The Fully Framed Model: HMN Swan Class Sloops 1767-1780 Vol I by SeaWatch Books

The Fully Framed Model The HMN Swan class sloops of 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE, THIRD REVISED EDITION

by David Antscherl

Completed framing for Pegasus, 1777. Model constructed by Greg Herbert, scale 1:48.

The Fully Framed Model The HMN Swan class sloops of 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE, THIRD REVISED EDITION by David Antscherl with photographs by Greg Herbert

A guide for building the hull of a fully framed British naval Swan class ship-rigged sloop of the 1770’s. Suitably adapted, the experienced reader may use this book as a basis for constructing models of most naval vessels of the 1760-1800 period.

“This is a very small book. Read elsewhere and read critically, always” -Karl Kessler, historian, 2001

PUBLISHED BY SEAWATCHBOOKS LLC

reserved. Fourth revised edition, fifth printing

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CONTENTS

Foreword Acknowledgements, etc. Introduction

7 11 13

CHAPTER ONE Setting up the workshop Suggested hand tools Suggested power tools Supplementary books Wood species recommended Adhesives Marking out techniques Building board Keel Treenails False keel Lower stem Upper stem Lower apron (false stem) Upper apron Fore deadwood Finishing the stem and apron Stern deadwood and knee Stern post Inner post Rising wood Keel rabbet Wing transom Completing building board Fitting the wing transom Filling transoms Keel, metal fittings Finishing the stem head Accurate measuring methods Available NMM plans Glossary for plans Measurement conversions Useful web addresses Cutting scarph joints Sanding techniques Transoms and tenons Milling transom tenons

15 15 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 26 30 31 33 35 37 38 38 40 41 42 44 44 46 48 49 50 51 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

CHAPTER TWO Aft fashion piece Fillers below transoms Aftermost cant frame Joint options (framing) Chocked futtock joints Scarphed futtock joints Aftermost cant frame Bollard timber Bowsprit cross chock Foremost fore cant frame The hawse pieces Hawse piece #2 Hawse piece #3 Hawse piece #4 The filler piece Fore cant frames Fore cant heels and steps Special case cant frames Framing the ports Fairing the bow framing Aft cant frames Gun port #9 Side counter timbers Finishing aft side framing Fairing the stern framing Frames on a bearding line Boxing of hawse pieces

75 76 79 80 82 83 89 92 96 103 105 106 107 109 110 110 111 116 117 118 120 124 124 124 128 128 129 130

CHAPTER THREE Sequence of actual building The knee of the head The gripe Lacing, chock and bobstay pieces Cutwater Finishing the knee of the head Standard and extension piece Square body frames, introduction Wood economy Frame pair 14 First exercise in lofting

133 134 136 137 138 139 139 144 145 147 147 151

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Fitting 14 aft to the deadwood Frame 14 fore Frame bend 13 Frame bend 12 Frame pair 11 Progressive fairing Fore square frame pair L Frame pair K Frame pair J and sweep ports Frame pair H Frame pair G Fairing the fore frames Remaining square frames Preparing for the pumps Cutting sills into finished frames Gun port and sweep port sills Fillings Concluding the framing Cutting down Fixed blocks in the sides Planksheer (covering board) Covering board (planksheer) Finishing toptimbers: timberheads Kammerlander bending method Intermediate frame heels aft Fractional/decimal equivalents Floor and futtock sidings

152 154 155 156 157 157 160 160 160 160 161 161 161 162 163 164 164 165 165 165 163 165 167 169 169 171 171

CHAPTER FOUR Keelson Stemson Finishing the keelson Ribbands and harpins Ribband nails Floorhead ribband and harpins First futtock ribband and harpins Second futtock ribband and harpins Third futtock ribband and harpins Sheer ribband and harpins Inner limber strake How much detail to include Outer limber strake Fastening the planking Thickstuff over the floorheads Thickstuff at first futtock heads Lower deck clamp

175 177 179 179 180 180 181 183 183 183 184 184 188 188 188 189 191 191

First futtock upper strake Upper deck clamp Air space String in the waist Forecastle deck clamp Quarter deck clamp Footwaling Finding plank taper Plank sny and spiling off Footwaling (continued) Main mast step Foremast step Mizen mast step Limber boards Crutch aft of the mizen mast Breast hooks Sleepers Wing transom knees Chemical coloring of metal Wire equivalents Planing planks on edge Measuring off heights CHAPTER FIVE Ballast Barrels and casks Platforms: an introduction Aft platform beams Fish room/spirit room bulkhead Aft platform lodging knees Aft platform carlings Aft platform ledges Pillars under the lower deck beams Lower deck beams Pillars in the hold Aft platform planking Fastenings for deck planks Well and shot locker Preparing for the pumps Continuing construction of the well Metal fittings and silver soldering Shot locker hinges Fore platforms Magazine, passageway and light room Magazine bulkhead and doors Palleting beams and carlings

192 193 193 194 195 195 196 196 197 199 199 200 201 202 203 203 204 204 206 206 207 207 209 211 211 213 213 216 217 218 218 219 220 223 224 225 225 227 228 229 231 232 233 235 236

CONTENTS

Palleting flat Light room Passageway to the magazine Bread room Steward’s room Slop room Captain’s store room Fishroom hatch Magazine and filling room fittings Stores for magazine and filling room Fore platform bulkheads Block room Riding bitt uprights Pitch and tar room Coal hole Boatswain’s storeroom Gunner’s storeroom Color in the hold Isometric drawings Beam round-up, hyperbolic curve Beam round-up, arciform curve Window frames (lights)

237 238 239 239 240 241 241 241 241 243 244 245 246 246 246 246 247 247 248 249 250 252

CHAPTER SIX Lower deck hook and eking Lower deck beams, continued Hanging knees, lower deck Lower deck lodging knees Lower deck carlings Lower deck ledges Fore mast partners Mast wedges Rake, mast Stepping Sheer hulk Opposed lodging knees Varieties of lodging knees Variations of deck beams Beam arms Main mast partners Iron lodging knees & packing pieces Mizen mast partners Aft companion or ladderway Lower deck planking Inner planking, lower deck Lower deck planking

255 256 256 257 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260 261 262 262 263 264 264 265 265 265 266 267

Lower deck waterway Lower deck planking, continued Centerline plank Shutting in Flat of the deck Scuttle covers (lower deck) Hatch coamings (lower deck) Hatchway gratings Grating production Riding bitts Upper deck beams Riding bitts, continued Main topsail sheet bitt pins Main jeer bitts Chain pumps Chain pump tubes Pump intake chambers Brake pumps Upper well Ladder to aft platform Pillars under upper deck beams Lower deck cabin bulkheads Making ringbolts Index

267 267 270 270 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 277 279 279 280 283 284 286 287 288 289 295 296

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Building a Swan Class model Foreword

ou would not be reading this today were not for the help and encouragement of many dedicated people over the past 60 years. In acknowledging their assistance with

gratitude, their names appear on page 11. This adventure started when I asked myself: “How did the eighteenth century ship modeler make his beautiful, fully framed models?”1 (I am not referring to the conventionally framed or Admiralty style model.) I was certain that the methods used by Harold Hahn, John Franklin, and R.A. (Bob) Lightley were unknown back then. After reading over these three modelers’ methods carefully, I started to think about the problem in more subversive ways. I wanted to build a fully framed model according to dockyard practice, at the classic scale of 1:48. I did not want to compromise on accuracy where finished appearance was concerned. Neither did I want to waste more wood than needed in the process. Nor did I want to do any more work than was absolutely necessary. (Being of a lazy disposition, I always seek the most efficient solution!) And I wanted to construct my model “right way up,” without any elaborate jigs. After much consideration I realized that the only reasonable way was to emulate the old-time shipwrights in miniature: build my model upright piece by piece, lofting (drafting) each component of the ship’s structure. Those skills must have been well known to the builders of the magnificently detailed models that I had seen displayed in the Science and National Maritime Museums. A study model of bow framing2 (still held by the latter institution) was built by the apprentice naval architect Robert Seppings in the 1780’s. It seems that he had to design, loft, and then make all the component timbers of this model himself as part of his apprenticeship.

1 2

A good example is Intrepid in frame, 1770, at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. This model is illustrated in Ship Models, their Development and Purpose from 1650 to the Present by Brian Lavery and Simon Stephens, page 232. (NMM ref. SLR 2179)

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

To see if it was possible to miniaturize traditional full-size techniques, I embarked upon a model of Comet of 1783. I carefully lofted all her frames before beginning construction. Part of the result can be seen in this book. I discovered that not only was it possible to build in much the same way as the real ship had been constructed, but aligning the framing was much easier than I had anticipated. Of course I ran into other problems that had to be solved, and I hope that others can take advantage of my learning experience in the construction of their own models. (There is more to the story, of course, than this. The curious reader is referred to Greg Herbert’s foreword beginning on the next page.) I did not want to see several dozen identical models of exactly the same subject result from my writings (a shortcoming in other books on the market, in my opinion), and also wished model makers to discover the treasure trove of ships’ plans available for which no models yet exist. Hence the descriptions in this book can be applied to any one of the very pretty Swan class ships of the 1770’s, or to any other ship of this period if the builder learns to loft his or her own frames. It is my sincere hope that by taking this journey, your knowledge of 18th century shipbuilding will increase, the considerable time and effort that it takes to construct a model will result in greater accuracy, and — perhaps most importantly — you will acquire your own taste for enquiry and further research. Wishing you a successful voyage of discovery,

David Antscherl

43° 46' 02"N 80° 52' 16"W Summer Solstice, 2004

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Foreword by Greg Herbert

ow this volume came into being might be of interest to its readers. I met David for the first time at the Mariners’ Museum 2000 Competition in Newport News, Virginia. While carrying my model of Druid to my hotel room, I happened to share an elevator with David. He displayed an interest in the model, so I invited him to take a closer look. While he was examining Druid, I became aware that he was the builder of Polyphemus, one of the most beautiful models I had ever seen. Knowing that he was a master builder, I asked for his advice in building the ship’s wheel. I still have his beautifully drawn illustration and was impressed by the simple manner in which he suggested a solution.

I began e-mailing David with questions about various details on Druid and always received concise and historically accurate responses, often with professionally drawn illustrations. He soon became my mentor and friend, and I made two pilgrimages to his workshop where he and his wife Carol graciously put up with me for several days. I spent hours studying David’s models of Polyphemus and Comet, in addition to his meticulously drawn plans. My goal was to learn drafting, but it soon became apparent that I lacked the skills required for the task. Nevertheless each trip was a resounding success. I learned techniques such as silver soldering, basic carving, chisel use and sharpening , plus a variety of other skills that I now use daily. While putting the finishing touches on Druid I began discussing my next project with David. I was looking to build a sixth-rate or sloop of war and had decided on Kingfisher. David suggested I consider building a ship that had never been modeled before. He told me of the various other plans available for the Swan class of ships, to which Kingfisher belonged. The idea intrigued me and I commissioned David to draft a set of plans for the Swan class. I figured I would use Hahn’s building jig with David’s plans and build it upside down, as I had done with my previous two models. The arrival of the newly drafted plans was quite a shock to me! Close inspection revealed that these were not Hahn-style plans with his various conventions for simplicity. David had lofted every single full and cant frame and his beautifully drawn plans were perfect replications of the Admiralty draughts except in one important detail; they were now accurate. The originals had become distorted over time.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

It became apparent that the Hahn method of building was out of the question. I expressed my reservations to David. In his typical humble manner he assured me I could build the model properly and promised to guide me every step of the way, a decision I’m sure he regrets to this day! After several months of building and keeping a journal, I was having the time of my life. Integrating David’s plans with Steel’s tables and other primary sources was resulting in a replica of the original ship, not a simplified model. I thought other modelers might enjoy the experience so David and I came up with the idea of writing this treatise. It has been a lot of hard work, and ironically for us, neglect of our own models. But I think you will find David’s writing to be concise, accurate and beautifully illustrated. I hope that the photographs of my own model of Pegasus under construction will add to this book. Building a historically accurate model is not easy. It requires a dedication to excellence and patience. Welcome aboard for the long but fascinating journey.

Greg Herbert

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Acknowledgements and thanks No venture of this nature can possibly be the work of one person unaided. There are a number of people, past and present, that have made this work possible, and I should like to thank them here. Firstly I should like to thank Greg Herbert, DVM, of Baltimore, who first encouraged me to consider embarking upon writing this monograph, and who has helped immeasurably in organizing, critiquing, promoting, supporting and willing this project into being. Most of the photographs are of his model of Pegasus. Without his enthusiasm and help, you would not be reading this. Jeremy Michell’s assistance at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks also to Bob Friedman, my original publisher. My editors David Hill and Bob Henrickson have both made invaluable contributions and saved me some embarrassing moments! Thanks are also due to Mike Ellison of SeaWatchBooks for seeing the work into this new edition. There is a large cast of characters from my past who also need to be acknowledged. These include the late Arthur (Len) Tucker of the National Maritime Museum, Messrs. Jenkinson, Butcher and Jewell of the Greenwich & District Ship Model Society, circa 1960-62, and B.W. Bathe of the Science Museum, Kensington. There have been many others who have been helpful over the years (whose names I cannot recall or who were anonymous to me) in the Public Records Office and at the National Maritime Museum Library and Photographs & Plans Departments. I am also indebted to the pioneers in this field whose works are invaluable. These include the anonymous author of The Shipbuilders’ Repository, Marmaduke Stalkartt, David Steel and Abraham Rees. More recent writers are Dr. C. Nepean Longridge, David J. Lyon, John Franklin and Dr. Frank Howard. The galaxy of present day authors that I have drawn on include Robert Gardiner, Peter Goodwin, Brian Lavery, James Lees, R.A. (Bob) Lightley, and David White. Thanks also to Terry Godwin for promotional help and John Rose for assistance in digital reproduction of the plans. J.P. Dickman of Switzerland provided the original inspiration for my subject with his series of articles for Model Shipwright in 1972. His fine 1:100 model of Atalanta struck the spark to a very long length of slow-burning fuse. Last but not least, I should like express thanks to my late father, Geza Antscherl, who imbued me with the love of all things miniature, and my patient loving wife Carol, who indulges me in this arcane pursuit. 11

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Foreword to the new third edition It is now 18 years since this book was first published. It has gone through several printings and now, a second revised edition. Little did I think at the time that this and the three companion volumes would have had such long 'legs'. Since the previous editions were published new information has come to light and some items have been amended accordingly. As I quoted historian Karl Kessler on the original half title page; “Read elsewhere and read critically, always.” This applies as much today as it did over 20 years ago. Our knowledge can only expand if we do so. I should like to acknowledge my new publisher, Mike Ellison, who recently (2022) acquired SeaWatchBooks from founder Bob Friedman, for his confidence in continuing to print and make these books available. And a thank you also to all, including you, gentle reader, who have bought these books. I hope that you will find them helpful and inspirational. Sincerely, David Antscherl

August 2022 43.34579N 79.09359W

Note: Since this volume was first published, the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich (NMM) has been renamed under the umbrella organizational name of Royal Museums Greenwich (RMG).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Volume One Introduction

elcome to the fascinating world of eighteenth century naval architecture! This book has been designed to guide you through the process of building the hull of a Swan class vessel of the 1770’s. The principles given here are applicable to most British-built ships of the 1750 to 1800 period. Working through the book, you will learn how the real ships were built, following step by step in the wake of the shipwrights of that era. In the process you will gain a new perspective on shipbuilding and develop a profound respect for the highly skilled men who toiled in the dockyards of England and the Colonies. With this book as a guide, you may build the “ultimate model” if you so choose. Some simplified construction alternatives will be given along the way, but don’t be misled by the use of the word “simplified”. This will still be a challenging and demanding project! What you need to bring to the task is neither easy nor impossibly difficult: a commitment of time over a period of years rather than months, a space in your home that can serve as a dockyard in miniature, and the ability to use a selection of tools, both power and hand. You will need an authoritative set of plans to begin with, preferably historic ones rather than modern adaptations or imaginative interpretations.1 If you have never built a ship model, I strongly recommend that you build a model or two before committing to this project. Join a local ship model club if you can; its members will provide additional support, advice and encouragement. One pleasure of this pastime (or obsession!) is sharing knowledge and learning from others. This has been my pleasant experience over many years of model making. I will take you on this journey based on my own experience and practice. The veterans among you may have better or alternate ways of doing things: my way is not an exclusive one. Whatever works for you and gives you a pleasing result is the “right” way. There are always new methods and materials to experiment with, and I encourage you to apply your own problem-solving skills.

Read section 1.5 plus Appendices 1.2, 1.3 & 1.5 for information on authentic plans and how to obtain them.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Setting up your workshop Since you will be producing considerable quantities of wood dust, try to arrange a space where this can be controlled or confined. A wide choice of home workshop dust collection systems is available. If you are building to a scale of 1:48, a minimum size for a work surface would be 24" x 60" if you are building a sixth-rate. A piece of 3⁄4" ply or MDF (medium density fiberboard) mounted on a smaller table works well: this is what I use. Make sure that the surface is level and does not sag as it will be difficult to assemble frames on a warped platform. You will also need good lighting and an ergonomically correct chair that can be adjusted at different heights to suit you. Storing your tools away from any dust is helpful. As for these, everyone has his or her favorites. I will give you a list of tools that I use most frequently, but leave you to make your own choices.

1.2 Suggested hand tools Bevel-edged chisels: 1⁄4", 3⁄8", 1⁄2" and possibly 1"

Soft-headed hammer

Surgical scalpel handle and #11 blades

18" steel straight-edge

Jack or smoothing plane

Machinist’s square, 6" or larger

Pin chuck, for small drill bits

6" or 8" calipers, duodecimal

Clamps (see comments below)

Bulldog style clips

Scale rule (duodecimal, including 1⁄4" = 1' 0")

Clutch-type pencil lead holder

Steel drawplate for treenails (see text)

4H drawing leads and sharpener

Olfa style knife with disposable blades

Miniature round-nose pliers

Edge tool sharpening system (see text)

Flat-nose pliers

Bench-mount metal-working vice, soft jaws

Set of miniature drill bits, #61 to 80

These are the basics for now. Other items can be added later, such as miniature carving tools and a butane torch. However, these won’t be needed for some time.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

You can never own too many clamps. For larger items, wooden cam-style clamps with cork-lined jaws are wonderful. They are easy to apply and work extremely well, especially as hold-downs. A selection of smaller metal clamps can be useful, but for speed and convenience I often use Bulldog (fold-back style) clips in various sizes instead. Razor-sharp edge tools are critical. Invest in a sharpening system that really works. I highly recommend Lee Valley’s (Veritas® brand in the United States), Stone Pond and Sharpening System (see Appendix 1.5). A 1000/4000 grit water stone will keep cutting edges in top condition. The late Leonard Lee, retired founder of the business, is author of the ultimate book on sharpening edge tools.

1.3 Suggested power tools There has always been lively debate over which power tools are necessary for ship modeling. I’ll give you my own preferences. Add or delete as your taste and budget permit. Scroll saw (see below)

Miniature lathe: Unimat, Sherline or Taig

Miniature table saw (see below)

Proxxon or Foredom tool, variable speed

I do everything else by hand. You won’t need the lathe for some time, unless it sets up as a drill press. Some model makers cannot manage without milling machines, drum sanders or band saws: the list is endless. If you can afford these, enjoy them. Until I became a professional builder my only power tools were an old Unimat lathe with a circular saw attachment and an ancient, noisy Dremel scroll saw. As I managed to build a 64-gun third-rate with just these, I suppose I proved that it could be done. However, other power tools do make life easier! I now use a DeWalt model DW778 scroll saw on a dedicated stand. It is a pleasure to use for cutting out the many curved parts required. I now also own a MicroLux tilting arbor table saw (it is also marketed under the Proxxon label). Out of the box, it is less than ideal. However, fitted with a carbide-tipped blade and an Accuriser II fence, it works extremely well. The variable speed function allows the saw to run slowly enough to cut Plexiglass®. By flipping stock over end for end, I can cut 2" wide dimensioned leaves of hardwood. Owners of smaller Preac saw units may wish to buy pre-dimensioned stock online in a variety of species (see Appendix 1.5). I also own an excellent 4" saw made by Jim Byrnes,2 that has received critical praise.

http://www.byrnesmodelmachines.com/

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1.4 In case you’re wondering… Each time a new term is mentioned in the text, it is set in italic face and the term defined or explained. Terms already mentioned will be explained in detail when you reach the relevant section of this book.

1.5 Plans required for building a model If you have bought my plans for a Swan class ship, you will also need to supplement these by those of the specific ship that you wish to construct. Drawings of thousands of ships are available from The National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. For a comprehensive list of ships and available plans for the Swan class and how to obtain them, see Appendix 1.2. The plans of Fly are the most detailed, even showing the painted frieze along the ship’s side. You will need a sheer and profile, disposition of frame, and deck plans of the ship you have selected, and possibly a planking expansion. These will all be used in conjunction with my own drawings. For an explanation of these terms, see Appendix 1.3. My drawings are based on originals held by the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. The original design draught for the class was used, in addition to draughts of Atalanta, Pegasus, and Cygnet. I have noted missing details reconstructed on my drawings. You may judge the validity of my conclusions. I am assuming that you already have some basic knowledge of eighteenth century naval shipwrightry. If you are completely unfamiliar with how such vessels were constructed you may have difficulty in interpreting some aspects of these drawings.

1.6 Supplementary books I would highly recommend the following texts as primers to the uninitiated, and as standard reference for anyone else building a model from these drawings: The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, C. Nepean Longridge and The Construction and Fitting of the Sailing Man of War, 1650-1850, Peter Goodwin. If you are planning on rigging your model, you may wish to consider these books later on: Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging, Steel, Sweetman edition, Rigging Period Ship Models, Lennarth Petersson and The Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, James Lees.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

There are many other helpful books, but the above-mentioned “must-haves” are readily available. The other expensive reference is Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture, 1805 edition, by David Steel, which was reproduced as a facsimile reprint in 1977 by Sim Comfort Associates. Copies are still occasionally available for sale. (See useful Web sites, Appendix 1.5) These consist of two volumes: text and plates. The text volume is particularly useful for its dictionary of terms and tables of scantlings (dimensions) of every timber for each class of vessel of that era. An edition of the plates volume is now on the market. This is beautiful to look at but, as the text is not included, is not as useful. Another less expensive facsimile book is the Shipbuilders Repository of 1788, produced by Jean Boudriot Publications in 1992. This also contains tables of scantlings, and is in fact the work from which Steel “lifted” large parts some 17 years later! However, the tables in this book are less complete and more poorly organized than in Steel, but the bonus of this particular edition is that it also contains examples of draughts of different rates or classes of ship.

1.7 Materials There are a number of different materials that will be needed for your model, but you will be principally using wood. There are many choices available, depending on your budget and taste. However, I believe that if you select from the list below, you will find these the most appropriate choices. All the lumber that you will need should have a reasonable degree of hardness and be closegrained with minimal perceptible grain structure. If you look at models that are made from such species as oak or mahogany, the grain of the wood draws too much attention, and one loses the sense of scale. I would recommend that you consider: Holly

Pear (natural European)

Pear (steamed Swiss)

European boxwood

Costello (Bermuda) boxwood

Hard maple

Degame3

Lancewood3

Yellow cedar

European lime

Plum

Lemonwood3

1" to 2" thick stock is suitable, if well seasoned. Those without means to re-saw large pieces may wish to order dimensioned wood from an online source (see Appendix 1.5).

These are different names for almost identical species of wood.

C HAPTER

ONE

Notably absent from the list are basswood, which I consider too soft; and ebony, which is expensive, does not work or glue well and whose dust is toxic. If the reader wishes to use a dark wood by way of contrast, I would recommend pearwood or holly that has been dyed black as a substitute for ebony. Steamed Swiss pear and plum have a pleasant dark pinkish-brown color, and also offer a good contrast with lighter woods for those who wish to use a natural finish. Nowadays these species are quite expensive, but if you consider the cost amortized over the time spent building your model it will be easier to justify the initial outlay. Also the methods that I will describe will minimize wastage of these exotic woods. Other materials will be needed from time to time, but these can be easily acquired from local sources and will be discussed in the text as we proceed. Before beginning, you should take time to consider the appearance of your finished model. Some builders may wish to simulate the actual appearance of a late 18th century ship by the use of paint. Here the choice of wood species is less important, except where natural wood is visible. Others prefer to use contrasting woods instead. If you wish to go this route, you should either have good color photographs or actual samples of the species that you are considering. These will help you select your color palette. Photographs of models you particularly admire will assist in making these choices. Pin-ups of these on your workshop wall can also act as inspiration! There will be discussion of various wood finishes later in the book.

1.9 Adhesives There has always been much discussion about glues for model making. Everyone has his or her own preference. I will give you my own choices. The principal consideration is longevity. If you are planning to devote several years of spare-time work on a model, you will want it to outlast you. There have been many new adhesives in the marketplace over the past few years, such as cyanoacrylate 'instant' glues, some of which have yet to pass the test of time. If you wish to use any of these on your model, be aware that you may be precipitating problems down the road. I prefer to be conservative and only use adhesives that have successfully withstood the trial of time.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

On the other hand I recommend pinning joints wherever possible, so that in the event of glue failure all is not lost. However, some may consider this excessive. The glues that I use are: PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) or white glue, such as Bondfast®, Aliphatic resin (carpenters’ or cabinetmakers’) yellow glue, such as Titebond ® and Cold cure epoxy adhesive (5 minute and 3 hour varieties). I only use epoxy when bonding wood to metal or glass. I should like to add a note on debonding joints. There are literally hundreds of joints to be fitted and glued, and some errors are inevitable. Often the situation can be rescued by ungluing. Joints can be separated without damage by the following procedure. This method will work for both white (PVA) and yellow (aliphatic) glues. I use isopropanol, (rubbing alcohol), which is available at your local drug store. Purchase the 99% variety, not 70%. The latter contains 30% water, which will swell wood. Avoid sparks or flame in the area, please! Use a small brush to flood the joint with isopropanol and immediately wrap it tightly with Saran® or similar plastic film. A piece of tissue or cotton wool soaked in solvent may be added. Rubber bands or masking tape will seal the area. This prevents the solvent from evaporating. I find that an hour is needed for the average futtock joint, after which it is easy to pull apart without damage. Larger joints may take 24 hours to soften. After removing the wrap, the remaining solvent evaporates rapidly and glue residues can be scraped off. Surfaces are ready for any adjustment and re-gluing immediately.

1.10 Marking out A great many parts will need to be marked out on wood stock. Some texts suggest that you use rubber cement to attach paper patterns to the wood, and then cut out the part. The remaining paper and cement are subsequently removed. The drawback to this technique is that the pattern is sacrificed. The builder is therefore tempted to photocopy the drawings so as not to destroy the originals. Copying distortion may occur, leading to fitting problems later on. Computer generated patterns, individually printed out, can help circumvent this difficulty. The CD patterns provided for the Swan class ships4 have check measurements included for both x and y axes to ensure that your printer is not distorting the image.

For details on how to obtain these drawings, see Sources, Appendix 1.5.

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I prefer to trace each pattern out on quality tracing paper. I then transfer the shape down using graphite paper. This is an inexpensive, less messy version of carbon paper and is available from artists’ suppliers. I tape the traced pattern to my stock, slide a piece of graphite paper between the pattern and wood, and mark through with a hard (4H) lead pencil. However, you may prefer to replicate and cement down printed out patterns.

1.11 The building board A portable building board with a level surface is needed, as it is the reference plane from which all vertical measurements on the model will be taken. I would recommend either a good quality 3

⁄4" ply or MDF (medium density fiberboard). A piece about 32" x 11" will be needed for a Swan class model. Note: those building other models should make the board at least 4" wider than the beam and 8" longer than the length between perpendiculars. This board needs to be primed and given several coats of matt white paint. Paint both sides to prevent warping! Use a small foam roller with regular latex or acrylic primer. Rub down the top surface between coats using 100-grit sandpaper. Finally, attach 1" x 3" pine battens longitudinally beneath, both to maintain flatness and for ease of handling. I use countersunk drywall screws. Scribe in a permanent centerline, making it more visible with hard pencil.

The next task is to scribe across fore and aft perpendiculars (marked F.P. and A.P. on the Mylar plan). The F.P. should be drawn about 4" from one end of the board. Strengthen the scribe marks with your hard lead pencil. Mark the A.P. a scale 96' 7" aft of the F.P. You may Mark the “dead flat” station lines, , in the correct position. However, I found that I never actually needed to refer to these two lines. Station lines are lettered (forward) or numbered (aft) lines at regular intervals, denoting the sections of the ship as seen in the body plan (definition given in Appendix 1.3).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

In the square body (where the frames are at right angles to the keel) these coincide with the joint lines between the paired square frames. The most useful marking, and one that you will need, is to draw the height of breadth line (seen as the half breadth line in the half-breadth plan) on both sides of the centerline. One way of accurately transferring this is to tape the Mylar plan in position on the board, and prick through the line with a sharp point. Flip the plan over to mark out the other side. The lower and upper heights of breadth mark the widest part of the ship along its side. The sides are vertical between these two lines, forming a useful reference for checking the width across the frames. Their equivalent on the half-breadth plan (below the sheer plan) is the half breadth line. Looking at the sheer, this flat area is shaped like a long, narrow banana coming to a point at both ends of the ship. Some ships were designed with one height of breadth line: in this case there was no flat area, but the frames curved in immediately above and below this line. The exception is at the bow, where the flare (the overhang to deflect head seas and to allow for clearance when raising the anchor) makes the maximum breadth wider at the toptimber line. The half-breadth plan shows the cross-over point of these two lines below. The purpose of adding these lines of maximum breadth to your building board will be for checking symmetry as you erect the frames.

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The next decision to make is how the model will be eventually displayed. This may seem premature, but the spots where the model will be mounted on pedestals need to be marked and drilled through the building board now. I have suggested locations on my drawing, marked by small arrows below the keel. If you are thinking of using a cradle-style mounting, still drill and fix the model at the appropriate spots. Please read section 1.29 before you drill any holes! I use 6-32 machine bolts with Allen key hexagonal heads (a.k.a. socket head cap screws, available from model aircraft suppliers), with captive nuts in the keel above. You may choose your own arrangement. Mark the centers of the holes on the building board, confirm that your measurements are correct, dimple centers either with a center punch (or hammer and nail-point), and clearance drill with a 9⁄ 64" or #25 bit. As with everything on the model, measure twice, cut (or drill) once! A drill press is helpful here to keep things truly vertical. Support brackets for the stem and stern will be constructed later (see section 1.29).

1.12 About the plans If you are working from my drawings, you will notice both similarities and differences to plans from the National Maritime Museum (NMM). My drawings are generic, and details will vary from ship to ship. The hull lines and sections have been accurately faired and distortion due to copying processes corrected. Mylar sheet is dimensionally stable, so use this plan to take off all your critical measurements. It is also reversible for viewing the port side of the ship. However, a note of caution: the copying process used to make your plan may still have caused some distortion in length. Whilst minimal, you may wish to correct this. Check the length between perpendiculars (the dotted vertical lines F.P. and A.P.) to check this: it should measure 96' 7" in scale. Many items have been deliberately omitted from my drawing for clarity. This applies to both sheer & profile and half breadth plan. You will not need waterlines for actually building your hull, which may surprise some. The original designers used waterlines only to help prove the hull form fair and for displacement calculations. Fairing is the process of ensuring that the hull curvature is smooth in all directions. However, I have indicated the designed water line on the sheer and body plan as a guide for those wishing to copper their hull (sections 7.27 to 7.30, Volume 2). Deck beams and fittings are also omitted: all that you initially need is the sheer of each deck at the side. Your own ship’s deck details will be added later from your NMM plans.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

On the plus side, I have included patterns for the round up of the deck beams, and extensive details of the ship’s axial construction. Also included are diagonals of the floor and futtock heads: these will give you the actual angles of the chocked joints in your frames. Don’t worry if this is meaningless to you at the moment: I will take you through the whole process step by step. What appears as a tangle of lines on the drawings will eventually make sense! If you compare your NMM draughts to my drawing you will notice that the overall length will probably be different to mine and that each plan will also vary. This is the distortion factor! The length will also change as paper expands or contracts with variations in humidity. This is the reason for making all critical measurements from a Mylar drawing. There will be legitimate differences to the drawings of your own vessel. An example might be the shape of the knee of the head. The “serpentine curve” (David Steel’s description) on your chosen subject may be a little different, which, like the nose on a face, gives individual character to the ship. Adjust my drawing to match your own ship. However, you may notice that the rake (angle) of the sternpost varies: it is different on each and every drawing that I have studied! I’ve taken the average angle as being correct. If you wish change this, you’ll need to redraft all the stern structural components yourself. For interest’s sake I have included some lines that were used purely for constructing the ship’s form that I will explain later on. You may skip those paragraphs if you wish.

1.13 Getting started This is what you’ve been waiting for, and now the preliminaries are over, it’s time to actually begin! The first order of business is the keel, the central backbone of the ship. It will be made up of scale-sized pieces joined together, just as they were in the real ship. Three of the four pieces of the keel5 measure 12" x 12". (All measurements given are ‘full size’, unless stated. At 1:48 scale these would actually be 1⁄4" x 1⁄4" . However, it is much easier to read directly off a scale rule than to do complex conversions to fractions of a full-size inch in your head. You will quickly get accustomed to measuring this way. See how to in Appendix 1.1.) Leave the aftermost piece a little over-length for now. Don’t get caught in the trap of making the foremost piece 12" high! The forward end rises at the joint with the stem, so the blank needs to be 12" by 29" high (see illustration in section 1.15). The top of the keel marks the top of the rabbet, indicated on my sheer plan. This is a V-shaped groove or rebate for the bottom planks to fit into. 5

All dimensions in this book refer to sixth-rate ships, and specifically those of the Swan class.

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Each joint between the pieces of the keel is in the form of a vertical scarph. This typical shipbuilders’ joint is similar to a half (halving) joint except that the long surface is angled, and the thin end of each “tongue,” the lip, is one-third the width of the pieces being joined. (The other end, the shoulder, is also one-third the width.) The length of a joint is generally three or more times the width of the pieces being united.

Tabled scarph

Plain scarph

Simple halving joint

Keel scarph

On the drawings that I have, keel scarphs measure between 3' 5" and 3' 7" long. They were all probably 3' 6" long, but I leave this to your discretion. Real joints were tabled, that is to say, the long surface of the joint had rectangular areas that were left proud or hollowed out, locking the joint so it could not be pulled apart longitudinally (illustration above). In the late 1700’s, coaks were substituted. These were blocks of wood inset into both faces of the joint. (Steel uses these terms interchangeably.) As the tables and top of this joint will be hidden, you may substitute a regular halving joint. On the other hand, cutting proper plain scarph joints will give you practice: there will be a lot of these to make! (See Appendix 1.6 for my own technique of cutting scarph joints.) Note that the vertical joint lines of the keel scarphs appear at the aft end of the joint to starboard, and forward on the port side. In the real ship, these joints would have been lined with tarred flannel. All joints outside the hull were treated in this way. Tarred flannel may be represented by thin black or dark brown paper in the joint. A likely source today is a boutique shopping bag or gift-wrapping tissue. Mixing acrylic paint in your glue is another possibility. Make sure that the joints are cut accurately and the pieces line up properly. Some modelers prefer to mill the joints, but I cut them by hand (see Appendix 1.6). Remember to allow for the thickness of any paper. Glue the paper lining on one side of the joint using white glue. If excess paper sticks out, leave it for now. It is easier to trim it off with a sharp blade once the glue is set.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Next, glue the joint together. This joint will be weak, as it can easily shear along the line of paper, so will need to be reinforced by pinning with miniature bolts. This will be your first “bolting” job. These fixtures are indicated on my sheer plan. Note that the upper row needs to be low enough so that when the rabbet is cut in, the bolts are well clear of this feature! Keel bolts for a sixth rate are a scale 7⁄8" in diameter, (#77 drill) and would have been made of copper. You could use copper wire of a suitable diameter (0.463mm/ 0.182"), or substitute bamboo treenails (variously referred to as trenails or trunnels).

1.14 Treenails: a brief digression There are a great many wooden fastenings in a ship. Very thin dowels of wood best represent these treenails. These are glued into appropriately sized drilled holes. Of course, such dowels are not commercially available, so you will be making your own. A drawplate of hardened steel is best for this purpose. It is a piece of steel with a series of diminishing sized holes drilled through it. Although not ideal, a jeweler’s drawplate will do, but if you can obtain a drawplate specifically designed for wood, it will work much better.6 I recommend using bamboo, although other modelers use hardwoods such as box. Good sources are barbeque skewers or bamboo garden stakes. The material needs to be split into thin strips, discarding the outer hard glassy layer and the inner soft fuzzy parts. Bamboo splits easily between the nodes (which should be sawn away first), so it should be easy to split off pieces about 1⁄32" square, full size, as rough stock. The drawplate should be solidly clamped in your vice, the countersunk side of the holes toward you. Whittle one end of the blank to a fine point, and feed it through the largest hole in your drawplate from the rear. Grasp the point of the strip with smooth flat-nosed pliers and pull the piece smoothly toward you. Repeat through diminishing sized holes, re-pointing the leading end as necessary, until you reach the required diameter. Hint: 1" diameter in 1:48 scale is equivalent to drill #75, and 7⁄8"diameter is equivalent to #77. For more information, see Appendix 1.4.

An excellent drawplate is available from Byrnes Model Machines, www.byrnesmodelmachines.com/

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1.12 and 1.13 Regular scarph joint for the keel. Note the black paper “tarred flannel” in the exposed faces of the joint. (All photographs are of Pegasus, courtesy of Dr. Greg Herbert, unless identified otherwise)

1.15 The boxing joint (left). On the right is a drawplate and length of treenail drawn down to size. In the center is the pinned joint of the lower and upper stem pieces.

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1.21 The stem, stemson and fore deadwood assembled with the keel. At the upper right is an offcut of scrap wood with sandpaper for refining the concave curve of the stem.

1.23 The aft deadwood blank assembled and positioned on the keel.

1.23 The deadwood milled down to the stepping line. At this stage the corners of each step still need squaring out by hand with a chisel. 1.18 Setting up the stem on the keel.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.23 Thinning down the deadwood from the bearding line.

1.25 Side and fore views of the stern post with all its scores cut in and ready to install.

1.23 The completed deadwood assembled on the keel. The aft end of the keel will be cut to length after the stern post is added.

1.29 Stem support fitted to the building board. Note the stabilizing lateral supports for the keel, both here and in other photographs.

1.29 to 1.32 The stern support installed to the building board. The wing and filling transoms have been temporarily positioned.

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1.15 Continuing the keel Bolt positions need to be marked with some precision, pricking the entry points for your drill with a sharp point. This will ensure that the drill tip doesn’t wander and end up in the wrong spot. If you have a miniature drill press set-up, use this. It is important to keep the holes square through the joints, as these bolts will be visible on both sides of the keel. If drilling by hand, drill from both sides. Hint: When using treenail material, use one size smaller than the hole it is intended for. Any slackness will be taken up by glue and expansion of the wood, and also makes the treenail easier to insert and drive. Once the holes have been drilled, continue as follows if you are using treenails. Put a little white glue, slightly thinned with water, on a piece of scrap plastic. A container lid is ideal. Dip the end of the bamboo dowel into the glue, and push it into the hole. Snip it short – an old nail clippers or small scissors does nicely – and push the end that is proud flush using a flat-ended piece of scrap hardwood. Make sure that the treenail is long enough to come out of the far side! When all the holes have been filled in this way, the protruding ends can be trimmed flush with a sharp chisel. Any excess paper can be removed at the same time. For final sanding, see my notes in Appendix 1.7. If you are using copper wire instead, use end nippers to cut it. The ends will need to be carefully filed flush with a fine Swiss file. Try not to embed copper particles into the wood. The upper surface of the fore end of the keel rises in an arc, so this piece must be cut from an oversize wood blank 12" thick by 29" high. From here on, specific references and dimensions are for the Swan class of ships. The arc has a radius of 13' 6". Its center is marked with a small

+ on my plan. You can see this mark just below the dotted line of the lower height of breadth, forward of station M. The joint between the fore end of the keel and lower stem is a complex one called the boxing. The boxing is a modified, highly specialized scarph joint, and different shipyards cut their own variations. The sketch on the following page should make the shape of this joint clear. In fullsized practice, the vertical surface of this joint was angled similarly to the other scarphs, but my simpler version is still challenging to cut. This cheat will be subsequently hidden.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The real joint was usually tabled in a similar manner to the other keel scarphs. You will need to cut this joint very carefully and accurately so that the stem will be both vertical and properly aligned relative to the keel. Once cut, line the joint with paper in the same way as the others that you have already made. Now is the time to check the overall length of the keel and re-mark the stern end if there has been cumulative error. This term refers to very tiny errors in the size of individual pieces or those added over repeated measurements. As each in a series of joints is fitted or each distance marked off, any error accumulates or gets magnified. Even with extreme care, the thickness of a glue line is enough to throw things off perceptibly. Always recheck overall measurements each time you add a new piece to the existing structure. This is an important point to observe throughout the entire building process.

1.16 The false keel Once your keel has been assembled, the false keel may be added. The false keel consists of planks lightly attached to the bottom of the keel itself. The purpose of these is twofold. They act as sacrificial wood should the ship touch ground. Were this to happen, the false keel can come away easily and may save worse damage from occurring. Secondly, the additional depth of the false keel helps the ship to make less leeway. Leeway is the tendency of the ship to drift sideways due to the pressure of wind against the hull. A deeper keel provides greater resistance in the water, reducing leeway. Some ships, such as bomb vessels, had two false keels fitted, one below the other. In actual shipbuilding, the false keel was added much later in the construction sequence. The false keel is 12" wide and 4" deep. Be careful to allow for the thickness of any paper in the joint, or the top of the keel will sit too high on the building board and all your subsequent vertical measurements will be out. Check the assembled height of keel, paper and false keel with the caliper gauge: it should be exactly a scale 1' 4" (see Appendix 1.1). 30

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The joints in the false keel are shifted relative to the main keel. In traditional shipbuilding joints are always offset from each other for strength throughout the ship. Another peculiarity of the false keel joints is that they are cut at an angle. These Harris cut joints ensure that, should the ship run onto anything, the first piece would be deflected downward. If not arranged this way, the first piece would be driven aft, stripping all the others off in rapid succession. (The joint between two Harris-cut planks was known as ciphered or syphered.) To cut these joints, I used the jig for my sharpening system. Clamping each piece at the appropriate angle, I beveled the angle on a piece of 100-grit sandpaper. There are many other ways to cut these joints. One is to use the miter guide on your miniature table saw. Glue the false keel on. After this is done, you may notice the keel begin to hog (bow up in the center). This is because the wood sandwich is not balanced. Do not be too concerned, as it will be straightened out later on. (The opposite curve, where the ends are higher than the center, is called sagging.) On the real ship, the false keel was fixed by short copper alloy (mix’d metal) nails or dumps, driven through from below, and by copper staples. Very much like a modern-day staple in shape ([ ), these were driven flush into the sides of the keel and false keel. Steel states that they were placed “about three feet apart.” Fit these if you are not going to copper your model. These staples had a flat cross-section, about 11⁄2" wide and 8" long.

1.17 The lower stem The next item for your attention is the stem. In a vessel this size it is in two pieces joined together by a long scarph. In large ships it was made of three sections. The patterns can be traced from my drawing and then transferred using graphite paper to the stock that you will use. Graphite paper (superior to carbon paper) is obtainable, along with tracing paper, from artists’ supply stores. This technique is described in section 1.10. The lower stem is made first. It should be cut from stock 12" thick. One reason for this is that the sides of the stem are not parallel, but widen towards the top, where it is 14" thick. The top surface of the upper stem forms a support for the bowsprit as it comes inboard (see the illustration in section 1.33 and bow view elevation of the hawse pieces in Chapter 2).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Mark out the piece, keeping the wood grain parallel to the center of the curve. The inside radius is 13' 6". Its shape is an arc of a circle. It is 1' 0" wide throughout its length. Now, some thoughts on cutting parts out. I try to saw just a whisker (1⁄64" actual size) outside the pencil or graphite paper line. There is no merit in either cutting too wide of the mark, which means more finishing work later, or cutting right on the line, which leaves no room for error. If you are not used to cutting accurate shapes on the scroll saw, practice on scrap wood until you have gained confidence. You will need to do a lot of accurate cutting over the coming months! Cut the piece slightly over-length to start with, and keep the offcuts handy. I’ll explain why in a moment. First, refine the inner and outer curves in the following manner. Using the offcuts that you saved, rubber cement 100 grit sandpaper on the curved surfaces. The scroll saw blade kerf is about the same thickness as the sandpaper, so you can rub the mating surfaces together and refine the arcs that you have cut. When you are satisfied with the curved faces, mark the centerline on what will be the top end of the forward face. Now begin to fit the boxing joint. Lay down the keel assembly on the drawing, and lightly clamp it to prevent its moving. Pare the joint at the lower end of the stem until the piece fits the starboard side of the boxing and also aligns with the drawing. Don’t be concerned with the halving part of the joint yet. Once you are satisfied that you have a good match, unclamp the keel, and re-clamp it upright over a piece of paper on your workbench. Draw lines extending forward from each side of the keel as shown below. Now mark a centerline between them from 1" to 4" (actual size) ahead of the boxing.

C H APTER

ON E

Turn the blank starboard face down, and mark the limit of the cutback for the port side of the joint. Note that the cut is on a radius of the circle that defines the piece, so that it should be square across (see illustration “port side,” opposite page). First saw in slightly under your mark, and then chisel out the bulk of the waste. Please clamp the part securely: a slip could either wreck the stem or yourself! Gradually pare down the joint face, test fitting it frequently until it sits centrally on the keel, and a set-square shows the centerlines on both lower stem-head and the bench lining up perfectly (illustration on previous page, left). Now line the edges of one side of the joint (if using paper) and test fit again. Make any further adjustments on the unpapered side of the joint. By now you realize that every piece needs to be critically test-fitted many times over. However, patience during this process will reward you with superior results. Once the lower end is trimmed to your satisfaction, re-mark the upper scarph if necessary. This is why I asked you to leave the piece somewhat over-length to start with: it allows a margin of safety while finessing the tricky boxing joint. Cutting this scarph should be relatively straightforward. Note that the inner lip of the scarph is much wider than the outer one. This is so that the stem rabbet can be cut across the lip, clear of the angle in the joint. When you are satisfied with the piece, set it aside. Don’t glue it to the keel yet, but wait until the upper stem piece is made and added.

1.18 The upper stem This is marked out and cut from 14" thick material. Be careful at the transition from circular arc to the subtle curve: it is not quite a straight line. In many ships the upper section of the stem is straight. As before, leave a little extra length of wood at the head of the stem. The inner and outer faces of the upper stem, where they are arciform, can be smoothed with the same sandpaper blocks that you used for the lower stem. The piece is 1' 0" wide for its full length. The width of the upper stem transitions from 12" to 14" just under the lower cheek; the curved item against the bow and knee of the head above the gammoning slot. This level may be marked once the scarph joint is fitted. Each side below this point is thinned by 1". See illustration on the next page. Once again, first cut the scarph at the lower end slightly full, and then gradually refine it until it aligns with the lower stem, which is lightly clamped in position over the plan. Add paper as before, and re-test for fit. Once trimmed for thickness, the upper and lower stem may be glued together.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

First position and clamp the upper stem to the drawing. You will need a shim under the lower stem, as it is of thinner stock than the upper piece. The shim should be half the difference in thickness between the two pieces, which is 1". I use thin card for this purpose. Glue and clamp joint.

CE A L P RE

! ION T RA T S U ILL

Once the glue has set, drill and treenail the joint to secure it. The original ship had 5 bolts driven in the pattern illustrated above. Do not drill the outer holes more than 2" from the centerline! This will allow the rabbet to be cut in later without exposing the bolts; an unsightly error. Mark the angled upper end of the stem, but do not cut it yet, as insurance against cumulative error when assembling the stem and keel. Re-clamp the keel to the work surface on its parallel lines again, and mark the forward end of the stem-head with a centerline (illustrated above right). Test the fit and check alignment. I cannot stress the importance of accurately assembling the stem and keel, so that the stem-head is correct in all planes. If it is out, the symmetry of the head and the relationship of all the pieces that comprise the bow will be affected. When you are happy with this, then — and only then — glue the boxing joint. Mark, drill and pin the joint according to the pattern on the plan, as you did for the scarphs of the keel. The final task is to trim the upper end of the stem to the correct angle. Eventually it will be hollowed as the seat for the bowsprit, but at this point concentrate on getting the angle and height above the baseboard correct. Mark the height at the fore side of the stem from the plan. To mark the angle accurately, use a straight edge leading back to the keel, where it will intersect the top of the keel at the center of the second scarph joint, station 3. You can locate this point using the Mylar plan.

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1.19 The lower apron or false stem The stem is reinforced on its aft side by the apron, sometimes called the false stem. Made in two pieces, it runs up from the keel to the seat of the bowsprit. The lower piece will be tackled first, and is quite complicated in shape. It will be cut from stock 18" wide to scale. The reason for this will not be immediately apparent. The lower apron forms the lowest part of the framing of the hull in this area. Looking at the plan, you will see a step-like pattern of lines drawn on the lower apron. Above this stepping line are the cant frames. (Cant frames are those that sit at various angles to the keel. “Cant” in shipbuilding means to turn or turn over. Loggers today still use ‘cant hooks’ for handling raw lumber.) At the stepping line is a small ledge that the heels of the cant frames sit on. Below this ledge, the apron tapers downwards until it runs into the rabbet and keel. The taper varies according to the hull form, as my sketch below shows, so sufficient wood needs to remain on this piece until the hull is dubbed fair. This term simply means smoothing the surface of the frames for planking. Above this ledge, the apron is a constant 12" wide. Mark the lower apron out on 18" thick stock. Saw it out, leaving the ends a little full to allow for finessing when fitting the joints. The first joint surface to deal with is that with the keel and lower stem. This needs to be a perfect fit. If it is not, it will force the stem out of true and the geometry that you set up so carefully will be lost.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

In order to get the fit right, mark the point of transition from curve to straight, and carefully sand the curved portion in the same way as you did the stem. Once satisfied with this, the straight edge needs to be refined. To check for fit, hold the apron in position on the keel and stem, and put a strong backlight behind them. Any light coming through the joint line will show you where the high and low spots are. Carefully file the high spots until the joint is lightproof. Lay the assembly on the plan to confirm the correct positions of the ends, and that when clamped lightly together, the stem is not pushed out of line. Now you can cut the ends of the lower apron to shape. Finally, contour the top surface accurately to complete the blank.

