The Fully Framed Model: HMN Swan Class Sloops 1767-1780 Vol II by SeaWatch Books

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 Volume II REVISED

David Antscherl

His principal activities at present are stage design, writing, teaching theater arts and fine arts, conserving paintings and other artifacts, and commissioned model making. In 2000 David won the Howard I. Chapelle Memorial Award and a Silver medal for Polyphemus at the Nautical Research Guild annual conference. As a result of meeting Greg write The Swan Class Practicum on which this book is based. SEAWATCHBOOKS LLC

David is an “empty-nester” with one daughter

19 Sea Watch Place, Florence, OR 97439 USA

and two stepchildren. He lives in Waterloo,

Phone (541) 997-4439 • Fax (541) 997-1282

Ontario with his wife Carol and friendly feline

E-mail: seawatchbooks@gmail.com • Web: www.seawatchbooks.com

Kit Kaboodle.

VOLUME II REVISED

DAVID ANTSCHERL was born in London, England in 1944. When he was very young, his father took him to the annual Model Engineer Exhibitions. What he saw there inspired him and he became a life-long modeler. David’s first completed ship model was the Mayflower II, built while the prototype was being constructed in 1954 at Brixham, Devon. The teenaged David was encouraged by the National Maritime Museum’s Len Tucker to join a ship-modeling club. The youngest member of the Greenwich and District Ship Model Society, David received much encouragement from its members, and in 1962 won a bronze medal for his model of Nimble, a

DAVID ANTSCHERL

Herbert at that time, David was encouraged to

The Fully Framed Model, HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780

The Fully Framed Model, HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME II REVISED

Revenue cutter of 1812. David immigrated to Canada in 1968, and began work on his model of Polyphemus. For many years David worked as a corporate

SEAWATCHBOOKS LLC

David Antscherl

graphic designer, but gradually took on increasing amounts of theatrical design work. (Continued on back flap)

The Fully Framed Model The HMN Swan class sloops of 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO REVISED by David Antscherl with photographs by Greg Herbert

SeaWatchBooks LLC

The Fully Framed Model The HMN Swan class sloops of 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO REVISED by David Antscherl with photographs by Greg Herbert

A guide for building the hull of a fully framed British naval Swan class ship-rigged sloop of the 1770’s. Suitably adapted, the experienced reader may use this book as a basis for constructing models of most naval vessels of the 1760-1800 period.

“However much one thinks one knows, when talk finishes and writing begins, it is not enough. There is probably no such thing as the perfect book; in any subject research continues and knowledge grows....” — Adrian B. Caruana, naval historian, 1997

PUBLISHED BY SEAWATCHBOOKS LLC

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publishers.

Published and distributed by SeaWatchBooks LLC 2040 Millburn Ave, Suite 102 #109, Maplewood, NJ 07040 email: info@seawatchbooks.com Tel: 201 292 4262 web: www.seawatchbooks.com

ISBN 978-0-9820579-1-9 Manufactured in The United States of America

CONTENTS

CHAPTER SEVEN Inner counter timbers Middle counter timbers Quarter deck transom Helm port Finishing the stern framing Straps to the counter timbers Lower counter Main wale Bending planking Coloring wood Main wale, continued Black strake Garboard strake Lining off bottom planking Thickstuff under the wales Plank of the bottom 16-gun ship variation Stuff of the topside Plank upon the drifts Finishing the outer planking Paint colors Paint brushes Cleaning and care of brushes Painting techniques Painting the friezes Underwater protection Making copper plates The color of copper Elm batten Lead protective sheathing Draught marks Rudder Pintles and pintle straps Spectacle plate Rudderhead hoops Finishing rudder below water Gudgeons Shipping the rudder Further note on chain pumps Maximum angle of helm Sources for decorative work

9 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 14 16 16 17 18 18 19 20 20 22 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 31 34 36 36 37 37 38 41 43 43 43 44 45 46 47 48

Paint colors Painting the lower counter

49 49

CHAPTER EIGHT Lower deck breast hook Hammock battens Upper deck hook Upper deck beams Hammock battens, continued Tricing battens Beam arms Upper deck transom & knees Hanging knees Lodging knees Main mast partners Fore mast partners Bowsprit step Mizen mast partners Upper deck carlings Upper deck ledges Capstan step Upper deck port stops Upper deck waterway Upper deck spirketting Upper deck quickwork Painting inner planking Scuppers Upper deck planking Upper deck breast hook Hawse hole linings Bucklers Manger Riding bitt standards Riding bitt crosspiece and backing Galley stove Projection drawing Galley stove, continued Forecastle bulkhead Bulkhead cants Color scheme of bulkheads Fore hatch coamings Fore hatch gratings

53 55 55 56 57 58 59 59 60 60 60 60 63 64 65 68 68 68 69 70 71 71 72 73 74 75 75 78 79 80 80 80 86 86 88 90 91 91 91

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Main hatch coamings Main hatch gratings Main topsail sheet bitt crosspiece Gallows crosspiece Main jeer bitts crosspiece Paint color of bitts Aft hatch and gratings Pillars & stanchions for pumps Rhodings for pump axletrees Chain pump headgear Cisterns Cistern hoods Pump dales Sprocket wheel Axletree and winches Axletree bearings Pump chains Brake pumps Aft ladderway Old-style sprocket wheel

92 92 92 93 93 94 94 94 95 96 96 97 98 99 100 101 101 102 102 104

CHAPTER NINE Upper deck capstan (lower capstan) Lower capstan barrel Capstan spindle and plate Spindle cup Lower capstan ribs Lower capstan whelps Upper chocks Lower chocks Trundle head Capstan bars Capstan bar retaining pins Capstan pawls Aft cabin bulkheads Upper counter Framing cabin lights Rudder head trunk Internal counter plank and lockers Stern light sill covers Counter timber covering boards Stern light frames Glazing of the lights Stern light munions Companion ladders Range cleats in the waist Gangboard knees Upper deck stopper bolts Top tackle eyebolts Gun tackle ringbolts Breeching ringbolts Port tackle eyebolts

105 107 107 109 110 110 110 112 112 112 114 114 115 115 117 117 118 119 120 120 121 122 122 123 123 123 125 125 126 126 126

Training tackle eyebolts Preparation for chain bolts Eyebolts around main mast Eyebolts in spirketting Upper deck armament Master pattern for the guns The mold Gun-founding Finishing the guns Gun carriages Brackets Hind axletree Fore axletree Transom Bolster Bed Quoin Fore axletree stays Carriage bolts Capsquares Capsquare joint bolt Capsquare eyebolt and key Fore and hind trucks Truck keys Tompions Breeching Gun tackles Gun aprons Gun port lids Gun port lid hinges Port hooks #1 port lid Port tackle tubes Port tackle Blocks

126 127 128 129 129 131 131 135 136 136 137 138 139 140 140 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 144 144 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 148 149 150

CHAPTER TEN Tuck molding Making moldings Tuck molding, continued Waist rail Sheer rail Fore channel Stool Chesstree Fenders Entry steps Main channel Main studdingsail boom irons Mizen channel Swivel gun mounts Drift rail

151 153 153 154 155 155 156 157 158 158 159 159 160 161 161 163

CONTENTS

Lower counter rail Upper counter rail Forecastle deck beams Forecastle hanging knees Forecastle lodging knees Forecastle carlings Bowsprit & fore mast partners Forecastle ledges Half hook Cathead Steam grating coamings Steam gratings Galley cowl Forecastle waterway & planking Fore topsail sheet crosspiece Fore jeer bitt pins & standards Eyebolts at foot of foremast Forecastle bulwark planking Ironwork inside bulwark Ironwork in the breast beam Forecastle breastwork Spar rack Belfry Quarter deck beams Rudderhead framing Mizen mast partners Quarter deck capstan partners Quarter deck carlings Quarter deck hanging knees Quarter deck lodging knees Quarter deck transom knee Grating coamings Quarter deck gratings Companion top Quarter deck scuttles Quarter deck ladderway coaming Quarter deck waterway Quarter deck planking Quarter deck bulwark planking Drainage at break of quarter deck Iron work for quarter deck Tiller Steering wheel Upper capstan Whelps Upper chocks Lower chocks Drumhead Upper capstan bars Upper capstan pawls Quarter deck ladderway Ladderway railings

165 165 165 167 167 167 167 167 168 168 170 170 171 171 172 173 174 174 175 175 175 179 179 181 181 182 182 184 184 184 184 185 185 186 187 187 187 188 188 189 189 190 191 196 196 197 197 197 198 199 199 199

Quarter deck breastwork

200

CHAPTER ELEVEN Fixed gangway Planksheer in the waist Gangboards Breast hook over the bowsprit Structures of the head Lower cheek Upper cheek Hair bracket Wash cant Trail boards Chocks under gammoning Bolster Main rail Planksheer to the main rail Lining to the main rail Molding main rail Fitting main rail Head beam and knees Cross-piece of head False rail Head carlings Lower rail Preparing for the head gratings Drafting the head timbers Card pattern method Head timbers and covering boards Head of main rail Saddle Gammoning Headwork assembly Ledges of the head Finishing the covering boards Cathead supporter Eking rail Seats of ease Decorative rails at the bow Forecastle planksheer Cat block Boomkin capsquare Boomkins Berthing rail The figure: maquette Figure carving For the challenged carver

201 203 204 205 206 206 208 209 210 210 211 213 213 213 215 216 216 217 218 219 219 220 221 222 224 226 228 229 230 230 232 232 233 233 235 236 237 238 239 239 241 242 242 249 255

CHAPTER TWELVE Ironwork to the head Ironwork on fore channel Fore & main studding sail booms

257 259 260 260

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Fore channel deadeyes Fore chains Preventer bolts Fish davit cleat Spanshackle rings Fish davit Billboard, bolster and lining Anchors Forecastle stanchions and netting Swivel guns Waist stanchions and rough-tree rail Eyebolts in the side Fore stool chains Entry stanchions and entering ropes Main mast deadeyes and chains Main preventer eyebolts Fixed gangway newel post & railing Entry steps Mizen deadeyes and chains Swivel bolt Quarter deck planksheer Fixed block for main sheet Rudderhead cover Fixed block for main brace Miscellaneous ironwork aft Structures of the stern Tafferel pattern

261 262 265 265 266 267 268 269 272 273 274 275 275 275 276 276 276 278 278 279 279 280 280 281 281 282 282

Tafferel base Pilasters Sills and stops for the lights Rudder coat Quarter pieces Ironwork on the quarter pieces Fittings for the ensign staff Ensign staff Quarter rail (roughtree rail) Quarter badge Lower stool Upper stool Munions and lights Upper finishing Lower finishing Console brackets Iron stanchions on the quarters Stern lantern Lantern crank and support rods Conclusion Tafferel fife rail Scantlings for ships’ boats Sailing qualities for Zebra

284 288 289 289 290 291 291 292 293 293 294 295 296 296 298 299 299 300 303 304 305 306 308

Photographs

310

INDEX

318

CHAPTER

SEVEN

Continued from Volume One

7.1 The inner counter timbers It is now time to cut and fit the inner counter timbers. There are four of these, equidistant between the outer counter timbers that you fitted some time ago (see Chapter Two, section 2.21). Mark their positions on the upper surface of the wing transom. Each timber will be cut from stock 7" thick. You will need to adjust your mark-out if your outer counter timbers are placed differently to this pattern. The critical point is that the spaces between the timbers must be exactly equal. If this is not the case, then your stern lights will look wrong. The ideal spacing between the feet of these timbers is 2' 7". Ignore the thickness of the inner planking here. When you have adjusted the spacing to your satisfaction, mark the wing transom clearly.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Make each timber of two 7" thick pieces, scarphed together at the lower counter level as you did for the outer counter timbers. The patterns for the starboard side are given (previous page). These can be flipped for the port side. Please note the marked angles. Starting with the inner timber, you will see that the foot is angled at 31⁄2°. This is an under bevel as seen from outboard. The angle may need finessing to fit your own model, depending on the round up of your wing transom. The outside upper counter curve and upper shaft are standing bevels of 21⁄2°. The upper counter will need a little more shaping after it is fitted. The inner side of the shaft should be cut at the same angle, which is an under bevel this time. The illustration (right) shows the starboard side timber. The port side is the mirror image of this. The pattern does not include an extra 1" let down into the wing transom, discussed in section 2.21. If you wish to include this detail, you will need to slope the foot (as seen from the side) so that the forward edge is 1" lower than the pattern. A corresponding inclined score will need to be cut into the upper surface of the wing transom to accommodate the foot of this timber.

7.2 The middle counter timbers The middle counter timbers are treated in the same way, observing the bevels marked on the pattern. Once again, you may need to adjust the angle at the foot of this timber. Once all four counter timbers have been cut, they will need to be tapered the siding way. The taper is a straight one, diminishing from 7" at the base to 4" at the top. The shafts of the timbers are a little overlength and will be trimmed down later to fit the taffrail. The taffrail is the uppermost part of the stern outboard which is covered with carved work. The tapers may be started with a chisel and finished by rubbing down on sanding boards attached to the workbench. Temporarily set up the timbers on the wing transom, checking for equidistant spacing at the tops of the timbers. Sight across the ship to ensure that the shafts of all the timbers are in proper alignment. Note that the upper edge of the upper counter has a higher center and a more rounded curve (termed as having more spring) than its lower edge (see the stern elevation, previous page). This small point is important, or your stern lights will appear to droop in the middle when the stern is completed.

CHAPTER SEVEN

7.3 The quarter deck transom The top of the stern framing now needs to be stabilized. The aftermost beam of the quarter deck, called the transom, performs this function. It is indicated on the elevation of the stern (see previous spread). Unlike a regular beam, it is wider and thicker. The additional thickness is reduced on its forward side by a rabbet the thickness of the deck planking. This rabbet may be cut into the transom, or a separate piece added on top of a thinner piece which will give the same appearance. The round up of the quarter deck is given on the Mylar plan. This timber is shaped in the same sequence as the wing transom (refer to section 1.28 if necessary). The pattern (below) may need some adjustment before cutting the slots to receive the counter timbers. Remember that each slot needs to be cut at a different angle. The outer ends of this transom rest on the quarter deck clamps. The transom should be cut a little overlength, then carefully trimmed so that the outer counter timbers are not forced in or out of alignment. The actual depth of the transom is that of the quarter deck beams plus the thickness of the planking. These measurements are 51⁄2" and 21⁄2" respectively for a total of 8". Including a round up of about 31⁄2", your blank should be about 1' 0" thick. The critical part to this transom are the slots for the counter timbers. As these joints will be clearly visible on the finished model, do as neat a job as you can. Leave sufficient material on the tops of the outer ends to form the waterways later on (illustration above, and see page 187). If you intend to fit black paper between the deck planks, line the fore edge of the rabbet before fitting the transom permanently.

7.4 The helm port The stern framing was kept light in small sixth rates, which were not designed for slogging fleet action. As there are no stern ports, the only other framing required is to provide a landing for the lower counter planks at the helm port. This is the pear-shaped aperture that the rudderhead passes through, aft of the stern post.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The helm port is 2' 4" across its widest point. The drawing (right) shows an expanded projection of the surface of the lower counter as seen from below. Think of this as a drawing that, if cut out, will lie flat when placed on the curve of the lower counter. You will need to frame in the space between the inner counter timbers to this shape. The lower pieces should fit snugly against the side of the stern post. Shape the pieces to follow the molded contours of the counter timbers. There is no short cut; you will need to repeatedly offer up the pieces until they fit perfectly. The hole should be filed so that its inner surfaces are vertical, to allow clearance for the swing of the rudder. I am not certain that this was the actual way in which the port was framed, but this seems a reasonable solution to the problem of providing a solid surface for the counter planking. Glue and pin the three pieces into place.

7.5 Finishing the stern framing Some final shaping of the stern framing is required. This is most easily accomplished with curved sanding strips. Make sure that you maintain the crisp angles at the changes in planes at the junction of the counters. These transition points are called knuckles.

7.6 Straps to the counter timbers The joints between the counter timbers and wing transom are reinforced by both a single 3⁄4" bolt and an iron strap. Each strap is 5⁄8" thick and 3 1⁄2" wide. There are six 1⁄4" bolts securing the straps to the timbers. Steel only describes these straps, so I have drawn how these might have looked (illustration to right). At a later period these straps seem to have been modified by the addition of a pair of ears at wing transom level.1 These provided additional bolting capacity.

C. N. Longridge, The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, Plate 19, facing page 100.

CHAPTER C H A P T E RSEVEN SEVEN

7.7 The lower counter This area is larger than the stern elevation suggests. To plank this, use pieces that have been cut to the curve of the counter. Do not attempt to edge set them. In the full-sized ship these planks were rabbeted together at the edges, but this hidden detail may be omitted. The thickness of this planking is 2". Set the model upside down on a soft surface. Beginning at the lower edge, run the edge of the first plank along the margin line of the wing transom (illustrated below right). Trim back the ends of the lower hull planks a little if necessary. Continue, shaping each plank as you go. The outer ends should be allowed to run a little outside the side counter timbers for now. Make sure that you butt the inner ends snugly against the sides of the stern post.

