The film ends with a hopeful message, showing young children becoming interested in the reefs and urging viewers to join the fight against climate change. It calls for systematic change and highlights some communities that have already started to step to the call to action.
I'd like to thank Richard Vevers for the talk that he gave to us, as well as my friends, family, and girlfriend that have helped me get to where I am today.
When faced with a largescale ecological catastrophe, most animals simply live until they can’t anymore. Hummingbirds suck nectar from flowers until their final flutters, largely ignorant to the increasing struggle of finding fresh reserves of fructose until their final moments. They collapse, weak and unholy. We see this, and it is purposeful. Some benevolent creature, the human, has opted into feeling the pain of knowledge. Our reaction to the pain is the dedication to promoting to the world that ignorance, by propagating life on our own terms The human ability to see what’s wrong with the world is a purposeful step by nature. It is an inherent punishment to the altruistic, an all-you-can-eat buffet for the starving, and freedom for the Machiavellian. Our shared knowledge provides self-righteousness for the ignorant and a call to action for the dedicated. The ability to make choices that propagate life is a
by Leandro Nuckols
gift we should take at every moment, so as to not show disregard for our ancestors that landed us here If we are to unquestioningly bask in the fruits of our labor, we are proving to the world a moral indifference, a karmic debt that will be passed on to our offspring in eventuality. We can choose, selfishly, to remain ignorant to the tumult, or inversely to actively play a role in reorganizing the natural order. The ability to step in where it’s needed is an inherited skill, but the facilitation of this transfer of knowledge is hampered in capitalism’s promotion of consumption. If we continue to be limited by this peculiar scope of the
world, humanistic, angry, ravenous, and clouded by materialism, how will we know where to place our hummingbird feeders? What sets us apart from the hummingbird striving for its last meal? How are so many of us blind to the digressions we’ve made to the world, and how will we open our eyes? It starts with the support and attention of those lifeforms deemed lowly. If we are to be worldwide ecological dominators, the creators of some intelligential hierarchy, deeming motile lifeforms more important than the immobile, we have to realize it and act accordingly. With our scientific prowess, we have now proven to ourselves the damage we’ve done to the sanctity of our planet. We have
ideological absolution of our burden to the world. We forget about the hummingbird. We relax, narrowing our focus toward the bright colors flashed on screens, manufactured in factories, built from crystalline materials dug out of craterous holes by unpaid cousins and nephews. We have hammered the nail of artificiality into our desires, minimizing the breadth of our benevolence as thinking beings Luckily, a few of us saw the link between affinity for artificiality and strained environmental health, and chose to work against this deleterious cycle
In the past, some of us invested time in elucidating the repercussions of our forefathers’ actions. Somehow, these tree-huggers were
seen forests razed, corals dynamited, and marshes paved. Yet our main mobilizer, the dollar, has secured its way into missiles containing nuclear warheads, luxury goods, and the creation of more dollars. Our collective consciousness veered towards the monetary and
by Leandro Nuckols
seen as hysterical by most of the public. They were seen as directionless and unproductive, antithetical to notions of “progress.” This is because the foresight of decision-makers had long been limited to human interests; we knew we could put up with smoke from
smokestacks and coal-firedeverything, at least for a little while, especially if it put food on the table. But our carbon footprint became a carbon bigfoot print. We got fat and lazy and bought vacation homes on lakes in the Poconos If we traveled to the tropics, it was to tan and get inebriated on the beach. There was little incentive to consider the health of coral reefs, and all the incentive to bronze our bodies in tanning beds. Our time and money was invested in ourselves and our simple interests, dulling our collective love for the environment. Those who somehow had money and a love for nature spurred a reversal in the agenda. It took until the mid-20th century for our moneyed humanfocused interests to ebb, leading to investment in marine biology, chemistry, and ecology. Only then could we understand the dilemma that decision-makers of the past put us in.
The ocean, thank God, has taken the brunt of the byproducts of our wanton overconsumption We didn’t know this until at least the late 20th century. It sucked up most of our carbon dioxide for years, from right under our noses. We’ve been heating it up, acidifying it, bombarding it with nuclear explosives, yet it’s remained, somehow, a holdout in terms of diversity of marine life. According to an IPCC report, ocean temperatures have increased by 2.3˚F on average since then. But those numbers mean nothing to us, compared to the animals of the coral
reef. The best indicator of our damage lies in these coral reefs, a long-neglected stepchild of conservation efforts, partially due to its lack of adjacency to the lives of most of humans. In the Caribbean, where coral cover has been decimated by disease in recent history, macroalgae have taken over. Honestly, if I were to discriminate against any particular lifeform, it would be macroalgae
Putting
could
urchins and crabs in a box
be one part of a larger
effort to help with the productivity of reefs, but it really can’t happen if we just keep our eyes closed to it.”
Until about the midAnthropocene, the human era of modern history, corals provided shelter and habitat at a commendable rate along shorelines. A rigid balance between corals, sponges, microbes, and algae kept reefs vibrant and ecologically complex. Fish and invertebrates flourished, and would have flourished for eternity. But this motif of marine species diversity couldn’t last forever As oceans acidified, corals began to dissolve. Their calcium carbonate structures weakened, their polyps bleached themselves of their symbiotic algae, and the reef’s inhabitants began to have nowhere to hide. Macroalgae swept in, asserting themselves as the dominant primary producers, cont'd >
by Leandro Nuckols
leaving coral larvae nowhere to root. This stymied coral productivity across the whole Caribbean.
To make matters worse, as corals die, the structural complexity of reefs lessens, leaving immobile invertebrates with nowhere to hide, fully exposed to predation. This trend continues to this day, and is exacerbated by population loss to disease, among other things. A 2022 study found that 98% of Caribbean spiny urchins contracted a microscopic parasite, genociding the main consumer of algae on reefs. It’s like if bird flu swept through an entire population of hummingbirds on Earth’s most plentiful wildflower field. In the Caribbean, this marked a tipping point there would be no coming back from in the near future. Naturally. Unless there were, somehow, some combination of species that could, say, eat the prolific algae.
Trivia: How do humans address animals’ mass mortality events, especially when certain species are close to extinction? Using scientific methodologies, such as putting them in a comfortable box, as well as feeding and breeding them! It seems simple enough, but the science behind it isn’t well-studied, super diverse, or well-funded, meaning we don’t know exactly how long to keep them in said box, what to feed them, or how to breed them. If we were to somehow redirect some of the capital expenditure for bombs towards marine animal research, the ship could run a lot smoother, and
I’m not talking aircraft carrier. Anyhow, putting urchins and crabs in a box could be one part of a larger effort to help with the productivity of reefs, but it really can’t happen if we just keep our eyes closed to it Paradoxically, our eyes are more open to it than ever before. We understand better than ever before the holistic impacts of human intervention towards ecosystems, positive and negative, but we still can’t scrounge up the funding to create lasting change, especially in coral reefs.