Mark out the ledge above the stepping line on both sides. Check for accuracy and symmetry. Use a sharp chisel to define each step. Use either a chisel or mill the steps on both sides to resemble Stage 1, above. Each ledge is cut 3" wide for now, the part above being 12" thick. Forward of the first step, the piece is also 12" thick.7 Aft of the last step, the ledge continues in an intermittent curve. The drawing (below left) shows how it was probably done in the actual ship, and in my simplified version (below right) for the model. You can choose how “authentic” you wish to be! The curved line of the ledge is called the bearding line.

This is for model purposes: in the real ship this is left 15" wide. See also section 1.22.

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Around this period shipwrights began to cut the whole ledge in one continuous curve instead of a series of steps. The advantage of using a bearding line was that the ledge was 11⁄ 2" wide all the way along, so less wood was wasted in trimming the apron to shape.8 The disadvantage was that the heel of each cant frame had now to be cut at an angle to match this curve, which involved more labor. Once this piece is completed, don’t glue it in yet! It is easier to fit and glue the upper apron piece first because of the direction of the scarph joint between them.

1.20 The upper apron This is a much simpler piece to make than the lower apron. It is cut from 14" thick stock, and the surfaces are fitted in the same sequence as the lower apron. Leave the upper end over-length for now, just as you did the stem. When you have achieved a perfect fit, (the backlight is your best critic!) it will be time to glue up. Here make the glue-line clearly visible. As this joint is inside the hull, it does not need the “tarred flannel” treatment. However, a visible joint is of great help later when cutting the rabbet, as this line defines its inner edge. I mix a little burnt sienna powdered pigment (from Lee Valley) into a paste with water, and then mixed this with yellow glue. This results in a clear, clean joint line. Don’t use water-based paint (e.g. acrylic), as it will weaken the glue’s bonding strength, or oilbased paint, which is immiscible in water-based glue. Temporarily reclamp the lower apron in position, making sure that it is centered over the keel. Drill for locating pegs (larger diameter treenails) through the apron into the keel and stem. Be careful not to drill so deeply as to break through to the other side. When you are satisfied with your set-up, glue and clamp the upper apron to the stem. One more operation needs to be carried out on the lower apron before finally gluing it in. It is easier to roughly shape it now. On the lower surface mark a line 6" each side of the centerline, tapering to 5" each side forward, and trim the excess away as shown by the shaded area (opposite, Stage 2). The remainder of the shaping will be done when fairing the cant frames.

Author’s opinion and conclusion based on his studies of this feature.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Now you can finally glue in the lower apron using tinted glue, as before. In order to ensure that it seats correctly in position, thread long pegs through the holes that you previously drilled and insert the ends into the keel. Then glue the joint line and press the apron down over the pegs into position. Withdraw the pegs, glue and reinsert them, and clamp up. This is one of the most complex pieces that you will need to make! Once secured, trim the top end of the upper apron to match the angle at the top of the stem. Finishing the stem head will be described later.

1.21 The fore deadwood This is the last piece that is needed at the bow for the moment. It is much easier to make than the apron! Once again, take its shape from the plan and cut it from 12" thick stock. It abuts the top of the apron and is fitted in the same manner as detailed before. It is shown in the illustration (opposite page). Glue and treenail it into place.

1.22 Finishing the stem and apron There are a few more details that need to be taken care of before directing attention to the stern. First, the keel/stem/apron assembly needs to be tapered. The first taper to deal with is at the fore end of the keel. It gradually tapers in thickness from 12" to 10" at the boxing. I have not been able to determine where this taper begins, but believe that it starts at the same point as the cant frames. Mark out the taper first, so that you have a guide to keep it symmetrical. I use 100-grit sandpaper glued to a small block. You can finish with finer grades later.

! ON I T A STR U L IL CE A L REP The other taper to cut is down the stem, from a width of 12" below the step-down to 10" where it meets the keel. This taper is not a straight one, but is slightly concave. Mark out the taper carefully first to maintain symmetry. The apron is not tapered9 (see illustration above and on the following page).

In the full-size ships the apron was not tapered but was left wider (15") all the way down to the stem deadwood.

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N! O I AT R T US ILL

Now check that the contour of the upper side of the deadwood is the same shape and height as that on the drawing. If it isn’t, you will have difficulty fitting the keelson and stemson later on. These are the heavy longitudinal timbers above the frames that lock them in place over the keel and deadwood. Correct the upper contour or, if this is not possible, make an accurate card pattern of the actual curve that you can label and file it away for future use. The illustration (above) shows how your stem assembly should look at this stage. You can see that by offsetting the joints your “hockey stick” already has good integral strength. The shipwrights would have constructed the stem in exactly the same way, except at 48 times this size. Your respect for these craftsmen, working exclusively with hand tools and little mechanical assistance, must already be increasing.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.23 The stern deadwood and knee It is now time to turn to the stern deadwood. It is a larger version of the bow deadwood. (Consider the lower apron as part of the fore deadwood.) The stern deadwood is made up of five curved pieces fayed one above the other. To fay is to fit two surfaces closely. There is a compound curved taper below the stepping and bearding lines, the deadwood narrowing to 5" aft at the keel. Above the stepping line the thickness is a 12", as on the fore deadwood. However, aft of the stepped area above the bearding line, the deadwood tapers to a thickness of 10" at the inner post. The illustration below shows this feature. The thickness of the deadwood assembly just below the stepping line is a hair over 15" right aft, but it widens as one moves forward to station 16 (see the illustration below). The deadwood is far from being a straight-sided slab. Begin to build up the deadwood starting with the lowest piece. Use the same techniques as for making the bow assembly and tint the glue to show up the joint lines. Don’t forget to integrate locator pegs in the lowest piece so that it will position correctly (both centrally and vertically) on the keel. Leave the after end where it meets the inner sternpost a little over-length for now. As you add each piece, check the overall height against my plan and correct for any cumulative error. Note the square and vertical steps at frames 12 and 14. The top of the uppermost piece (the deadwood knee) is cut so that filling transom #4 (see section 10 1.31) will seat on it. The full-size ship had a number of long copper bolts driven through the deadwood and keel, and the deadwood joints tabled. In large ships these bolts could be over sixteen feet long and the holes for them, bored by hand, were perfectly centered through the huge sandwich of wood!

This arrangement varies from ship to ship. Check your NMM plans carefully.

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For builders of some ships, the arrangement of the stern deadwood varies from my plan. The deadwood knee above the deadwood is a continuation of the keelson in this case. Below is an example for the pieces of the deadwood for those building ships with this arrangement. Here you may need to be your own master shipwright and design something along this scheme.

Variation of deadwood structure for Atalanta, scale 1:48

Once the deadwood is assembled, cut in the stepping and bearding lines and thin down above them as you did before to a thickness of 12". If you have the confidence, you can also roughly shape the taper into the lower section now. Next, trim the after end to the angle shown on my plan so that the sternpost will sit at the correct rake. The completed deadwood assembly can now be attached to the keel. Check that it is positioned at the correct distance forward from the end of the keel, and is on center. The aft end of the keel tapers in thickness to 10" at its aft end (also see section 1.25). Begin this taper at about station 14. Use the same techniques to do this as you did the fore end of the keel.

1.24 The sternpost This timber is 15" square at the head, which is level of the top of the quarter deck beams in Fly. It is impossible to tell if this is the case on the other draughts. The post tapers to 10" in width at the keel (see plan, Appendix 1.8). As was the case with the stem, this taper is concave. Cut the sternpost from 15" thick stock to profile. On the original ship, the sternpost had two square tenons (called tennants in the 18th century) at the lower end, fitting into corresponding mortises in the keel. These are indicated on the drawing, but may be omitted on the model as they will be invisible. They are one third the width of the post at the keel. I use wood pins instead.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.25 The inner post The inner post fays to the fore side of the sternpost and runs up as high as the underside of the wing transom 11. This is the heavy, curved horizontal member that forms the base for the upper stern timbers. It is marked W on the Mylar sheer draught. The center of the wing transom is higher than the outer ends; so do not make the mistake of cutting the inner post too short! Check my drawing. In the full-size ship this post had a single tenon at the foot (illustration below). The taper of the inner post is the same as that of the sternpost. Glue both posts together using tinted glue and then cut the taper. Next mark out the rabbet on both sides. Mark and cut the 11⁄2"scores (shallow mortices on the sides and fore faces of the posts) for the transoms. Be very precise: the positions of the transoms depend on these. Seen from the side, the wing transom is tilted in a different plane from the others.

Keep these edges sharp!

The scores for the straps of the gudgeons need to be marked and cut into the aft side of the sternpost. Gudgeons are the “knuckle” part of the rudder hinges, strong metal straps securing these to the after part of the ship. The scores should be about 1" deep and 3" wide. Take the positions for these from your plan. Their aft corners should round over where the straps will eventually bend, and the aft edges of the post should also be lightly beveled off. So many ship models show crisp, sharp edges that never existed in real life. All outer corners and edges were softened to avoid wear or injury.

Inner post Stern post

Rabbet for outer planking

Detail of tenons at the bottom of the posts

Detail of softened edges

In the real ship, the top surface of the inner post was made 1" higher, and the transom above was mortised down on it by 1".

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Now make a trial set-up of the stern and inner post assembly. The rake is already set by the correctly trimmed deadwood, so the only concern is that of verticality. Clamping the keel upright to the bench, set up the sternpost until it is truly vertical as viewed from aft. When correctly positioned, pencil witness marks on the fore side of the inner post where it meets the top of the deadwood and at the keel. Check that the top of the inner post is level with the bottom of the slots that you cut for the wing transom. Any disparity (hopefully there is none) must be taken care of now. Once satisfied, drill for a treenail between each gudgeon score through the sternpost into the deadwood. Remember that, as the lower part of the deadwood will be quite narrow, to drill on-center so as not to break through the sides of the deadwood. Final shaping of the deadwood will be done when you fair the aft cant frames.

Now is the time to cut the rabbet into the stern and inner posts. It is easier to picture than to describe the changing shape of the rabbet of the sternpost. The drawing above shows this better than a description can. Also, before attempting to cut this in, please read the instructions in section 1.27. At the base of the sternpost define the aft edge of the rabbet using a straightedge and a Swann-Morton (surgical) #11 blade. Once you have completed this operation on both sides, permanently glue and treenail the sternpost to the deadwood and keel. Now trim the aft end of the keel and false keel flush with the sternpost. The softening or rounding of the aft edges will continue down from the sternpost once the keel is tapered. Secure the sternpost from below with a treenail if it is not tenoned.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.26 The rising wood This is the layer of wood fayed to the top of the keel and which runs between the stern deadwood and apron. For most of its length it is parallel, but it rises slightly at each end. Made of three separate pieces 15" wide, it overlaps the keel each side by 11⁄ 2". I am not certain how the joints were made. They were probably in the form of scarphs as illustrated below. In the model these may be simple butt joints, as they will be hidden. Carefully glue them centrally to the keel using tinted glue, as the joint will mark the upper boundary of the rabbet. They will be pinned later, together with the frames. In the actual ship, the rising wood was scored down by 11⁄ 2" on three sides for each floor timber. (This is discussed further in Chapters 2 & 3.) However, this detail will be imperceptible in a finished model.

1.27 The rabbet of the keel Read over this section before trying this for yourself! Cutting the rabbet seems to frighten many model makers, but performed carefully with sharp tools, is really quite manageable. If this has not yet been done, first taper the keel aft from about station 14, until it is 10" wide at the sternpost. Mark the lower edge of the rabbet 3" below the upper edge and parallel to it. (The colored glue line marks the upper edge.) Use a very sharp lead. It is also stopped aft at about station 17. Again, check the plan for this feature. There were two reasons things were arranged this way12. One, the aft part of the garboard strake (the lowest outside plank) will not need to flare as much in width at the sternpost and two, as the keel tapers in width it will not be unnecessarily weakened.

Author’s opinion and conclusion, elicited by a conversation with Phil Krol in October 2000.

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For most of its length the rabbet is V-shaped in section. However, it twists around aft until it becomes L-shaped by the time it reaches station 17. The illustration above shows this clearly. Once you understand what needs to be done, you can begin. I use a 1⁄8" palm V-gouge (anything smaller than this size is harder to control) for this job. Don’t try to cut the groove in one pass! You will ruin your keel this way. Before starting to cut, shim and clamp the keel firmly to your bench so that it will not accidentally shift. Make sure that your gouge is thoroughly sharpened and honed. A dull tool needs too much pressure to work it and invites a catastrophic slip. A well-angled light will also help. Take a very light cut down the center of the strip to be removed. Start just aft of the boxing and work your way aft to about station 10. The cut will probably waver slightly as you go along. This is normal and easily correctable on subsequent passes. Once you have gained a little confidence and are in control of your tool, make a second pass, putting subtle sideways pressure where necessary to correct any wavering from the first pass. Done correctly, it will take four or five passes to reach the full width and depth of the rabbet. The final pass should be a whisker-thin shaving. As you cut you will find that you are also beveling the lower corner of the rising wood: this is intentional (see illustrations on previous page and section 1.26). Now you have mastered the technique, the curve up the stem should be easy to manage. Remember to “stop” the rabbet below the stemhead, as shown on the Mylar drawing. This can be done with a stabbing cut using the Swann Morton (surgical) blade. You will now appreciate the guide provided by the colored glue line that you incorporated earlier. Next, begin to move aft. The rabbet will begin to twist around at about station 9 or 10, becoming vertical by the angled stop at station 17. This is the trickiest part of the job, but take only a small shaving off with a chisel at each pass. As the lower edge of the rabbet becomes horizontal, define it with knife blade and straightedge. If your gouge or chisel begins to dull, stop immediately and re-hone it. Unclamp the keel, turn it over, and complete the other side.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

In the real ship, the rabbet was cut into each piece of the keel before assembly, leaving the ends of each section uncut. It was easier to cant the individual pieces on their sides in order to cut them. The rabbet was finished across the joints (reconciled) after the keel was assembled13.

1.28 The wing transom This timber is the most important one for the stern to be symmetric, so especial care now will be rewarded later. Add 11⁄ 2" to each end of this timber if adding tenons (see section 1.31). The wing transom is not flat, but has a convex upper surface, and is concave beneath. Cut the blank a little oversize from 1' 6" thick stock (illustration 1, below).

The next operation is to shape the top surface of the blank. Cut a card pattern of the round-up of the upper deck, (below the body plan on the Mylar drawing) and mark out the edges of your blank. Clamp the piece securely in a vice. To ensure symmetry, mark the ends of your blank 3" across below the top before beginning to shape: this is where the round up meets the corner of the wing transom. Pare and sand the upper surface until it fits the card pattern. I use a wide chisel for rough shaping, cutting from the center toward the ends; and then a shaped sanding block for finishing (illustration 2, above).

Described in Steel’s Naval Architecture page 374, Directions for the actual building.

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Make sure the top is level in the fore and aft direction as the feet of the stern timbers will fay to this surface (illustration 2, below opposite). The lower face needs to be hollowed correspondingly so that the timber is 1' 3" thick over its whole length. Mark the midline 3" up from the lower surface, and chisel and sand to shape (illustration 3, opposite). Trace out the outline as usual, making sure that the angled ends are marked and cut very precisely. If you decide to add the tenons (see section 1.31) remember to add 11⁄2" on each end. Delay cutting the actual tenons for now. The slot for the sternpost should be cut a little undersize. It will subsequently be pared to a snug fit (illustration 4, opposite). The last operation on this piece is to cut the bevels. Re-mark the lower face with the inner solid line on the pattern. Trim most of the excess wood away with a sharp chisel. Leave a 3" wide strip along the top aft edge unbeveled. This angled knuckle is called the margin line; the point where the bottom planking terminates (see illustration 6 opposite, and below). A decorative tuck moulding will cover the plank ends later on.

Always clamp the work-piece firmly in the vice, and do not remove too much wood. It’s hard to stick it back on again! Re-mark the upper face with the grey line on the pattern. Now the inner face can be roughed out. A slightly hollow gouge is best for this, if you have one. If the wood shows a tendency to tear out, reverse the direction of your cut. Always be sensitive to the grain of the piece that you are working on. When you are satisfied, you will have a rather strangely shaped piece of wood remaining. You cannot fit this to the sternpost until you have attached the keel/stem assembly to the building board that you prepared earlier.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.29 Completing the building board I made supporting stands for the stem and stern from 1⁄4" clear acrylic sheet, but you could use ply instead. The sketch below gives you an idea of how these should look (also see various construction photographs). For models of other than sixth-rates, you will need to adapt the dimensions. It is helpful to scribe and pencil in the centerline on these stands. Make sure that the stands are fixed accurately and vertically to the centerline on the building board. It is now time to drill the keel and inset the captive nuts for your pedestals. Again, sketches tell the story more effectively than words. Check that the holes will align accurately with those through the building board. I suggest that you read the next page through before you commit yourself to marking out and drilling your keel.

I prefer the pedestal shape that I have sketched (next page, upper right) over turned brass ones for two reasons. One, brass pedestals draw more attention. Secondly, you can only use one bolt per pedestal, which may be insufficiently rigid, particularly if you plan to rig the model. The shape that I use allows two bolts per pedestal and, as the design was taken from a contemporary (1776) model in the National Maritime Museum, reflects the period style without drawing attention from the model. Use your own taste and judgment for a look that pleases you. Pedestal measurements and details will be given later on in the practicum. If you decide to go with the rectangular pedestals, I recommend drilling the pairs of holes 11⁄4" apart, or 5⁄8" each side of the arrow marking the turned pedestal hole.

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Note that because sturdy machine screws are used, the corresponding nuts will be too wide for your keel. These nuts will need two sides machined or filed down in order to fit (see the illustration below left).

Drill tapping-size holes (#38 or 7⁄ 64") centrally through the rising wood, keel and false keel. Here a drill press is necessary. Mark and cut rectangular mortises for the captive nuts. The sketch (left) should make this clear. The nuts will be invisible in the finished model. Insert the captive nuts into their mortises, making sure that their upper surfaces are flush or slightly below the top of the rising wood. Now you can bolt the keel down to the building board and fit the two stands to the stem and sternposts. Check for verticality and stability. If you are out of true at this stage, it will be difficult to correct and complete a symmetrical hull. Double-check that both stem and sternpost are truly vertical.

1.30 Fitting the wing transom With the sternpost stabilized and truly vertical, you can now proceed to fit the wing transom. Adjust the slot until the transom fits the scores on both sides of the sternpost snugly, and that it also sits firmly on top of the inner post.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Check that the aft side of the transom meets the inner rabbet line precisely at the correct angle. Ensure that the transom is square to the center-line, as viewed from above, and that the outer ends are at equal heights above the building board. This distance should be 18' 0" at the aft outer corners. Remember that the top surface slopes parallel to the sheer of the lower deck. Be as precise as possible: the symmetry of the stern depends on correct installation of the wing transom. When you are satisfied, glue this timber into position. (Only spot glue if you are going to add the tenons.) Drill from inboard for two treenails through the transom into the sternpost close to the centerline (see illustration opposite right). This is to avoid breaking through the sternpost rabbet. The holes will help relocate the transom later if you need to remove it.

1.31 The filling transoms The four filling transoms below the wing transom are made in a similar manner to the wing transom. With no round up, they are cut from 10" thick stock, except for transom #4 which is 9" thick. Run the grain of the wood fore and aft for the lowest transom, or, better yet, make the lowest two transoms from two pieces each with the grain running along the arms (see illustration at left). Be sure to position all the transoms in the same plane as viewed from the side. They are in a different plane to the wing transom, and tip up at about 1° above a horizontal line. Check the sheer and profile plan. The scores in the posts should help orient each transom correctly. The filling transoms can also be roughly beveled to shape before final fitting. Again, drill for treenails and only spot glue these transoms for now if you These patterns are not 1:48 scale are going to cut in tenons. In the real ship, the forward angled faces of the transoms were horizontally tenoned into either the last cant frame or aft fashion piece (marked F on my sheer plan, aft of cant frame #1. It appears curved in this view). If your ship differs from my drawing, you will need to shorten the affected transoms and extend the fashion piece upward.

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Cutting tenons on the model is tricky, so I chose to omit this feature. The drawing opposite shows how this was done in fullsize practice. If you wish to do this, you must extend the patterns by 11⁄2" each end to allow sufficient wood for the tenons. (Read Appendix 1.9 for a method of cutting accurate tenons.)

Tenons are cut in 11⁄2" deep and 11⁄2" down from the upper and lower surfaces of the transoms. Be extremely accurate with your marking out and cutting of these, or the end result will be disappointing. If you are unsure of the degree of accuracy that you can achieve, it may be a wiser choice to omit the tenons. Poor joints with the fashion piece or last cant frame will detract from the finished model. Assuming that you are omitting the tenon detail, ensure that the angled forward faces of all the transoms are flat and in the same plane. This is where they will abut either the fashion piece or last cant frame (see illustration above right). Once shaped, a serpentine line is formed by the outer edges of the transoms (echoed by the fashion piece and first cant frame). Steel refers to this curve by the rather poetic name of “the flight of the transoms.” (Also see elevation drawing in Appendix 1.8.) Rub the joint surfaces level using a piece of wood with 100-grit paper cemented to it. Check that the angled faces form a vertical line when viewed from the side. If tenoning, level the ends, disassemble, mark and cut them in, then permanently glue and treenail each transom into place.

1.32 Metal fittings for the keel There are metal reinforcements shown on the Mylar plan at both ends of the keel and should be made if you are not going to copper your model. The forward ones are the horseshoe plates. Self-descriptive, they strengthen the boxing joint. As they also attach to the forefoot or gripe, the lowest piece of the knee of the head, you may make the plates now but delay fitting them until later. See the Mylar sheer plan for their position and size.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

There are two identical plates, one on each side of the ship, with bolts uniting them through the lower stem, keel and gripe. The plates were 3⁄8" thick, made of copper, and inset flush with the surface of the wood. It is probably easier to make them of metal that is under-scale in thickness, so that they will not need to be inset. This will not be apparent in the model if done well. At the sternpost, the equivalent reinforcements are called trapezium or dovetail plates. They are also shown on my plan. Occasionally a pair of L-shaped knee plates were used instead (illustrated below). Like the horseshoe plates, these are inset and bolted through the keel and sternpost. Sometimes knee plates were right-angled. You may choose to fit either type of reinforcement: both are correct for the period. The shape and dimensions of the trapezium plate can be directly transferred from my sheer plan. One method of dealing with thin sheet metal is to cement it to a wood backing before attempting to cut shaped pieces out. An alternative method is using the photo-etching process. The copper “bolts” may be made from lengths of wire. Cut over-length pieces, about 1" long (actual size), and gently form a mushroom at one end of the wire. By clamping the wire so that about 1⁄16" (actual) or less protrudes from the vice, you can tap the head either freehand or use a small nail set to form it. Releasing the partially formed bolt, file off any irregularities and check the head diameter with your calipers. The head should be no more than 11⁄2" in diameter and almost flat, not highly domed, as shown above. It is easier and less risky to use a bolt from each side of the hole, rather than drive one all the way through, then nipping it short and peening the second head over. This is one task where a judicious spot of epoxy glue is in order.

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1.28 The wing transom, roughly faired and ready for installation.

1.30 Trial fitting the wing transom. It is essential that this be level athwartships and the upper surface at the correct angle, as seen from the side.

1.29 Drilling for the pedestal bolts in a drill press. These holes need to be both accurately positioned and vertical.

1.28 to 1.31 The wing and filling transoms cut, approximately shaped and ready for fitting. Either side are the fashion pieces and first cant frames, which are detailed in Chapter Two.

1.29 The pedestal captive nuts installed. These need to be completely countersunk in the deadwood and rising wood.

1.31 The transoms and fashion piece fitted.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

1.31 Sanding the fore faces of the transoms.

1.31 A close-up of the stem-head being sanded to the correct angle and diameter.

1.33 The set-up for completing the stem head. This method produces an accurately angled bed for the bowsprit (see text section 1.33). 1.31 Checking the fore faces of the transoms for correct verticality and angle. If incorrect, the fashion piece and first cant will be out of line.

A typical set-up for milling a scarph joint. This photo shows the scarph between the stem pieces being cut. Most builders may find cutting scarphs by hand more convenient: (see Appendix 1.6).

Transoms, fashion piece and first cant frame fitted. This model demonstrates a bearding line instead of a stepping line. In this example the fashion piece ends under the third filling transom.

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1.33 Finishing the stem-head The seat for the bowsprit still needs to be hollowed out of the stem-head. There are various ways of accomplishing this, but I will describe my favorite method. The bowsprit for a ship sloop this size is 181⁄2" in diameter, full size, at the point where it crosses the stem. Take a short length of 3⁄8" (actual size) tubing, and find a dowel with a diameter so that the tube will slide over it. You will need about an 20" (actual) length of dowel. Wrap a piece of 100-grit sandpaper about two thirds the way around the tube and measure the overall diameter. Remove the sandpaper, and wrap the tube with masking tape until the combined diameter of tube, tape and sandpaper is 20" at scale size. This will allow for a little clearance when fitting your bowsprit. Glue the abrasive sheet to the masking tape using rubber cement. Begin by filing a slight hollow in the stem-head to center the groove. Thread the tube over the dowel, and secure the lower end of the dowel to the appropriate spot on the keel (masking tape may be used for this). Slide the tube to and fro on the dowel to hollow the stem-head to the correct diameter and angle. Don’t over-sand, or you will lose the critical height and angle of the seat. In the full size ship, this seat was covered with a layer of leather. If you are going to spar and rig your model, this surface will be invisible. Add a paperthin layer of “leather” if you are building a hull only model. You can choose a color for the leather, but I suspect that it was simply a natural tan. Slightly lower the surface that you will cover by the thickness of the material that you will use, or the bowsprit seat will be thrown out of line. I imagine that the leather was bent around and then tacked down to the sides of the stem-head.

END OF CHAPTER ONE

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Appendix 1.1 Measuring with accuracy Taking measurements is much easier if you use a scale rule. There are two types: the traditional flat variety or the triangular type with three measuring edges. Either will do, provided that it includes a 1:48 or 1⁄4" = 1' 0" scale on one edge. The scale typically reads from 0 at one end to about 46' 0". To the other side of zero there is an “extra” foot divided into scale inches. The trick to reading a measurement using this type of rule is illustrated below. The scale is slid along the drawing until one end coincides with a complete foot mark, and any distance left over is projecting into the subdivided foot beyond the zero mark. It is then easy to read off complete feet and inches. The example below shows a measurement of 7' 7".

Measuring scale inches with a caliper gauge can be a challenge if you are not used to it! The vernier scale will subdivide the measured distance down to a scale 3⁄8". You can glue a slip of paper, marked as shown below left, to the vernier. The example to the right reads 47⁄8", i.e. (1⁄16" = 3" on main scale + 17⁄8" from the vernier).

0" 3⁄8

⁄4 11⁄8 11⁄2 17⁄8 2 ⁄ 25⁄8 3"

Vernier marks

With a little practice you will be able to read scale distances to within 3⁄16"! Don’t get too obsessive, though: the original shipwrights probably worked to looser tolerances than this. The caliper gauge is useful in checking for cumulative error, maximum molded breadth of square frames and stock thickness.

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Appendix 1.2 Swan class ships and plans available from the NMM Swan, launched 1767 Kingsfisher, 1770 Cygnet, 1776 Atalanta, 1775 Pegasus, 1776 Fly, 1776 Fortune, 1778

Swift, 1777 Vulture, 1776 Hound, 1776 Spy, 1776 Hornet, 1776 Cormorant, 1776 Dispatch, 1777

Zebra, 1777 Cameleon, 1777 Nymph, 1778 Savage, 1778 Fairy, 1778 Fury, 1779 Thorn, 1779

Delight, 1778 Bonetta, 1779 Shark, 1779 Alligator, 1780

Swan class “as designed” plans available 1 at 1:48 scale from the National Maritime Museum: Lines and profile (ZAZ 4781), disposition of frame2 (ZAZ 4691), decks (ZAZ unknown) and external planking expansion (listed but whereabouts unknown). Individual ships’ plans available: Kingsfisher: lines and profile with carvings, as built (ZAZ 4654 and ZAZ 4651), general arrangement deck plans (ZAZ 4653), midship frames3 (ZAZ 4652). Atalanta: lines 1773 (ZAZ 4484), lines and profile with carvings 1775 (ZAZ 4485), lower deck & platforms 1775 (ZAZ 4486), the same c.1775 (ZAZ 4487), upper deck with quarterdeck & forecastle (ZAZ 4488), profile & upper deck 1779 (ZAZ 4489). Pegasus: lines and profile with carvings (ZAZ 4782), platform & lower deck (ZAZ 4783), upper deck with quarterdeck & forecastle (ZAZ 4784) sheer (3696/52).

Cost per plan in 2011: £14.40, (except “g/a” deck plans & midship frame plan, which is less). There may also be research and handling fees, so a quote (pro forma) is usually supplied first.

For a framed model, this drawing for Cygnet, copied for 14 other ships, will also need to be ordered.

This plan is problematic: its contemporary title is simply “New Sloop”. It has been attributed to Kingfisher with a modern label.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Fly: sheer 1777 (ZAZ 4668), lines and profile with all decorations5 1778 (ZAZ 4667), orlop & lower deck (ZAZ 4670), upper deck with quarterdeck & forecastle (ZAZ 4669). Swift: sheer 1775 (ZAZ 4673), lines and profile with carvings 1777 (ZAZ 4732) and deck plans 1777 (ZAZ 4733). Vulture: lines (ZAZ unknown, 3607/52), platforms (3608/52) and deck plans (3609/52). Cygnet: disposition of frame, as designed (ZAZ 4782). Zebra: lines and profile with decorations (ZAZ unknown), and general arrangement deck plans (ZAZ unknown). Nymph: lines and profile with carvings (ZAZ 4686, 3618/52).

Hornet: partial planking expansion (ZAZ 5119). This unique “during construction” plan dated February 3, 1776 shows the topside shifts of planking, both internal and external, carefully drawn out by the dockyard. I am indebted to Stephen Duffy for bringing this plan to my attention (March 2003). I am advised that the Museum is now unable to locate this drawing.

This drawing is the only one in the NMM collection showing the decorative painted frieze along the ship’s side and counter in addition to the carved work. This plan will provide an invaluable guide for those who wish to finish the paintwork on any Swan class ship.

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Appendix 1.3 Glossary for different types of ships’ plans Sheer (or lines) plan

This is a side view (technically known as an elevation) of the outside of the ship. It shows the ship’s contours (the lines), gun ports, major features of the head and stern, rails and wales on the side, and other minor features. The degree of detail shown varies. Some “as built” plans include the ship’s carvings (decorations).

Profile

An elevation showing a longitudinal section of the ship. Internal deck fittings, decks and deck beams are shown, in addition to works in the hold and magazines. The degree of detail will vary, more being shown on an “as built” draught.

Lines and profile

A combination of the two above plans superimposed. On the original draughts the profile lines were differentiated in red ink. Once one is used to reading drawings, it is usually easy to identify the different lines on a black and white copy.

Half-breadth

This is a true plan view. (A plan is a view from above, like a map.) It shows the waterlines, in green ink on the originals, and other lines such as the cant frames and hawse timbers. It is located below the lines drawing on the sheer and profile. The green ink has usually migrated over time, spreading the width of the lines.

Body plan

This is an end-on view of the ship. Usually it shows the bow half of the ship to the right of the centerline, and the stern section to the left of this line. Vertical sections at given intervals are shown, as well as the waterlines (green ink) and other constructional lines. The body plan usually appears on the left end of the sheer plan.

Disposition of frame

This is a side elevation detailing all the frames in the ship, and shows much useful information.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Deck plans

The decks are shown in plan view, but usually not in great detail. Deck beams, cabins and deck fittings are indicated. These plans may be on more than one sheet. General arrangement (g/a) deck plans may be even less detailed.

Platforms

These are part of the deck plans. Small ships often did not have a continuous orlop deck, but a series of discontinuous platforms at different levels. They are sometimes found together with the other deck plans.

Planking expansions

These drawings are rare. They show the inside and outside planking laid out all in one plane, appearing rather like a flattened out orange peel. Plank joints, widths and lengths are accurately shown, but the shapes of individual planks appear with varying degrees of distortion. Some experts believe that these drawings were simply technical exercises for student draftsmen, and not actually used in building the ship.

Midship frames

Gives constructional details of the square frames amidships. An unusual drawing, made to show the builder modifications from usual building practice.

Appendix 1.4 Measurement conversions Scale inches 1

⁄4 ⁄2 3 ⁄4 1 2 3 4 5 6 12 1

Fractional inch

Decimal inch

Metric equivalent

Nearest # drill

1/192 1/96 1/64 1/48 1/24 1/16 1/12 5/48 1/8 1/4

.00521 .01042 .01563 .02083 .04167 .0625 .08333 .10417 .125 .25

0.132 0.265 0.397 0.529 1.058 1.587 2.117 2.646 3.175 6.35

78 75 58 52 45 37 30 -

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Duodecimal size drill/number drill approximate equivalents Duodecimal 7

⁄32 ⁄64 3 ⁄16 11 ⁄64 5 ⁄32 9 ⁄64 1 ⁄8 13

Number

Duodecimal

Number

1 4 9 15 19 25 30

33 39 43 51 54 59 78

⁄64 ⁄32 5 ⁄64 1 ⁄16 3 ⁄64 1 ⁄32 1 ⁄64 3

Appendix 1.5 Useful Web site addresses Lee Valley (Veritas fine hand tools, aniline dyes, sharpening systems) - www.leevalley.com Sherline Lathes - www.sherline.com NMM Plans Division - www.nmm.ac.uk/contact/buy-ship-plans/ Nautical Research Guild - www.naut-res-guild.org Books (particularly out of print) - www.abebooks.com Swan class plans - www.seawatchbooks.com Byrnes’ Model Machines - www.byrnesmodelmachines.com

All contact information above was correct at the time of this edition (2022).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Appendix 1.6 Cutting scarph joints, one technique There are many ways to cut scarph joints, but I will describe my own technique. If the long face of the joint is square to the work-piece, I deal with it in this way. I first cut in the shoulder on my scroll saw, leaving about 1⁄32" of extra wood for final finishing (a, illustrated below). I then place the piece on my cutting surface of hardwood, and use a regular 1⁄2" or 3 ⁄4" chisel to chop out the waste (b). The trick – if trick there be – is that the chisel needs to be extremely well sharpened and honed. If sharp enough, the sound as it cuts should be similar to that of a knife cutting a crisp apple. Always do your cutting on a level hardwood surface. A soft surface will allow the bottom of the cut to “break out”, crumbling the lower edges. I use a small scrap block of pear, which I level up from time to time. The chisel needs to be kept vertical, unless you are cutting a beveled joint surface. This takes a bit of practice. One way is to stand so that you are sighting down the chisel; your eye vertically above the handle. Another is to sight it from the side, although the tool will be harder to control. If the chisel is honed so that the back of the blade is polished, you could use the reflection of the work-piece as a guide as to when the blade is vertical. Keeping the chisel vertical, cut down to the mark of the sloping face. Turn the piece so that the sloped surface faces upward, and incrementally remove slices of wood until you reach the shoulder mark (c). Finally, trim the lip end of the scarph to length (d). After a few failures, you will get used to holding the chisel vertically to the work piece and will begin to produce joints that fit accurately.

For the mating part of the joint, accurate mark-out is essential. Proceed as above, but stop slightly short of the line of the sloping face. Test fit the pieces to see if an adjustment in angle is needed for the pieces to align properly (e). Fine-tuning should be possible, and the final paper-thin shavings will refine the long surface of the joint.

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Check the shoulder end of the second piece against the first, and adjust its angle to match (f ). It won’t abut the lip on the first piece yet, as the lip on the second piece is too long. Finally, pare the lip of the second piece down until all three surfaces are snug to each other (g).

This sounds long-winded, but once you are used to the process these joints can be cut quite quickly. I will describe how to cut joints that are angled correctly on the long face when we deal with the frames. Get in practice with some scrap pieces first, and don’t worry if it takes quite a number of attempts before you begin to get results! Just keep your tools well honed.

Appendix 1.7 Sanding techniques In my early modeling days I ruined more parts by poor sanding than I care to admit. Over the years I have developed a better way of sanding which I would like to share. I use open-coat garnet paper for most sanding, ranging from 80 to 180 grit. For fine finishing I use silicon carbide open-coat paper, 220 grit. I very rarely use sandpaper freehand. For most sanding, I rubber cement the sandpaper to pieces of illustration board secured to my bench top. I keep a series of these boards handy in different grades. Instead of moving the paper over the piece to be sanded, I rub the work-piece over the planar abrasive surface. As long as one does not apply excessive pressure, the surface being sanded stays level with no rounding off near the edges. Particularly when dealing with angled surfaces, by selectively putting pressure on one end or side of the piece, I can adjust the angle of the surface being sanded to a very fine degree indeed. Once one is used to “upside-down” sanding, it is hard to return to the old way of doing things. Of course, there are instances of where one needs to move a sanding block or stick over the surface of an assembly, but always use a flat or custom-shaped block as a back-up. I will address specific instances as they arise.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Appendix 1.8 Transoms and tenons The following account of one method of making tenoned transoms has been generously provided by model maker Michael Scheu of Australia. The supplementary plan below will assist you in visualizing the relationship of transoms, fashion piece, stern deadwood and stern post.

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Making tenoned transoms using a milling machine by Michael Scheu

Introduction The task of tenoning transoms presents a big challenge. I’d like to show one possible way of working this detail into your model. My method involves the extensive use of a milling machine with a cross slide table. It also requires deviating from David Antscherl’s procedure. I have tried to describe this in such a way that anyone with a basic knowledge of milling can follow it, and I hope that you will find it informative.

Preparation The building board will need to be marked out Close up of tenons cut in and assembled with reference points for the aft outer corner of the wing transom and the aft face of cant frame #1. Mark another parallel line 11⁄2" forward of this line. This will be the forward edge of the wing transom before the mortises are cut in. Given the precise nature of the mortises for fit and appearance, it is necessary to use a few jigs. The first is the wing transom fixture and will be used to hold the wing transom in position throughout the process. You will also need two blocks to fasten this fixture to. Start by measuring the angle on the sheer plan by which the wing transom is pointing down, then cut your blocks accordingly, leaving them over-length for now. You will also need some simple guides to shape the forward faces of the transoms and a sturdy plywood square with sandpaper glued to its face.

Preparation for setting up the fixture Make up the fixture as shown in the drawing (next page) using extruded aluminum T-section, if available. You could also use wood, but bear in mind that there are some cutouts, so make it strong enough.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Prepare the wing transom as instructed in the practicum, but don’t cut any of the bevels and add an allowance of 3" on each end for the mortises. Leave it also somewhat “fat” on the inside. Because the wing transom rounds up, it must be packed up on its outer ends by two small pieces of 3" scrap. Put a rule across to check that there is no rocking motion, and the crown of the wing transom just touches the rule. Now it is time for the first fitting of the transom to the stern post. If you are satisfied that it is seated properly, clamp it to the stern post but don’t glue it in! Check that the aft corners match your markings on the building board. Level the wing transom and check its height against David’s sheer. Measure the height needed for the support blocks to the top edge of the outer ends of the transom. Remember to add the thickness of your spacer and cut your blocks to this height. Place the fixture across the wing transom and clamp it. Slide the blocks under the ends so that it is level but be careful not to push it up out of position! This fixture is the cornerstone for cutting the tenons, so take your time to get it right. Measure everything again before securing it in place. (I also added two support blocks to the aft corners of the wing transom to stop it from rotating.) Please keep in mind that cutting the tenons is an exercise in precision and, as David keeps pointing out, measuring at every step will be most important! View of the underside of the fixture with its support blocks.

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Transom fixture, side view. Note the angle of the wing transom. The modified fixture is shown below right

ONE

Wing transom fixture. The aluminum piece was later changed to a T-section with cutouts to allow fitting the cant frames. The two sanding guides are shown mounted on the building board

Set up the two guides for sanding the angled faces of the wing transom (illustrated above right). The guides are placed at the forward faces of the tenons, not at the transom/cant frame joints! Make a sanding square from 1⁄ 4" plywood and trim its height so that it just passes under the fixture. Sand the face of your wing transom by sliding your sandpaper square along the guides until you barely skim the wood. After you have finished sanding, check for verticality with a machinist’s square. If all is correct, the guides will no longer be needed and may be removed.

Filling transoms Cut out all four filling transoms as instructed, but leave them oversized on the inside and without any bevels. You can also make provision for a fastening bolt through the centerline of transom #4. It will be needed to hold the block for milling operations later on. (Photo below.) The wing transom fixture, Mark II

The stack (left) showing the mounting hole. I shaped the transoms on the outside with an allowance and without bevels. The stack is more solid this way

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Fit the filling transoms to the stern post, making sure that they are level and sit square to the centeline of the ship. I suggest that you fit them one at a time and check each individually against the sheer. Spot-glue Transom stack with spacers glued between them. Note the packing spacers between them as you pieces on top of the wing transom go. I used four spacers, placing two towards the centerline and the others on the outside, but position them so that you will be able to measure the thickness of the fore faces with calipers. One point to observe is that there will be a very small gap between the wing transom and transom #1 on their outer sides. This is because the wing transom sits at an angle and also curves down. You will need to open this 2" gap with a file and then insert a spacer.

Milling the tenons After the transoms have been stacked, you can pull them off the stern post and prepare to mill out the tenons. As the stack is a very awkward shape, it cannot be clamped in a vise. I used a piece of aluminum angle to bolt the stack to. Level the stack by placing a 12" ruler on top of the of the wing transom’s sanded face. Measure from each end to the surface of the milling table, and when you are satisfied with the set-up, fasten it to the aluminum angle. Support the stack with a prop to stop it from moving while machined. Please make sure that you have mounted the stack vertically and parallel to your milling table’s direction of travel! Lower the rotating cutter until it just touches the sanded face of the wing transom and skim it very lightly. This will also confirm that your setup is level. If satisfied, then mill across the entire stack. Stack set up on the mill and mortises cut in. Please note the way it is fastened and supported

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Dimension table for cutting tenons Thickness inches Step down

Tenon size inches

Tenon size decimal

1.5

0.03125

Wing Transom *

0.2083

Gap

0.1041

Transom #1

0.1458

Gap

0.125

Transom #2

0.1458

Gap

0.125

Transom #3

0.1458

Gap

0.1458

Transom #4

Step down Total

Top of tenon # 2

Top of tenon # 3

Top of tenon # 4

Top of wing tenon 1.2706

0.9582 0.6874 0.4166

0.125

1.5

0.03125

1.3331

Baseline

*Note: The wing transom should be 15" deep but you removed 2" when you filed the gap.

Cutting tenons needs a bit of preparation. The way I do it is by calculating my dimensions and writing down the measurements in tabular format (above). After I have cut the tenons, I write down the actual measurements in a column next to it. This way I can cut the mortise to match, should there be any deviation. Confirm that the total height of your stack is indeed 64"; otherwise adjust your own table accordingly. For cutting tenons I chose a 3⁄32" diameter carbide bit. First set the depth of the cut to 11⁄ 2". My recommendation is to take it easy and start with about 1" on the very end where the excess wood will be cut off later. Measure and creep up to it until you are confident that all is correct, then move your cutter to the underside of transom #4. It is easier to start there and work your way up to the wing transom. The reasons are that the inclined position and curved shape of the wing transom make it difficult to start at the top.

Transom stack with tenons cut in.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Move your cutter across until it just touches the underside of transom #4, then set your dial to zero and move to one of the ends. Feed 0.03125" for the step down, and make your pass with the cutter. To get into position for the gap between transoms #4 and 3 you will need to reset your dials to zero. Feed 0.125" plus whatever diameter your cutter is, but don’t go right to the mark. Make your pass cutting the tenon a little wide. Check its width and take it to the final thickness with the next pass. Repeat the steps for the other transoms until you reach the gap between transom #1 and the wing transom. Here you will have to be careful that you don’t remove too much material, as the gap is only slightly wider than your cutter. If you have enough “meat” on the inside, try to set it up there before you proceed. Please don’t be alarmed when you see that the tenon of the wing transom is not running parallel with its sides; this is the result of its curved shape and is normal. Finish the step down on the top of the wing transom, lean back and admire your handiwork. Keep a written record for all the gaps and tenons, as it will be needed later for the corresponding mortises. To avoid cumulative errors creeping in, you need to calculate the next cut by taking the lower surface of the tenon of filling transom #4 as the base line. From there it is possible to measure to the top edges of the other tenons with calipers. I have added these dimensions to my table. If you have mounted the stack in a similar fashion to that shown on the previous page, then it is possible to remove your prop and swivel it around. Level the stack again and repeat the whole milling process. Congratulations: you have now reached the half-way mark.

Preparing the cant frames The cant frames should be cut over-wide to allow some adjustment later on. Clamp them one at a time to your deadwood and check their fit. Transfer the height of breadth and the top timber line. I use a 12" ruler, which I stand vertically on the building board, then slide to the lines I want to transfer. Cant frames ready for milling. Note the pencil lines for the height of breadth and top timber lines. The material to be removed is clearly marked

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Also check that the distances for the futtock heads, as measured up from the baseline, are identical each side. Once you have marked these lines, they will need to be accurately transferred to the back side of the frames. For the width you need to measure the top timber line for the fore side of the cants. As the cant frame is standing at an angle to the deadwood and will be laid out flat, you’ll have to get the true length. On David’s half-breadth plan, extend the forward face of cant #1 across the centerline. Take the distance from this intersection and the top timber line with a compass. For cutting the mortises into the cant frames, you will need to make a base to which they may be spot glued (illustrated opposite, below). A piece of 5" x 6" x 1⁄4" plywood will do. Glue a 1⁄4" wide ledge of wood along the edge of the long side. Glue another 5" by 1⁄4" square piece of wood, marked with a centerline, vertically at the center of the plywood board. Lay out your cant frames on the plywood base, making sure that the heels sit firmly against the ledge and that the aft side is facing upward. Use compasses or dividers set to the width at the top timber line to set the frames. Also check that the distances for the futtock heads, measured up from the baseline, are identical each side. Before you can start cutting, you need to make some more measurements. First measure the height of your steps on the deadwood down to the building board as accurately as you can with your calipers. Then measure from the underside of transom #4’s tenon to the building board. Do this on both sides. If everything is correct then they should be equal. Subtract the height of your step from the height you have just measured. This is the distance from the step/heel to the first mortise. Because of their shape, it is not possible to measure this distance directly on the cant frames. Instead you will have to use the strip of wood as your baseline. Measure its width and add it to your distance, plus also the 1" to 2" allowance on the heel. With this offset, you will be able to measure the first mortise precisely using your calipers by “gripping” the outside of the base strip and the bottom edge of mortise #4. Use your notes from cutting the tenons and mark out all mortises with a pencil or a scriber. Make sure that you mark out the correct sides (port & starboard) should you have any variations in your tenons.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

With so many lines marked out it is very easy to cut to the wrong side of a line, so it is best to clearly indicate where you want to remove material. Take this only as a guide; use your recorded dimensions for the actual cuts!

Cutting the mortises Clamp your piece of plywood to the table of the milling machine and ensure that it is square. Lower the rotating bit until it just touches the frame, then move the table until the cutter is close to the center strip. Stop the machine and set the distance for the transom #4 mortise by measuring from the bottom of the base to the milling bit with a ruler. Allow a little bit of extra and cut across the center strip. Now you can measure your setting with the calipers and adjust your cut. Measure the depth you have cut into the strip. Lower the milling bit by 11⁄2", then cut across the center strip again. Check that the depth is indeed 11⁄2" lower than the previous cut. Proceed to cut the first mortise and creep up to your final width of the groove. I would cut every mortise just a fraction wider than the corresponding tenon. I found it best to cut all the mortises on one side first before working the other side. It means less movement of the table and is easier to do, especially if you have different dimensions on either side.

Mortises being cut into the cant frames: milling set-up.

Before you take the frames off the milling machine, take your transom stack and test the fit. If it seems a bit too tight, find out where it is and then open it up a bit further. I must say that I had a great deal of satisfaction when the assembly clicked together.

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Assembly Take your frames off the ply base, then push your stack back onto the stern post and clamp it as before. Fit one of the cant frames to the transoms and then slide it across towards the deadwood. You should find that it does not quite fit and that you will need to trim the heel a little. After this is done re-check your lines for the height of breadth and top timber line. Correct them if necessary.

Transom #4 being glued to the sternpost. Both cant frames are held vertically by squares for the moment.

Print out a paper copy of the frame pattern and glue it to the frame blank by lining up the height of breadth and top timber line with your pencil marks. The position of the futtock and the heel should now also match. You can cut the frame out and then disassemble the transom stack. Complete the transoms as per David’s instructions, and you are ready to glue them to the stern post.

Trial fitting the cant frames to the transoms

Fashion and filling pieces fitted. These are also tenoned to the underside of filling transom #4

A view from aft of the fit of the tenons into the scores on the cant frame

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

First to be glued to the stern post will be the wing transom. Use your fixture to position it correctly and keep it clamped until all transoms have been fitted. Next is transom #4. Push it onto the stern post, then use both cant frames to position it correctly. Check that it is square with the keel and vertical. Look and see if the mortise sits properly. For the other three transoms, I recommend that you do a dry trial fit with all of them first before gluing them in. Check that none of them will push the cant frames out of their mortises. While gluing the first cant frame, it is best to have the opposite cant in position to support the transoms.

Conclusion Congratulations! You have finished and can remove the fixture. All that remains is to fit the fashion and filler pieces (see photograph on previous page). To see the full result you will have to wait until you fair the aft body.

The final result.

My thanks to Michael Scheu for permission to adapt and reproduce his article here.

CHAPTER TWO

elcome back to the second chapter on eighteenth century ship modeling. Hopefully your journey so far has been more enjoyable than challenging. In this chapter we will

complete some unfinished business at the stern, and then move on to the hawse pieces at the bow. By the time these have been successfully dealt with, you will have discovered that cant frames really aren’t so awful to make after all. At this point in the process, you should make sure that the stem and stern assemblies thus far are set truly plumb to the building board and that the board itself has not warped out of true. If there is a problem, now is the time to fix it. If you don’t, you will run into difficulties later on. Also please check that the outer ends of the wing transom are at the same level and square. Another vital check is whether the step heights are at the correct levels above the building board. The other matter is to ensure that the half-breadth lines (and the toptimber line near the bow) are clearly marked on your building board as described (see section 1.11). Having made all your checks, it is time to proceed with the fashion pieces aft.

