SEAWRITER.SeaQuest.Coral.Issue2.2022.pdf by Sea Education Association

SEA Writer The student magazine of the Sea Education Association, Woods Hole, MA, USA ISSUE 2, 2022 Coral Reefs & Climate Change

SEA surveys the health of Pacific corals by using photographs and PVC frames known as quadrats, like this one in 2016. SEA Quest students analyzed these for their Oceanography project.

Introduction p. 4 5 "Warming Water, and a Higher Tolerance'' 8 10 ''How Vulnerable is Pacific Marine Life to Climate Change?" 11 13 "From Ridge to Reef: Efforts Behind Conservation in Mau’i, Hawai’i" 14 16 ''COVID 19 and Small Scale Fisheries in Africa"" 17 19 "How Satire Can Be Misunderstood and Its Impact on Climate Change" 20 24 ''Small but Mighty: What Bacteria Can Tell Us About The History and Future of the Great Barrier Reef'' 25 28 "Green Sea Turtles Foraging Grounds Threatened in Southeast Asian Seas" 29 32 "Can Herbivorous Crabs Assist in Saving Seaweed Choked Corals?" 33 36 Contents ''When the hunter becomes the hunted'' 37 40 "Interventions to Help Coral Reefs under Global Change A Complex Decision Challenge'' 41 43 ''Lab grown corals could provide relief for degraded reefs'" 44 46 "Coral Transplantation: a glimmer of hope for dead and dying reefs" 47 49 "'Quality and Quantity: Prioritizing Management In MPAs" 50 53 "Utilizing Ecological Processes to Promote Coral Recovery" 54 56 ''Coral Restoration Effectiveness: Multiregional Snapshots of the Long Term Responses of Coral Assemblages to Restoration'' 57 59 "Climate Change in Kiribati" 60 63 "What We Can Do About Corals" 64 Coda 65

Sea Education Association (SEA), a non profit organization based in Massachusetts, USA, is an international leader in the field of ocean studies. During two weeks in late July and early August of 2022, SEA held an online program called SEA Quest on the topic of “Coral Reefs and Climate Change.” SEA Quest is a fun, engaging, and inclusive summer program for high school students from all around the world who are eager to learn more about the ocean, its conservation, and prepare for college academics

The Sea Education Association (SEA), based in Woods Hole, MA, USA, offers ocean studies programs for undergraduate, gap year, and high school students

The seminar had three mini courses: “Oceanography,” “Oceans and Society,” and “Nautical Science.” This issue of SEA Writer is a project by high school students who want to make changes, find ways to fight climate change, and spread awareness about current environmental issues. The articles in SEA Writer are based on modern studies that are being re written by students, which makes them easier to understand, more engaging, and these new scientific data and research are combined with insights from young minds By preparing SEA Writer, high school students are hoping to spread awareness of climate change and coral reefs as well as engage readers and inspire changes.

In this issue of SEA Writer magazine, seventeen students from China, the United States, Canada, England, Germany, Ukraine, Kiribati, and Iran worked on preparing articles about coral reefs and climate change cont'd >

ISSUE 2, 2022

Introduction

While these studies represent a global issue, each individual article provides a smaller aspect of the problem and gives the reader a broader understanding. Students used a mixture of their various knowledge and backgrounds in order to represent our human relationship and impact on corals, climate refugees, and what we can do This issue of SEA Writer can introduce you to El Niño, take you on a trip to Africa, or to Australia to explore fisheries or the Great Barrier Reef, or it can show what role crabs, sharks, and turtles are playing in the ocean and during global warming Some of the articles also give insights into the possible solutions to stop climate change and save coral reefs by coral transplantation, marine protected areas, and utilizing ecological processes to promote coral recovery In addition, the whole group of students worked on creating solutions for climate change and bleaching corals written on the “What We Can Do” page at the end of the magazine. It shows what we can do as individuals, what changes should the companies and the governments provide, and what future research should be supported. We also recommend organizations where we can donate money in order to support fighting climate change and saving coral reefs By creating the “What We Can Do” page, students want to inspire

Canva Template: Zuzanna Witek Instructors: Heather Page, "Oceanography" Richard King, "Oceans and Society" Chris Nolan, "Nautical Science" making changes and provide the idea that while working all together, we all have chances to save our planet and shape a better future! Yullia Heleveria

SEA Quest-Woods Hole is a 2-week interdisciplinary online seminar bringing together an international community of high school students to work together to study the globe's major ocean concerns. This seminar's theme was "Coral Reefs and Climate Change."

Editors: Yuliia Heleveria, Lauren Kim, Juliette Allayaud, Adara Shilling, and Jeffrey Wang

Cover art: Jingyu Xiao Design and Layout: Solveig Schneider and Denys Pavlov

ISSUE 2, 2022

from "The 6th Climate Change Assessment Report" The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2022)

In the Phoenix Island Protected Warming Water, and a Higher Tolerance by Lucy Gaffneyboro New York, USA cont'd > team have been studying and collecting data over an eighteen year period. PIPA is a World Heritage Site that encompasses 408,250 km² of ocean and eight small islands, and has roughly 34 km² of reef total. Its islands are relatively uninhabited and experience very few cyclones and rough weather Fox and his team were specifically analyzing the effects of these El Niño events on the shallow water coral reefs of the islands. They were monitoring t t b d h g cross r data

n 2015 the Pacific Ocean experienced a massive, year long heat wave. These types of massive ocean warming events are called “El Niño events,” and they can be devastating, leading to drought, severe rain, food insecurity, temperature rise, and coral bleaching.

Fox's team used three different metrics to compare the intensity of stress the corals felt during each El Niño event. They used a daily satellite collected data to learn what the surface sea temp erature was on any given day, and they used weekly satellite to collect data sets to determine the maximum temperature during each bleaching event. They also determined the total heat stress corals experienced over the past twelve weeks by adding up all temperatures that spiked above the bleaching threshold.

The three El Niño events record ed over this research period give way to fascinating results and interesting conclusions, as the heat waves became progressively hotter, corals became increasingly more resilient to this temperature rising.

dates back to 2000 and their collection ended in 2018. Their study period encompasses three El Niño events

The first El Niño event took place from 2002 to 2003. There was a total of 76.4% loss in coral cover. By 2005 coral cover in PIPA had dipped to 10.4% from to 44.9%, a devastating loss to this reef system. But there was some hope. Fox's team believed that the corals that survived this El Niño event would lead to more thermally-tolerant corals in the future, saying: “These thermally tolerant survivors were likely the most important source of new recruits that bolstered the by Lucy Gaffneyboro New York, USA subsequent recovery.” Post 2005 coral communities were luckily able to improve themselves over the next two years; coral cover doubled from 10.4% to 24.4%. In 2009 the next El Niño event began only six months later; this heat wave was not quite as intense or long lasting as the previous one, but miraculously two years after this El Niño event coral cover had increased 5.7%. Fox's team was surprised by this shocking recovery. They had been expecting devast ation of the PIPA reefs. This El Niño event had been slightly smaller than the 2002 2003 event, but never theless this recovery was not expected. In 2015 a super El Niño event occurred in the Pacific. There were thirty nine weeks that the bleaching temperatures were reached: more than double the amount of weeks where bleaching temperatures were reached in the 2002-2003 El Niño event Scientists from around the globe, including Fox's team expected catastrophic loss in the PIPA coral cont'd > There is real change happening in this area between the relationship to coral mortality and an increase in thermal stress.

Scientists determine bleaching and mortality potential of coral communities by measuring the magnitude and length of a thermal stress event But there are other potential factors that affect bleaching, like environmental factors or adaptations to thermal stress over time. Eleven different potential environmental factors were examined, but differences in these factors did not explain the more than 6% of difference in coral cover loss between the first and third El Niño events. After considering what this could mean, Fox said, “By ruling out environmental factors, we hypothesize that the diminishing effect of thermal stress on coral mortality over three successive heat waves is at least partly associated with an increase in the baseline thermal tolerance of PIPA’s coral communities between 2002 and 2018 ”

Dr. Fox and his team believe that the 2002 2003 El Niño event led to weaker, less temperature resistant corals being weeded out. That first thermal event was extremely hot for its time, and the corals that were able to survive had a genetic make up that made them more resistant to by Lucy Gaffneyboro New York, USA temperature rise. The massive difference in mortality between the 2002 2003 and the 2015 2016 El Niño events is likely due to an increase in the populations of thermally tolerant corals in PIPA reefs.

Dr. Fox and his team believe that this kind of adaptation is most likely to happen in extremely isolated coral reef systems. This kind of adaptation is most limited by corals long life span limiting their ability to adapt quickly. Additionally an increase in one kind of coral decreases population diversity. This hurts reef systems in the long term What would be best for reefs is if multiple different species of corals where to adopt these genetic phenotypes.

Works Cited/Image Credits

Fox, Michael D , et al 2021 “Increasing Coral Reef Resilience Through Successive Marine Heatwaves ” Geophysical Research Letters 48 (17): 1 11. doi.org/10.1029/2021GL094128. Image from Fox, et al.

Fox's team believe there is real change happening in this area between the relationship to coral mortality and an increase in thermal stress.

reefs, but this was not the case. In May of 2018, two years after the super El Niño event coral cover had diminished by 40%, roughly half of coral lost in the 2002 2003 El Niño event, despite double the thermal stress.

How Vulnerable is Pacific Marine Life to Climate Change?

The article starts with an abstract section which explains the actions taken by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to combat the effects of climate change. The article then has an introduction which explains the need for the Rapid Vulnerability assessment (RVA) and how useful it is in evaluating impacts to ecosystems It then presents the results it collected in groups of vulnerability.

T his report is about a scholarly article titled “Assessing the Vulnerability of Marine Life to Climate Change in the Pacific Islands Region” written by a number of authors at the Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research. This paper was peer reviewed four months before finally being accepted and published so that we can now read it, so you know it's thorough. Marine life is very susceptible to the effects of climate change as they can’t adapt fast enough to the differences in the environment, and they can't go somewhere else. So what are we going to do about it?

by Albert Schwartz England cont'd > Marine life is very susceptible to the effects of climate change as they can’t adapt fast enough.