Few people have the ideology of a human debt to nature, since it’s somewhat based in fear of the world exploding, but now you’ve read it and feel it a little bit too. You have a smidge of my reasoning, going forward, and I leave you with this. Biocentrism, or making choices that support life instead of detracting from it, is the only way out of a slow, painful, and ignorant death like that of the hummingbird. We finally know the scale of what's been done wrong, what’s happening to the bulk of contemporary life on Earth. We know we may, too, end up simply living until we can’t anymore, primitively thinking about our next meal
by Leandro Nuckols
Ideserve an Apology. Now, before you get defensive, put up a wall and ignore my point entirely, let me explain because maybe you deserve an apology, too.
Every scientific article I read is depressing, every poll I hear is frightening, and every presidential candidate I see is uninspiring. My classes are filled with grim statistics, both names on my presidential ballot are pro-fracking, and my favorite species is going extinct This is not some riddle, this is life.
I don't have the choice to ignore like those before me; I don't get that luxury. Do I blame you for using a combustion engine or single-use straw? A little. But, you don't need to apologize to me. I understand you, just like I am, are going about life, and a new car is simply too expensive I get it I'm 20, and you would too, if you were 20.
But I still deserve an apology, no? My generation is the one who "has to act." I'm the one who has to read about things I didn't contribute to; I carry that burden.
Before you try to chime in with advice, like you always do, I don't need it. I don't need anything from a generation who has utterly failed the
by Jeremy Kaufman
ones who will come after them. People who will watch others take advantage and sit idly by; I don't need their advice. I don't need guidance from the nine-to-fivers playing into a system of inherent exploitation of goods and workers; I'm fine.
I don't need anything from a generation who has utterly failed the ones who will come after them.”
I swear, I really am fine.
I am one of the lucky ones; I come from privilege and currently live in it I am not here to confuse you or complain but rather to educate you. Educate on a world and future I am destined for, one you will never see.
Recently, I read an article similar to the one I wrote of above (Toth, et al. on coral restoration). The study was located off a relatively small island on the coast of St. Croix. The main question was, how many coral fragments do we need to plant in order to outpace sea level rise? I’ve read a million articles about rising sea levels. I'm basically an expert, just like all other 20-year-olds. The answer: 500,000.
fragments.
I know that's meaningless to you, so let me translate.
Each coral fragment costs 25 dollars, so it would cost 12.5 million dollars to buy the fragments and hopefully save a reef off the coast of St. Croix. Realistically, when we start adding in transportation, aggregation, and installation of the corals, we are probably looking at a 20- to 25-million-dollar restoration effort
See, when I say that I know what you're thinking; it's not worth it. And the US government agrees with you.
But I hope you feel sad, I hope you know that I feel sad when I hear that.
I got a chance to speak to the study's author. She was your age, and it surprised me. I asked her, "What do small Caribbean nations, who can't spend 20 million dollars on a restoration effort, do to save their corals?" It's an impossible question; I understand that. She responded, "That's above my pay grade " And fair enough, it is, but that was not my desired outcome.
I asked her, "Do you ever expect to see your work come to fruition." "To be able to get to that scale of restoration (500,000) would take a lot more effort and money, frankly," money they don't have. Again not the answer I’d hoped for.
I wish she and all others like you would tell me the truth because I see through your half-hearted responses. I know Caribbean nations are doomed, I’m asking to see if you
know that. Will her work ever come to fruition? Of course not. I did not grow up blind. In fifteen years, there will be no live coral left on St. Croix; we all know that. These questions are not to educate myself; they are a test for you to see where you lie
So, what do we do with this, You and I?
You keep failing my tests, year after year. It’s like you're stuck in 6th grade Every year, you see your test scores getting bleaker, yet you study the same way. Why don’t you question your tutor, your teacher, your school, your system.
I'm sorry, though You probably work a job you don't want to and struggle to pay to fix the dent on your car. You don’t deserve the burden of saving the world. You shouldn't have to care about coral; they don't care about you. Oh, but I have to care
This world you set me up for, or the one which I have to care about everything, is why I need an apology. Keep going about your days, living in comfort Meanwhile, I’m stressing about every step I take, in which world is that fair, yours or mine?
I'm here to educate, so let me. This is what you have set me up for: A world will require massive coral planting to save a reef, that's my reality, and I didn't want to plant corals for a living.
A world in which there are no redwoods, they all burned down A world where every day, a new person becomes a climate refugee, and my house is already full.
by Jeremy Kaufman
A world who you would never recognize.
So, Let me ask: Are you ready? And if you were, you would have apologized.
by Jeremy Kaufman
Toth, Lauren, et al , “The Potential for Coral Reef Restoration to Mitigate Coastal Floods as Sea Levels Rise,” Nature Communications 14, no 2313 (2023): doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37858-2.
Date: October 16, 2024
Location: Feather Leaf Inn, St Croix, USVI
Weather: Imagine a humidifier on top of a running oven in a studio apartment. Now add bugs.
The Feather Leaf Inn sits perched atop a hill overlooking Butler Bay in St. Croix. Boasting one of the most complete colonial histories of a plantation estate I’ve encountered during my time here, owners Ryan and Corina have done great work archiving their property’s tenure of tragedy. Serving as agricultural land, a sugarcane mill, and a rum distillery, the estate produced what would be worth millions of Danish kroner during its lifetime. Every step of this process relied on the labor of enslaved peoples, who were reduced to vessels of production of capital, much like the land they toiled. Most of the land on the island was burned, slashed, and generally desecrated in favor of the production of sugarcane. These ecological and humanitarian apocalypses were long protected by Danish law, earmarking a torturous anthropogenic timespan wherein the ruling class had exactly one goal. MONEY!
The actions of the Danish and
by Leandro Nuckols
other colonial powers left the land mostly a monoculture, which became overgrown with invasive species over time The emphasis on production of capital left St. Croix and other Caribbean islands ecologically much less interesting than they would have been sans plantation complex. The Feather Leaf Inn assumed the
undertaking of propagating native and historically important trees, a step that property owners in postcolonial lands should consider as a top priority. Doing so honors the story of the oceanic interchange that shaped our tropical islands, while simultaneously beautifying them.