“I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.” - Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

2.1 The aft fashion pieces These short timbers attach to the stern deadwood. On their aft sides and/or tops they attach to one or more of the transoms that you have already made and fitted. This is where each ship has some variation to the drawing that I have made, and each builder needs to adapt to suit his or her specific model. I recommend reading through this chapter before beginning work. My Mylar plan shows the fashion piece (marked F on the sheer and profile drawing) running up to just under the fourth transom. In this view, the fashion piece has a curved shape, whereas on the half-breadth (which in modern terms is a plan view) it appears as a straight line. This is because the piece is fitted at an angle to the keel, so shows as a curve in its projected view (as if seen in one plane) on the elevation. The illustration (below left) shows why. IMPORTANT! In order to “read” my frame patterns correctly, you need to understand the view that I have drawn. Frame patterns for the Swan class are obtainable on CD from Dr. Greg Herbert. The fashion pieces (and all the frames, for that matter) are shown in the following manner. All the fore body frames are shown as if seen from their aft sides. (Another way of thinking of it is that you are looking at them from midships, facing forward.) Conversely, all the aft frames are drawn as if seen from their forward sides. Again, you are seeing them from midships, this time looking aft. The reason for this convention is that this is the way you will be viewing these frames as you assemble them. We will be working from both ends toward the dead flat. This is not the sequence in which the full-size ship was constructed, but is more convenient for the modeler. A full description of this will be given later. The outside contour of the frame is the line that you will cut to. Solid lines inside the frame outline indicate a bevel toward the viewer, and grey or dashed (hidden) lines indicate a bevel in the opposite direction (illustrations opposite top).

CHAPTER TWO

29 1⁄2°

You need not be too concerned about the bevelings, as they will take care of themselves later on in the building process, but the lines will help you visualize which way a particular frame is beveled. The fashion pieces show that there is a bevel facing you at the lower end (a standing bevel ), changing to away from you, (an under bevel ) at the upper end. Now, this may seem counter-intuitive. One would assume that the whole piece would be under-beveled as seen from the fore side, as the ship is narrowing in rapidly at this point. However, the fashion piece is sitting at an angle of 291⁄2° to the keel because the ship’s designer has deliberately changed these relationships. None of the bevels are now so extreme as they would be were the fashion piece at right angles to the keel, and some bevels actually seem to be “backwards.” The surface of the fashion piece that is critical is the one that abuts the deadwood. This edge has an under bevel of 291⁄2°. If this angle is cut accurately, the fashion piece will automatically sit at the correct angle to the keel. These pieces will be cut from 9" thick stock to the pattern given on my sheet of aft body frames. Once you have the pattern of the fashion piece marked out on your stock, it is essential that you cut the angled edge first. Set your scroll saw table to 291⁄2°, and make the cut along the line.

board

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Remember to set the table over to the correct side: you need an under bevel, not a standing one (illustrations on previous page)! Note that the “tilt” of the table will depend on which direction you feed the blank through. My own check for this is to be sure that the tilt makes the outboard end of the futtock lower than its inboard end. Make this cut and then reset your table level to right angles. Now you can complete cutting out the outermost contour, ignoring any other bevels for now. The next step is important. This is where you need sandpaper boards, prepared as described in Appendix 1.7. With a 100-grit board clamped to your bench-top, gently place the fashion piece, angled edge down, on the sandpaper surface. Very gently, with minimum pressure (and I emphasize this), slide the piece over the sandpaper. You will now have a light series of parallel scratch-marks on the wood that should be continuous. If there are missed areas, it means that the surface is not quite planar, so gently repeat the process. It is important to keep the angle unchanged. If you are doubtful about your ability to hold the angle accurately, cut a small block of wood from scrap at the correct angle to use as a fence on the sandpaper surface (see illustration, previous page). The next items to attend to are the ends of the fashion piece. First trim the lower end to the marked line. In the case of the layout on my plan (where the top is flush with the underside of filling transom #4), once the upper end is trimmed it should slide nicely under the transom and sit both against the deadwood and on the stepped ledge of the deadwood. The aft side of the fashion piece should be flush with the angled forward face of this transom (exclusive of any tenons, if you have included them). Slowly trim, offer up and adjust the piece until these conditions are met. As a check, place your square on the building board and confirm that the piece is vertical (see illustration above).

CHAPTER TWO

For cut off level, see your own plan and the text.

Extended fashion piece, scale 1:48 291⁄2° under bevel

If your own plans show the fashion piece running higher than transom #4, you will need to cut the blank to a suitable height from the modified full-scale pattern (left). Follow the instructions above. If you have opted to tenon your transoms, corresponding horizontal scores will have to be cut into the aft surface of the fashion piece to accommodate the tenons. This is exacting work, and needs to be done very carefully to obtain satisfactory results. As mentioned above, check the vertical position of the piece.

You may wonder why the layout of the transoms was not standardized. The reason was the availability of timber at the shipyard as the vessel was being built. As the century progressed and ships were built in greater numbers, the forests were being reduced. Certain sizes and types of lumber were becoming scarcer. The lower transoms needed to be converted from suitable forked slabs of lumber, so that the grain would run along the arms of the transoms. You can imagine the size of tree that would yield crotches of the appropriate size. If the lower transoms were smaller they could be obtained more easily. The drawings that you have from the National Maritime Museum represent your ship “as built”, showing how the transoms and fashion pieces were placed in your particular ship’s hull. This is why it may differ from the framing drawing, which was “as designed” and simply used as a guide for the shipyard, depending on what was at hand. As the century drew to a close, compass (curved grain) and crotch timber became even scarcer, so that the shipwrights had to piece together more complex shaped pieces in much the same way as you pieced together the lower transoms in section 1.31.

2.2 Vertical filler pieces below the transoms Although they are not shown on the official drawings, there would have been additional filler pieces of wood running vertically (or at a slight angle) to bridge the gap between the fashion pieces and the sternpost below the fourth transom. I have shown a possible layout on my Mylar plan, labeled f1, f2 and f3. These small pieces were important, for they backed up the lower hull planking in this area, and provided solid anchors for the fasteners of the gudgeon straps.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Gudgeon straps are metal strips which wrap around the sternpost, at the center of which are the knuckles of the hinges on which the rudder moves. These straps will be secured by a combination of screws and bolts to the aftermost part of the lower hull and sternpost. (If pintles and gudgeons confuse you, and easy way to remember the difference is that the pintles have pins, and attach to the rudder itself.) So, do not omit these seemingly trivial pieces of wood! Cut them, a little oversize, from 9" thick scrap stock and attach them at right angles to the deadwood which, as you will recall, is slightly tapered (as seen from above). The filler pieces should fit snugly between the bearding line and lowest transom. Working on these will improve your skills with hand tools considerably! (See photographs on page 94.) Start with filler piece f1. Get the upper end correctly angled first. Looking at the piece from forward, this surface will still be at right angles to the inner face. Once the upper end is correct, gradually trim the lower end until the filler fits into its designated space. You can then mark its maximum upper and lower widths and trim the outer side between the marks in a straight line. Eventually, when you bevel the framing it will fair as a concave curve, but you can ignore this part of the shaping process for the moment. When you are satisfied with the fit, glue and pin filler piece f1 into position. Repeat this procedure with the remaining filler pieces on both sides.

2.3 The aftermost aft cant frame This is the moment that you have been dreading: the cant frames. However – and this may surprise you – you have already made two! If you haven’t guessed it, the fashion pieces are actually miniature cant frames. You simply apply the same principles on a larger scale. Now study the scale drawing of the pattern for aft cant #1 (reproduced opposite). All the cant frames have been drawn as if flat, so that you are looking at them square on in true elevation. The outermost outline is the one that you will be cutting the futtock pieces to. Futtocks (or foothooks) are the individual pieces that make up a frame. Special cases are the floors, pieces that cross the keel and toptimbers, which are the uppermost pieces in a frame. The outside frame bevel has been drawn for you, but the inside bevel is omitted for clarity.

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Perspective of aft cant frame #1. In this illustration the aft side of the frame is uppermost

This scale drawing is reproduced from the complete set of lofted frames for the Swan class that is available separately on CD. The positions of where the transoms butt (or tenon) to the frame are indicated, as well as the chock between the futtock and toptimber, the position of the quarter badge sills and the angle at the heel of the frame. The text opposite explains these points in detail. Compare this drawing with the perspective above it.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

You can see at the lower end of the cant on its outer face there is a standing bevel at the heel which diminishes as you move up. The bevel then reverses to become an under-bevel and then changes back to a standing bevel again. The inside face mirrors these changing bevels. Don’t worry about them for now; they are shown simply as a guide for you to visualize what is going on. (Compare the perspective with the frame plan below, previous page.) In the upper part of the frame drawing, I have also indicated the quarter gallery light, where the frame will be cut away (marked by an elongated X), and the cross-section of the sills above and below this light. Hatched lines indicate where the various transoms abut to this frame. I have drawn these to conform to the Mylar plan transom layout. Not all the filling transoms in your own model may reach this far forward. The last feature that I have drawn is the chock that joins the first futtock (below) to the third futtock (above), which may also be referred to as the long toptimber. The chock is the short, blunt-ended triangular piece of wood at the level of transom #2. You will notice that the long angled surfaces of the chock are under-beveled. This is necessary, or you will “break through” when beveling the inner and outer surfaces of the frame. This concept will be discussed shortly.

2.4 Joint options for your model It is time now to discuss different ways of joining your floors and futtocks. The first way is to do it exactly the same way as in full-size practice, by putting in chocks at each joint. Be aware that if you are going to plank the inside of your hull or fully fit the internal structure of the ship, the joint lines of your chocks will be invisible. Only if your model is shown in frame will all the chocks will be seen. My method of doing this is outlined in section 2.5A. Alternatively, I will give you a modified constructional technique that will give a strong joint that still appears correct from outboard but will considerably reduce the number of joint surfaces to be fitted. This second option is described in section 2.5B. The choice is yours. There is a third possibility for those building a model of a ship whose frames are all bends. A bend is a double layer of frames, closely joined. Some eighteenth century naval ships were constructed this way. The model of Comet of 1783 that I built, mimicking both French lines and construction, is an example of this style.

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In this instance, the chocks may be completely omitted and the futtock joints simply end-butted. Such joints have no structural strength, but the second “layer” of each bend with its joints offset provides support in the same way as two layers of brickwork when attached. Different styles of framing used in the latter part of the eighteenth century will be discussed in detail in Chapter Three.

2.5A Chocked futtock joints These instructions are to be followed only if you are fitting chocks to all the frame joints as in full-size practice. Otherwise go directly on to section 2.5B. All the cant frames are 9" sided. The sided dimension of a piece of lumber is its width in the fore-and-aft direction. (The moulded or molded dimension is its in-and-out measurement across the ship.) You will need to prepare a quantity of wood a scale 9" thick, assuming that you have not bought pre-dimensioned stock. Take a piece of this and lay out the first futtock piece on it, orienting the futtock with the grain of the wood. You may do this either by tracing down, as described in 1.10, or by rubber cementing on the pattern. If you opt to paste down the pattern, you will need to print out an extra copies of the drawing. You will also need an uncut pattern on which to build the frame. Begin to saw out the futtock in exactly the same way as you did the fashion piece. First set the saw table to 291⁄2° and cut the edge that will face the deadwood. Remember to make this cut an underbevel! Refresh your memory by checking the illustrations in section 2.1. Then level the Two views of the first futtock of aft cant #1 as table and saw out the rest of the futtock first sawn out at a right angle, leaving the upper end and heel a little full (illustration above). If you cut a fraction outside the line, this will not pose a problem. However, even if you wander a hair inside the cutting line, the piece will need to be discarded. The outline will be the maximum width of that frame, and any cut inside the line will show up as a nick or notch on the finished framing. This is not quite so important in areas that will be planked over, but is critical in a model with exposed frames.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

A word about scrap pieces: I keep a scrap box divided up into compartments. Each compartment is clearly labeled with the thickness of the scrap that it carries. I can easily dip into the right pile whenever I need a small piece for chocks or other small parts. Don’t throw out useable scrap! As you did with the fashion piece, gently sand the beveled edge flat. With your chisel, pare the heel of the futtock down to the line making sure the cut is square across. If your model has a bearding line instead of stepping line, you will need to modify this operation as described in Appendix 2.1. The next important point to make is that the end joints between futtocks or floor timbers are always cut at right angles to the outside curve at that point on the frame, and the joint is vertical when the frame is lying on your work surface. Bearing this in mind, superimpose the piece over your frame plan and trim the upper end of the futtock square across at the mark. Now is the time to lay your frame plan down on a level surface and hold down the first futtock. Either you can spot glue it so that it doesn’t move out of position with rubber cement, or by using 1⁄8" mild steel sheet as a base, you can use “rare earth” magnets as hold-downs by placing them on top of the futtock. The smallest sizes are strong enough for the job. These are available from Lee Valley Tools (Appendix 1.5.) Take the pattern for the third futtock (which can also be considered the long toptimber), and cut it out of 9" stock. Again, orient the pattern so that the grain runs advantageously. Leave the ends full at this stage. Place the third futtock over the plan, and see when you oppose the end to the first futtock if the upper piece needs to swing in or out to accurately cover the drawing (illustrations opposite top). With a little practice, you will find paring the end in or out with a chisel makes adjustment quite easy. Trim the lower end until the pieces line up properly and the joint line is “tight”. This is the first stage of making a successful futtock joint.

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The second stage is to cut and fit the chock. If the chock is fitted so that the angled faces are at right angles to the frame, there will be problems of break-through when the frame is beveled (illustrations below).

Because of this, the joint surfaces need to be cut at the same angle as the bevel at that point. If you look carefully at the pattern, you will see the grey lines of an under bevel drawn along the angled sides of the chock. The best way to proceed is to first cut the scarph at the upper end of the first futtock. Mark the line of the chock end across the piece (if the pattern is not already glued to it), noting that the crosscut, which is at right angles, must not be taken deeper than the line on the upper surface (see illustration overleaf, top). Make sure that the lines are clearly marked on the upper face. Now, using the scroll saw, cut in at right angles to the futtock, (A, top left).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Carefully chisel away most of the waste wood, trying not to remove too much material at each slice, which would invite tear-out or splitting, (illustration B). Turn the futtock over and mark out the scarph on both the undersurface and end of the workpiece. This will define the angle of the sloping surface. With a fine Exacto saw blade, extend the cross cut on the “deep” side of the joint, following the marked angle (illustration C). Be careful not to deepen the cut on the “shallow” side. It is easiest if you clamp the futtock in your vice for this operation. Make sure that your vice has soft jaws, so that you do not mar the work-piece. I use rubber cement to attach pieces of illustration board to the jaw faces for this purpose. I can easily replace these liners periodically. With the work securely held, pare the sloped joint surface to its correct angle (illustration D). The final step is to trim the toe of the scarph down to the line at a right angle. There are two possible ways of making the actual chocks. The first method is to use scrap of the same thickness as the futtock it fits to, and the second method uses over-thick scrap. Read both methods, and decide which way works best for you. Chock construction, method 1: Mark out the chock on a piece of scrap 9" stock. (You can begin to appreciate how even small scrap pieces can be used in this method of construction.) Saw out the chock, leaving it well oversized, particularly on the inboard side. First cut in the lower angled face with a chisel to match the prepared first futtock scarph (illustration A, below).

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Then slice the lower toe-end square. Offer the chock up repeatedly until you have a good fit with the angled face of the first futtock head. Don’t concern yourself yet with the upper half of the chock. When you are satisfied with its fit, run your pencil lightly up where the point of the “V” will be on the chock (illustration B, previous page). As you chisel out the other side of the “V” at an angle, your object will be to arrive at the point of the “V” where the junction of the faces fall vertically along your pencil mark. When this occurs, the angles of both faces must be equal (illustration C, previous page). Having achieved this, you can trim the upper toe of the chock to length. You are now ready to glue the chock to the first futtock on the level surface that you are using to build your frames. When this has been done, it is time to cut the scarph on the third futtock. I would suggest a good strategy is to cut it undersize in length and depth, and then “creep up” to a good fit. I generally crosscut about 1⁄ 32" short of my mark, and work on the angled face until the pieces line up properly. (Again, the first futtock is secured to its place over the drawing as before.) Once the angle is correct, bevel the long face to fit the chock. Finally, pare the shoulder of the third futtock until everything comes together nicely. This is basically the same technique detailed in Appendix 1.6. To continue, pick up the narrative starting at the second paragraph on the next page. Chock construction, method 2: This method may be easier for some builders. Try both ways before deciding which way suits you better. You will need to cut the chock blank from material with is several scale inches thicker than the futtocks to be joined. As in the first method, cut the blank oversize, and then trim the toe down at a right angle. Now cut the angled faces also at a right angle to the top face. In this method one angled face must be exactly the same length as that on the first futtock (illustration A below).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Next glue the partially finished chock in place on the first futtock in such a way that there is sufficient material to trim down both faces flush to the futtock (B, previous page). When the glue is set, carefully chisel and sand the lower face flush, so that the futtock and its chock can sit flat on the frame drawing (C). Trim the upper end of the chock to length. When this has been done, cut the scarph on the third futtock. I would suggest a good strategy is to cut it undersize in length and depth, and then “creep up” to a good fit. I generally crosscut about 1⁄32" short of my mark, and work on the angled face until the pieces line up properly. (Again, the first futtock is secured to its place over the drawing as before.) Once the angle is correct, than I bevel the long face to fit the chock. Then pare the shoulder of the third futtock until everything comes together nicely. This technique was detailed in Appendix 1.6. Finally, pare down the top surface and inner side of the chock until it is flush with the frame. Reading the above makes it seem as if it will take hours to make a single futtock joint! Until you have gone up the learning curve, this operation will take some time and you will make errors. As you gain experience you will find that that process will go much more quickly. There is little wasted if you have to scrap a chock or two. However, once you are used to this process, you can cut and fit joints quite rapidly using either method. The last thing to do once everything is nicely glued up is to bolt the joint. I use treenails. Steel1 states that there are two 7⁄8" square metal bolts to each scarph, but I have not seen an actual example of the pattern of these bolts. There are two possibilities. I use pattern B, (below) which seems more practical: there is less likelihood of the wood splitting in this instance. The holes are drilled through at right angles to the frame, set in one third of the width and a third of the length from the end of each chock face. If you wish to use square section wire “bolts”, they should be driven on the diagonal ( ). Next, proceed 1 ⁄3 length directly to section 2.6. 1

⁄3 width

David Steel, The Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture, 1805 edition, Folio V.

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2.5B Scarphed futtock joints These instructions are for those omitting chocks at the floor and futtock joints. If you want to fit these chocks, refer back to section 2.5A. All the cant frames are 9" sided. The sided dimension of a piece of lumber is its width in the fore-and-aft direction. (The moulded or molded dimension is its in-and-out measurement across the ship.) You will need to prepare a quantity of wood a scale 9" thick, assuming that you have not bought pre-dimensioned stock. Take a piece of this, and lay out the first futtock piece on it, orienting the futtock with the grain of the wood. You may do this either by tracing down, as described in 1.10, or by rubber cementing the pattern to your stock. If you opt to paste down the pattern, you will need to scan-copy the drawing.2 This is because you will also need an uncut frame pattern on which to build up the frame. Make sure that you take the pattern on your stock as far up as the upper end of the chock. In this method the chock is integral with the first

Futtock with intergral chock

futtock (illustrated to left). Now saw out the

futtock in exactly the same way as you did the fashion piece. First set the saw table to 291⁄2° and cut the edge that will face the deadwood. Remember to make this cut an under-bevel! Refresh your memory by checking the illustrations in section 2.1. Then level the table, and saw out the rest of the futtock at a right angle, leaving the upper end beyond the chock and lip full. If you cut a fraction outside the line, this will not pose a problem. However, even if you wander a hair inside the cutting line the piece needs to be discarded. The maximum frame dimension is on that line: cuts inside it will be visible on the finished framing. A word about scrap pieces: I keep a box divided up into compartments. Each compartment is clearly labeled with the thickness of the scrap that it carries. I can easily dip into the right pile whenever I need a small piece for chocks or other small parts. Don’t throw out useable scrap! As you did with the fashion piece, gently sand the beveled edge level. With your chisel, pare the heel of the futtock down to the line making sure the cut is square.

With the CD or download version of the frame patterns, you can print the copies that you require.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The next important point to make is that the end joints between futtocks or floor timbers are always cut at right angles to the outside curve at that point on the frame, and the joint is vertical with the frame lying on your work surface. Bearing this in mind, trim the upper end of the futtock square across at the level of the top of the chock. The next consideration is to complete the scarph at the upper end of futtock. If you look at the pattern, you will see that the angled part of the joint is drawn as a solid line on the top surface of the pattern and as a dashed line on the lower face. This indicates that the face is under beveled, as seen from above. If the joint were cut at right angles, part of it will become exposed when the frame is beveled (illustration page 85, lower right). Turn the end of the piece toward you and mark this angle on the end face so that you can see it when you come to pare the surface down (illustration below left). Refine the shoulder of the scarph to the depth of the upper surface layout. Chisel the angled part vertically to the line. Turning the piece so that the mark-out on its end is visible, you can see the angle to which the long face of the joint needs to be trimmed. Gradually pare away to the mark. Clean up the inside corner of the joint, and the first futtock is done (illustration near left). The third futtock – or long toptimber, if you prefer – is next. Take the pattern and cut it out of 9" stock. As usual, orient the pattern so that the grain runs advantageously. Leave the ends full at this stage, but mark the scarph end as accurately as you can. Cross cut the shoulder of the scarph as far as the mark on the upper surface of the joint and then chisel the majority of the waste out. Don’t be concerned with the length of the joint yet. The first consideration is the angled face. Pare this, keeping a right angle vertically for the moment, until the third futtock lines up with the pattern. (The first futtock is temporarily spotglued to the pattern with rubber cement.) Once the angular alignment is correct (as shown opposite, top), trim the lip end to match the angle of the shoulder on the first futtock.

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Next match the bevel of the long face to that of the first futtock. There are a number of ways to do this. One way is to have a card with the correct angle drawn on it set up so that you can “eyeball” the angle with your chisel (illustration below). The futtock is clamped to your cutting board for this operation. It is a similar application to the old-time shipwright’s bevel board. The bevel board was a batten with the angles of bevel at various points along a frame marked out, so these angles could be directly transferred to wood without measuring actual degrees of bevel. For me, the quickest “no hassle” method is the one I have described in section 2.5A. However, whatever works best for you is the right way. Once the long face is beveled, it is simply a matter of trimming the shoulder of the third futtock until the lips meet the shoulders at both ends. Time to glue up on a level surface under weights. The last thing to do once everything is nicely glued up is to bolt the joint. I use 7⁄8" treenails. I have not seen an example of the pattern of these bolts. There are two possibilities. I use pattern B, (illustration on page 88), which seems more practical: there is less likelihood of the wood splitting in this instance. The holes are drilled through at right angles to the frame, set in one third of the width and a third of the length from the end of each chock face. If you wish to use square-section wire bolts, they should be driven on the diagonal ( ). Reading the above makes it seem as if it will take hours to make a single futtock joint! Until you have gone up the learning curve, this operation will take some time. However, there is little waste, even if you have to scrap a futtock or two. Once you are used to this process, you can cut and fit joints quite rapidly. Now continue with the next section, 2.6.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

2.6. Completing the aftermost cant frame If you have opted to tenon your transoms, you will now need to mark and cut the scores to receive them. Also see Appendix 1.8 for the alternate method by Michael Scheu. This will be exacting work, and you will need to check your measurements frequently before committing to making the cuts. If you make a mistake, it will mean repeating section 2.5 all over again! Before beginning to mark out, make sure that you have the correct cant in front of you, and are cutting the scores into its AFT side! One method of minimizing the Scores on aft side of frame possibility of error is to take a piece of card stock (business card thickness is perfect), and transfer the measurements with pencil marks directly from the transom tenons. This method of using a tick strip is a useful one to apply in various situations where errors could easily be made. The finished cant should now look like the illustration above. Of course, if your transom layout is such that the fashion piece runs higher, the cant will have fewer scores than the illustration. It is now time to install the cant. Test fit it in place. It should sit nicely on its step, be vertical as viewed along its long axis, sitting snugly against the fashion piece (illustration below). Please note that there will be an optical illusion that makes the upper part of the cant appear to lean forward when viewed from the side. At this stage this will look most peculiar, but it is actually correct! (Also see the photographs.) The framing plan will confirm that this is the way it should be. Above the upper height of breadth line each cant appears to lean forward a little less, until they appear vertical in the square body. That said, you will be cutting off this particular cant later on at the level of the quarter badge light. (The upper part will be re-fashioned into the short timber above the light.) There will also be “overhangs” at the deadwood and a distinct step between the fashion piece and cant frame. These will disappear when the framing is dubbed fair.

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2.1 Cutting the beveled face of the foot of a fashion piece or cant frame (see text). The saw table is set to the appropriate angle for an under bevel.

2.5B Two aft cant frames showing the integral chock method (see text). The pattern is on the lower face of the lower example, as they form a left and right pair.

2.2 to 2.6 The aft fashion piece and first aft cant frame in position. In this model the transom tenons have been omitted.

2.2 to 2.6 The fashion piece and first cant seated on their step. Note the overhang that will be removed during fairing.

2.2. to 2.6 The apparent forward lean of the upper section is apparent, although the toptimber runs up only to the lower sill level.

2.2. to 2.6 The overlap of the first aft cant beyond the transom ends. This will disappear when the framing is faired.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

2.2 In this view the three filler pieces below the transoms have been fitted. the first aft cant is already in place.

2.7 Checking the overall width of the bollard timbers. They are temporarily clamped to the stem assembly.

2.5B Milling a scarphed futtock joint.

2.7 The bollard timberheads shaped. The concave grooves for the bowsprit have yet to be cut in.

2.10 The first hawse piece cut and shaped, showing partial hawse hole and the air space. Its pattern is to the right. Note the angle of the hawse hole passing through the timber. (Tisiphone class model by David Antscherl)

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Next check the maximum breadth of the cants. You may find it convenient to hold them in position with spring clips to the fashion pieces. Use the aft edges of the cants as your reference, as the unbeveled fore side will be too wide for now. The illustration below shows why this is the case.

The easiest way to check is by using a square on your building board, and comparing the distance from the edge of the blade to the half breadth line on the board. The distance may be slightly wider than this, depending on how wide of the line you cut your futtocks, but it must not be any narrower. Transfer the height of breadth from the Mylar plan and mark both sides of the frame. If any adjustment is needed, gently sand the angled face of the cant using pressure near the bottom if it needs to move out, or near the top if it needs to come in. Remember to do this on the prepared sanding surface (Appendix 1.7). Be cautious before altering the inner face of the cant. It is possible to match the half-breadth, but make the distance across the toptimbers either too wide or too narrow. After any adjustment, check that the cants are symmetrical by seeing whether they sit at the same distance outside the half-breadth line (illustration at left), and that the angle has not changed. You can now appreciate the convenience of this reference line to keep your hull symmetrical as you erect the frames.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

I should like to add a word about using a square on your building board. A machinist’s square would be ideal but for one thing: it is made of steel. Should it accidentally be knocked, it will almost certainly fall over and make an ugly dent on your keel or framing. I strongly recommend making a “no mar” square from heavy illustration board and white glue that will not damage anything should you knock it over (illustration at left). Once satisfied with fit and orientation, the cant may be glued and then pinned with treenails. I use two treenails through the heel of the frame into the deadwood (avoiding the deadwood joints), and one into each transom from its forward face. Sit back and enjoy your first successful foray into the territory of cant framing! What you are looking at is almost identical to the original ship’s stern at this point in its construction. The only differences were that the deadwood was completely shaped, and that the old-timers often assembled the sternpost and transoms on the ground and then raised them as a unit into position on the keel with block and tackle. The enthusiastic model-maker will be wondering about beveling and fairing the frames. Unless you are very experienced, I would advise leaving any fairing until later in the framing process. Taking too much off will mean removing and re-making the affected frames, and there are enough to build without duplicating your effort. I suggest that discretion may be the better part of valor here!

2.7 The bollard timbers or knightheads It is now time to move to the other end of the ship, and focus on the bollard timbers. These are the two large curved timbers that sit either side of the stem assembly and stabilize the bowsprit. (Their alternative name was the knightheads, although by this period there were no heads carved on their upper ends, but were a more utilitarian timberhead shape.) Steel3 refers to them both as bollard timbers and knightheads, but I will refer to them as “bollard timbers.” The shape of these is given on the fore body sheet of plans, numbered 1. The first thing to notice is that there is a jog or step in the fore side of this timber near the upper end.

David Steel, Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture, 1805 edition, Folio II.

CHA PTER

T WO

There is a story behind this feature. In my early days of working from contemporary drawings, I was puzzled by the draughtsmens' apparent error in drawing the bollard timbers too far forward. The fore edge seemed to be misplaced by the thickness of the topside planking. It was not until I examined some contemporary museum models a few years ago that I discovered that the plans were, in fact, correct! What I did not realize was that the uppermost strakes of the topside planking did not end at the stem rabbet. They fayed to the outer side of the bollard timbers, as shown (illustrations below). This is why the stem rabbet is stopped short of the top of the stem (see section 1.27). The bollard timbers project forward at this point by the thickness of the planks that abut them.

The bollard timbers will be cut from 12" thick stock. Before transferring the pattern, please make sure that the curve on the forward edge of the pattern follows your rabbet line exactly. If it does not, adjust the pattern to follow the inner edge of your rabbet. Also, don’t assume that the rabbets on both sides of your ship are identical! Check each pattern against the relevant side of the stem. Ignoring this point will give you problems later on. Those building Swan, Kingsfisher or Cygnet should read Appendix 2.2 now, and adapt your patterns accordingly. When the patterns are adjusted to your satisfaction, transfer them to your stock. Also transfer down the outline of the outboard fore edge (the solid line inside the outline). The next point to note is that the heels of the bollard timbers are cut at an angle of 341⁄2°. These are standing bevels; in other words you can see the beveled face from the outboard side of the timber. As for the cant frames, cut this face first as accurately as you can. Next cut around the rest of the outline, the saw blade at right angles to your stock. Leave the upper end 1⁄16" over-length. Gently level the beveled face on your sandpaper surface.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The concave line on the side of the stem assembly as it rises and widens needs to be matched by a reciprocal convex one on the inboard face of the bollard timber. Gently sand this convexity by keeping the heel of the timber full thickness and progressively taking off material from the upper end. Hold the mating surfaces up against backlight as you do this, in the same way as before. Carefully remove material until you are satisfied with the fit against the stem assembly. While you are doing this you will discover that the bollard timbers do not quite fit into place. The heels are “blocked” by the fore end of the apron step. This step is vertical and at right angles to the centerline. It now needs to be carefully pared back with a chisel to 341⁄2° (illustrations at right). Maintain the vertical outer edge. Once this is done, the heel should slide into position perfectly. Once you have shaped both inboard faces, gently clamp the bollard timbers in position on the stem. Take your set of calipers and measure across from outboard face to outboard face at both upper and lower ends. These faces should be parallel to each other (illustrations at right). If not, make the appropriate adjustments until they are. This is important in order that the other hawse timbers will align properly. Ideally the caliper measurement should read 341⁄2", but the main point is to ensure parallelism. If you are off by a scale inch or less overall, this can be compensated for. Now bevel off the forward faces of the timbers. This is where the solid line that you transferred is used. Firmly clamping the blank in your vise — use non-marring jaws — chisel down the forward face until there is only the slightest right-angled surface left on the inboard edge, and you are almost down to the line on the outboard side (opposite right). If you can control the cut to leave about 1⁄64" outside the mark-out lines, that is a good safety margin. However, if your confidence and skill with a chisel is not yet high enough, then leave double that allowance. As you work down the curve of the timber you may need to reverse the piece if your chisel starts to tear out wood fibers.

CHAPTER TWO

ACE L P E R ION! T A R T LLUS

Upper end as seen from above, scale 1:48

Leave 1⁄64" for finishing

Beveling of forward surface of the bollard timber

In any event, apart from “going with the grain,” always keep your chisels honed to a razor edge. Once you need to apply any appreciable force, it indicates that you either need to cut thinner shavings or re-sharpen your blade. As you shape, you will notice that the angle of the bevel constantly changing as you move down the curve. At the head of the timber there is a slight but noticeable bevel, which increases as you work your way down the workpiece (above right). You will also need to cut the step where the planking will be fitted. This step runs at a slight angle, matching that of the run of the planking. If you are uncertain about this angle, leave the step full: it can be trimmed down later on. The depth of this step should be the thickness of the topside planking, which is 21⁄2". If you look at the pattern of the bollard timber, you will also see a curved dashed line. This represents the inboard aft corner of the timber. Transfer that line to the inboard face and bevel away the bulk of the waste as you did the outer face. What should remain is a curved and twisting timber (illustrated below). However, there is more yet left to do!

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The next operation is to cut down the air space below the hawsehole. The long, narrow air spaces between the hawse timbers provided air circulation, preventing rot. At this time period the timbers were trimmed back 3⁄4" on each facing side, leaving a 11⁄2" ventilation gap between. The ends of these gaps were trimmed off at a 45° bevel, which followed the same angle (as seen from the side) as the hawseholes themselves (illustrated at left and below). If you look at the pattern of the bollard timber, you will see a transverse ticked line about a foot below the level of the hawsehole seen on pattern #2. This is the upper limit of the 3⁄4" air space. The outboard surface needs to be reduced from here to the heel of the timber. Do not cut an air space above the level of the hawsehole on this piece. I do my reduction mainly with a chisel, then sanding boards. You could mill the surface instead, then trim the angled top limit with the chisel. However, remember that this piece is not parallel sided, and will need to be “staged”, outer surface horizontal to the mill. Either way, the work-piece needs to be firmly clamped to prevent a slip or accident. At the end of this procedure, the bollard timber should resemble the illustration below. Spot-glue or cement both bollard timbers in position on the model, and drill a couple of locating holes at a suitable angle through the timbers, one into the side of the apron just above the air space, and another through the heel. When the bollard timbers are secured in position, the highest point of the timberheads at the fore edge can be transferred from the drawing to them. Remove the timbers to mark out the sloping angle of the timberhead by placing the piece over the sheer plan. Measure and mark the angle outboard from the bow view of the hawse pieces (illustration on next page). The top surface can now be trimmed to final height. Carry out this operation with care, as the timberheads form such a prominent feature of the head of the ship.

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You can now mark out the various faces and setbacks of the timberhead shape on the top ends of the bollard timbers. Each timberhead, as seen from above, is a parallelogram. One good strategy is to mark out all four faces, and then cut in the fore and aft faces first, or the inboard and outboard ones. Join up the opposite two faces so that the various surfaces meet accurately at the corners. I use a chisel for flat sloping faces and Swiss files for the various moldings at the top and shoulders of the timberhead. A knife-edge Swiss file is most useful here. Some of you may need a half-round Swiss file if the timberhead “neck” is concave rather than sloping. Each ship’s draught will show a different variation on the timberhead shape: follow it carefully to catch the character of your own subject. Take your time to get things right: it would be a pity to have to restart from scratch. Don’t forget to chamfer off all sharp corners and edges on the timberhead above rail level: these could fray a line or injure a seaman flung against it. A minimum 1⁄2" chamfer will do it. Having successfully completed the heads of the bollard timbers, you may think that you are finished. However, there is still the matter of the bowsprit bed. If you take another look at the bow view drawing of the hawse timbers, you will see concave areas on the inboard sides of the bollard timbers that accommodate the bowsprit. Take the angle of these grooves from the pattern. Mark them out carefully, confirming that the lower limit aligns with the edge of the stem/apron groove that you completed at the end of Chapter One (illustrated below). If it does not, adjust your mark-out to conform to the stem-head. Clamp your timber to the bench, and file the groove out just shy of its final depth of 3" (below, far right). Repeat for the second timber. Replace the timbers in position on your model, making sure that the locating pins are pushed home. Lightly clamping the timbers near the stem-head, use the sandpaper tube that you made (see section 1.33) to repeat the set-up from that operation to sand the grooves to their final size.

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If the tube is too large to pass, you will need to use a round or half round file to open out the hole first. Proceed gently and with caution until the correct diameter is reached. It is important that you do not increase the diameter of the hole or alter its angle. The last items that need attention on the bollard timbers are the mortises for the chock over the bowsprit. This chock acts as a bridge, preventing the bowsprit from rising off its bed. It is mortised into the bollard timber on each side, as shown in the bow view. While the top of this chock runs horizontally, the underside matches the steeve of the bowsprit. Steeve is the angle that the bowsprit makes with a horizontal line. The ends of the cross-chock are mortised into the bollard timbers. These mortises are angled, giving the chock a keystone shape as seen from forward or aft, as illustrated below.

Study this little item carefully before dealing with it. The first step is to mark out the mortises on the bollard timbers. Positioning them again on the model, mark the height of the toptimber at the extreme bow. (This line is the underside of the uppermost or planksheer rail.) This will give you the upper boundary of the mortise. Removing the bollard timbers, mark horizontal line across the inboard faces. Cut the mortises, the edge of the bowsprit hollow below being one boundary, and the line above as the other (illustrations above). Note that each mortise will be about 2" deep on the fore side, but becomes deeper as it crosses the bollard timber because the surface that you are cutting is in a flat plane. Study the illustrations again if this is not clear to you before beginning to make any cuts. Once cut in, this completes work on the bollard timbers which may now be installed permanently.

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2.8 The bowsprit cross chock This small piece is disproportionally difficult to make, and will present an interesting challenge. My own strategy for making this piece will be described, but there are other ways of achieving the desired result. Read this section through first, so that you have a good understanding of what is needed before you proceed. For this chock, select a piece of wood about 12" thick with very tight grain. I used natural pear, which mellows down to the color of boxwood after a few years’ exposure to light and air. The first task is to shape the under surface to the correct contour. I use a round file, then my sanding tube as in section 1.33. The groove should be exactly 14" across, (the distance between the bollard timbers) once you have completed shaping it (illustration A, below). The next shape is the top of this piece. It needs to be 5" deep at the center of its forward edge, but deeper at the aft edge. This means making the blank a wedge shape, the angle being equal to that of the bowsprit’s steeve. Cut this angle correctly first (illustration B). If the thickness at the center of the front edge of the blank is a little less than 5", this is fine. You will lay out the top profile further aft on the blank to compensate for this. Draw a centerline on the upper surface.

Once you are satisfied with the wedge shape, use your calipers to find the point on the top surface that is 5" thick at the midline and mark it (illustration C). Now draw a line across the mark that you have just made. Next transfer the pattern given (below left) to the top surface of the piece, aligning the forward end to the cross-line (illustration D). For the next operation you will need to stage the work-piece so that the upper surface is horizontal. Cement it to a suitable wedge-shaped piece of scrap wood. Cut the aft edge of the blank at least 1⁄16" full (actual size) to allow “wiggle room” for final fitting.

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Cut back the fore edge gradually until there is exactly 5" of wood at the midline forward. For the moment, leave this cut edge vertical. Now for the really tricky part! You will need to cut and shape the angled ends of the chock to fit between the bollard timbers in their mortises. To review the situation; on the underside, the angled ends begin at the edges of the groove for the bowsprit. On the upper side, at the fore end, the width of the chock is the distance across the mortises that you have cut in on the bollard timbers. Because the piece is wedge-shaped, and the angle of the end faces is constant, it will be wider at the aft edge than the fore. Look at the illustrations on page 102 again to be sure you understand this point before proceeding. Once you are clear on what is needed, carefully mark the forward face of the chock with the angle of the line that you will be cutting. Turn the piece upside-down on your hardwood cutting block and hold it down securely. Deal with one end at a time. Gradually chisel down to the line that you have drawn, taking care to maintain the angle that you have marked out. The cut should be parallel to the groove for the bowsprit, and the flat part of the undersurface nearly all removed except for a very thin line (illustration E). Re-secure the chock so that you can cut the other end down in the same manner and chisel the second angle. If you have done all this correctly, you should now be able to slide the chock into position from the aft side of the bollard timbers. Check that the chock is snug in the mortises, and if this is not the case, make the minute adjustments that will make the joints tight. If you need to take a little more off, the chock will pass through a little further, but as long as there is enough material on the aft side still protruding, this should not be a problem. Pare the ends until the chock can be pushed through just flush with the fore side of the bollard timbers. Once the chock seats perfectly, glue it in. When the glue is well set, you can file the aft side to shape, flush to the bollard timbers. If the hollow on the underside needs opening out, carefully finish it with a half-round file or your sanding tube. Never has such a small piece taken so much space to describe, and time to make!

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2.9 The foremost fore cant frame In order to locate the hawse timbers in their correct positions, it is logical for the foremost cant frame to be installed first, so that there is a solid “stop” against which to position their heels. While having no hard historical evidence, I believe that this is what was done in full-size practice. The pattern for fore cant #1 is given on the compact disk of frame drawings. If you study it for a moment, you will see that it is remarkably similar to the aft cant frames that you have already made. It has a different shape, but is composed of two futtocks joined with a chock. In this instance the chock is not as angled as was the case with aft cant #1. Proceed to construct this pair of fore cants in exactly the same manner as you did the aft ones. Review sections 2.3 to 2.6 for this if necessary. Remember that the view given is from aft looking forward, and the 341⁄2° angled face is an under-bevel. As before, leave the upper end of the frame a little over-length for the moment. Once the cants are constructed, proceed to install them as follows. Temporarily cement them in position on the fore deadwood, sitting against it and on the step. Using your card square (read section 2.6 again, if you haven’t taken my advice yet) to set them truly in the vertical plane. Measure the distance across the toptimbers at the toptimber line. I emphasize this, because your cants are slightly over-long at the moment, and measuring across their tops will give you a false reading because they flare out rapidly here (illustration to left). At their aft outer edge this width should be no less than 13' 0". It may be a little more than this on your model, depending on how “full” you cut the futtocks relative to the pattern line. (The faired width across at this point will eventually be 12' 11".) The forward angle of the cant was fixed when you sawed the inner face, so will not need checking, assuming that you had set it correctly on the scroll saw table!

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Once satisfied that the geometry of these two frames is correct and that their symmetry has been checked with the toptimber lines drawn on your building board, you may proceed to glue and pin them permanently in place. I use two treenails each side, drilled in such a way as to miss the deadwood/apron joint. Once again, you will notice the overhang of the heel of the cant at the apron step (illustration at left). This will disappear during the fairing process. Take as much care as you can in the accuracy of positioning these two frames, as the work on the hawse pieces will depend on this. Glue in a temporary cross-spall across the heads of the cants.

2.10 The hawse pieces There is now a roughly triangular space remaining on each side of the bow, bounded on the forward side by the bollard timber and aft by the first cant frame. This area will be filled by three hawse pieces and a triangular filler piece. The shapes of these pieces are given on the fore body framing drawing. Here it should be noted that the Swan class design varies from the standard hawse arrangement. Normally the joints between the hawse pieces are centered at the holes, so that half the hole is taken out of each adjacent timber, and that no more than half the timber is removed at the widest diameter of the hole (illustration at upper right). In the case of the Swan class, the holes being small, about two-thirds of the hole is taken out of the first hawse piece (numbered #2), and the remaining third removed from the adjacent timber, #3. The outer hole is also placed so that one-third of it is in the second timber, and two-thirds in the third timber, #4 (illustration at right). For additional information, see Appendix 2.2.

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Note also that the hawse holes run parallel to the long axis of the ship as seen from above and also run upwards at an angle through the hull. You will file grooves into the individual pieces before assembly rather than drill them out afterwards. This may seem unorthodox, but it is a very efficient way of making and placing the holes accurately. Such problems as drill points wandering, complicated jig set-ups and splintering out are completely avoided by this method.

2.11 Hawse piece #2 The pattern is taken from the plan and transferred to 15" thick stock. As you did for the bollard timbers, orient the pattern so that the grain of the wood runs to best advantage. As before, the heel of the timber will be cut out at a bevel of 341⁄ 2°. Once this has been done, return the table to level, and cut the remaining outline of the hawse piece. Leave its upper end a little overlength. Clean up the face of the angled heel on your sanding block as usual. If you did not already do so, transfer down the outside corner line and bevel off the outer surface exactly as you did for the bollard timbers. To find the line to bevel the inside face to, temporarily offer up the hawse piece to the model and position it with rubber cement. Remember to put a 3⁄4" spacer near the heel of the bollard timber to account for the air space that you cut earlier, or the hawse piece will not be vertical. Run your pencil along the outer border of the bollard timber from inside as shown (illustrated at left), and then strengthen the pencil line off the model. Now bevel the inside surface as you did for the bollard timber. Next mark out the hawse hole on the outer face of the timber. Use your pattern to mark this out first, and then reposition the timber on the model with rubber cement. Check that the centerline of the hole outside the hull matches the height as measured from your plan. If there is any discrepancy, check whether the piece is positioned at the correct height or not. If there is still a discrepancy, use the height from the plan as being correct.

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Before disassembly, drill locating holes just above the level of the hawse hole and at the heel of the timber into the cant frame. Make sure that the upper locating hole is angled so that it will center into the adjacent bollard timber and is no more than 8" above the top of the hawse hole position. (If drilled higher than this, the peg will be seen as it passes though the air space.)

Before filing the groove for the hawse hole, check its angle as it passes through the timber. A useful guide is to draw parallel guidelines on the bench (or on a piece of paper under the part) at the correct angle once the timber is clamped firmly (illustration below left). Using a small round file, no wider than 1⁄8" in diameter, file in a groove to the depth of 6". I use spacer blocks on my bench that the file touches as it reaches depth. Once you have reached depth, open out the hole to a diameter of about 71⁄2". Final filing to a finished diameter of 8" will be carried out after all the hawse pieces are installed.

The next task is to temporarily peg the hawse piece into position again and mark the upper limit of the lower air space where it meets that of the bollard timber (illustration above right). Mark both inside and outside points, then join up the marks. Note that on hawse piece #2 there is also an air space cut above the hawse hole, which will also need to be marked in. Carefully cut down the inner air spaces as you did for the bollard timbers, so that the piece looks like the illustration (below left). Turning the timber over, mark the air spaces from your pattern on its outer side and repeat the procedure. Your work-piece should now look like the illustration (below right).

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Hawse piece #2 is now ready to install. Double check that the air space is 11⁄2" wide all the way down and that the piece is vertical as seen from ahead. When installing the hawse pieces, remember to put 11⁄2" temporary spacers in the air spaces and to check that the overall assembly is parallel. The distance across the outer faces of the timbers at the hawse holes should measure 5' 6". At the head and heels it should be 5' 41⁄2". The difference in the two measurements is the width of the air space (illustrations below).

5' 41⁄2" wide at level of the upper air space

! ON I T TRA S U ILL E C LA REP

Be extremely careful here: cumulative error can easily make these measurements progressively wider as you add successive hawse pieces: glue lines also have appreciable thickness. You may

need to compensate for this by fractionally reducing the sided measurement of the hawse timbers. The aim is to end up with the overall width of the hawse assembly correct to specification, or you will have difficulty fitting the small triangular filling timber marked F on my drawings.

2.12 Hawse piece #3 Essentially you will be repeating the procedure outlined in section 2.9. Mark and cut your blank from stock that has been prepared to 141⁄2" in thickness. These pieces will look like slightly smaller versions of hawse piece #2. The main difference is that there are shallow partial hawse holes on both sides of this piece. When temporarily positioned, mark the exact location of the outer side of the inner hawse holes and air space limits from hawse-piece #1. When fitting them, the width across the entire assembly at the hawse holes should be 7' 11", and 7' 91⁄2" at the head and heels (diagram on the next page at left). Compensate for any cumulative error as described above.

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2.13 Hawse piece #4 Looking at its pattern, this outermost hawse piece seems to be strangely shaped. Actually it is very similar to the other pieces that you have already made. The shape of the angled face appears curved only after the inner and outer surfaces are beveled. It should be cut from stock that has been prepared to a thickness of 131⁄ 2". Project the lines I have drawn (illustrated below center) to guide your saw blade in a straight line for the first 341⁄ 2° cut. Only the inner face has an air space this time, but the hawse hole needs to be marked and filed out as you have done before. Again, follow the procedure from section 2.9. Confirm that the center of the outer hawse hole is at the correct height relative to your building board. When fitting the outer hawse pieces, the distance across them should measure 10' 2" at all points (see the diagram below right).

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2.14 The filler piece Frankly, this is an extremely awkward piece to make off the model. It is a thin, triangular sectioned wooden dagger. The easiest way to deal with it is to cut a triangular piece of wood about 8' 6" long (see the illustration on the next page). There are no air spaces to deal with this time. Fay the blank permanently into position in the gap remaining between hawse piece #4 and the foremost cant frame and then roughly shape the inner and outer surfaces.

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I recommend this strategy, as the piece is both firmly positioned, and you can see what needs to be done. Off the model, the piece is almost impossible to clamp and is simply an invitation for the chisel to slip and hit your clamp. If you try to shape it this way, the only efficient clamp would be your own hand!

This concludes framing work at the “eyes” of the ship. All that remains to be done right now is to clean up and ream the hawse holes to their final diameter of 8". Take care to maintain the upward angle of the holes as they pass through the frames. Final shaping of all these timbers will be carried out soon. However, even at this stage, the lines of the bow can be clearly seen.

2.15 The fore cant frames 2 to 12 The next order of business will be to make and install the remaining cant frames at the bow. The method of constructing these is exactly the same as for the cants that you have already made and fitted. However, there are several points to watch that can trap the unwary. First is the angle of the cant with the deadwood. Double-check that you have taken the correct angle off the plan for the particular cant that you are working on. I know from experience how easy it is to read the angle for an adjacent frame! If you set your saw table correctly there will be no error in angle of the cant on the deadwood every time. The second point to watch is that of the chock angle (or scarph, if you choose to omit the chocks). Each cant varies subtly from its neighbor. The chock angle changes from a slight under-bevel to nothing by cant #3 and then increases again as you work aft.

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The third point is to make sure that the heels are cut neatly at a right angle exactly on the line. If the cut is “off,” this will show as a gap on the stepping line when you fair the frames. As you work aft, the overhang of the aft side of the heels on the apron step will lessen, until by cant #12 it will be negligible. As you permanently glue the cants in, remember to pin each one with two treenails avoiding the deadwood joint. Place the upper row in a nice curved line. A fourth point concerns the vertical side of each step. As you fill a step, pare the next vertical aft to the angle that the next adjacent cant will butt against. If you omit this step, small vertical gaps will appear when you fair the cant body (illustration above). Be very particular as you position each cant. Make sure of absolute verticality using your card square to verify this. Mark the toptimber line on cants 2 to 7 in order to ensure that the overall width and symmetry is correct relative to the line drawn on your building board. For cant frames 8 to 12, mark the height of breadth and use the half-breadth line on your building board to confirm its position (illustration to right) with your card square. By the time you reach cant frame #12 you will have gained experience, accuracy and speed in both making and fitting these frames. The whole shape of the bow is now apparent, and you can now see how these frames will fair. However, there are some other preparations to be made first. The lower ends of the frames are securely attached to apron and deadwood, but the upper ends are still unsupported. To stabilize these, temporary support is required. My own method is to glue scrap-wood spacers between the toptimbers at the toptimber line using white glue (illustrated below). Take care not to force in any of the spacers thus pushing frames out of alignment. Note that the spacers will need a slight taper to fit properly. They will be removed later if you are leaving the model in frame or left in place if planking the topside. Once spacers are installed you will be surprised at the rigidity of the overall structure.