The projected view (above) should reflect the actual amount of curvature each plank requires. Use this as an initial pattern and modify it to fit your own ship. Note that the last (uppermost) plank overlaps the knuckle by at least 2". Leave this projection for now. It will assist when planking the upper counter later on. File the edges of the helm port flush with the framed opening. Also file or sand the outer ends of the counter planking flush with the outer counter timbers, being careful to keep the angle parallel to the aft end of the hull side. If you round off the corner, there will be a gap when you come to plank the aft end of the main wale (see illustration in section 7.11). At this stage do not sand the surface of the counter. This will be done when you fair the surface of the main wale and side planking (sections 7.11 to 7.21).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.8 The main wale (20, 21, 22) The first order of business is to mark the sheer of the main wale. This is the curve, concave upwards, that the wale makes along the sides of the ship. This curve can make or mar the beauty of the hull. Measure up from your building board and mark the lower and upper borders of the wale at the dead flat. Repeat the exercise at each station frame joint along the side. A smooth curve should result. Note that, as seen from the ahead, the sheer will appear to flatten as the lines curve around the bow to reach the stem rabbet (illustration at right).

External planking expansion, scale 1:96

C H A P T E RSEVEN SEVEN CHAPTER

The planking expansion drawing that I have provided below is a reconstruction that follows the various rules for shifting plank. If you compare the outer expansion with the inner one (section 4.11), you will see that the lines of butts inside and out are offset from one another. This was deliberately arranged by the shipwright for maximum strength. There is only space for three strakes in the width of the wale on a sixth rate. The uppermost strake is worked parallel, and the lower two are worked top and butt. In larger ships these strakes were hooked, but in a sixth rate this does not appear to be the case.2 Begin with the uppermost parallel strake, number 22 on the expansion drawing. The butts fall on frames H fore, 1B aft and 11 aft. This strake is nominally 9" wide and 41⁄2" thick. It should be fairly straightforward, other than bending the foremost plank around the bow. This plank also tapers in thickness to 3" to bed into the rabbet of the stem. Be sure to follow your plotted line exactly, as any irregularity along the the sheer will be obvious.

2 Planking elevation, topsides of Hornet, dated February 3, 1776 at Blackwall, ZAZ 5119. This draught is

now apparently unlocatable by the NMM.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.9 Bending planking There are several methods of bending wood. The Kammerlander method has already been discussed (Chapter Three, Appendix 3.1). Dry heat bending was also covered in section 3.5. Another alternative is to steam bend. If you decide on this method, there are several points to bear in mind. Some woods will change in color if you steam them; pearwood is a good example of this phenomenon. All wood will absorb moisture and swell. Therefore you cannot finally shape and fit the piece until it has dried out again and regained dimensional equilibrium. If you do not wait, you will end up with gaps between pieces that seemed to have been perfectly fitted at first. It is a good idea to leave the final fitting until after bending and drying the plank. As the thickest planks are only 41⁄2" (3⁄32" actual) there is little point in going to the trouble of laminating up the pieces on a form, a strategy that might be considered for the heavier scantlings in a larger ship. Either dry heat bend or use the Kammerlander method, both of which are reliable.

7.10 Coloring wood Most of you will opt for a main wale that is colored black. Some builders use ebony to avoid painting. My personal view is that ebony is unsuitable for model-making purposes. It is a beautiful cabinet wood. However, it is expensive, hard to work, the dust is toxic, it is difficult to bend and it does not take glue well due to its oily nature. That said, those who wish to avoid paint might wish to consider dyed pearwood as a superior substitute. Dyed pearwood can be obtained from some specialty hardwood companies and is an excellent substitute for ebony. One can also dye one’s own wood using an aniline alcohol-based dye. As the dye will not penetrate far into the wood, you may wish to finish the wale first and then apply dye with cotton swabs. (Mask off the frames if they are to be left exposed, to avoid coloring them.) Alcohol-based rather than water-based dye will not raise the grain of the wood. I have not experimented with this, but permanent black marker might be another possible method. My own preference is to paint the wale.

C H A P T E RSEVEN SEVEN CHAPTER

7.11 The main wale, continued Strakes 20 and 21 are laid top and butt fashion. Only on larger ships were these hooked joints. Mark the frames on which the butts fall, so that the plank ends will be aligned vertically down the hull. The upper strake butts (21) land on fore cant 3, C fore, 6 fore and aft cant 10. The butts for the lower strake (20) are on L aft, A aft, 9 fore and aft cant 5. As you install these strakes make sure that the lower edge follows your marked line exactly. Leave their aft ends projecting slightly beyond the lower counter for the moment. The aftermost piece of strake 20 is tricky; it twists around quite sharply to the corner of the wing transom (illustration at right). In full-size practice this piece was usually shaped from a solid piece of wood rather than steam-bent. This is why this piece is quite short. You might wish to consider the same strategy to fit this plank. Start with a piece of wood that is considerably thicker than the wale. Hollow the inner surface until it fits snugly against the framing. Shape the piece’s upper edge to fit against the strake already in place. Once satisfied with the fit, shape the lower edge. Secure the plank and only then shape the outer surface to conform to the hull. Once the wale is complete, you can trim the aft ends flush with the plank of the lower counter. Use a shaped sanding block for the final finishing so that you do not mar the counter planking. Whether or not you create a slight bevel or gap at the plank edges to outline the separate planks is your choice. In the actual ship, caulked joints on a main wale of this thickness were only 3⁄8" wide and 1⁄4" wide for the bottom planking.3 My own preference is not to bevel or groove the joints. Even under paint the joints will “read through” anyway. Another possibility is to put thin paper between the plank edges. It will also show through the paint or dye and will resemble a caulked joint quite nicely. I find this more subtle and satisfactory than scoring the joints to emphasize them. Experiment with some test pieces to see which method appeals to you. Treenail each plank to the frames according to the scheme shown in section 4.13. The treenails are 11⁄4" in diameter. There is also a 3⁄4 " bolt through each plank end and frame next to the butt.4 3 4

Steel, Naval Architecture, p.382, Directions for the actual building. Caulked joints are tapered in a V-section. Steel, ibid, Folio VII.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.12 The black strake (23) This name is given to the first strake of plank above the main wale. It is 31⁄2 " thick and 10" wide, tapering to 3" at the bow. It is interesting that on a number of contemporary models this strake is not painted or colored black! It is either the same color as the topside planking or left in natural wood. Either style would be correct. If you wish to have a truly black strake, fit it now before staining or painting the wale. Leave the aft end overlong, then trim it flush with the lower counter planking as you did with the main wale. There is a 1" difference in thickness between the wale and black strake. This step is not a sharpedged one. A chamfer is worked along the upper edge of the wale as shown (illustration below right). A smaller chamfer is also worked on the lower edge of the wale, where there will be a 1⁄2 " step-down in thickness to the bottom planking (see section 7.8). You will notice a number of small circular lines along this strake on the Mylar plan. These mark the positions of the upper deck scuppers. A scupper is a pipe or tube carrying water from the sides of the deck to drain outboard. Scuppers will be discussed later. The foremost scupper drains the manger, an area partially closed off at the bow where cables come aboard through the hawse holes. Other scuppers drain the deck, the exception being the large scupper just aft of amidships where the pump dales (see section 6.34) discharge. A butt in the black strake was always placed at this location. Butts of this strake fall on fore cant 4, F aft, between 4 fore and 4 aft, and 14 fore. Do not drill any holes for the scuppers yet. Paint or stain the main wale (and optionally the black strake) before commencing the bottom planking. You may first wish to read about painting techniques in sections 7.22 to 7.25.

7.13 The garboard strake (1) Now is the time to install the lowest or garboard strake. This fits into the keel rabbet and the lowest part of the stem rabbet. There are several points to note. First, it will be far easier to work on the model inverted, so rest the hull on a pad of thick foam rubber to prevent damage to the toptimbers or timberheads. Secondly, I suggest working the center plank of this strake to begin with, to become accustomed to fitting it neatly to the rabbet. As the garboard runs aft, it twists and widens until it meets the edge of the stern post rabbet.

C H A P T E RSEVEN SEVEN CHAPTER

As it is the widest plank in the ship, the aftermost section is worked as a short length. Note how it fits into the angled step in the rabbet of the keel. When planning an outboard planking scheme, butt joints in the garboard strake must be placed clear of the keel scarphs or beneath the pump intakes.5 Forward, the garboard also twists and ends on the fore deadwood at about the foot of fore cant 3. I stress this point, because the garboard looks as if it should run further forward and up as you fit it. Should you let it do so, you will reduce the space along the stem rabbet for the other planks to fit. You will then need to narrow the hooding ends of all the other planks, which will become too narrow to treenail without risk of splitting. If you study the planking expansion drawing (pages 14 and 15, this volume), you will understand this point. The garboard strake is 3" thick. It varies in width throughout its length. You can measure from the expansion diagram at 1:96 scale to give you an idea of its width at different points along its length. The butts fall at C fore, 6 fore and below the heel of aft cant 9.

7.14 Lining off the bottom planking The remaining area of framing above the garboard and below the main wale now needs to be lined off. Lining off simply means the process of marking the frames out with the lines of strakes of planking, which acts as a guide. This is quite simple, as the planking expansion has already worked out the run and widths of the planking strakes. Provided that you have finished your framing with reasonable accuracy, you can “lift” the information directly off the expansion. A scan and print of the plan on pages 14 and 15 of this volume made at 200% will enlarge the drawing to 1:48 scale. You can only measure the square frame positions with reasonable accuracy as, toward the ends of the plan, there is deliberate distortion introduced by expanding the waterlines. This pushes the station lines out of vertical. However, with a flexible batten (say 1⁄16" actual, square section) or thread, you can bring the lines of the strakes in smooth curves to the rabbets at each end of the hull. Use paper tick strips to transfer the strake widths from expansion drawing to frame. You will notice that the six strakes immediately below the main wale are laid top and butt fashion. Simply mark in the lines between each pair of strakes. We will deal with these next. 5

Steel, Naval Architecture, page 270, Of the disposition of the timbers and planking.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.15 Thickstuff under the wales (14 to 19) Collectively, the six strakes of top and butt planking below the wale are referred to by Steel as thickstuff under the wales. The uppermost two strakes diminish in thickness from 4" to 3" from above to below. The lower four strakes are all 3" thick. The thickstuff is described by Steel as being cut from“English plank,” indicating oak instead of fir or pine. The uppermost strake of thickstuff, strake 19, does not extend to the stem and stern. It is stopped short as a drop strake or steeler. (Steel uses these terms interchangeably.6) This assists in fitting the rest of the bottom planking without narrowing the ends of the other strakes excessively. It is 4" thick just under the wale. The butts of the uppermost strake fall on F aft, 3 fore, and 14 fore. Note that the ends of this strake are angled. This strake begins on hawse piece 4 and ends on aft cant 3. The second strake down, 18, butts on H fore, 1B aft, and 11 aft. Cut this from 4" thick stock, remembering to taper it to 3" at the bow. You will need to do some judicious fitting near the ends where strake 19 notches into it. Once fitted, make sure that the lower edge is a fair and continuous curve as you did for the main wale. In some ships there will be a small triangular gap left above the aft end of strake 18 below the wing transom. This is filled with an additional small piece of plank, rather than forcing the aft end of strake 18 into an unfair curve. The remaining four strakes of thickstuff may be cut from 3" stock. The uppermost two strakes already made will be tapered when you sand the finished planking to blend smoothly with these lower four strakes. Strake 17 has butts on fore cant 9, C fore, 6 fore and aft cant 9. Strake 16’s butts fall on L aft, A aft, 9 fore and aft cant 4. Again, ensure a smooth curve along the lower edge of this pair of strakes. Strake 15 has butts on fore cant 3, F aft, 3 fore and 14 fore. Strake 14 butts on H fore, 1B aft and 11 aft. This completes the top and butt thickstuff under the wale.

7.16 The plank of the bottom (2 to 13) According to Steel,7 oak was used as far down the hull as the light water mark, and “East-country plank” (fir) below that. The exceptions were that oak was used for the foremost and aftermost planks in each strake, and the lowest four strakes could be of either elm or beech. It is 3" thick. Steel, Naval Architecture, p. 271, Of the disposition of the timbers and planking. Stealer is a modern spelling. 7 Steel, ibid, page 270. 6

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If you study the planking expansion diagram, you will see that the plank of the bottom shifts in a regular pattern. The butts of these twelve strakes fall on the following frames: Fore cant 9, C fore, 6 fore and aft cant 9:

strakes 13, 9 and 5

L aft, A aft, 9 fore:

strakes 12, 8 and 4*

Fore cant 3, F aft, 3 fore and 14 fore:

strakes 11, 7 and 3

H fore, 1B aft, and 11 aft:

strakes 10, 6 and 2

* There is an additional butt aft on these strakes as indicated on the expansion drawing. Place these butts on a suitable aft cant frame.

This work is fairly straightforward compared to the top and butt strakes. Ensure that you keep to your lining out marks. If you begin to see “creep” occurring, make an adjustment to the strake’s width before continuing with the next one. The ideal is to have strakes that run in smooth curves and which vary in width with regularity as you look along the side of the ship. You will find that a certain amount of spiling off (see section 4.26) will be required, particularly at the bow. Resist the temptation to edge set or force planks into position, as they will lift off the frame over time to give the impression of a clinker or clench-built hull!

7.17 The sheer strake (29) This is another important strake of planking on the topside of the ship. The sheer strake is important structurally as, together with the clamps internally, it ties together the upper part of the hull. It also needs to be carefully marked out so that the sheer is smooth and regular. There are two interesting features to this strake. The first is that of the treatment over the ports. Where there is less than 5" of space between a seam and a port opening, the sheer strake widens and “works down” to the port (illustrated overleaf ). This is particularly important where there are port lids, as the port hooks must be bolted into holes that are drilled through solid wood, rather than through a seam between the strakes. Port hooks are the pin portion of the port lid hinges, which will be described later with the outboard details. This treatment is seen above ports 1, 2, 7 and 8. The other feature of interest is the hooked scarph in the waist. This was specified for strength, as the maximum longitudinal stresses on the hull occurred in this area.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Expansion of wale and topsides, scale 1:96 The sheer strake is 3" thick. Its width varies. The foremost plank will need careful bending and fitting to the hull. Butts are at K aft, centered on B aft, 6 fore and 14 fore. Note that this strake is fitted around the fixed blocks in the waist (see section 3.29). Where the plank widens down to the ports there is a change in surface level to produce a smooth, continuous chamfer line along the side of the ship.

7.18 Ships pierced for 16 guns Some Swan class ships had an additional port aft near the quarter badge. The drawing here shows this variation. The actual position of this port may vary from that shown on my drawing (right), but this will give you a general planking scheme.

7.19 Stuff of the topside (24 to 28) This is the name given to the planking above the black strake already fitted. In a sixth rate this is 31⁄2 " thick at its lower edge. It tapers gradually to 2" in thickness as one works up the side to the sheer strake. Keep the planks 3" thick at the bow, though. These five strakes are interrupted by the openings of the gun and sweep ports. Beginning with the lowest strake (24), you will notice — beginning at the bow — that its upper edge should align with the center of the the hawse holes. Moving aft, the second plank of this strake is worked to rise to the edge of the second port’s lower sill. Further aft, the same feature applies under port #8. Strake 24 butts on fore cant 9, A aft, and 9 fore. Leave the aft end of this strake and those above it projecting at least 2" past the side counter timbers for now.

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The remaining three strakes, (25, 26, 27) are worked in short parallel lengths except where they are fitted to the sheer strake above and strake 24 below. The upper edge of strake 28 is also fitted around the fixed blocks in the waist. The planks are fitted exactly to the edges of the frames at the port openings. Your sanding stick (see section 3.25) will be most useful here.

7.20 Plank upon the drifts (30 to 32) These are the strakes that are worked between the sheer strake and the top of the side. Forward there are two strakes (30 and 31) which are straightforward to make and fit. The uppermost strake will be eventually be cut into for the cathead to pass through. The planks upon the drifts are 2" thick. There are three strakes aft (30 to 32), as illustrated on the expansion diagram. Place the butts as shown.