Conservation is a direct rebuke to extractive anthropogenic pressures aimed at production of capital. Paradoxically, conservation requires financial assistance to work Today, we went out for a rainy hike with Professor Olasee Davis, Crucian environmentalist and historian. Surmounting the great peak of Maroon Ridge, we overlooked the swathes of land he’d recently advised for NOAA conservatory status. Maroon Ridge was a final resting place and clandestine refuge for Crucian runaways fleeing punitive Danish slave codes. The cost of protecting the sacred coastline
totaled $75 million dollars in land acquisitions, thanks to federal stimulus.
Later in the day, around 4 pm, we went out to the Sandy Point Wildlife Refuge. Sandy Point is a hotbed of sea turtle brooding activity Leatherbacks, hawksbills, and green sea turtles all nest in beaches in Sandy Point, making the area prime real estate for conservationists. Hawksbill turtles are critically endangered, engendering suitable amounts of concern for their species’ health and the health of the habitats that support them. This concern inherently has a price tag It necessitates the transfer of economic funds to intangible feelings. The miracle of life, for example, tugs at our heartstrings. The beauty of it leaves us emotional and in turn generous. If we could toss money at sea turtle hatchlings and have it mean something, we
by Leandro Nuckols
would. But instead, we toss our money towards people passionate at promoting said miracle of life, in this case sea turtle hatchlings This process, investing our financial excesses in initiatives with intangible returns, is natural. It is a sign of a communal sense of caring
So when thinking about conservation, the answer is always yes, to whichever degree is deemed fit, on a spectrum between diminutive and colossal. However, the money for that conservation may have to come from distant lands. Lands with money often have a debt to pay to the preservation of the sanctity of nature, since said money was made unnaturally, using brutal, ignorant, and extractive methods.
Conservation stands as a form of reparations, backpay to nature and its stewards for centuries of thankless altruism
by Leandro Nuckols
Date: October 15, 2024
Location: St Croix, USVI
Weather: Extremely hot and humid with light wind from the southeast
Two or three years ago, a few of my colleagues and I huddled around a bonfire at SEA’s campus in Woods Hole. We started a conversation about the potential for entirely shore-based ocean education programs at SEA. The coral reef programs sounded like an excellent candidate since many reefs can be accessed from the beach. Fast forward to today...we are finally implementing the program and collected our first set of scientific data! It has been so amazing to see the program unfold with such an incredible group of students.
My name is Dr. Heather Page, and I am one of the Program Directors (Shout-out to my co-director, Dr. Craig Marin!) I joined SEA in 2019 as a full-time Oceanography faculty member who specializes in coral reefs SEA attracted me because doing research and traveling abroad as a student were the most profound learning experiences of my academic career; I feel honored and humbled that I can help provide other
by Heather Page
students with similar learning experiences.
Each time we have snorkeled in St Croix, it’s hard to ignore the signs of trouble on the reef. The water is toasty warm, resembling a hot tub more so than a refreshing pool. We are surrounded by stark white bleached corals; these corals, stressed by heat, have lost their algal symbionts that provide most of their energy for survival. Every single Siderastrea siderea coral is purple instead of their usual green-ish hue, another sign of temperature stress. Many corals that aren’t bleached are partially or completely dead from diseases. Pollution is scattered across the seafloor. The coral reefs are struggling to adapt to climate change and regional threats like pollution. With a loss of corals, comes a loss of
of the many goods and services they provide to the ocean and to humans. So, what do we do? Coral reef conservation needs a combination of approaches across local, regional, and global scales. Restoration, protection, education, monitoring, research. When creating our research program, it started with conversations with local reef managers, scientists, and restoration practitioners First, we listened We learned about existing monitoring and research efforts at each island.
First, we listened. We learned about existing monitoring and research efforts at each island.”
We also learned which reefs they would like us to monitor and what type of data would be most useful for coral reef conservation. Then, we developed a research plan that would address their needs and build a robust long-term dataset of coral reef health While this dataset “lives” at SEA, it will be shared with each of our local partners and will be available to anyone who requests the data. Students will have the opportunity to engage with many of our local partners who are leading coral reef conservation efforts in the Caribbean.
This fall, we will get a snapshot of how reefs are doing in St Croix, Anguilla, Dominica, and Barbados. We use common snorkel-based research techniques to assess coral
cover and health, fish and invertebrate communities, and water quality on reefs at each island. In the spring, we will do similar surveys at four different locations. This process will be repeated year after year. These annual snapshots (or surveys)
over time will allow us to start exploring how reefs are changing in response to human impacts – both good and bad. How are reefs responding to climate change, pollution, and overfishing? On the flip side, how do marine protected areas and coral restoration affect the reef ecosystem? Stay tuned as we learn more throughout our research and connections to local communities!
I am sure you will hear all about our local field trips and snorkeling adventures through our blog. We collected our first set of data from Cane Bay, St. Croix today, so the research is off and running! And I am the best kind of exhausted after a full day of fresh, salty air and sunshine, so I am off to bed!
Best Fishes, Heather
by Heather Page
Exhausted, starved, thirsty, and with some of his men suffering from scurvy,
Captain Thomas Bilton and his nine crewmembers drifted up onto a beach of Anguilla, a tiny, low island in the eastern Caribbean. It was 1707. They had sailed across the Atlantic from Portugal, nearing the coast of Virginia when a gale blew their ship back to the open sea, almost to Bermuda. Their ship began to take on water and then sank, leaving the crew with just the ship’s tender to serve as a lifeboat. When they stumbled onto the sand of Long Bay, Anguilla, after thirty-one days since abandoning their ship, the sailors were surely uncertain of what sharp-toothed dangers lurked in the shallows And they certainly could not have guessed that their story would lead to a minor mystery more than three centuries later.
The meta-story here, before we get back to Bilton and his shipwrecked crew, is that I taught the Environmental Communication class for this group (this magazine is our major project). Meanwhile, I write and illustrate a quarterly column
by Richard King
for Sea History magazine that examines historical human relationships to ocean animals. For the upcoming issue I wanted to research a species relevant to where the students were visiting, especially since I wasn’t traveling in person with them to the Caribbean.
To this end, thanks to the Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society website, I found Captain Bilton’s Journal of His Unfortunate Voyage (1715), which he published after he eventually returned to England. At the back is a section titled “Prospect of the Isle of Anguilla,” with accounts of several “strange Four-footed Beasts.”