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Intrepid (1770) 74 guns in frame. This contemporary model in the National Maritime Museum

(SLR0525) shows many of the features described in this book. For a further description, see overleaf.

Photographs of Intrepid are reproduced by kind permission of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

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Photographs of Intrepid are reproduced by kind permission of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

This broadside view of the frame (above) shows the ribbands and harpins that hold the framing together until the planking is put on. Ribband nails are prominent. A 74-gun ship had more ribbands than a sixth-rate sloop. Various cast and shifted toptimbers are also nicely demonstrated. This model shows a stepping line aft and bearding line forward. The bow view of this beautiful model (previous page) shows that this ship was fitted with boxing, although the hawse holes are only indicated and not pierced. Note the lower and upper apron pieces showing adjacent to the stem. The stepforward of the bollard timber heads is clearly seen in this view. The Swan class differs in that there is no beakhead bulkhead but is

round-bowed. Finally, note the toe ends of the harpins at the bow. The three-quarter stern view (on previous page) shows the run of the ribbands aft. Some remnants of labels can be seen still adhering to various timbers: these name the different components of the framing, and show that the model was used for demonstration and teaching purposes. Other points of interest include the deck transom (which is the second curved transom below the wing transom), the filler timbers below the filling transoms, and the timbers on the side counter timbers. The stepping line is nicely shown as well as the taper of the stern post.

2.15 Setting up the second fore cant frame. The height of breadth line is being checked against the line on the building board, and its height above the baseline is being verified.

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2.16 The toptimber shaped and marked out for lower port sill mortise. The clamp is padded to prevent marring. A 6" thick shim beneath it levels the piece. Model by David Antscherl

2.9 Setting up the first fore cant frames.

2.15 to 2.17 Raising the fore cants. The sill mortises have been cut in as each frame is built in this model.

2.9 First cant frames installed with cross-spall.

2.16 Cast toptimbers. The blank (left) cut from over-thick stock and the piece on the right marked out for cutting. Model by David Antscherl

2.18 Fairing of the inner surfaces of the forward cant frames. This is a model of a Tisiphone class ship. Note how accessible the inside of the hull is at this stage of construction. Model by David Antscherl

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2.15a The fore cant frame heels and step There is a small but significant point that needs clarifying. Each step of the stepping line is 18" long so that, theoretically, two 9" wide cants can sit side by side on the step. However, as the further forward (or aft for the aft cants) one goes, the increasing angles mean that the surface of each frame that faces the deadwood becomes wider than 9" (see illustrations below left). To compensate for this you will need to narrow the sides of the frame heels slightly. This side bevel will extend just a short distance out from the deadwood (illustrated below right).

I would suggest that the easiest way to produce a side bevel is to clamp the cant to your work surface, its inner edge at right angles to the edge of the bench, and take a slight paring with your chisel, moving away from you at a slight angle, parallel to the inner edge of the cant. To refine the surface, unclamp the cant and use your sanding card on the bench with gentle differential pressure from above. Again, run the cant along the sanding surface parallel to its inner edge. Check the width across the inner face until it measures 9" (or half the width of the step it sits on, if it was not cut exactly 18" wide). Your vernier caliper gauge is the best tool to make this measurement. Be sure that the bevel is the same width all the way up, or the next abutting cant frame will be thrown off vertical. The alternative is to calculate the progressive widening of each step as you move either forward for the fore cants, and aft for the aft cants. Of course, this additional distance will be in fractions of an inch, full size, and difficult to replicate at 1:48 scale. However, it will mean that the cant floors and first futtocks will be 9" wide all the way down to their heels.

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2.16 Special case cant frames There are two pairs of atypical cant frames that should be discussed here. The first is cant #8. Studying the Admiralty drawing ZAZ 4691, you will see a timberhead grafted to its forward side. The forward side of the frame will need to be carefully tapered and a short timber inserted between it and the toptimber of cant #7. The amount of taper is such that the gap between #7 and #8 at the toptimber line is 8": equal to the siding of the timberhead. You will need to measure and mark this with cant #7 already in place and #8 temporarily fitted. (If you don’t do it this way, it will throw cant #8 out of vertical.) Glue the timberhead to cant #8 when it is completed and then to #7 when you attach #8 permanently in place. The other cant of note is #11. You will notice that its toptimber is cranked aft, dogleg fashion, to form the forward side of gun-port number 1. (The port seen forward of this is a bridle or ventilation port.) The reason for this practice was one of the shipbuilders’ rules: a complete frame’s width must form the side of any port. There are two ways that a frame can be adjusted to achieve this. One is by diverting it as it rises, as is the case here. This style of timber is called a cast timber (see illustration above). The other way is to move the toptimber fore or aft as needed over the futtock below. This is known as a shifted timber (illustration above). An example of this is seen at frame G aft, where the third futtock shifts forward relative to the first futtock. For a cast timber, it is necessary to start with a blank cut from stock that is wide enough to accommodate the siding of the timber plus the lateral distance it is cast. In this instance the timber is cast by 2" and is sided 9". Therefore 11" stock is required for the toptimber. Mark and cut it out in the usual way. Now mark out the dogleg on its outer face (illustration A, page 118). Turning the timber on edge, trim it in the sequence shown, clamping the piece to your workbench. You will need a 2" shim under the piece to clamp it for the last operation (illustrations B and C). I usually use a chisel and finish by using my sandpaper boards.

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The other peculiarity of cant frame #11 is that is consists of three futtocks and two chocks. By now you should take the extra joint in your stride. Simply make sure that when you fit the joints, complete the lower one first before attempting the upper one and ensure that the frame covers its pattern accurately on the assembly surface. When assembling this frame, you will need to place temporary 2" spacers under the cranked portion of the toptimbers to align them with the lower portion of the frame (illustration below).

2.17 Framing of the ports: one method This a good time to discuss the port openings. There are two ways to deal with these. The first is to wait until the framing is complete, then mark and cut away the frames in the way of the ports before adding the sills. The second method is the one that I use, which is to cut the mortises for the sills (also called cells in the eighteenth century) before erecting the frames. Admittedly this is more risky, as the marking out has to be extremely accurate, but the advantage is that the mortises can be cut much more easily while the frame is flat on the workbench. For those who wish to work in this latter way, I will describe the process here. The alternative method will be described in Chapter Three. The frame is fixed (absolutely vertical and level) temporarily in place, and the relevant heights marked on the edge of the frame at the upper and lower sills. Double and triple-check these points for accuracy. If they are not correct and the mortises misplaced, you will need to re-make and replace the toptimbers. Lay the frame down on its plan, and mark the mortise limits horizontally across the frame. (This is much easier to do with the frame flat, which is why I prefer this method.)

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In the case of the Swan class, the upper sills are angle mortised into the frames, and the lower sills have a “birdsmouth” or “birdbeak” mortise. These are easily cut with the frame flat on the bench (illustrations below). Other ships had different mortise patterns. Often the upper sill was reversed, with the wide end of the mortise at the edge of the port instead. Check your own framing plan, if it is not a Swan class one. Do not make the mortise too deep!

My own strategy for fitting the sills is as follows: cut stock to the thickness of the sills. In this case the upper and lower sills are both 5" thick, except amidships. The framing plan shows these special cases. In many ships the lower sills were thicker than the upper ones. The first port to deal with is the narrow bridle port forward. The upper part of cant #4 will need to be cut off at sill level if this has not already been done. Keep the offcut for now: it will be needed soon to make the short timber above the port. Carefully file or sand the cut end until you have a smooth line between the lower sill marks and the upper end of cant #4 (illustration at left). Make sure that the top surface is horizontal inboard/outboard. This is where a sanding stick is helpful. Now cut a piece of the 5" stock, about 6" wide and 1' 6" long. This is not a misprint, as the piece will intentionally be too short! It will act as a pattern piece only. On edge, chisel the birdbeak on one end, and mark the outside face. Offer the piece up to the frame and see where you need to adjust the beak to fit the birdsmouth in the frame. As seen from above, the sills ends will be angled to fit the “fan” of the cant frames. Pare the end with a chisel until you have a good fit. Repeat the process on the other end of the sill pattern. Now you are ready to cut the actual sill. Cut a piece of wood about 9" wide and 2' 0" long. Placing it on edge, it is easy to cut the end bevels at the correct angle with the pattern piece alongside (illustrated above right). Gradually work the second end down until you can easily slide it into position from the outside of the hull. 119

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Check that the port is still 1' 9" wide at the outer surface of the frame. You can now glue in the sill, making sure that you have enough overlap both inside the hull and out for fairing. Don’t force the piece in too far, or the frames will be thrown out of line. The upper sill is dealt with similarly, except that this time one angle is all that is required on each end of the pattern piece and actual sill. Once glued in place, make sure that there is no excess glue at the inner corners of this narrow port. Any bead of dried glue can be carefully removed with a small chisel to leave a clean corner. Above the upper sill the short timber can be cut and fitted from the offcut you saved earlier. Trim its lower end so that it sits in correct alignment. To secure it more firmly for now, fit temporary spacers between the upper end of toptimber #4 and its neighbors (see section 2.16).

2.18 Fairing the bow framing Having completed the work described above, it is time to fair the forward frames. One reason for doing this at this stage of construction is that you still have good access to the inside of the frames that are in place. If the forward square body frames were already in place, it would be awkward to shape the inside of the framing. Begin with the interior. There is little material to remove from the hawse timbers, as most of the shaping has already been done. You can discern the general “run” of the framing in the cant body. I prefer to use hand tools. I have found it all too easy for a motor-driven burr either to dig in, skip, or take too much material off in just an instant. That said; it is your choice. However, should you mess up the cant frames you will have to make them again. I use a very shallow palm gouge that has been honed to a fine edge. I remove most of the excess wood with this, working diagonally across the frames, first in one direction and then on the opposite diagonal. As wood is removed, you can see the remaining “square” face of each frame diminishing, until there is perhaps a sixteenth of an inch (full size) remaining. If you go to the far edge, there is a strong risk of knocking out chips of wood. At this point set the gouge aside and use a series of flexible sanding sticks to refine the inner surface. I use rubber cement to attach the sandpaper to the stick. Using 80-grit, the surface is ground close to final size. At this point make sure that the remaining forward edges of the frames are even all the way up the frame. Then use 100-grit to take the surface down to within 1⁄64" of final dimension. The exception is at the aft side of cant #12: leave this full for now.

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It will be faired into the square body frames later on. When all the flat edges just disappear, it signals that you are down to the final shape. As you do this, you will appreciate not having to work around the square frames, were they in position. Once satisfied with the inside of the frames, attention can be turned to the exterior of the hull. Here, the surface being convex, a coarse file may be used to take off the bulk of the waste. If you use a file, cut from forward to aft and be careful not to work too far across the frame faces, or you may tear out their aft edges. Switch to 80-grit sandpaper sticks sooner rather than later. Once again, leave the aft edge of cant #12 full for now. You will need to release the hull from the building board to access the lower part of the hull. Be careful to support the stern section that is hanging loose at present.

There is an added complication at the lower apron, where you will need to remove the excess wood below the stepping line and fair the outer surfaces of the bollard timber and lower apron into the rabbet of the stem. In doing so, you will remove a small but significant portion of the upper part of the rabbet in this area (illustrated above left). This is correct! You will actually have a rabbet whose inner line no longer follows that of the draught. It will be wider; the inside edge falling inside the inner line as drawn. If you fail to do this, the planking cannot run smoothly into the rabbet at the forefoot (above right). This point should now be clear. If you have been careful with your earlier work, a neat zigzag joint should appear at the stepping line. Take the outer surface closer to finished size with 100-grit and finally 120-grit paper. Be careful not to lose the crisp lower edge of your rabbet with an accidental pass of sandpaper across it. When you are finished, take time to admire your work so far. The ship is now beginning to look like the real thing!

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2.21 Fitting the side counter timber. The bevel at the foot of this timber, abutting the first aft cant frame, has been cut.

2.19 The aft cants raised. Fitting the port sills (see section 2.17) is in progress.

2.21 Aligning the side counter timbers using horizontal spacing bars as a control. The width across the upper knuckle and toptimber line are set by this method.

2.21 The side counter timbers. Outer surfaces shaped to the pattern, Stage 1 (see text).

2.21 The side counter timbers shaped both inside and out, Stage 2 (see text).

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2.23 Fairing in progress. Note how the keel and sternpost are protected by tape from being accidentally abraded.

CHAPTER TWO

2.23 The aft cant body faired. Note the way that the filler pieces blend into the aft deadwood.

2.23 Ready for fairing. The aftermost square frame pair has been made and fitted with its cross-spall (this is covered in Chapter Three).

2.23 Another view of the aft cant body after fairing. Note the short timbers over the side counter timber and the quarter light. There are other short toptimbers over the upper sills of the quarter light and aftermost gun port.

2.23 Another view of the aft cant framing ready for fairing.

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2.19

Aft cant frames 2 to 13

The procedure for making and installing the aft cant frames is exactly the same as for the fore body ones. The only variation is the toptimber of aft cant #10, which casts forward to form the aft side of gun port number 8. Follow the procedure outlined in section 2.9.

2.20 Gun port number 9 (some ships only) Some Swan class ships had an extra gun port between number 8 and the quarter badge. If this is shown on your plan, it will need to be accounted for. If you superimpose the sheer on the framing plan, you can see if the port will fall conveniently between two toptimbers and if the toptimbers are exactly 2' 5" apart at gun port level. To get the correct spacing between ports, you may need to be your own shipwright and either shift or cast a toptimber or two. A general rule of thumb: if the lateral displacement of the timber is minimal, say 3" or less, then shift the timber. If it needs to move over more than 4", I would cast it. Of course, you can always use a cast timber in all cases, but it is less conservative of wood than shifting. I suppose it depended also on what was on hand at the shipyard at the time of building. You can style the shape of the dogleg from ones already shown on the framing plan.

2.21 Framing the stern: the side counter timbers A triangular area remains to be framed in above the wing transom between cant frame #1 and the side stern timber before fairing the aft cant body. The starting point will be to construct the two outer stern timbers (more properly called counter timbers) that project diagonally aft from the wing transom. These are interesting timbers to make. Their true shape in side elevation is given on the aft body frame sheet. If you were to take the pattern directly from your sheer draught it would be incorrect, as the timber slopes both inwards and backward toward the centerline of the ship. Because of this, the projected view on the sheer will be too short and a little too narrow fore and aft. The other point to note is that on your NMM body plan, the lower part of this timber appears to bow out considerably at the level of the counters. Again, this is misleading, as the timber takes two curved swoops forward across the upper and lower counters to the outer corner of the wing transom. In actual fact there is only a slight outward curve to it when seen directly “edge-on.” The upper part of the timber is curved slightly, concave on the outboard side. In most ships the upper section was a straight line. If this is not done properly here, the stern lights will not converge correctly. (Lights are the correct terminology for windows in a ship.)

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The outer counter timbers may have been made in a single piece, depending on what compass timber was on hand in the shipyard. In large ships they would have certainly been made in sections. As master shipwright, make your own choice. The piece or pieces should be cut from stock 15" thick, and scarphed together as indicated if in two pieces. Leave the upper end long for now. Please read through the following before cutting any wood! The foot of this timber is bedded on the wing transom. In full-size ships, a dovetail on the foot fitted a corresponding mortise in the wing transom, the depth of which was about 3".4 By 1800 ships simply had the timber let down by one inch at the fore side of the wing transom.5 David White indicates a combination of both methods, with the dovetail aft and a shallow tenon forward.6 In the first case if you fit planking to the lower counter, this detail will be invisible. The second method will also be unseen and may be ignored. I have illustrated both methods, so you can make your own choice (illustrated at right). The foot of the timber must be carefully beveled until it cants inward at the correct angle. Both sides need to be fitted simultaneously, so that the distance across at the toptimber line aft is 12' 3", and both sides are symmetrical. Note that this is the measurement across at the toptimber line, NOT the upper end of the counter timber, which extends higher to support the roughtree rail.

The roughtree rail is the highest rail at the side of the quarterdeck. The forward face of the foot needs to be beveled to fit the aft side of cant frame #1. Seen from above, the timber angles in toward the midline. To carry out these adjustments simultaneously is rather like a juggling act, but it is possible! The Shipbuilders’ Repository, 1788, page 332. Steel, Elements and Practice of Naval Architecture, 1805 edition, Folio LI. 6 David White, Model Shipwright No. 55, March 1986, illustrated on page 38. 4 5

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Here’s the best strategy: cut the small forward face of the foot first. As seen from outboard, this is a standing bevel (illustrated here). You can visualize the correct angle by placing the stern timber on the wing transom, and look down from above to judge its angle relative to the height of breadth line on the building board below. Compare this with your half breadth plan too. A point to note is that at this stage the aft inner corner of the foot of this timber should be about flush to the aft face of the wing transom, but the outer corner will overlap. Next mark the toptimber height on the blank at its aft edge. The molded thickness, which is 41⁄ 2" at the top of the side, is set off from the inner face of the blank. The intersection of the toptimber height and what will be the outside of the frame is your point of reference. Now mark your building board with the two points as shown (illustration below). You will need to finesse the bevel on the base of each counter timber until the reference point is perpendicularly above this mark on each side. Once you have achieved this, the rest of the procedure is relatively straightforward.

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The blank will now need to be shaped the molding way. This term means the inside to outside measurement, which tapers as the timber runs upward. At its base it is 61⁄ 2" thick, but the timber curves and tapers to 4" at its head. I would recommend leaving the foot below the height of breadth a little full for now on the outside surface. It can be faired in shortly. Use my pattern (Stage 1, below), to shape the outer surface first. Once this has been completed, you can turn the piece over and hollow the lower section of the inner face (Stage 2). The dimensions at different points along the timber are given on the Stage 2 illustration.

For sake of completeness, I have included a stern projection of the side counter timbers (above right). You can overlay my Mylar plan to see how these timbers relate to the shape of the ship on the body plan. The drawings above are at scale size. Now re-mark the outer aft edges of the counter timber clearly using your pattern, but do not try to cut the bevels yet. Replace the outer counter timbers and check their alignment. As a precaution that the timber has not rotated, take check measurements. If this has happened, it would mean that the upper and lower end cross-measurements would be correct but the counters would be either too wide or too narrow. The upper knuckle should be 14' 6" across the outer surfaces. The knuckle of a counter is the angle where there is a change in plane.

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It will be covered with an ornamental rail (your own measurement may vary slightly, depending on how accurately you have set up the rest of the geometry of the stern.) If satisfied with the widths across at various check points and the symmetry of the timbers, drill through the wing transom from below for one or two treenail “bolts.” Glue and bolt the timbers to the wing transom. Glue in a temporary cross-spall across the heads of the counter timbers. The bevels on the aft sides of the counter timbers will be dealt with when the stern is framed in.

2.22 Finishing the side framing at the stern You are now ready to add the remaining toptimbers in the space forward of the outer counter timber, collectively referred to as the timbers on the side counter timbers. The general scheme is given on the framing plan, ZAZ 4691. Allow sufficient thickness to be able to shape the curve of the tumblehome when fairing, or cut the timbers out on the curve before fitting them. Make sure that the timbers forming the sides of the quarter badge light are correctly placed. You can choose to fit the sills for the lights now, if you wish. Follow the instructions in section 2.17. Use spacer blocks at the top of the side to support and reinforce the upper ends of the frames, as you did at the bow.

2.23 Fairing the stern framing You are now ready to fair the aft cant body. Proceed in the same manner and sequence as you did for the bow. Once again, when fairing the outside, you will need to detach the hull from the building board. Be careful to support the fore end of the model while it is loose. There should be very little shaping still required on the transoms. Fair in the aft cants so that there is a smooth transition to the transoms. There should not be any sharp turns across the aft part of the hull, the tuck, to reach the wing transom. When you have completed fairing, you can sit back to enjoy the smooth flow of your ship’s lines at the head and stern.

END OF CHAPTER TWO

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Appendix 2.1 Frames sitting on a bearding line Ships after about 1780 were built without stepping. This change was probably as a result of timber shortages. The bearding line meant that the pieces of wood used in the lower apron and deadwood could be of smaller scantling than when the stepping system was in use. For example, in your Swan class ship, the lower apron needed to be shaped from a rough piece that was at least 18" thick. The same ship, built by the new method, could utilize a piece of wood that was 15" thick and could be shaped more easily. The reason that the apron or deadwood could be more easily shaped lies in the fact that the bearding line is actually a buttock line, or put another way, the edge of the bearding is a constant width over the whole length of the apron. My illustrations contrast the methods by isolating the lower apron as it would appear after fairing. Although using a bearding line made production of the axial framework easier to carry out, it introduced a slight complication when fitting cant frames. In the old method, there was a firm horizontal ledge on which to sit the heel of the frame. In the new system, it needed to be shaped to sit on the curved, sloping line. If your model is framed by the newer method, you will need to make sure that each cant frame pattern reaches to the lowest point of the curve where it will sit. Trim the heel of the cant square to this line at first, just as you did for a stepped frame. Now follow these additional instructions. Holding the lower futtock in a vice, pare the heel at a similar angle to that of its beveled inner face (illustrations A & B). This removes most of the overhang as it sits on the bearding line step. The reason for this is that it is hard to see the angle that you need to trim the heel to if an angled shadow line is overhanging the joint line. Once the heel is beveled on its outer surface, make sure that there is at least 11⁄ 2" of wood remaining, and place the cant in position on the plan with its inner face flat, (illustration C).

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It is now easy to see the angle you need to hold your chisel to trim the end to match the bearding. Take the end almost down to the mark and offer it up to the model (illustration D, previous page). Holding it against your card square, you can see what small adjustment needs to be made, and make the final trim. It is most important not to trim past the original square cut, or the cant will sit too low on the hull, distorting the hull shape. If you mess up, make another lower futtock. A gap or misaligned frame will be visible unless you plan to plank the area. Continue as in section 2.6.

Appendix 2.2 Boxing on the hawse pieces Up to about the time of the Swan class there was an additional complication to the hawse pieces. It is, in fact, indicated on the framing plan for Cygnet. This was the boxing, not to be confused with the boxing joint (1.15, 1.17). The boxing was a protrusion of the hawse timbers in the way of the hawse holes. The additional wood was the same thickness as the outer planking. This avoided moisture-vulnerable planking seams around the holes themselves. While this was an advantage, it meant that hawse pieces needed to be shaped from larger timber and that there was more wood wasted in the process. The framing plan appears to indicate that the boxing was continued across and up the bollard timbers too. This would seem logical; otherwise extremely short strakes would be needed to run across the bollard timber to the stem rabbet (compare with the illustration above right). Also, this would introduce unnecessary plank seams, as well as additional labor. As indicated in the main text, lumber shortages were beginning to be experienced during the Revolutionary War, so this method was discontinued in the mid-1770’s. The Cygnet framing plan (ZAZ 4691) carries the manuscript notation: Atalanta{ A Copy of this Draught was sent to Sheerness the/ 21st of January 1774 without any Boxing to the Hawspieces. (sic). This would imply that the early ships of this class were built in the former way.

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These would have been Swan, Kingsfisher and Cygnet. The remainder of the class was built without this feature. Those building one of these three ships may either cut their hawse pieces with “extra” wood on them or graft suitable pieces to the outer surfaces in the positions shown below. I estimate that there is about 8" of boxing above and 12" below the hawse hole openings, but it is difficult to tell from the plan as there are attempted erasure marks (or possibly colored ink lines to indicate a design change) on the original. You can make your own mind up on this point. My own suggestion is to modify the patterns of the bollard timbers and hawse pieces as drawn to scale below.

When you come to cutting these timbers, leave the boxing a little full, say by a scale inch or two, top and bottom. This will allow enough material for you clean up this line to match the planking run later in the building process. The upper margin of the boxing should fall at the edges of a strake, and the lower margin is at the level of the main wale (plan drawing above left). As you had previously cut the rabbet of the stem higher, it will be simply be covered by the inner edge of the bollard timber as far down as the main wale. Incidentally, the Cygnet framing plan does not show the small filler piece. This will be necessary for attaching the ends of the strakes abutting the boxing, so it should be fitted (see section 2.7).

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ou are now about to embark on one of the most challenging parts of this adventure in building an authentically framed model. But before we get down to the serious business of the square frames – and there are a lot of them – it is time for a light diversion by way of the knee of the head. At this point, you should have the backbone of the ship with the fore and aft ends of the framing completed. You can now visualize the shape of things to come. Before describing the next step, I should like to digress and describe how the full-size ship was built, as the methods and sequence in this book vary from shipyard practice. Those eager to get going can skip to section 3.2, but I hope that I’ve whetted your appetite for the historical side of ship building and that you will be interested to know how things were done back then.

“Spent the whole morning reading of some old Navy books, wherein the order that was observed in the Navy then, above what it is now, is very observable.” - Samuel Pepys, Diary, June 13th, 1664

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3.1 The actual sequence of building a full-size hull Up to the point where you began to add the cant frames, the sequence of construction of your model has closely paralleled that of the real thing. The only differences are that the keel was erected on a series of wooden blocks placed about five feet apart, and that the false keel was put on much later in the building process. There was a slope or declivity in the ways down to the river or the reach that the ship would eventually be launched. (Some ships, particularly larger ones, were built in a dry dock.) The stern would be nearest to the water. The slope was set at between 3⁄4" and 1" per foot, and the blocks were sometimes raised above a straight line aft (in large ships) to allow for settling under the greater weight of the stern during the building process. The blocks were stepped in four layers, the uppermost one being a little thicker than the false keel, and of straight-grained oak. This was so that these blocks could be easily split and removed later and the false keel could be applied beneath, section by section. The reason for doing things in such a laborious way was that without the false keel in the way, bolts could be driven through the keelson, frames and keel and clenched without difficulty. The illustration to the left has been adapted from the frontispiece of Steel’s Naval Architecture. Once the keel had been assembled and aligned in much the same way as described in Chapter One, the stem was erected and shored in position. The apron was then added to reinforce the stem. The sternpost, inner post and transoms were assembled on the ground and raised as a unit. It was much easier to square the wing transom with the whole assembly horizontal. The deadwoods fore and aft were added next and the rising wood between them. Their component parts were held together with long copper bolts driven through at various angles. The fashion pieces aft were then raised and fitted to stabilize the transoms. The appearance of the full-sized ship at this point would have closely resembled that of your model. The principal differences were the declivity of the ways and tall posts placed at intervals on each side of the embryonic hull. These posts, which resembled modern telephone poles with cleats nailed on at intervals, would later act as scaffolding uprights for planks supporting the workers outside the hull.

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From here on the actual sequence of construction differed from ours. All the square frame floor timbers were cut, positioned and bolted across the keel. This process was referred to as crossing the floors and was done with great precision and care. Once the shipwright was satisfied with the accuracy and position of these, the floor head ribbands were temporarily nailed externally on each side about 18" below the floor heads. Ribbands (literally “rib-bands”) were longitudinal stringers used to support and align the structure until planking was applied to the framing. The ribbands were from 6" to 4" square, depending on the size of the ship. In this case they would have been 4" square (see Chapter Four). Ribband nails had especially large heads for easy removal later on. Supporting shores were then placed diagonally under the ribbands and firmly wedged in place (nogged) by treenails driven into the ground of the ways. While this work was being carried out, the rest of the framing was being cut and built up futtock by futtock. When completed, braces called shores were applied to prevent the frame from distorting while it was being raised, and a chain was run around to further support it (illustration above). Temporary pieces of timber, called quartering, were sometimes nailed across the chocked joints for additional security. Sheers, stout timbers lashed together and guyed by ropes, were erected over the keel and the frame raised by blocks and tackles attached to it. Alternatively, tackles were attached to a cable called the ridge rope stretched above the keel. Frames were fitted amidships first, working fore and aft; the cant frames fitted last. Once in position, additional shores and cross-spales (also called cross-spalls) were added to prevent the frame moving or sagging out of shape (illustration on next page). The frames were adjusted and aligned after they all had been raised. A special square was used, called a rake and level, which took into account the slope of the ways, so that the frames were set vertical, relative to the keel. Usually every fourth frame was set, and the intermediate ones adjusted to these.

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They were then checked by a horizontally held marked staff or batten, to ensure that the ports were correctly spaced. Once all the adjustments had been made, additional longitudinal ribbands were nailed on between the lines of the futtock joints to give further support the structure. These ribbands were also then shored and nogged. Large ships had an additional floor ribband inboard of the floorhead ribband. Finally, the lower futtocks were chocked and bolted to the ends of the floors. In the cant bodies where the curves were too extreme for ribbands to be bent in, harpins, sawn to shape, were substituted. These were scarphed to the ends of the ribbands, and acted as a continuation of them. These are seen in the photographs of Intrepid, (pages 113-114). Harpins and ribbands for the model will be detailed in Chapter Four. For convenience the knee of the head will be tackled next. In the actual ship this was not attached to the stem until much later in the building process.

3.2 The knee of the head This is the collective name for the assembly of pieces that form the projecting “nose” ahead of the stem. Not just a decorative feature, the knee of the head acts as a stabilizer for the bowsprit and a foundation for the headwork. Far from being a simple parallel-sided slab of wood, it tapers both from below upward and from aft forward. There are several pieces to be made, even on such a small ship as this. It will be a test of your skills to get these to fit together perfectly, as well as fitting the completed knee to the stem. Your own ship’s head may vary in shape from that of the Mylar drawing, so adapt my layout to suit your own ship. Each ship has its own characteristic variation, and this knee is just one individuating feature, so follow it as exactly as you can.

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The make-up of the knee of the head varied, depending on the timber at hand, but there were several principal pieces. The lowest piece at the forefoot is called the gripe. This piece is not technically part of the knee of the head, but is conveniently dealt with here. Above this is a long piece that runs all the way up the knee. This is known as the lacing piece and is slotted for the forward gammoning 1: one of two lashings that hold the bowsprit down. A bobstay piece or main piece carries the holes for those particular stays. It is situated below the figurehead, more properly referred to as the figure. A replaceable wear strip completes the forward edge of the cutwater. Behind the lacing is the chock (made up of several pieces in larger ships). These pieces run as high as the upper edge of the upper cheek, the higher of two large, curved knees that provide lateral support to the knee of the head. Above the knee of the head proper there are two more pieces. There is an inverted knee, known as the standard or gammoning knee, which is pierced with holes for the main stay collar and the aft gammoning, if fitted1. Forward of this is an extension piece, which curves upward to meet the forward end of the main rails of the head behind the figure.

3.3 The gripe Having described all these components, it is time to begin construction. I would cut all the principal pieces out of 10" thick stock, then taper them after they are joined. The gripe will need some finessing to fit the curve of the stem, the fore end of the keel and false keel. I would recommend making a card pattern piece to fit your model first and then marking out the gripe from this. Cut the gripe slightly oversize for now. With the curved waste remaining from cutting out the lower stem (if you still have it laying around) make a sanding block to refine the curved inner edge of the gripe.

Many small ships had only the one gammoning, and an aft gammoning slot is not required.

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Gradually reduce the aft side until it snugs up to the keel and false keel. Repeatedly offering up the piece will help to prevent paring off too much. As the joints are outside the hull, they will need the “tarred felt” treatment that you carried out earlier on the other external joints. This will mean carefully reducing the piece to allow for the thickness of the material that you are using to simulate this lining, if not tinting the glue instead. When you are satisfied with the fit of this lined surface, mark and cut the forward contour of the gripe. Don’t forget to also line the scarph joint at the head of the gripe with black paper. You may now glue the gripe into place, making sure that there is no excess glue squeeze-out in the scarph. Drill and pin this piece to the stem.

3.4 The lacing, chock and bobstay pieces I would recommend fitting the various pieces of the knee of the head flat on your work surface. Begin by cutting the lacing piece from 10" stock, then refine the inside curve as you did for the gripe. Please note a small but important point: the upper contour of the lacing piece runs as high as the upper border of the upper cheek aft, but forward it follows the hatched line (on the Mylar plan) up behind the figure (see the illustrations previous page and below). The reason for this will become apparent later on. Again, as part of this joint with the stem is below the waterline it will be lined all the way up, so allow for this if using paper. When you have got the curve just right, fit the scarph to the gripe. Now trim the other edges of the lacing to match your own pattern. Do not glue paper on its aft face yet! The chock is cut out next and fitted neatly to the lacing. Incidentally, I use subtly contrasting woods for the different pieces, so that the finished knee does not appear to be simply made of one piece with scribed joints.

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Once this joint is perfected, glue it with lightly tinted glue (see section 1.20) as it is situated above the waterline. When the glue has set you can fit the aft face to the stem. Finally, refine the upper edge to match the contour of the top of the cheek. The bobstay or main piece can easily be cut and fitted next. Again, use tinted glue. Wait until the knee is complete before drilling or cutting any of the holes.

3.5 The cutwater The final piece of this jigsaw is the cutwater strip. You may either cut it as a curved piece, or bend a straight strip 3" thick and 10" wide into shape. I recommend “dry bending” if you choose the latter method (see the next paragraph). This allows you to glue up without waiting for wood to dry out again. Those of you familiar with the Kammerlander bending method may use this. For details on the Kammerlander technique see Appendix 3.1. Dry bending can be carried out in one of two ways. One is to heat an oven to about 250° F and to cook the strip. When it is heated, bend it around a form and clamp. Alternatively, clamp the piece around a form first, if the curve is not extreme. Once cool it will spring back a little, so over-curve the form slightly. If you are going to bend just a small piece then heating an oven is wasteful, so I make a mini-oven by setting up two strips of wood about 1" thick and 2" (full size) apart, and line the trough with a piece of aluminum foil. Place the strip in the trough, and set an electric iron over this on a medium setting. A few minutes will be sufficient. As a footnote, I have used this method to bend quite substantial pieces of wood, up to 1⁄2" thick, such as a bridge for a harpsichord, but that is another story! Trim the cutwater to fit the remaining space at the front of the knee, then glue and pin it in place with tinted glue.

3.6 Finishing the knee of the head Take the pattern of your knee and carefully mark out the bobstay holes and the gammoning slot on the assembly. The position of the gammoning slot is critical, as it must eventually align with the underside of the upper cheek and head timbers. When you are satisfied with the mark-out, drill the 21⁄4" diameter bobstay holes with a #56 bit.

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3.2 to 3.21 A port bow view of a Tisiphone class ship. The component parts of the knee of the head can be clearly seen. The fore cants are faired, and the first group of fore square frames are in position. Model by David Antscherl

3.2 to 3.7 Looking down on the standard and knee of the head. Note the “bold round”of the fore edge of the knee and the tapers of both knee and standard. This view also shows the step between the stem and knee of the head and the seat for the figure. Tisiphone class ship Comet, 1783. Model by David Antscherl

3.2 to 3.7 This view shows the scarph of the standard and extension piece and the softening of the edges of the holes in the knee. The dark spot aft of the lower bobstay hole is where the boomkin shroud triangular ringbolt will be attached. The markout for the lower cheek is just visible. Model by David Antscherl

3.9 A two-piece “rising floor” for the aft slice of a frame pair. in a Tisiphone class ship by David Antscherl. Compare this to 14 aft in the Swan class.

3.9 The two pieces glued up and floor-heads trimmed to match the pattern.

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3.9 One of the second futtock pieces cut out and its lower end trimmed. Note that the piece is still overlength at this stage.

3.9 Toptimbers cut out and ready for fitting.

3.9 Both second futtocks fitted and cut in position over the pattern. The upper ends are now trimmed to match the pattern. 3.9 The completed aft frame superimposed on its pattern. A cross-spall will be added across the toptimbers.

3.8a Toptimbers being cut out on the scroll saw. Note the minimal waste between the pieces as laid out on the stock.

3.9 A cross-chock with two first futtocks for a fore frame ready for assembly. Note the wood grain orientation.

All photographs on this page are of a Tisiphone class ship by David Antscherl

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I would highly recommend using a drill press for accuracy, if you have one. If you do not, use this strategy: mark out both sides of the knee, then drill halfway through with a slightly undersized bit, then turn the piece over and drill from the other side. If there is any misalignment in drilling it can be corrected when opening out the holes to their final diameter with a round Swiss file or broach. The slot may be milled if you have the facility to do this. Otherwise drill two 2" (#58) holes at each end of the slot and remove the waste between with either small chisels or by drilling out the majority of the waste with a smaller diameter bit. Finish the slot by opening it out to 21⁄4" in width with a flat or pillar style Swiss file. Now comes the fun part: tapering this assembly! The knee tapers are described in section 3.2. Along the line of the joint with the stem, the knee remains at its full dimension of 10". As the knee rises, it tapers both inwards and forwards. The taper is such that, at the tip of the bobstay piece where the figure seats, it is only 4" thick. The taper is straight as seen from above. If it is not, you will have difficulty fitting the cheeks later on.

Approx. 10"

142

The best strategy for tapering the knee is to first mark out the centerline on the upper and forward faces. Now mark the upper forward corner of the bobstay piece 2" each side of the centerline. Draw the taper down the front of the knee until it is the full width of 10" at the aft end of the gripe. The taper as seen from above is illustrated (below left). If you are comfortable using a chisel, begin to thin first one side, then the other to begin the forward taper. If not, use sanding surfaces for the whole operation. Use the sanding surface flat and face up, moving the knee over it while applying selective pressure (see Appendix 1.7). For those using chisels, come down to within 1" of final thickness, then switch to sandpaper. As you sand down to the marks, work the taper down the knee so that the fore edge widens out as evenly as possible. Finish with finer grades of sandpaper, ensuring that the tapered sides are straight as seen from above.

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When you are satisfied with the tapered surfaces, carefully mark the positions of the two cheeks on each side. In addition to pencil, I scribed these lines with a sharp blade for permanence. Now fit the knee to the stem. You will have to remove the stem support from the building board, but this part of the hull should now be stable. Check that the knee is properly aligned in the long axis of the structure. If it deviates to one side this must be corrected now, or you will have grief with asymmetric headwork later on. Note that there will be a narrow step on each side as the stem rises and widens and the knee does not (see the illustration below). This is as it should be! Check that the top of the knee meets the stem at the correct height. Also make sure that the knee is centered on the stem, and this step is equal on both sides. Once the knee is aligned properly and fits into the scarph below, glue paper (if using this method) to the joint, trimming it flush to the side surfaces with a sharp blade when the glue is dry. Clamp the knee in place (rubber bands are useful here), and drill for locating pins through the apron and stem from inside the hull. You may now glue the knee into place, ensuring that the scarph joint below is tight, and push the locating pins home. Double check alignment before the glue sets up. If all is well, modify the building board bow support to accommodate the knee of the head, now ready to reinstall after the next step. There is one more operation to carry out on the knee, and that is to round off the forward corners. Steel says that these are taken off “to a bold round,” which means a large radius. I would round the corners so that the upper end at the figure is actually half-round, and carry the same radius (2") down the sides, gradually reducing the chamfer below the waterline (see illustration next page). The reason for this is that when at anchor, the cable will chafe against the corners as the ship swings with wind and tide. Sharp edges here would obviously not do. Incidentally, the “serpentine curve” of the knee of the head is designed so that the cable will clear it better than on the earlier ships with a straight cutwater. You can now see that many of the apparently decorative features of a ship have practical reasons!

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The forward edges of the stem and bobstay holes will also need rounding off as illustrated (right). Check that symmetry has been maintained when you reattach the bow support to the building board.

3.7 The standard and extension piece The standard sits on top of the knee of the head and is also bolted to the stem head. It is 7" thick at the stem, and tapers slightly at it runs forward. The extension piece also tapers so that the forward end is the same thickness as the head of the lacing piece, which should be 6". The shape of the standard can be taken from the Mylar drawing as the head rails obscure its shape in your as built plan. Use 7" thick stock for this piece. Carefully fit the lower face to the knee of the head. Backlight is very helpful here. There are one or two apertures to be cut. The hole for the main stay collar is about 3" in diameter: use a #52 or 1 ⁄16" drill. The main stay collar is the fore end com-

ponent of the principal lower main mast forward support. The slot for the gammoning, if fitted, is sized similarly to that of the fore gammoning. The extension piece is scarphed to the standard as shown on the Mylar drawing. Cut it from 7" thick stock (to the hatched line) to match the top of the knee below. Glue it to the standard on a flat surface and then taper the sides carefully as you did for the knee of the head. Before tapering, make sure you are happy with its fit to the top of the knee below. The taper should be such that it matches the thickness of the lacing piece at its fore end. Leave the aft end 7" thick, remembering that the taper is in a straight line as seen from above. The sides remain vertical. Glue and bolt the standard and extension piece centrally on the knee of the head. Lightly chamfer the upper edges, as shown (above left). The gammoning slot, if fitted, is radiused on its upper edge, as is the hole for the main stay collar.

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3.8 The square body frames: introduction Now comes the biggest endurance test of this practicum: the square frames. There are a lot of them to make: 55 to be precise! I will suggest that it is easiest to build alternately from both ends, say about 10 or 12 frames at a time, fairing them in section by section. This will allow easy access to the inside of the hull, as was the case when you were working on the cant frames. As you near amidships there will be very little fairing required, and the narrowing gap will not be a hindrance at that stage. Read over this next section carefully! It is important to understand the following information clearly. First, an explanation of conventions used in drafting the frame patterns. As was the case with the cant frames, all square frames are drawn as if seen from amidships, looking forward for the fore body, and aft for the after body. Each pattern shows TWO frames, the exception being the dead flat. Look at a printout of frame 14, the first pair that you will make. A reduced view of this frame drawing is shown below. If you now examine the sheer and profile you will see that there is a frame situated just aft of station 14 and another slightly forward of it. I will refer to these as 14 aft and 14 fore respectively. The aft frame has a floor, and the forward one a cross-chock attaching to the first futtocks on each side. You will notice that the futtock joints in this illustration are labeled alternately either F or A: fore or aft. Now you can distinguish which lines A refer to which frame of the pair. The F grey line indicates the outside edge of the aft face of 14 aft. It is included to give A you a picture of the relative amount of bevel over the pair of frames, but is not required for the marking out process. Note the reference scales (on the CD drawing) to check elimination of distorFrame pair 14 from the framing CD, tion while printing. reproduced here at half size, scale 1:96

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Frame 14 aft, showing the joint lines

Frame 14 forward, showing the joint lines

The diagonal line near the midline of the floor (above left) indicates my suggestion of making these extreme rising floors in two pieces, so that the grain of the wood will run to advantage. It is not advisable to make these floors in a single piece, as each will be cross-grained no matter which way the grain is oriented (see below).

This is a simplification of full-size practice: Steel shows three variations on this joint in his Naval Architecture.2 However, his versions call for three or more pieces, which is perhaps a little excessive for this application! You can design your own variation, which could be as simple as a vertical joint at the midline.

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Steel, Naval Architecture Book II, Chapter VI, p.377 Directions for the actual building.

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3.8a A note on economy From this point on, you will be using up quite a bit of wood. I have a few suggestions on minimizing wastage. You will be cutting floors and futtocks from dimensioned stock, which will be between 11⁄ 2" and 2" (full size) in width. By now you will be used to “cutting to the line”, so when you lay out pattern pieces for cutting, you can leave a minimum of space between the edge of the pattern and either the edge of the stock or the gap left by a previous piece that you have already cut out. To further economize, lay out the pieces in such a way as to group first futtocks close to each other, second futtocks together, etc. The sketch (below) will give you the idea. This is a half-size reproduction of one of the patterns made to calculate the quantity of stock required for my own model. There will still be waste pieces, but these should be saved to make chocks. Larger off-cuts at the end of a piece will do for the cross-chocks, which you will be tackling soon.

3.9 Frame pair 14 Now that you understand the drafting conventions that I have used, begin with frame 14 aft. You will need two copies of each frame in addition to one that must remain intact. I strongly recommend printing these copies on a computer printer rather than a photocopier, which may produce distortion. Cut out the two floor pieces from 10" thick stock,3 leaving the ends about 1

⁄32" (full size) long, and leaving a little extra material in the slot for the deadwood. If you are making scarph joints instead of fitting chocks, adjust your pattern and cut the pieces out as you did for the cant frames. Carefully prepare the joint between the floor halves so that it is

tight, then lay the pieces over the intact pattern, making sure that they cover the pattern all round. When you are satisfied, glue the halves of the floor together. I use aliphatic (yellow) carpenters’ glue for this. A piece of clear acetate sheer or Saran® wrap will prevent the pieces from sticking to the drawing.

However, see Appendix 3.4, page 171.

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Once the glue has set, use a well-honed chisel to trim the floor heads to match the lines on the intact pattern. Next, mark out and cut the pair of second futtocks (between A and A, illustrated on page 143), just as you did for the cant frames. Cut these from 91⁄2" thick stock. Fit them as you did for the cant frames over the master pattern. Those of you that are sharp-eyed will notice that the framing plan shows all square frame futtocks and toptimbers as 10" sided: The Shipbuilders’ Repository (1788) and Steel’s Naval Architecture (1805) both specify diminishing siding of the futtocks. The choice of interpretation is up to you. Next you will need to mark for the chocks, assuming that you are fitting them. The angle of these chocks may be taken directly from the Mylar plan (see below). This may seem like a surprising statement, but the curved lines on the half-breadth plan have been plotted for this purpose. The line to select for this joint is the one marked FLOOR HEAD DIAGONAL. The angle shown is is directly transferable, as it has been plotted at right angles to the floor head. Mark out, cut and fit the chock as you are used to doing.

⁄ 3Y + 1⁄ 2 X

1' 0" 1

⁄ 3Y + 1⁄ 2 X

⁄ 3Y + X 1

⁄ 3Y

1' 0"

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The mathematics in the diagrams on the foot of the previous page may seem confusing at first, but here is the explanation. The angle (Greek letter theta, ␪ ) measured from the Mylar plan on the left will be transferred directly to the end of the floor or futtock. But because pattern 14 is drawn for both aft and fore frames, the layout of the scarph is offset on the narrower (aft) frame. The offset is half the difference between widest and narrowest part of the pattern, X. The shoulder and toe of the scarph are 1⁄3 the width of the timber, Y, as usual. Note that this markout math is applied to all “aft” frame joints. (Note the different layout for the “fore” frames, lower illustration.) Once this is done on the upper (midship) face, the angle theta can be drawn on the end face. 〈 point to remember is that all bevels are under bevels for the square frames, as viewed from the midships side. Pin all the joints. The second futtocks are next, to be cut from 91⁄ 2" stock, if you have opted to build them all to Steel’s specifications (see previous page and Appendix 3.4). You will notice that each futtock diminishes by 1⁄ 2" from the one below it as you build up the ship’s side. The lower joint angle with the floor is the same as before. Fit the joints over your master pattern first and then the chock. For the upper scarph the chock angle is taken directly from the 2ND FUTTOCK HEAD DIAGONAL on the half breadth plan. It is measured and applied in exactly the same way as for the floor head joint. The toptimbers of 14 aft are cut from 9" stock. Cut the second futtock/toptimber joint as you did the floor/first futtock joint. Once you have assembled these pieces, you should glue in a temporary cross-spall across the toptimbers. Mark the centerline on the top and sides of this cross-spall. The next operation, that of fitting 14 aft to the deadwood, is critical. When I was building my hull for the Comet by this method, I was not careful enough the first time to make sure that the square frames that crossed the deadwood were sunk far enough down. In parenthesis: you will notice that on the “official” framing plan that the heels of frames 14 to 11 extend down to the rabbet, whereas on the model they only reach the bearding line. An explanation of this difference is given in Appendix 3.2. When I came to fair these frames, although the surfaces that were nearly vertical faired in beautifully, the area under the buttock did not, as some of the frames were sitting too high. I do not want you to have to rip them out and replace them, as I did. So proceed as follows.

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Gradually open out the slot in the floor timber until you achieve a good tight fit on the deadwood. At this stage the frame will not seat properly, as you have yet to bevel the heels to match the bearding line. Make sure that the frame crosses at right angles to the keel and deadwood. Correct if necessary. (If you have opened out the slot so that the fit is sloppy, glue in a small piece of thin paper to compensate. Of course, such a strategy will be quite unnecessary!) Next, lay the frame flat on your cutting surface, fore face upward, and begin to cut the angle of the heel of the floor. Do not cut away too much wood, or the frame will be ruined. Repeatedly fit the frame to the deadwood to check for the correct angle. Do not shorten the heel yet, just concentrate on getting the angle right. Once you are satisfied that the heel is parallel to the bearding at that point, you will need to take your 1⁄ 4" chisel and angle the top of the slot to match the angle of the top of the deadwood. (See the illustration below left, slightly exploded view for clarity.) At this point the frame will be sitting well down over the deadwood, but still not be completely seated. This next stage is the critical one. First, make sure that the frame is sitting symmetrically on the deadwood. You can check this with your square and the centerline on the cross-spall. Nudge the frame until it is centered. Now measure up from the baseboard to the second futtock head. Each side should be at the same height. If not, adjust the frame. The illustration (below right) should make this clear. Make a note of this height.

Beveling the heel and slot of 14 aft Ensuring symmetry of a square frame

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3.10 Your first exercise in lofting You will now need to do some lofting of your own; but don’t worry, it will be quite simple! What you need is to plot the line of the second futtock heads as they appear on the sheer and profile. Using a pencil on the Mylar drawing is the best strategy; if you make an error, it will be easy to erase and correct. Start with the aft body. You will need to plot the heights of the second futtock heads from the body plan at the left and transfer those measurements to the various stations along the sheer and profile drawing. Begin at station 15 and continue forward to the dead flat. This operation can be done quite quickly as follows. Take a narrow strip of paper, and make a pencil mark at the edge near one end. (These slips of paper are referred to as tick strips.) Place the strip vertically over the aft body plan and move the strip sideways until one edge lines up with the intersection of station line 15 and the second futtock head line. The illustration shown below left makes this clear. Slide the tick strip until the first pencil mark (B) aligns with the base line, then mark the intersection point (15) on the strip.

Now move the strip across to the sheer draught and line it up vertically with station line 15. Adjust it until the mark B aligns with the base line (note that this line is the TOP of the keel rabbet, not the base line or bottom of the false keel), and mark the station line at the height of the second futtock head (illustration above right).

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In order to speed up production, simply move the strip back to your body plan and mark all the other intersects of the second futtock head line with the body sections. Be sure to identify them by number as you go! When you have them all marked on your strip, transfer each height to its correct station line on the sheer draught. A series of dots will form along a shallow curved line from station 15 to the dead flat. Carefully draw a pencil line through this series of dots with a French curve, flexible curve or batten. If any dot is out of a fair line, check back to the body plan, find the error and correct it. Repeat the exercise for the fore body from station M to the dead flat. That’s all there is to it! This is exactly the way that I plotted the upper and lower heights of breadth for you on the sheer plan. It was also the way that the draughtsman plotted the lines of the futtock joints on the framing plan ZAZ 4691. You can now “lift” any intermediate measurement of the height of the second futtock joints from your Mylar sheer draught.