Pelagic fishes in total were ranked moderate to high vulnerability with the striped marlin being the highest. However, sharks had a moderate to very high vulnerability with many sharks ranked very high. Deep slope fishes on the other hand were not as high ranking as the sharks with moderate to high vulnerability Coastal fishes were ranked just low to moderate so they are one of the lowest groups. Coral reef jacks, emperors, groupers, and snappers are all in the same group and were ranked moderate to high but mostly moderate Coral reef parrotfishes

were also ranked moderate to high, very similar to the previous category. Coral reef surgeonfishes were ranked moderate to high but this time it was mostly high Other coral reef fishes were unfortunately ranked moderate to very high. And most unfortunately of all the groups that ranked highest in vulnerability were the invertebrates.

‘Climate exposure’ explains that the majority of the high vulnerability in certain species was brought about by decreases in oxygen concent ration, rises in sea surface temperature and increases in ocean acidification. ‘Bootstrap sensitivity scores and uncertainty’ lists all the species that had a low probability of being categorized as a specific level of vulnerability, and there are a lot more of them than you might think.

There are, of course, data gaps as cont'd >

‘Vulnerability matrices’ is the process used to come to a conclusion on the overall vulnerability rank of each group.

The research team then moves on to the methods of collecting this data. They established ‘taxonomic scope’ to explain how far reaching the assessment was including the locations and groups of species.

‘Exposure’ is an environmental issue as a consequence of climate change that can cause detrimental change to a species. ‘Sensitivity’ is how by Albert Schwartz England likely a species is to suffer from climate change based on its traits.

by Albert Schwartz England Works Cited/Image Credits Giddens J, et al. 2022. "Assessing the Vulnerability of Marine Life to Climate Change in the Pacific Islands Region." PloS ONE 17 (7): e0270930. doi org/10 1371/journal pone 0270930 Image from Giddens, et al there always will be in any environ mental study, and I like how they were pointed out by the paper. The article finally moves on to a discussion about drivers of vulnerability and data needs. ‘Drivers of vulnerability’ are things such as rising ocean temperatures that can affect an environment and it explains what the findings of all the research means and why it is interesting. The ‘data needs’ were how difficult it was to perform the assessment, and I appreciate the paper's willingness to point out how it's not perfect. In conclusion, I think that the fact that so many species even reached moderate vulnerability is really tragic. While the article was an interesting read it was a difficult one. It had lots of important data but was difficult to interpret and clearly is only meant to be read by professionals It also only presents problems and not solutions, but I suppose solutions would have to be part of a different paper. Never theless, the authors communicated the scale of the threat to marine life in the region caused by climate change and left me keen to take action on the issue.

The results of the study varied based on current and future

F rom coral reefs to volcanoes to rainforests, Mau’i, Hawai’i is extremely geographically diverse and has many delicate ecosystems. Much of the landscape can be described as “mauka to makai,” a Hawaiian phrase for “ridge to reef ” Mountains and oceans are in close proximity on many Hawaiian islands, specifically Mau’i, which affects the local ecology and conservation efforts. The geological and ecological variety, as well as sociocultural factors, play important roles when implementing methods to conserve and restore ecosystems in Mau’i.

A recent 2022 study by Ella Wilmot and her team at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa conducted research using zonation spatial planning software to measure the conservation priority level of various areas in Mau’i. The priority levels were determined by how these areas affect the aquatic From Ridge to Reef: Efforts Behind Conservation in Mau’i, Hawai’i by Amanda Beneventano California, USA cont'd > ecosystems through measuring factors such as habitat, future projected rainfall, indigenous species, coral and fish biomass near the shore, and effect on humans. The ridge to reef geography allows for the continuous integration of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, so a holistic view of the island is required for efficient research and analysis of conservation priorities.

The results of the study convey that, “The identified high priority areas are representative of favorable wet areas that support aquatic ecosystems and well being of both human and wildlife into the future.”

Specifically, the study concludes that east Mau’i has a high conservation priority due to its more natural setting; east Mau’i is much less developed than other areas on the island, so it is essential to conserve this area to keep it in its original, healthy state by Amanda Beneventano California, USA

Though certain areas call for more intervention than others, processes occurring in one area of the island directly affect what occurs in another part of the island. For example, freshwater ecosystems in Mau’i are responsible for much of cont'd > Events happening thousands of kilometers away on land also have great effects on coral reefs in Mau’i and across the globe.

Looking into the future of Mau’i, management of the island is critical for conservation to take place.

Additionally, west Mau’i also has a high conservation priority because it has high socio cultural value due to its popularity for tourism and access to recreational beaches and diverse coral reefs. East Mau’i is highly valued for preservation so that it can continue to sustain healthy eco systems in its authentic state. On the other hand, west Mau’i has more value in the ways that it benefits humans, so the main conservation goal for this area is to keep it con served so that it can be ecologically healthy while still maintaining its economic value.

conditions, as well as on socio cultural factors considered and sociocultural factors not considered.

Balancing management of natural resources as well as coastal, urban, and agricultural management is key to protecting high priority areas

this integration as stated, “inland management and activities directly impact coastal areas through the transfer of nutrients and species by water.” Water is a driving factor in ridge to reef connectivity, affecting the habits of many native migratory fish species. Due to ever changing climate conditions, creating priority models for future projections based on changes in factors like rainfall is key as it directly impacts aquatic ecosystems, which in turn will affect ecosystems throughout the entire island because of ridge to reef connectivity. Additionally, there are outstanding variables that were not accounted for in this study that also highly impact Mau’i. Elements like “climate impacts such as sea level rise, coastal erosion, and increasing temperatures” were not considered but “are important to consider in future aquatic conservation.” When it comes to the conser vation and restoration of coral reefs, efforts made on land can be equally or even more important than those made by the ocean Though there is immense ecosystem integration in Mau’i that contributes to the degradation of coral reefs, events happening thousands of kilometers away on land also have great effects on coral reefs in Mau’i and across the globe Climate change, specifically rising ocean temper atures, is the main driver of coral by Amanda Beneventano California, USA bleaching and, in many cases, the complete death of corals. Local conservation efforts are key to mitigating the effects of climate change on coral reefs. Further research in areas similar to that conducted in this study is essential for the future health of coral reef ecosystems so that positive change can be made both locally and globally Works Cited/Image Credits Ella Wilmot, et. al. 2022. “Characterizing Mauka to Makai Connections for Aquatic Ecosystem Conservation on Maui, Hawaiʻi ” Ecological Informatics 70 (2022): 101704 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101704

Both figures from Wilmot et al.

R Together, the Liberian and Cameroonian SSF sector give a workplace to more than 250,000 people,

by Denys Pavlov Odesa, Ukraine cont'd > ecently, a team of researchers funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, explored the emerging impacts of the COVID 19 pandemic on small scale fishing communities in Cameroon and Liberia. The research studied how exactly the safety measurements affected the entire fish value chain, how it contributed to social anxiety, coral reef transformation, and other negative effects of the pandemic in Africa. The following discoveries would be incredibly important to the ecological society, showing different perspectives of low developed communities and their impact on ecology and economics Nations around the world were affected in numerous ways by the novel coronavirus pandemic. However, more developed economies, with access to alternative income currents, were able to withstand the crisis more successfully with less harm to day to day lives. Unfortunately, we can’t say the same about developing economies in countries such as Liberia and Cameroon, which are highly dependent on natural resources and their processing. One of the most significant contributions to their economies is brought about by small scale fisheries (SSF) including immigrants from bordering countries. Even with poor licensing and data systems, people working in fisheries contribute a significant amount of money to the country’s budget.

COVID-19 and Small-Scale Fisheries in Africa

Primarily, fishers use small dug out canoes made of wood and

Gender roles and contributions are also evident in Liberia’s fisheries. Women take part and dominate in fish trade and processing activities, and men engage in harvesting. However, there are frequent issues of post harvest losses, especially during large harvests and due to lack of infrastructure to support processing and post harvest fish management

According to this research study, twenty nine local fishers and fish buyers were asked to provide a view of the inside of their community. The interviewees shared their thoughts and concerns about COVID 19's influence on their livelihood. Multiple fishers expressed their anxiety about the inability to sell their harvest.

by Denys Pavlov Odesa, Ukraine cont'd > mounted with motorized engines or oars; also they use several types of fishing gear to target a bigger variety of species.

It was also confirmed by women engaged in fish processing who were forced to throw aways massive amounts of product. One fisherman in Cameroon, for example, explained, “with restricted movements, there was a reduction in sales and catch.” COVID-19 restrictions directly affected inter city trade causing delivery fees to grow twice. As fishmongers were unable to transport and store fish, they had to sell fish for whatever price simply to avoid major after harvest loss. On the other side of SSF, fishmongers expressed concern about increasing the price of fish by about 50% since the start of the pandemic. Delays in delivery systems were causing significant destabilization of the fish market and so influenced hotels, restaurants, and small street vendors.

by Denys Pavlov Odesa, Ukraine Lack of diversification options and overdependence on SSF. Lack of assets (infrastructure, cooperation, data management) Weak institutional structure Absence of monitoring on ecological conditions Unwanted adjustments in estab lished work of SFF lead to increased coral bleaching in the area. In sum, the research team located in Western Africa was able to detect main problems of Liberian and Cameroonian communities during the pandemic and other natural shocks. Despite severe destruction in the economic sector, both countries have all chances to develop short term and long term resilience as well as to grow in efficiency and GDP over the years. Making improvements in social unity, infrastructure and jurisdiction may lead to major improvements in SSF, economic conditions, and ecology in general. Works Cited/Image Credits: Nyiawung, Richard A , et al 2022 "COVID 19 and Small scale Fisheries in Africa: Impacts on Livelihoods and the Fish Value Chain in Cameroon and Liberia" Marine Policy 141: 105104. doi org/10 1016/j marpol 2022 105104 Map and photograph from Nyiawung, et al.

How Satire Can Be Misunderstood and Its Impact on Climate Change by Yuliia Heleveria Cherkasy, Ukraine cont'd > post “The Great Barrier Reef is Dead ” Naturally, you will be stunned by the news, but what is going to be your first action? Are you going to share it with your friend on social media? Or will you use the Google search to verify this terrible statement? Millions of people faced this exact situation in 2016 when travel and food writer Rowan Jacobsen published the idea that the Great Barrier Reef is dead in an outdoor recreational US magazine called Outside.

The Great Barrier Reef is a complex living ecosystem that plays

icture your regular evening. Probably you are coming home after a work shift, a class, or a fun night with friends. You are ready to get some rest and soon start a new day, and, of course, as a person living in our modern society affected by technologies, you are checking your social media. However, instead of funny pictures of your friends or videos of cute kittens on your Instagram feed, you see a shocking

a huge role in the Australian economy and politics. This beautiful natural miracle was definitely affected by climate change and people’s consumeristic and predominant actions. However, we still have time to take needed steps, apply proper changes and save this unique natural component and famous tourist destination.