Of all of the animals, the crocodile is declared the most remarkable. Crocodiles, “hideous to look on,” could grow to be eighteen feet long. Their teeth could cut a person in
two and the scales on their back and head were so hard that a musket ball barely made “an impression.” The author learned to recognize their smell when out of the water and observed how the crocs hunted by floating as still as a log The Unfortunate Voyage concluded:
“There are abundance of these monstrous Crocodiles in these Islands that come in great Numbers in the Night to the Places where the Tortoises are killed, to feed on the Entrails left by Fishermen, who carry great wooden Leavers to keep them off, and oft kill them by breaking their Back therewith ”
By the published description and their range and ecology, these would most likely have been the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus). But today there are no crocodilians of any species in Anguilla. In fact, there are now no resident crocodiles anywhere in the eastern Caribbean (aside from an occasional pet introduced into the wild). Did Captain Bilton fabricate seeing these
on Anguilla, or where they in fact resident in the numbers he described? If the latter, what happened to the animals?
American crocodiles certainly can make the passage from island to island. Sergio Balaguera-Reina and his colleagues found that American crocodiles in 2012 and 2018 likely crossed about 700 kms of open water in the Caribbean Sea, in the ocean long enough that the first arrived with barnacles on its skin
Perhaps they are slowly recolonizing one part of their historical range?
American crocodiles still live on the larger islands of the Caribbean, such as Hispaniola, which is less than 600
by Richard King
km west of Anguilla, with Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands en route.
This suggests it is plausible that American crocodiles once lived on Anguilla and the other islands of the eastern Caribbean. Records from early European pirates, explorers, and naturalists describe crocodilians in other parts of the Caribbean, and they record their own reckless hunting and decimation of crocodile, shark, and turtle populations It’s also possible that the original cultures of the region, such as the Taino and the Kalinago communities, who might have numbered in the millions across the Caribbean islands when the Spanish arrived, may have eradicated or at least severely reduced crocodile numbers in some locations.
So, I thought, Captain Bilton’s account of the presence and behavior of crocodiles on Anguilla was probably pretty reliable, an easy story for my magazine column. However, that was until further research using Google Books, Archive org, and the Biodiversity Heritage Library revealed that Bilton’s publisher in England, perhaps finding the journal of their ordeal too brief and not worthy of the six-pence cover price, copied this natural history section verbatim from The English Empire in America (1685) by Robert Burton. This earlier account had lovable illustrations, including one of a crocodile
Okay, it was Burton then that must have visited Anguilla and left this important historical account of
the island? Again, no. Robert Burton was the pen name for editor Nathaniel Crouch, who stole the crocodile description from a still earlier book, The History of the Caribby-Islands (1666), originally published in French This account did not place the crocodiles in Anguilla at all, but broadly in the Caribbean and more specifically in the Cayman Islands, the small island group with a well-known history of turtles and crocodiles.
As I was digging into this archival research, I was lucky to correspond with Charlie Manolis, who kindly answered my blind query to the Crocodile Specialist Group (of the IUCN) and helped me fact-check. I also emailed with Frank Mazzotti of the University of Florida, who stated regarding the historical presence of crocodiles in Anguilla and the Eastern Caribbean: “Maybe yes, but no reliable records.”
Indeed As this small story shows, historical records require careful scrutiny and healthy skepticism. Yet piecing together historical ranges of
by
Richard King
marine life and our historical relationships to apex predators can have huge benefits for our understanding of current coral reef ecosystems. Knowledge of past populatons helps management, the creation of forward thinking mpas, and can be effective public advocacy, especially since, according to Thorbjarnson, et al. crocodiles are “a flagship species for the conservation of coastal ecosystems.”
S A Balaguera-Reina, et al , “Tracking a Voyager: mitochondrial DNA analyses reveal mainland-toisland dispersal of an American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) across the Caribbean,” Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 131 (2020): 647-655.
T Bilton, Captain Bilton’s Journal of His Unfortunate Voyage A (London: Bettesworth, 1715)
J Thorbjarnarson, et al , “Regional Habitat Conservation Priorities for the American Crocodile, Biological Conservation 28 (2006): 2536.
by Richard King
Date: November 17, 2024
Location: Barbados
Weather: 80˚ F, overcast and windy with scattered rainstorms
Hello SEA blog readers!
Long time no see, but it’s Cayla, and I’m finally back writing another blog post! With the end of our time in the Caribbean approaching so quickly, things have been very busy I can’t believe we have less than a week left! Everyone has been writing such great blog posts about our travels and the wonderful people we have met along the way, but something I think hasn’t been discussed here enough has been all the amazing terrestrial and marine life we’ve seen.
Back in Woods Hole at the very beginning of this program, we over
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
in C-House started a list on a stickynote of all the cool animals we were seeing. The rule was that you either had to get a photo of said animal, or you had to have a witness with you to confirm the sighting if you wanted to add the animal you saw to the list We ended up amassing quite the collection: white tail deer, eastern cottontail rabbits (a.k.a. bunnies), chipmunks, swans, wild turkeys, squirrels, gray seals, shrimp, mummichogs and silversides (a.k.a. minnows), blue crabs, long-wristed hermit crabs, and a bay scallop (which have dozens of electric blue eyes and are definitely worth a google) were just some of the animals on our list
Admittedly, we kind of stopped adding to the list once we arrived in the Caribbean, but we’ve been keeping track in other ways! Writing in our Environmental Communications journals, taking photos, and of course, marking down species counts for our reef surveys, have all been helpful in reflecting on all the cool critters we’ve encountered both underwater and on land. For my blog post, I thought it would be fun to share our sightings and write a few “Creature Features” to showcase some of the animals that have stood out the most on each island we’ve visited
How could I begin to talk about our stay in St. Croix without talking about the Caribbean hermit crab! Hermit crabs are not considered to be “true crabs” because of their inability to grow their own shells. We saw hermit crabs back in Woods Hole, but the hermit crab species we saw all over St Croix is quite different from the long-wristed hermit crabs we saw in Cape Cod. Two major reasons why: 1) They were much bigger, and 2) They were living on land instead of in the water!
At our 1st St. Croix accommodation, Northside Valley, there would always be a crowd of hermit crabs outside of the little villas we were staying in, and whenever we finished eating something in a jar, the owner of Northside Valley told us to put the jars outside and let the hermit crabs do the cleaning for us. This helped us save water that we would’ve used cleaning out the jars, and since the hermit crabs got a snack out of it too, it really was a win-win situation
We saw more sea turtles on St. Croix than on any other island St Croix is home to three different sea turtle species: leatherback, green, and hawksbill, all of which nest on St. Croix’s shores. We didn’t see any leatherbacks during our snorkels, but we did see a bunch of greens and even some hawksbills! Green and hawksbill sea turtles look pretty
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
but there are a few key ways to tell them apart. Hawksbill sea turtles have overlapping scutes, a pointed beak, and two pairs of prefrontal scales between their eyes. Green sea turtles have neatly interlocking scutes (what the plates on their shells are called), a more rounded head and beak, and only one pair of prefrontal scales in between their eyes.