3.11 Continuing to fit 14 aft to the deadwood The second futtock joint line that you have lofted to your plan is now ready to use. Draw a light vertical line up from the forward edge of frame 14 aft until it intersects the curved line that you have just plotted (illustration opposite top left). Measure the height from the bottom of the false keel to this intersection. Now compare this to the height that you actually measured on the model a little while back. This should be greater than the distance on the drawing. The difference is the amount that you need to sink the frame down on the deadwood to its correct position in order for the framing to fair properly. Gradually deepen the slot, maintaining its angle, and pare the heels of the frame until the height of the second futtock head each side matches that from the plan. The reason that 14 aft was sitting too high to begin with was because the lowest point of the pattern is drawn for the forward “corner” of 14 fore at the bearding line. This operation ensures that the frame is correctly located in the vertical plane. You did not need to do this for the cant frames, as their heights were regulated by the height of the steps. If you are planning to leave the framing exposed on one side, make sure that the heel of the frame on that side is a tight fit to the bearding line ledge.

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The last operation before fixing 14 aft in place is to remove some of the excess wood at the centerline and rough out the cutting down. The cutting down line is the curved line that runs along the junction of the frame floors and cross-chocks with the keelson. This surface is 12" wide and is flat athwartships. On the Mylar drawing, the hatched line along the lower edge of the keelson is the cutting down line. It is continuous with the top of the deadwood fore and aft. Measure the height from the bottom of the false keel to the cutting down line at the fore side of 14 aft (illustration above right). Transfer this measurement to the frame as it sits in position on the keel. I use a set of calipers for this: the depth gauge on it works well for me (illustration A below). Remove the frame, take this mark across and draw two vertical lines 6" each side of center (illustration B).

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Cut down just inside the marks at an angle with a fine-toothed saw such as an Exacto® (illustration C, previous page). Do not cut into the aft side of the frame. Now remove the majority of the waste with a very sharp 1⁄4" chisel, diamond riffler or file (illustration D). The final contouring will be done when you fair the frames. Before gluing the frame in, check for symmetry either by double-checking that the second futtock joint heights are equal each side of the model or by using your square to ensure equal maximum half-breadth on each side of center, as compared to the lines that you laid out earlier on your building board. A third method of checking symmetry is to sight down on the keel from above, lining up the centerline marks on your sternpost support, baseboard and cross-spall. The latter should appear to be centered over the deadwood, (illustrated below). The last check is to ensure that, as seen from the side, the frame is also located vertically. Use your card square for this check. Glue in spacers at the top of the last cant frame to maintain this alignment when you glue up. Glue the mating faces and the spacers and secure the frame in position. Double check that the frame is centered before the glue sets up. You have completed your first square frame! There are just 54 left to do. Like the cant frames, once you have made one or two, the process will go much faster.

3.12 Frame 14 fore You will use the same master pattern as for 14 aft to build this frame on. As you work on the framing, have the framing plan ZAZ 4691 handy to refer to. I tick off each futtock and frame on this drawing with a red pencil as I complete it so as not to lose my place and to chart my progress. Begin by making the cross chock that sits across the deadwood. I would run the grain vertically on this piece, which should be cut from 10" stock. To this will be added the two first futtocks, which are scarphed to it as shown on your pattern. If you are in doubt, refer to the illustration on page 143, top right. The first futtocks run as high as the cross line marked F on the pattern.

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Above this are the long toptimbers, which form the rest of this frame. Build the frame up as usual, with scarphs or chocks in the style that you have chosen. The first futtocks will also be 10" thick and the toptimbers 91⁄ 2" thick. When the frame is built and supported with a cross-spall, you can fit it to the deadwood in the same way as you did for 14 aft. To do this, you will first need to plot the line of the first futtock heads on the sheer in the same way as you did for the second futtock heads earlier. Don’t be concerned with trimming the tops of the timbers to the toptimber line yet. This will be done when all the frames are in. Square in the frame, making sure that it is sunk to the correct height. (The proper shipbuilders’ term for squaring was horning in the frame.) This time you will need to trim very little material off, as the fore frame of each pattern shows the fore side of the heel at the right level. Again, glue spacers of a suitable thickness at the toptimber line to 14 aft and place a temporary spacer at the deadwood to place 14 fore at the correct distance from 14 aft. When satisfied that all is correctly positioned, proceed with the cutting down as you did before. Taking care to check alignment in all three planes, you may then glue in 14 fore.

3.13 Frame bend 13 The two single frames 13 aft and 13 fore are really a frame bend in disguise. The definition of a frame bend is a double layer of framing, usually joined on their facing surfaces. However, in the Swan class, this convention is not followed in the usual way. At the position of each bend the two layers have been separated by an air space, and spacer blocks inserted at intervals. You can identify these pairs by looking carefully at the framing plan. You will notice that there is a hatched vertical line at station 13, another at 11 and so on. In addition (a valuable piece of evidence!) there is a manuscript note on the drawing that reads: Every Frame Bend to be bolted with two/bolts in each scarph, & seperated (sic) with pieces/as drawn at B, that sufficient Air may pass/between the Timbers for the preservation of the/Frame. Every Frame Bend to be bolted with two/bolts in each scarph, & seperated (sic) with pieces/as drawn at B, that sufficient Air may pass/between the Timbers for the preservation of the/Frame.

If you look at station B, you will see these blocks drawn in above and below each futtock joint, and halfway up the short toptimber on either side of the hatched station line. This is for style only, and would have been carried out at all the station lines, including frame bend 13. As this detail is specifically noted on the drawing, it would seem that this was a recent innovation in the early 1770’s.

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These blocks are the width of the frame at the points that they passed through the hull, their thickness depending on the diminution of siding of the futtocks and 7" in the direction at right angles to the frame (see illustration below). I would place them 7" above each joint line and 9" below. The toptimber block should be 2' 3" clear of the block below it. Optionally one might add another block aft where the toptimbers rise higher, say with the lower edge of the blocks aligned to the top of the line of the port sills.

Position of spacer blocks for frame bend 13

Build frame 13 aft in the same way as 14 aft, then add the blocks as shown. Build up 13 fore, noting that the toptimber is extended upward to form a timberhead. Fit both frames to the deadwood in turn as previously described, using the heights of the joints as a check. Once the frames have been fitted properly and the cutting down attended to, it is time to glue in 13 aft. Once adjusted and set, you can add 13 fore. Remember to glue the faces of the blocks as you glue in 13 fore. Bulldog clips make

good clamps to hold the frame to the blocks while the glue sets up. Try to remove excess glue squeeze-out with a small damp brush before the glue sets up. It is harder to remove any “globs” after the glue is dry.

3.14 Frame pair 12 Here you will need to cast the toptimber of 12 aft forward by 2" to “make” the side of the port. Details of this were given in section 2.16. Notice that this toptimber is extended to form a timberhead above the sheer rail. You may opt to cut in the port sill mortises now, or later on as you did in the cant bodies. To carry out this operation later, instructions are given in sections 3.24 and 3.25. If you wish to do this now, make sure that the frame is properly fitted to the deadwood first and is temporarily horned in (positioned both square and level) before marking out the heights of the sills from the building board.

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Rubber bands hooked aft over the toptimbers already fitted work well to keep the frame in place against the temporary toptimber spacers. Make sure that the floor is correctly located on the deadwood, spaced forward of 13 fore. Note that 12 fore is cut short under the port. Leave a little extra wood there for the moment, say 1⁄ 16" (full size): it is hard to add any if you were to cut it too short, as a suitable wood stretcher has yet to be invented!

3.15 Frame pair 11 Again, this is a bend in disguise, and will need spacer blocks fitted just as you did for frame pair 13. Note that 11 aft has a plain scarph between the second futtock and short timber under the port. (You can see the dashed line below the joint line on the NMM framing plan: this is the convention for showing such a joint.) This was a common practice for short timbers under ports. Some ships had all the toptimbers plain scarphed to the uppermost futtocks. As before, leave the short timber under the port a little overlength. Also make sure that when 11 fore is set vertically, the width across the port opening is exactly 2' 41⁄ 2". Fit the port sills if you are doing so at this stage and then the short timbers above the ports. Secure the upper ends with temporary spacers for now.

3.16 Progressive fairing At this point, I would recommend fairing the frames that you have erected so far. If any problems with alignment are present, you will see them and still be able to remove any offending frame and correct or replace it without too much trouble. If you have not fitted port sills, glue in temporary spacers to stabilize the upper ends of the short frames. Using stiff but flexible sanding sticks, work up from the keel both inside and out with 80-grit sandpaper. Finer grades are not necessary at this stage. These aftermost square frames will be the most work, as the bevels in places are quite extreme and there will be a considerable amount of material to remove. I have found that the rigidity of the structure is considerably increased by leaving a cross-spall or two in place for as long as possible. It is helpful to fair progressively for two reasons. One has been given above: that you can remove and replace a frame that is misaligned more easily at this stage. The other reason is that you still have open access to the inside of the hull. When satisfied with the faired frames, you can drill and peg them permanently through the cutting-down (the upper side of the floor timbers) into the deadwood.

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3.11 The cutting down saw cuts made, ready for beveling. 3.14 Two cast toptimber pieces. The piece on the right is marked out for the “dog-leg,” and shows the overall thickness of the blank.

3.11 The cutting down completed. Final finishing of this surface will be done after the frames are installed.

3.14 Cast toptimbers being fitted. Note the shim of wood beneath them, equal in thickness to the “cast” of the timbers.

3.11 Mark-out for the cutting down. This aft frame bend is seen from the fore side.

3.16 A view of the aft square frames while being faired. The upper port sills and short toptimbers are about to be fitted. Note the smooth surface of the cutting down.

All photographs on this page are of a Tisiphone class ship by David Antscherl.

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Appendix 3.2 The aft “intermediate” square frames. These have been faired, and show the junction of the heels of these frames with the bearding line. The captive nut for the pedestal mounting can be seen to the right. Model by David Antscherl

3.13 A midship frame pair with spacing chocks temporarily set up on the keel. A floor timber is to the right.

3.24 and 3.25 A toptimber with a completed lower sill mortise, left, and an upper sill mortise on the right. Model by David Antscherl

The forefoot of a Tisiphone class ship, showing fairing of the lower apron into the top of the rabbet at the stem. This ship has a bearding line rather than a stepping line. (Also refer to section 2.18). Model by David Antscherl

3.24 to 3.27 A close-up of the aft cants showing the cast toptimber forming the aft side of the port. Note the upper and lower sill joints as well as the “bolts” in the chocks of the joints. It is interesting to compare this picture with framing plan ZAZ 4691.

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3.17 Fore square frame pair L In order to keep access to the inside of the hull open for now, move to the fore end and construct frame pair L. In the fore body, the floor is always on the fore frame of each pair. L fore has a scarph joint between the second futtock and short timber under the port. The L aft toptimber is slightly shifted forward to make the port the correct width of 2' 41⁄2". It is also carried up to become a timberhead. Position these frames on the fore deadwood in exactly the same manner as you did the aft frames, by using the vertical height check to the joint lines. Remember to mark out and remove excess wood at the cutting down before gluing in these frames. This is done in the same way as you did for the aft frames.

3.18 Frame pair K These are a straightforward frame bend, with spacer blocks between them. The toptimber of K fore is carried up to form a timberhead.

3.19 Frame pair J and the sweep ports The only item of note here is that on the aft side of J aft is a sweep port. These ports are small square apertures through the side between the gun ports. Small ships could be rowed in conditions of calm, and the sweeps (long oars) were slid through these ports in miniature. They are 8" square and the sills 4" deep. The fore side of this foremost port is cut 2" into the aft side of J aft. The lower edges of the openings align with the lower edges of the gun ports. This means that fore and aft the openings are not square. The mortises are miniature versions of those for the gun ports, as illustrated below.

3.20 Frame pair H No, this is not a mistake! In ships’ plans at this period there is no frame or station line labeled I. There was a practical reason for this: the letters I and J could be too easily confused, so that either letter I or J was always omitted. H is built as another bend and will need to have spacers in the usual positions between the two frames. H fore has the mortises for the sweep port on the fore side and for the gun port on its aft side (see illustration above).

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Note that the upper sill to the port is extra deep and is carried up to the sheer rail. This is true for all the ports in the waist of the ship. The waist is the area between the hances of the forecastle and quarterdeck. A hance is a rise in the topside line, often embellished with a scroll carving. Check your specific ship’s draught, as the hancing varies from ship to ship.

3.21 Frame pair G Remember the short timber under the port is scarphed, not chocked. The G aft toptimber is shifted forward and has mortises for the gun and next sweep port. Make sure that the port width is correct at 2' 41⁄2".

3.22 Fairing the forward square frames When you have completed the fore square body this far, fair in these frames as you did aft. Each frame that you add now will further define the shape of the hull, and the sweep of the futtock lines will begin to emerge. If any frame is out of fair, you can carefully remove it and fix the problem or replace it. Once you are satisfied that all is well, drill and peg through the floors and cross chocks into the keel to make the joints permanent. You will also be pleased to know that the frames that you have just completed are probably the hardest ones to make, as they have to fit the deadwood bearding line. The remaining square frames attach directly to the keel, and are much easier to fit. Also, as you approach the dead flat, there will be less beveling to take care of and fairing will be progressively easier.

3.23 The remaining square frames I would suggest building the aft square frames as a group, from 10 to 6 inclusive. These will be straightforward to both build and fit. There is one cast toptimber (8 aft) and one scarph to the short toptimber (7 aft) to take care of. Remember to add the spacer blocks at the bends 9 and 7, as well as at the toptimber line. When these are installed, fair them into the aft body as you did for frames 14 to 11. Next, switch back to the fore body and build frame pairs F to C. There is one scarph at C fore and a shifted toptimber at C aft. There are spacers at F and D between the frame pairs. Fair these frames into the fore body.

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Once again, move aft and complete frame pairs 5 to 2. There is a cast timber at 4 aft and a shifted one at 2 aft. Spacers are fitted between pairs 5 and 3. There is a solid piece above 3 aft at the hance, which butts against the short toptimber of 4 fore. Fair these frames in as before. By now the amount that needs sanding off is minimal, and the time required to complete this process is much less. Also, please read the next section carefully to prepare for installing the ship’s pumps.

3.23a Preparing for the pumps If the lower ends of the pumps rested on the frames in the limber channel, they would be unable to remove the last few inches of water, as the intakes are on the sides of the pump casings. Therefore small sections of the frames are “dug out” so that the opening of each pump is low enough to be effective. The position of the pumps vary from ship to ship: in Pegasus they are between 5 fore & 4 aft. Consult your own NMM profile draught for the correct positions in your own ship. Two adjacent frames are partially hollowed out as shown. Similar smaller recesses for the suction or hand pumps are between 3 aft & 3 fore.4 (For additional information, see section 6.34.) You can remove most of the waste with a small power tool such as a drill and then clean up the recess with a miniature chisel.

Intake

Floor of 4 aft

Cross-chock of 3 fore Recesses for the pump intakes, scale 1:48. Total width of recesses, fore and aft, is 1'. 0". Check the actual positions for these on your own ship.

Finally complete fore frame pairs B through 1. Remember to add spacers between the pairs at 1 and B. Also note that spacers are fitted on both sides of the dead flat, . There is a plain scarph at frame 1. You will need to cast the toptimber of A aft to accommodate the fixed block in the side (illustration on previous page, and section 3.29). Now you can complete fairing your hull inside and out, using 80-grit. I would only use finer grades of sandpaper on the areas where the frames will be exposed. There I would go down to 180-grit. Now you can sit back to admire the result of your labors!

162

Good contemporary illustrations are shown in Brian Lavery’s The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, page 75 (the chain pump) and page 78, top left, (the hand pump).

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3.24 Cutting the sill mortises in the completed framing If you did not cut the sill mortises in as you went along, now is the time to take care of them. If you have already cut the mortises and fitted the gun and sweep port sills, skip forward to section 3.26. The first step in this procedure is to mark spot heights of the lower sill top at different points along the ship’s side. A simple height gauge will assist here: a homemade one is quite adequate. The baseboard is, of course, your reference surface. Pencil the lines so formed in a smooth curve along each side. Double-check your work before proceeding. Note that sills are parallel to the deck line, not the waterline. Spot and draw another line that is 2' 3" as measured vertically above the first line. This represents the lower edge of the upper sills. Finally draw another line 8" above the first one from 7 aft to H fore. This gives the upper edge of the sweep port openings. You now need to cut off the toptimbers above the line of the lower port sills with a very fine saw. Cut about 1⁄32" (actual size) above the line to allow for finishing the sill seat. Mark the toptimber offcuts and save them: you will use them to form the short timbers above the ports. The port sills are 5" thick, except the upper ones amidships. The shape of these can be taken from your framing plan. The sweep port sills are 4" thick. Like the port sills that you have already installed, the lower ones have a birdsmouth shape, and the upper ones are beveled. (For details see 2.17.) It is a tricky job to do these on the finished framing and needs to be carried out with great care. I would use Swiss files for the job. Use a knife-edge style file for the upper sill mortises, and a “three square” one for the lower sill mortises. Please note that the sides of the “three square” are at 120° to each other, but the birdsmouth is about 150°. In order for the mortise not to be too deep, you will have to file to depth, tipping the file first one way then the other until the mortise is 5" wide (illustrations at left). You will also need to keep the file horizontal athwartships while you carry out this operation. Proceed carefully! Filing out a birdsmouth

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3.25 Gun port and sweep port sills Assuming that the mortises have been cut on each side of the port openings, the first job is to level the timbers below the port to form a seat for the lower sill. Mark across the timbers from the under edge of the mortises each side. Double-check that the sills will all lie in a fair curve by using a batten. Make any adjustment to the mortises now. Make a sanding stick as shown below, about 1⁄2" wide and about 8" long (full size). This can be threaded across the ship, and the toptimbers sanded down to the mark. By passing the stick through both sides of the ship, the surfaces will be level athwartships. Make sure that any angle fore and aft is maintained by watching your progress relative to the port-sheer line that you have marked as you sand down. Now continue to cut and fit the lower sills as was described in 2.17. The upper sills should be fitted in the same way as the cant frames, and then the short timbers (saved when you cut off the toptimbers) above the ports cut, fitted and the temporary spacers glued in at the tops. Ensure that the upper edges of the lower mortises of the sweep ports align with those of the lower port sills. Fit the sweep port sills in the same way as those of the gun ports. Make a smaller version of the sanding stick to do this and to keep the sills horizontal athwartships. These new additions can then be faired in with the rest of the framing.

3.26 The fillings For those seeking ultimate fidelity to the prototype, fillings were added between the frames from the sides of the keel out to the line of the floorheads. These oak pieces ensured a solid wall of wood along the ship’s bottom, preventing bilge water from draining down between the floors and first futtocks. If you show these, I suggest use a contrasting wood to that of your frames.

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3.27 Concluding the framing All that remains to be done is to check for fairness with flexible battens on both the outside and inside of the hull. Make sure that there are no bumps or hollows in the smooth flow of lines fore and aft. Smooth the surfaces with finer grades of sandpaper, finishing with 180 or 220 grit in the areas that will not be planked. You should now have a fully framed hull with the futtock joint lines running in smooth curves and a surface that will be ready to receive either planking or ribbands and harpins, which are subjects in the next part. If you have succeeded in getting this far, congratulations: the rest of the model should be much easier!

3.28 The cutting down One other matter will need attending to; that is the cutting down. You have roughly shaped it as you have been adding the frames, and this surface needs to be refined. If you have done the job well, little more will need to be done now. All that remains is to smooth the curve with flexible sanding sticks 1⁄ 4" (actual) wide. If all has gone well, a smooth curve without low spots should result, whose shape will mirror that of the underside of the keelson.

3.29 The fixed blocks in the sides A point frequently missed by modelers are the fixed blocks in the sides of the ship. These are sheaves through which various lines lead inboard to where they are belayed. They are usually shown as slots through the planking. A moment’s thought will show that this arrangement would make it impossible to replace a damaged sheave or pin without major demolition. Instead, a block of wood is inserted in the side that contains the sheave (or sheaves) and pin. Planking is laid up to the edges of the block, the inner and outer surfaces of both being flush. In this way the block can easily be removed sideways for repair. The slots for the fixed blocks are indicated on the Mylar plan. There is a single block aft of gunport #2 and a double forward of gunport #4 on each side. A third fixed block aft in the Swan class does not pass through the side, but is located above the planksheer rail and gunport #8. Sometimes termed the covering board, the planksheer rail covers the tops of the quarter deck and forecastle timbers. (This fixed block is shown on the sheer draught of Atalanta, ZAZ 4485 and is also indicated on the Mylar plan.) The block blanks should be slotted either in a drill press or by milling to accomodate sheaves to the specifications given on the following page.

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Fixed blocks are installed horizontally athwartships. Mark the framing carefully before making any cuts! You will find that fixed blocks usually span between Final contour

two adjacent frames. These will need to be notched appropriately to accomodate the blocks. Measurements may be taken directly from the Mylar plan.5 Note that the block blanks will need to be wider athwartships than their final size, as the tumblehome of the topside and the thicknesses of inner and outer planking need to be accommodated (illustrations opposite and more details on page 168).

See also page 168

The forward single fixed block is for the main tack. Drill for the pin which is 11⁄ 8" in diameter, and

turn the sheave to 9" diameter and 13⁄ 4" thickness. If you do not yet own a lathe, you can do this carefully with an electric drill at slow speed and files. (This is the way I made my first fixed block sheaves for Polyphemus.) Cut the slot in the block as you did the gammoning slots. The double block aft is for the fore sheet, below, (9" diameter by 11⁄ 2" thick sheave, with a 1" pin) and spritsail sheet above (9" diameter by 7⁄ 8" thick, with a 7⁄ 8" pin). Of course, the pins can all be the same size as they will not be seen, but I quote Steel’s specifications for these items.6 I would also make the upper sheave 1" thick: the difference will be imperceptible. Remember that the upper and lower pins will need to be offset from each other athwartships to account for the tumblehome of the ship’s side. If you are not planking the model, shape the inboard and outboard sides of the blocks now. Otherwise, defer this operation until the topside planking is complete. The plank thickness here is 3" both in and outboard.

5 6

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For purists, the main tack block is actually 8" deep, and the double block 9" deep (Steel). Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVII.

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3.30 Finishing the toptimbers and timberheads At this point the toptimbers will still be uneven with timberhead blanks protruding above. Using your height measuring device, mark the upper limit of the toptimbers at various points along the side and join these points with a flexible batten. Repeat this procedure for the tops of the timberheads. Double check that these lines are correct and symmetrical on both sides of the hull. When you are confident all is correct, you can cut or sand the timbers down to these lines. Use flexible battens for sanding, making sure that the tops are horizontal athwartships. The protruding timberheads will now need to be taken care of. The forecastle timberheads are 8" wide, and you will notice that these are not rectangular in cross-section. This is correct. To mark out the timberheads, use a series of pieces of stock of suitable thickness as shown at left. This will ensure consistent results. Those unsure of their skill in cutting such small details on the model itself may prefer to cut the timberheads off at the toptimber line, and make short pieces that will be pegged on later. If you wish to do so, label each timberhead as you cut it off so that you can match the individual cross-sections on the replacement pieces. The timberhead tops are 1' 3" above the toptimber line. In later ships this height was increased to 1' 5", as evidenced by the notations on the framing plan ZAZ 4691. There are pencil marks above the drafted timberheads on this plan, and the manuscript notation: The Rough Tree to be 4 ft. 2 ins from the Deck Timber heads 1 ft . 2 ins above the fife rail agreeable to [the draught]. The differential of 3" (from 1' 0" as measured on your NMM sheer plan) is accounted for by the height of the planksheer rail above the line of the toptimbers. Double check that your own ship’s timberheads are not raised to 1' 2", and make an adjustment if necessary. The layout of the timberhead shapes are given in the drawing (following page). Your own ship’s draught may show a variation of this shape. If so, follow that on your own draught. If you have never made timberheads before, it might be a good idea to practice on scrap first to refine your technique.

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My own method is to use a thin fine X-Acto® saw to cut in the shoulders and then to use a very sharp chisel to cut the shallow tapered faces. The quarter-round surfaces are shaped with a knife style Swiss file. It is easiest to cut the inboard and outboard faces first, then join these with the athwartship faces. If you start at one corner and work your way around, you will never end up quite where you started from! A little practice should see you cutting timberheads consistently and with confidence. The final point to note is that all edges and corners of the timberheads need to be softened so that a line belayed around them would not be chafed. A small chamfer should be filed or sanded on all exposed edges, just as you did on the bollard timber heads (see section 2.7). Having completed the model to this stage, you can look forward to things getting easier and a little less repetitive in nature!

END OF CHAPTER THREE

NEW

168

ILLU

IO RAT

Since the original book was published, I have found more information on fixed blocks. These were removable from inboard for repair or replacement as shown here. You can add these details if you wish.

CHAPTER

THREE

Appendix 3.1 The Kammerlander wood bending technique Gebhard Kammerlander, a German model builder, has developed a process using water, heat and pressure to form wood into the shapes required for planking and other uses where a bend is required without scorching the wood. Wood up to 1⁄8" thick can be bent using this technique. There are two metal tips available for this purpose that attach to a 25 to 30 watt soldering iron. The smaller tip, #3003, can be used for most applications, while the #3006 is considerably larger and may need some adaptations to attach to the iron. Kammerlander recommends soaking the wood in cold water for a maximum of 5 minutes. However, for hardwoods which are greater than 1⁄16" thickness, or when a sharp bend is needed, you can soak the planks for up to 30 minutes. After soaking, dry the surface with a paper towel and slide the heated #3003 tip along the side of the piece that is to be concave. Keep one end on a hard surface and raise the other to bend the wood into shape. If the wood is to be used as a plank, place it in position on the framing and slide the heated tip along the outer surface forcing it into its required shape. At this point it appears ready to glue into place, but as it may still be damp there may be some shrinkage as it dries leaving gaps between the planks. Consequently, it is preferable to fasten the plank to the frames with masking tape for several hours to let it dry out prior to gluing it in place. Any heat-controllable soldering iron will work well for this method. I am indebted to Phil Main for the above description and information.

Appendix 3.2 The intermediate frame heels aft The framing plan shows the heels of the frames 14 to 11 and L to K as running down to the rabbet line. This would mean that the lowest point of the frames run out to a feather-edge. Having thought about this for some time, I am of the opinion that this was not the way the shipwrights actually constructed these frames. Let me explain my reasons for this.

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The shipwright would never let a timber run out to a feather edge: it was not good carpentry (or shipwrightry!). A feather edge is easily broken off or damaged and is a weak spot. An example is a scarph joint: it has a blunt “toe” at the narrow end, and never runs off to a point. The only exceptions to this that I can find are the specialized joints of the false keel and some of the ceiling planks (Chapter Four). I reasoned that the same principle would hold true at the floors and cross-chocks where they meet the deadwood at an acute angle. The diagram A shows the case were the heels of the frame to run as far down as the rabbet. As you can see, they will run out to a feather edge even before reaching the rabbet. The next diagram, B, shows the same section, but this time the deadwood is scored deeply enough for the heels to reach the deadwood. There are two objections to this configuration: one, that the frame heels will still run out to a feather edge, and two, that the deadwood is seriously weakened in the line of the scores. It would need to be narrowed to 6" across the scored areas. Diagram C (opposite page) shows what I believe to be the reasonable solution: a bearding line, above which the deadwood is still 12" thick, and the heels of the frames no longer run out to a feather edge.

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Appendix 3.3 More fractional/decimal equivalents

I found this table on the back of a small ruler belonging to my wife. I hope that it reproduces clearly enough to be useful.

Appendix 3.4 Floor and futtock sidings I have given somewhat simplified siding measurements in the body of the text. Although the framing plan ZAZ 4691 appears to show the sidings as being 10" throughout, Steel 1 gives diminishing figures for square frames as follows: Floors:

11", diminishing to 91⁄ 2" at the fore and aft ends of the ship

First futtocks:

101 ⁄ 2", 10" at fore and aft ends

Second futtocks:

101 ⁄ 2", at 10" fore and aft ends

Third futtocks:

101 ⁄4", 91 ⁄ 2 " fore and aft

Toptimbers:

10"

You may make your square framing to suit yourself from the information that I have given.

1 Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folios V & VI.

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1. Model #43, courtesy of Major Grant H. Walker, U. S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis

1, 2, 3. The photograph above, and the two overleaf, of an unidentified contemporary model show fascinating similarities and differences to Swan class ships. The most obvious of these are the shape of the taffrail and quarter galleries (1, 3). It is interesting to note the unfinished head work and the oddly proportioned figurehead. The permanent gangways, skid beam crutches and railings (2, 3) are more typical of the 1780’s than the 1770’s. The gangways were raised to the level of the forecastle deck in 1782, and then at first in new ships. Note the raised side in the waist to accommodate this feature (3). Because of the width of the gangway, the companion (ladder) to the forecastle from the upper deck is in an impossible position (2). Climbing it would mean dodging around the forecastle breastwork (the low railing). This would be hazardous in heavy weather or in action. Either removing the gangway and moving the companion outboard in its place or omitting the companion altogether would be more likely.

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Another tantalizing omission is that of a steering wheel. Unless your specific plan shows stanchions for a wheel on the quarter deck, I believe that the ships as built were fitted only with a tiller. However, all ships likely had wheels added, probably during one of many repairs or refits. Another point to examine is the presentation of this model. It has a fully planked hull, but strips of deck planking are omitted to show detail beneath. (The cracks in the deck are from shrinkage across the grain of the pieces because of low humidity conditions compared to where the model was built.) Note the (modern) turned pedestals and plinth. This is just one of many ways to present a model.

CHAPTER THREE

2. Model #43, courtesy of Major Grant H. Walker, U. S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis

3. Model #43, courtesy of Major Grant H. Walker, U. S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis

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3.24 A height gauge is positioned to take off the height of the top of the lower sill to the quarter light. The Mylar plan has been carefully cut off along the base line, which is the lower edge of the false keel. It has then been set vertically on a plywood backing, so that all measurements can be directly transferred from plan to model.

3.24 The height gauge has now been moved from the plan to the building board and the same height transferred to the cant frame. Using the height gauge saves time. There can be no error in measurement unless the height is transferred to the wrong frame on the model!

4.25 The roundhouse deck of a modern model of the third rate 64-gun ship Polyphemus of 1782. This model shows proportionally tapered planking. The result was achieved using the technique outlined in the text. Every fourth beam was marked with the tick strip as a guide to ensure that cumulative error was taken care of during the planking process. The technique used can be applied equally well to hull planking. Note that this deck is laid using a four-step rather than three-step butt scheme. (For discussion of the usual three-step system, turn to section 4.11.)

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ith the basic hull framing now completed, you have succeeded in the most challenging part of this practicum. The work ahead is more varied and carries its own challenges, but will not require the endurance test of you that the frames did. The next stage in making the model is to begin tying the framework together longitudinally. We will first focus on the internal structures that perform this function. We will also cover the temporary external reinforcing timbers of the hull. As you see the ship continue to grow step by step I hope that you will find this work enjoyable. The amount of internal detail that you decide to make and fit is entirely up to you. I will be describing all the internal detail in the ship’s hull, but there is little point in carrying out work that will not be seen when the model is complete. I will suggest a minimum of harpins and ribbands externally, and deck clamps internally, but any amount of detail is possible. This is where you can make your own model unique from others’ work: in its presentation.

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4.1 The keelson The first order of business will be the keelson. This is the internal equivalent of the keel and runs along the top of the cutting down that you recently prepared. This substantial longitudinal is 12" wide and 13" deep and is composed of five sections joined together by hooked scarphs. A hooked scarph has a jog or step in the middle of the joint, so that it cannot easily be pulled apart longitudinally. Due to the direction that these scarph joints run, you will need to add them to your hull beginning aft and working forward. Nominally, the shape of these pieces can be taken from your Mylar plan. However, if the curve of your cutting down has varied from this, the pieces will need to be shaped to fit in place on your model. Also, if your ship’s plan varies from that on the Mylar, follow the layout from your own sheer draught. In the full-size ship, each piece would have been 7⁄ 8" deeper than shown on the drawing and let down by 7⁄ 8" between each floor (see illustration below left). Scores were cut alternately in the keelson and cross-chocks, shown below. As this detail will not be visible on your finished model it may be omitted. Start by marking out the aftermost piece on 12" thick stock, leaving the ends a little full to allow for fitting.

Once you have cut and smoothed the lower curved surface, rubber cement a strip of 100-grit sandpaper to this face. By gently moving the piece slightly fore and aft on the cutting down you can make the bed for the keelson a perfect fit. When you are satisfied with the mating surfaces, you can refine the upper curve of the piece, then cut the hooked scarph at the forward end. The last stage is to chamfer off the upper edges by about 3" at the angle shown (illustration above right).

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(When the limber boards are added, the surface should be almost continuous. Limber boards are short lengths of thin plank that are laid to cover over the limber channels on each side of the keelson. They prevent rubbish from falling in and clogging the pumps. They are removable for cleaning out the channels which direct bilgewater to the well. The well contains the lower ends of the ship’s pumps. We will deal with details of the limber boards later on.) I would run the chamfer short of the hooked scarph for the moment, so that you can match it in with the next section of keelson later. Before gluing in the first part of the keelson, cut the next piece forward. Shape its lower surface as you did before and fit the hooked scarph while the aftermost piece is out of the ship. You will also need to cut in a shallow score for the aft crutch (see section 4.32), seen crossing the keelson at about station 20. Mark and cut a shallow score into the sides and top of the keelson to help locate this accurately. A score 1" to 11⁄ 2" deep will be sufficient for this purpose. Take the position and width of the score directly from your own plan. When you are happy with the scarph joint, you can glue in the first section of the keelson. In the full-size ship, the keelson was bolted centrally through each floor and keel with 11⁄4" bolts (see illustrations on next page). As your model already has had its false keel added, do not drill all the way through to the underside. I would mark and prick each bolt position before drilling so that the drill point doesn’t wander, creating a ragged line of boltholes. Repeat the process of cutting and fitting each section of keelson, working forward. When you reach the fifth section, you will notice that there is an additional piece of reinforcing wood running up the back of the apron. This piece is the stemson. This fifth section of keelson tapers from 12" in width to 9" at its fore end. I would begin the taper at the last square frame forward. Note that there is a breasthook that crosses the keelson near its fore end. This is shown as a dashed rectangle — the cross section of its throat at the centerline — on the Mylar plan, but is actually crescent-shaped (see illustration above). The throat is the width across the widest part of a breasthook or knee the molding way. Once again, mark and cut a score for the breasthook. This will be detailed shortly.

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4.2 The stemson The stemson should be cut and fitted to the apron and the foremost piece of the keelson in the same way as you dealt with the keelson pieces. It is “officially” 8 1⁄ 2" wide all the way up, but I would make it 9". However, before finally installing it there are some other items that need attending to. There are two breasthooks that cross this piece and also one deck hook. The lower deck hook is similar to a breasthook, but carries the ends of the deck planking above it. The upper deck hook will eventually sit on the upper end of the stemson, so the height and angle of the top end are important to get correct. Again, cut 11⁄ 2" scores for these three hooks from your plan to make it easier to locate them later on (illustration at right). Having shaped and fitted the stemson, double check that the upper end is at the correct height before fitting it. If this is wrong it will affect the level of the upper deck at the bow.

4.3 Finishing the keelson The chamfers between the sections of keelson and the stemson may now be completed with files or using a sanding block. The other remaining task is to drill for the bolts that secure the hooked scarphs. These bolts are 3 ⁄ 4" in diameter, with two bolts in each lip or half of the scarph. Unlike the regular keelson bolts, these bolts are driven into the floors to a depth of only two or three inches (see illustrations at right).

Keelson scarph bolts

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4.4 The ribbands and harpins Moving to the outside of the ship, it is time to deal with the ribbands. These are to be fitted only where you will not be planking the hull. Ribbands are 4" square section temporary supports and run at regular intervals along the hull. At each end of the ship where the curvature becomes extreme, these ribbands are continued by harpins cut to shape. A harpin is a ribband that has been cut to shape rather than bent. The first ribband out from the keel is the floor head ribband. This runs 18" below the line of the floor heads. In the actual ship this ribband would have been too long to apply in a single piece. I imagine about 30' 0" lengths would have been used, joined by hooked scarphs. For the model these joints will be almost invisible, so the choice is yours. Large ships had more ribbands than the Swan class.

4.5 Ribband nails The ribbands were attached to the frames by ribband nails. These nails had large round heads (illustrated below), so that they could easily be pulled out again while planking the hull. I’m not sure how large the nailheads were, but about 3⁄4" diameter is not far wrong. I would also chemically blacken the nails to resemble wrought iron (see Appendix 4.1). Probably the best way to make these nails is to obtain brass wire of a suitable diameter (see Appendix 4.2). Use 26 or 24 gauge wire. To straighten wire from the coil, take a length and clamp one end of it in your bench metal vise. Grasp the other end of the wire with a pair of serrated-jaw pliers and pull the wire taut with some force. This will straighten wire much more rapidly than rolling it between two hard surfaces. Cut the wire into 3⁄8" (actual) lengths, and round off both the ends with a few strokes of a file or with a small cup-style rotary burr (obtainable from a jewelers’ supply house). Color them chemically as described in Appendix 4.1. Once finished, cut each piece in half with side or end cutters (illustrated above). This will give you a supply of “nails.” For this model, you will need about 90 nails per ribband with five ribbands per side: 450 nails in all for one side of the model! When the nails are inserted into pre-drilled holes, they will be left a little proud of the surface to give the illusion of round-headed nails.

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4.6 The floor head ribband and harpins Remove your hull from its building board, turn it over and mark a line in pencil 18" below the floor heads. With a flexible batten, extend this line across the cant frames to the stem forward and to the sternpost aft. This will be the line of the floor head ribband and harpins. Let the batten run in a natural curve as you mark the line out. Carefully saw lengths of 4" square stock. I recommend using a slitting saw blade for this operation: it will give a smooth finish and should not scorch the wood if the blade is set just high enough to clear the stock and the speed and feed rate kept moderate. While you are preparing these, also take the time to cut some wider stock of the same thickness for the harpins. It is up to you whether you wish to join “scale” lengths of ribband (see section 4.4) or run a piece continuously between the cants fore and aft. Depending on the flexibility of your stock, you should be able to bend the aft harpins rather than cut them from flat stock. Any joints will be in the vertical plane. The bow harpins will need to be cut from flat stock, due to their curvature, and as the forward ends terminate in “toes” that secure to the side of the stem (illustrated at left). Note that the run of your ribbands and harpins may not be exactly as illustrated above. The toe of the harpin should be as wide as the stem at each position. This feature is nicely shown on the contemporary model of Intrepid (pages 113-114). Aft, the floor head harpin runs all the way into the sternpost rabbet, but the other harpins will terminate on the aft fashion piece or side counter timber. (see illustration in section 4.7).

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This work should be straightforward, but deal with the bow harpin first. Its shape can be plotted from the floor head harpin diagonal on the body plan, but it is probably less trouble to use a profile gauge on the model itself in order to transfer the correct curve to your stock. It should be very close in shape to the scale drawing above, which was lofted from the draught. However, yours may vary slightly. Note the direction of the scarph which will help secure the ribband end. Also, as it attaches to the stem at an angle, you will need to leave a little extra wood to bevel at the toe so that the surfaces butt neatly. The harpin may also need a little judicious heating and twisting to get it to position properly. Once the bow harpin is cut and smoothed, make sure that you have a good fit at the scarph with the ribband before gluing the harpin into position. Drill for the nails with an appropriately sized drill bit. There should be one nail through each timber that the harpin crosses, and one nail into the side of the stem. Be particularly careful in drilling the latter hole, as the wood grain may be weak at this point. I would prick the hole centers with a small awl first, as you did for the chock bolts of the frames. In applying the nails, make a tool to drive them from a piece of brass rod or hardwood. The end should be hollowed out, so that when you drive the nail its head will remain above the surface of the harpin (illustrations at left). The hollow is made the depth that you wish the nailhead to protrude. Try 3⁄4": this should look about right. The tool will ensure consistency for all the nailheads. I would use a spot of epoxy for securing the nails rather than driving them into an undersized hole that risks splitting the harpin. Work aft, section by section, ensuring that each joint fits properly before securing each piece. The run of the aft floorhead harpin has such a gentle curve it can probably be bent from the square section ribband stock. As previously mentioned, it runs into the rabbet of the sternpost, where it is cut off snug at the rabbet’s edge (see illustration on following page).

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4.7 The first futtock ribband and harpins This procedure is repeated for the first futtock ribband and harpins. They run halfway between the floor and first futtock heads. The bow harpin should be made in the same way as the floor head one. It will be more curved than the one below it. Again, leave extra wood on the toe for bevelling it off against the stem. When you reach the stern, the harpin will terminate on the aft side of the fashion piece.

4.8 The second futtock ribband and harpins These run halfway between the first and second futtock heads. In all other respects they follow the same pattern as the preceding ribbands. Aft, they also end on either the first aft cant frames or fashion pieces, depending on which is furthest aft, as shown above.

4.9 The toptimber ribband and harpins These run about 1' 0" below the line of the ports and are not parallel to the line of the futtock joints. Aft, they will terminate on the aft side of the feet of the side counter timbers. Otherwise, they are made in exactly the same manner as the other ribbands.

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4.10 The sheer ribband and harpins The uppermost ribband runs about 9" below the sheer line, that is to say the line of the toptimbers in the waist. Forward, the harpin ends at the stemhead. Its aft end extends to the aft side of the side counter timber. This completes the outside of an unplanked hull.

4.11 The inner limber strakes (1)* Moving now to the inside of the hull, these stout planks of wood run internally either side of the keelson. There are two strakes on each side with a gap between the inner ones and the keelson. Amidships this gap, the limber passage or channel, is 11" wide. It narrows toward each end of the ship. At each end, triangular slivers of plank are laid to fill the remaining gaps. The first (inner) limber strake is 1' 0" wide and 41⁄ 2" thick, and the outer second one is 10" wide by 3" thick. Let us look at the details of the first limber strake. Its inner upper edge is rebated to take the limber boards, which will be 21⁄ 2" thick. Limber boards are short lengths of plank which are laid over the limber passage to prevent ballast or dirt falling in and clogging the pumps. The outer upper edge of this strake has a chamfer to step down to the second or outer strake. The strake tapers at each end and will twist to lie on the floors and first futtocks. Of course, it was not laid in one continuous plank, but will be in four pieces, the ends lying centered on a floor or first futtock. The butts will be staggered with the other plank ends of the ceiling. This term is misleading, as it refers to the inner planking of the hold, which is below and to the sides of a person standing in the ship! This term was originally spelled sealing, in the sense of sealing up, which then makes better sense. A word on the butting of planks. These were not set at random in a ship, but laid out in a distinct and regular pattern. Also the butts of the inside planking were offset from the butts of the outside planking for maximum strength. Generally speaking, there were three strakes of planking between butts that landed on the same frame, and each adjacent butt was shifted (offset) by no less than six feet in one direction and twelve feet in the other from its neighbor (see illustration on following page).

* Numbers refer to the strakes, counting from the inner limber strake upward (see plan on the following spread).

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Planks were therefore at least 24' 0" long. In order to follow the shipwrights’ practice, both the inner and outer planking will need to butt on specific frames in order to shift correctly. In addition, there were other rules for the distribution of planking. There is no plan available for the internal planking of the Swan class. (At this time of writing, an external planking expansion for the Swan class is listed by David Lyon1, but the National Maritime Museum cannot locate this drawing.) However, there are several other similar plans in the Museum collection, called expansion of planking draughts. The closest of these to the Swan class is for a 20 gun ship, the Sphinx of 1775. The internal and external planking is shown in great detail, it must be noted that this drawing is dated 1808. The reference number is 2499/45, ZAZ unknown. Although this may have been a draftsman’s exercise, I used this draught as a starting point for both internal and external planking schemes. The internal expansion scheme is shown on the following spread at 1:96 scale. There is no real need for the 1:48 version. I have reconstructed what I believe is an accurate representation of contemporary naval practice and the planking for a Swan class ship. If you have never seen one of these drawings before, a word of explanation. The shape of the planking is distorted, much like that of a projected map of the world. However, the lengths of the planks are correct, the widths are accurate, and the joints appear in the correct positions. The gaps in the planking are where the deck beams and waterways will sit. The blank area at the stern represents the transoms: the internal planking actually ends on the last cant frame and fashion pieces to allow for air circulation. The ship’s external planking will be covered in a later chapter.

The Sailing Navy List, David Lyon, page 96. In 2002 Stephen Duffy showed me a copy of this missing plan to study. The contemporary inscription is dated February 10, 1776, and is for Hornet, building at the time. It is unique in that it is an elevation, not an expansion, and shows both internal and external planking shifts above the waterline worked out and superimposed on the same drawing. My appreciation and thanks to Stephen for bringing this plan to my attention.

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The butts for the first limber strake should fall as shown (see illustration below). These are regular butt joints. The fore and aftermost pieces should run off to a point as they converge on the keelson (illustration opposite right). Their tapers will need to be cut on a changing bevel to fit snugly against the keelson. A miniature plane, such as an instrument makers’ or an X-Acto© plane, works well here. (Also, read Appendix 4.3 for further techniques to plane planks.) Another method to achieve the changing bevel is to set the twist and curve into the plank first with dry heat and then sand the inner edge against a flat sanding card. This will give a good fit against the keelson. The rebate for the limber boards stops at the ends of the planks adjacent to the fore and aftermost pieces. Note that the limber strakes thin down at both ends to become 2" thick at bow and stern. This is progressively done over the last 9' 0" at each end. All the joint shifts are according to Steel’s specifications, and the plank scantlings are derived from the same source. The pattern of planking above lower deck level is adapted from a now mislaid drawing of Hornet made during her build (see footnote, previous page).

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The gap for the lower deck beams appears to end at station 7 because the planking aft of here rises above the level of the deck.The planking sheer curves more than that of the deck. (The same is true of the platforms below, but this will be dealt with in detail in Chapter Five.) Platforms are partial decks in the hold, which you can see on your sheer and profile plans. The platforms are divided into storerooms, cabins and the ship’s magazine. I would strongly suggest that you pre-bend all planks, dry or wet, before installation, to minimize the stresses on the fastenings and the hull structure. (If wet, the plank MUST be allowed time to dry out first.) It is a lot easier than trying to hold down springy pieces of wood while hoping that the glue will grab!

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4.11a How much detail to include There are innumerable ways in which to complete your model. I assume that, having made all the framing, you will wish to leave one side of the model either entirely or partially unplanked. Look at photographs of models that you admire to see the various styles in which this can be done. To show internal constructional detail, you will either need to cut a window in the side of the hull, or have removable sections to provide access. If you can afford it, I suppose fibre-optic cable and LED lighting might also be an option! If you wish to plank one side and not cut holes in the other, much of the interior detail I am going to describe can be ignored. However, adding some further internal longitudinal elements will stabilize the framing. Read sections 4.12 through 4.26, then decide which direction you wish to go, and proceed accordingly.

4.12 The outer limber strakes (2) The next longitudinal to be fitted is the outer limber strake, which is 10" wide and 3" thick (see illustration section 4.14). The joints are shifted as shown on the expansion, being on the floor of 13, first futtock of 2, and first futtock of E. Once again, the extreme ends should be tapered and fitted to the keelson on their inboard sides. Like the inner strake, the fore and aft ends reduce in thickness to match them at 2". The outer edges of the strake are chamfered off to the level of the ceiling plank which will be 2".

4.13 Fastening the planking Another digression is now in order: that of fastenings. (This applies to all the planking on the model.) If a strake is over 11" wide, it is double fastened to the frame. If the strake is between 11" and 8" wide, the fastenings are alternately single and double, and if narrower than 8", single fastenings are used. Use your thinnest (7⁄ 8") treenails to represent these fastenings, drilling at opposing angles for additional security. Typical fastening patterns are shown at right.

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Over 11"

8" to 11"

Under 8"

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4.14 Thickstuff over the floorheads (6, 7, 8) The next set of inboard longitudinals are the heavier strakes of planking which go over the floorheads amidships and aft (see illustration on opposite page). Steel refers to these as thickstuff. Forward, they run below the floorheads. These are strakes 6, 7 and 8 counting up from the inner limber strake. (Strakes 3, 4 and 5 are regular ceiling planks 2" thick and are only fitted if you are fully planking the interior of the hull. These will be considered later on.) As you can see on the expansion plan, the three strakes reduce to two at the bow. If this were not done, the forward ends of the planking would narrow too much. To work out the run of these strakes, cut some slips of paper about 1⁄ 4" wide, and, by placing one end of the slip against the outer limber strake, you can bend the paper along the frame at various points to mark the line of the floorhead strakes. The midship distance from the outer limber strake to the lowest floorhead strake should measure 2' 6". If you have constructed the framing accurately, the center of the floorhead chocks amidships should be another 1' 7" above this point. The space between the outer limber strake and the lowest floorhead strake should be about the following distances at these stations: Fore cant 5 Station K E 4 10 Aft cant 11

1' 10" 2' 3" 2' 5" 2' 5" 2' 4" 2' 3"

Individual models will show slight variances from these figures, I am sure. In each case average things out, and make sure that the line through these points forms a smooth curve. Please note that toward the bow, the line of the floorheads will curve away above these strakes.

The lowest of the strakes at the floorhead is 3" thick and 1' 0" wide amidships. Its joints fall on the same frames as those of the outer limber strake. The trickiest piece will be the foremost one, which is notched for the middle strake. The diagrams (above) show one strategy for dealing with this plank.

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Once shaped, fit the fore end very carefully to the side of the stemson. Aft, the strake tapers very slightly to 101⁄ 2" where it meets the line of the keelson. Fit a plank 12" wide and 3" thick aft of the keelson on top of the deadwood to fill the remaining gap in ships whose keelson ends short of the inner post. The middle strake is a full 41⁄ 2" thick and 1' 2" wide amidships. This time the joints fall as follows: frames G fore, 2 fore and 12 aft. The strake tapers to a mere 5" wide at its forward end and to about 10" wide aft. Make sure that the forward end seats all the way across fore cant 5. Aft, it is the highest strake to meet the line of the keelson at the deadwood. Except at the ends of the hull, where all three strakes reduce to 21⁄ 2" in thickness, the edges of the plank are chamfered in the same way as the limber strakes. A B C D E

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Limber strakes (1, 2) Thickstuff at the floorhead (6, 7, 8) Thickstuff at the first futtock head (12, 13) Lower deck clamp (14, 15) Upper deck clamps (20, 21)

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The upper floorhead strake has the same dimensions as the lower strake and is in five pieces. The butts fall on forward cant frame 5, B fore, 7 fore, and aft cant 5. Observe the tapers fore and aft on the expansion, and work the foremost plank as you did for the lower strake. This strake also becomes thinner at the ends of the hull, working down to 21⁄ 2" in thickness.