7.21 Finishing the outer planking There is a little more work to be done here. Firstly, when dubbing the surface smooth, any change in level needs to be preserved and a chamfer worked (illustrated in section 7.5). As the planks round the bow into the stem rabbet, they should all taper to 3" thick at their hooding ends. Use progressively finer sandpaper down to 400 grit to finish the surface of the planking. I use diluted sanding sealer as a finish on wood. If you are planning a wax or oil based finish, delay applying it until all the external detail is complete. If you apply such a finish now, you will have adhesion problems later on. If you are planning to paint the topsides with freizes, sanding sealer may be applied first. The frieze is a band of paintwork ornamented with trophies of arms, swags, classical figures and scrollwork. The sheer draught of Fly (ZAZ 4667) actually shows the friezework. I believe it to be the only draught in the NMM collection to delineate this.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.22 Paint colors The moment “painting” is mentioned, some model makers break out in a sweat. I will attempt to give you a guide to producing an acceptable painted surface. Paints available to modelers today are far superior in quality to those of a few years ago. This means that, properly applied, they will dry without showing brush-marks if not applied by air-brush. Major Grant H. Walker of the U.S. Naval Academy Museum has observed that on at least one model, Minerva, the friezes have been painted on thin paper that was subsequently glued in sections to the ship’s sides. This might be a strategy to consider using on your model. The background color for the frieze at this period was usually blue. I have seen different hues on contemporary models ranging from bright, almost greenish blue (robin’s egg blue) to a dark midnight shade (Prussian blue). It is hard to judge, but I suspect that often the color has changed by exposure to light over time. Prussian blue is known to be impermanent and to fade. Curiously, it recovers if left in the dark. It is also possible that Bremen blue (smalt) was used on some models. My instinct is to use Prussian blue. This was a readily available and inexpensive pigment by the mid-seventeen hundreds.8 An alternative is black, seen on some models prior to 1750. Good modern equivalent colors are available from various manufacturers. Floquil Dark Blue, Model Master Insignia Blue or Humbrol Matt 25 are three possible choices. If using Humbrol 25, I would recommend adding a drop or two of black to darken the paint slightly. I would certainly opt for a flat, matt finish, whether using acrylic or solvent based paint. Use the color illustration (back of dust jacket) as a guide. A band of color extends from the waist rail to the sheer rail. The waist rail is an ornamental molding that will run along strake 27, and the sheer rail will be placed along the upper part of strake 29. It is much easier to paint the topsides before the rails are made and applied to the ship’s side. There is a second band of color above the sheer rail aft of the first drift. The drift is where the topside changes in height; in this case where it is said to hance up from the waist to the break of the quarter deck. This second band of molding runs along strakes 30 and 31, also hancing upwards as it runs aft. A similar band runs forward of the fore drift.

Accidentally discovered in 1704 by Diesbach in Berlin, Prussian blue (ferric-ferrocyanide) was produced commercially in England by the mid 1720’s. Source: Ralph Mayer, The Artist’s Handbook, page 64, third edition 1973.

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Another decision needs to be made now: that of the color of the remaining parts of the topside. Forward, at the forecastle, is a narrow strip of planking between the drift rail below and the planksheer above. The planksheer is a horizontal plank laid along the tops of the frame timbers and topside planking. Aft there is a similar strip between the drift rail and planksheer. On some contemporary models this is also blue, but on others it is red. The color to use is Humbrol Matt 60 or Floquil Signal Red. Either choice, or another manufacturer’s equivalent, will be appropriate.

7.23 Paint brushes The other part of the formula for success is the brush. Whatever you do, don’t skimp on quality. The best brushes today are still made of real sable. They are very expensive. However, properly looked after, they will last a lifetime. I still own a few brushes that were given to me by a commercial illustrator after he had used them for some years. They are still in use today, some 40 years later! That said, the best synthetic brushes approach the performance of sable. Avoid cheap brushes; they are a snare and a delusion. The most useful brush style for painting areas is the watercolor “flat.” I would suggest that a 1⁄4" or 3⁄8" wide and (if you can afford it) a 1⁄2" wide brush would be a good start. Try to find or order Winsor & Newton’s Series 7 sables; these are the best quality available. They have the longest hair, holding more paint; and have good “snap.” Snap is the ability of the brush to spring back into shape and form a point. For painting the frieze details, watercolor “round” brushes are best. Again, Series 7 in sizes 1 or 0 will work well. If your budget can manage it, order both. You will need a size 00 for painting the tiny details. Regardless whether are using acrylic or oil paint, I have specified watercolor brushes. Artists’ brushes for oil paint have long handles and are difficult to use for close work. As long as you thoroughly clean your brushes, it does not matter if they are labelled for watercolor. Note that I do not recommend the use of watercolor paints; they are too transparent for our purpose.

7.24 Cleaning and care of brushes Once you have bought good brushes you will want to protect your investment. Here is my own cleaning procedure if using oil based paint. First, either rinse them in a little solvent such as Varsol or turpentine to get the bulk of the paint out. Never leave a brush standing on its hair in solvent! An alternative is Citra-Solv (buy a variety without pumice powder).

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Massage the brush hairs gently between finger and thumb. Once the brush has been thoroughly saturated with solvent you can rinse it in warm, not hot, water. Next, work a little liquid soap or dishwashing liquid into the brush hair and massage to a good lather. Rinse. Repeat until the lather is free of colored pigment. Finally, wet your fingertips and put a little hand soap on them. Carefully shape the brush with your fingertips. The soap will dry in the hairs and retain the shape of the brush. Store in a well-ventilated place. If there is any possibility of clothes-moth, keep a moth-ball nearby! Moth larvae have expensive tastes: they love sable. For cleaning a brush of acrylic paint you can use soap and water. When clean, treat it with soap as described so that the brush will hold its shape and, in the case of a “round,” retain its sharp point. I personally also clean the brush of any remaining “gunk” after every second or third use with isopropanol. It dissolves any acrylic plastic which has accumulated on the hairs of the brush. Provided that you are scrupulous, your brushes should last many years.

7.25 Painting techniques for large areas. When using a brush to paint areas of color, the first thing is to mask off adjacent areas, if you are painting directly on the model. Don’t use masking tape! Paint can bleed under the rough edge, and the adhesive is far too strong for modelmaking purposes. Buy either painters’ tape, which has a lower tack and does not have a texture, or airbrush masking material. The latter is a low-tack, slightly frosted plastic that can be cut to shape or into strips. Please note that any blemishes will not be hidden by paint. If there is a surface flaw, fix it with a spot of auto-body putty and then prime it. Once the area to be painted is satisfactorily masked, it should be painted immediately. If you leave masking materials on overnight, they will tend to stick to the surface with greater tenacity or leave adhesive remnants when removed. Open the paint container and stir the contents thoroughly. I use disposable plastic coffee stir-sticks for this job. Mix the contents of the container well and begin to paint. Using your “flat” brush, dip it into the paint no further than one third the way up the bristles. This is important. If you submerge the brush you will overload it, making laying the paint down difficult to control. Also, paint that works its way into the heel of the brush (the roots of the hair near the ferrule) will be difficult to clean out. As remnants of paint accumulate over time, the hair will spread or splay, rendering the brush useless.

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Pick up a generous amount of unthinned paint on the brush as described. Start at the left end of the area to be covered (if you are right-handed) and lay down a nice fat stroke of paint fairly quickly. With overlapping strokes, cover the area left to right as quickly as you can. Don’t try to brush out wet paint. Modern paints level themselves nicely to give a brushstroke-free finish. If you do “brush out” (go over the same area repeatedly) you will be sure to end up with visible brush marks. Resist the temptation to brush out. That said, some newer paint formulations will dry evenly even when brushed out. Experiment on a scrap surface first. When finished painting, immediately clean out your brush as described. Carefully remove all masking as soon as the paint is set. This is the point when surface shininess has vanished. One coat of paint will probably be insufficient. You may need to rub down the surface after 24 hours with 600-grit paper (wet and dry is a good choice), re-mask and re-paint. (This is not possible if working on paper.) Repeat this process until you are satisfied with the result. Minor brushmarks are not too important here. There will be a large amount of detail painted over the ground, the background color. Those of you used to using an airbrush can paint the frieze background by this technique. For those wanting information on using an airbrush, there are many good books on this subject available at libraries and bookstores.

7.26 Painting the friezes If you have a copy of the Fly’s sheer draught, you will already have a layout of the frieze motifs. For those of you that are building other ships in the Swan class, a typical design that you can use is provided. I suspect that not all ships actually had painted friezes. If you have no confidence in painting detail, this will justify omitting them. However, I encourage you to at least experiment with the method described below on some scrap material. You may be pleasantly surprised with the results that can be achieved with a little practice. The designs can be transferred to the appropriate area using white transfer paper. This material, available through art suppliers, is rather like carbon paper but with important differences. Firstly, it is available in several colors including white, which will be the most useful for the purpose. Secondly, it is non-greasy. Thirdly, once the frieze is completed you can easily wipe off any remaining traces with a damp swab or Q-tip. Transfer the pattern outlines a section at a time.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

I recommend artists’ quality or modelers’ acrylic paint.9 Begin with yellow ochre. As earth colors are somewhat transparent, add a little white to increase its opacity, or the blue background will show through, giving it a greenish cast. You may wish to “warm up” the color with a touch of Indian red. Use no more than a drop or two of water to thin the paint. A thin cream consistency works well, applied with a size 0 or 1 “round” brush. Fill in the whole area of each motif inside your transfer paper outlines. If right-handed, work from left to right. A summary of the following steps is given on the following page. Several coats of paint may be necessary, depending on how thinly you apply it. Next add the highlight areas. Here use a mix of yellow ochre and white. You want a color that is distinctly paler from the ochre that you painted on first, but not so pale or white that the highlight areas jump out at the eye. Look at the photographs (see pages 310 et seq.) to get the idea. The final stage is to paint in the shadow areas with a mixture of red ochre, raw and burnt sienna. The proportion of each in the mix is a personal preference. It should be somewhere between the background tone and the mid-tone yellow ochre. A good idea is to practice and experiment on a test surface off the model. A smaller brush, 0 or 00 size, will do nicely for the smaller details. Should you mess up, the beauty of acrylic or oil based paint is that you can paint over the mistake to correct it. Again, try out these techniques on scrap material until you have gained confidence as to what you can do with paint. The more artistic among you can elaborate as much as you wish on the basic scheme. The lower frieze could include dolphins, rushes, reeds, waterfowl and nereids (sea nymphs). If done well, no particular motif should predominate. Complete one section and repeat the process along the ship’s side. Alternatively, the frieze can be painted on paper. In order to prevent paper buckling when it is painted using acrylic paint, first soak it in cool water for fifteen minutes. Drain off the excess water and lay the sheet flat on a board. When all surface moisture has disappeared, tape the paper to the board using brown gummed parcel tape. Edges should be taped down by an inch all around. As paper dries it will shrink, developing a strong tension. When it is dry you can paint the paper without it buckling. Do not cut out the friezes until the paint has completely dried.

A list of recommended colors is given in Appendix 7.4, and samples are shown on the dust jacket.

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Here is the sequence illustrated for part of the frieze just forward of the drift at the forecastle. First paint the background in blue (or red), Step 1. The coverage should be opaque if painting directly over the planking. Try to leave unpainted strips for glueing the rails below and above the frieze later on. The design is then traced onto the ground using white or yellow transfer paper. If on a red ground, white is the better choice. Remember that the markings will be removed once the frieze is completed. Your work will now look like Step 2. The medium shade of yellow ochre paint is applied inside the transferred lines to define the scrollwork, Step 3. If your painting varies from the design slightly it should not be a problem. A major slip can be fixed, once the paint is dry, using a touch of the ground color. If there is a large difference in reflectiveness of the surface after retouching, you can apply matt varnish over the completed frieze. The highlight color is now applied to the upper edges of the scrollwork, Step 4. Think of light hitting the scrolls from above, and you will have the right idea. Again, errors can be fixed by overpainting until you are satisfied with the result. However, try to avoid too thick a build-up of paint. The last stage, Step 5, is to add shadow. This is applied to the underside of the scrolls, which will give the illusion of dimensionality and add life to the frieze. If you have the skill, the colors may be blended, but don’t overdo it, or you will end up with an unsatisfactory result that looks similar to Step 3. When the paint is completely dry, wipe any remaining transfer paper marks off with a damp cotton swab. A color scheme and layout for the transoms is shown on the rear dust jacket. The upper transom will be constructed and detailed later. You may trace the lower transom design. Additional instructions for painting the lower counter are given in Appendix 7.5.

The patterns here are representative of typical friezes of the 1770-1780 era and are based on contemporary models in the NMM and Rogers’ collections. They are not specific to any one ship.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

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7.27 Underwater protection There are several items of underwater hull protection. The most obvious is the layer of teredo worm antifouling. At the time when the Swan class was being built, copper sheathing was still an exception. Experimentation was being carried out to solve the problem of electrolytic action between dissimilar metals. Early coppering was secured by ferrous nails, and even after copper nails were substituted, there were continuing problems at the rudder irons and underwater iron through-bolts. Once mix’d metal, a suitable copper alloy, had been developed and substituted for iron fittings, this problem was overcome. Copper sheathing became required on frigates in 1779 and all new ships in 1782. If you are showing your ship as built, you will be safe in showing a hull paid with “white stuff ” or, apparently more frequently, “black stuff.” To pay means to daub or cover. White stuff was a mixture of tallow (animal fat), sulphur and horsehair. White paint can represent this. Black stuff was a tar and pitch mixture. If you are showing your ship after a refit or repair in the 1780’s, you may copper sheath the hull. Whether you paint or copper, you will need to mark the load waterline on the hull. Make sure that the hull is supported absolutely vertically as seen from fore or aft and that the hull is trimmed down by the stern to the “drag” shown on your NMM sheer draught. Once satisfied with the position of the hull, pencil in the load waterline using a height block. So that the ends of the underwater protection do not appear to droop (an optical illusion due to the curvature of the hull and sheer), progressively raise this line at the bow and stern by a few inches to compensate. Copper sheathing plates were manufactured in several thicknesses which were applied to different sections of the hull. The weights used were 22, 28 and 32 oz per square foot. Each plate was standardized to a size of 15" by 48". Plates were secured to the hull by specialized cast copper nails. These were flat-headed to minimize irregularity of the finished surface, which would increase drag on the hull as it moved through the water. The nailheads were polished to discourage weed growth.10

Steel, Naval Architecture, page 48.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Simulated nail heads should be shown flush, not raised and rivet-like as seen in many models. Sheathing nails were of the shape and size shown (illustration on previous page). They were driven about 11⁄4" apart around the periphery of each plate. Additional nails were driven in rows across the surface, although this was apparently not done on early sheathing. Plates were overlapped by 11⁄2", the laps being arranged as shown (right). My understanding is that sheathing was worked between the keel and the false keel. If part of the false keel carried away, the main keel would still be protected. However this would be difficult to do as sheathing was applied after a new ship had been launched and subsequently dry-docked. The false keel would need to be stripped off section by section and then replaced during the sheathing process — an unneccessary extra operation and not without risk. Also, if this were the case, why would Steel clearly specify tarred felt between the keel and false keel? With these objections in mind, I would opt to copper over the false keel, but not between it and the keel itself. The distribution of sheathing was as follows: the heaviest 32 oz plates were attached to the bow section of the hull forward of about station L. This is where the greatest scouring action would have occurred. The medium weight plates would have been used on most of the hull, including stem and keel. The lightest 22 oz plates were distributed toward the stern. There is a good illustration of this in Brian Lavery’s book,11 which also provides excellent discussion of the development of sheathing and mix’d metal alloy. I believe that the source for this illustration was a plan in the collection of the Royal Danish Orlogmuseet. This drawing details different thicknesses of copper as fitted to Dolphin, 24 guns of 1745, a retrofit dating from1767.12 All the plans in this collection have recently been transferred to the Danish State Archives. Differences in plate thickness may be ignored for model work.

11 12

Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, page 63. Also see pages 62 to 65. The catalog description of this drawing is as follows: Tegningstitel: (title of drawing) Dolphin. The Shaded part B.B.B.B., to be coppered with plate of 28 Oz to the Foot Square and the other part with Plate of 22 Oz to the Foot Square. The two False [keels] is as she was first fitted, but she is now intended to have [one] fitted Datering (date): Uvis (unknown) Dimensioner (dimensions): Længde (length) 825mm, Bredde (breadth) 185mm

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The sequence of sheathing was from aft forward and from below upward. First to be sheathed was the aft side of the sternpost. A line of plates ran up the back of the post. The edges of these plates were overlapped by the aftermost plates of the regular strakes (lower illustration, below). The lowest strake of copper along the sides of the keel was then applied, commencing at the foot of the sternpost and working forward. The aftermost plate in each strake wrapped around the edge of the sternpost by 3", overlapping the plates already secured. At the bow, plates were cut to fit to the junction of hull and stem and then horizontal plates nailed to the side of the stem, also overlapping the hull plates by 3" (upper illustration). Each successive strake curved upward at the ends and by the time the waterline was reached, the ends of the plates were cut off in triangular shapes. The method of plating using different gores was not adopted until the early to mid eighteen hundreds. Gores are additional tapered rows of copper inserted like stealers so that the uppermost strakes of copper are parallel to the waterline. To complete the sheathing, those plates that wrap around the forward edge of the stem and along the bottom of the keel were fitted. The rudder was also treated in the same way. (This will be detailed in section 7.37.) It seems that the rudder irons — actually made of mix’d metal — were applied over the copper sheathing. The elm battens (see section 7.22) were then nailed along the upper edge of the sheathing. Early sheathing was finished some distance below the load waterline, and wooden sheathing boards applied above this. Later this was changed by eliminating the wooden boards and bringing the plates up to the waterline, a protective elm batten being applied over the upper edge as a kind of rubbing strake. Finally, in 1783, the Admiralty ordered sheathing to be carried up 16" above the load waterline.13 A further measure of protection at the bow was provided by lead sheet nailed over the copper. Presumably an insulating layer of tarred paper was placed between the dissimilar metals, or rapid electrolytic action would have taken place. Lead, weighing 12 lb per square foot, was fitted up the gripe and front of the knee of the head (see section 7.23 and photographs).

Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, page 64, citing PRO ADM106/3472, 24 September 1781 and PRO ADM106/2508, 2 October 1781.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Instead of lead, I would substitute lead-free pewter. A small piece can be beaten to suitable thickness. Another possibility is aluminum foil. This will need to be oxidized to dull it down.

7.28 Making copper plates Copper foil is available in rolls that are 6" (full size) wide and .005" thick, marketed as shim stock. To cut the individual plates you will need a piece of plate glass, a metal straightedge and a supply of #11 blades. Using the glass as your cutting surface, score the copper into strips that are 5⁄16" (actual) wide. Each strip may then be bent repeatedly along the scored line until it breaks away cleanly. Each strip can then be scored into six 1" (actual) long pieces. This will give you six copper plates. Repeat this process until you have all plates that you will need plus a number of spares. Simulating the nailheads may best be done with a length of hypodermic needle that has been cut off at right angles to its length. Nailheads should not be too prominent; in fact they should be barely visible at 1:48 scale.

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As there are a great number of plates (with an even greater number of nails!), it is easier to make a stamp or punch plate to mark the nailheads. The punch consists of a piece of wood that has been drilled with holes for short pieces of hypodermic needle (left). The pattern shown on the previous spread can be used as a guide. Note that you can omit the nail rows along one edge and side as these will be hidden by the overlaps. Lengths of needle are secured using epoxy glue. The wooden base is then backed by a piece of metal plate. A jig is made to register each plate in position under the punch. The punch may be hinged to the base of this jig. The backing under the copper blank should be fairly hard, or the “nail” impressions will be too deep. Experiment until you get a result that satisfies you. It is then a simple matter to mark each plate using this punch press. Applying copper and lead to the model is a challenge. The traditional way was to use many copper wire nails, an extremely time-consuming task. A less painstaking method is to use an adhesive. The difficulty here is that dissimilar materials — wood and metal — need to be securely joined. Many years ago I used a product by Goodyear called Pliobond on a model Revenue cutter, and the plates held securely for the 30 years that I owned that model. This glue was a type of contact cement. This was easy to use, apart from the fact that it is solvent-based. I recommend the usual precautions when working with such products. I believe that Pliobond is still generally available. It will be more convenient to omit the copper from under the straps of the gudgeons. You will need to file shallow scores for the gudgeon straps before coppering. The rudder pintle straps are dealt with similarly. (Read about this in section 7.37 now, please.)

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.29 The color of copper There has been much discussion as to whether copper becomes green when submerged in salt water. Certainly copper acquires a verdigris layer (principally copper chloride dihydrate, CuCl2.2H2O with probably some cupric carbonate hydroxide, CuCO3.Cu(OHO)2) when exposed to water and air, particularly in maritime locations. However, below water there is relatively little oxygen so this would not occur. It is possible that at the waterline, where copper is exposed to the air at intermittent intervals, there might be some formation of copper salts. Ironically, one of copper chloride dihydrate’s commercial uses is as a wood preservative. Against this speculation, I have studied numerous contemporary paintings of coppered ships. None show any bright green coloration at the waterline! The artists show copper as either bright (presumably newly applied) or a dull brown (presumably a thin layer of mainly reddish-brown cuprous oxide, Cu2O with a little black cupric oxide, CuO). On this basis, I would leave the copper to oxidise to dull brown naturally. In order for oxidation to occur evenly you will need to ensure that the outer surface is free of fingerprints and glue residue. To get rid of the former, a swab with isopropanol will remove oils. Any glue deposits will show later as bright metallic copper, as air is excluded from those areas. Consult the literature accompanying the adhesive you are using to determine a suitable solvent for its removal. If you prefer a bright, newly coppered look, you will need to apply a layer of clear varnish or lacquer to seal the surface.

7.30 The elm batten This appears on contemporary models14 as a 3" square section board nailed every 6", or as a 6" wide flat batten. The NMM model of Bellona shows the batten unpainted, whereas the Rogers’ Collection model has a black batten. Bending the batten to fit under the tuck will be tricky. The tuck is the area of the hull just below the wing transom where the bottom planking twists and bends around the buttock of the hull. Allow time and patience to create the compound curve using moist or dry heat.

An example of a 3" batten is shown on Bellona in the NMM. A 6" batten is shown on the model of Minerva, catalog #55, in the Rogers’ Collection, Annapolis (see photograph on page 50).

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7.31 Lead protective sheathing As previously mentioned, there is a lead protective strip along the fore edge of the cutwater. It extends upward above the waterline to 3' 6" below the figure and 6' 0" back along the false keel.15 The edges of the sheet are bent around the sides of the knee and keel by 41⁄2" and nailed on. To prevent electrolytic action, there must have been an insulating layer of tarred paper between the lead and copper. I do not know if there was a standard size for lead sheet: it would probably have been smaller than copper sheet because of lead’s greater weight and softness. I suppose 2' 0" long pieces would be reasonable.

7.32 Draught marks Some contemporary models show draught marks in the form of Roman numerals running up both sides of the stem and stern posts.16 Prior to copper sheathing, models show marks incised with a V-gouge and filled with red paint. Numbers were subsequently cut from lead sheet and nailed on over the copper. They are placed so that the depth drawn forward and aft may be easily read. Each numeral is 6" high, and they are placed 6" apart. The base of each numeral gives the depth in feet. The example (below right) reads 12' 10". (The waterline is a little more than halfway between XII and XIII, the numbers being 6" high, as are the spaces between them.) If cutting in numerals, mark them out with extreme care on both sides. Use the same technique to cut as you used for the keel rabbet (see section 1.27). Here all the cuts are straight lines. Start with the horizontal hash marks, 6" apart. These form boundary “stops” for the other cuts. Provided that your gouge is kept properly sharpened there is no need to push, so there is little chance of slipping. If the edge is dull, then an accident is sure to occur. Lead numerals may be cut from thin card and painted or photoetched from thin metal sheet.

15 16

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LI. A good example is the model of a fourth rate, 50 guns, c1770 in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

7.33 The rudder The ship’s rudder is made up of several pieces of wood. The main piece, made of oak, runs the length of the structure from head to heel. The other components of the rudder blade (in large ships there was more than one piece) are tabled together and a backing piece of plank added. These pieces were of fir rather than oak. The various component parts were bolted together, ensuring that all bolts were driven clear of the pintle straps. Often a sole piece was added along the heel. This is the rudder’s equivalent of the false keel. Note that the heel of the rudder is raised above the line of the false keel. This is a safeguard against the rudder carrying away, should the ship touch ground. Tabling is carried out in an alternating pattern side to side. Tabling is a series of shallow mortises alternating along two faying pieces. To do this neatly at model scale is rather tricky, so one possible alternative way to do this is to make the rudder up in two halves (see the following page). The additional joint will be disguised most of the way up by the backing piece. The other solution is to make both sides of the rudder identical as it will only be seen one side at a time. The rudder also tapers to match the stern post. Begin by cutting the component parts from 15" thick stock. You will taper the structure when complete in the same way as you did for the stern post. Note that if your draught shows a different rudder profile to that of the drawing, follow the design shown on your NMM plan.

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Cut the main piece to the aftermost line on the drawing to allow for the tabling. If you decide to split the rudder at the centerline, you will need two identical blanks each 71⁄2" thick (below left). Mark out the tabling very carefully. It is 3" deep and alternates from side to side as shown in the illustrations. The simplified version (below right) will be identical on both sides but is much easier to fit. The simplest method, should this defeat you, is to scribe the joints into a one-piece rudder. However, this will not look as good because the joints are lined with tarred felt like those of the external keel and stem. If you are going to copper the rudder, you can omit all the tablings below the waterline and those hidden inside the hull. Next is the blade portion. The tablings fit into those of the main piece, allowing for the thickness of the black paper “tarred felt.” Leave both pieces oversize until they have been secured to each other. Once you are satisfied with the fit of the joint, glue black paper to one joint surface, adjust the joint for the thickness of the paper and then glue up both component pieces. Transfer the shape of the rudder to the blank. Take particular care over the positions of the cut-outs for the rudder pintles. The tops of these must align with the scores cut on the aft side of the stern post (illustration at left). This is a simplification: please read section 7.34 for actual practice. Ensure accurate alignment with the sternpost scores, or the pintles and gudgeons will not seat properly. The recesses for the pintles must be long enough to allow at least a 3" gap below the bottom of each pintle, or you will be unable to ship the rudder on its gudgeons.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Cut the rudder blank to shape, leaving the bottom edge overlong for the moment. Refine the edges using Swiss files and sanding blocks. Add the backing piece, remembering to glue black paper in the joint. Cut the foot of the rudder to shape and smooth it. If you choose to fit a sole piece, do this with black paper in the joint. The assembled rudder now needs to be drilled and pinned to secure all the components. In full size practice, bolts were driven through fore and aft. There were five 7⁄8" diameter bolts, one between each pintle strap and one below the lowest pintle. (The upper end of the rudder will be reinforced by iron hoops.) It is easiest to drill the holes for these bolts using a drill press to keep them centered in the rudder. Glue and drive the pins. There is a square mortise to be cut in the rudder head. In large ships with a shorter stern post there are two mortises. The second and lower of these is for the emergency tiller. (The stern post in the Swan class extends up to the quarter deck beams, so rigging an emergency tiller in a second mortise is not possible.) Note that the mortise tapers, is square in section and is located at right angles relative to the fore edge of the rudder. Drill the mortise using a drill press, then file it out square. The fore side of the hole is 9" square, tapering to 7" aft. Now mark out the bearding of the rudder on its forward edge. Note that this does not extend more that a few inches above the head of the stern post. The shape of its section is shown (below left), as well as its extent (page opposite). As seen from the side, the bearding appears to taper as it goes down the rudder. This is due to the taper in rudder width that you will be cutting next. The bearded part of the rudder is basically angled, with the peak of the angle sharply radiused off. This allows the rudder to be placed tight to the stern post and still rotate along the axis of the pintles. The cross-section of this bearding is constant along its length. (Also see the discussion in Appendix 7.2) The next task is to taper the rudder. This is identical to the taper of the stern post and is marked and shaped in the same manner (see sections 1.22 and 1.24). Make sure that this is equal on both sides. It is possible that there was also a slight taper toward the aft edge of the rudder, but I have no reliable information as to whether this was done and, if so, to what extent.

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As you proceed to reduce the rudder width, you will be cutting away some of the bearding toward the foot of the piece and the junction of side and bearding will appear as the illustration (right) shows. Finish the rudder by cutting the fancy shapes of the hances. Hances are places on the ship where an edge suddenly changes in level. There are two such hances on the aft edge of the rudder, so follow the design on your NMM draught. Also, you will need to chamfer off all sharp edges and corners as you have elsewhere in the ship.

7.34 Pintles and their straps The pintles to the rudder are carried on straps which have very specific shapes. You must follow the design accurately, or the rudder will not turn properly. The geometry of articulation is interesting. The axis of rotation of the rudder was kept as far forward as possible so that there would be minimum gap between rudder and sternpost. If you look at your plan, you will see that the pintles are snug to the sternpost. As the pintle diameter for a sixth rate is 17⁄ 8", this means that the axis of rotation is a mere 15⁄16" behind the leading edge of the rudder and sternpost. This will in turn dictate the position of the pintle relative to the strap. The design rationale of the pintle and strap will now be apparent. The straps are 3" wide and 11⁄8" thick at the shoulder or bend. They taper in thickness to about 3⁄4" at their ends. To keep the outer surface smoother, the straps are progressively inset into the surface of the rudder. There are one or two bolts 3⁄4" in diameter that pass through the straps and rudder. These are clenched over and the remaining holes are occupied by 1⁄2" diameter screws.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The pintles are 9" long and 17⁄8" in diameter. The exception is the lowest pintle, which is 11" long. (Make sure that the recess for this pintle is also 2" longer than the others, or you will not be able to ship your rudder.) Please note the simplified construction of the pintle/strap combination for model purposes. Its actual shape is also illustrated (previous page). If you wish to be authentic, you will need to cut the tops of the pintle recesses 3" lower than indicated earlier. The visible end result is identical. Begin by cutting the straps from a 3" wide brass strip 11⁄8" thick. Note that the length of the strap for each pintle on the rudder blade extends to within 1" of the aft edge and that the uppermost strap wraps around the rudderhead to meet its partner at the midline. The pintle itself is made from brass rod or wire of suitable diameter (17⁄8"). Take a piece of brass 3" thick and drill a hole of the same diameter as the wire near one edge. Silver solder the wire into this hole. Then you can file out the center piece of the strap/pintle combination. Silver solder the straps to this and refine the shape of the composite piece. The lower end of each pintle is angled as shown on your plans. Of course, each pintle strap needs to be individually shaped to the rudder, as no two are alike. Card patterns fitted around the rudder will be of help here to determine the length of the straps. To make an “authentic” pintle/strap is a little more difficult, but not impossible. I will leave it to your ingenuity to fabricate such an item. The actual pintles and gudgeons were stamped with the maker’s name, the broad arrow and a number. In our case it would be either “14” or “16,” denoting the size of ship the pintle was made for. Examples of this practice are seen in metalwork recovered from the wreck of the Pandora, 24 guns, of 1779.17 When the pintles are completed to your satisfaction and the bolt and screw holes drilled, clean and color the brass. As the fixtures are of mix’d metal, I would color them mid-brown or bronze rather than black. (For coloring metal, see Appendix 4.1.) File the tapered recesses or scores for the straps in the sides of the rudder. Make these 3" wide and about 1⁄2" deep at their forward edge, tapering to zero at the aft edge. Similar scores may be filed in for the straps of the spectacle plate.

Anatomy of the Ship, The Pandora, by John McKay and Ron Coleman, page 72.

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7.35 The spectacle plate This is a specialized strap attached to the aft edge of the rudder at waterline level. Other names for this fitting are the ring plate or spectacle frame. It has two rings welded on the corners (the “spectacles”), which attach to chains on each side. These chains prevent the loss of the rudder should it become accidentally unshipped and are also a means of emergency steering should the rudderhead and tiller be shot away in action. Make the strap as you did the pintles and silver solder the rings on. There are two additional screw or bolt holes in the aft side of the strap, not shown in the drawing (right). Note that the rings are shaped from flat stock 2" thick. It is easiest to drill the 1" diameter holes first, then file the pieces to fit the corners of the strap. Final shaping is best done after assembly. Color this fitting brown as you did the pintles, as it was made of mix’d metal. Again, delay the final installation of this plate.

7.36 Rudderhead hoops There are two possible styles of reinforcement to the rudderhead. Your NMM plan may indicate which was used in your ship. If not, either of the following methods would be appropriate. In the first there are four hoops which are heated and then driven on, much like barrel hoops. They strengthen the head above and below the mortise for the tiller where torsional stresses are greatest. In the second method, two straps are wrapped over the rudderhead in the athwartships direction before the head hoops are driven on. The straps and hoops are 3" wide and 1⁄2" thick. You will need to fit the hoops very carefully before removing and silver soldering them. Being well above the waterline, these are of iron rather than mix’d metal and may be oxidized black.

7.37 Finishing the underwater portion of the rudder If you are applying white stuff, you can seal the rudder and paint the underwater portion white. Otherwise the copper plate layout is given overleaf. It will be easier to omit the plates under where the pintle straps will fit.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Begin by applying a row of plates down the aft edge of the rudder in the same way as you did for the sternpost. Next cover the sides, overlapping the plates around the aft side by 3". Note that I have drawn the strakes of the plates so as to continue the lines of hull sheathing. Next fit plates around the bearding and in the pintle recesses, overlapping the side plates. These are the most awkward plates to fit. As you can see from the plan to the right, the recess plates have to be tabbed to fit around the sides of the bearding. Finally plate over the sole, overlapping the sides all around. No batten is indicated at the waterline in contemporary coppered models. I assume that the reason for this is that the top of the copper here was less exposed to the possibility of accidental damage. Now install the pintles and spectacle plate permanently. Through-bolts would have been used on the second from fore and aftermost holes in the straps. Screws were used in the other holes. The screws, comparatively coarse-threaded by today’s standards, were slot-headed as shown (left). Screws were rarely used before about 1780, so all the rudder metalwork may be shown as bolted if you wish. As the manufacture of machine-made screws became commoner toward the end of the century, they were used more frequently.

7.38 The gudgeons Gudgeons are also known as googings or braces. These may now be made and fitted. Their straps are similar to those of the pintles, and the aft portions are drilled to take the pintles. According to Steel, the holes were sometimes bushed.18 A bushing is a lining or sleeve of metal driven into a slightly over-sized hole. It can be knocked out and replaced when worn. The length of the straps vary, so that you will need to use card strip patterns to determine their lengths. Obviously you cannot measure their lengths directly from the sheer plan, as all except the lowest one are foreshortened in this view. The straps of the upper gudgeons twist considerably to conform to the hull. The highest gudgeon straps attach to the sides of the stern post and one pair passes through the lower counter.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Chapter I, page 51.