“The Great Barrier Reef of Australia passed away in 2016 after a long illness. It was 25 million years old,” wrote Rowan Jacobsen in his article that soon went viral and created misunderstanding among people worldwide. Supported by the pictures of dead and bleached corals, the news created panic and readers started to believe in the reef’s obituary. A lot of newspapers worldwide either supported the by Yuliia Heleveria Cherkasy, Ukraine news and declared the reef dead or tried to prove Jacobsen wrong, which created even more debate and dragged more attention to the “dying” barrier reef. Australian authorities and scientists hurried to reassure people worldwide that the Great Barrier Reef is still alive, even though it was affected by 2016 global warming and bleaching events. A lot of businesses and job positions in Australia were affected, and some of them ended their existence because of the decrease of tourists and belief of people in these terrible events. Therefore, the main reason for misleading and misunderstanding of information was created by the use of satire by Jacobsen.

Based on the study by Media International Australia, satire is not cont'd >

The article “Is the Great Barrier Reef Dead? Satire, Death, and Environmental Communication” was published in 2022 by Kerrie Foxwell Norton and Claire Konkes in Australia. Usually, humor is not understood, because the audience of the article where it is used might not have a basic understanding of the background of environmental information.

While using humor as a method of communicating a problem with his audience, Jacobsen uses a frame of “deadness” of the reef to get emotional appeal and blame the politicians for making no effort to protect our environment and stop climate change. In the author’s opinion, he thought that people would imagine what will happen if the actions against climate change are not taken worldwide and especially in Australia soon. However, for the audience of this article there was drawn a conclusion that we need to care, but there is nothing to be done, because everything is already dead. Satire crosses a fragile line of protection and urge for changes with death and by Yuliia Heleveria Cherkasy, Ukraine destruction.

“We ask, what could it mean to infer, even satirically, the death of the Reef? Satire clearly has a place in the political domain: satire can provide a corrective to mainstream news coverage; help promote active audience engagement; serve a community building function;, and, in some cases, act as a vehicle for persuasion,” the two authors of the study by Media International Australia stated With the use of Google Trends, we can explore and analyze how many times people searched the phrase “Is the Great Barrier Reef dead?” over the period of 10 years. The graph represents the number of searches over the time period from 2010 to 2020 As we can see, a distinct peak occurred in October 2016, which is the same time when Jacobsen’s obituary was published. The study shows that cont'd > Satire crosses a fragile line of protection.

the best method to represent a climate change problem and create interest for people to deal with it.

All things considered, satire is an excellent way to get people’s attention worldwide to a climate issue as it is considered by Kerrie Foxwell Norton and Claire Konkes.

In 2022, the Great Barrier Reef was affected by global warming and bleaching events, but not as mortally as Rowan Jacobsen presented it six years ago. Based on the study by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority completed in 2022, 91% of corals on the reef are affected by the mass bleaching events Supported by the recent surveys, the envi ronmental conditions triggering bleaching events are soon going to stop, but to completely indicate if there will be greater death or survival rate among the corals, the new study has to be held in summer of 2023 There is still a chance to make a difference and save the coral reefs. Our actions right now determine the chances of having a

The use of satire and hyperbole in relation to the “dead Great Barrier Reef” was first used in the 1967 campaign “Save the Reef” in response to the government intention to mine a little known coral atoll called Ellison Reef which was assumed to be dead by some public figures. During the campaign to save the reef, divers went to find evidence and prove that the reef is alive and is a complex community. a result, the mining insight was rejected and Ellison Reef was saved from using it as a source of limestone for people. In contrast to Jacobsen's use of satire, the campaign “Save the Reef” used humor to represent the significance and beauty of the reef. People cannot have that much influence on the living structure to extract resources for their own benefit. However, Jacobson’s perception is showing that we killed the reef instead of focusing on how this structure is worth saving. Moreover, as it is relevant to our current environment, climate change and coral bleaching is a fragile theme that people are worried about and the fear for the environment is constant. An attempt to engage the audience can be misunderstood.

by Yuliia Heleveria Cherkasy, Ukraine cont'd > even though the confusion is created and lots of people gained the wrong understanding of the events con nected to the Great Barrier Reef, the issue of bleaching and dying corals recieved lots of attention. However, with the use of Google Trends we cannot know the amount of people who actually believed in the article published in Outside, so a lot of people could have used Google Search to confirm the information, and they do not necessarily need to believe in the obituary of the Great Barrier Reef.

Australian Government 2022 “Reef health ” Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. https://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/the reef/reef health Anderson, Michaela. 2018. “Corals Before and After.” Digital image. The Daily Chomp. https://gatornews org/15711/opinion/the great barrier reef is dying/ Jacobsen, Rowan. 2016. “Dead Corals.” Digital image Outside https://www outsideonline com/outdoor adventure/environment/obituary great barrier reef 25 million bc 2016/. News Text Area 2022 “The Great Barrier Reef 2022” Digital image News Text Area https://newstextarea.com/great barrier reef losing color/. relationship with nature. On the other hand, it can be shocking and impactful. The satire used by Jacobsen harmed local businesses, created confusion in the audience, and delayed such urgently needed changes to save the Great Barrier Reef and the rest of the world from the climate catastrophe. healthy environment in the next decades. The misguided belief in a dead reef can create a change in politics and the approach to resolving climate change issues is the main thought of Kerrie Foxwell Norton and Claire Konkes, which I totally support. The satire played the main role of creating misunderstanding, because the unsuccessful attempt to use emotional appeal as a way of communication with the audience created the image of a dead Great Barrier Reef and impossibility to improve the influence of climate change on it. Rowan Jacobsen’s article created debate and confusion among the people around the world and, moreover, this confusion was supported by other news all over the globe such as Murdoch’s Sun newspaper and the Huffington Post Jacobsen's message of urgency of taking actions to save our planet and the Great Barrier Reef was misunderstood in the era of bias in digital media, and his audience lacked the knowledge of climate change in order to make proper conclusions and understand the humor. Satire can definitely have the appeal of gaining interest and attention from people to deal with modern environmental issues, but it can be misinterpreted as hyperbolic and apocalyptic Humor raises awareness, changes behaviors, and makes us think differently about our

by Yuliia Heleveria Cherkasy, Ukraine Works Cited/Image Credits: Foxwell Norton, Kerrie; Konkes, Claire 2022 “Is the Great Barrier Reef dead? Satire, death and environmental communication ” Media International Australia 184 (1) 106 121: doi.org/10.1177/1329878X211055852

t’s a warm summer day, and you, like countless other tourists, have chosen to spend it scuba diving on the Great Barrier Reef. As you take in the picturesque reef view, however, you notice something strange In some areas, there appears to be a mysterious crust of something gray and white on top of the coral. What is it? This crust is called microbialite, and it is composed of minerals deposited by tiny marine bacteria. Microbialites are extremely important to reef ecosystems they help to cement reefs together, and they form a framework upon which new coral can grow. Microbialites can be very old, produced by bacteria dating as far back as 3.5 billion years ago, and the structures can persist for long after the coral surrounding them is gone. They’re also extremely useful as some of the oldest preserved marine structures, they can tell us a lot

Small but Mighty: What Bacteria Can Tell Us about the History–and Future–of the Great Barrier Reef by Jingyu Xiao Indiana, USA cont'd > about the history of our oceans. A group of researchers from the University of Queensland recently used microbialites to investigate how water quality in the Great

therefore the ocean chemistry shift towards that of land sediments. The researchers found that sediment input to the Great Barrier Reef has changed nonlinearly in the past, with periods of high sedimentation and periods of low sedimentation. Furthermore, they found that periods of high sedimentation correlated well with certain climate events, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Asian monsoon. But what does this mean for the reef itself?

Sediments are a big threat to reef health. According to the EPA, sediment is capable of smothering corals, introducing harmful nutrients to the ecosystem, polluting the reef with heavy metals, and more Dirt and sand can enter ocean water through three primary methods: it can be carried there by rivers, eroded from the land by rain, or settle onto the ocean as dust carried by wind. Climate events like the ones listed above can increase rainfall in certain areas. On its own, climate change is already a leading issue for reefs by Jingyu Xiao Indiana, USA cont'd > Barrier Reef region has changed in the past. Bacteria crystallize microbialites using dissolved elements in ocean water, so micro bialites preserve a signature of the ambient seawater chemistry when they were made. One chemical marker specifically of interest to the scientists was the distribution of rare earth elements (REEs), a group of metals that are found in trace amounts in seawater. Microbialites contain relatively high concen trations of REEs, making them good proxies for seawater chemistry.

Lead researcher Marcos Salas Saavedra, along with his team, took a total of seventeen sediment cores from Heron Reef and One Tree Reef both part of the southern Great Barrier Reef complex. They extracted microbialite samples from the cores and dated them indirectly using the age of the substrate beneath. Finally, the researchers measured the concentrations of REEs in the microbialites and graphed how they changed over a period of around 8,200 to 1,700 years ago Salas Saavedra and his team were particularly interested in the sediment coming into the reef waters from land. Land sediments have a different REE distribution than ocean water, so during periods of high sediment input, the researchers expected to see the microbialite chemistry and Periods of high sedimentation correlated well with certain climate events, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation and the Asian monsoon.

are now, it is hard to imagine this metric continuing to stay this high in the next few decades. Not all hope is lost, however there are still actions that we as individuals can take to help reduce the impact of climate change. We can reduce our individual fossil fuel consumption by turning off lights and appliances when they’re not needed, switching to LED light bulbs, and opening the windows to reduce the need for air conditioning. We can also reduce our use of BPA containing products, household chemicals, and fertilizers, all of which can be harmful if they find their way to reefs through runoff or sewers. These actions may feel like a drop in the ocean. It’s true, we probably won’t be able to reverse climate by Jingyu Xiao Indiana, USA because it causes bleaching as well as sea level rise, which can “drown” corals. As rapid climate change continues, however, sedimentation could become a hidden danger to the Great Barrier Reef. Rainfall events in Australia are expected to become more severe, and flooding is expected to become more frequent. The result, as Salas Saavedra and his team found, is more sediment being brought into reef waters. Increased sediment has many terrible consequences for reefs, including the death of coral, plants, and animals These effects will eventually come back to bite us as well the Great Barrier Reef currently contributes around $6.4 billion to the Australian economy, mostly through tourism. With the reef conditions deteriorating as they cont'd >

change. Climate simulations have shown that reversing the change is near impossible at this stage. If we don’t take the initiative, however, these microbialites do not paint a very promising picture for the future of the Great Barrier Reef. While we may not be able to stop climate change in its tracks, we can definitely slow it down, buying ourselves some more time to find more permanent solutions to help the Great Barrier Reef. by Jingyu Xiao Indiana, USA Works Cited/Image Credits Department of Mines, Industry Regulation and Safety “Stromatolites and Other Early Life” Government of Western Australia https://www dmp wa gov au/Stromatolites and other evidence 1666.aspx. Environmental Protection Agency “Threats to Coral Reefs” United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/coral reefs/threats coral reefs Salas Saavedra, Marcos, et al 2022 “Holocene Microbialite Geochemistry Records > 6000 years of Secular Influence of Terrigenous Flux on Water Quality for the Southern Great Barrier Reef ” Chemical Geology 604 doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.120871 University of Sydney 2020 “Great Barrier Reef ‘Glue’ at Risk from Ocean Acidification ” phys org https://phys.org/news/2020 09 great barrier reef ocean acidification.html Yanez Montalvo, Alfredo, et al 2019 “Microbialites: What on Earth?” Frontiers for Young Minds. https://kids frontiersin org/articles/10 3389/fr ym 2019 00112

ust for a second, envision yourself peacefully swimming alongside a massive adult green sea turtle, watching it forage for marine fauna across the sea floor. Now think about the environment you and that sea turtle are swimming in: what do you see?