4.15 Thickstuff at the first futtock head (12, 13) These are analogous to the thickstuff at the floorheads and consist of two strakes as shown opposite. Amid ships they sit over the first futtock head joints, but forward, the joint lines are above these strakes and drop below them aft. Amidships, the lower strake is about 3' 0" above the upper floorhead strake as measured along the frame: this distance may vary slightly on your own model. The center of the futtock joints are 1' 41⁄2" above this line amidships. The lower strake is 10" wide and 3" thick amidships, and the joints follow the pattern already established. You can refer to the planking expansion to locate these. The upper strake is 4" thick. At the bow the two strakes reduce to one and a half, and the strake above (the lowest strake of the lower deck clamp, 14) also is jointed to strake 12. Strakes 12 and 13 also thin to 3" both fore and aft. Aft, both strakes terminate on the aft side of the fashion piece or last cant frame, whichever is furthest aft. (The arrangement will vary in ships whose fashion piece runs higher than the fourth filling transom.) None of the interior longitudinals or planking cover the transoms.

4.16 The lower deck clamp (14, 15) I would strongly recommend marking out the run of the lower deck clamps before installing the upper two strakes of thickstuff, as any inequality needs to be taken up by these strakes between strake 13 and the lower deck clamp. It is imperative that the lower deck is located at the correct level. The first thing to note is that the lower deck beams are let down on the upper clamp strake by 1". This means that the top of the clamp is 1" higher than the bottom of the beams. You can see

this feature illustrated on the opposite page. Each measurement that you take from the Mylar plan needs to have the depth of the deck beams (the Swan class drawings measure out at 6", but Steel specifies 71⁄ 2"), less 1" deducted from it, making a difference of 5".

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You will now appreciate being able to slide a thin height gauge (see Appendix 4.4) between the frames to mark the deck clamp heights, which would be impossible were the outer planking already in place. I would take several representative points along the side, mark them both port and starboard, and use a thin, flexible batten to join up the points in a smooth curve. Check that this line continues smoothly to the score that you made in the stemson for the lower deck breast hook (see 4.2), remembering that the bottom of this score will be 1" below the line of the clamp top. If there is a discrepancy, double check and make adjustments. The lower deck clamp is substantial; the upper strake is 4" thick and 1' 1" wide amidships. The thickness of the clamp reduces until it is 3" thick at the lower edge of the lower strake. These two strakes are worked top and butt for strength. The layout of these joints is illustrated on pages 186 and 187. The ends of the clamp were thinned down to 3" within 7' 0" of the ends. I would not reduce the width of the clamp at the bow, except to take off the upper edge to make it horizontal along its length (see the illustration, section 4.14, marked D). Forward the upper edge should be 1" above the level of the score in the stemson for the deck hook. It narrows only slightly aft to about 1' 0" wide.

4.17 The first futtock head upper strake (13) Like its name, this is a substantial strake, measuring 4" thick by 1' 1" wide amidships. It abuts the lower deck clamp. At the bow it narrows down to 5" like the floorhead middle strake. It is about 8" wide at the fashion piece. It also reduces to 3" in thickness toward the ends, matching the level of the lower and upper strakes. Chamfer the edges down to meet the adjacent strakes amidships.

4.18 The first futtock head lower strake (12) The lower strake measures 3" by 10" amidships. The thickness of this strake does not diminish at the ends of the hull. Follow the planking expansion diagram for the plank butt locations. This strake completes the inboard longitudinals in the hold.

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4.19 The upper deck clamp (18, 19) The upper deck clamp consists of two heavy strakes which are worked top and butt fashion. The first thing to do is to mark the line of the top of the clamp in the same way as you did for the lower deck clamp. Once again, the upper deck beams are let down by 1", so you will need to deduct this from the deck beam depth of 7". (Steel specifies 8", but this is about 30 years later than our subject.) Take several measurements along the hull from your Mylar drawing and transfer these heights between the frames as you did before. Mark the inside of the hull with your flexible batten, ensuring a smooth curve. Double check that this line is parallel to the gun deck lower port sills. The vertical distance, if your deck beams are 7" deep, should be 2' 31⁄ 2", except forward at the bridle port, where the distance is 1" less. Also check the relationship of this line to the top of the stemson. It should be just 1" higher. Make any necessary adjustments now, referring to the Mylar plan. When you are satisfied with the run of the clamp, proceed to the upper strake. The upper strake of the clamp is 4" thick. The total width of the two strakes is 2' 2" amidships. The upper edge of the clamp should be trimmed horizontal in the same way as the lower deck clamp. There is a slight taper in thickness to meet the lower strake. The top of the aft end of the strake will butt against the wing transom. The lower of the two strakes is 3" thick at its lower edge. Again, the positions of the joints with the upper strake are shown on the expansion drawing. The lower strake may taper in width slightly at the bow. The lower edge of this strake is chamfered where there is a 2" wide air gap below it (see section 4.20). Note that the aftermost plank is 2" deeper than the rest of the strake, as the air gap does not extend all the way aft. This detail was shown in the Hornet draught mentioned previously.

4.20 The air space This is one item that you will not have to make! There is a 2" gap below the upper deck clamp to allow air circulation between the frames. It is indicated on the cross-section (section 4.14) and expansion plan (pages 186 and 187). Allowing 2", mark out the lines of the remaining two strakes below.

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4.21 The string in the waist (25) This is the official name for the uppermost longitudinal in the waist of the ship. The waist is the area of bulwark that extends between the forecastle and quarter deck. The ends of the string are hook-scarphed into the clamps of these two decks and is continuous with them. The thickness of the string is 3", and its width is the distance between the top of the frames above and the bottom of the upper port sills below. This longitudinal needs to be wide enough to be trimmed horizontally on its upper and lower edges (see illustration below).

The positions of the scarphs is shown on the expansion plan. The scarph length is a minimum of 3' 6". Hornet’s draught shows a length of 4' 0". The string will also need to be fitted around the two fixed blocks in the waist. This longitudinal was bolted rather than treenailed through the frames to the sheer strake outside at each alternate toptimber with 3⁄ 4" bolts.

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The sheer strake is the highest strake outside the ship at the top of the side in the waist. The lower edge of the string is chamfered to meet the 2" planking below it. I would suggest delaying permanently fitting the string until you have cut the scarph joints for the forecastle and quarter deck clamps (see below).

4.22 The forecastle deck clamp (25) This continues the string in the waist and is of similar dimensions. It needs to be wide enough to have its lower edge level with the upper edge of the port opening. Once again, mark the upper limit of the clamp by transferring measurements up from the building board. The beams, which are 5" deep, are not let down on the clamp. Ideally, the vertical distance from the upper deck clamp to the forecastle one should be 5' 8". Headroom was low under the forecastle! The upper and lower edges, like those of the string, should be horizontal.

4.23 The quarter deck clamp (25, 26) The quarter deck clamp consists of two strakes, the lower one being continuous with the string in the waist. Both strakes are 3" thick and are of sufficient width to span the distance from the upper edge of the ports to the level of the quarter deck beams. As usual, mark the upper edge of the clamp out using a height gauge and flexible batten. The vertical distance from the upper edge of the upper deck clamp to upper edge of the quarter deck clamp is 6' 31 ⁄ 2", increasing to 6' 41 ⁄ 2" aft. Officers ranked more headroom than ordinary seamen! The detail above the quarter badge light is shown below (the clamp strakes are shaded here for clarity). There is a short piece of plank forward of the quarter deck beams (26a) that will be cut and fitted later, but note the shape of the forward end of strake 26.

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The clamps are continued to the aft side of the side counter timbers. Make sure that the ends of the clamps protrude about 1⁄ 32" (full size) past the counter timber for now, as the round aft of the side counter timbers has not yet been attended to. The fore end of the upper strake may vary from that shown on the expansion, depending on the step-down of the aft hance on your particular ship and the height of the drift. The drift is

the area of planking and framing above the level of the sheer. This completes the inner longitudinals of the ship and, together with the ribbands and harpins, gives considerable strength to your hull. If you have been careful in your work, you are now assured that your decks will run with a smooth sheer at their correct levels and that all the internal structures will fit in their correct positions. Next we will complete the inner planking of the hold.

4.24 The footwaling (3, 4, 5) This refers to the remainder of the internal planking that runs between the longitudinals that you have already fitted. How much of this you fit in your model is up to you. In a sloop this was 2" thick. There are three strakes fitted between the limber strakes and the floorhead thickstuff. Observe the correct shift of butts for these strakes by following the expansion plan in section 4.11. You will find that while they taper toward the bow, aft they will either stay parallel or even expand slightly in width to fill the gap.

4.25 Finding the taper of planking The easiest way to determine how much a series of planks need to be tapered is by using a simple scale such as shown opposite, together with tick strips of paper. Draw a series of equidistant radiating lines as shown, spreading out to a distance further apart than the widest plank that you are likely to need: 1' 6" is a good choice. Take a tick strip, (A, illustration on following page) and mark the midships distance X across the space to be planked. Slide the tick strip along your scale until the marks line up with the number of planks required in the space. In the example, it shows three planks. Mark off the width of the individual planks at that station on your tick strip. Transfer this width to the plank itself. Repeat this process at different spots along the plank (as at B, following page). You can then join up the points which gives you the line you will plane the plank down to, to give its correct taper. This way it is easy to get a series of planks with equally diminishing tapers to fit a given space.

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A further point to note is that on wide bands of planking, such as decks, it is helpful to transfer these marks back from the tick strip onto the beams. This way you have a visual guide if cumulative error starts to creep in. Spotted early, it is easy to make an adjustment by making the next plank a shaving wider or narrower. This will be imperceptible in the finished deck.

4.26 Planks; sny and spiling off Sny is defined as a curving upward of a plank in order for it to fit properly and is mainly found in planking near the bow. It can be minimized by reducing the number of strakes as one approaches the stem. (These are the drop strakes.) When planking, you will find that as you proceed it becomes harder to fit succeeding planks without forcing them sideways to fit against the previous strake. Obviously, forcing the plank to fit is a poor strategy. Apart from the stresses that it will impose on the hull, the plank will tend to twist as it is forced into a curve across its wide dimension. It will refuse to lie flat against the frames. One cannot bend a plank in three different planes. It will become obvious that to obtain a good fit, the plank must be cut to a curve, and then bent in one or two planes only. The process of determining this curve is called spiling off.

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This process is not difficult once you have mastered the principle. Start with a piece of thin card a little longer and wider than the plank you are about to determine the shape of. (Paper is too thin and can buckle easily.) Using small pieces of masking tape, fix the card next to the strake that has already been laid, as shown below. (The tape has been omitted from the drawing.) You will see the edge of the strake curving relative to the edge of the card strip. There are several ways of transferring this curve to the card. Using a small pair of compasses is one good method. Ensure that the lead point is well sharpened. I rub an angled face on it using 100-grit sandpaper (shown at left). Open the compass legs a little, place the side of the metal point (which may be reversed in the compass leg) against the strake that is in place and run the lead along the card strip. Keep the legs of the compass in the same orientation as you go along. The exact shape of the curve that you need is now marked directly on the card. Simply transfer the curve from the card, now flattened out, to your plank stock, and the shape is ready to cut. My own method is to cut the card out along the pencil line and then use this as a custom French curve to mark the plank stock. To determine the “far” side of the plank, transfer the widths with your tick strip as described in section 4.25 to obtain the developed shape (see the spiling off diagram above). The resulting plank should fit perfectly without any fight. That’s all there is to the mystery of spiling off. Shape the plank either with chisels and sandpaper or use the plank-holding jig (Appendix 4.3) and a miniature plane. Check the mating edge with the existing planking and make fine adjustments if necessary before trimming the “far” side of the plank to shape.

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4.27 The footwaling, continued (9, 10, 11) The next band of footwaling (also called futtling by Steel, and synonymous with the term ceiling), runs between the floorhead thickstuff and the thickstuff over the first futtock heads. Again, there are three planks that fill this space. They are dealt with in exactly the same way as the previous band of footwaling. Use tick strips and observe the correct shifts of the butts. Once again, there is considerable narrowing of the strakes toward the bow, but little aft. These planks are also 2" thick. These complete the inner planking of the hold.

4.28 The main mast step There are a number of features that straddle the midline of the bottom of the hold that need to be made and fitted before installing the limber boards. The first of these are the mast steps. These are substantial pieces of wood that span the keelson. In some ships the mizen mast may be stepped on the lower deck with supporting pillars placed below. Each step has a square hole mortised in it for the tenon cut into the heels of the lower masts. Let us begin with the main mast step. Its cross-section can be taken from the plan, but its shape needs to be defined. I have drawn the step to the left, with a scale drawing of its end elevation. This is slightly conjectural, but the length of the step has to be such that it fits between the pillars of the well which will surround it. The well is the compartment which contains the lower ends of the ship’s pumps. The pillars of the well are specified by Steel to be 5' 6" “in the clear,”2 so 5' 3" seems about right. The lower surfaces have to fit over the keelson and the limber strakes, so you may need to modify my pattern to fit your model. Note that there should be a gap under the step for the limber passage, so that water may flow freely through (illustration on opposite page). The corners and edges of the step are heavily chamfered off. The upper surface may have had a wider top or the angled surfaces cut concave (see next page): the interpretation I will leave up to you. 2

David Steel, Naval Architecture, 1805 edition, Folio XV.

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The mortise for the mast is 10" square and 7" deep, with tapered sides as shown on the plans. The easiest way to sink the mortise is to first drill it carefully to depth with a 5⁄ 32" drill and then to use a miniature chisel to cut the hole four-square. The chisel in the palm-handled carving set from Lee Valley Tools ® is one good choice for this task. This may surprise you, but the mast step was not actually bolted down to the keelson or limber strakes! However, there were bolts driven into the keelson fore and aft of the step and securing wedges inserted in the gaps. A degree of fore and aft adjustment was thus possible to alter mast rake. Rake is the angle that a mast makes with the vertical in a fore and aft plane. These bolts are 15⁄ 8" in diameter and driven centrally into the keelson 9" fore and aft of the designed step position. Again, how much of this detail you show is your choice. If you install the bolts, I would let them protrude 9" to 12" above the keelson and make the wedges about 9" high. To represent the bolts, 1 ⁄32" (20 gauge) copper or brass wire is close to scale diameter. The sketch here indicates the way I imagine the arrangement was made. You can locate the step’s position fore and aft by the floors and first futtock timbers visible in the limber passage. Check with your Mylar plan to see exactly where the step sits relative to the floor of frame 3. I would glue the step and the wedges down for security anyway, otherwise they will be sure to slip out of position when it is no longer accessible!

4.29 The foremast step In larger ships the moveable foremast step was placed between two hooks. A hook is a curved timber that straddles the keelson like a large crutch: a curved timber with an angle in it. In the Swan class, however, this is not the arrangement. The foremast step appears to be a single massive crutch or hook 19" thick. Again, the plans only show its cross-section. It was probably about 8' 0" across, with the mortise for the mast step at its midline. Unlike the main mast step, this step was bolted down. It does not seem as if there was any means to alter the position of the mortise as there was in ships with the standard arrangement.

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The shape of the step is drawn for you (below left). Its pattern (right) is shown as seen looking forward from aft. Your own pattern may vary from this somewhat, but it is a starting point. Note that the lower surfaces are angled and need to be fitted to the keelson and ceiling carefully, so that the fore and aft sides of the step are vertical. A good strategy is to start with an oversized blank, 19" thick, and shape the under surfaces first. When you are satisfied with their fit to the keelson and ceiling plank, mark out the upper contours and trim the upper surfaces of the step to size.

As mentioned, the upper surface is horizontal at the mortise, but the arms of the crutch are progressively twisted so that the ends are not weakened due to the angle that the piece makes with the ceiling planks. The limber channel does not extend this far forward, so there is no need to notch out under the step. The step mortise is 9" square and 7" deep. Once again, chamfer off all the edges of the step as you did for the main mast step. Carefully position the step, using the scarphs of the keelson and stemson as your landmarks. The step will be bolted through to the cant frames below with eight 1" diameter bolts. Steel does not specify the bolting pattern, but two pairs of bolts a side seems a logical choice.

4.30 The mizen mast step This is a smaller version of the foremast step. For this step, its thickness is 1' 0", the mortise being 61⁄ 2" square, and 4" deep. The width across the arms is probably the same as that of the crutch aft of it: 5' 6". The pattern is drawn as seen from forward looking aft. Some ships had the mizen step mounted on the deck above, although this was unusual until after 1807. Follow the same approach as you did for the foremast step. Once again, eight 1" bolts secure this feature to the frames below. Carefully position the step, measuring its position relative to the last scarph joint line of the keelson.

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You have now completed the first features found at the bottom of the hold. Next to be tackled are the limber boards.

4.31 The limber boards The limber boards, which cover and protect the limber channels from debris, were made of English oak 21⁄ 2" thick. They were made in sections about 3' 0" long. The exception was beneath the hatches, where the pieces were made up with the grain running across the width of the board. The reason for this was so that if a board got jammed in place it could easily be split out. I imagine that the cross-grain pieces would have been about 18" to 24" long. The boards had holes in them for ease in prying up. I am not sure how these were pierced. They may have had either a hole near each end or a semicircular cutout at each end. The latter would involve less labor. In either instance the holes should be about 11⁄ 2" in diameter. The sketches (below) are self-explanatory. You can find the location of the hatchways from your NMM plans, and place shorter limber boards in those areas, if you wish. The other area clear of limber boards was in the well, at the foot of the pumps. The extent of the well fore and aft is indicated on the profile drawing by the vertical partitions just forward of stations 3 and 5. Inside you can see the chain pump casing indicated aft of the main mast step and the elmtree pump case forward of it. The other compartment forward of the well, with a diagonal top, is the shot locker. (The items indicated in italic face will be described in the next two chapters.) The limber boards under the shot locker may have been permanent and without any holes for rust particles and paint flakes to fall through. The well was a protected area which did not require limber boards to keep out debris. The last items to note are the other vertical partitions that cross the keel. Leave 2" spaces for these between your limber boards. Locate the positions of these partitions by measuring along the top of the keelson from the joint lines as you did for the mast steps. If in doubt about their position, use the exposed frames in the limber channel as a check. If you install the limber boards, be sure to glue them securely in place.

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4.32 The crutch aft of the mizen mast The rectangular sloped shape that appears on the ship’s profile across the keelson at about station 20 is the crutch. It is similar to the mizen mast step, but thinner in section. The pattern here should be close to correct, but will need to be fitted to your individual model. No allowance has been made on this pattern for the score in the keelson. The score that you cut in the keelson earlier (section 4.1) will help to locate the crutch accurately. Proceed as you did for the mizen mast step, noting that this crutch is placed at an angle. Mark and cut the piece from 81 ⁄ 2" thick stock (Steel 3 specifies 8"). Remember to chamfer the edges of the crutch as you did for the mast steps. The crutch was fastened with eight 1" bolts in the same manner as the mizen mast step.

4.33 Breast hooks The analogous timbers to the crutch, reinforcing the inside of the bow of the ship, are the breast hooks (also spelled as breasthooks). In a Swan class ship there are two breast hooks forward of the foremast step in the hold. Above these is the lower deck hook, which will be dealt with later. The patterns given are approximate. Their shapes may vary from these in your own ship. Make allowance for the locating scores in the keelson. Deal with the breast hooks in the same way as you did the steps and crutches. The aftermost one (officially named the lower breast hook) is 9" thick. Steel4 gives this dimension as 81⁄2". It is secured to the keelson and framing with nine 1" diameter bolts. One bolt is placed centrally through the keelson. The upper breast hook is similar, but is shorter than Steel’s specification, as its arms must clear the lower deck beams above. Note the bevels of the curved edge (the pattern is drawn as seen from aft). There is a bolt through each timber that the knee crosses. Once again, chamfer off the edges of the breast hooks as you did the crutch and mast steps.

David Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XIII.

Ibid, Folio XIV.

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4.34 The sleepers These are rarely shown on models, but are important reinforcements for the transoms. A sleeper was a modified curved knee. A sixth rate had a single sleeper on each side of the keelson aft. (Large ships had up to three per side.) They run diagonally across the transoms and aftermost cant frames, roughly in line with the run of the planking (illustrated below). Depending on exactly how you place them their shape will vary, so you will have to produce your own pattern from the general dimensions given. You can either take the shape off the model with a contour tool, or cut and fit a card pattern by trial and error. The upper arm of the sleeper runs up to the upper edge of the first filling transom. Its overall length will be between 10' 0" and 12' 0". About 6' 0" to 8' 0" of this should extend across the cant frames. Each sleeper is 7 1 ⁄ 2" thick. I would make the central part of the sleeper about 8" high. Take time and care to shape and fit the under surface of the sleepers to the hull accurately. Note the step in the underside where it fits over the ends of the internal planking. The sleeper is bolted through each cant frame with two 1" bolts, plus two bolts through each transom that it crosses. Again, remember to chamfer the edges of the sleepers.

4.35 The wing transom knees These are large knees that secure the outer ends of the wing transom to the sides of the ship. In the case of the Swan class these are also part of the fabric of the lower deck framing. The aftermost beams of this deck will mortise into the fore arm of the knee. These mortises are cut at an angle so as not to weaken the knee. (This is indicated in some NMM profile plans by indicating the aftermost beams as hatched lines.) Note that the lower edge of the wing transom knee will rest along the lower deck clamp, and athwartships it will cant upwards slightly toward the midline as part of the round-up of the lower deck. The upper surface must be continuous with the upper surface of the wing transom. Let down the outer lower surface of the knee by 1" on the clamp so that it will match the deck beam height and the wing transom. If this is not the case, modify the thickness of the knee until it does so.

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Each knee is 7" thick, with the arm against the wing transom 5' 0" long. The fore and aft arm is 7' 0" long. The former was tabled into the wing transom, but although I’ve indicated it on the pattern below, this detail will not be seen. A table is a long shallow mortise and tenon: one surface has a score taken out of it, and the other has a corresponding projection to fit the recess. Here the score is let into the forward face of the wing transom, and a tenon is worked on the aft face of the knee. You will need to do some careful shaping to fit the knee to the wing transom and the side of the ship. Take your time to get this just right.

There are ten 1" bolts securing the knee, plus an additional pair of 5⁄ 8" bolts at each end. Once again, you will need to adjust the pattern above to fit your own model. Cut the sloping scores for the aftermost deck beams now; it will be difficult to do this once the knee is fitted! Check the beam positions on your NMM plan: they may differ from my pattern. Lightly chamfer only the lower edge of this knee. Its upper side will meet the deck planking above. You have now completed the internal bracing of the lower hull. A ship of this size did not have riders in the hold; they were fitted only to ships of fifty guns or larger. The exception to this rule was the bomb vessel, a highly specialized ship requiring heavy internal reinforcement to absorb the recoil of the mortars. Riders are additional internal frames fitted across the hold at intervals inside the ceiling.

END OF CHAPTER FOUR

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Appendix 4.1 Chemical coloring of metal There are many products on the market for coloring non-ferrous metals. These are obtainable from companies such as Micro Mark® or a local jewelers’ supply house. Looking at a recent catalog from one of the supply houses, there are chemicals available to color brass and copper either a green patina, brown, brown-black, grey-black and full black. (There is also a chemical to put a gold finish on brass!) In order to obtain a satisfactory finish, the parts to be colored need to be cleaned and degreased. A suitable de-greaser is isopropanol, which you already have for de-gluing. Other possible solvents, but not recommended for home use, are acetone (toxic and highly flammable!) and methyl hydrate (flammable). Once the parts are cleaned, do not handle them except with perfectly clean tweezers. I recommend using stainless steel ones. The next important point is that you must dilute the coloring solution. I would used distilled or de-ionized water at about an 8:1 proportion. If you do not do this, the chemical action will be rapid, but the surface will rub and flake off; it will not be durable. The chemical action is slowed considerably by dilution but the resulting surface finish will be stable. Be sure to agitate the solution (in a glass or plastic container) regularly so that fresh chemical is in contact with all surfaces, so all sides of the objects are treated equally. Once the parts have achieved the color that you want, remove them from the solution with stainless steel tweezers, wash them in warm water and dry them.

Appendix 4.2 Here are some approximate wire gauge equivalents. Many other and smaller sizes of brass wire are obtainable from piano or harpsichord supply houses.

206

Gage

approx. scale size

Gage

approx. scale size

28 26 24 22

.304 .381 .508 .635

.012 .015 .020 .025

⁄ 8" 3 ⁄ 4" 1" 1 1⁄ 4"

20 18

.787 .031 1.016 .040

1 1⁄ 2" 2"

16 14 13 12 10

1.25 1.5 1.79 2.03 2.57

.049 .059 .071 .080 .101

2 1⁄ 2" 2 3⁄ 4" 3 1⁄ 2" 4" 4 3⁄ 4"

3.24

.128

6 1⁄ 4"

CHAPTER

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Appendix 4.3 Planing planks on edge There are several ways to secure a plank while planing its edge down. The method described here works well for me. There is a flat baseboard, to which are glued a number of wood strips. Each is separated from its neighbor by a different distance, from a scale 2" up to 8", in half inch increments. A solid stop is glued at one end of these strips, as illustrated below. The plank to be reduced in width is slipped into the appropriate slot, which holds it securely while the edge is being planed down.

The thickness of the superimposed wood strips on the base are 1⁄16" (full size). The baseboard is of ply and sits on my workbench against a fixed wooden stop strip. The overall length of the fixture is about 9", full size. As you plane, be careful to plane with the grain so that you don’t get tear-out. If this begins to occur, simply reverse the direction of the plank in the fixture and continue. Occasionally you will find that the grain reverses along the plank edge, and you will need to plane from both ends.

Appendix 4.4 Measuring off heights You will frequently need to transfer height measurements from your plan to the model on its building board. Some form of height gauge is most useful for this. Those of you owning a machinist’s height gauge will presumably already be using it, but others may be unfamiliar with such an instrument. You can make a home-made version for yourself that will function just as well. The easiest way to transfer measurements is by cutting your Mylar plan exactly along the line of the bottom of the false keel. Then set the plan up on a ply or MDF backing board at right angle to the base. The photos (page 174) illustrate the technique. For those who prefer to keep their plan intact, clamp a straight batten along the base-line with the plan on a backer board, and proceed as before.

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CHAPTER FIVE

y now your model will be looking very much like a ship, but there’s still a long way to go! The work from here on will be quite varied and demand a variety of skills to complete successfully. The details of the lower hold area are fascinating and reflect some of the variety of tasks and skills that a seaman had to acquire. The amount of internal detail that you decide to make and fit is your choice. I will be describing all the internal detail in the ship’s hull, but there is little point in carrying out work that will not be seen when the model is complete. I will suggest a minimum of the platform beams with their supports and the well, but it is possible to include every detail. Read through this entire chapter and then make your own decisions. Here you can make your mark: each model will be unique in its presentation. The sequence that this part follows is my suggested one. We will start with the main hold with its ballast and stores and construct the aft platform followed by the well. The pillars under the lower deck beams need to be made and fitted next, as the bulkheads on the platforms cannot be constructed until they are in position. We will then move on to the fore platforms, then go back to finish the details on the aft platform (including the ship’s magazine), and end by constructing the fore platform storerooms.

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5.1 The ballast There were two varieties of permanent ballast in the ship. The first was in the form of iron pigs. These were made a standard size and laid carefully in layers on both sides of the limber channels, mainly forward of the well. Several drawings of ballast disposition still exist which show that their distribution was asymmetrical.1 Presumably some ships listed when unballasted, and this compensated for the imbalance. A second layer of iron pigs were called riders, and if there were a third layer, double riders. Standard pigs, or kentledge, weighed 320 lbs (145 kg) and were 3' 0" long by 6" square in section. There was a hole near each end for convenience when moving them. After 1779 additional sizes of pig were introduced, the lightest weighing 56 lbs (25.5kg); it was 1' 0" long and 4" square.

Standard pig, 1:48 scale

The second type of permanent ballast was in the form of shingle. Shingle consists of small golf- to tennis-ball sized pebbles from the shore, worn smooth by the action of the sea. Several tons of shingle were distributed over the iron ballast, and acted as a bed for the heaviest barrels of water or stores in the hold. As stores were used up, the shingle could be moved to adjust the trim of the ship. This was a laborious task, as it had to be shifted by the crew using wooden shovels.

5.2 Barrels and casks Storage containers were also standardized. Commonest were the leaguer, the puncheon and the hogshead and were sized as shown. The largest of these was the leaguer which held 154 “wine” gallons, equivalent to 127 Imperial gallons (480l ) . However, please note

2' 2" 2' 9"

3' 6"

Puncheon 2' 0" 2' 8"

that Imperial measurement was not adopted until 1827. The puncheon contained 84 gallons or 70 Imperial (318l ) and the hogshead 63 gallons or

Leaguer

4' 6"

Hogshead

3' 1"

521⁄2 Imperial (200l ) . In a smaller ship there were generally two tiers or layers of barrels. The ground

1' 10" 2' 4"

tier held the largest barrels and the second tier nested on top of this.

Barrels, 1:48 scale

1 This is well illustrated in Brian Lavery’s The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815,

pages 187 and 190.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

If you decide to show the barrels and their stowage, you will need to know a few things about cooperage: the art of barrel-making. Barrels are constructed from a series of curved, shaped planks called staves. These are held together by a series of steel bands or hoops which are heated and driven on and allowed to shrink as the metal cools. The end staves, the barrel heads, are inset relative to the end of the side staves in a rebate called the croze. The stave ends beyond the croze are tapered; this area is called the chime. As a matter of interest, the planks comprising the barrel head are joined by dowels; no metal was used except for the hoops, so that the barrel contents would not be contaminated by contact with iron.

Quarter hoop Chime or head hoop

Bilge hoop 2" bung hole in 6" wide bung stave

Chime Heading pieces or head staves

Parts of a barrel, no particular scale

The construction of a typical barrel is shown in the illustration. How detailed you wish to make your barrels is entirely up to you. My only comment is that the barrel hoops are very thin in section and should not stand out from the barrel. As the hoops measure about 13⁄ 4" to 2" wide by 1⁄ 8" thick (full size), they should barely be proud of the surface of the barrel. Leaguers had double chime hoops spaced a few inches apart. The bung is 2" in diameter; barrels always being stored bung uppermost.

Shingle Iron pig ballast

Possible stowage layout, 1:48 In a small ship there were two tiers of barrels, and in large ships, three.

212

L - leaguer P - puncheon H - hogshead

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5.3 The platforms: an introduction In a small ship there was no full-length orlop, but a series of small, discontinuous decks known as platforms. (Orlop, from the Dutch word oberloppen, meaning to overlay or cover, is the deck that overlays the hold.) In the case of the Swan class there were two platforms: one each fore and aft. These were lightly framed and planked. Note that they are attached directly to the ceiling, not the hull framing.. You should have a deck plan showing these platforms, which are roughly triangular in shape.

5.4 The aft platform beams The aft platform is supported by three beams that run athwartship, that is to say at right angles to the keel. These beams are seen on the profile plan as small rectangles below the parallel lines that represent the planking. Please note that the platforms were omitted on my Mylar plan: the aft one is shown below. Your NMM plan view should show the beams as seen from above. Note that, as the sides of the ship curve in sharply, the deck area is very small compared to the deckhead (the nautical equivalent of a ceiling) above. Another note: the beams and bulkhead positions may be different on your own draught: adjust my drawing to match that of your own ship.

The aft platform, 1:48. You can place your Mylar plan over this and trace the platform onto the Mylar if you wish. The vertical heights can then be taken off and applied to the model.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The aft boundary of the deck is a vertical partition that separates off the bread room. The fore boundary is the most forward beam. Each side is divided off into storerooms, but amidships the platform opens directly into the hold. Between the foremost and middle beams is a scuttle (a small hatchway) to the fish room below. We will deal with these rooms and the ship’s magazine later. The magazine is a protected space where the gunpowder, cartridges and fuses are stored. The first task is to locate the height and position of the beams within the hull. As there is no deck clamp here, this will take a little juggling to achieve. If you have not planked the ceiling, then you can use your height gauge between the frames to locate the platform height. Those of you who have finished the internal planking will need to make a simple jig as illustrated below in order to mark the height of the beams. Their fore and aft positions can be measured relative to the hull frames. The height gauge should be constructed so that it is wide enough to be moved from side to side across the ship, or offset the sliding pointer to one side so that you can turn the gauge 180° to mark opposite sides of the hull. Calibrate the scale so that when the pointer is touching the building board it reads zero on the upper side of the frame. A small thumbscrew will ensure that the gauge doesn’t slip accidentally. If the “finger” is made to read in scale feet and inches instead of full-size inches as shown here, you can lift the actual measurements off the plan with your scale rule and set the distance directly on the gauge. If you are confident that the top of your keelson is at exactly the right height, I suppose that you could use this as your datum to mark off vertical heights, but this may be a bit of a gamble!

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Having carefully marked the boundary line of the upper edges of the beams, which is also the lower edge of the planking, you can proceed to cut the beams. They are 61⁄ 2" wide and 5" deep. Please note that they are not quite rectangular in section, as the deck rises aft and the beam sides are perpendicular. Officially, the beams have a round-up of 1" (see footnote in section 5.10), but as this is so small, it could be ignored. The beam stock is easy to cut if your table saw has a tilting arbor. If you don’t have this facility, 5" thick stock may be carefully cut on the scroll saw with the table tilted over 31⁄ 2°. You will need about 10" (actual length) of beam stock in total. Cutting the beams to length is the next challenge! Each end is angled in two planes, and the beam needs to be exactly the correct length to span the hull inside the ceiling. A pair of dividers will help to facilitate matters. Begin with the most forward beam. Using your dividers, find the distance across the fore upper edge of the beam on your model, (less twice the thickness of ceiling, if you omitted the internal planking, see section 5.6). Mark the beam blank to this length and cut it square across. Next, place the beam over the plan at the appropriate place. (Don’t be concerned if the beam length is different from this plan, it’s the angle that is important.) Mark the angles of the ends directly from the plan and cut them, keeping your chisel vertical. You can now cut the under-bevel. This can be lifted from the frame 8 aft pattern.

Lodging knee

Ledge

Carling

Framing of the aft platform, reconstruction based on Steel. Your layout may vary from this. Scale 1:48

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Mark and trim this compound bevel carefully, offering up the beam until it fits snugly into position. Repeat this procedure to fit the other two beams, ensuring that the upper surfaces are exactly on your marked-out lines with the beams parallel to each other and at right angle to the keelson. At this point you may be wondering how the planking is secured, other than on these three beams. However there are other structures which are not shown on the draught. In addition to the beams there are lodging knees, carlings and ledges, which will be covered shortly.

5.5 The fish room (and spirit room) bulkhead Before completing the framing of the aft platform, the aft bulkhead to the fish room needs to be made and installed. The fish room was for storage of dried fish. However, toward the end of the eighteenth century this commodity was seldom carried, and the space was more usually used to store “spirituous liquor” or possibly coal. The bulkhead itself was of 2" planking run horizontally, the edges cyphered, that is, cut at an angle. The stantions (or stanchions), which are the vertical posts supporting the planking, are 4" Cyphered planks seen in section square and tenoned in above and below. According to Steel, the bulkheads and deckhead (ceiling) were lathed, mortared and covered with slit deals (fir wood).2 I presume that this was carried out on the forward side between the stanchions and the beams overhead. This might be interesting to show in cut-away on a display model. The drawing here is approximate and Aft side Forward side will depend on the fore and aft position of the bulkhead in your own ship. Start Platform beam by cutting a card pattern to this shape Stanchion and adjust it until it fits your model. Cyphered plank, 9" wide Some draughts show two bulkheads Elevation of bulkhead, 1:48, frames omitted under the platform: in this case the aft space is the fish room, and the fore one is the spirituous liquor room. The partitions and deckhead are treated in the same way as the fish room. The forward end of the room is closed off entirely from the hold by a similar partition below platform beam number 1. 2

216

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XVIII.

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5.6 The aft platform lodging knees The platform beams need to be securely fastened to the sides of the ship. Obviously the small surface area at the ends of the beams are insufficient for this purpose. Lodging knees are used to unite the beams to the side. These knees run in the horizontal plane. Their upper surface also provides a landing for the platform’s planking. Steel specifies lodging knees 5" thick with athwartship arms 3' 0" long.3 On one side (illustration on previous spread), I have drawn how these might have looked. The outboard surface of these knees will need to be shaped carefully to fit the inside of your hull. The 10" gap aft is to accomodate the mizen mast step which, you will remember, is a shaped crutch. Here I need to digress. For those of you who have planked the inside of your hull the following is not a concern. However, those fitting beams and knees to a “frame only” hull will be wondering about the space taken up by the planking, were it fitted. One could simply widen the knees by the thickness of the planking or fit the knees a plank’s thickness outboard of their true position instead. However, I will offer alternatives to the first suggestion, which would be clumsy, or the second, which would be inaccurate. One way to compensate for the lack of planking would be to fit a plank-thickness wood spacer or “sole” under the knee and beam ends, which would then be in their correct positions. Another more sophisticated way might be to leave a plank-thick space between the framing and the outboard side of the knee, their bolts spanning the gap. The disadvantage here would be the weakness of the joints. A compromise would be to fit pieces of clear acrylic as spacers. They should be polished to a clear finish on their edges. A good kit for removing scratches and polishing acrylic plastic is available from Micro-Mark.4 My only concern would be the longevity of the plastic. However, I do have pieces of acrylic which appear clear and in good condition after some 30 years, so this may not be an issue. Back to the lodging knees. These may be cut from 5" thick stock, with the grain running diagonally for strength. The outboard surfaces will need a little finessing to fit snugly to the contours of the hull. I would suggest that once you have fitted them you do not yet fix them permanently, as you still need to mortise them for the ledges (see section 5.8).

3 Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio X.

Micro-mesh kit, item 80939.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

5.7 Aft platform carlings Carlings are sub-beams running fore-and-aft that provide reinforcement under the planking of the platform. The illustration (section 5.4) shows their layout on one side, and how they are mortised into the beams and lodging knees. If your ship has both fish and spirit rooms, adjust this layout to accomodate the two scuttles. The carlings are 4" wide and 3" deep. Mark out and mortise the knees for the carlings and ledges (see below), and then fit them permanently. In the original ship, the lodging knees were secured by six 7 ⁄8" bolts, three in each arm. The illustration (below left) shows how the mortises were cut, and I have indicated a simplified version to the right that can be cut quite easily and quickly using a flat or pillar style Swiss file. Be sure to check the accuracy of your mark-out first!

Beam

Carling

Ledge

Simplified joint that can be filed out

5.8 Aft platform ledges Ledges are smaller pieces fitted between and parallel to the deck beams and are mortised into the carlings and lodging knees. They are 3" wide and 2" deep and follow the round-up of the beams. This curve, which as you will recall is very small, is easily worked on straight pieces of stock using shaped sanding blocks. 20

19 Part of upper deck 19

. Keelson

Centerline section of lower deck and platforms, showing the pillars under the beams. Scale 1:96

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Check on your NMM plan that none of the ledges will block the pillars to be placed vertically under the lower deck beams. Adjust if necessary. A wider ledge (also 2" thick) was fitted aft

of the mizen mast step (see section 5.4). It may need to be scored down on the keelson. This completes the sub-structure of the aft platform. If you are including all this detail, consider omitting some or all of the deck planking.

5.9 Pillars under the lower deck beams This is a good time to introduce the vertical pillars that support the lower deck beams. They will be detailed shortly in section 5.11. Their upper ends tenon into the underside of the beams above the hold in the midline, and their lower ends tenon into the keelson or, particularly later in the century, to a 2" or 3" thick plank superimposed on the keelson. Several of the draughts of Swan class ships show these pillars,5 but as some of them do not, a small-scale drawing is given opposite and below. There are two important items to note. First is that the aftermost two pillars in the ship run up as high as the undersides of the upper deck beams (see below opposite). Also, to reduce the possibility of confusion, I will refer to the pillars by the same numbers as the deck beam that each supports, starting at the bow. As everything in the ship is so interdependent, you will need to determine the position of these pillars now, because they will pass through the platforms that you are constructing. In order to do this, the lower deck beams need to be made and temporarily fitted first.

Riding bitt upright 10

Fore part of section, scale 1:96 5

The sheer and profiles of Atalanta (ZAZ 4485) and Fly (ZAZ 4667) are examples that show the pillars in the hold.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

5.10 The lower deck beams The lower deck beams measure 8" wide by 6" deep in section. They have a round up6 of only 3", which is not shown on the draughts. There are a number of ways of making these beams. Some authors suggest bending straight stock to the curve, others recommend laminating the beams. My own preference is to cut all the beams to their required curve (see Appendices 5.2 and 5.3): the result (using well-seasoned wood) is far more stable. First cut blanks 8" by 9" deep and 25' 6" long. This gives you sufficient material from which to cut the curve. You will need 19 pieces in all. There are several approaches to cutting this curve from your blanks. One way is to make a jig to hold the blank and move it in an arc past your scrollsaw or bandsaw blade. This method works very well, but it has the drawbacks of time and materials in constructing the carrying jig and the nuisance of calculating the arc that you need. If you are a mathemetician, this is easy; however, I am not! Below is the round up pattern which was omitted from the Mylar plan.

Lower deck beam round up pattern 1:48

My own method is to make up a small jig from the pattern that will hold three or four blanks at a time (illustration opposite page, left). Chisel off most of the upper surface of half the curve, reverse the pieces in the jig and pare down the other half. Finish the upper surfaces with curved sanding blocks. To cut the concave underside, I use a mill in a router table. The concave cut can then be made, making sure that the stock is fed against the rotation of the mill. Do this in several very shallow passes for safety. The disadvantage of this method is that beams near the ends of the ship need to be made a little wider in order to finish them to the correct parallelogram section. With the large arc jig method, this is not a problem. The saw table is simply tilted to the required angle before running the blank past the blade.

220

Round up or arc are the official eighteenth century terms for the curve of the deck beams. Camber is a term only applied to the longitudinal downward curve of a deck, rarely come across.

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I am sure that there are other methods of cutting beams, limited only by your imagination and ingenuity. Once you have made your deck beams, number them, starting at the bow. You will now need to make a simple measuring device to transfer the beam width required to your fulllength curved stock. My own version of this is shown below. It is a sliding friction fit, but you could fit a thumbscrew for security. The shipyard used a similar device, called a sliding staff.

A simple version of a measuring device for beam spans

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Begin by marking the positions of beams 11 and 12 on the clamp tops, locating them relative to the frames which are still visible above the clamps. Once marked, use your width gauge to take off the beam length and trim the beam ends to fit. Remember that the beams are let down onto the clamps by 1" (see section 4.16), so notch the beam end to fit over the clamp. Once you are satisfied with the fit and positioning of the two beams — making certain that they are parallel to each other, at right angles to the keelson and the correct distance apart fore and aft — spot glue them (using rubber cement) into position. The space between the beams above the clamp will be filled by the side arms of the lower deck lodging knees, which will be dealt with in Volume Two. Beams 11 and 12 also define the limits of the well, which will be described soon. Mark the beam positions carefully on the edge of the clamps as you fit and spot glue them. Repeat the process of measuring and cutting the beams to fit until you have completed the whole range for the lower deck. As you move aft you will notice that the “slot” or gap above the lower deck clamp for the beams terminates forward of beam 13. From here aft, treat the beams in the same way as those of the platforms. They will be attached with knees to the ship’s sides. The inner planking rises higher than the deck aft of here, or its run would not be smooth, with some strakes aft ending too wide or too narrow. Here you will need to employ your height gauge. Fitting a temporary batten to act as a clamp shelf might make life easier too. Once all the beams are cut and their positions double-checked, number and remove them so that you can work on fitting the pillars under them.

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5.11 The pillars in the hold Once the beams themselves are prepared, begin to fit each in turn, measuring the vertical distance from the underside of the beam at the centerline to the top of the keelson. To drop a vertical, use your finger gauge. Mark the top of the keelson. A small version of the sliding gauge that you used for the deck beams will work well to measure the vertical height of the pillar (illustration at left). Remember that each pillar is set back 1" from the edge of the beam it is under. Check your own ship’s plans for any exceptions to this! Measure the aft side of the forward beams and the fore side of the aft beams, to allow for the sloping cut needed to match the keelson. This angle can be taken directly from the Mylar plan. Steel specifies that the pillars were 6" square. The exceptions are pillars 11 and 12, which are 5" square. Although not stated by Steel, the profiles of Atalanta 7 and Fly 8 clearly show the pillars tenoned into the beam above and the keelson below. These tenons appear to be 2" square and 11 ⁄ 2" long. Rather than cut tenons, I would drill and fit a large diameter “treenail” into each end of the pillar, to fit corresponding blind holes in the keelson and underside of each deck beam. Check that no pillar is too long, which would force the beam above the line of its neighbors. Except where they form part of the bulkhead framing, the corners are to be chamfered back boldly (illustration at right). 9 Work the chamfers starting from about 8" above platform level to within 6" of the beams. Note that any pillar forming part of a bulkhead is not chamfered where it abuts the bulkhead planking.

Pillars, showing the regular chamfer (left), and tapered chamfer of pillars in the main hold (right).

Your NMM plan should show the various partitions and bulkheads on the platforms, so you can work out where these central pillars abut partition planking. The other point to note is that the pillars in the main hold (under beam numbers 6 to 10, 13 and the two tall aftermost pillars) are chamfered in the manner shown (above, right).

7 ZAZ

4485.

ZAZ 4667.

Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XV.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

5.12 Aft platform planking The planks of the aft platform are 11⁄2" thick. As it is far below water level, there is no waterway to the platform. A waterway is an angled plank at the margin of decks above the waterline where they meet the side of the ship. A suggested planking layout is shown below. If there are two scuttles, adjust accordingly. Unlike the decks above, I don’t think that the planks here would have been tapered. Note that the planking, which is 12" wide, stops 2" short of the scuttle edges to provide a rebate for the cover. The forward edge of the platform has a plank laid athwartships abutting the longitudinal planking, so that nothing would catch on the end-grain of the planks were they to continue to the edge of the beam. Note the plank’s 3" overlap to the beam and its rounded edge, shown in section (below right). At the outer edges of the platform, the forward bulkhead passes down to the ceiling, so the planks are continued to the beam edge. Check the bulkhead positions on your own NMM plans. The central pillars under the lower deck beams pass through this platform to the keelson below, so determine their positions by temporary set-ups to mark out the holes on the central plank. Drill these holes and open them out to 6" square with a Swiss file.

Aft platform planking, central pillars omitted. Your layout may vary from this. Scale 1:48 Edge section, not to scale

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5.13 Fastenings for deck planks You have several choices here. In the real ship deck nails were used to fasten them to the beams. These had either rounded snug heads as shown, (left side of illustration) or diamond heads, and were driven down so that wooden plugs could be inserted above them. Treenails were used through to each ledge and doualls (dowels) at the butts of the planks. The only difference Deck nails between a douall and a treenail is that the douall is driven into a blind hole, whereas a treenail is driven into a through-hole. Doualls and treenails were 7⁄8" in diameter. The appearance of the deck would therefore show circular end-grain marks at the plank butts and ledges and almost invisible side-grained plugs over the beams. This contrasts with conventional model planking, which shows treenails at the beam positions! You could indicate side-grain plugs with a section of hypodermic needle impressed into the plank. The rules for fastening are the same as for the other planking; the number of fasteners depended on the width of the plank. In this case, the planks being 12" wide, fastenings will be “double” (see section 4.13). As this was not a weather deck, I doubt if caulking was used between the planks, except under the magazine. The compartments on the aft platform and their fitting out will be described in detail later.

5.14 The well and shot locker The well is a ventilated compartment in the center of the hold that contains the pump casings. It isolates the pumps from the rest of the hold so that there is no possibility of their mechanisms being compromised. In the event of a chain pump breaking down, the space allows the ship’s carpenter access in order to make repairs. A general view of the components of the well framing is shown on the following spread. The aft bulkhead of the well is shown just forward of station 5 on your NMM plan, and the forward one about 1' 6" forward of station 3. Your sheer and profile will probably show the pumps: the ones aft of the mainmast step being the casings of the chain pumps, and those just forward of the step are the elm tree pump tubes. These will be described in detail later on. The well is 5' 6" square in the clear. Forward of the fore bulkhead, and integral with it, is the shot locker. It is the same dimension athwartships as the well, and 1' 9" fore and aft.10

Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XV. Here this dimension is given as 1' 10".

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

The corners of the well and shot locker compartments are formed by stanchions 6" square. Steel 11 specifies 8", but if you size them to this dimension the stanchions will be wider than the beams. However, scantlings tended to increase in size over the course of the century. The Shipbuilders’ Repository of 1788 does not mention these stanchions. The stanchion heels are mortised into the footwaling by 1". I would substitute treenail dowels for these instead. Note that the well stanchions are also mortised to the underside of the lower deck beams, which is why you did not fix them permanently yet. The fore inner corners of the stanchions to the shot locker are beveled back at a 45° angle. There are also two 5" square pillars on the centerline under the beams and another short stanchion of the same dimension inside the fore bulkhead of the shot locker. The shot locker crossbeam, 6" square, is half-jointed into the well stanchions as shown here and on the opposite page. Remember that the centerline stanchion is only 5" square, so it is set back from the fore surface of the crossbeam by an inch (see the plan view and perspective). Planks are 2" thick (see section 5.16).

Plan of well stanchions, scale 1:48. The relative positions of the lower deck beams are indicated at the top of the drawing.

I realize that my interpretation of the framing of the well and shot locker are at variance with those presented by other authors,12 but any other arrangement will interfere with the heels of the main jeer bitts and gallows uprights above. The main jeer bitts are just aft of the mainmast and are the securing point for the lines that hoist the main yard. The gallows, forward of the mainmast, act as a crutch or support for spare spars carried in the waist. I have used the draughts of Atalanta, Pegasus and Fly as primary sources to base my drawings on, so I am confident that I am not misleading you. Some of you will note that a door on the starboard side at lower deck level is not shown in the Pegasus and Fly drawings, but would have been necessary for access to the well. Perhaps it might have atypically been placed on the port side. This will be discussed further when we deal with the lower deck details.

11 12

226

Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XV. The Frigate Diana by David White, The Sailing Man of War 1650-1850 by Peter Goodwin, and The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815 by Brian Lavery.