Something truly special we got to experience was the excavation of a green sea turtle’s nest with our partners at the St. Croix Sea Turtle Project. Part of their monitoring work includes doing nest surveys and nest excavations which take place three days after the majority of the eggs in the nest have hatched. Nests are excavated to count eggshells, unhatched eggs, and find any live baby sea turtles which have had trouble hatching or digging themselves out of the sand. We were lucky enough to find some baby
Green sea turtle, St. Croix, October 2024 (SEA) turtles during our excavation, and they were extremely cute to say the least. Watching them scuttle across the sand and get gently pulled into the ocean by the waves was worth every single mosquito bite I got that
odd-looking, the ballyhoo is still a very pretty fish with its silvery scales, half-yellow tail and hints of iridescent red around its beak We saw these guys swimming in schools at the ocean surface in Anguilla, but
Spotted eagle rays are always an exciting find; underwater they’re graceful swimmers, and they also exhibit an exciting behavior where they use their “wings” to propel themselves and leap out of the water either completely vertically, or at a 45˚ angle. We didn’t see too many spotted eagle rays during our snorkel surveys, but I was able to photograph two during our free-day snorkel in Crocus Bay.
We’ve seen so many anoles on every single island we’ve visited. While at first glance many of them looked the same, after a while you’d start to notice small differences. In Dominica there were a lot of anoles that waved their tails side-to-side, a behavior I’d never seen before. That led me to do some research, and I ended up learning that there is a lot more to anoles in the Caribbean than meets the eye For example, on Dominica there are two different anole species: the introduced Puerto Rican anole (Anolis cristatellus), and the endemic Dominican anole (Anolis oculatus) which is the only native anole species in Dominica and has four ecotypes that can be found on different parts of the island. These ecotypes used to be considered separate subspecies, but that claim has since been debunked by both morphological and molecular studies. Another behavior exhibited
by both species found in Dominica are the “push-ups” of the male anoles as they bob their heads to try to attract a mate or ward off competitors
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
Eels (especially moray eels) tend to have a bad reputation due to their massive teeth and their habit of hiding in and looking out of crevices while opening and closing their mouths. While this may appear menacing, opening and closing their mouth is just the way these eels breathe; they have to gulp in water in order to pass it through their gills. During our snorkel surveys, we were seeing eels left and right, and the diversity of the species we were
seeing was incredible! If I asked you to think of an eel on a coral reef, I bet you would probably think of the green moray (Gymnothorax funebris) with its bright green skin and violet eyes. However, the reefs we visited were home to many other eel species, like the black and yellow-patterned chain moray eel, the goldentail moray eel with its bright golden-yellow spots, and the goldspotted eel which ironically has white spots.
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
I was so excited when I s fireflies flickering in the fiel Paradise Point (our accomm the night we arrived in Barb always really liked fireflies a more I learn about them, th enthralled I become with th amazing little guys. Fireflies known as lightning bugs (if google “lightning bug vs fire you can see which phrase g more in different parts of th but they are actually beetle aren’t actually considered “ “true bugs.” I’m not an entomologist so I don’t think I’m the right person to try to explain that difference between what is and is not a “true bug” or “fly”, but if you like correcting people, knowing this could be a fun fact to pull out at parties (“Umm aCtUaLLy lightning bugs aren’t real bugs”). Anyways… there are around 2,400 known species of firefly worldwide, but the ones I saw in the field in Barbados were probably Dixon’s striped fireflies (Aspidosoma ignitum) based on firefly sighting data from iNaturalist.
These innocent-looking amphibians are TINY, but don’t let that fool you…these frogs are LOUD. Measuring in at less than 1.5 inches, a singular frog can have a call louder than 75 decibels (nearly as loud as a vacuum cleaner), and a chorus of frogs has been clocked being as loud as 96 decibels! We’ve heard these frogs on every island we’ve visited, but the chorus has definitely been louder on some islands than others. Between the whistling frogs and the roosters, a lot of people were having trouble sleeping in the beginning of our Caribbean travels
by Cayla Ossen-Gutnick
Throughout our semester--in Woods Hole, St. Croix, Anguilla, Dominica, and Barbados--inspiring local people, too many to list, generously gave their time to teach us about their homes, places of work, ecological relationships, and conservation research and practices. For this 2024 issue we feature just five of these inspiring partners in education. (This photograph is of Masterline Eustache teaching our group how to make cassava bread as a part of our Kalinago Tours programming in the Kalinago territory, Dominica. Photo by Sara Abraha)
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing oceanographic research and engineering . Although their research spans across the globe, our class had the opportunity to visit the institution and experience the exciting research taking place right in Woods Hole. While at WHOI we spoke with coral scientists including Dr. Amy Apprill about her coral reef microbiology research, Natalie Danek about coral nursery nutrient experiments, and Dr. Marine (Yaqin) Liu about coral reef policy. To learn more about WHOI you can visit: whoi edu
Olasee Davis is an environmental activist, historian, ecologist, and professor at the University of the Virgin Islands in St. Croix. He has written over 6,000 articles for the Virgin Islands Daily News and the St Croix Avis newspaper. While in St. Croix, we had Professor Davis over for dinner, and he taught us about the history of St. Croix, including the changes in land use over time and sugar cane production. Professor Davis then generously offered to lead us on a hike of Maroon Ridge, where he taught us about local ecology and how the ridge was considered sacred for its role as a refuge for enslaved people. Learn more about Professor Davis and his work at: ufdc.ufl.edu/collections/uvidavis
While in Anguilla we had the opportunity to visit the Anguilla Department of Natural Resources. Jasmin Ruan, Remone Johnson, Carlos Sasso, and Kafi Gumbs, from the Fisheries Unit, gave us an insightful tour and presentation about marine park maintenance and data collection efforts across Anguilla. We were also very fortunate to speak with Zoya Buckmire from the Environment Unit, a former SEA student, about her research concerning mangroves. To learn more you can visit: naturalresources.gov.ai/department /fisheries-unit
Simon Walsh is the director of coral reef restoration for Oceans Forward, a local organization that works toward the health of Caribbean marine biodiversity through a range of initiatves He also runs Nature Island Dive Shop and is the project manager for Resilient Dominica, which supports hurricane recovery. As a class we had the opportunity to visit Simon’s dive shop to learn about his coral nursery and restoration efforts. We also learned about the dive shop’s “bioball” project, which are small plastic balls with lots of surface area for invertebrates to reside. To learn more about Oceans Forward visit: www.oceansforward.org
Nikola Simpson is the founder of Sustainable Caribbean, which offers sustainability and consulting services. Nikola calls herself a change-maker, and she conveyed this attitude when our class had the opportunity to speak with her in Barbados Nikola also invited us to attend a charity auction put on by the Barbados Arts Council, Sustainable Caribbean, and the Fisheries Division to raise money for Barbados fisherfolk. This opportunity allowed our class to gain insight into local Bajan culture. To learn more about Nikola’s work visit: www.sustainable-caribbean.com/
Armed with a coral reef monitoring plan developed with local research priorities and student projects in mind, we departed Woods Hole for St. Croix on October 9th Our Caribbean itinerary included four islands: St. Croix, Anguilla, Dominica, and Barbados. We spent the first few days on each island developing a sense of place through history and cultural tours and orientation snorkels. We planned to conduct ecology surveys paired with water quality measurements at two sites on each island Unfortunately, the Christmas Trade Winds kicked in early this year, preventing us from completing any surveys in Barbados. For the other three islands, we surveyed one site within a protected area and one survey in a location where human water activities were allowed (e.g.,
fishing, diving); this pairing of sites on each island gave us insight into the effectiveness of protected areas which can help inform reef management.