Now bring yourself back to the present, away from your hopeful vision. Come back to reality. The reality is, the oceans are no longer as vibrant and colorful as they once were. While we can still swim alongside the turtles, we are no longer swimming in a beautifully Green Sea Turtles Foraging Grounds Threatened in Southeast Asian Seas by Abby Thompson Ohio, USA cont'd > envisioned underwater seascape with color and life, because around 70% of coral reefs have been impacted from 2014 2017 due to the rise in ocean temperature. We are now swimming in a colorless and dead like sea. The abundance of aftereffects from climate change have continuously increased as the world continues to evolve. The ocean is losing so much of its life and vibrance due to climate change. So, how is climate change affecting adult green sea turtles in the Southeast Asian Seas? Climate change can be described

Most people envision a vibrant underwater seascape with an abundance of vibrant colors and a huge variety of both biotic (living) features and abiotic (non living) features You imagine the vibrant colors of different corals that make up parts of the reefs, fish everywhere, and this healthy and nutritious marine fauna covering the seabed.

And, specifically related to Konsta and her team’s study, the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) is the most abundant of these turtle species found in the Southeast Asian seas. Konsta and her team compiled a database of the foraging grounds of adult green sea turtles on a regional base, then created a series of climatic niche models: models that reflect the temperature and precipitation conditions where a certain species may settle often. by Abby Thompson Ohio, USA cont'd >

as a significant change in the usual patterns of the atmosphere that have occurred over a period of time, and affects natural processes like the weather and global temperature The ocean takes up approximately 65 70% of the planet's surface, so it plays a significant role in the distribution of its global temp eratures.

In July of 2022, a team of scientists led by Aikaterini Konsta published a study on the degree to which the foraging grounds of green sea turtles in Southeast Asian seas would be affected by future marine heatwaves (MHW). These marine heatwaves have significant impacts on marine life. MHW are reducing the persistence of different species like the turtles by affecting the most favorable features to their common habitats. Sea turtles are an important herbivorous species, and in the Southeast Asian seas, six out of the seven global sea turtle species live and breed throughout these waters.

The area studied by Konsta’s team was composed of twelve marine ecoregions, half of which are in the Coral Triangle while half are in the South China Sea Their team used nine bioclimatic variables to construct the climatic niche relevant to temperature. The mean annual temperature, mean diurnal range, isothermality, temperature seasonality, maximum temperature of warmest month, minimum temperature of coldest month, temperature annual range, mean temperature of warmest quarter, and mean temperature of coldest quarter These scientists found that 37.4% of Southeast Asian waters are climatically suitable for the green sea turtle as a foraging ground, with 76.3% of the marine ecoregions

being suitable as a foraging ground for the turtles in the South China Sea and 18.2% in the Coral Triangle.

Konsta’s scientific team predicted a significant increase in the intensity of MHWs by the end of the 21st Century, and MHWs are predicted to have a ten fold longer duration period, meaning, in certain locations like the Gulf of Thailand, around Sulawesi, Indonesia, and the southern foraging grounds, marine heatwaves are expected through the year. Specifically in the area studied, the team of scientists believe that the MHWs maximum intensity will get up to +2.62 °C compared to its average +1.67 °C. (right). So, with all of the statistics and numbers, what does this information boil down to?

Even though “Marine Heatwaves Threaten Key Foraging Grounds of Sea Turtles in Southeast Asian Seas,” didn’t specifically delineate any ways to aid in the recovery of these foraging grounds, in my personal opinion, I believe that we could make small but significant changes in order to decrease the duration and intensity of these future MHWs.

Educating the local region on ways to create less gasses and heat in the atmosphere can make a big difference for the future of these individual regions by helping global emissions from major emitting countries, like China and the United States. We can stop focusing on the by Abby Thompson Ohio, USA cont'd > These scientists found that 37.4% of Southeast Asian waters are climatically suitable for the green sea turtle as a foraging ground.

Scientists can use the specific variables that the study predicted, like duration and intensity to focus their attention and aid to the areas the study highlighted as the most vulnerable to increased heat.

ocean itself and instead work on land development and human activities because it has been shown that making beneficial changes to our daily lives and how we live can be more impactful on the recovery of any marine ecosystem. by Abby Thompson Ohio, USA Works Cited/Image Credits Konsta, Aikaterini, et al 2022 “Marine Heatwaves Threaten Key Foraging Grounds of Sea Turtles in Southeast Asian Seas.” Reg Environ Change 22: 97 https://doi org/10 1007/s10113 022 01952 w Images from Konsta, et al. (see above link for full figure captions), and NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center

W ithin most relationships, a level of symbiosis between individuals is necessary for stability, meaning that both parties feel a similar or equal pull of benefit from their bond. This concept is one that not only extends endlessly to the human connection but to a world we often neglect to consider – that of marine life Within their study highlighting coral reefs and their survival, two scientists, Angelo Spadaro and Mark Butler, note that, in many cases, corals and herbivorous fish share this symbiotic relationship. Part of this relationship entails the fact that these fish consume the fleshy seaweeds that can overpopulate a coral reef, seaweeds that can affect a coral’s growth, reproduction, recruitment, and ultimate survival of their ecosystems. Unfortunately, with the current abundance of seaweed and with a declining amount of fish the job is simply not being done fast

Can Herbivorous Crabs Assist in Saving Seaweed-Choked Corals? by Juliette Allayaud California, USA cont'd > enough or with enough efficiency. Thus, scientists have looked for solutions to cut back on this abundance; Spadaro and Butler being two of these scientists. Fortunately, they believe that they have found a potentially transformative one, an answer that involves the density of the Maguimithrax spinosissimus, or the Caribbean king crab.

When there is a shift in dominance, in this case by seaweeds, it can be ecologically altering and devastating.

In many areas, such as the Caribbean, the proliferation of seaweed growth is caused by coastal eutrophication, when a plethora of nutrients often stemming from urban development leads to an increase in plant life and the Spadaro and Butler illustrate that in order for a coral reef to survive, balance is key.

overproduction of oxygen which can damage animal life. The loss of grazers, herbivore feeders, often due to overfishing and habitat loss, also contributes to the buildup of seaweed. What Spadaro and Butler have discovered is that the Caribbean king crab, the large, primarily herbivorous crab native to the Caribbean and Western Atlantic, is an incredibly effective consumer of seaweeds In fact, it is so effective that it was believed that the imbalance between corals and seaweed could be restored by these crabs if their presence were to be increased significantly on degraded coral reefs where their current density is relatively low This proposes a new, much needed, relationship between corals and crabs that could serve a similar purpose to the symbiotic one between corals and fish that has declined over time. To test this hypothesis, they conducted a series of experiments from 2014 to 2015 on twelve isolated coral patch reefs in the middle of the Florida Keys. Three distinctly different treatments were applied on the twelve patches: reefs with no treatment, that is, unmanipulated and left as controls, reefs with crabs added to the natural population, and reefs scrubbed of their seaweed and then stocked with added crabs. by Juliette Allayaud California, USA Spadaro and Butler discovered that after a year had passed, nearly half of the eighty four crabs released onto the reefs still remained inhabitants Noting that initially 85% of the surface area of the reefs was covered in seaweed, they concluded that on the first treatment area, this percentage hardly shifted. However, for the second treatment area, the crabs reduced and maintained seaweed cover at 50% of that on the unmanipulated coral, and for the third seaweed area, the seaweed cover was reduced by 80%. From 2016 to 2017, thirteen km from the first location, the same experiment was carried out. Though the initial seaweed coverage was slightly cont'd >

different, the investigation yielded nearly identical results, which shows consistency in Spadaro and Butler’s results. Additionally, they found on both sites that with the asset of the crabs, the density of juvenile corals was more than twice as high on scrubbed reefs and almost four times higher on reefs to which crabs were added than the initial measurements. Not only was there a positive correlation between the crabs and coral growth, but the abundance and variety of coral reef fishes also felt the weight of this relationship. Seaweeds have been known to release chemicals that larval reef fishes avoid. Therefore by limiting the amount of seaweed, Spadaro and Butler found a two to three fold increase in species richness and a three to five fold increase in the abundance of coral fishes These numbers are only bolstered by the fact that the fishes have been more attracted to the reefs now that the shelter providing crevices and holes had become more readily exposed. Furthermore, more mobile and larger fish were drawn to the reef communities with the prospect of the prey within these spaces. With these extraordinary results that showed not only consistency but long term positive effects, it becomes clear that utilizing the Caribbean king crab will be beneficial when it comes to restoring coral reefs. To unlock this asset, by Juliette Allayaud California, USA however, we first have to develop mariculture programs that will produce and grow crabs to a sufficient size and at sufficient numbers that allow them to combat their naturally low abundance and, unfortunately, high mortality rates. Additionally, even with their striking success, it is essential to acknowledge that introducing or increasing a species into a specific area is a delicate process that must be implemented with strategic detail and management. If the Caribbean king crab is to be used as a method of restoration, it needs to be done responsibly in a way that is both conducive to the corals, the crabs themselves, and the surrounding environment. >

cont'd

Figure from Spadaro and Butler; crab photograph by Angelo Sparado (www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/917800)

Works Cited/Image Credit Spadaro, Angelo Jason, and Mark J Butler, 4th 2021 “Herbivorous Crabs Reverse the Seaweed Dilemma on Coral Reefs.” Current Biology: CB 31 (4): 853 859.e3. doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.097

Ultimately when it comes to the health of our coral reefs, we are facing an incredibly complex and global issue that, without immediate action, will continue to rapidly increase. Because of the complexity and overall broadness of the issue, it becomes vital that we approach the problem not only quickly but from all angles.