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You will need to cheat by either cutting this strap to butt against the lower counter planking or cut shallow slots for the straps through the planking on both sides of the stern post. The eye of the gudgeon should be drilled through a piece of 3" thick brass stock, which is subsequently filed to shape and the straps silver soldered on. The hole should be 2" in diameter. Once completed and cleaned, the set of gudgeons may then be oxidized brown and attached to the model. Make sure that the fore side of the holes are almost flush to the aft face of the stern post. The gudgeons are either bolted on or bolted and screwed as were the pintles.

7.39 Shipping the rudder Before you install the rudder, please read about the rudder coat in section 12.34. If you wish to show this feature, it is easier to make and attach it to the rudder now. Slip the rudderhead up through the helm port until the tip of the lowest pintle is at the level of the top of its gudgeon. Tip the rudderhead aft as far as the helm port will allow. Begin to engage the lowest pintle (which is 2" longer than the others), pushing the rudder forward to the stern post as the other gudgeons slip into the gaps below the the remaining pintles. Lower into place. The rudder should now swing freely without binding. Reverse this procedure to unship the rudder, which is best carefully stored away until final assembly of the ship. Some authors mention the use of a woodlock to prevent accidental unshipping of the rudder. This is a block of wood that is mortised into one side of the rudder at the recess of the second pintle under the end of the pintle itself, thus preventing the rudder from rising. It would need to be unscrewed to unship the rudder. I have never seen this feature on a contemporary model. The underwater body of the ship is now complete.

END OF CHAPTER SEVEN

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Appendix 7.1 A further note on chain pumps The following extract from Falconer1 gives some idea of the development of the chain pump at this period. William Falconer seemed somewhat sceptical over claims of improvement! “This machine is nevertheless exposed to several disagreeable accidents by the nature of its construction. The chain is of too complicated a fabric, and the sprocket-wheels, employed to wind it up from the ship’s bottom, are deficient in a very material circumstance, viz some contrivance to prevent the chain from sliding or jerking back upon the surface of the wheel, which frequently happens when the valves are charged with a considerable weight of water or when the pump is violently worked. The links are evidently too short, and the immechanical manner in which they are connected, exposes them to a great friction in passing round the wheels. Hence they are sometimes apt to break or burst asunder in very dangerous situations, when it is extremely difficult or impracticable to repair the chain. The consideration of the known inconveniences of the above machine has given rise to the invention of several others which should better answer the purpose. They have been offered to the public one after another with pompous recommendations by their respective projectors, who have never failed to report their effects as considerably superior to that of the chain-pump with which they have been tried. It is however much to be lamented, that in these sort of trials there is not always a scrupulous attention to what may be called mechanical justice. The artist who wishes to introduce a new piece of mechanism has generally sufficient address to compare its effects with one of the former machines which is crazy or out of repair. A report of this kind indeed favours strongly of the evidence of a false witness, but this finesse is not always discovered. The persons appointed to superintend the comparative effects of the different pumps have not always a competent knowledge of hydraulics to detect these artifices, or to remark with precision the defects and advantages of those machines as opposed to each other. Thus the several inventions proposed to supplant the chain-pump have hitherto proved ineffectual, and are now no longer remembered.”

William Falconer, Dictionary of the Marine, 1780 edition, page 221.

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Appendix 7.2 Maximum angle of helm There has been much discussion elsewhere on how far the rudder could be turned. The theoretical maximum was about 30° each way and was limited by tiller travel. I have read that the aft side of the stern post was also bearded back to increase the range of travel,2 but have not seen this on contemporary models. A little thought will convince you that even if greater freedom of movement were to be gained by doing this, travel is still limited by the tiller reaching the extreme end of its travel inboard. Another objection to increasing maximum rudder turn is that of the resistance and braking action as more of the rudder’s lateral surface is presented to water flow while not effectually adding to the turning effect. William Hutchinson, a master mariner, wrote in 1794,3 “...I think it necessary to remark, that the power of the helm to manage the ship, depends more on her headway through the water, than on any great angle it can be put to. For when a ship has no headway, the greatest angle the helm can be put to has no effect upon her; nor when she gets headway with the helm amidships, it does not act with any power, till it is put to an angle from the direction of the keel; then it is that the rudder begins to act, as what is commonly called a stop-water, but, more properly, it may be called a stop-way, by the water acting against either side of the rudder that is put over, to turn the ship’s stern the other way, in the direction of the rudder and tiller, to steer and direct her head, as occasion may require. And in proportion as the helm is put over from the direction of the keel, the rudder stops the ship’s headway through the water, and it is well known that no vessel will stay that does not keep her head way till she brings the wind right a-head. Yet I have seen in boats, and vessels of 40 tons and upwards, where the rudder and tiller admitted of it, ignorant people put the helm almost right athwart the stern in stays, which tends to stop the vessel’s headway through the water, than to bring her head round against the wind and waves from one tack to the other, thinking they cannot give the vessel too much helm in stays, and not considering that when the helm is put right athwart the stern at a right angle with the keel, the rudder then acts only to stop the vessel’s way, without any power to turn the stern to steer her, which proves how necessary it is to have the rudder fixed by the best rules to prevent such bad practice.” 2

Peter Goodwin, The Construction and Fitting of the Sailing Man of War, pp. 129-131, and illustration 5/2.

William Hutchinson, A Treatise on Naval Architecture, pages 48-49, On fixing the rudder. 47

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

“On enquiring what was thought to be the best angle for sailing vessel’s (sic) rudders to be fixed to traverse to, I was told by my friend, Mr. Henry Bird, (a great ship-builder at the Greenland-dock, London) that 33 degrees, or 3 points of the compass, had long been the most approved practice. But many people argued, that 45 degrees, or 4 points of the compass, would answer the purpose better, which made me try an experiment, with a well-formed model of a ship in a cistern of water within doors, with her rudder fixed and marked to traverse to 4 points of the compass. She was pulled right forward with equal power in one line of direction through the water, first with the helm amidships, then altered to a point of the compass each trial to 4 points; but she made a less sweep and shortened her distance through the water each point that the helm was put over, so that she went much further with the helm amidships before she stopped, than with the helm fixed at 4 points. But to have it further confirmed that 33 degrees is a sufficient angle for the rudder to traverse to, having the management of our long graving docks at Liverpool, where we have in common ten or twelve ships at a time repairing and cleaning, I took the opportunity with a bevel to try the traverse of many ships rudders, Dutch as well as English, both full for burden, and sharp for sailing, and found none to traverse 33 degrees, but mostly about 30 degrees, and several about 28 degrees. From these remarks I think we may draw a conclusion, that 33 degrees is a sufficient angle for the rudder to traverse to, and ought to be fixed for the best rule. And the bevelling of the fore part of the rudder and its bands should be made to admit of that angle, which may give the utmost power to the helm to govern the ship to the greatest advantage on important occasions, because the safety of the whole often depends on it”. Hutchinson also understood a great deal about hydrodynamics and made other practical observations and recommendations as to the form of the section of the rudder, such as rounding off the aft edge to reduce drag and water eddying.

Appendix 7.3 Sources for the decorative work Several models were used as the basis for the designs presented here. Among them were: Bellona, 74 guns, 1760, National Maritime Museum Barfleur, 80 guns, circa 1765, National Maritime Museum Minerva, 38 guns, 1780, the Rogers’ Collection, Annapolis Leopard, 50 guns, 1790, Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford Unidentified frigate, circa 1775, The Science Museum Partial section of a three-decker, circa 1770, The Science Museum

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Appendix 7.4 Paint colors The most useful colors for painting frieze motifs are: Yellow ochre (yellow oxide) Mars red ( Indian red, red oxide)

Burnt umber Burnt siena

Titanium white Ultramarine blue

Color samples are shown on the rear of the dust jacket.

Appendix 7.5 Painting the lower counter Occasionally the drapes on the lower counter were painted in different tints (shades) of blue against a red ground, as seen on Leopard, but usually they appeared in red. Minerva’s drapery is painted in ochres. Sometimes kneeling putti (cherub-like figures) were added between the stern post and swagged drapery instead of, or in addition to, the tasseled cords. It will be easiest to invert your model while you paint the lower counter. You may actually find it easier to hold the design that you are copying upside-down and paint everything inverted. It gives you a different way of looking at things and helps you concentrate on the actual shapes of each different color area. The three-stage method of painting described in section 7.26 may also be applied here. Paint the basic drape color with red oxide alone. Add the shadows with a mix of red oxide and burnt umber and finally the highlights in red oxide, white and yellow ochre. Additional brightness may be added by mixing in a little of the bright red you are using elsewhere on the model. The “white” part of the drape is not pure white. It is a mix of white with a touch of yellow ochre and red oxide added to it. The shadows are a mix of white, with a little dark blue and red oxide. The highlights are a similar mix as the mid-tone, but with a greater proportion of white added. If you wish to add the dark ermine spots, use burnt umber. The lion’s head, cords and tassels are painted in the same way as the scrollwork on the friezes, and the tassel covers as you painted the drapes. Probably the most difficult part of the painting will be the nereids, seahorse and dolphin on the upper counter. These will be painted later, along with your ship’s name.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The bow of model #55, Rogers Collection (Minerva, 36 guns) shows a number of points of interest. The copper sheathing can just be seen with its black painted batten. Note the lead sheathing on the cutwater and the stem. The black strake on this model is painted — not always the case on other contemporary models. The wash cant below the lower cheek, which deflects seas, is evident. The painted frieze of scrollwork, on a blue ground , is painted both below and above the sheer rail. Above the sheer rail in this model there is an additional band of red with white border lines. The bollard timbers are painted black. The stern of the same model shows a number of features similar to the decorative scheme given in Chapter Seven. In this instance the swagged drapes on the lower counter are painted in shades of yellow ochre instead of red. The lower counter design has been modified to accomodate the stern ports. The upper counter shows a profusion of mythological figures. Nereids, a dolphin, a seahorse, Triton and putti are seen here. There is a central cartouche with the ‘GR’ monogram (Georgius Rex). The painting of each ship’s name on the upper counter in lettering 12" high was ordered by the Admiralty in 17711 and amended to “as large as the second counter will admit” the following year. Note also the rudder head and its associated metalwork. These photograhs were taken by Dr. Greg Herbert at Annapolis while the model was out of its case for inspection and cleaning.

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The rudder (left) for Resolution, 14 guns, 1773. The assembly shows the bearding, metalwork and tabled joints. There are two tiller mortises as the stern post is short. Head hoops have yet to be fitted.

An upper deck cast hanging knee. It is easier to detail knees off the model before final assembly. Here the knee is adjacent to a gunport, so is fitted with a breeching ringbolt and gun tackle eyebolt.

Riding bitts and galley for Resolution. The chimney has yet to be fitted. The drip tray, hinged flap and firebars are shown. Also note at the various doors on the side panel and lifting ringbolts. Yet to be fitted are the rails around the periphery of the stove. All these details are described in Chapter Eight.

Master patterns for guns textured to resemble cast iron (above) and molds (left). Refer to text, page 131. (All photos on this page are of the author’s model.)

Quoted by Brian Lavery in The Ship of the Line, page 65, no citation given; and also attributed by John Franklin, Navy Board Ship Models, page 168, to Carr-Laughton in Old Ships’ Figureheads and Sterns, 1925. This makes the identity of the Rogers’ Collection model problematic, unless the model predates the ship ordered in 1778. Even so, the built-up quarter deck bulwarks are a feature dating from 1781. Perhaps this model represents Phaeton of 1782, the last of the Arethusa class.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

CHAPTER EIGHT

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he sequence of construction will commence with the upper deck beams and their various supporting knees and then completion of the inner planking. The amount of deck planking that might be installed will be discussed, then the many interesting fittings found along the centerline of the deck will be detailed. In many ways this will parallel the work that you carried out on the lower deck.

Break of the quarter deck, Minerva, 38 guns, of 1780. The brake and chain pump head gear is well shown. This model has temporary skid beams in the waist; these became a permanent feature by the 1790’s. The quarter deck breastwork is most unusual, being made of iron. There are fourteen ninepin blocks just above deck level. These blocks have integral pegs top and bottom so that they can swivel freely in their mountings. There are also eight horizontal sheaves below the ninepin blocks. The author has not seen this feature or arrangement on any other contemporary model.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

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8.1 The lower deck breast hook The lower deck breast hook is fitted at the forward end of the lower deck. It is still convenient to make and install this now, before beginning to frame the upper deck. The pattern (below) will need to be adapted to suit your own model. Cut it from card and adjust it until it fits perfectly against the inside planking and over the stemson. The upper surface of the breast hook should be 2' 7" above the plank of the lower deck, unless your draught shows otherwise. The lower edge will be on, or just above, the top of the lower deck spirketting. Cut the breast hook from 8" thick stock.1 It will need a little bevelling on the faying surfaces to sit exactly against the planking and around the stemson. Once shaped, chamfer off both the upper and lower aft edges. The breast hook is bolted through the stemson, bollard timbers and hawse pieces with 9 bolts, each 1" in diameter. As you have already applied the outer planking, make sure that your bolt holes do not go through to the outside!

8.2 The hammock battens One interesting detail on the upper deck beams is that of the hammock battens. Hammock battens, also called hammacoe racks, are fittings nailed to the sides of the beams that the sailors’ hammocks were lashed to. An actual example of one of these battens has been found between the joists of the Old Mast House at Chatham Dockyard.2 I will give a reconstructed plan of where these battens were placed following the description of the upper deck beams. The battens themselves were shaped as shown in my drawing, their center-to-center spacing being a regulation 14". As half the watch was above at any time, each man was allocated 28" of space to sling his hammock. These battens were later replaced by hooks. (Hammock disposition is described in section 8.5.)

Steel gives this as 81⁄2", Naval Architecture, Folio XIV. 2 Photograph shown in Heart of Oak, A Sailor’s Life in Nelson’s Navy, James P. McGuane, page 127. 1

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.3 The upper deck hook At the forward end of the upper deck is a hook with ekeings, similar to that for the lower deck. In this case the hook is 8" deep3 and the ekeings 7". This means letting down the deck hook by 1" onto the clamps. The pattern given here will need to be adjusted to fit your own model, just as you did for the lower deck. Remember to make the piece a little thicker than the sided measurements to allow for shaping the round up. In the case of the upper deck, this is 6" at maximum beam. (The pattern is found on your Mylar plan below the body plan.) While this round up was negligible for the lower deck, you will need to incorporate its curve here, or your deck planking will not land correctly at the stem. Also note that the deck hook should rest on the head of the stemson. It may also need to be let down on this, so that the upper surface is positioned at the correct height. Cut the hook to the shape of your modified pattern, and then shape the upper surface to the correct round up. Alternatively, you may find it easier to shape the round up on the blank before cutting it out. Either way, it will be easier to hollow the underside after cutting the blank to shape. As the ekeings are so short, it will not be necessary to round them up. Simply cut them to the shape of your pattern and fit the scarph joints carefully to the deck hook. The ekeings will not need to be let down on the clamps. Chamfer the lower edges as usual. There are three bolts driven through each scarph, each 1" in diameter. The deck hook itself is securely bolted to the framing by eleven 11/8" diameter bolts. These are disposed as follows: one through the stem, one through each bollard timber and hawse piece, and one each through the two most forward cant frames.

Steel gives this dimension as 9", Naval Architecture, Folio XXXI, and its width to be either 13' 6", or “as long as can be gotten”.

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8.4 The upper deck beams You should have cut and set aside the beams for this deck earlier (section 6.30) but if not, now is the time to make them. There are a total of 22 beams. The pattern for their round up is given on the Mylar plan below the body plan. The upper deck beams round up amidships by 6". One method of cutting them out is described in section 5.10. Each beam is 9" wide by 7" deep.4 Take the time to locate these beams accurately along the clamps. The correct alignment of the upper deck hatchways with those below, as well as the size of any openings, depends on your degree of precision in laying these out. Steel says and shows nothing definitive about letting down the upper deck beams on the clamps in a ship of this size, so simply allow the beams to rest on the clamps. However, he does describe snying the underside of the beams 5 so that the outboard ends are a quarter as thick again as the lodging knees. To sny means to taper. This gradual taper begins at the inboard ends of the lodging knees. However, the thickness of these knees is 6" and beam depth is specified as only 7". Therefore there cannot be any sny on beams in a ship of this size. As was the case for the lower deck beams, each was laid with the butt end on alternate sides of the ship and their ends either mouthed or bored. I have interpreted Steel’s instructions5 as illustrated (right). Mouthings are 2" wide slots that allow air to circulate from inboard of the deck clamp. It is possible, although unlikely in a small ship, that some beams may have been made of more than one piece. If you wish to show this feature, the general rules were given in section 6.11. Each tabled scarph had six 3/4" square-sectioned bolts driven through on the diagonal. Remember to provide mortises at the midline beneath the beams for the tenons of the supporting pillars below them. Do not attach the beams permanently yet!