The first snorkel at each site was a reef reconnaissance to determine best placement of transects, understand water movement (i e , currents and waves), informally assess reef communities, and deploy our water quality sensor, a Seabird HydroCAT-EP v2. We deployed this sensor at three sites in St Croix (Cane Bay, Isaac Bay, and Butler Bay), two sites in Anguilla (Sandy Hill Bay and Shoal Bay), and two sites in Dominica (Soufriere Pinnacles and Scott’s Head)
The sensor measured seven water quality parameters: temperature, salinity, pressure, pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll a fluorescence (aka productivity), and turbidity We programmed the sensor to take measurements every 30 minutes
by Heather Page
while it was sitting on the seafloor within the reef environment. The sensor remained on the reef for up to 72 hours. We then retrieved the sensor and uploaded the data. We recorded abnormally high seawater temperatures across the region which explains the high prevalence of coral bleaching. There was geographic variation in seawater pH, oxygen, and turbidity related to localized oceanography and terrestrial impacts via runoff
We did ecology surveys of two reefs at each island (six reefs total). To avoid bias in data collection (aka selecting the ‘best’ looking parts of the reef), we laid down a 20 meter transect (2-4 per reef depending on weather conditions) and collected data along these transects using standardized methods in coral reef monitoring We took photographs of the seafloor every meter along each transect, resulting in 40-80 pictures per site to be analyzed on shore. These photographs were imported to an online repository called CoralNet.
by Heather Page
We then overlaid 20 stratified random points on each image and manually identified what was underneath each point. Using this data, we could clearly see most reefs have low coral cover and instead are dominated by seaweeds. Fish and invertebrate abundance and diversity were measured using three techniques (roving diver survey, belt transect, and stationary point count). We counted and identified over 5,500 fishes and approximately 4,900 invertebrates in these surveys.
We also quantified 3D complexity of the reef using the chain method to calculate rugosity; structurally complex (rugose) reefs potentially support more biodiversity due to more surface area and nooks and crannies for species to use as habitat or hiding holes.
Dr Heather Page will be collating a final science report that includes all the data to be archived at SEA and shared with local partners in the Caribbean.
Date: November 19th, 2024
Location: Paradise Point, Barbados
Weather: 84˚F and cloudy
Wow, so blog, this is it, my final entry To commemorate my entry, I am going to talk about a topic that has become dear to my heart: coral. Coral is no rock or plant, but a living organism made up of individual polyps Corals come in different shapes, colors, and sizes, with some containing only one microscopic polyp and others being 100 feet long, with hundreds of
thousands of polyps. Coral polyps share a symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellate algae, a species living in their tissue. Dinoflagellates are essential for the survival of corals, providing nearly 90% of the nutritional requirement.
Corals use their energy from feeding and photosynthesis to secrete calcium carbonate as a method of growth. Over time, shallow reef coral species, through the accumulation of calcium carbonate, build a three-dimensional environment. The three-dimensional structures built by corals are filled with pockets, tunnels, and
by Jeremy Kaufman
overhangs, providing a safe haven for fish and invertebrate species. Coral reefs span the entire globe but inhabit less than 0.1% of the ocean floor yet supply nearly 25% of the ocean's biodiversity. Species found within a shallow coral reef vary greatly, from massive sharks to tiny worms, but each species fills a vital ecological niche within the greater coral reef ecosystem.
Unfortunately, coral reefs are dying Coral degradation on reefs due to anthropogenic causes such as sea level rise, worsening storms, and increased erosion are well documented. Nearly 19% of the world's corals have died from coral bleaching, and another 35% are critically endangered. According to the GCRMN (Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network) today, on Caribbean coral reefs, there is only 10.2% coral cover, the lowest in human history, which sadly brings
me to my next point: conservation It is quite disparaging that we now must rely on conservation to revitalize a once beautiful, vibrant, and diverse ecosystem relied upon by millions.
Why should a fisherperson from St. Croix have to stop fishing a reef because of carbon pollution from a faraway country?”
Coral reefs are more than just a place for tourists and scientists to swim, snorkel, and scuba dive They are a place of great cultural importance, religious identity, economic stability, and food source for people around the globe, but especially in developing nations.
With that being said, coral reef conservation does play a crucial role in revitalizing coral reef health, but it must fight more than an uphill battle, a climb up Mount Everest. Coral reef conservation must walk the fine line of allowing people to access resources they need while preserving coral reefs during times of unprecedented anthropogenic effects. We have personally seen and heard from marine protected area managers, and conservationists about the struggle to convince the public to conserve coral reefs, and it makes sense; why should a fisherperson from St Croix have to stop fishing a reef because of carbon pollution from a faraway country?
by Jeremy Kaufman
The number one challenge coral reef conservation has is education. Until people understand the importance of coral reefs and the unfathomable challenges that they face, little progress will be made. The good news is we can educate people, and islands surrounded by coral reefs are already doing the work. On every island we have visited, we have talked to organizations and local partners of Sea Education Association who are actively going into schools teaching children about coral reefs, teaching local islanders how to swim and snorkel, and talking with local fisherpeople to discuss the placement of Marine Protected Areas.