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Upper deck beam

Lower deck, aft corner stanchion Middle stanchion: starboard only

Lower deck beam #11

Lower deck beam #12

Shot locker crossbeam

Aft corner stanchion Shot locker corner stanchion

Centerline stanchion

Perspective of well and shot locker framing, looking aft from starboard. Only two lower deck level stanchions are shown here. Intake

5.15 Preparing for the pumps If the lower ends of the pumps rested on the frames in the limber channel, they would be unable to remove the last few inches of water, as the intakes are on the sides of the pump casings. Therefore, small sections of the frames are recessed so that the opening of each pump is low enough to be effective.13 The position of the pumps vary from ship to ship: in Pegasus they are between 5 fore & 4 aft. Consult your own NMM profile draught. Two adjacent frames are partially hollowed out as shown. Similar recesses for the suction or hand pumps are between 3 aft & 3 fore. You should have attended to this detail in Chapter Three, but if you did not, do so now. You can remove most of the waste with a small power tool such as a drill, and then clean up the recess with a miniature chisel.

Floor of 4 aft

Cross-chock of 3 fore Recesses for the pump intakes, scale 1:48. Total width of recesses, fore and aft, is about 1' 0". Check the actual positions for these on your own ship.

13 Good contemporary illustrations are shown in Brian Lavery’s Arming and Fitting of English Ships

of War 1600-1815, page 75 (the chain pump) and page 78, top left (the hand pump).

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5.16 Continuing construction of the well The well planking is of 2" thick oak, 8" or 9" wide, with cyphered edges. The angles are such that dirt or shingle cannot penetrate to the inside of the well. All planks run horizontally. In the actual ship, nails would have been driven at opposing angles to prevent them from drawing due to the weight of the shot in the locker. First plank the athwartships bulkheads. Note the wider, shaped plank across the limbers (illustration below right). Make sure that you are planking the correct sides of the stanchions! Check against the plan view in section 5.14. The off-center dividing bulkhead in the shot locker is planked next. Once complete, ensure that the plank ends are flush to the outer sides of the stanchions and then plank the fore-and-aft bulkheads. The gap between the beams above will be filled by carlings later on. Perspective of the well & shot locker

Side and fore end elevations of the well planking and shot locker lids. Scale 1:48 The last item to attend to is the shot locker lid. Once again, I am going to suggest a departure from other sources. Because of the positions of the well stanchions, a single, full width lid would be difficult to hinge properly. My proposed solution is pictured above. There are two planks flanking the lids and one between, with the hinges arranged so that the port-like lids can just clear the deckhead above. This seems a simple and practical scheme. Shot, if you plan to add them, are approximately 31⁄ 2" in diameter for 6-pounder guns and 11⁄ 2" for the half-pounder swivel guns. Do not use lead in your model for these.

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5.17 Metal fittings and silver soldering Now is the time to discuss making “wrought” metal components for the model. Always use non-ferrous metal such as silver, brass or copper. Brass is available in hobby shops in a wide variety of thicknesses and sections. As you will have to work with metal sooner or later, the shot locker hinges will be good exercise to practice on. Parts will need to be silver soldered, not soft soldered. For those unfamiliar with these terms, soft soldering is the kind that uses a low-temperature soldering iron. I would suggest that it is quite unsuitable for our purposes. Often the solder itself has a high lead content, and the joints formed are very weak. If you have not yet tried it, you will need to learn to silver solder with much higher temperatures and silver-bearing solder. The joints, if correctly formed, are as strong as the metal itself. Once you have the hang of it, you will wonder why anyone would ever use soft solder again. For this process, you will need the following items. For a heat source, I recommend a small butane “micro” torch, which runs on lighter fluid and is easily refillable. A suitable unit with a built in igniter is available from many sources, including Lee Valley and Micro-Mark.14 You will also need a 6" square (full size!) heat resistant soldering pad and flux. I recommend Batterns self-pickling flux, also available from any jewelers’ supply house. A 3 fluid ounce bottle will last you a long while. The last item that you will need is silver solder. This comes in thin sheets and is available in several different alloys, each with a different melting point. Alternatively, you can use silver solder paste instead of sheet. Different melting points are useful, as you can solder together a series of small parts without melting the first joint, providing that a higher melting point solder is used first. I would invest in three types, called easy, medium and hard. One 5 gram sheet of each grade will also last you a long time. The process is a little tricky to master at first, but once you have the hang of it you will find it easy to make neat, durable joints. First, the parts that are to be joined need to be cleaned of all oxidation and grease. Fine “wet-and-dry” paper, followed by immersion in an iso-propanol bath, will do this well. 14

See Appendix 5.1 for Lee Valley Tools, or check www.micromark.com, item #82559.

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From here on, only handle the parts with tweezers! Stainless steel ones are best. Arrange the pieces to be joined on your heat-resistant pad. They will need to be held in place, otherwise the flame from the torch will blow them away. Small T-pins as hold-downs are useful here. Please wear eye protection from here on. Once the parts are positioned and accurately

aligned, generously brush flux on the joint area. This contains boric acid, which will act as a shield against the metal oxidizing again while the parts are being heated. Use an old brush to apply the flux, because the mixture is somewhat corrosive. Paste solder contains flux. The silver solder sheet now needs to be cut. You will only need a microscopic piece for each joint; that of a grain of sugar is about right. Use metal snips to cut a partial strip from one end of the sheet about 0.5mm wide, and then snip off 0.5mm pieces from this strip. Cut the sheet over a dark, clean surface, so that you can see the tiny bits. Pick one of these pieces up with tweezers or a brush dampened with flux, and transfer it to the side of the joint. Surface tension holds the speck, called a paillon (a French word pronounced “pie-yon”) in position. I should stress that unlike soft soldering, silver solder will not fill a gap in the joint. The two surfaces need to be in close contact. When the paillon melts, it will run by capillary action into the narrow crevice. If the gap is too wide, it will fail to be drawn in. Therefore silver soldered joint surfaces need more careful preparation than the soft-soldered variety. Once all is ready, make sure that any inflammables are well out of the way — that includes the iso-propanol wash! — before igniting the torch. Gently warm the parts to evaporate water from the flux. You will see the fluxed area turn white and bubble. This is normal. Continue to heat the assembly slowly, moving the flame constantly and focusing the tip of the blue-transparent part of the flame around the joint. As the metal begins to glow red, you will need to observe the joint closely. The moment you see the paillon (or paste) flash a bright liquid silver, remove the flame and turn off the torch. If you continue to heat the joint, you risk melting the parts as well as the solder! The flash indicates that the solder has melted and, hopefully, wicked into the joint, fusing it.

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Allow the assembly to cool and then drop it into an acetic acid bath (white vinegar). This will remove the remains of the flux and any oxidation that may have formed beyond the limits of the flux that you painted on. Once the piece is bright again, remove it from the bath using your tweezers. It is now ready to finish with a suitable coloring treatment, as described in Appendix 4.1. Of course, the first few joints that you try will be a disaster! You will probably melt or distort several attempts, or pieces will move out of alignment at the critical moment. Don’t worry. Simply practice on scrap to get used to the technique. Soon you will be making joints efficiently and consistently, wondering why there was such a mystique to the whole business and why you would ever want to use soft solder ever again!

5.18 The shot locker lid hinges Wrought hinges taper in width and thickness. The latter taper is not usually shown in models. It is a subtle detail, but once you have seen the difference, you will see how clumsy looking non-tapered hinges and straps are. A few moments with a file and carborundum (wet and dry) paper will give this taper. The form of these hinges is shown below. If you wish to make the hinges work, you will need fine tubing and wire that is a sliding fit in the tube. 1⁄16" outside diameter brass tube is readily available, and even finer silver tubing may be obtained from jewelers’ suppliers. A recent catalog lists 1mm tubing with a wall thickness of .010". Silver is easy to work Leaf and inexpensive in the quantities required. Knuckle

Hinge pin

Strap

Perspective of hinge: left and right hand sets will be needed

Once you have silver soldering mastered, cut and shape the straps of the hinges. File the concave joint surface for the tube that will form the hinge knuckle. Using a fine-tooth saw, cut a small length of tube for this. Clean the pieces as described previously. To hold the knuckle in place on the soldering pad, thread wire through it which has not been de-greased. You don’t want to get the wire soldered in! You can now accurately position the parts relative to each other and make your joint.

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The leaf of the hinge will be made in three pieces. You can either solder the pieces in two stages with different melting points for each (start with the hard grade solder), or epoxy the wire hinge pin into the knuckle after soldering the leaf and the tube.

5.19 The fore platforms The title of this section is in the plural because the fore platform is discontinous. The fore and aft sections are at almost the same level, and the center section is lower by about 1' 0". As these platforms were not indicated on the Mylar plan, I am reproducing them here. Please double check that those on your own ship’s draft match this, and make any necessary changes for your own ship.

1 5

4 3

Locate the beams and fit them as you did for the aft platform. You will need to use your inside height gauge and then position the beams fore and aft relative to other structures that are already in place, such as the mast step. Cut and trim the beams as you did before. Of the five beams, the aftermost one is the most critical to place correctly, as the heels of the riding bitt uprights will be bolted to it. Riding bitts are the massive timbers that take up the strain of the cable when the ship is at anchor. You can see the tapered uprights, and their associated knees on the upper deck, just forward of station H on your NMM plans.

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Note the notches on beams 3 and 4 for pillars, if your platform beams are positioned as shown. Please check carefully with your NMM plans, and make any changes necessary. Each ship has a slightly different arrangement. As was the case with the aft platform, the

beams are supported by lodging knees. A connecting grid of carlings and ledges complete the substructure. These are detailed in the plan view, as is the planking, should you choose to fit it. You will need to score the second beam from the bow to fit over the keelson. Proceed as you did for the aft platform, referring to your NMM plans.

There is a plank overhang of about 10" aft of beam number 5. I suspect that there was a ledge of some sort attached to the stanchions that ran down past the aft end of the platform to attach the plank ends to. I leave you, as your own shipwright, to use your own judgement on providing a workmanlike solution to this rather awkward situation. Some plans show a central scuttle on the aft section of platform: adjust your carlings to suit this.

5.20 The magazine, passageway and light room It is now time to go back to the aft platform and the interesting details to be found on it. Please read the next few sections first before beginning work: you will need to decide how much detail you want to add.

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The magazine was the most heavily protected area of the ship for obvious reasons. Elaborate precautions were taken to prevent the possibility of an accidental spark in this area which would be catastrophic. To reach the ship’s magazine, one first had to descend the aft companion. A companion is a ship’s ladder. A companionway is the hatch or scuttle to access the ladder. (On some draughts the term “ladderway” is used.) Follow the route one would need to take on your own NMM plans. Once at platform level, well below the waterline, one passed through a door into a short passage, then through another door into a second ante-chamber and finally through a third door to reach the magazine proper. In a small ship such as a sixth-rate, the magazine (the store for gunpowder and fuses) shared a single space with the filling room, where cartridges were filled with premeasured charges. On the port side of the passageway was the light room, a small compartment that jutted out into the magazine, but was sealed off from it by glass and (after about 1805) copper mesh. This compartment was the only source of illumination for the whole area. The mizen mast, passing through the aft part of the magazine, was also enclosed by a bulkhead. This was, however, only the first line of defense. The floors of the passageway were lead lined, the sheet lead being turned up at the edges to form 5" deep watertight troughs that could be flooded. All other metalwork in the area was of brass or copper. Steel recommended that thin copper sheathing be used both within and without for additional fireproofing and to deter “the mischievious effects of rats.”15 However, I believe that this measure was not introduced until about 1800. The copper sheathing would have an additional advantage of being watertight should the magazine need to be flooded in an emergency. In any event, the compartment was lined inside and out with slit deals, the joint lines offset from bulkhead planks. The spaces between the stanchions were filled with mortar, lathing and horsehair. The magazine deck was covered with palleting, which will be described shortly (see 5.22 and 5.23). The deckhead was also lathed and plastered. In time of action heavy felt curtains, well soaked with water, were hung in the doorways. Anyone entering the magazine would wear felt slippers rather than shoes which had iron nails in them. In a Swan class ship, one would have to crouch; clearance to the beams above was only 4' 0" before the palleting was laid down over the platform!

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Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XVII.

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5.21 Magazine bulkheads and doors Each ship has a slightly different layout, so take the bulkhead positions from your own NMM deck plan. Part of the transverse bulkheads rests on the sloping footwaling where the sides of the ship rise diagonally. The general construction of these is given here as a guide. The upright supports or stanchions for the bulkheads are 4" square and, on a long “run,” are spaced about 2' 2" apart. The conjectural positions of these stanchions are shown in this floor plan of the Pegasus’ magazine. Battens 4" wide by 2" thick are nailed to the sloping ceiling between the stanchions to fix the plank ends to. The planking is of 21⁄ 2" rabbeted deal, as indicated on the plan and detailed overleaf.

Approximate line of platform

Approximate line of deckhead

Plan view of magazine and filling room stanchions for Pegasus, scale 1:48. Solid light thin lines indicate the location of mortar fillings and deal sheathing (illustration C, following page).

The door to the magazine has a sill 7" deep to accomodate the lead liner outside (see illustration overleaf and in section 5.25). The door is made of vertical planks that have a layer of mortar on both sides, and then covered with a sheathing of slit deal.16 The door is fitted with brass butt hinges (see illustration on following page) and copper screws. The butt hinge is similar to a modern door hinge. There is also a rectangular copper door lock screwed to the outer surface of the door. The bolt of the lock engages a mortise in the abutting stanchion.

I have not been able to find a definition of slit deal, but assume that it is thin wood under an inch in thickness. Steel (Naval Architecture, page 434) defines thickstuff as wood between 10" and 41⁄ 2" thick, plank between 4" and 11⁄ 2" thick, and board as anything thinner.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

It is interesting to note the small size of this door. It measures only 1' 9" wide by 3' 6" high. The inner door to the magazine, with its mortar and sheathing, must have been about 5" to 6" thick in total. The passageway doors to the magazine are also 3' 6" high. This might help explain why boys were used as runners or powder monkeys during action. Small size and nimbleness would have been a great advantage here!

Butt hinge: no particular scale

Lower deck beam

Three variations on bulkhead planking: A Rabbeted deals, 21⁄ 2" thick, rabbets 11⁄ 4" each way B Rabbeted deals with 2" x 1" battens over seams C Mortared between stanchions, slit deal linings over

Passage partition in section Lead lining of passage

Magazine door, view from forward (outer) side. Scale 1:48

On the plan of the magazine for Pegasus, the lines indicating the compartment around the mizen mast are thinner than the other bulkheads. This could be interpreted as a simple rabbeted deal bulkhead, type A, above. Your judgement here is as good as mine.

5.22 Palleting beams and carlings This is part of a removable flooring system that is laid over the regular deck planking in the magazine and filling room. In larger ships only the magazine floor was treated this way, the filling room having regular caulked planking. The purpose for palleting is threefold. Firstly, it enables loose powder grains to be swept up from beneath it. Secondly, it provides some air circulation underneath and thirdly, charcoal placed in the space beneath the palleting helped to absorb any moisture.

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The beams, laid athwartships, are 4" thick and wide (or wider) with 11⁄ 2" rabbets. Fore and aft carlings of the same thickness, also rabbeted, were laid over the flat of the deck between the beams to form a grid. Treenails were used to fasten them down. A possible scheme for the Pegasus is shown below.

Palleting carling Palleting beam

Pallet in position

Construction of a pallet as seen from below. The lower cross layer may have been solid as shown, or two battens seperated from each other may have been used instead.

A reconstruction of palleting for Pegasus. Beams and carlings shown to port, pallets to starboard. Scale 1:48

5.23 The palleting flat This refers to the series of small removable platforms that fit into the rabbeted gridwork of beams and carlings. The individual pallets are of 11⁄ 2" thick deal plank, 10" to 1' 0" wide, backed by 3 ⁄4" elm or deal. The backing is inset by 11⁄ 2" on all sides so that the pallet sits flush with the top of the framing. The backing strips could either have been laid side by side, as in the illustration above, or simply as two cross-battens attached with copper nails. The derivation of our modern “pallet” is obvious. In larger ships, pallet size was standardized at 3' 0" square, but this would not fit into a tiny Swan class magazine. A conjectural layout is given above. You will probably need to adapt the scheme to fit your particular ship.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

5.24 The light room Protruding into the magazine on the port side is the light room. This is a misnomer in a ship of this size, as the “room” is hardly more than a small cupboard in size. It is only accessible from the aft platform and is completely sealed off from the magazine and passageway. The floor or shelf to the light room is 1' 6" above the flat of the platform. Because every inch of space was precious, I imagine that there was storage under this shelf that could be reached when the outside cupboard door was opened. Shelf

The light room is detailed in the drawings here. The V-shaped glassed windows of the lantern allowed light into the magazine through nearly 180°. I interpret the small detail above the lantern on the Fly and Atalanta draughts as a small tubular Lower 16 vent or duct to carry heat away from the compartdeck carlings Heat vent ment. The inside of this space, other than the glazed tube (above area, was lined with tin, which acted as a light center) Support bracket reflector. Here the dull side of aluminum foil could Pallet be used to simulate tin. The exception was the floor of the lantern, which was lead-lined (see section 5.25 Plan and elevation of the light room. for simulation of lead in your model). Remember that Scale 1:48 the lantern glazing frames will be wider than shown on the elevation. Take their width from the plan view above. Any variation on your own draught from the drawing above should be observed. The support bracket under the lantern is about 2" thick. If you have not constructed window frames before, read Appendix 5.4. The cupboard door to the light room would probably have been a simple vertical board and batten affair with the usual L-style hinges and a small lock. It would have looked like a narrow version of the doors shown in section 5.27. Whether you choose to fit a small ventilation grille, or drill several holes 11⁄ 2" in diameter in a staggered pattern for this purpose, is up to you. Either would be appropriate for the period.

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5.25 Passageway to the magazine This has already been described (section 5.20). It is simply a matter of working up the stanchions and partitions to the scheme shown on your own deck plans. Note the direction and swing of the two external doors. These are similar to the slop room door (illustration overleaf) but without any ventilation holes. Remember that the door sills need to be 7" deep to allow for the lead covering the floor. Chamfer the upper edges of the sills. The lead liners for the two compartments of the passage are taken 5" 7" deep sill up their sides, as seen in the isometric view 17 here. Lead lining

Never use real lead in your model! Apart from its degree of toxicity, it can, by exposure to atmospheric pollution and moisture, turn into lead salts. Many lead fittings on old models show a mold-like grey Isometric view of passage as seen from starboard looking aft. growth which eventually disintegrates into white powder. Possible alternatives, if you are going to show Scale 1:48 this feature, might be very thin pewter foil or simply 1 grey paper. Lead sheeting was about ⁄ 8" thick (actual), so don’t use any material that is over-scale to represent it if you decide to include this feature.

5.26 The bread room This is the aftermost compartment of the hold. The bread room shares the bulkhead with the magazine. The bread room is two decks high, as the lower deck above this level ends at the aft magazine bulkhead. There is an access door from the steward’s room on the port side (see Steward’s room bulkhead illustration to right). This is more of a cupboard looking aft, showing the access door sized crawl-through, as the side of the ship rises to the bread room (see 5.27). Scale 1:48 diagonally at this point. The door would be of similar construction to those of the passageway. As this is the only access at this level, it would have been most awkward to use. (Some ships have a scuttle in the deck above.)

17 If you are unfamiliar with the usefulness of this type of drawing, see Appendix 5.1.

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In large ships there was yet another compartment aft of this, called the lady’s hole. The derivation of this name is not clear. One possibility is that, if any female were aboard, this would be a safe haven during action. The more likely explanation is that the lady of the gunroom — a cleaner — kept his stores here. However, this is not a feature of the Swan class.

5.27 The steward’s room This name refers to the captain’s steward, and is a cabin large enough to sling a hammock. The bulkhead partition shown on your deck plan is of standard construction. A possible stanchion layout is given below. Unlike the passage to the magazine, the doorway would not have had a deep sill, and the door itself would have had a grilled or barred Steward’s room door (left) and slop room door. Scale 1:48 aperture for ventilation. Alternatively, a simple pattern of bored ventilation holes might have sufficed. Steel specifies that the door was a two part “Dutch door.” 18. A draught of another sixth-rate in my possession clearly shows such a door with two independently hinged sections.19 The L-shaped wrought hinges shown were used extensively throughout the ship other than in the magazine. The 11⁄ 4" thick door planks were backed with 11⁄ 4" battens across the inner sides. Above “dresser drawer” height (30"), the bulkheads and deckhead were double lined with tin sheet. There would also have been extensive shelving in this room.

Line of deckhead

Access door to bread room

Slop room Steward’s room

L hinge detail, not to scale

Stanchions for the steward’s room and slop room. Scale 1:48 18 Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XI.

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Comet, 1783, lower deck and platforms, ZAZ 5582.

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5.28 The slop room This compartment occupies the area between the steward’s room and the fore edge of the platform. Slops refers to sailors’ clothing. There was a supply of clothes kept here which sailors could obtain when needed, the cost being deducted by the ship’s purser from their wages. Most sailors became adept at needle and thread, so made and repaired their own clothing. The stock from this room would have been principally for outfitting impressed men when they were brought aboard. This room would certainly have been fitted with lidded wooden bins like small shot lockers against the sloping side, with shelving above. A door-lock would have been fitted, as shown opposite.

5.29 The captain’s store-room Situated on the starboard side, this room mirrors the steward’s room in size and layout. It was probably fitted up with bins and shelves for provisions and a very secure door lock. An interesting specification 20 was for two eyebolts to be driven into the aft side of the foremost overhead beam to sling a wine cask from! In large ships, the storeroom door was a double one, with a shifting stanchion, i.e. a removeable one between the two doors.

5.30 The marines’ clothing room The starboard analog to the slop room, its name is self-explanatory. It would have been fitted out in a similar fashion to the slop room.

5.31 The fishroom hatch This hatch was made in two sections to fit around the pillar passing through it. Although a grating was a possible cover here, usually the hatch was a solid hinged one. This was definitely the case if liquor was stored here instead of fish!

5.32 Magazine and filling room fittings

Two part solid hatch cover. Scale 1:48

Yet to be described are the various fittings found in this area. The filling room area would have had battens laid down to prevent powder barrels from shifting in heavy weather. There were also racks for holding filled cartridges. How these were fitted into such a confined area is not shown on the draughts, so I have provided a conjectural reconstruction (illustration following page).

20 Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XII.

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Dunnage battens were fastened to the palleting using copper nails. Dunnage battens kept stores slightly elevated for air circulation. These battens, 2" square, ran athwartships. Their upper corners were chamfered. Steel specifies that they be placed in pairs 6" apart, on 23" centers. 21" centers fit better into the space available here. Running across the palleting, they were cut through at the joints so that the pallets could still be lifted (illustrated below). The cartridge racks are arranged as shown on the “as designed” draught of Atalanta (ZAZ4486). The aftermost racks were shallower, so they could still be pulled out, and because the side of the ship rose sharply here. The partition along the centerline I interpret as a low divider, rather like the manger, retain the powder barrels. The vertical stanchions of the racks are 4" square, and the runners 11⁄ 2" by 4". In the isometric view (opposite) I have shown flat stanchions against the bulkhead as an alternative possibility. Again, Steel’s description of these racks is ambiguous, so my interpretation may be open to criticism. The drawers themselves were of 3⁄ 4" thick battens, 11⁄ 2" wide, nailed to the side battens with 11⁄ 2" gaps between each plank. Copper nails were used, of course. The upper edges of these planks were rounded off. Fir battens were attached across the drawer planks to separate the cartridges. These were 3⁄ 4" thick and 31⁄ 2" high. Each drawer had a front batten to which the ends of the other battens were mortised and a rear batten with fillets, as shown. The drawer fronts, which were “stopped” by a lower lip, were fitted with simple turned wooden knobs.21 There was a 4" deep drawer under the lowest rack to catch any stray grains of powder that fell through from above.

21 A photograph of an actual (although incomplete) example of similar racking from the Invincible ,

wrecked in 1758, is illustrated in Building the Wooden Walls by Brian Lavery, page 177. 242

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2" x 6" flat stanchion against bulkhead 3" x 7" cartridge

1 ⁄ 2" x 4" bearer batten 4" x 4" stanchion

11⁄ 4" fillet 11⁄ 2" x 31⁄ 2" side batten 3

⁄ 4" x 31⁄ 2" battens

11⁄ 2" x 41⁄ 2" front batten 1 ⁄ 2" x 11⁄ 2" shelf laths

Cartridge rack, isometric view as seen from starboard looking forward. Scale 1:24

5.33 Stores for the magazine and filling room Cartridges for the guns were made from paper, flannel or a combination of both materials. Sock-like in appearance, each would be about 3" in diameter and 7" long. A number of these would be made up ahead of use and stored in the racks (illustrated above). Each rack could hold 24 cartridges. Other combustible gunner’s stores kept in the magazine would include slow and fast fuses, and slow matches. The powder barrels or kegs were no more than 19" long and 15" in diameter. Anything larger would have been impossible to maneouver through the passageway to the magazine. With the layout illustrated, 20 such barrels could be stowed three tiers deep on the starboard side of the magazine, even under the low deckhead (illustration on next page). The barrel hoops would have been made of either withy (wicker-type wood) or copper.22

22 A photograph of a powder keg is shown in Building the Wooden Walls by Brian Lavery, page 176.

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As the plan here shows, the magazine was a very crowded area; a space planner’s nightmare! Omitted here is the swinging arc of the magazine door, which needs to stay unobtructed. With ingenuity, another keg or two of powder could be stored to port of the mizen mast compartment. Working conditions in this space must have been very difficult, especially if there were much of a sea running.

Proposed arrangement for powder storage: lower two tiers shown. A third tier would sit above the second tier. scale 1:48

This completes the arrangements on the aft platform; there is a surprising quantity of well-laid out storage in this area as the result of years of development and experience.

5.34 Fore platform bulkheads The fore platform bulkheads are constructed in a similar manner to those of the aft platform. Their layout can be taken from your NMM platform plan. A suggested stanchion layout is given on the following page. Steel23 suggests that the stanchions here be “about 31⁄ 2" by 41⁄ 2",” but I have drawn them as 4" square. The choice is yours to make. There is evidence that the stanchions were often rabbeted (or battens added) so that short lengths of planking could be used between them. If you decide to use this method, the rabbets should be 11⁄ 4" deep and wide as shown in the illustrations to the right. The planking is 11⁄ 4" rabbeted deal run horizontally. The two doors off the small passage are narrower versions of the slop room door (section 5.27). Note that the compartments forward are only accessible through scuttles from the lower deck above.

23 Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XI.

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Two methods of constructing bulkheads with short planks.

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Location of the riding bitt upright

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Block room

Boatswain’s store room

. 4

Coal hole 3

Gunner’s store room Pitch and tar room

Line of deckhead at frame

The bulkhead stanchions of the fore platforms. The layout may vary for your own ship. Scale 1:48 The aftermost transverse bulkhead has a gap in it amidships to provide access to the main hold and, together with the stanchions, is continued down to the footwaling. There is no door indicated here.

5.35 The block room On the port side, this space would have been fitted with shelves and would contain a variety of replacement blocks, sheaves and pins. I imagine some would have been already stropped ready for use. This would be part of the boatswain’s stores. The door will be similar to those on the aft platform.

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5.36 The riding bitt uprights These more properly belong with the upper deck, but because the uprights rest on the footwaling, it may be a good idea to make them and shape their heels now. You can obtain their shape from your NMM plan. Leave the blanks a little over-length for the moment. The lower part of the uprights taper slightly on their forward sides below upper deck level. Cut the heels to match the angle of the ceiling planks. Cut shallow tenons on the heels and a matching mortise in the planks below, or drill and pin as you did the pillars. Once you have taken care of this, label and put away the uprights to complete later on.

5.37 The pitch and tar room This is situated on the starboard side of the platform. It would have contained small barrels of pitch for recaulking and Stockholm tar for the standing rigging. The platform between this and the block room probably has had a small scuttle on the centerline for access to the space beneath. This is scuttle indicated on the Atalanta and Fly draughts, but not on that of Pegasus. If there is a scuttle, it will be in a single piece hinged on its aft side.

5.38 The coal hole This space was only accessible via two small scuttles overhead. One imagines that this would have been the darkest area of the hold! The centerline pillars, under the lower deck beams passing through the coal hole, form part of the fore and aft bulkheads, giving additional reinforcement to them.

5.39 The boatswain’s storeroom This compartment furthest forward in the forepeak (Steel spells this fore-peek) of the ship on the port side was the lower of two storerooms for the boatswain. (For readers whose first language is not English, this word is pronounced “bo-sun”.) The upper storeroom, on the lower deck above, had an access scuttle to this area. In these rooms would be found all the materials for rigging repair. Spare cordage was stored either in coils if there were deck space or hung from racks. This style of rack consists of a vertical stanchion with stout horizontal “fingers” protruding, capstan bar fashion, on which to hang the coiled rope. Small fittings such as thimbles, eyes, spare pins and marline would be stored in racks and drawers. I do not know if there was a standard arrangement, but it would be logical to assume that only items less frequently needed would be stored on this lower level.

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5.40 The gunner’s storeroom Situated on the starboard side of the forepeak, this was similar to the boatswain’s store, as it was on two levels. Again, the supplies that were least likely to be required and less susceptible to dampness would be stored on the lower level. Paint and rust preservatives, spare parts for gun carriages and their tackle might be found in this lower space. This store was also only accessible via the scuttle above. The foremost pillar to the lower deck beams passes through this space. Also intruding are the foot of the foremast and its step, the fore end of the keelson and the breast hooks at the bow.

5.41 Color in the hold Because of the limited illumination provided by lantern light, all vertical and overhead surfaces would have been periodically whitewashed. This would be a somewhat greyish white in appearance, the degree of greyness depending on how long it had been since the whitewash was last renewed and its proximity to the coal hole! Decking would have been natural wood, possibly with a band of black paint about six inches wide around openings in the deck as a visual safety warning. The extreme contrast between the light color of the deck and black paint would outline a hazard in dim light. This is seen more frequently on the coamings of models toward the end of the century. A coaming is a frame around openings in the decks to prevent deck water running down inside. As they are far below the waterline, the platform scuttles lack these coamings. This concludes the details of the hold. The only item that I have failed to describe in detail are the rats, should you wish to include them.

Rattus norvegicus, scale 1:12

END OF CHAPTER FIVE

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Appendix 5.1 Isometric drawings For those of you not familiar with the convention of an isometric projection drawing, here is a brief primer explaining its properties and uses. It is a comparatively modern form of plan or drawing. Isometric is derived from two Greek words; iso meaning “the same” and metria, meaning “measurement.” This describes the drawing perfectly; you can take measurements in all three axes directly from the drawing. It is important to realize that it is a scale drawing; a combination of three views in one. Although the angles are distorted, distances along the x, y and z axes are all full size for the scale of the plan. The other point to note is that the floor plan portion of the drawing remains an undistorted floor plan. It is simply turned at an angle to the conventional vertical/horizontal orientation. The angle that the drawing is rotated depends on what the draftsman wishes to show. If there is more detail on one side of the object than the other, then the face with more detail is turned less, so consequently shows less distortion. If both elevations have equal amounts of detail then the plan is usually rotated 45° to horizontal. Other common angles used in this convention of drafting are 30/60° and 15/75°. Note that the two angles always add up to 90°, so that there is no distortion of the floor plan. You can see the usefulness of this style of drawing in showing complex structures in an compact form.

248

z y

x Right angle

An example of a 45/45° isometric drawing at 1:48 scale. The floor plan is still undistorted in such a drawing.

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Appendix 5.2 Beam round up, hyperbolic curve method Deck beams generally curve or round up. The center of the beam is higher than the beam ends in order to shed water and increase structural strength of the deck. There are several ways to define this shape. The method described here produces a hyperbolic curve rather than an arc of a circle. One way is to simply use the arc of a circle that passes through the endpoints and the desired height at midbeam. One difficulty with this method is that it takes quite a lot of space and a large compass or trammel beam to lay out such a shallow arc. (However, see Appendix 5.3.) For this reason it has become customary to use a hyperbolic curve, which can be laid out completely within the form of the beam itself using a quick and simple geometric exercise. You will need a straight edge, compass, dividers, and a batten or ship’s curve. Refer to the illustration below as you follow the instructions. D1 1 1 B1

A1 1

E A

b c D

1. Determine the width of beam and height of crown for the widest deck beam. Draw a baseline and mark the ends, determine the midpoint (D), and erect a perpendicular at the midpoint to indicate the height at center (D 1). 2. Draw the arc of a circle with its center at D, and its radius equal to the height of crown (DD 1). The arc should swing down to the baseline. 3. Take the portion of the baseline from D to where the arc intersects it (the radius of the arc), and divide this into 4 equal segments, marking points a, b, c. 4. Take the portion of the arc that swings between D 1 and the baseline, and divide this into 4 equal segments, marking points a1, b1, c 1. (These are 221⁄ 2° apart). 5. Draw three short lines to connect aa1, bb1, and cc 1.

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6. Take half the baseline (from endpoint E to center D) and divide this into 4 equal parts, marking points A, B, C. 7. Erect a perpendicular at A, of a height equal to the line aa1. Mark the top of this as A1. (Use dividers to transfer the length of aa1 to the perpendicular at A.) 8. Erect a perpendicular at B, of a height equal to the line bb1. Mark the top of this as B1. 9. Erect a perpendicular at C, of a height equal to the line cc1. Mark the top of this as C1. 10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 on the other side of your baseline. 11. Using a batten or ship’s curve, draw the curve between the endpoints and the tops of the perpendiculars (E, A1, B1, C1, D1, etc.) The hyperbolic curve is very slightly flatter than a segment of a circle, mostly in its outer portions. For comparison, the grey line on the illustration shows the segment of a circle. The curve should be laid out for the widest deck beam and a pattern made up from wood or metal. (For small-scale modeling purposes, you may wish to draw this curve at a larger scale, then reduce the result on your scanner.) The same pattern is used for all the beams of a given deck by carefully centering the pattern and scribing a line. Narrower beams will have a smaller round up, the profile remaining constant for all the beams on the same deck. This appendix1 was contributed by David Hill.

Appendix 5.3 Beam round up, alternative arciform method An alternative, older construction method is given by Steel in his Naval Architecture. 2 This method produces a true circular arc and takes up little more space to construct than the previous method. The description and diagram appear on the following page. I have modified the text for modern readers and simplified the illustration and instructions.

1 2

250

Source: Howard I. Chapelle, Boatbuilding, page 112, and others. See Plate A, diagram 1, and pages 3 & 4, subject heading Arch.

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Begin by striking a base line AB equal to the longest beam. Bisect this line with a perpendicular CD, equalling the round up required. Draw the lines AD and BD. Now strike a circle of radius CD with its center at D as shown. Next construct the line De, whose length equals CD and whose angle ADe equals the angle ADC.

C e

The simplest way to do this is by opening the compass to radius aC, centered at a, and striking an arc to intersect the circle at e (illustration at left). Then it is easy to draw line De. Similarly, draw the line Df relative to BD. Now you can divide CD, De and Df into a convenient number of equal divisions. (The example above

shows four divisions, but any number will do. The more divisions you use, the more reference points can be placed to define the arc.) One can quickly trace the divisions with the compass centered at D once the divisions have been established on any one of the three lines. Draw a construction line Bk. Now draw another construction line Al, projected until it intersects Bk at P. Repeat by constructing Bh and Am, Bg and An, etc. to give a series of intersects. Now complete the other side of the beam in the same way. Join all the intersecting points with a flexible curve or ship’s curve to give the round up required. Steel mentions that the last part of the construction was made in the mold loft by using two chalk lines fixed at points A and B. I hope that these methods, ancient and modern, are of more than theoretical interest to you, and will assist you in getting your deck beams' round-up correct.

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Appendix 5.4 Window frames Windows in a ship are properly referred to as lights. There are a number of ways to make these frames, particularly ones that are not rectangular, but I will describe my own method. The first step is to cut an extremely accurate pattern from heavy card or, better yet, styrene sheet 30 or 40 thou thick. This should be a snug fit into the space that the frame will occupy. Now prepare strips of wood to suitable dimensions for the perimeter frame and munions. Munions or muntins are the bars that divide the panes. Top rail Note that usually the bottom rail is the widest piece Vertical munion (unless it is a sliding upper sash window), and the top Horizontal munion rail somewhat narrower, but both are usually wider Side rail than the munions. You will also need a couple of small strips of wood half the thickness of the frame. These Bottom rail

Parts of a frame

are glued to a piece of heavy card or wood as shown below. I will explain their purpose shortly.

Begin with a strip of bottom rail stock. Place it against your pattern and, with an extremely sharp chisel, cut halfway through near one end at the appropriate angle, Half of frame as shown (below left). Place the stock in the jig that you thickness made up, and pare the end with your chisel until you have Half joint cutting jig formed a half joint (below center). The strips form a depth stop for your chisel. Now turn over the pattern and form a half joint on a length of side rail stock in the same manner (below right). Glue up the two half joints against the pattern piece for a perfect fit at the correct angle. Trim off the overhanging ends (illustrations on following page). Repeat this process for the second side, making sure that the overall width matches the pattern.

Waste

Pattern

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Pattern turned over

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Finally, cut and add the top rail in the same manner to complete the perimeter frame. Turn the perimeter frame face down (below left). If the light contains two panes vertically and horizontally simply divide the inside of the perimeter frame in half and draw parallel Trimming the corner of the joint lines either side of this division half the width of the (turn over to cut the second half ) munion. If it is three panes deep or wide, you will need to measure the inside of the frame, deduct twice the width of the munions, and divide the result by three. This gives the correct pane width or height. Once you are satisfied with your mark-out, use a watchmaker’s screw slotting file or narrow saw blade to notch the frame half its depth for the munions. Prepare the munions using your pattern as an angle guide, and make the half joints in the usual way. I usually make the horizontal munions first, fit them (below center), and then cut the slot for the vertical munions; the perimeter frame slots acting as a guide. The vertical munions are last and the trickiest to fit accurately(below right).

Fitting the munions: the back of the frame is facing upward

The end result is a strong frame with structural integrity, which can be finished by light rubbing down on a 400-grit sanding surface. Use a light circular motion to do this, even pressure being applied to the piece by a small piece of crepe rubber (rubber cement eraser).

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n this chapter we will be concentrating on the lower deck and all its various fittings and other details. In a small ship of the Swan class, there is no armament on this deck, but a host of other fascinating items to make. If you choose to plank the deck (or part of it), you will discover that there is much more than laying rows of parallel-sided planking. I hope that this adventure of either reading and learning or actually constructing a model has fired your imagination and curiousity, and that your ideas about crude craftsmanship have been dispelled as you find out more about the incredibly sophisticated business of shipwrightry.

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6.1 The lower deck hook and ekeing At the forward end of the lower deck, there is a specialized breast hook, the deck hook. Almost horizontal, the forward ends of the deck planking will be attached to this timber. There are two extension pieces fitted to the deck hook port and starboard, extending aft to abut the first deck beam. These scarphed extensions are known as the ekeing pieces. (This may be the origin of the phrase “to eke out,” from Middle English eek, “also.”) This arrangement is less wasteful of wood than trying to make the entire hook from a single piece. Their thickness may be taken from your profile plan and are 8" in depth.1 These pieces will be let down on the lower deck clamp until their upper surfaces are flush to the deck beams. An approximate pattern is shown here, but you will need to adjust it to fit around the stemson of your own model. Card patterns are useful in determining the actual shapes needed. Remember to round up the upper surface to conform to the beams and to chamfer the lower curved edge only. Eleven bolts, each 1" in diameter, fasten the hook and ekings through the stem (1 bolt), bollard and hawse pieces (8) and frames (2).

6.2 The lower deck beams, continued The beams have now been cut, shaped and fitted, and let down on the clamps by 1". You have carefully measured and marked the positions of each beam on the edge of the clamp and fitted the pillars under the beams. To prevent rot, the ends of the beams were mouthed (notched square) or bored out to provide air circulation (illustrated opposite and in section 6.11). Before installing beams and pillars, please read ahead! For the lower deck, it is easiest to

start at the fore end of the ship and work progressively aft. In order to have sufficient working room, you will need to make the lodging knees and hanging knees for the beams as you go. Hanging knees at this period were bolted to the sides of the beams, not, as is so often pictured, to their undersides. These knees help to prevent the frames from “racking” by uniting the sides of the ship and deck beams. This junction was always a weak point in a ship’s construction.

256

However, Steel specifies the deck hook as 9" thick. Naval Architecture, Folio XIX, 1805.

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In order to place these items correctly, you need to be able to visualize the relationship between the beam and its two types of knees. As illustrated at the right, the hanging knees are fitted to the fore sides of the beams in the fore body of the ship and to the aft sides in the aft body. The reverse is true of the lodging knees. In a small ship such as this there are no guns on this deck, so less reinforcement is necessary. Unlike ships of the line, sloops had few hanging knees. There are hanging knees only opposite the fore hatch and for the two beams fore and aft of the main mast. Note that the hanging knee is cut back in the throat to allow the tail of the lodging knee to abut the beam. It is also contoured on its outboard side to fit snugly against the inside planking.

6.3 The hanging knees The shape of each hanging knee will need to be determined by card patterns. Their approximate shape is given here. The knees are 6" thick. The side arm of each knee is 4' 6" long, and the athwartship arm 3' 0". The inboard curved edges of the knees are chamfered off, and the inboard toe rounded off in the vertical plane (see the illustration above). Each knee is attached by 7 bolts 7⁄ 8" in diameter. There are three bolts in the athwartship arm and four in the side arm. The lowest bolt in the side is placed 6" above the toe. Often the hanging arm tapered slightly towards the toe in the siding way. There are knees fitted to the fore sides of beams 6 and 7 and to the aft sides of beams 10 through 13. Note that there will be iron knees fitted to the beam arms, so a smaller cutout will be required for the hanging knees to beams 10 and 11. A beam arm is a specialized curved half deck beam, reinforcing the deck structure around the main hatch and main mast. Beam arms will be dealt with in section 6.12.

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6.4 The lower deck lodging knees Please read well ahead and plan your sequence of assembly before carrying out the following!

The lodging knees are 51 ⁄ 2" thick, with athwartship arms 3' 6" long. The general pattern for each of these pairs can be taken from the drawings given. Adapt these to your specific ship where it varies from my version. Be aware that the drawings are my reconstruction of these items, as no actual plan of the deck substructure has yet been found. Each lodging knee is chamfered on its under curved edge only. There are three 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts in each arm of the knee. Remember to conform the upper and lower surfaces to the round up of the deck. The outboard edge of each knee should fit neatly into the space above the lower deck clamp. I would start at each end of the deck and work toward amidships. As you go, temporarily secure the beams and knees in place until you are ready to file the mortises for the carlings and ledges and have fitted the mast partners.

You may use the plan given here to make your preliminary patterns: however, the actual shape of each lodging knee may vary somewhat from this plan. Should you decide to permanently fit the beams at this stage, remember to chamfer the lower edges of the beams slightly and install the pillars under the beams as you go. If you are painting your model, the undersides and sides of the beams, pillars and knees should be painted now to resemble whitewash. It will be near to impossible to do this neatly after assembly!

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6.5 The lower deck carlings These run more or less fore and aft and are 6" wide by 41 ⁄ 2" deep. They are mortised into the beams in the same way as for the platforms. At the fore end, there is only one tier of carlings, but amidships there are two tiers each side. The outer tier (the side tier) is situated just inboard of the lodging and hanging knees, while the inboard tier (midship tier) will form the sides of the hatches. In large ships there was an additional tier of carlings amidships (middle tier), spaced about halfway between the midship and side tiers. Note that the carlings at the sides of the hatchways are 71 ⁄ 2" wide.

6.6 The lower deck ledges These are usually 31 ⁄ 2" wide by 3" deep. However, some ledges are wider. According to Steel 2 they are spaced between 9" and 12" apart. The scuttles are framed lightly with ledges only, unlike the hatch openings. Once again, they are mortised into the carlings as for the platforms. Note how they are mortised into the lodging knees where the angle is extreme.

6.7 The fore mast partners The partners consist of solid framing where the mast passes through the deck. This framing is 3" proud of the beams, carlings and ledges and is let down by 1" on the beams. First to be made are two fore and aft carlings under the partners. These are 6" wide by 41 ⁄ 2" deep, and placed 2' 3" apart (i.e. 1' 11 ⁄ 2" each side of the centerline). These half-lap under the whole width of the beams, unlike the other carlings (illustration top, following page). This is one good reason why you have not permanently fixed the beams yet! There are two 3⁄4" bolts that secure each end of the carling to the beams. Chamfer the under edges between the beams. The plank partner is a 3' 3" wide piece of wood that extends halfway across each beam, to allow landing for the plank ends later on. Note that this piece follows the round-up of the deck beams (illustrations at right and opposite). In larger ships the lower deck partners were far more substantial and made of a number of separate pieces constructed in similar way to the partners for the gun or upper deck. This type of partner will be detailed in the next volume with the upper deck structure. 2

Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XXII.

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The opening in the partner is drawn as an octagon. This octagonal space will later be filed out to form a circular opening whose diameter is that of the octagon as measured across the flats. For the fore mast, this dimension is 2' 0". The opening between the partners and mast will eventually be filled by wedges driven down between them. If you don’t wish to show this feature in an unrigged model, leave the opening octagonal. (I’ll suggest an alternative to this for the model, as hammering real wedges between decks will be impossible!)

6.8 Mast wedges The mast wedges were a means of adjusting both the tightness of the mast and also a way of adjusting the mast rake. The rake of a mast is its degree of inclination from the vertical. At this period foremasts were usually plumb to the waterline, and the main and mizen masts progressively raked aft. Some ships had all masts adjusted without rake. The wedges were driven after the masts were stepped. Stepping is the process of raising and lowering the mast into a ship. This was usually done using a sheer hulk. The sheer hulk was an old ship, usually of 50 guns or larger, which had been cut down to the lower deck and a huge crane erected on it. This crane, or sheer legs, was used to step masts into the ship which was lashed alongside the sheer hulk. The wedges were shaped as shown and driven down the gap in the partners on all sides. Once driven, the ends would be dubbed smooth and rounded. On weather decks, the wedges would be covered by tarred canvas, but this was not done below decks. For model purposes it will be easiest to cooper up a ring of wood, or use a piece of hardwood dowel, which can then be turned down to size. If a mast has a considerable rake, the inner hole will need to be filed out to accommodate the mast. The diameter of the foremast at the partners is 18". Be very particular about the inner hole diameter if you are planning on stepping masts. It will be very difficult to file or ream the hole out later when it is inaccessible! The finished wedges should sit about 4" above the top of the partners.

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Fore mid-part of lower deck, scale 1:48 Continuing aft with features found on the lower deck, note that the edge of the fore hatch is bounded by carlings 11⁄ 2" wider than usual. (This is also the case at the main and after hatchways.) There are hanging knees to be made and fitted to beams numbered 6 & 7.

6.9 Opposed lodging knees This curious feature is seen at the dead flat. Here, at beams 9 and 10, are two opposing lodging knees. Either they may be scarphed together as you did for the platforms or curved to pass one under the other, as shown. This is quite a tricky operation, but is an interesting exercise in model shipwrightry. To understand the shape of this knee, I have illustrated it as it would appear from below. A photograph of such an actual arrangement in Trincomalee, ex Foudroyant, is shown by Goodwin.3

Peter Goodwin, The Construction and Fitting of the Sailing Man-of-War 1650-1850, pages 87 and 89.

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6.10 Varieties of lodging knees There are several variations on this theme. A chock was sometimes fitted in the throat of the knee to make up a deficiency in the piece of wood (illustrated at the far right). Occasionally the end of the athwartship arm was tabled or hooked into the beam for additional strength (near right). Also iron knees were becoming more common, substituting for wood as grown knees became scarcer. (The subject of iron knees will be discussed shortly.) The different varieties of knee are interesting to make, provided that they will be visible in the finished model.

6.11 Variations in the deck beams The ends of the beams were treated in various ways in order to prevent rot setting in. One method, that of mouthing, has already been described (see section 6.2). The ends of the beams were sometimes charred to seal the end grain. Another method was to bore out air channels and char them with hot iron, as shown here. The holes were about 11⁄ 2" in diameter and centered in the beam. A further precaution was to lay the beams alternating their butt ends port and starboard. (It was found that the butt ends were more prone to rotting first.) Longer deck beams were made of two to four pieces, particularly in larger ships. As the widest beam in a Swan class ship was only about 25' 0", it is unlikely that any beam was made of more than one piece of wood. When beams were longer than this, they would almost certainly have been pieced together. This was accomplished by means of tabled long scarphs, as illustrated below. In a first-rate, beams could have been made of as many as four pieces, the center two being long and triangular in shape. Each table is 1' 9" long, except for the ones at the lips, which were 6". The width of the tabling is 3" in a 74 gun ship. The scarph is about one third the overall length of the beam in the two-piece example below.

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For three-piece beams, the middle piece should equal half the total length of the beam, and if made in four pieces, the middle pieces and arms are each 3 ⁄ 7 of the overall beam length.

6.12 Beam arms These are substantial reinforcements that are added around the main mast and hatch. In large ships, they were often added at the fore mast. Beam arms are a cross between a lodging knee and curved half-beam, each tabled into their adjacent beam. The beam arms measure 7" deep by 81⁄ 2" wide. Their tablings are 11⁄ 2" deep. Each joint is secured by six 3 ⁄ 4" square section bolts. Some ships had double beam arms, one on each side of the same beam. The spacing of the beams in a Swan class ship seems to indicate a single arm as shown below. However, if your individual NMM plan shows a different arrangement, follow it instead. (There could also be a half beam opposite the main mast into beam 12.) Otherwise, use my drawing as a pattern for your beam arms. They should follow the round-up of the deck beams and have their outboard ends bored or mouthed.

Aft mid-part of lower deck, scale 1:48 Note the wider wedge-shaped ledges in the outboard tier between the beam arms. In the places where there are iron knees, a packing piece is worked in above the knee for the outboard ends of the ledges to mortise into.

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6.13 The main mast partners These are similar in construction to the fore mast partners. The scantlings of the carlings are identical to those of the fore mast. The width across the main mast partners is 3' 6" and it is also 4" thick. Let it down 1" onto the beams as you did for the fore mast partners. The main difference is the length of the plank partner, which extends fore and aft to butt against the main and after hatch coamings (see section 6.26). The coamings are 6" wide and will be placed flush to the edges of their respective beams. Take the measurements from my drawing opposite, or modify the dimensions to match your own ship. The octagonal hole is 2' 6" across the flats, which will be the maximum diameter of the mast hole once rounded out. There will also be another octagonal hole bored through each side of the partner for the chain pump back casings to pass through (types of pump are covered in sections 6.34 to 6.37). Each hole is 9" across and is centered 10" out from the ship’s centerline. Take the fore-and-aft position from your NMM profile. The “down” tubes or casings and the elm tree pumps pass between the partner carling and the pump carling on each side.