4 5

Steel gives these measurements as 10" by 8". Naval Architecture, Folio XXXII. ibid, Book II, Chapter VI, Directions for the actual building, page 383.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.5 Hammock battens, continued The space required to sling a hammock could not be less than 8' 0", as the canvas itself was a regulation 6' 0" long. Perhaps it was just as well that the height of an average sailor was shorter than today! Petty officers’ hammocks were slung along the outboard sides of the deck, and each was allowed a 28" double space. The marines’ hammocks were slung in the after part of the deck. Each space and hammock was numbered, so I presume numerals were carved into the beams. As there were two watches, each number was duplicated in adjacent spaces. The first lieutenant allocated berthing arrangements.6

In the layout above I have not shown the petty officers’ double-spaced allotment. Doubtless the standard spacing would have been continued along the whole length of the batten. Hammocks are shown on one side only, so as to clarify which sides of the beams receive battens. They are placed on each side of beams, their spacings being offset by 7" on alternate beams. While the layout seems to leave a lot of space unused, in reality this is filled by officers’ cabins, store rooms, sail room, the upper well and pantry. There is space remaining for just 99 hammocks. As the established complement for the Swan class was between 121 and 125 crew members7 including nine warrant officers, one must assume that the ship was either undermanned or that some men shared the same space on alternate watches. Any transverse hammocks would have been slung between hooks fixed to suitable carlings. In larger ships a number of hammocks were slung in this orientation.

6 7

The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815 by Brian Lavery, pages 178-182. The Sailing Navy List by David Lyon, page 96.

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The battens are about 3" wide and 2" deep8 and are well rounded off, as illustrated here. They are bolted to the beams in such a way as to just clear the carlings above (also see the illustration in section 8.1). I have also seen photographs of other battens. These examples do not seem to be rounded off, but may not be contemporary. Rounding off is necessary, or the hammock laniards would rapidly fray through with the motion of the ship. Delay attaching the battens permanently until the knees and carlings are cut and fitted, ready to be permanently installed with the beams.

8.6 Tricing battens Steel9 mentions these as being fitted to the underside of the deckhead athwartships between the hammock battens, in order that “...the sailors may trice up the middle of their hammocks out of the headway”. These are 2" by 4". I cannot clearly see how these would work, other than being shaped like the hammock battens and being nailed up vertically under the deckhead. As these would be extremely difficult to fit to a model perhaps these are best omitted. However, for the sake of completeness, I mention them.

8.7 Beam arms As for the lower deck, there are a set of beam arms at the main hatch just ahead of the main mast partners. Their shape is given on the plan view (page 67). If your own draught shows these, follow the NMM drawing. If not, follow the pattern of those on my drawing. The sided thickness of the beam arms is equal to that of the deck beams. Remember to mouth or bore their outboard ends and to chamfer the under edges before installing them. They are fitted in a similar manner to the lower deck beam arms, tabled and bolted to beam 11. The pillars under the upper deck beams (see section 6.40) may be fitted now.

Steel specifies these battens as 2" square with 1/2" thick elm buttons as spacers behind: Folio XXVII. The recommended spacings are printed as 16". 9 Ibid, Folio XXVII, and Explanation of terms, &c. used in shipbuilding, page 72. 59

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.8 The upper deck transom and transom knees The transom is the aftermost beam on the upper deck. In the case of the Swan class this is also the wing transom and needs no further attention. (For those modeling sixth rate ships where this is not the case, the transom in a sixth rate is 7" deep, molded 91/2" in the center and at least 7" at the ends.) The outer ends are supported by knees with athwartship arms 3' 7" long, the side arms reaching to the penultimate beam aft. There are three and four 7/8" bolts in each arm respectively.

8.9 Hanging knees Unlike the lower deck, the upper deck has to support the weight of armament, so all the upper deck beams have hanging knees attached. These knees are sided 6 1/2" and are fayed to each upper deck beam. Their shape is similar to those of the lower deck (see section 6.3). You will need to make card patterns for each pair so that they fay neatly to the side planking of the lower deck. The hanging arm is 4' 6" long and the athwartship arm 3' 4". There are four and three bolts in each arm respectively. The bolt diameter is 1".

8.10 Lodging knees The upper deck lodging knees are sided 6" with athwartship arms 3' 9" long. The relationship of the hanging and lodging knees to the beams is similar to that of those on the deck below (see section 6.2). Their shapes are given on the plan view, pages 66 and 67. The drawing is a reconstruction based on contemporary practice. The fore and aft arms are bolted to the frames by a minimum of three 1" diameter bolts in each.

8.11 The main mast partners This is a much more substantial structure than the lower deck partners. The lateral boundary is formed by two large carlings spaced 2' 4" apart. Each is 1' 0" broad by 10" deep and is half-jointed into the beams in such a way as to leave the upper surface 1" below beam level. The under ends are rounded off and the edges chamfered (illustration opposite, top). Each corner is bolted with two 3 /4" bolts. Additional drawings of these complex pieces are given on the following two pages. Outboard the ledges mortise to the carlings. On the inboard sides of the carlings, cross-chocks and corner chocks let down into them. Study both the overall perspective and the exploded diagram to understand how these pieces interlock.

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The cross-chocks are made and fitted next. They are nominally 10" thick, but allowance needs to be made for them to follow the round up of the deck. They let down on the beams and sit 6" proud of them. The top surfaces will eventually be 3" above the level of the flat of the deck. The aft cross-chock will need to be bored through as illustrated (left), so the return tubes of the chain pumps can pass through them. The tubes pass through the cross-chock close to the inner sides of the carlings. Measure the positions for these octagonal holes from your own model and the plans. The holes are not quite vertical (see illustration, section 6.34). The cross-chocks are secured to the beams by four 3/4" bolts. The pattern of these bolts (see following spread) is conjectural, but seem a reasonable reconstruction. The four corner chocks are next to be made. They are let down by half their thickness into the carlings and cross-chocks, to which they are bolted (see further drawings overleaf ). The corner chocks are also 10" thick, and their bolts are 5/8" in diameter. There are four bolts per chock, positioned as shown. As for the lower deck partners, the octagonal hole is then rounded to an oval, ready to receive the mast wedges once the lower mast is stepped (see section 6.8). The main mast is oval in section at this level to accomodate the thickness of the front fish. The front fish or paunch is an additional hollowed reinforcing piece of fir attached to the front of the lower mast. This detail is shown on some NMM deck plans such as for Vulture.10

NMM deck plan, ZAZ unknown, Admiralty number 3609/52.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Incidentally, Vulture’s deck plan just referred to shows an experimental form of partners with the carlings forming a V-shape, narrow end forward. Below are scaled drawings of the component pieces of the partners. Before cutting them, check the length of the carlings against the spacing of your own upper deck beams 11 and 12. These beams will need to be cut into from the underside to a depth of 4" to complete the half joints with the carlings, which should sit 1" below beam level when fitted. The fore and aft edges of the partners should be chamfered or rounded off, a detail not shown in the lower illustration on the previous page. The athwartships edges are lodged under main and aft hatch head ledges (see sections 8.37 and 8.39). The octagonal holes for the pump return tubes are omitted below, as are the square holes for the main topsail sheet and jeer bitt pins. You will need to work out the exact positions of these from the NMM drawings and your model.

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These scale drawings of the component pieces of the partners can be used as patterns once you have checked the inter-beam space as mentioned in the text. It will be helpful to read these plans in conjunction with the perspective drawings on the previous spread.

8.12 The fore mast partners These are similar to the main mast partners, except that the carlings are 8" wide and spaced 2' 0" apart. Some plans seem to indicate a plank partner similar to those on the lower deck, but this seems unlikely given the huge forces transmitted from the sails and yards to the fore mast and then to the hull itself. Check the distance between upper deck beams 2 and 3 before cutting the carlings from the pattern below. The corner chocks are identical to those for the main mast and can be taken from the pattern above left. Here the opening will be circular after the octagonal shape is opened out.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.13 The bowsprit step This is integral with the fore topsail sheet bitts, as the perspective (right) shows. Two angled uprights form the basis of this structure. These bolt to the upper deck beam below and the forecastle beam above. Their side elevational shape is defined on your NMM profile drawing. The uprights are 8" square in section, are scored into the beams and secured by 3/4" bolts. You will need to make at least one forecastle beam in order to fit the uprights, which are spaced 2' 2" apart. Each upright is scored for the fore topsail sheet bitt crosspiece and is rabbeted for the bowsprit chock or bed on the inboard forward side. There are also rabbets for the manger bulkhead planks on the outboard forward corner. The aft sides need to be fitted to the foremast partners. The fore topsail sheet crosspiece is 61/2" wide and 41/2" deep. It scores into the uprights by 11/4". Establish the height of the crosspiece above the forecastle beams from your NMM plans. The rabbet for the manger bulkhead planks was cut in one of two ways. The manger is the triangular area at the bow separated from the rest of the deck by a low bulkhead of removable boards. This feature will be detailed in section 8.28. I have shown both variations of rabbet (illustrated above). You can determine which method was used in your own ship from the upper deck plan. The manger planks are 3" thick. The top of the rabbet is cut to the height of the bottom edge of the hawse holes and down to the level of the rabbet of the manger waterway (read section 8.28 now to determine this height).

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The rabbet for the bowsprit chock or bed varies; I cannot find a definitive answer to this question. One plan seems to indicate that it is 11/2" deep (athwartships) and 6" deep from the fore side in the fore and aft direction. The depth is from the lower end of the upright to the upper side of the forecastle beam. There is more detail to be attended to at the upper end of the uprights. On some ships the upper ends are shaped into timberheads (again, check your NMM plans). In all cases the edges are chamfered off. Do not let the NMM sheer and profile confuse you; there is a swivel gun mount placed in direct line with and superimposed over the bitt upright. The swivel mount, however, is a little shorter than the upright. There is a 17⁄8" wide sheave set into each upright. The sheave diameter is 7" and is positioned as shown. It is convenient to make and add the cheek blocks now. These are 3" thick with the mortise for a single sheave 1" wide. The top of the cheek blocks are molded similarly to those on the main topsail sheet bitts (see section 6.32). Remember to drill for the sheave pins before installing the uprights! The bowsprit step is cut into the chock or bed. This comprises two edge-rabbeted planks 6" thick. When rabbetted together the width of these planks is 2' 2" plus the side rabbets to the uprights. These planks extend across the faces of the beams above and below, to which they are bolted with 3 /4" bolts, as shown opposite. The two pieces are also bolted together through the uprights by four more 3/4" bolts. It will be much easier to cut the mortise for the heel of the bowsprit before joining the two planks. The position and shape of the mortise may be taken from your NMM plans. Double check to ensure that the bowsprit will pass smoothly through the stem to its seat in the bed. This must be done now if you propose to rig your model, for it will be impossible to change later in construction.

8.14 The mizen mast partners This is a smaller version of the lower deck mast partners and, according to Steel,11 is a plank partner. The scaled drawings for this are given on the next page. The carlings are 71/2" wide and 5" deep and half lap under the beams. Note that the upper surface of each carling is 3/4" below that of the beams.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXIII.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The plank partner is 4" thick and 2' 9" wide. It is scored down on the beams and ledges by 3/4" (the carlings are already lower by this measurement) and is secured to each beam by four 3/4" diameter bolts. Please note that there are two ledges on each side. Their mortises may conveniently be cut into the carlings before the plank partner is permanently installed. Remember that the top of these ledges will be 3/4" higher than the surface of the carlings. The upper surface of the partner will be proud of the flat of the deck by only 1/4", so the edges will need to be rounded down by just this amount and no more to meet the deck.

8.15 Upper deck carlings The upper deck carlings are 61/2" wide and 5" deep and disposed as shown in my reconstructed plan view. The hatchway carlings are a little larger: 71/4" by 6". The joints are fitted to the beams in the same way as for the lower deck.

8.16 Upper deck ledges These are 31/2" wide by 3" deep and are placed as indicated on my drawings. Once again, the joints are cut into the carlings as those of the lower deck. Note that some of the outboard tier ledges are wider between the hanging and lodging knees. (This is based on contemporary practice.) The ledges round up to the same pattern as the beams. A packing piece between beam 20 and the side arm of the wing transom knee is needed to seat the outboard end of the wide outer tier ledge (plan on previous spread).

8.17 The capstan step Its shape varies in plan view in different ships, but it essentially consists of a solid plank fitted between upper deck beams 14 and 15. It has a hole to receive the spindle of the capstan. The central piece is 1' 7" wide and 1' 2" deep and is lapped over the beams as shown (illustrations opposite). The hole for the spindle is 5" in diameter, although individual plans will differ. (Please also read section 9.1.) Some plans show this hole as about 4" deep; in others it is 7". Check your NMM drawings. The step is let down so that the upper surface is 4" above the deck plank, (i.e. 7" above the upper surface of the beams). Although plans often show the step parallel to the deck fore and aft, I am certain that this piece was set with its upper surface horizontal and at right angles to the vertical axis of the capstan. There are two 1" bolts through the step and each beam.

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On either side of the step are two heavy oak support pieces, each 1' 3" wide and 10" thick. Their upper surface is flush with that of the step, which means that they are let down on the beams by 1". The drawings (left) will make this clear. Although Steel does not mention this, it would be likely that these three components were rabbetted together along their abutting edges, as shown in the perspective (below left). Note that the undersides of the step and support pieces are rounded to fay with the upper deck beams’ curvature. The top is flat. The aft edge may be angled to meet the ladderway coaming aft of it. Chamfer or round off the forward upper edge and the side edges, but not the aft edge which will abut the after ladderway coaming.

8.18 The upper deck port stops Now is the time to install the port stops. These are the pieces that line the port sills and frames and act as a rabbet or lip for the port lids. (These are sometimes also referred to as port linings.) They need to be installed after the outer planking is completed but before the inner spirketting strakes are added. Spirketting is the planking between the waterway and lower port sills. The reason for this is that the upper edge of the spirketting should be at the same level as the tops of the lower sill stops. The quickwork will be flush to the inner surfaces of the stops at the sides of the port. Quickwork consists of short lengths of plank inboard between the ports. The illustrations (left) show the relationship of these components to each other.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The thickness of a sloop’s upper deck port stops are not given by Steel, but 11/2" is proportionate to stops for other ships. There are stops to the lower sills and sides of the ports. Make sure that the outer edges of the stops are on the junction line of the outer planking with the frames and sills. The inner edges of the stops are flush to the inner sides of the framing. Note that each lower stop’s outer face is angled to match that of the corresponding side stops (illustrated at right). Make and install the lower sill stops before adding the side ones. It is easiest to shape only the outer faces and leave the inner edges oversize, glue the stops in and then sand the inner faces flush to the frames. All the ports, including the sweep ports, should be lined in this way. The sweep port stops should be about 3/4" thick.

8.19 The upper deck waterway This should be made and installed before adding the spirketting, as it will be very awkward to fit after the spirketting is in place. Steel12 gives its dimensions as being 10" wide “or broader, if clear of sap” by 4" thick. It is bearded back by 3/8" under the spirketting, and bevels down to 3" on its inboard edges. The shapes of the waterway planks may be taken from the plan views on pages 76 and 77. The relationship of the waterway to the other components is shown on the facing page. I have arbitarily made the waterways in the drawings 12" wide. Their patterns will need to be adjusted to fit your own model. While one method of producing wood to this section is to mill it, there are other ways of getting the same result. One method to make a molding cutter. This is a contoured scraper made from metal which is run repeatedly along the plank to shape it. To make such a cutter, take a piece of hacksaw blade and soften it. This is done by heating the piece to a cherry red and allowing it to cool slowly to room temperature. The reverse profile of the shape that you need may then be filed into the edge of the blade. When satisfied with the contour, the metal can then be re-hardened by heating to bright cherry red again and quenching the piece in an oil bath. If there is little stock to be cut to a particular shape, you can omit the rehardening process.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXV.

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The cutter is repeatedly drawn along the stock to be shaped until the profile is formed. Small pieces of stock can be secured to a scrap piece of illustration board using rubber-cement. Clamp the board to the workbench. Also read section 10.2 for a further description. Another method is to make the waterway pieces the thickness of the flat of the deck and glue a 1" thick veneer strip of the same wood to each piece, beveling the inboard edge to 45°.

8.20 The upper deck spirketting (22, 23) These strakes are shown on the internal planking expansion drawing (see following two pages). There are two strakes of top and butt planking that run between the waterway and the top of the port stops that you have just completed. The spirketting is 3" thick and, in addition to treenailing, is bolted at each butt with one bolt and with two bolts into each lower sill (also illustrated on the following two pages). All bolts are 3/4" in diameter. Take particular care in bending and fitting the foremost strakes, which should be made first. The top edge of the upper strake should clear the bottom of the hawse holes. The rest of the spirketting is straightforward. Remember that the upper edge of the upper strake is horizontal, not at right angles to the face of the frame (illustration at right). The upper inboard edge is chamfered off to meet the quickwork above.