Change is happening, albeit too slowly; so, if you care about coral reefs, there is so much for you to do. Below are just some of many examples of ways to join in the fight to protect coral reefs:
*Educate yourself, your family, and your friends on the drivers behind climate change, ocean warming, and coral reef degradation.
· *Reduce your own greenhouse gas emissions and call upon companies, businesses, and governments to do the same.
· *Donate to amazing conservation efforts around the world.
· *Vote for people who will take action in the fight against climate change.
While I know this topic is scary, saddening, and anxiety-producing, the fight to keep coral reefs is a chance to prove that education and community are stronger than corporate greed and polarization. We all play a vital role in providing the next generation with a chance to live in a world where corals do not bleach every nine months and there is no need for coral restoration projects Let's make that happen Lastly, thank you to my six classmates, each of whom are amazing people who have joined in this fight to make the world a better place Our 25-year reunion will be packed with stories of Cayla saving whales, Leandro’s groundbreaking non-profit ideas, Sara’s new freediving world record, Keegan’s professional underwater photos, and Katie’s discovery of a new marine species I am so excited to see the amazing things each of you achieve throughout your fruitful careers and wish you all the very best.
Sincerely,
One of your CRCC 2024 class representatives, Jeremy
by Jeremy Kaufman
Date: October 24, 2024
Location: Crocus Hill, Anguilla Weather: 87ºF, humidity 79%, feels like 99ºF
We are now over two weeks into our field component in the Caribbean, and we have been fortunate, as the previous blogs reveal, to work with a remarkable array of wonderful collaborators and other local expert contributors. It is one thing to read about the history, environmental concerns and conservation efforts in academic works and news pieces; it is quite another to hear directly from community members and on-theground researchers, cultural interpreters, naturalists and coral reef restoration experts. It reveals the truly dynamic nature of the places we are traveling to in the Caribbean and helps us all begin to appreciate both what local communities face in the region in terms of environmental conservation and cultural preservation needs and the amazing work already underway to address these concerns.
My name is Craig Marin, and over the last twelve years, I have had the distinct pleasure of introducing
by Craig Marin
students to both the Blue Humanities (the history, literature, art and other cultural expressions from an oceanic perspective) and to SEA’s partners in the Caribbean. Year after year, we returned to some of the same locations and worked with the same partners Now, with more time in each location, we can take these collaborations to new levels and form more reciprocal partnerships with shared knowledge and data.
I have been eagerly anticipating the start of this program for the last several months, and it is truly a pleasure to look around me now, in the midst of our field work component, and see it all coming together so well. Indeed, our
students, as you have learned from their wonderful blog entries, are at the heart of the success of this program. They are approaching their field work with open minds, generosity with each other and our hosts, and with a respectful curiosity. None of this is possible without their commitment to learning about and contributing to the conservation efforts in our island destinations
And, of course, here to assist them in their endeavors is our program and research team. Keeping us all healthy and happy and generally serving as the glue that holds the program together is our outstanding program assistant, Sydney Lynch. Sukanya Dayal, our Reef Teaching Fellow, brings the coral reef science to the fore daily with our students with her brilliant mix of confident direction, good humor, and encouragement of the students’ experiences of learning by doing. And, as both the co-director of this program and the primary architect of the curriculum, Dr Heather Page, having guided the students in their research project design in Woods Hole, is now literally at their sides in the water, leading them through the scientific field research process and handing over more and more responsibility to them as we progress through the program. With so much of the essential work of this program covered by this trio, I have the time to focus on helping the students further contextualize the
environmental, economic, political and cultural aspects of conservation efforts throughout the Caribbean. Achieving the goal of learning, researching and sharing findings with the communities we visit is a team effort involving faculty, staff, students and our wonderful on-site
collaborators I am looking forward to continuing this process with this dynamic group of curious, capable and generous coral reef researchers and scholars.
Many thanks to all who contribute to and follow this program both here on the ground and from afar. We appreciate your support! Stay tuned for more accounts of our research and interactions over the next few weeks.
Gratefully, Craig
by Craig Marin
Over the course of the semester, we brainstormed about these issues, then after doing research for six weeks in the Caribbean and speaking to stakeholders we voted on the below (Keegan Kukucka, ed.; icons from thenounproject.com).
We want companies to…
* Donate a portion of their profit to environmental initiatives and conservation
* Invest in green technology
* Cut carbon emissions
We want our government to…
* Put stricter regulations in place for carbon emissions, pollution, and pesticide use to clean our air and water
* Start funding more research in ocean sciences and technological improvements
If we had money to donate, we’d want to support…
* Coral reef restoration projects
* Innovative technologies aiming to reduce CO2 in the atmosphere
* Renewable energy source projects
We want to support future research, especially on…
* How sea level rise will impact the future of coral reefs, islanders, and Native people
* Effects on increased erosion of reefs and island geography
* Carbon capture technology and green energy sources
As individuals we can…
* Vote to support policies that prioritize cutting back on emission pollution, and other harmful activities that impact reefs worldwide
* Spend money at places that prioritize emission cutting
As we conclude this journey through four vibrant Caribbean islands, it’s hard to believe how much has happened in just twelve weeks. It wasn’t just the miles we covered or the data we collected; it was the memories we created, the lessons we learned, and the bonds we formed From the grueling hikes under the relentless Caribbean sun to Isaac Bay in St. Croix lugging snorkel gear, a $30,000 hydrocat, and food coolers while singing “The Ants Go Marching One by One” to the hours spent hunched over laptops processing nearly 10,000 benthic data points, this program challenged us in ways we never expected
Our research was demanding, but it taught us the value of teamwork and adaptability. The unpredictable weather often forced us to pivot our plans. Strong swells and currents on some days made duck diving nearly impossible We learned to work with what the environment gave us, even when it felt like it was working against us. These moments reminded us that, in fieldwork, nature always sets the pace, and flexibility is just as important as preparation.
We found strength in our shared challenges. Whether it was identifying coral and algae in painstaking
detail or enduring Dominica’s winding, bumpy mountain roads where the scenery was both breathtaking and disorienting we discovered the joy of camaraderie. These experiences created connections that went far beyond the work itself. We joked about “trauma bonding,” but the reality was that we grew into a cohesive team, united by our commitment to each other and to the work we came here to do.
The Caribbean has left an indelible mark on us, and we leave with a renewed commitment to its people, its ecosystems, and its future.”
Beyond the science, the program opened our eyes to the complex tapestry of Caribbean cultures, histories, and people. Each island welcomed us with its own unique identity, from the lively streets of Bridgetown to the tranquil shores of Anguilla. In Dominica, we were reminded of the resilience of communities living in harmony with nature, even in the face of challenges In St. Croix, we walked through towns where every street seemed to carry echoes of history, from the colonial architecture to the lively festivals celebrating freedom and
identity. We learned about the deep scars of colonialism and the indomitable spirit of the people who have shaped these islands into what they are today.