Thankfully, with scientists like Angelo Spadaro and Mark Butler working tirelessly on the situation, I am filled with hope for the fate of our oceans. Even with this hope, though, and this is a point that these two men express heavily, our dying reefs will require more than herbivores to keep them alive Overall it requires a combination of reversing the effects of global warming, ocean acidification, and cutting down on coastal pollution and overexploitation of coral reef fishes. This is a nuanced issue and, therefore, will require nuanced solutions. But why not start with adding a few crabs? by Juliette Allayaud California, USA

In order to get a picture of relative shark abundance as accurately as possible, the scientists deployed 15,165 baited remote underwater video systems (BRUVS) on 371 tropical reefs in fifty eight nations. They focused mainly on nearshore coral reefs in the Indian Ocean,

Now, an international team of researchers led by M. Aaron MacNeil of Dalhousie University, Canada, has investigated the global reef shark population and found an obvious decrease in the number of reef sharks worldwide.

Killer shark attacks tourists a true monster of the deep!” Lurid media reports about sharks, like this one, have made the shark a bloodthirsty hunter in the minds of most people. There are few sea creatures that have a worse reputation than these top predator species. In fact, this image differs greatly from reality and an encounter with a shark in the wild is rather coincidental. Apart from the fact that sharks rarely attack humans, they play an important role in marine ecosystems. Reef sharks actually help to maintain the stability of the food web and to preserve the biodiversity and health of coral reefs. For one thing, they ensure that overpopulations of their prey do not occur. For another they hunt weak and injured animals, which in turn leads to healthy, robust fish populations

Reef sharks actually help to maintain the stability of the food web and to preserve the biodiversity and health of coral reefs.

When the Hunter Becomes the Hunted by Solveig Schneider Hessen, Germany cont'd >

However, reef shark populations have come under severe pressure in recent years. They suffer from overfishing, die as bycatch of fishermen, or are hunted specifically for their coveted fins and meat.

Western Pacific, Central Pacific and Western Atlantic, which were either protected or open to fishing. This enabled the team to obtain the most extensive data Contrary to expectations, the analysis of the collected video material showed no sharks in 19% of the studied reefs. To compare different countries and their shark abundances, the researchers introduced an "abundance status score" in which expected local shark abundances were related to national c context and the study’s results. Accordingly, the Bahamas, continental Australia, Solomon Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and French Polynesia, among others, were rated highest. In contrast, Qatar, the Dominican Republic, continental Colombia, Sri Lanka and Guam were at the bottom of the list. The overall figure of 59% of all countries having an abundance status score below 50% shows that by Solveig Schneider Hessen, Germany the decline in the number of reef sharks is tangible worldwide. At this point, collected data also suggested that the relative abundance of sharks can vary greatly from region to region. But what exactly drives those differences?

"Our results show," the report states "that declines in reef sharks from the coastal tropical oceans correlate with key socio economic differences among reefs and nations." Moreover "the relative abundance of reef sharks had a negative relationship with the ‘gravitational pull’ of the closest human settlement and any markets within 500 km of each BRUVS set." It appears that both long distance fin traders and fishermen are contributing to the decline in shark populations as well as local shark meat consumption. In addition, ''the prevalence of impoverished countries, weak governance, and the high economic value of wildlife products'' were highlighted as cont'd >

reasons for overexploitation.

These findings were essential to evaluate possible conservation measures and their potential effectiveness for reef sharks. According to the study, reef shark management must be adapted to each country and its culture to be effective. For example, in regions where shark fishing has traditionally been excessively practiced, the researchers recommend catch limits, bans on gillnets and longlines to increase the relative shark abundance. Meanwhile, shark sanctuaries proved particularly successful in countries that were culturally and by Solveig Schneider Hessen, Germany ’ economically less connected to shark fishing. Overall, all these measures will only help if they are strictly enforced, and this is only possible with a stable government. Therefore, reef sharks could actually benefit from poorly governed countries improving their governance, although this is proving difficult to implement Madagascar, Mayotte, Vanuatu, USA Pacific (Hawai'i), the British West Indies, and Barbados currently have the greatest potential for effective protection according to a model developed by the study. Nonetheless, still a lot of work is required to ensure an increase of cont'd >

the reef shark abundance in the future. ''As with any fishery type, realizing the conservation potential of these nations will require strong engagement with and participation by judicial systems, fisheries managers and local fishers to ensure compliance, monitoring and enforcement of regulations." In conclusion, countries should definitely keep an eye on the reef shark population. This is particularly important as sharks make an essential contribution to the health and diversity of our coral reefs And even if MacNeil and his team show that reef sharks are currently not completely threatened with extinction, we should not let it get that far in the first place, so that the shark can continue to roam the oceans as terror of the seas and protect our coral reefs. by Solveig Schneider Hessen, Germany Works Cited/Image Credits MacNeil, M.A., et al. 2022. "Global Status and Conservation Potential of Reef Sharks Nature 583: 801 806 doi org/10 1038/s41586 020 2519 y ReefCause Team 2021 "Why Are Sharks Important For Healthy Coral Reefs?’’ February 7 https://conservation reefcause com/why are sharks important for healthy coral reefs/ Map from Macneil et.al. Black Tip Reef Shark drawing by author

In the August 26th, 2020 article in PLoS ONE, "Interventions to Help Coral Reefs under Global Change A Complex Decision Challenge," a research team led by Anthony, Hussey, and Lundren, argues that society needs to help coral reefs for three reasons. First, coral reefs are the most biodiverse places in the world’s oceans. Second, coral reefs allow people to have fun scuba diving and provide money for fishermen and tourist industries “worth hundreds of billions of dollars annually.” Third, coral reefs are very sensitive to global warming and climate change. Because global warming has led to coral bleaching, the authors believe that we need to act now. In 2015 and 2016, there were never before seen levels of coral bleaching in the Great Interventions to Help Coral Reefs under Global Change – A Complex Decision Challenge by Thomas Seitz United States/United Arab Emirates cont'd > Barrier Reef. Current agreements between governments, like the Paris Accord, are not sufficient to minimize global warming or ocean acidification, which is bad for corals. The authors believe that conventional coral reef management will not work if carbon emissions continue to increase. The article states that there are many ways to help corals, including “new and perhaps radical intervention, including local and regional cooling and shading, assisted coral evolution, assisted gene flow, and measures to support and enhance

T he challenge is to “develop and adopt technologies that will be both safe and effective and within years rather than decades ”

Research and development teams by Thomas Seitz United States/United Arab Emirates need to be assessing the risks of new innovative solutions now in order to implement them soon enough to make a difference to coral ecosystems. Anthony’s team says, “Critically, in a time of rapid climate change, being risk averse can be risky.”

coral recruitment.”

The authors consider several challenges we face. The first is “setting the right objectives to solve the right problem.” The Australian government’s Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) identified forty three interventions that should be further researched.

The third challenge is “priorit ization and tradeoffs we can’t save everything ” The article states that limited resources will force researchers and policy makers to make choices. For example, the same resources could be deployed to protect 5% coral coverage over a wide area, or 25% coverage over an area 1/5th the size In one case, a broader area might be protected, but in the 25% case, a biodiverse reef that attracts ecotourism might be more likely. We need to use the full toolbox of cont'd >

The second challenge is “balan cing benefits and risks in the face of uncertainty.” Because climate change is happening quickly, the article states that “delayed action represents a lost opportunity.”

The authors propose a framework for setting objectives, options, consequences, uncertainties, and trade offs for each potential solution. By looking at each category, they can reach preferred options

The article concludes that we need to cooperate and appreciate the needs of societies and governments. The authors believe that if we don’t share knowledge, it will be difficult or impossible to protect coral reefs effectively. “To do this will require a level of organization, collaboration and integration across disciplines by Thomas Seitz United States/United Arab Emirates Works Cited/Image Credits Anthony, Kenneth R L , et al 2020 "Interventions to Help Coral Reefs under Global Change Complex Decision Challenge." Plos ONE 15 (8): 1 14 doi org/10 1371/journal pone 0236399 Photographs from Wikimedia Commons We need to use the full toolbox of interventions to protect corals, and to develop new tools. never seen before in natural sciences, conservation and policy.”

The authors also believe that we need to mitigate carbon emissions “Without carbon mitigation, no intervention strategy will be successful in the long run.” They also state that, “Communication and engagement strategies must reinforce the message that restoration and adaptation are health care strategies that can only work in tandem with a cure urgent global action to address climate change.”

interventions to protect corals, and to develop new tools. The challenge, they say, is to “develop and adopt technologies that will be both safe and effective and within years rather than decades.”