8.21 The upper deck quickwork (24, 25, 26) Quickwork consists of three parallel strakes of 2" thick planking running between the ports. Its boundaries are the spirketting beneath and the string of the waist (or forecastle/quarter deck clamps) above. The hawse holes are cut through the lowest two strakes at the bow. The sweep ports and fixed blocks in the side also need to be accomodated (see following two pages). As shown in the section (above), the lowest and upper edges of the quickwork will need to be planed to fit the adjacent strakes of planking. This completes the inner side planking of the upper deck. Neatly finish the chamfers above and below the quickwork.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.22 Painting the inner planking This is a difficult topic, as I have seen many contemporary models with a wide variety of paint schemes, even in the narrow time period 1750-1800! One way to avoid this issue is to leave all the woodwork unpainted. However, for those who wish to paint their models, some alternatives are outlined below. The traditional option is to paint the spirketting, quickwork and clamps/stringer in red. This is a safe choice, as many contemporary models were painted this way. The waterway will need to be carefully masked off. Should a little paint creep under the edge of the masking, it can be carefully scraped off with a dentist’s descaling tool once completely dry. (This tool has a miniature bent chisel or hoe-like end). A variation of this is an all-red inside bulwark with the angled face of the waterway painted black.13 Another color scheme that I have seen shows the clamps and quickwork in natural wood and the spirketting painted red with a black waterway (just the angled face).14 Yet another variation has black clamps and spirketting and red quickwork.15 A fourth possibility is to paint the clamps and quickwork red, the spirketting and waterway angle in black.16 Any of these schemes would be an appropriate choice. All painted models have the inside surfaces of the port openings and stops colored red. A good technique for a clean edge without masking off is to use a “flat” brush, working from the side that is to remain unpainted. Draw the flat of the brush toward you, keeping it almost parallel to

Examples of this are an unidentified 64 gun ship of 1760, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, and also an unidentified 28 gun ship of 1785. 14 74 gun ship of 1786, previously identified as Theseus, Science Museum, Kensington; now re-identified as Warrior of 1781. 15 60 gun ship of 1757, NMM. 16 Endymion of 1779, Science Museum.

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the surface that you are painting (as illustrated at right). If the brush is not overloaded, a clean edge should result. Any paint that has crept over the edges may be scraped off when thoroughly dry. However, try not to resort to this, as surfaces will reflect differently anywhere they are scraped.

8.23 The scuppers Scuppers are the drainage tubes to clear the upper deck of water. I have marked their likely positions on the Mylar draught and upper deck planking plan (pages 76-77). Scuppers were usually omitted on original Admiralty draughts. They are placed between the frames so as not to weaken them, clear of gun ports or deck furniture. They drain without flowing into any openings lower down the sides of larger ships. Bored blocks of wood are mortised between the frames to support the scuppers (illustration at right). You need only show these blocks on an unplanked hull. There are seven scuppers a side for a Swan class vessel. Each scupper is 4" in diameter “in the clear.” 17 The holes are bored at a downward angle through the ship’s side in such a way as to avoid coming through an outboard planking seam (illustrated at left). The exception is the pump dale scupper, which is drilled through at a butt in the wale. Scupper tubes were made of lead with their ends turned to form a flange both inboard and out. These flanges were secured with short, large headed nails (see illustrations overleaf ). 17

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVII.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Frankly, to form one-piece flanged scuppers at this scale is almost impossible, so I would either fake the flanges on the inboard and outboard sides with paint or make each scupper in two pieces, each half with its own flange. Insert each half from its respective side. The illustrations (below) will give you an idea of the appearance of a scupper. Once again, pewter is a malleable substitute for lead. There are two larger scuppers amidships, one each side, for the pump dales to discharge through. These are the aftermost ones, which are 5" in diameter. The two scuppers close to the bow, also 5" in diameter, drain water from manger area. The manger is a triangular area forward where the cables come aboard. It doubled at times as a real manger for livestock. This will be described in detail shortly. Here is a small problem: Steel specifies seven scuppers, but there is only space for five along the waist. I am interpreting him by putting a total of seven scuppers per side; five regular ones, plus one pump dale scupper and one for the manger. You may disagree with me and position a total of nine scuppers a side, but it makes little sense to place them forward and aft where the deck is sheltered by forecastle and quarter decks. There were variations in form: some scuppers had a spout or lip formed at the outboard end,18 and others had leather flaps outboard acting as one-way valves to prevent water being forced aboard by a heavy sea.

8.24 The upper deck planking This is 3" thick and is disposed as shown on the reconstructed plans (following spread). Once again, you are faced with the decision of laying as little or as much of the deck as you wish. My comments for the lower deck planking (sections 6.17 and 6.21) apply here too. Note how all the planks give shift not only to each other, but to the spirketting and scuppers. The outboard four strakes are worked top and butt in oak for strength. These strakes are replaceable when worn down by the movement of the gun carriage trucks across them.

Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600-1850, page 66.

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The binding strakes are 4" thick and are let down on the beams by 1". This detail may be omitted as it will not be seen. All joints will be caulked as it is a weather deck. I use black paper for this purpose, but other methods of indicating this have been discussed (section 6.21). Fastenings are also as for the lower deck (sections 4.13 & 5.13).

8.25 The upper deck breast hook We will begin to detail the upper deck at the bow and work aft. There is a breast hook fitted above the hawse holes. Similar to the lower deck breast hook (see section 8.1), it is 8" thick and its lower side is 2' 9" above the flat of the upper deck. The pattern given will need to be adjusted to fit your own ship. Remember to chamfer the upper and lower edges. Check that the bowsprit will clear the hook. You will need to determine the positions for the buckler bar mortises (read section 8.27 to do this) and cut them into the underside of this breast hook before permanently installing it. There are nine 1" bolts securing it to the bow framing.

8.26 The hawse hole linings The first items to attend to are the hawse holes. These are still “in the rough” from planking inside and out and need to be finished. The cables during this period were made of hemp and the hawse holes lined with oak staves. The finished diameter of the holes should be 101/2". I have been unable to determine the thickness of the linings but imagine that 1" would be reasonable. The inside of these linings are then covered by either copper or lead sheet. (If you are applying “lead” sheet, then enlarging the holes and lining them may be omitted, as this will be hidden.) Enlarge the holes enlarged to a diameter of 121/2". This may be carefully carried out using a round file. The linings are in barrel-stave form (illustrated above). Eight to ten pieces would be appropriate. Cut and sand the ends flush with the planking both inside and out; then radius off the edges of the upper half outside and all around the inside. The “lead” linings over the oak will be installed after the bolster is fitted (see section 11.12). The bolster is a block of wood below the hawse holes which increases the turning radius of the cables as they pass around it.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Lead or copper sheet is formed similarly to the scuppers. This will be difficult to do, especially because of the angles involved between the tubes and planking. A multi-part approach will help. Carefully cut the inner half of the tube to shape and make a separate inner flange. Solder this to the tube and install it. The outer half of the tube will be made later on. Its joint with the inner section with in the hawse hole should not be apparent.

8.27 The bucklers Bucklers are the coverings for the hawse holes. (Buckler is also an archaic term for a shield.) There are two varieties: blind bucklers, which were solid, used while the ship was at sea, and riding bucklers made in two pieces with halfholes the diameter of the cable (which is 41/2"), used while moored. Bucklers are made of elm 21/2" thick. To secure the bucklers inboard, cants are nailed to each side of the hawse holes to retain them. The cants are about 3" square. The bucklers are secured by 3" square buckler bars which slip into mortises in the breast hook above and then drop into mortises in a bolster below, unless the ship has a hawse hook fitted. The bolster (plan view above) is 4" thick. It is like a thin breast hook. I suspect that the blind mortises in the bolster had drain holes, as soaking wet cables would come aboard just above them. The illustrations should make this clear.

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8.28 The manger The manger is a triangular partitioned area at the bow. It is bounded by the inner planking and a low barrier erected between the side of the ship and the bowsprit step stanchions. This barrier consists of removable planks to contain water and sludge when the anchor cables are hove aboard. It also acted as a pen for livestock on occasion. The planks are fitted into the rabbets in the bowsprit step inboard (see section 8.13). Outboard they fit in 7" square grooved stanchions, also called cants. These stanchions are not quite vertical; they need to be aligned with the angle of the bow-sprit step uprights (see illustration above). They fit against the spirketting and quickwork. Sometimes the rabbets were worked in a V-shape instead of being square-grooved. At the base of the bulkhead is a permanent grooved waterway. It prevents seepage aft from the manger. The details varied slightly from ship to ship, but a typical overall view is shown (above). The manger boards are 3" thick. They are the same height as the centers of the hawseholes at their outboard ends, and hance down to the level of the bottom of the hawse holes inboard.19 Take these measurements from your model. The boards are rabbeted together. The layout shown may vary slightly for your specific ship: follow your own NMM deck plan. You will need to fit the pieces carefully. Use card patterns to determine their correct shapes. The manger area is drained at its aft corners by the manger scuppers already fitted. 19

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXVI.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.29 Riding bitt standards These are two substantial supports in the form of inverted knees for the riding bitt pins. Another name for these standards are spurs. They are scored into and bolted to the upper deck beams (illustration below right). Their molded shape is shown your NMM profile plan. The standards are 9" thick and score 1" down on the beams. Occasionally the knees are curved in plan to provide additional clearance for the galley stove. The standards pass through the deck planking so that they score down onto the beams. The holes for the cable stoppers are 2 3/4" in diameter (illustrated at right). They are bored through each standard close to deck level and near to the pins. The standards are bolted down to the beams by 1" bolts. The edges of the standards are chamfered off in the usual way, as illustrated.

8.30 Riding bitt cross-piece and backing piece This is a heavy cross-beam which the cables wrap around when the ship is moored. It sits in scores on the aft sides of the pins. On its aft side there is a heavy replaceable elm batten, the backing piece. These items should be delineated on your upper deck plan.The crosspiece is 8' 10" long, 1' 1" wide by 10" deep. The backing piece is 6" wide20 and the same depth as the cross-piece. It is nailed to the cross-piece. Note the rounded off portions and chamferings of the crosspiece and its backing piece (illustration above). On some models there are 1" diameter holes drilled vertically through the outer ends of the cross-piece. This may be for a belaying pin. The method of securing the cross-piece to its pins is interesting. One would assume that it was bolted on, but this is not the case. It was actually secured by a substantial hook and eyebolt on each side, as illustrated above. The eyebolt is driven into the fore side of the cross-piece next to the pins.

Steel specifies this dimension as 4", Naval Architecture, Folio XXIII.

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The wrought iron hook is attached to a bolt, the inner end of which is forelocked in place. A forelock is used wherever it is intended that the bolt should be easily unshipped and replaced. There will be other examples of this type of bolt as we proceed with construction. The illustration (below, right) shows a slot cut through the far end of the bolt and a wedge-shaped piece of metal, the forelock, which is subsequently driven through it. To prevent damage to the wood, a square washer is usually placed between the forelock and the bitt pin. Once driven, the ends of the forelock are bent over in opposite directions to prevent the bolt accidentally loosening or withdrawing (illustrated below). The hooks are wrought from 1" diameter bar, and the eyebolt is of 7/8" diameter iron. The hook will need to be offset so as to engage the eye in the cross-piece. The illustration on the opposite page shows these hooks and eyes in position. In parenthesis, there is a photograph in Longridge’s book21 showing war-time damage to Victory where a bomb blast has dispaced the bitt cross-piece; this would have been most unlikely had the timber been through-bolted.

8.31 The galley stove This is a complicated affair of cast plate and wrought iron with copper kettles. During this period there were numerous improvements suggested and made to the cooking apparatus on board ship. The kind of stove found in a Swan class ship would have included a distillation apparatus for fresh water. The Brodie stove was introduced in the Navy around 1780 and was essentially the same type as found a few years earlier in the Swan class. The main difference, as far as I can tell, is the addition of the motorized smoke jack and spit (see overleaf ). As with other fittings, stove dimensions were standardized for different rates of ship. The stove sat on an iron base, unlike those of a few years earlier which had brick bases. I suggest that you study the drawings overleaf before reading the descriptive text.

C.N. Longridge, The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, Plate 23.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The first thing to note is that there are actually two fireplaces within the stove: one at each end. One is an open affair and the other (that heats the two boilers) is enclosed. They vent to a common flue. Between them is an oven. The cross-sectional diagram (opposite page) shows the relationship between these various components. The stove is composed of a combination of cast iron and iron plate components that are bolted together. They sit on an iron base plate, which is leveled on the slope of the deck by athwartship lengths of wood. In larger ships, the carlings beneath the stove were of larger scantling to support its weight. If the stove indicated on your NMM plans is different to that shown here, follow your own ship’s drawings. There are many minor variations on the theme, especially until about 1781, when the Brodie manufactured stove became standard equipment. One variation is that the stove was occasionally installed with the boilers facing aft. This should be clearly shown on your profile and deck plans.

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Dimensions may be taken from the scaled drawings on the next few pages. The main body of the stove consists of two side plates which are framed with L-shaped angle iron. There are short central supports each side in addition to the two end supports. All these supports have their lower ends bent 90° to allow the stove to be bolted down on the base plate. The side plates have several apertures in them for various doors. There are two large doors; the forward one for the furnace under the boilers or kettles and the after one for the oven door. Below the furnace door is a narrow door for cleaning out the ash in the pan below the firegrate. Above the oven another small door allows access for cleaning out the flue. These doors appear on both side plates. There are two boilers at the fore end of the stove. These are large kettles, sometimes of copper, but by this date were usually of riveted iron plate construction. One has a circular lid and the other, with half the capacity, an oval lid. Each boiler is fitted with a drain cock which exits the stove below the upper end plate (illustrated top left and at right). Similar to modern faucets, these are fitted with inline valves at their spigots. The boilers are heated by the furnace below. The top of this area had either squared-off or angled sides. In addition to the boiler apertures, there was a small opening at the mid-line with a short tube running from one boiler. This was used for fitting a fresh-water condenser tube.23 The forward side of the furnace forms the front plate of the stove. Note that these drawings are specific to Pegasus, and may vary for your own ship.

Several standard texts have illustrations and descriptions of the condenser. One source is on page 199 of Lavery’s Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The aft end of the stove contains the sea-going version of a conventional domestic hearth. It has an open fireplace with a fire grate above an ash-pan and a series of vertical grating bars. It is equipped with two arms that swing out from the inner sides. These can hold pots of different sizes, their distance from the fire being controlled by the angle that the arm is set at. There is also a set of arms each side that hold roasting spits. The Brodie stove certainly had one or two mechanised spits, but I am uncertain whether this mechanism was fitted to stoves as early as the 1770’s. You may omit this mechanism for the Swan class “as built.” Below the spit is a large drip pan or tray, supported on feet. Above the hearth is the lower part of the chimney formed from sheet metal rivetted together. On the sloping side, to the rear, there is a large lid or flap for access. The upper section of the chimney is circular, so that the cowling above can be rotated. This was to blow smoke clear regardless of wind direction. Some cowls were fitted with external baffle plates. At this period there were a bewildering variety of cowl styles, some of which will be discussed in Chapter Ten when dealing with the forecastle details. In the Swan class, the forward end of the base plate rests directly on the aft part of the foremast partner. Note that the base plate will need to fit between the riding bitt standards. Check that it will do so, or you will need to modify the scale drawings given here.

C H A P T E REIGHT EIGHT CHAPTER

Because of the limited space athwartships, the “feet” of the stove run fore and aft to bolt the unit to its base plate, as shown on the plans (opposite below). This detail is conjectural on my part, but is consistent with contemporary practice. The feet are omitted on the central supports. The main body of the stove consists of flat plates and 3" angle iron. This may be modeled in painted wood and card, but if you are leaving the model in frame a more satisfactory result may be obtained by using brass. This may be later blasted with very fine sand or etched and then oxidised to resemble the slightly pitted surface of cast iron. Drill and file out the various apertures to the patterns given. Some thought is required to the sequence of work. I would add the various details to each surface plate before final assembly. Starting with the side plates, sweat on the top and bottom reinforcing strips (assuming that you are working in metal). There is another vertical reinforcement at the center of the side at the base. Then you will need to add the various doors and their straps and hinges. Again, there are different styles of hinges, a couple of versions which are sketched here. You may add the adjustable slide for the spit supports now. The front plate is straightforward, but you will need to mark and drill for the drain cocks in the sloping plate. Yes, you will need to make another projection drawing; see the following section! Note that, as the boilers are of unequal size, the positions of the drain cocks are not symmetrical. There are also reinforcing strips at the angles of the front plates. The rear face of the stove is open, except just above the base. The gap beneath is for air entry to feed the two hearths. There is a top plate that runs from the front of the stove to the lower chimney. It is basically a narrow rim with a further assembly above. On this upper plate is the top to the boilers. It is set 41/2" higher than the top plate and has three apertures. The sides of this section are angled inwards in some stoves. The squared-off version shown is also accurate to the period. Mark out, cut and file these precisely. Each boiler lid opening will need a rim that is about 1" proud of the top. The tube for the condenser or still should be about 4" or 5" high. You may attach the upper plate assembly to the boiler top now.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.32 Projection drawing The lower chimney will present you with the challenge of projection drawing. While the plan view of the top where it meets the circular upper section is a true plan view, the sides are all foreshortened as they slope inwards or, in the case of the forward side, outward. You will need to redraw each side as it actually is. Here is a brief “how-to” for developing the shape of the sides. If you look at the side elevation (far right, below), you can see that the piece’s top and bottom edges are full size: i.e. not foreshortened. However, because the piece slopes away from the viewer, its height is foreshortened (marked apparent height ). However, the true height of the piece can be seen in end elevation (distance marked actual height, near right, below). Another way of looking at the problem is that the surface is tipped away from you as you look at the side view. You need to tilt the piece until it is at right angles to your line of sight (which is the definition of any plan or elevation). To make this piece “stand up” at a right angle, it will need to be tipped until it is vertical as seen from the side. By adding projection lines for the top and bottom edges, seen superimposed on the side elevation, and placing the top and bottom edges the “actual height” distance apart, you can now complete the quadrilateral shape accurately. This is the true projected view. You may project the shapes of the front and rear pieces using exactly the same technique.