These lessons extended to the reefs themselves Our research brought us face-to-face with the realities of climate change and human impact, but it also revealed the resilience of these ecosystems. Coral reefs are often called the “rainforests of the sea,” and now we know why. They are vibrant, complex, and fragile, yet capable of incredible recovery when given the chance We learned to see the reefs as ecosystems and also as cultural and economic lifelines for the
communities that depend on them. Through it all, the people we met made the experience unforgettable. From the scientists who displayed their research to the locals who shared their deep knowledge of the sea, every interaction enriched our understanding of the Caribbean. We were constantly reminded of the interconnectedness of everything the reefs, the cultures, the histories, and ourselves A prime example of this connection came during our bio ball search for the long-spined sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, in Dominica. We hoped to spot these keystone organisms critical for reef health, as they graze on algae that could otherwise overtake the coral.
While our search turned up empty, our snorkel surveys throughout the islands revealed an encouraging number of these urchins scattered across the reefs. This delicate balance between the urchins, algae, and the corals highlights just how intricately tied the health of the reefs is to the livelihoods of the people who depend on them. Not only do these urchins help sustain the marine ecosystem, but by preserving the reefs, they also support the fisheries, tourism, and coastal protection that so many communities rely on.
As we pack up and prepare to return home, it’s hard not to feel sad because it feels like we’re leaving a part of ourselves behind, but there’s also a sense of hope and purpose. Each reef we surveyed, each benthic image we analyzed, and each conversation we had about conservation strategies felt like laying a small stone in the foundation of a larger, collective effort. We’ve seen firsthand the urgency of protecting our oceans from bleaching events that leave reefs vulnerable to the growing impacts of plastic pollution and unsustainable fishing practices that deplete marine resources—but we’ve also seen how science, collaboration, and community engagement can make a difference. We’ve learned that change starts with awareness, grows with community, and endures with action
We are not just students documenting change; we are part of the change. By taking what we’ve learned here about the reefs, the people, and the cultures that depend
on them and then sharing it with others, we can contribute to a broader awareness. This magazine itself is a reflection of that mission. It’s a record of our journey, but also an effort to amplify the voices and stories of the Caribbean stories that can often go unheard. Through this platform, we can bring attention to the challenges these ecosystems face and highlight the importance of preserving them Every article, photo, and story shared here is a step towards that larger goal. Our work is not finished just because the program has ended. It continues in how we advocate for policies, how we educate those around us, and how we carry the stories of the people and places we’ve encountered. And while we may not transform the world overnight, we’ve learned that change begins in small, consistent acts like the care we put into our research or the way we supported each other on the hardest days.
To anyone who reads this magazine, know that this is not the end of our story. It is just the beginning. The Caribbean has left an indelible mark on us, and we leave with a renewed commitment to its people, its ecosystems, and its future Together, we can march forward, ants, scientists, storytellers, and all, toward a world where both reefs and human communities can thrive.
–-Sara Abraha
Sara Abraha, Carleton College
Katie Hallee, Wheaton College (MA)
Jeremy Kaufman, Pitzer College
Keegan Kukucka, Syracuse University
Claire Lee, Macalaster College
Leandro Nuckols, Grinnell College
Cayla Ossen-Gutnick, Mount Holyoke College
Dr Heather Page, Oceanography
Dr. Craig Marin, Marine Environmental History
Dr Richard King, Environmental Communications
Sydney Lynch, Program Assistant
Sukanya Dayal, Reef Teaching Fellow
Dr. Craig Marin is an Associate Professor of Atlantic History at SEA. He’s the founding coprogram director and Marine Environmental History Professor for CRCC, thus becoming the world’s only sailing historian who does not sail.
Sydney Lynch used to work in SEA admissions but has been working as a program assistant and medical officer for the past year and loves it! She loves iced coffee, cute animals, and frolicking in the ocean with SEA students. While Sydney will not say it, we know we are her favorite group
Dr. Rich King is a writer and illustrator, and proud supporter of the work of the CRCC students in their environmental communications efforts. He teaches along with his patient dog, Daisy.
Dr. Heather Page is the founding co-director of the CRCC program and an Assistant Professor of Oceanography at SEA Not only is she an expert coral reef ecologist, she is an interdisciplinary, holistic educator, committed to diversity and inclusion--and she is a master organizer!
Sukanya Dayal is the Coral Reef Technician for the CRCC program. After finishing her masters in marine biology at the University of North Carolina Wilmington, Sukanya joined this program as the Coral Reef Teaching Fellow. She loves calm seas, watching movies with Sydney, and tending to her child, HydroCatherine.
Katie Hallee is a junior at Wheaton College majoring in Environmental Science. She is the kindest, sweetest person, with a big heart and a deep passion for protecting the environment. She has an incredible ability to connect with others; whether she’s making friends easily or laughing over the smallest things, her warmth and authenticity shine through.
Cayla Ossen-Gutnick is a senior at Mt. Holyoke College studying environmental studies. She is also getting a certificate in coastal and marine science In the future Cayla hopes to pursue marine conservation with a focus in scientific communication.
Jeremy Kaufman is a junior at Pitzer College double majoring in environmental science and geology. He enjoys playing the card game “Presidents” and never gets upset when he loses for more than one game consecutively Jeremy’s dream is to become a marine biologist.
Leandro Nuckols is from Chicago, Illinois and is an economics major at Grinnell College. He is passionate about creative solutions to funding conservation Leandro loves to make people laugh, especially during presentations, doing rugosity measurements, and networkings
Sara Abraha is from St. Paul, Minnesota, and is a chemistry major and biochemistry minor at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota. She can do an entire benthic survey on her own, loves hanging out with all her friends here (especially Katie), and is the best person in every possible measure
Claire Lee is from Washington D.C and is currently a junior at Macalester College majoring in biology. She a part of multiple ultimate frisbee teams and is a committed team player, both on the field (playing frisbee) and in the field (doing research).
Keegan Kukucka is a third-year biology major at Syracuse University. The first and only concert he went to was Pentatonix He loves fishing, bodysurfing, and Diadema sea urchins. If you kick a soccer ball at him, he’ll probably catch it.
Hydrocatherine Is from a manufacturingdistributor in the United States and new to SEA. She loves collecting oceanographic data for all her students She like to hang out at the bottom of our snorkel sites and eat sand.