Lab-grown corals could provide relief for degraded reefs by Adara Shilling Vancouver, Canada cont'd > reduce waste, and practice sustainable fishing, the best we can hope for is to stabilize the populations. We have created an ocean that is too hostile for corals to recover on their own. Fortunately, this is what science is for

B y now, it goes without saying that our coral reefs are dying. Between bleaching, overfishing, acidification, pollution, deoxygenation, spikes in predator populations, and everything else on the long, long list of ways we’re ruining the ocean, coral populations have plummeted in recent years. Even if we cut carbon emissions,

In 2013, a group of scientists led by Dexter dela Cruz and Peter Harrison, both from Southern Cross University in Australia, conducted an experiment with juvenile corals on the Magsaysay Reef in the Philippines The reef has been

cont'd >

severely damaged by blast fishing, a practice that uses explosives to stun or kill fish so they can be easily collected. In an effort to help the reef grow back, scientists extracted thirty colonies of Acropora tenuis coral from the reef. The colonies were kept in large tanks and watched for signs of spawning. Though corals are able to reproduce both sexually and asexually, most other restoration studies have used asexual fragmentation to essentially create small clones of a coral colony. This does work, but fragmentation damages the donor colonies and makes them more susceptible to diseases Sexual reproduction, the kind used in this study, happens through mass spawning. Every coral on a reef releases its sperm egg bundle at once in order to overwhelm predators When this happened in the tanks, the scientists scooped out thousands of egg sperm bundles and placed them in a separate container. Once enough of the bundles had been fertilized, the parent colonies were returned to the reef The newly formed coral larvae spent four days in a lovely predator free, climate controlled lab before being released into the reef. The scientists sectioned out eight plots on the reef to conduct their experiment Four received coral larvae, and the other four were left as a control group. by Adara Shilling Vancouver, Canada Organza mesh enclosures were spread over the plots to ensure the larvae stayed in place, and after five days the organza was removed and the brand new lab grown corals were left to the mercy of the elements. The elements proved merciless. Most of the corals died. Almost immediately. Within five months, the number of lab grown juvenile corals had plummeted However, the mortality rate slowed after five months, and fully stabilized after nine months Most of the corals that survived the first five months lived until the end of the study, except for a handful that were eaten by snails, one that was bleached, and thirty one juvenile corals that fused together during their second year, counting as one surviving coral colony. All the other corals survived through the three years of the study, even when a heat wave partially bleached a nearby reef. In the end, the costs of the study worked out to around $21 US per surviving coral colony, cheaper by The elements proved merciless. Most of the corals died. Almost immediately.

far than many other restoration studies. While there are undoubtedly ways to increase the survival rate of the juvenile corals, this study marks a big step in the right direction If the ongoing climate crisis has taught us anything, it’s that we always have to think ahead and be aware of unexpected issues that may arise. Even if we immediately stopped all carbon emissions, pulled every piece of plastic out of the water, and switched to sustainable fishing, the damage to the coral reefs has already been done. It’s not about fixing climate change anymore, it’s about minimizing the damage We depend on coral reefs for so much, from food to reducing flooding If we started protecting them, reefs would probably be able to stabilize on their own. Rebuilding them is an entirely different issue, but studies like this could help solve it by Shilling

Adara

Vancouver, Canada Works Cited/Image Credit Dela Cruz, Dexter, and Peter Harrison. 2017. “Enhanced Larval Supply and Recruitment Can Replenish Reef Corals on Degraded Reefs” Scientific Reports 7: 1 13. doi.org/10.1038/s41598 017 14546 y Photograph from Dela Cruz and Harrison

While this doesn’t address the underlying issue of climate change, it does show us that we could bring back entirely dead reefs. Even if all coral in the oceans died, as long as researchers have some living coral in their facilities, they could get the coral reefs back. They explain, “Coral reefs protect the coast from abrasion, serve as feeding, spawning, and nursery ground for various aquatic organisms, provide marine tourism Coral

Transplantation: A Glimmer of Hope for Dead and Dying Reefs by William Larson California, USA cont'd > activities, and balance the accumulation of nutrient content such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphate from terrestrial ecosystems during the rainy season.”

A recent study by D. P. Anggara and B. S. Rahardjahas showed that humans can transplant coral colonies from healthy reefs to dead reefs to regrow the dead reefs As long as the conditions of both reefs are similar, the transplantation will succeed.

If you wish to read their research for yourself, the paper's name is “Evaluation of Three Species Coral (Acropora branching) Trans plantation, Case Study; Pantai Tirta Wangi Banyuwangi East Java.”

Before this study, corals had been transplanted with varying success rates; however, this experiment was explicitly done to find the ideal way of transplanting coral. The research focused solely on small polyp stony corals In the shallow reefs of East Java, Indonesia, where this study was conducted, small polyp stony corals Even if all coral in the oceans died, as long as researchers have some living coral in their facilities, they could get the coral reefs back.

O ur reefs are dying, and if we continue to do little to stop that, our oceans will be unrecognizable twenty years from now Luckily, humans have the unique ability to adapt quickly in the face of destruction.

This study used three coral species: Acropora nobilis, Acropora brueggemanni, and Acropora yongei. This research was carried out in East Java, Indonesia The corals were placed in square shaped racks made of PVC. The transplanted corals were each 8 12 centimeters tall. The corals were placed 400 meters from shore at five meters deep. Survival rates were determined by whether or not the coral had living polyp tissue, so bleached corals counted as living as long as the polyps were alive. Each month the water quality was tested so the researchers could determine the cause of death. Temperature, current speed, brightness, turbidity, sedimentation rate, nitrate, and phosphate were all measured. The growth rate of coral by William Larson California, USA fragments was also calculated in monthly linear extension (final length initial length / total month). The growth was measured using tools with an accuracy of 05mm The study took place over three months. In this experiment, the corals had a very high survival rate; Acropora brueggemann and Acropora nobilis were approximately 100%, while Acropora yongei was approximately 96% The A yongei died due to sediment covering up one of the colonies. A. nobilis had the highest growth rate of 0.8 cm per month. A. yongei followed them with 0 47 cm per month and A brueggemanni with 0.35 cm per month This abnormally high success rate can be attributed to the fact that the coral fragments came from places with environmental conditions that are close to the rehabilitation site We have known that corals do not like drastic changes in their environment for a long time, and that information has been used in aquariums. However, we have neglected to experiment to see how well corals grow when they are cont'd >

are the dominant reef builders. Small polyp stony, or SPS, were chosen because soft corals rarely survive transplantation. Successful transplantation involves 50 100% of the transplanted corals surviving the initial shock of transplantation and exhibiting growth, which is primarily attributed to increased skeletal mass.

“Evaluation of Three Species Coral (Acropora Branching) Transplantation, Case Study; Pantai Tirtawangi Banyuwangi East Java.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1036, no 1: 012110 doi org/10 1088/1755 1315/1036/1/012110 Figures from Anggara, et al. dying reefs worldwide, and then transplant corals from that aquarium into those reefs. A facility like that could help regrow every reef on Earth!

moved to similar reefs. This was that experiment, and it showed a near 100% success rate when using this method. Other coral transplantation organizations will hopefully use that method to save their reefs. The transplantation site was near a river mouth, and this study began right before the rainy season, so there was runoff from the river containing many suspended sediments That reduced the light that reached the coral, negatively affecting the photosynthesis of the zooxanthellae, resulting in reduced calcification. This study is vital to our understanding of coral trans plantation In the past, trans plantation has been done over long distances. As a result, coral fragments were taken to reefs utterly different from their own. That naturally resulted in failed transplantation; in our definition, success is a 50% survival rate. So the survival rates of failed trans plantations are abysmal. This ex periment showed that success rates of 100% are possible as long as the coral isn’t taken to a drastically different place. That alone is a significant realization; moreover, experts can use it to facilitate the transplantation of corals to any reef on Earth. Now that we know how to transplant corals, we have to create aquariums that are very similar to by William Larson California, USA Works Cited/Image Credit Anggara, D P, B S Rahardja, and Suciyono 2022

Back in 1999, Indonesia created the Ministry of Ocean Exploration and Fisheries to become the Ministry of Marine Affairs (MMAF) to begin Marine protected areas, also known as MPAs, are areas in the ocean that can restrict human activity or ban it altogether.

ou may think of Indonesia as a paradise vacation with its rich culture, warm beaches, and lush forests. But its surrounding oceans are a livelihood as well as a treasure of marine biodiversity. Indonesia is located within the Coral Triangle, one of the most important reef ecosystems in the world. Its waters contain priceless reefs that give shelter to about seventy percent of known coral species and forty percent of discovered fish species. In addition to being a livelihood, it ensures food security for millions of people across the region However, its stability is at risk by factors such as over exploitation, destructive fishing, climate change, pollution, and coastal development. This is where marine protected areas come into play. Marine protected areas, also known as MPAs, are areas in the ocean that can restrict human Quality and Quantity: Prioritizing Management In MPAs by Lauren Kim New York, USA cont'd > activity or ban it altogether. This can include fishing, development, and other extractive activities. It’s important to know that MPAs don’t always stop human activity, because creating one may need to be able to balance human needs and environmental conservation.

However, some stricter areas such as No Take Areas (NTAs) don’t allow for any sort of collection of marine biomass It’s different from bio diversity, which is the diversity of organisms in an area. In order to have a healthy ecosystem, we need to see a mix of both biomass and biodiversity.

A recent study conducted by Daniela M. Ceccarelli, Asri P. Lestari, Rudyanto, and Alan T White focused on MPAs in Eastern Indonesia, North by Lauren Kim New York, USA Maluku, Maluku and West Papua Provinces. These MPAs were eval uated through reef health surveys to find conservation opportunities and reveal the challenges to overcome in protect ing the environment The things monitored included benthic groups (hard/soft corals, algae, and substrate) and fish population density. Thirteen MPAs were studied across these provinces with some NTAs and were consistently monitored over time from 2016 to 2021. There have been some surprising results! It was found that the overall biomass of coral increased from forty three to forty five percent over time, which is great news for the reefs, but still only a small amount. >

cont'd

work on ocean conservation In 2008, Indonesia committed to creating increasing amounts of MPAs by certain dates. The country had achieved its goal of twenty million protected hectares in MPAs in 2020 by far a little over twenty four million and plans to expand its protections to thirty million hectares by 2030. But maybe size doesn’t mean everything. While protecting as much area as possible is extremely important for the recovery of marine organisms, if there isn’t anyone keeping an eye out for rule breakers, then the purpose is defeated.

Overfishing ran rampant throughout Indonesia. Destructive fishing is a range of techniques from blast fishing to poisoning to trawling. Blast fishing can create turbidity and blow corals apart in seconds; poisoning can quickly kill large amounts of organisms as poison spreads in the water; and trawling can root out coral reefs and catch anything in its path, whether it is a protected animal or not But it’s likely many people who travel to Indonesia don’t know about these kinds of activities. That’s probably because these activities were observed in MPAs that are further away from areas with usually little to no tourism at all An increase in tourism and infrastructure drives these techniques away, but building more infrastructure means more pollution so what’s left is increasing enforcement and interaction with stakeholders.

But the biomass of fish in the study regions actually decreased in NTAs by a whopping forty eight percent per hectare in 2020 Despite the strict rules of the NTAs, fishers were still managing to find a way to deplete the population, willing to catch as much as possible as fast as possible. Unsustainable and destructive fishing are some of the most harmful to reef health

The study emphasizes the need to give everyone a say in the creation by Lauren Kim New York, USA and management of MPAs and NTAs in order to succeed. This is so the practical needs of communities can be acknowledged but also make sure the ecosystem is recovering. It’s been proven in other studies that, for example, in Raja Ampat in West Papua, marine organism populations can increase with a clear plan of management even with permitted fishing. Coral reefs are delicate eco systems that not only need areas to protect the species that make the intricate network function, but they also need the proper management to make sure that health improves over time and no disturbances can offset the effort…and eventually succeed.