6.14 Iron lodging knees and packing pieces There are two iron knees each side that secure the beam arms to the ship’s frames. These are quite substantial affairs. Steel 4 specifies that for a ship sloop they should weigh 1cwt. 1qtr. each: this translates to about 132 lbs or 60 kg. The arms are tapered, and each knee is about 33⁄ 4" wide and 4" thick at the throat. You can take the general shape and length of the arms from the drawing opposite. Each is secured by seven bolts 7⁄ 8" in diameter. Note that the knees are fitted just below packing pieces that carry the outer ledges. I would make these packing pieces 3" deep by 6" wide. Shape and file the knees from brass stock and blacken them you did for the other ironwork (see Appendix 4.1). To give the “bolt heads” some dimension, you can use a similar technique as you did for the ribband nails (see sections 4.5 and 4.6). However, use a hardwood tool rather than a metal one so that you do not mar the finish on the knee as you push the wire bolts home. I would let the bolt heads sit 1 ⁄ 2" proud of the knee at most, as they would not have been very prominent.

264

Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XX.

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6.15 The mizen mast partners This is a smaller version of the fore and main mast partners. The mizen mast partners consists of a single plank of wood 2' 9" athwartships, 31⁄ 2" thick, and scored down by 3⁄4" on the beams. The mast hole is 1' 9" across. Half-lap its carlings under the beams as you did for the fore and main masts. In this case the carlings project beyond the sides of the partners (see plan below).

6.16 Aft companion or ladder way Situated between beams 15 and 16, it is bounded on the sides by 71⁄ 2" carlings and framed in on the aft side by a wide ledge. This item concludes the framing of the lower deck.

6.17 The lower deck planking You now need to consider how much planking you wish to apply to the lower deck. Some models are simply left completely in frame, other have only one side completely planked. Yet another possibility is to lay a few strakes at the centerline and on the outboard sides. A number of contemporary models have planked decks with shaped apertures where windows of planking are omitted showing the structure beneath; although this method is used more often on the weather decks, leaving the lower decks in frame. I will give a planking plan, and leave the decision to you as to how much you wish to install. If you are planning on making the cabin bulkheads, a certain amount of planking will be helpful.

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6.18 Inner planking, lower deck (15a,16, 17, 18, 19) Before tackling the deck planking, it may be easier to finish the remaining ’tween decks ceiling planking, if you decide to install it. You have already completed the upper deck clamps (section 4.20). There are still four strakes to make, with an additional stealer forward and a partial strake aft (please refer to the illustrations in section 4.11). A partial strake, number 15a, is laid (if you have not already done this) where the inner planking rises above the level of the lower deck beams aft. It is 3" thick. Strakes 16 and 17 are anchor-stock planks, also 3" thick, and need to be carefully cut and shaped to fit neatly. These strakes are called the spirketting. Unless you prefer to lay the waterway plank first (see section 6.20), leave a 3" gap above the beams and lodging knees for this feature. I would use a temporary 3" spacer over the deck framing to ensure a consistent gap. You will also need 2" temporary spacers to make the air gap a consistent width between strake 17 and the upper deck clamp strake 18. The upper edge of stake 17 is chamfered at the edge of the air gap. The pattern of joints for each strake can be taken from the inner planking expansion diagram in section 4.11. Remember that the expansion drawing distorts the actual shapes of the planks, so you will need to use card patterns to find the true shape of each piece. This jigsaw puzzle will take time to achieve. Note the stealer added at the bow below strake 16. 5 The foremost plank in strake 17 is 2" higher than the rest of the strake, terminating the air gap forward. Some judicious heating will be needed to bend in the planks at the bow before making final adjustments to their fit.

6.19 The lower deck planking The lower deck planks are 2" thick. The exceptions are the centerline plank, which is an inch thicker for the upper deck beam pillars to rest on and the binding strakes. The binding strakes are two strakes which run either side of the hatch openings. These are also 3" thick and are let down by 1" on the beams, so that the upper surface is flush to the flat of the deck. I would not be too concerned with showing this feature as it will be hidden, unless you are going to cross-section your deck.

266

This is seen in the partial planking scheme of Hornet, 1776, a copy of which was kindly loaned to me by Stephen Duffy. The original plan, in the National Maritime Museum, cannot now be located.

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6.20 The lower deck waterway There are waterways to this deck but, as they are below the waterline, they differ in section from those on the weather decks. The waterway is 3" thick and is slightly beveled under the lowest strake of spirketting. It is also beveled by 1" the other way to meet the flat of the deck. Steel 6 specifies that the waterway is as “broad as may be had clear of sap,” so I have arbitrarily decided on 12" as a reasonable width. It may be a good strategy to fit the waterways first. Use card pattern pieces to ensure an accurate fit, based on my layout overleaf. Do not try to edge-set (bend) the pieces in! The scarph joints are my conjecture.

6.21 The lower deck planking, continued If planking, construct the riding bitt pins (section 6.29), main topsail sheet bitt pins (6.32) and main jeer bitt pins (6.33) first. The next strake to go in should be the continuous one

inboard of the binding strakes, just outboard of the hatches. Next are the two binding strakes which are 11" wide amidships. These taper slightly fore and aft (see drawings on the following spread). The slight curve of these strakes may be edge set. The butts of the binding strakes are designed to be as clear as possible of the hatchways and mast partners. Here we should discuss the treatment of joints between the planks. There are many schools of thought on this subject. The traditional way — favored by Longridge 7 — is to glue thin black paper to the edges of each plank and at the butts to represent the pitch caulking. The result is pleasing and consistent but time consuming. I speak from experience, having treated the holly decks of my model of Polyphemus this way. Tinting the glue is another possibility, or running soft pencil along the plank edges before gluing them down.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXV.

C.N. Longridge, The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, page 118 et seq.

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Some builders favor a black permanent marker. I would be concerned that this may bleed into the wood, particularly at the butts. Sealing the edges and ends of the plank will prevent this. I recommend some experimentation on your part to see which method gives you the most pleasing result. The next thing to consider is how you will represent deck fastenings. Planks were fixed to the beams and ledges by a combination of doualls, deck spikes and treenails (discussed in sections 4.13 and 5.13). Whatever scheme you adopt, you should use it consistently for all the deck planking on your model.

6.22 The centerline plank I have shown this as a 12" wide untapered plank. (The modern name is the king plank.) Remember that it is 3" thick, standing 1" proud of the deck flat. The pillars for the upper deck beams will tenon into it. The plank’s edges chamfer down to meet the flat of the deck, and it tapers in thickness by 1⁄4" aft of the ladderway to meet flush with the mizen mast partners. Note that this plank butts against the hatch head ledges and mast partners. Head ledges are the athwartship parts of the hatch framing that sit above the level of the deck.

6.23 The shutting in These are the three interrupted strakes of planking either side between the centerline plank and the first strake inboard of the binding strakes. Fit these carefully to the partners and scuttle edges. Deal with the slight taper as you did for the ceiling planks (section 4.25 and Appendix 4.3).

6.24 The flat of the deck The remaining eight strakes of planking on each side, 2" thick, are laid as shown on my reconstructed plan. Note that the outboard three strakes are “dropped” fore and aft, so that the ends of the other planks do not narrow or bend excessively. At this period joggled planks do not seem to have been used, so the strakes shown this way at the bow are optional. I would mirror the butt pattern on both sides of the mid-line if you decide to plank the deck completely. As for the waterway, cut the planks from wider stock and shape them, rather than attempting to bend them in. Note the cross-plank at the aft end of the deck, to which the other strakes butt. Its aft edge is flush with the aft side of beam 19.

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Note the treatment of planking around the scuttles and hatchways. In the case of the scuttles, the planks are laid up to the inner edges of the beams, carlings and ledges. However, around the hatchways the planks end short of the openings by 5", the width of the head ledges (see 6.26 for definition), illustrated below. Temporary head ledges may help you align the ends of the planks. On the sides of the opening, the planks will lay against the coamings (see 6.26 for definition), so that the inner 6" of the upper surfaces of the carlings remain exposed for now. These gaps will be covered by the hatchway framing members. The other place to note is at the pump well openings, which are unframed. Here the planks end even with the fore and aft ends of the main mast partners. While the fore and main mast partners lie 1" above the flat of the deck, the mizen partners are only 3⁄ 4" higher. Except where the center plank is flush to the partners, bevel the edges and corners of the partners down to meet the flat of the deck so that there is no sudden step or change in level.

6.25 The scuttle covers The scuttles in a Swan class ship are flat scuttles, having covers that lie flush with the deck itself. (In larger ships cap scuttles were fitted, which were raised above deck level by small coamings and head-ledges.) There are 3" square battens nailed to the inner sides of the carlings to act as bearers for the covers. The covers are made up of 2" plank held together beneath by battens, similar to palleting (see section 5.23). They were raised by ringbolts and may or may not have been hinged. If hinging them, do so in a direction so that they can be opened all the way back. The hinges are of the T- type (called a garnet cross hinge) as for the fish room scuttle. I would make the ringbolts 3" in internal diameter and of wire a scale 3⁄4" in diameter. The bolt should be slightly thicker, say 7⁄ 8" in diameter. At the right is a simplified version. (For making ring-bolts, see Appendix 6.1.) The non-hinged type of cover would have had the ring-bolts positioned in alternate corners as shown to the left.

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6.26 The hatch coamings This is the name for both the framework around the hatch openings and for a specific part of this framing. The frame consists of two fore and aft members, also called the coamings, and two cross-pieces referred to as head-ledges. In a sixth-rate, these frames on the lower deck are of light scantling as compared to large ships. The coaming pieces are 6" wide and 5" deep. They have a rabbet 3" deep and 21 ⁄ 2" wide on the inner sides to receive the gratings. The ends where they join the head-ledges have half-lap joints that are tailed.7 A tailed joint is angled somewhat like half of a modern dovetail, but is sloped in two planes. This tail is worked above the inner rabbet level so that the whole of the joint is visible above the level of the planking. The tail itself slopes 3⁄ 4" over the 5" length of the joint and 5 ⁄ 8" across its width.8 The accompanying illustrations should make this clear. Of course, all this may be simplified for the model. The tailed joint could be cut as a simple halving joint. The head-ledges are simpler than in larger ships and curve slightly to match the round up of the beams. They are 5" square in section, and their joints are cut to match the tails of the coaming pieces. Once complete, the corners of the frame are radiused off by 3" only above deck level (illustrated lower right). On the sheer and profile of Atalanta, the outer surfaces of the main and aft hatch coamings are shown slightly beveled: check and follow the details on the drawings for your own ship. There are three 3⁄ 4" bolts through each head-ledge: one at the centerline and one at each end through middle of the tailed joints. Treenails were used to fasten down the coamings. Slightly chamfer off all sharp edges as usual. The joints with the deck planking are caulked all round.

272

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXII.

Ibid, described on page 386 under Directions for the actual building. The instructions are somewhat ambiguous, and this is my interpretation of them.

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The color of the coamings is a contentious issue. I have seen some contemporary models with the coamings left bright, some with them painted red, and yet others painted black. My impression is that black became more usual later in the century, but this is not always consistent on the models. Once again, I will leave the choice of interpretation to you. If you decide to paint the coamings, it will be easier to do now before installing them on the model. The beams and carlings in the openings should match, if you choose to paint.

6.27 The hatchway gratings All three hatchways on the lower deck are covered by gratings. The gratings are not constructed with interlocking notched strips as is so often shown, but by notched members running athwartships, with thinner fore and aft strips inserted and nailed into the notches. The gratings do not appear to have had a perimeter frame at this period. The thicker-sectioned athwartship pieces are the grating ledges. They are notched and 21⁄ 2" wide by 3" deep. The fore and aft pieces are called grating battens. These are only 3⁄ 4" thick, and 23⁄ 4" wide. The holes in the grating assembly should not exceed 23⁄ 4"square: smaller than the heel of a shoe. Patterns for the gratings are given here for you to follow.

Check first that the hatch openings for your own ship are the same size as the drawings; they may be different to these. The gratings for the lower deck will have a minimal athwartships curve to match the head-ledges and beam round up. It is likely that the hatch gratings were split into sections athwartships for ease of handling. I have seen several contemporary models with such divided gratings.9 9

A good example of this is seen in the beautiful NMM model of Amazon, 32 guns, 1773.

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If you wish to show this feature, split the fore and after hatch gratings in two along the center grating ledge and the main hatch grating into three sections in a similar manner to the illustration here. This line could also be simply scored in. There are two nails through each joint in the grating (illustration previous page). These may be lightly indicated with a very sharp hard pencil point.

6.28 Grating production There are many methods that have been described for making gratings. The critical part is to make the mortises in the grating ledges as regular as possible. Nothing looks more obvious to the eye than uneven spacing. The first thing is to obtain a slitting saw blade whose width matches (or is slightly narrower) that of the battens. This is a scale 23⁄4", which translates to 0.0573" or 1.455mm full size. If you have a narrower blade, run the stock through twice. Offset the second cut to make the mortises the correct width. For example, I use a 0.045" slitting blade which I then offset by 0.012" for the second pass. The next step is to construct a suitable jig to carry the grating ledge stock and move it past the saw in 51 ⁄ 2" increments. Again, there are many existing designs which work well. The sketch here shows my own solution to this problem.

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The critical component is an adjustment mechanism to vary the distance between saw blade and fence with micrometer precision. Only a millimeter or two of travel will be required; my drawing is exaggerated for clarity. Originally I used the Unimat circular saw attachment, its table (attached to the cross-carriage) being adjusted by the longitudinal feed. This worked extremely well. The only disadvantage was the comparatively crude means of raising or lowering the table to adjust the depth of the dado. Now, with a setup on the Micro-Lux (Proxxon) or Byrnes saw, horizontal adjustment is achieved by a fine-threaded screw and rail system and vertically by the saw’s own depth-of-cut mechanism. Old boxwood or Castello provide well-seasoned first-rate material for gratings. The ledge stock is cut into a sheet of 3" thickness. The first cross-cut made with the end of the stock against the “riding” fence. (The fence is the width of the slitting blade, not the dado, and a scale 3⁄4" high.) Without shifting the blank against the miter gauge, move the table the amount of offset calculated. Now run the piece through again so that the first groove is the correct width. The blank is then moved so that the first dadoed groove fits over the fence, and the piece is run through the saw again with the side of each dado nearest the saw blade pressed against the fence. Repeat this process 11 times, which will be sufficient for the main hatch grating. Offset the table and fence back to its original position to make the other dadoes the width of the battens and repeat the process. Once enough stock has been prepared for 33 ledges, 21⁄2" strips can be rip-cut to make these. Rip the strips with the dadoed side down. A slight round-up may be set in the ledges by heat while bent over a former. After cutting sufficient stock to size for the battens, the gratings can be assembled. I use rubber cement to attach the ledges directly over the pattern at their correct spacing, then glue in the battens using slightly diluted white glue applied with a fine brush. The completed assembly can then be separated from the pattern and trimmed around its perimeter. The upper surface is gently sanded smooth in a circular motion on a 240-grit sandpaper board. Gratings should be left bright. I use a thin coat of sanding sealer to finish the gratings, but a matt varnish can be substituted.

6.29 The riding bitts These are quite massive, as the strain of the ship’s cables on them could be enormous. Most ships had two pairs, but in the Swan class there was only a single pair. The uprights, also called pins, are 1' 1" square and 3' 9" apart.

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Check your own NMM plans to see what variations there are to my drawing. Also check how far above the upper deck the heads of the pins rise. Each pin also tapers toward the heel, the whole of this taper being taken off the forward face, and equally off the sides. Steel specifies the pins to be 9" square at the heels, but check your draught. The pins face into the beams with 11⁄2" scores, to which they are fastened by two 3⁄ 4" bolts. The riding bitt crosspiece is 1' 1" wide and 10" deep. It extends 1' 6" each side of the pins, into which it is scored by 11⁄ 2". Again, there are two 3⁄ 4" bolts through each joint. On the aft side of the crosspiece is a replaceable back-piece of elm 4" thick, which was nailed on. Note that all edges and corners are well rounded off to prevent wear on the cables. The standards will face into the upper deck beams (see the illustration above), so if planking, you will need to leave a gap for them. I will describe all the other details of the riding bitts when covering the upper deck fittings. In order to fit the bitt pins, you will need to make the upper deck beams first. So much work has to be done looking ahead, and difficulties anticipated!

6.30 The upper deck beams I would advise you to cut all the upper deck beams now and fit them to the upper deck clamps as you did for the lower deck (see section 5.10). The pattern for the round-up is given on your Mylar drawing, just below the body plan. There are 22 beams in all. You can position the beams on the clamps by transferring measurements from your NMM plan to the Mylar one. As for the lower deck, the beams are let down on the clamps by 1".

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6.31 The riding bitt pins, continued Once you have positioned upper deck beam 5, check the pins for verticality and correct spacing. Make any adjustment you need to now. The pins are 3' 9" apart, although Steel10 specifies 4' 2". Check your own NMM drawing and follow this. Proceed to carefully mark out and cut the scores for the deck beams and cross-piece in the riding bitt pins. These scores should be 11⁄ 2" deep. On the illustration (previous page), you will see that there is a bolt passing through each pin forward of the crosspiece. This carries a hook that engages an eyebolt in the crosspiece. Drill these holes now. They should be 1" in diameter. The rest of this fixture will be dealt with when we come to the upper deck. The other items that should be attended to now are the cleats attached to the fore sides of the pins (see opposite). The cleats are reinforcing vertical members that effectively deepen the scores to the beams and distribute stresses without adding too much additional weight to the structure. Steel 11 specifies these cleats to be 4" thick and 9" wide, shaped to fit the front of the pins, and are “...to be the whole length, so as to set up tight between the (upper and lower) deck beams....” Toward their heads they are attached with two 3⁄ 4" bolts and are nailed on near their lower ends. However, just 20 years earlier (1788) The Shipbuilders’ Repository 12 describes these cleats as being only 1' 8" long, fitted just under the upper deck beam, and 61⁄ 2" wide (inset illustration opposite). I would show the latter, although the choice is yours. The bitt pins may now be installed and pinned to the lower deck beam. In practice each was secured by two 3⁄ 4" bolts. Delay permanently installing the upper deck beam for now.

6.32 The main topsail sheet bitt pins These also need to be made now, as their heels pass through the lower deck planking and attach to beam 11 beneath. They will be eventually be enclosed in the upper part of the well. The upper part of these pins have a decorative feature. This takes various forms: some NMM plans show the detail, others do not. If such detail is lacking on your own plan, I have indicated a typical panelled style treatment overleaf.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXIII.

Ibid.

Table on page 302.

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Note that there is an additional crosspiece called the gallows above the pins. This is often not indicated on the draught, but was there. The name is a reference to the resemblance of this feature to a regular gallows, although it was never used for this purpose! (The fore yard arm was employed on such rare occasions.) The gallows was used as a support for stowed items such as spare spars. The specific details of this and other parts of the main topsail bitts will be covered when the upper deck fittings are discussed. The bitt pins are 9" square from the lower side of the upper deck beam upward. Below this level, they gradually taper until they round off at the heels at lower deck beam level. Above the level of the bitt cross-piece, the way in which the pins were treated varies. Some ships had square tapered pillars with moldings at the base and top. Others had a panelled appearance, as in the example above. Drill and insert pins in the top surfaces for securing the gallows crosspiece later on. Other features of the pins include the scores for the upper deck beam and those for the crosspiece, both of which are 11⁄ 4" deep. The cross-piece will be 4 1⁄ 2" deep with its upper side 1' 9" above the deck, unless your plan shows a different arrangement. There are also two cheek blocks attached to the outer sides of the pins (see illustration above). These are 21⁄ 2" thick and contain a 71⁄ 2" diameter sheave 11⁄ 8" thick for the clewgarnets. The cheek block extends to the deck below, and the top is finished with a molding as shown. I would permanently attach the cheek blocks now. Within the pin, another sheave mortise is cut through centrally fore and aft. This slot containing a sheave 7 1⁄ 2" by 13⁄ 4" thick. It is used for the main topsail sheet lines. Remember to drill the holes for the sheave pins now!

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The remaining two holes needed should be drilled athwartships through the upper part of the pin: they secure the pump brake rhodings. Pump brake is the correct term for the crank handles of the chain pumps, and rhodings are the split bearings that they revolve in. One is illustrated on the previous page. They will be detailed later. The holes for the bolts securing the rhoding are 5 ⁄ 8" in diameter and on 4" centers. As the axis for the brakes is 3' 8" above the flat of the deck, these holes are drilled 3' 6" and 3' 10" above deck (not beam) level. You may wish to turn and install the sheaves, as it will be easier to do this now than when the pins are in place. The bitt pins are placed 3' 9" apart, and are secured to the deck beams by two 3⁄ 4" bolts at each joint.

6.33 The main jeer bitts These are a modified version of the main topsail sheet bitts and are situated just aft of the main mast. The top of these support the foremost quarter deck beam, which means that you will have to make at least one of the beams in that range too! They are tenoned into the beam above. Their scantlings are similar to the main topsail sheet bitts. Please note that the crosspiece is scored into the aft sides of the pins. There are cheek blocks and rhodings attached to these bitt pins in the same manner as for the main topsail sheet bitts. The main jeer bitts are spaced 3' 6" apart, unless your NMM plan shows otherwise.

6.34 The chain pumps These are interesting items to make. Of course, the mechanism may be completely hidden, so much of the detail that I shall describe will not need to be fabricated. However, for the enthusiast, I will describe the internal features of a chain pump. At this period there was much experimentation going on. The improved Coles’ (also spelled Cole) pumps were yet to be introduced, and the version that ran in bored tubes (instead of casings that could be dismantled for repairs) was still in use. This is seen by the way in which the casings are delineated, at least in the draughts for Pegasus and Atalanta. The top ends of the tubes are tapered and fitted with reinforcing metal bands. In the deck plans, they are drawn as octagonal rather than square shapes, typical of the elm tree variety. If your own draughts show otherwise, then an “improved” pump must have been installed. Doubtless these would have eventually been replaced by the Coles/Bentinck pump that became standard in about 1781.

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Should this be the case, details of the improved pumps are available in Brian Lavery’s book.13 For the model, I shall describe the “original” version of the Coles’ pump. The basic components of the pumps were a “down” or back tube on the inboard side, an intake at the base, an “up” or discharge tube, and a continuous chain fitted with leathered washers that ran around a large sprocket wheel at the top of the pump assembly, and a small roller at the intake end. There was a sink or cistern at the top for the water to discharge into, and a chute or dale leading from the cistern to a large drain-hole or scupper in the ship’s side. Attached to the upper sprocket wheel were the cranks or pump brakes, which could be disconnected and stowed when not in use. The details of the upper end, chains and washers of this system will be included with the upper deck fittings. For the moment, only the tubes and intake need to be made and installed. You have by now hollowed out the areas of the frames where the intakes are situated (section 5.15). Check that they are wide enough to fit the pump intakes (scale elevation at left).

6.35 The chain pump tubes The tubes are fascinating items in themselves. These are bored from solid logs through about 16' 0" of wood, the walls of the tube being only about 11⁄4" thick at the lower end! You may opt to leave them solid, particularly if you plan on covering the assembly at the upper end with the protective hoods that were supplied. If you wish to install the complete mechanism, I would suggest boring oversize pieces of wood and subsequently working the outer sides down to size.

280

The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600-1815, pages 72-75.

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The bore of these particular pumps is 5". The upper ends of the octagonal section are 10" across the flats, tapering to just 7 1⁄ 2" at the lower ends. The top end of the tubes are chamfered off and taper to a round cross-section. They are fitted with a 2" wide reinforcing metal band. Use oversized stock to drill the bore. You will need to purchase a specialized long drill bit for this task. Once this is done (assuming that you have not simply drilled a little way into the top end), plane or saw the blank to a section 10" square, keeping the hole centered. Now carefully plane or sand each face so that the blank tapers to 71⁄2" square at one end. The next stage — to make this square stick into a perfect octagonal one — is quite easy if one knows the mast and spar-makers’ trick. The key to marking out an octagon is what I call the 7-10-7 rule. This is the proportion that one divides each face of the square into. (Another way of stating this is that each face is divided into 24 parts, and

24 7

that 7⁄24ths are marked off from each edge.) I use a mark-out card as shown above, skewing it at the narrow end of the taper, and then join the dots. Placing the

Marking out an octogon

squared-off blank in a 45° cradle, plane each corner down to your marks to form a perfectly tapered octagon. This essentially is the same method used to shape masts and spars. In that case, after the octagonal sided stock is cut, it is easy to make the stick sixteensided and then round. For spars, the center section is usually left octagonal. You can now carefully round off and taper the upper end of the tube as shown in the elevation on the previous page. Make sure that the rounding-off is started above the level of the base of the cistern. The metal bands can now be fabricated and applied. These are conveniently made from copper or brass, and silver soldered. Heat them slightly to shrink-fit them to the wood. Don’t overheat and char your work though! You could substitute a card band painted black.

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6.37 Head of the chain and brake pumps, contemporary model. The main topsail sheet bitts and gallows cross-piece (section 6.32) are well shown in this view. Chain pump hoods are omitted. A well-made grating (section 6.27) is shown over the main hatch.

6.4 and 6.17 Overhead view of the forecastle deck of a contemporary model. Note the way in which deck planking has been omitted to show the structures beneath. Lodging knees are visible, and the upper deck below. A similar photograph of the lower deck was not possible to take, but is one way of showing the substructures of each deck.

282

A general view of the head of a contemporary model. Note the taper of the knee of the head.

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6.36 The pump intake chambers These are problematic as I have seen several different types illustrated, and all are different. I shall give a version that I think was most likely used, but you are free to research this subject further! The intake was a cast iron affair made in pieces which were bolted together as illustrated. I should emphasise that this interpretation is my own, as earlier pumps are not as well documented as the later types. The essentials were two side plates that held the roller pin, and a spacing piece that was open at the base for the intake. In later versions, the intake was an arc-shaped hole pierced through the side plates. The roller, although simple, meant that the chain and washers (to be described in Volume Two) must have bumped around it as the pump was operated. An earlier version of the pump (illustrated in William Falconer’s Dictionary of the Marine14) has a large cogged wheel. This required a much bigger chamber, which reduced efficiency as a trade-off for smoother operation. The side plates were probably about 3⁄ 4" thick, as was the spacing piece. You may use the illustration on the previous spread for the side plate pattern. The spacing piece is 71 ⁄2" wide and the intake opening about 5" across. The lower ends of the tubes were clamped between the side plates by long bolts. It should be noted that the nuts at this period were square, not hexagonal (illustration to right). The roller is 4" in diameter and about 71⁄ 2" long. The pin is 2" in diameter and is forelocked as illustrated. Beneath the forelock should be a square washer, which is not shown here.

Falconer’s Dictionary was published in 1769. This illustration of a chain pump has been reproduced in several books, including Lavery’s Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, p.72.

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In full-size practice, the bolts were tightened so as to clamp the side plates to the lower ends of the tubes. For the model, the intake assembly can be lowered into place first, and the tubes inserted from above. If you plan to install the chains and washers, you will need to thread a piece of fishing line down through the one tube, around the roller and up the other tube now. Tie the ends off securely! You can subsequently lead the chain through the system by attaching it to the line. The rest of the pump mechanism will be described with the upper deck details.

6.37 The brake pumps Also known as hand pumps, there are two of these situated just forward of the main mast. Like the chain pumps, the tubes are bored octagonal ones of wood. These are simple suction pumps, worked by a long handle called the brake. Inside the bore of the tube were two valves. The lower one was fixed, and consisted of a box with a leather flap which could only hinge upward, but was usually sealed by the column of water above it. The box itself was a tight fit where the bore narrowed, and consisted of a hollow cylinder with the leather “flapper” attached to its upper surface. The upper flapper valve, also of leather, was loose enough to move up and down in a brass sleeve. On an upstroke the flapper closed and water was drawn up the tube by suction, and on the downstroke the lower valve closed, the upper one opened, and water was ejected through the upper box to discharge at the top of the tube. For now, the tubes need to be constructed and installed. As they are similar to the chain pump tubes, just take the measurements from your plans (remembering to allow for the foreshortening due to their angle!) and construct them as outlined in section 6.35.

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Each is about 1' 0" shorter than the tubes for the chain pumps. The lower end of each tube is notched on each side to act as the inlet. The bore of the upper half of the tube is 1⁄ 2" wider than the lower half, so that the lower box is wedged tight at the change in bore. This makes the upper bore diameter 5" and the lower bore 41⁄ 2" . The lower box and valve (should you wish to install this invisible feature) are situated about halfway up the tube (but below the waterline) not, as one might expect, at the lower end. Replacing the leather must have been an awkward undertaking. The lower box had an eye on its upper end so that the box could be hooked out for repair from the upper end of the tube. There are a bewildering variety of box designs, some of which are illustrated here. The upper valve slid inside a brass sleeve that fitted tightly inside the tube. The lower end of this sleeve was situated about 4' 0" above the lower box. The sleeve was 1' 10" long, having a 5" bore with 1 ⁄4" thick walls.16 The lower end of the sleeve was beveled back from the inside. This prevented the lower box from catching when being pulled up through it for repair. The upper box slid up and down inside this sleeve. The moving box was operated by the brake. The connecting device was a spear, a long iron rod with an eye on the upper end and a hook on the other. This attached to a staple, which was a stirrupshaped device that connected to the upper box. The upper end of the pump and its brake will be described with the upper deck fittings.

15 16

Drawn after a photograph in Heart of Oak, A Sailor’s Life by James P. McGuire, page 102. Public Records Office, ADM 106/2507, March 2, 1742/43 (cited by Lavery, Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, p.76) and from Thomas Blanckley, A Naval Expositor, 1750, p.124.

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Please note the actual orientation of the pump tube and its outlet at the upper end. The outlet is a side tube with 3" inside bore, protruding by about 6", and this faces diagonally aft and outboard. (The cross-section on the previous spread has the upper end of the pump reoriented by 45° for clarity.) The axis of the brake runs 45° diagonally forward and outboard. Copper mesh strainers covered the intakes to prevent the pumps from clogging.

6.38 The upper well The pump tubes pass through the lower deck, and are enclosed at this level by the upper part of the well. The walls of this compartment are louvered for ventilation, and there is a small door so that the pumps can be accessed for repair and maintenance. The corner pillars tenon into the upper deck beams above, and there is an additional pillar for the doorway on the starboard side. This feature is not shown in the profile plan, as it is the port side of the upper well that is delineated. The corner stanchions are 6" square, with the outer corners taken off to a chamfer or “bold round.” They tenon by 1" into the deck below, and by the same amount into the underside of the upper deck beams overhead. The door stanchion will eventually tenon into the beam arm that will be positioned above it. Before fitting these stanchions, the dadoes to receive the louvers (more properly called loovered battens) need to be cut, and the whole structure assembled. This will be an exercise in repeated cutting much like that for the grating ledges (sections 6.27 and 6.28). The loovers are 11⁄ 2" thick and 6" wide, and are angled at 30°. They are spaced as shown here. There is also a vertical base batten or board 1' 0" high and 11⁄ 2" thick, also shown in the elevation to the left.

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Three of the corner stanchions will need to be dadoed two ways, but the fourth corner and door stanchions are grooved on one side only. Check the direction of the dadoes before you make your cuts! In order to cut these grooves, you will need to make a similar table to the one illustrated in section 6.28. It will need a smaller riding fence set at a suitable distance from the slot for the saw blade, and you will set your miter gauge over 30° in the appropriate direction to make these cuts. The loovered battens have a half-round profile on the outside edge and are angled at 30° on the inside. You will need to construct a jig to part off repeated lengths accurately. If done neatly, the structure should come together very nicely. I would set each loover into its dado on one stanchion first, then glue up the opposite ends of the loovers and gently squeeze them onto the stanchion at the second end of each “run.” Make sure that the ends are all the way home, so that the overall length of a side matches the plan drawing. The door, 22" wide, is hinged on the corner stanchion to swing outward. I am unsure of the construction of this, so this is what I think is a reasonable possibility. As master shipwright, you may overrule my decision by fitting loovers! It would certainly have a lock and butt hinges. I imagine stop strips were fitted to the stanchions on the inner side, much like a modern door.

6.39 The ladder to the aft platform The styles, which are the sides of the ladder, are made from 11⁄ 2" or 2" thick plank. These will need to be dadoed in much the same way as you did for the well stanchions. Again, a new upper table with a suitable riding fence will do the trick. Remember that you will need a left and right handed pair of styles! The styles are notched back, perhaps to save weight, and fit in under the carling at their head. The treads, the steps themselves, are 1" thick and 8" wide. Soften their leading edges. In many contemporary models, the styles are painted red, and treads left bright, so if you decide to do this, it is far easier to paint the styles before assembling the ladder. The drawing should give you the information that you need to build this feature. The lower end is on the port side.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

6.40 The pillars under the upper deck beams This is the first time that you will need a means of making multiple turnings. There are relatively few turned items in the ship, but many of these will need to be produced in quantity. Deck beam pillars are a case in point. There are two approaches to this problem. One is to turn a master pattern piece and reproduce it by means of a mold and castings; the other is to have or make some kind of pattern duplicator to attach to your lathe. I made a duplicator to fit to my old Unimat DB200 some years ago. Almost all the parts came from the scrap-box, except for some precision ground cobalt steel bits which I had commercially made. The sketch below gives you the principle by which it works so that you can fashion something similar for yourself.

The hole for the longitudinal rail in the main block runs between those for the bit-holding tube and the pattern-follower rod. The main block needs to be absolutely square so that the holes are bored precisely at right angles. The pattern-follower rod needs to be adjustable so that the turning will be the correct diameter as well as correctly profiled.

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The other requirement is a means of adjusting the height of the bit so that the tip will be at the height of the lathe center. I use a simple adjustment screw and locknut to achieve the correct height. The screw tip rides on the narrow shelf parallel to the lathe. Note that the follower rod support and adjustment block are fixed to the bit-carrying tube, and that the follower tip is wedge-shaped rather than pointed to allow for vertical adjustment. Having decided on the method of producing identical turnings, you will need to produce eleven pillars to go under the upper deck beams. They are situated under beams numbered 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, and 13 through 18 inclusive. (If a pantry is indicated on your plan, beams 14 and 15 will not need turned pillars.) There are also plain square pillars which are part of the sail room bulkhead under beams 7 and 9, as well as the two long pillars aft through the bread room (see section 5.9). There are many minor variations on the theme, two of which are illustrated here. Some NMM plans actually show details of these turned pillars. If this is the case, follow the design shown on your own plan. The head of the pillar is tenoned into the upper deck beam, and the heel is chased into the center plank below. A chase is a longitudinal tenon, as illustrated. The head of the pillar is 51⁄ 2" square and the heel section 61⁄ 2" square.

6.41 Lower deck cabin bulkheads There are a number of cabins on the lower deck delineated on your own set of NMM deck plans. The partitions forward are built up as you did the platform bulkheads, with stanchions and boarding. Note that the doors to the forward sail room and the carpenter’s store room are wider than the regular doors (see plan drawing on the following page). The second sail room, amidships, has its door on the port side of the aft bulkhead. Two of the cabins forward are for the boatswain and carpenter. I am unsure if these were fitted with a bedplace as for the officers’ cabins, but as a hammock required about 9' 0" of space to sling, this seems probable. I will describe the bedplace shortly. It is also possible that the doors to the storerooms forward may have been fitted with sliding doors instead of the swinging ones that I have indicated. Triangular lanterns were fixed to the bulkheads of the boatswain’s and carpenter’s storerooms.

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The doors to the fore compartments and cabins would be similar to those on the orlop, with either a barred aperture or a series of bored holes through the planks of the door (see section 5.27). All the doors have outside locks with simple globular brass door handles.

Forward cabin stanchion plan, lower deck Scale 1:48

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The bedplace was basically a bunk. It was specified as 2' 6" wide by about 6' 6" long. I imagine it to be quite low, perhaps 1' 0" high at most, with a straw paliasse (mattress) and high side to prevent the sleeper from being rolled out of bed in a seaway. The sketch will give you an idea of its appearance. The “far” side of the bedplace is against the ship’s side. There are lanterns which are mentioned and illustrated by Blanckley,17 triangular in shape, which attach to the bulkheads of the boatswain’s and gunner’s storerooms. Once again, as for the lantern in the light room next to the magazine (section 5.24), there is a vent funnel above the body of the lantern. It would be hung high up (not that with less than 5' 0" of overhead clearance anything could be considered high!) with a space for the vent to clear the deckhead above. Construct these as you did the lantern for the magazine. The aft sail room has corner stanchions that also support the upper deck beams above, tenoning into them and the deck below. The center stanchions and side stanchions forward also tenon into the upper deck beams. The door swings as indicated, unless a sliding one was fitted. This space needed to be well ventilated, so that there would likely be loovers near the top of the bulkhead and in the door (for style, see illustration of the pantry on the following spread). The lowest plank on the fore side needs to be fitted to the edge of the fore hatch head ledge. Chamfer off the outside corners of the planks. The carefully folded sails would have been stored in the two sail rooms. Each was tagged with a wooden label or tally so that each sail could be quickly identified and details of its construction seen. The number of cloths (head and foot of the sail), yards of canvas required and weight of canvas used were noted on each tally for replacement purposes. 17

Thomas Blanckley, A Naval Expositor, 1750, page 90.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

An example18 might read: Pegasus/Fore Topsail 14. 23. 10 1⁄ 4. No. 3. Tallies of this type have been recovered from the wreck of the Invincible, now in the Chatham Historic Dockyard Museum. They are made of thin wooden lath, about 3' 0" long, with a hole bored at one end to attach the tally to its sail. There are six cabins aft for the officers. In larger ships these are of panelled construction. However, in a sixth-rate class distinction was less apparent! It is more likely that they would be of stanchion and horizontal plank construction, like the forward cabins on this deck.

292

This information may be found in Steel’s Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging, 1794, Part II, Sail Table IV, Sweetman edition. This reprint is readily available.

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Although Steel mentions stone-ground glass door panels, I doubt that this would be the case here, particularly as there was no natural light on this deck. A loovered panel in the door would be more appropriate, to provide some ventilation while giving a measure of privacy. The doors are the standard width of 2' 2". As the cabins are more like hutches — the overhead clearance under the beams being so low — the doors are only about 4' 0" high. The bedplaces, similar to those forward, are positioned as shown opposite. There were either bins, shelves, lockers or a cupboard built against the athwartships bulkheads. These may have also been fitted with hasps. I leave the choice of fittings to you. Any furniture would have been of very simple construction in a mid-Georgian style. The bins had sloping lids similar to a shot locker. Furniture hinges are of a dovetail type, as illustrated here. Simple handles of turned wood are appropriate and possibly ogee or cyma recta moldings around the top. These are moldings whose cross-section forms an S shape, convex in the upper half, and concave in the lower one. (A cyma reversa has the upper part of the curve concave instead.) Shelves had deep lips to prevent items from sliding off in a seaway. If there is a pantry indicated on your plan, it should be partly loovered for ventilation. A conjectural arrangement is shown to the right. There might also be loovers on the fore and aft sides. The outside corners of the planking should be chamfered off. The lowest plank on the aft side is fitted to the headledge of the ladderway. Shelves, with bins arranged below them, would have been fitted inside. The last item to construct is the solid bulkhead that runs across the aft end of the lower deck, closing it off from the compartment aft.

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This bulkhead would also be of the horizontal planked variety, separating and enclosing the bread room at its upper level. This concludes construction on the lower deck. Although there are a lot of details that you can include, even more was actually crowded into this space. The crew’s hammocks were also slung from the deckhead. How this was arranged will be described in Volume Two, along with information for the rest of the hull and its fittings.

END OF CHAPTER SIX

“…the life of the historian must be short and precarious.” - Edward Gibbon, 1737-1794 Written on completion of his classic, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 27th June, 1787.

“Another dam’ thick, square book? Scribble, scribble, scribble, eh, Mr. Gibbon?” - King George III, 1738-1820 on being presented with a copy of this work by the author.

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Appendix 6.1 Making ringbolts This is where your silver-soldering skills can come in useful. The bolt portion is most easily produced by bending a length of suitable gauge brass or copper wire around a drill shank whose diameter is equal to that of the inside diameter of the bolt’s eye. Squeeze the ends together with a pair of needle-nose pliers. Then cut one leg short with a wire side-cutter as shown (illustrated to the left, on the right side). You will notice that the bolt is partially buried in the planking to the level of the dashed line. This is done by first drilling a hole, then elongating the top of the hole with either a micro-gouge, or by means of a sharp pointed blade. The ring is next and is made in multiples. Soft brass or copper wire of the correct diameter is wound tightly around a drill shank equal to the inside diameter of the ring (illustration A). Hold the drill in a vice while you do this. The wire should be soft enough not to spring back on you. Once you have wound on sufficient turns, the assembly is reclamped in the vice as shown (illustration B). Soft jaw surfaces are a must. Now, with either a very fine X-Acto® saw or a watchmaker’s slotting file, cut along the length of the coil. The result should be a number of rings which do not lie flat in the same plane. You will need to level them by pressing them between two hard flat surfaces. Next, thread the ring and bolt eye together and gently squeeze the ends of the ring together. The aim is to have the two cut surfaces tightly in opposition and perfect alignment. Once you have done this, it is simply a matter of degreasing the ringbolt and silver soldering the joint in the ring in the usual way. If you have not already tried and mastered silver soldering, read section 5.17 first. Once the ring-bolts have cooled and been pickled, you may blacken them before installing them on your model. A small spot of epoxy will secure the bolts. Remember to push each ringbolt down to the correct level in its hole (see the illustration above left).

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I N D E X , Volume One A Aft bulkhead, lower deck Aft companion, lower deck Aft platform beams carlings ledges lodging knees planking Aft sail room Air space, framing ventilation knighthead & hawse pieces Arciform curve (round-up)

293 265 214 218 218 217 223 291 193 100 250

B Back tube, pump 280 Ballast 210 Beam arms 257, 263 Beam length gauge (sliding staff ) 222 Beam round-up, arciform curve 250 hyperbolic curve 249 Beams, fore platform 232 lower deck 220 upper deck 276 Bearding line 36 Bedplace 291 Binding strakes 267 Birdbeak 119 Birdsmouth score 119 Bitts, riding 275 Block room 245 Boatswain’s storeroom 246 Bobstay holes 139 Bobstay piece (main piece) 137 Body plan 59 Bollard timber 9 Boring, ends of beams 256, 262 Bowsprit cross chock 103 Box, for brake pump 284 Boxing, of hawse pieces 130

296

Boxing joint, of keel and stem Brake pump (hand pump) Brake pump rhodings Brake, for pump Bread room Breast hooks Breast hook in hold Bulkheads, lower deck

29 284 279 290 239 204 178 289

C Cabin bulkheads, lower deck Cabins, officers’ Cant frame Cant hook Cap scuttle Captain’s store room Carlings, aft platform lower deck middle tier midship tier side tier Cartridge rack Cartridges Cast toptimbers Ceiling (sealing) Chain pumps Cheek blocks, main topsail sheet Chemical coloring of metal Chime (barrel) Chock, frame of knee of the head Cleats, riding bit Coal hole Coaming, lower deck Coles (Cole) pump Coloring metal Companion Crossing the floors Cross-section of planking Cross-spales (cross spalls)

289 292 35 35 282 241 218 259 259 259 259 242 243 117 184 279 278 206 212 82 137 277 245 272 279 206 232 135 190 135

INDEX

Croze (barrel) Crutch aft of the mizen mast Cumulative error Cupboards, cabin Cutting down line Cutwater Cyma recta, molding Cyma reversa, molding Cyphered joints

212 200 203 30 293 153 137 293 293 39

D Dale, pump Deadwood knee Deck beams, tabled joints Deck nails Deck plan Deck spikes Discharge tube, pump Disposition of frame (plan) Doualls Drawplate, for treenails Drift Drop strake (deck planking) Drop strake (inner planking) Dry bending wood Dubbing fair Dumps Dunnage battens Duplicator, for lathe Dutch door (steward’s room)

290 39 262 225 66 225 280 59 225 26 196 268 197 139 35 31 242 288 240

E Eking Extension piece (knee of the head)

256 137

F False keel False stem (lower apron)

30 35

Fastenings, deck plank 225 Faying 39 Figure 137 Filling room 234 Filling transom 50 Fillings 171 First futtock harpins 183 ribband 183 Fish room/spirit room bulkhead 215 Fish room hatch 241 Fixed blocks 165 Flare 22 Flat of the deck 270 Flat scuttle 271 Flight of the transoms 50 Floor 80 Floor head diagonal 148 Floorhead harpins 181 Floorhead ribbands 135, 181 Footwaling 196 Fore deadwood 38 Fore mast partners, lower deck 259 Fore platform beams 232 bulkheads 244 planking 233 Forecastle deck clamp 195 Foremast step 200 Forepeak 246 Frame patterns 145 Futtock (foothook) 80 G Gallows Gammoning Gammoning knee (standard) Gammoning slots Garboard strake Garnet cross hinge Graphite paper

226, 278 137 137 142 44 271 31

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Grating battens ledges Gratings Gratings, divided Gripe Gudgeon straps Gunner’s storeroom

273 273 273 294 144 85 258

H Half breadth line Hance Hand pump (brake pump) Hanging knees lower deck Harpins Harris cut joints Hatch coaming, lower deck Head ledges, lower deck Height gauge Height of breadth Hinges, L-shaped T-shaped Hogging Hogshead Hook Hooked scarph Hoop (barrel) Horning in Horseshoe plate Hyperbolic curve round-up

28 168 284 257 256 136 31 272 270 214 22 240 270 31 211 200 177 212 155 51 249

I Imperial gallon Inner hull planking, lower deck Inner limber strake Inner planking expansion Inner post Intake chamber, pump Iron lodging knees Isometric drawings

298

211 266 184 186-187 42 283 264 248

J Joint lines

K Keel bolts rabbet Keelson bolts Kentledge King plank Knee of the head Knee plate Knighthead

24 26 44 176 179 210 270 136 52 96

L Lacing piece 137 Ladder to aft platform 287 Lady of the gun room 240 Lady’s hole 240 Lantern 249 Lanterns, bulkhead 291 Leaguer 211 Ledges, aft platform 218 lower deck 259 Leeway 30 Length between perpendiculars 23 Letting down 125 Light room 234, 238 Lights 124 framing 252 Limber boards 178, 184, 202 channel 177 passage 184 Lines plan 59 Lockers, cabin 293 Lodging knees, aft platform 217 iron 264 lower deck 265 opposed 261 varieties 262

INDEX

Loovered batten (for well) Lower apron (false stem) Lower deck beams cabin bulkheads carlings clamp hanging knees hook ledges lodging knees partners planking waterway Lower stem

286 35 220 289 259 191 257 256 259 258 259 265 267 31

M Magazine 214 bulkhead 235 doors 235 Main jeer bitts 226, 279 Main mast partners, lower deck 264 Main mast step 199 Main piece (bobstay piece) 137 Main stay collar 137 Main topsail sheet bitt pins 277 Margin line 47 Marines’ clothing room 240 Mast wedges 260 Measuring heights on model 207 Midship frames (plan) 60 Mix’d metal 31 Mizen mast partners, lower deck 265 Mizen mast step 201 Molded (moulded) dimension 83 Molding (moulding) way 127 Mouthing, ends of beams 252 Munions (muntins) 252 Muntins (munions) 252 Mylar sheet 23

N Nuts for pedestal bolts

O Octagon, marking out Officers’ cabins Ogee molding Opposed lodging knees Orlop Outer limber strake

281 292 293 261 213 188

P Packing pieces (behind lodging knees) 264 Palleting 234 Palleting flat 237 Pantry 293 Partner, plank 259 Partners, fore mast, lower deck 259 main mast, lower deck 264 mizen mast, lower deck 265 Passageway to magazine 239 Pigs, iron 211 Pillars, in the hold 219, 222 under upper deck beams 288 Pins, bitt 275 Pitch and tar room 246 Planing planks 207 Plank fastening patterns 188 Plank partner 259 Plank, fore platforms 233 Planking expansion 60 Planking, lower deck 265, 267 Platform 60, 187, 213 Port sills (cells) 118 Powder barrels or kegs 243 Powder monkey 236 Profile (plan) 59 Pump back tube 280 dale 280 discharge tube 280 intake chamber 283 Puncheon 211

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME ONE

Q Quarter deck clamp Quartering

300

196 135

R Rake and level Rake of stern post Rattus norvegicus Rhodings, brake pump Ribband nails Ribbands Riders Ridge rope Riding bitt cleats pins (uprights) Riding bitts Ring bolts constructing Rising wood Round-up, of beams

135 24 247 279 180 180 205 135 277 232, 246 275 271 295 44 220

S Sagging Scarph lip Scarph shoulder Scarph, tabled Scarphs of keel Scupper Scuttle cover cap flat Seat for the bowsprit Second futtock harpins ribband Sheer harpins Sheer plan

31 25 25 25 25 280 271 271 271 59 183 183 183 59

Sheer ribband Sheers Shift (of plank butts) Shifted toptimber Shifting stanchion Shingle Shores Shot Shot locker hinge lid Shutting in Sided dimension Sidings, of floors and futtocks Silver soldering Sleepers Sliding staff (beam length gauge) Slit deal Slop room Sny Spear, brake pump Spiling off Spirit room/fish room bulkhead Spirketting, lower deck Square body Stanchions, upper well Standard (gammoning knee) Standards, riding bitt Staple (brake pump) Staples, false keel Station lines Stave (barrel) Steeve (stive) Stepping line Stern deadwood Stern post scores tenons (tennants)

184 135 184 117 241 210 135 228 225 231 228 270 83 172 229 204 222 216 241 198 285 198 215 266 22 286 137 276 285 31 21 212 102 35 39 41 42 41

INDEX

Steward’s room Straps of the gudgeons String (in the waist) Styles (ladder) Sweep ports

229 42 194 287 160

T Tabled joints, deck beams 262 Tabling 205 Tailed half-lap joint 272 Tally, sail 291 Taper of planking, how to find 197 Taper, knee of the head 142 Tarred flannel 25 Thickstuff, over first futtock heads 191 over floorheads 189 Tick strips 92, 151 Timbers on the side counter timber 128 Top and butt 192 Toptimber 80 harpins 183 ribband 183 Trapezium (dovetail) plate 52 Treads (ladder) 287

Treenails Tuck

26 128

U Upper apron Upper cheek Upper deck beams clamp Upper knuckle (of counter) Upper stem

37 137 276 193 127 33

W Waist Waterway, lower deck Ways Wedges, for masts Well upper Window frames (lights) Wine gallon Wing transom Wing transom knees Wire gauge equivalents Wood economy, laying out

161, 194 267 127 260 178, 225 286 252 200 42, 46 204 206 147

301

302