Consistent monitoring, health surveys, and effort are key to make MPAs succeed It’s not just the cont'd >

number of MPAs in Indonesia that matter; it’s also making sure that the Indonesian government is well equipped to watch over them. With both quality and quantity, the Coral Triangle and its organisms are sure to make a recovery. by Lauren Kim New York, USA Works Cited/Image Credit Ceccarelli, Daniela M , Asri P Lestari, Rudyanto, and Alan T White 2022 "Emerging marine protected areas of eastern Indonesia: Coral reef Trends and Priorities for Management." Marine Policy 141: https://www sciencedirect com/science/articl e/pii/S0308597X22001385 Maps from Ceccarelli et.al and Wikipedia Commons

Although the causes of coral decline are numerous, many of the

Utilizing Ecological Processes to Promote Coral Recovery by Ilay Ghavidel Gonbad e Kavus, Iran cont'd > drivers of coral loss are localized, acute disturbances, making coral restoration a feasible option for reestablishing corals in many areas. Harnessing ecological processes is a fundamental component in this regard

Current restoration efforts mainly focus on “outplanting” (trans planting) corals raised in nurseries to augment existing populations to restore foundational species on degraded reefs. For instance, in the Caribbean alone, there are more than 150 coral propagation operations in over 20 countries containing tens of thousands of nursery raised corals for use in restoration efforts.

Generally speaking, restoration

espite making up less than 0.1 percent of the planet's surface, coral reefs support over 30% of all marine species, are a major source of fisheries production, and these reefs safeguard the shorelines of over 100 million people who live in coastal areas. However, corals are dying quickly due to local and global stressors such as increased temperature, nutrient pollution, sedimentation, and overfishing. For example, coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean (e.g., right) have lost nearly half of their corals over the past four decades, and many have lost an additional 30 50% during the recent (2014 2016) global coral bleaching event. This alarming trend is even worse in the Caribbean, where reefs have lost approximately 80% of their corals since the mid 1970s (see, e g , next page).

Promoting herbivory in restored areas: Practitioners and researchers should prioritize, according to the research team, "outplanting coral in places with high herbivory where coral-algal competition is low" and "promoting herbivory on reefs where it is diminished to support eco system functions."

Limiting access by corallivores to palatable coral species by protecting them with less palatable branching corals is one creative approach to

efforts typically focus on restoring populations of foundation species that provide the physical structure upon which community members depend for shelter, resources, or reproduction, incorporating fundamental ecological processes simultaneously. Therefore, to assess the degree to which ecological processes are integrated with restoration efforts on coral reefs, a recent study led by Mark C. Ladd surveyed twenty one coral restoration practitioners conducting coral restoration operations in twelve countries and territories throughout the Caribbean region.

when selecting a reef to conduct restoration. Thus, this article shows practitioners how to utilize dynamic ecological forces to increase the success and rate of restoration

Here are their findings: Accordingly, practitioners give more consideration to ecological processes when selecting where to outplant corals within a reef, but not by Ilay Ghavidel Gonbad e Kavus, Iran cont'd >

Reducing coral predation and disease: Coral predation (i.e. corallivory) is a chronic source of tissue loss and mortality for many coral species, and massive research has been done in this regard. However, avoiding or managing corallivory was seen as one of the least important factors among restoration practitioners when selecting sites to outplant corals.

Fish derived nutrients promote positive feedbacks for corals: Fish derived nutrient hotspots both facilitate the growth of existing corals and concentrate herbivory, such that the resultant benthic communities also promote coral health and recruitment.

reduce corallivory and increase the diversity of corals being restored. So, if the corals being used for restoration are heavily targeted by corallivores, informed use of mixed species assemblages of corals may help reduce corallivory and its detrimental effects on coral restoration.

Competition in the context of restoration: On Caribbean reefs, the encrusting gorgonian Erythropodium caribaeorum and the zoanthid Palythoa caribaeorum are two aggressive, fast growing species that can kill or suppress the growth of A. cervicornis, therefore, under by Ilay Ghavidel Gonbad e Kavus, Iran standing competitive interactions among corals used for restoration and their benthic competitors could assist in restoration site selection to remove these competitors when outplanting to reduce or eliminate one factor working against restor ation efforts.

The truth is that corals vary widely in basic traits that influence population and community structures, such as growth rates, reproductive outputs, and symbiont identities, which differ among species, populations, and individuals within a population. So more information about important traits of corals used for restoration would allow practitioners to select species and genotypes best suited for specific restoration sites, thus harnessing ecological processes to facilitate coral restoration.

Images from Ladd, et al., XL Catlin Seaview Survey, and the author

Works Cited/Image Credit

Algal farming fishes as context dependent forces in coral restoration: Many damselfishes are territorial algal gardeners that could promote or hinder restoration efforts, depending on geographic location and species specific behavior In contrast, in the Caribbean, territorial damselfishes destroy large amounts of live coral tissue to create algal gardens that are fiercely protected from larger herbivores; hence, processes that affect coral survivorship, and ultimately restoration efforts, may be context dependent.

Ladd, Mark C , et al 2018 "Harnessing Ecological Processes to Facilitate Coral Restoration" Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 16 (4): 239 47 doi org/10 1002/fee 1792

Restoration Effectiveness: Multiregional Snapshots of the Long-Term Responses of Coral Assemblages to Restoration by Jeffrey Youhui Wang Beijing, China cont'd > recruitment, coral health, and structural complexity. This paper was testing four different regions that are subject to coral issues with different objectives and method ologies on resolving issues, by using five constant indicators (coral cover, structural complexity, coral diversity, coral juveniles, and coral health) to measure the differences.

This study is the central actor of the entire article. The researchers were going to four different and unique sites to figure out the differences: (1) New Heaven Reef Conservation Program (NHRCP) on the island of Koh Tao, Thailand; (2) Reefscapers program on the island of Landaa Giraavaru, Maldives; (3) Coral In the Virgin Islands, corals were stressed from climate change but later were saved by the rebuilt-removal strategy.

W e have discussed solutions for coral bleaching and coral issues for a long while, but are those restoration solutions effective in solving coral issues? This is the central theme of a new study by Hein that questions all tactics of solving coral issues. In most cases, it is hard to monitor corals entirely because the difference in regions and management strategies, and it is hard to measure the effectiveness of outcomes quantitatively since most measurements are qualitative, which is hard to compare. Those aspects should always be considered when we are educating and learning about corals because different interpretations will cause biases, which may exaggerate or underestimate the effects of climate change. The researchers propose a new set of measurements, which are: coral diversity, herbivore biomass and diversity, benthic cover,

Restoration Foundation in Key Largo, Florida Keys, USA; and (4) The Nature Conservancy on the island of St Croix, US Virgin Islands. These four sites are all subject to coral issues and have different strategies to cope. The program in Thailand had both long and short term solutions, like nurseries and education. In the Maldives, the coral diversity were once harmed by human activities, but later the government attempted to rebuild restoration sites as their major solution. The corals in the USA were threatened by tropical storms, and their program first tried to rebuild and establish nurseries to alleviate the issue In the Virgin Islands, corals were stressed from climate change but later were saved by the rebuilt removal strategy. These are the previous strategies and the context of this study, which could later be taken into an account.

cont'd

On the other hand, some by Jeffrey Youhui Wang Beijing, China indicators did show differences, like coral juveniles. Thailand was significantly high while Maldives was only about +1, and some sites just could not be measured, but admittedly, they were still showing an increasing trend. For indicators that did have different trends, the difference was still insignificant, so the overall accuracy was promised. This study had some limitations that should be considered. For example, since the researchers were taking the snapshots of each site, there was no change observed; it is better to have a longitudinal study. Moreover, there were some extraneous variables that haven’t been controlled or considered, like the age of corals were not same, so that could influence the performance of different sites on each indicator. >

The researchers used five indicators to quantify the coral situations of each site to determine the difference of coral assemblages. They found that although four sites are supposedly showing differences, the general trends are in expect ation. For instance, hard coral cover all showed an increase at all four sites regardless of different regions and different objectives or methodologies; structural complexity also showed an increase, and were all showing increasing trends.

Also, the researchers collected from the genus but not the species level, which may be replicated by the restoration managers. These factors should be considered and later revised to improve the general validity. In conclusion, this study revealed the variety of results when different sites have different objectives and methodologies. If we could not quantify the effectiveness of each site on restoration processes, different interpretations will lead to errors and biases; this should never be overlooked especially when we are exploring different strategies We should question ourselves whether this data is unbiased and valid, particularly whether if indicators are constant, so we could use it to compare with other sites. by Jeffrey Youhui Wang Beijing, China Works Cited/Image Credit Hein, Margaux Y , et al 2020 "Coral Restoration Effectiveness: Multiregional Snapshots of the Long Term Responses of Coral Assemblages to Restoration" Diversity 12 (4): 153. doi org/10 3390/d12040153 Image from Hein et. al

·Increase of temperature

·Sea level rise

Climate Change in Kiribati Luciana George and Eretia Itirikabuta Tarawa, Kiribati cont'd > Sea level rise.

Kiribati is a country where we were born. It is found at the equator, and it is on average only three meters above sea water, which is too low to face when a tsunami comes, but luckily we never experience tsunami But what we know is that we have experienc ed major effects of climate change. We all know that we have an atmosphere which contains five layers; these layers protect us from the ultraviolet of the sunlight, but with the emission of carbon from manufacturers it has created a greenhouse effect where the air and oceans are warming, and the ice at the poles is melting, creating climate change (in my opinion from researching) which comes with an effect From what we know, the main problem in which we have experience due to the effects of climate change are:

To us I Kiribati the main problem due to the effect of climate change is sea level rise Its main impact to our environment is known as coastal erosion This decreases the size of our land even though we already have a small country. But, during high tide our water salinity is mostly affected and most of our water comes from a well and the rain, and sometimes we can’t drink rain water sometime because it is hard to make it rain. But we still manage to find our

solution by planting mangroves at coastal areas and land filling to create more new land area. There’s a time when we were like in Grade 6 when we first saw a high tide. Our house is eighty meters (estimating) from the sea, and the sea water happened to reach our house, and not just that but it also reached the knees of an adult when standing in it. When this all happened some children (us also, when we didn’t know of climate change) said that a tsunami is happening, but it's funny that we were not scared but most likely happy playing in it

Tarawa, Kiribati Luciana George and Eretia Itirikabuta

Increase of temperature. As for the second one, the increase of temperature was bigger than expected. As we mentioned before our country is found at the equator of the earth which exposes us more to the sunlight. All we know is that in these couple years the temperature has increased more. We know this not by testing the temperature but by the change in weather; for example, rainfall here in Tarawa tends to happen from January to June (what we mean is that between this period we have a wet season), but its pattern has changed in the past couple of years

cont'd >

cont'd

Luciana George and Eretia Itirikabuta saving solution is stopping the emission of carbon or any other things that contribute to the effects of climate change Mostly people with manufacturing will disagree because that is their money income, but we think climate change must be stopped because it could become our end to someone else's beginning (if that make sense). And if by chance Kiribati might be buried underwater in the future, why can’t we prevent other countries from sinking if we stop the emission of carbon. Maybe we could lose one but save 202 more countries But we come to understand the emission of carbon is not the only thing that contributes to the effects of climate change, but by burning plastic and using perfume, we also contribute to the effect of climate change in which this doesn’t give us the right to complain (even though we sound like we're complaining), >

Mostly the southern part of Kiribati has experienced drought throughout the year. What we know is that most of the effect of climate change all comes from the emission of carbon that create climate change, and the manufacturers are the one who emit carbon, and in Kiribati we do not have any of this manufacturing, but somehow we are the ones to experience the major effects of climate change. Planting mangroves may sound like a real life saving solution, but we do not know in the future if the sea level increases. Land filling is just a temporary solution, because the year we take to create an area we can lose a double amount of that area. For example, if it take three years to create a length of 1 km and width of 700m we can also know from common sense that there will also area that will decrease in size if coastal erosion increases, and we cannot know if it doubled the amount of what we created. This is our solution to the climate change, but we all know the real life Tarawa, Kiribati In Kiribati we do not have any of this manufacturing, but somehow we are the ones to experience the major effects of climate change.

Page 60: Luciana (left) and Eretia stand in front of an old boat and in front of coral stones stacked up to defend against sea level rise. Page 61: Eretia and Luciana in front of a structure built to raise land level Page 62: A healthy reef in Kiribati (Flickr, Roderick Eime)

Tarawa, Kiribati Image Credits/Captions

Luciana George and Eretia Itirikabuta because we are affected. And for us I Kiribati people even though we know that we might be buried underwater we can never change that, but it can be changed if people around the world view climate change as life threatening not only to us, but for the future people.

• Turning Green https://turninggreen org/ • Coral Reef Alliance https://coral.org/en/ We want to support further research especially on…

The world is more dependent on coral reefs than we think Corals help provide food, provide livelihoods, and even provide medicine But because we’re at the risk of losing them, we’ll have to come up with as many solutions as possible. Over the course of this program, students compiled various solutions in mind for different categories, taking inspiration from guest speakers or thinking on their own. At the end, students took a vote for an overall group of favorites Note how we chose top down efforts to help corals by focusing on global warming Find our choices below!

• Carbon capture technology.

• Newer, cleaner, and more efficient sources of energy such as geothermal, nuclear, hydrogen, etc.

• Hold themselves accountable for their own products that harm the environment greatly, such as fast fashion clothing.

• Make the switch to renewable energy, one way being divesting from fossil fuels. We want our governments to…

• Invest in ways to produce eco friendly products (e.g. producing clothes that are made of organic fabrics, or creating ways to produce efficiently with little waste and emissions)

We want companies to…

As individuals we can…

• Create programs that require companies to take responsibility for their own waste, whether it is through packaging, wrapping, etc.

• Advocate for “green” politicians and work together to raise awareness in our daily lives about the environment.

If we had money to donate, we would first consider giving to…

What We Can Do For Corals

• Seek out long term and sustainable solutions that will benefit ALL communities

Lauren Kim Icons from fonts.google.com

• Reduce gas consumption by using cars less, or switching to electric vehicles and walking, biking, and using public transport more.

• Subsidize renewables

"Two weeks of class are short, but knowledge and information are not."

Even though coral is a recent topic, it is complex and worth investigating No one wants to live in a place where there are no creatures; no one wants to live in a place with habitat destruction; no one wants to live in an environment where it inclines toward collapse. We are still positive and optimistic about coral's future and our future, because there is always a solution and a possibility to alleviate the problems. If everyone can contribute to resolve this severe issue, then our environment will eventually return to its initial state, with vegetation living, animals living, and we are living with happiness.

Coda

The government should fund electric vehicles and tax fossil fuels to reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emitted; private companies should adopt renewable energy and maximize their mechanical efficiency; and for us, we need to engage in bleach cleanups, engage in environmental education, practice ecotourism, and save as much energy as we can. In short, we should not put ourselves aside from environmental issues, because it will eventually impact everyone.

We hope this magazine can provide you with some general information about the relationship between corals and humans and what we have learned in two intense weeks. What we essentially want to do here is to raise the public’s awareness of coral and the ocean and what we should do to make the ocean and corals better.

Jeffrey Wang

To sum up all the points we have made, mitigating the coral bleaching event is not just governments’ or companies’ obligation, but everyone, like us However, each of us will take different parts of this contribution.

ISSUE 2, 2022

Two weeks of class are short but knowledge and information are not. We found that corals are, indeed, not just a single organism, but they have a huge correlation with oceanic navigation, humanity, and the global climate. If the coral system collapses, wave surges may destroy the onshore infrastructures, which is a huge burden on the global and local economy; if the climate becomes changeable and severe, sailors and fishermen are unable to sail on the ocean. We also looked at the debate about the IPCC reports and how NOAA assesses and determines different levels of coral bleaching.

map by Ilay Ghavidel Coral Reef (English) Korallenriffe (German) ﯽﻧﺎﺟﺮﻣیﺎﻫهﺮﺨﺻ (Farsi) Коралові рифи (Ukranian) 珊瑚（Chinese) Te Rakai (Kiribati) Climate Change (English) Klimawandel (German) ﯽﻤﯿﻠﻗاتاﺮﯿﯿﻐﺗ (Farsi) зміна клімату (Ukranian) ⽓候变化 (Chinese) Bibitakin kanoan bong (Kiribati)

Lucy Gaffneyboro is a sixteen year old living in Brooklyn, New York, USA. She attends Saint Anns School, and will be in 12th grade this fall

Adara Shilling will be starting 11th Grade at Britannia Secondary in Vancouver, Canada She is hoping to study marine biology in the future, but in the meantime she's trying her best to make sure there’s something left to study.

Lauren Kim is a high school student from New York, USA, who loves swimming, music, and her two dogs. She’s interested in climate change and conservation and is working towards an environmentally friendly future.

Denys Pavlov originally came from Odesa, Ukraine Growing up on a sea coast inspired him to dive into ocean biology research. He is passionate about film photography, history, and architecture. As an upcoming senior student, he plans to pursue his career in economics to work with environmental issues on the level of finances.

William Larson lives in the San Francisco Bay area, USA He has a sister, two dogs, a cat, and a saltwater fish tank. His interest in the ocean comes from his close proximity to San Francisco Bay, as well as a trip he took to Hawaii when he was thirteen. He is interested in following marine biology and oceanography in college, and wants to be a divemaster.

Amanda Beneventano is a high school senior in Carlsbad, California, USA. She loves to spend time at the beach, hike, and listen to music. In college, she plans to study marine science and conduct research abroad, and to go on to pursue a career in this field Specifically, Amanda hopes to specialize in researching restoring coral reefs and ways to derive pharmaceuticals from them.

Ilay Ghavidel is a rising senior at Farzanegan NODET High School from Gonbad e Kavus, Iran. She loves traveling, spending time in nature, and helping others. She hopes to devote her life to drive positive changes to both her community, and to the world from tackling rapid climate change to striving for justice

Yuliia Heleveria is a high school student from Cherkasy, Ukraine, who is currently living in Saint Paul, Minnesota as an exchange student. She is interested in climate change, foreign languages, and cheerleading. She hopes to become an ocean and resources engineer and provide new innovations that will help to explore the ocean and protect marine life

Eretia Itirikabuta is a senior science student at KGV&EBS high school in Tarawa, Kiribati, in which she is attending her last year. Studying the ocean is what she is passionate about, even though she is afraid of every living creature in the sea.

Juliette Allayaud is a high school junior from Sacramento, California, USA, with a passion for combatting the effects of climate change. In addition to this passion, she enjoys playing cello with her orchestra, spending time in nature, particularly the redwoods, and consuming an unbridled amount of chocolate She hopes to pursue a career in something related to environmental studies

Abby Thompson is a seventeen year old high school student in Bexley, Ohio, USA She was born in Bangkok, Thailand, but was adopted and has lived in Ohio for eight years now. She is interested in running, art, and marine life. She hopes to go somewhere out in California for college and would like to get into marine biology or environmental law as her future occupation She hopes to one day be able to study sharks and fight for marine life protection

Albert Schwartz is a sixteen year old student from England interested in marine biology

WRITER m a g a z i n e

Solveig Schneider is a rising senior from Germany, and she loves books, tea, and hazelnut ice cream. She really hopes to dive in the Great Barrier Reef one day.

Jingyu Xiao will be a senior at Carmel High School in Carmel, Indiana, USA She has been interested in oceanography and earth science since her freshman year.

Thomas Seitz is a thirteen year old home schooler in Abu Dhabi, UAE. He is interested in marine biology, aviation, and scuba diving. He hopes to one day test audio technology in deep water.

Luciana Tooma grew up and is still living at Kiribati Island, and she is a senior student at KGV&EBS high school. She is attending her last year, and also she is a science student, and she loves to study anything related to the ocean.

Jeffrey (Youhui) Wang is a high school student from Beijing, China, interested in environmental science and math. He wishes coral issues, even all environment issues, can be largely alleviated and resolved in the future.

SEAWRITER.SeaQuest.Coral.Issue2.2022.pdf

Articles inside

Introduction

"Can Herbivorous Crabs Assist in Saving Seaweed-Choked Corals?"

"How Satire Can Be Misunderstood and Its Impact on Climate Change"

''How Vulnerable is Pacific Marine Life to Climate Change?"

"Warming Water, and a Higher Tolerance''

''COVID-19 and Small-Scale Fisheries in Africa""

"From Ridge to Reef: Efforts Behind Conservation in Mau’i, Hawai’i"