8.33 The galley stove, continued There are a number of bolt heads and square washers on the angle irons that hold the structure together. It may be convenient to add these now before the various components are assembled. Their positions are shown (opposite, above). There are also ringbolts for lowering and lifting the stove in and out of the ship. Usually these were at the upper corners, but in some cases the rings are shown at the lower corners of the structure. The lower and upper chimney sheet metal was rivetted together, and this may be subtly indicated.

C H A P T E REIGHT EIGHT CHAPTER

Assemble the basic structure on its side, leaving off the side that is uppermost for the moment. If you wish to add internal detail, you will need to fabricate the various pieces forming the oven, hearths, flue and boilers. Unless you are making a cutaway this is unnecessary. If you wish to make such a detailed model, you can work out the dimensions and forms of the component parts from my perspective and cross-sectional drawings. You will certainly need to add the backplates of the open hearth, as they will be visible in the finished model. Also it will be convenient to make and solder in the pivot mounts for the swinging pot arms. If you are satisfied to omit the other internal details, assemble the uppermost side to complete the basic box. Getting back to the external visible detailing, you can now fabricate the drain cocks for the forward end. They vary somewhat in different drawings, but all have a nozzle-like end with a turning valve or faucet. The bore of these cocks seems to be quite large — in the order of 2". They were made of polished brass. You can use my perspective drawing as a guide as to their appearance. This will complete the detailing of the forward end of the stove. The aft end with its open hearth is more interesting to make. You will need to construct the fire grate, which was of cast iron. There is space for only three bars (see sectional drawing on page 83), which run the width of the hearth. In front of the hearth are a series of grating bars which run through three vertical support bars. The horizontal bars were either round or square in section; either is correct. Square sectioned cross-bars should be turned on the diagonal. In large ships the upper bar and its supports could be swung through 90° outward to form a small ledge with the second highest cross-bar. The two hinged swinging arms that act as pot-holders can now be made and installed before the access lid is fitted. Their lower sections are of round rod and upper sections flat.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The spit support cranes are next. These may be cut from flat stock. In some drawings the hooks seem to be welded to the vertical arm, rather than cut or cast integrally from the same piece of metal. The horizontal arms should slip smoothly through their slides, which you made and attached earlier. The spit itself is simply a long rod, pointed at one end. If you have decided to add the smoke jack shown in the perspective drawing, you will need to fit a pulley at the blunt end of the spit rod. My feeling is that such an apparatus would not have been fitted in the 1770’s. However, should you choose to fit it, further details of the smoke jack can be found in other texts.24 In front of the hearth, resting on small feet raising it above the base plate, is a rectangular shallow drip tray. Its size and form can be taken from the scaled drawings (page 83). It was probably a cast iron piece with integral feet. Another interesting detail is the top rail that runs along each side of the stove (illustrated on page 82). In some ships this railing was continued around the top of the front as well. This was used for hanging either pots or wet clothing to dry on. Some drawings and models show this rail leaning outward at about 45°, and in others it is vertical. The angled version makes more sense for hanging things over to dry. I would also make a small cap to fit over the pipe for the still. It probably had a small knob or handle on top. The lids for the boilers are next. These may have a flat or slightly domed top. Make them a good fit over the rims that you constructed earlier. In my last model I made these lids of copper, although I suspect iron would have been more likely. If you decide on copper you may wish to lacquer them to prevent subsequent tarnishing. Their handles would have been rivetted on. The last detail to add is the access lid or flap on the lower chimney section. Although not shown on any drawing, it may have had a handle along the lower edge for convenience. It is hinged in the usual manner to the lower chimney. Its shape may be drafted in the same way as you did for the other sides of the lower chimney (see section 8.32). The cowl above the chimney will be described with the forecastle details (section 10.28).

The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, by Brian Lavery, pages 198-199, or Anatomy of the Ship: Pandora 1779, John McKay and Ron Coleman, page 74.

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8.34 The forecastle bulkhead This is another item that is not well defined on the NMM plans, so there is some conjecture as to its exact appearance. My drawing reconstructs the bulkhead based on contemporary models. One odd feature is that it sits across the spurs of the riding bitts, so that openings will need to be cut in the bulkhead to fit around these.

There are several ways to make panelled bulkheads. My own method is to begin by fitting a card pattern accurately into the space that the bulkhead will occupy. Note that the top of the bulkhead is fitted against the beam above, so now is a good time to make the forecastle deck beams. The sections of bulkhead are attached to the beam above by loose-pin hinges, so once the pins are withdrawn the panels may be lifted out of the cants (see following page) and struck below. Once your pattern is satisfactory, cut this shape from very thin model aircraft ply. 1/64" thick material is ideal, if you can obtain this. Mark out the panelling on the blank and cut out apertures for lights and doors. This may be conveniently done with a sharp blade and straight-edge. If you make openings in the ply a little over-size, there will be space to retain the glass between the front and rear layers of the bulkhead. The framing between the panels is then applied using veneer. I use holly for this. The important point to note is to do this on both sides of the ply. This gives a balanced sandwich which, if glued up under weight, will not warp later on. The actual panels are also cut from veneer, slightly thinned by sanding and then beveling the edges with a sanding stick or Swiss file. The bevel should be a shallow one. Each panel is glued in place, taking care not to leave any excess glue around the edges of the panels. The maximum thickness of the bulkhead should ideally be 3".

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The lights are made using the same technique as for the lanterns of the magazine (section 5.24 and Appendix 5.4). In the case of this bulkhead, the two lights are hinged on their upper edges to the beam above and can be swung forward and upward to provide ventilation. If you show this feature, leave one or both of the lights open so that the viewer will be able to see more of the stove detail. The open lights are secured to the deckhead above by hooks and small eyebolts. The doors are treated in a similar manner and may be installed either open or closed, according to taste. It is possible that the upper door panels were also glazed, but I think that this was unlikely in a sloop. The doors are mounted to open outward on L-shaped hinges (see section 5.27). These may be pieced together or fabricated in brass and blackened. This is a case where photo-etching might be a suitable alternative technique.

8.35 Bulkhead cants The base of the bulkhead is installed on a cant. This is a grooved batten nailed to the deck, 3" deep by 6" wide with rounded edges25 (illustrated below right, upper diagram). You will need to cheat a little here, because you cannot permanently install the bulkhead until the forecastle deck beams and deck are made. To facilitate final assembly, make the cant in two parts. In ships where the bulkheads hinge upward, the cant would have actually been in two parts as shown (lower diagram). It would have been retained in position on the deck by removeable pins. Glue the forward portion to the deck, where it will act as a stop when you install the bulkhead (right, lower diagram). The aft portion of the cant may be glued to the lower aft edge of the bulkhead. If you are not going to install the bulkhead, the grooved cant may be shown nailed to the deck as it was in actual practice. It could then be removed for such purposes as re-caulking and moving armament along the deck. In such a small ship, the partition would be struck below before action as there is insufficient space to swing the panels up under the forecastle deckhead. Only the lights would have been hinged in this case.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVII.

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8.36 Color scheme of the bulkheads There are several choices here. The bulkheads are finished in natural wood in some contemporary models . In other models they are painted a matt buff. One model of a frigate on the ways26 has a painted red forecastle bulkhead, but this seems to be an exception. I have also seen the beveled portions of the panelling picked out in either dark blue or black. The cant may be painted black, which I have also seen on contemporary models. It would then contrast with the light-colored deck for safety.

8.37 The fore hatch coamings Unlike those for the lower deck, the upper deck coamings are much taller. This is to prevent water on the weather deck from running below. Another difference is that the coamings and head-ledges are tapered in section. The corners are jointed in a similar manner to those of the lower deck (see section 6.26, corrected version). The coamings are 10" deep and 7" wide, with a rabbet 3" wide and deep to receive the grating. Each coaming tapers by 2" above deck level, as shown below. The head ledges are a little higher to account for their round up, and are 6" wide. Check your own ship’s plans and your model to ensure that the dimensions given here will fit neatly. The coamings may be painted either red, black or left natural, according to taste. As mentioned earlier, the use of red was becoming more restricted during this period and black was being substituted.

Unidentified model of a frigate on the ways in the Science Museum, Kensington.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.38 The fore hatch gratings The method of making these is identical to those of the lower deck except that their round-up is greater, matching that of the headledges. (See sections 6.27 and 6.28 for details of their construction.) I have indicated the grating divided into two sections, as this was likely the case for ease in shifting it (right). Again, see my remarks in section 6.27. Check that this pattern will fit your own coaming.

8.39 The main hatch coamings The next fitting aft to be considered is the main hatch. Scale drawings of the coamings are given (right); please check that they match your own ship. Their construction is identical to that of the fore hatch. The aft head ledge will need to be cut into, to carefully fit around the fore end of the main mast partners. This detail, (for the aft hatch) can be seen in the photograph of the main mast step (page 316).

8.40 The main hatch gratings Again, these are made in exactly the same way as those for the fore hatch. A pattern is included in the drawing (above, far right) which indicates its division into three sections.

8.41 The main topsail sheet bitt crosspiece The pins and cheek blocks have been constructed already (section 6.32) and are ready to receive the bitt crosspiece. It is 8' 3" long, 8" wide and 6" deep.27 It is attached in the scores of the pins that you have already made by two 3/4" bolts on each side. The edges and corners are chamfered and rounded off as shown in the illustration (opposite page above).

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXIV, gives these measurements as 6" by 41/2".

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8.42 The gallows cross-piece This acts as a forward extension of the quarter deck, being on the same level, allowing stowage of spare spars and boats in the waist. The details of its shape vary in contemporary models, and I have drawn three styles of gallows cross-pieces from several that I have seen (below right). The gallows cross-piece is 9' 0" long, 7" wide and 11" deep. If the level of the upper side is lower than 6' 3" (equal to that of the height of the quarter deck planking above the upper deck), you will need to make the gallows cross-piece a little deeper. The upper side rounds up to the same curve as the quarter deck beams and is level with the quarter deck planking. In the actual ship the cross-piece is tenoned to the tops of the bitt pins, but short dowels will do the job nicely for the model. All the edges are chamfered off lightly as usual after the decorative ends and lower side contours have been cut in.

8.43 The main jeer bitts cross-piece This is similar to that of the main topsail sheet bitts, other than it is positioned on the aft side of the pins. It is 6' 10" long, 7" wide and 5" deep.28 It is secured to each pin by two 3/4" bolts. Remember to cut the chamfers and rounded-off portions as you did for the main topsail sheet bitts.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXIV, gives these as 6" and 41/2" respectively.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.44 Painting of the bitts The main topsail sheet and jeer bitts may be painted red. Most contemporary models, when painted, are so colored.

8.45 The aft hatch and grating These are similar to the other upper deck hatches, with two exceptions. First, the fore head ledge needs to fit around the aft end of the main mast partners, similarly to the main hatch (see photograph on page 316). Secondly, the main jeer bitt pins pass through its fore corners. Score in the coamings by 3" and the forward head ledge by about 2" to accomodate them. The forward corner joints are modified, as shown below.

The aft hatch grating will also need a corresponding hole in each forward corner, which appears rather strange at first. If your bitt pins are in a different position, you will need to adjust the cut-outs to fit your own model. A card pattern is helpful to get the shape just right. Note that the grating is made in two separate sections for ease of shifting.

8.46 Pillars and stanchions for the chain pump axletrees There are two pillars situated on the aft edge of the aft hatch coaming that carry the rhodings (see section 6.32) for the chain pump axletrees (section 8.53). These are turned from 7" square stock to the pattern either shown on your NMM plan or as drawn (opposite page, top). Some plans, Atalanta for example, show these supports as iron stanchions. Follow your particular ship’s plans. They must be placed at a distance apart that exactly matches the separation of the rhoding centers on the topsail sheet bitts. Ideally, this distance should be 3' 3". Note that the rhodings pass through the centers of each pillar (if wood) and are centered on a line 3' 8" above the deck planking.

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There are two corresponding stanchions at the fore side of the main hatch. These are square and not turned. The model, possibly of a Swan class sloop, #43 in the Rogers’ Collection, shows iron supports with braces instead (illustrated middle right). The Atalanta draught also shows iron stanchions, presumably with a similar arrangement. As there would be considerable stress on wooden stanchions, I would fit a crossbrace as indicated (above, far right), although none is indicated in the official drawings. This brace could also have been a metal rod or bolt. I presume that the lower ends of the stanchions were scored for the main hatch head ledge, and I have drawn them in this way. Whichever type of support is used, it is important that the axes of the holes are in alignment as seen from above and are parallel to the deck surface.

8.47 The rhodings The rhodings themselves are of metal. In a print from the 1780’s this is described as “Bell Metal,” presumably meaning bronze. The inside diameter of the rather primitive bearings are 11/2". Note that there are two sets, one on the main jeer bits, the other on the main topsail sheet bitts. You will need to put a spacer block on each side to bring the rhodings of the main topsail sheet bitts into line. The blocks will need to be drilled for 5/8" bolts at 4" centers. The rhodings in the pillars can be simply sections of tube 11/2" inside diameter. The drawings (at right) should be self-explanatory. At this scale, as long as their appearance is correct, it is not necessary to make the clamp-like rhodings practical! Note that the washers and nuts are square at this period, not round and hexagonal respectively. The retaining pin is slightly tapered.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

8.48 The chain pump head gear It is now time to complete the work on the chain pumps. Depending on the amount of detail you wish to show, you could simply make the hoods and omit the sprocket wheels and chains. These will be described shortly. However, I will describe all the pump’s components. When you had left off work on the chain pumps earlier (sections 6.34 to 6.36), the tubes and lower end intake were complete and thread inserted to make installation of the pump mechanism easier. The latter was simply an option. If the tubes are not secured through the main mast partners yet, do this. You are now ready to complete this feature.

8.49 The cisterns Cisterns are wooden boxes or troughs through which the tops of the chain pump tubes protrude. Cut card patterns for their bases until you are satisfied with the fit when pushed over the pump tube ends to a height of 11" above deck level, or 8" above the partners. You can now make the bases for the cisterns to the plan given (below). The wood is 2" thick. The ends of the cisterns slope slightly inward and are 2' 6" high. The overall width of the assembly should be 1' 8". There is a slot on the outboard side for the pump dale to slide into and a circular drain hole 9" in diameter cut through the forward face. Contemporary evidence shows the slots as being tapered. The slides are of 2" thick wood, spaced 2" apart. The two cross-pieces for the hood are 3" square. Note the slightly bevelled upper surface to the lip that supports the pump dale. Read the drawings below in conjunction with the perspective view (opposite page, top).

CHAPTER EIGHT

The cisterns stand on wooden feet or chocks. These are cut from 3" thick material. Note that the inboard chock is smaller than the outboard one, so that it clears the mast wedges in the partners. It is also 3" less in height; this difference is the thickness of the partners above deck level. In large ships these chocks were of a more elaborate shape. When assembling the cisterns over the tubes on their chocks, make sure that the top edges of the cistern are no more than 3' 7" above deck level. If they are any higher, you will have a problem mounting the sprocket wheels in line with the axes of the pumps. Although I can find no reference, it seems reasonable that the cistern would be lined, probably with thin lead sheet. Putty may have been used to form a flexible seal between the tubes and the cistern.

8.50 The cistern hoods These are semi-circular covers over the cisterns and the sprocket wheels. If you do not wish to show the sprockets and chains, make and install the covers now. The coopered top is constructed of thin boards. The wood for these should be about be about 3/4 " thick. The side pieces are about 2" thick, rabbeted together. Note the depth of the sides (illustrated overleaf, top right). The width of the hood should just be a snug fit over the cistern cross-pieces and inside the sides. There is one curious feature. At first glance, the clearance for the chain around the inside of the hood seems more than adequate. Once one realizes that the dishes and their washers are of a larger diameter, it appears that there is insufficient space for these to pass around the sprocket wheel.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The beveled lips on the inside of the hood (shown to the right, at top) deflect the dishes as they pass by, so that they tip against the inside of the hood on their passage around the sprocket wheel. As this occurs, the passing dishes would tend to lift the hood off, so that there is a simple retaining iron latch on the outboard “up” side of the hood (illustrated at right). Chain pumps prior to 1770 had this capability. Apparently the first version of the Cole pumps in about 1771 had dishes or burrs cast integrally with the links which would not allow for such deflection, but this was modified to match the earlier design by about 1774 .29 In contemporary drawings, the hood latch appears to have two positions, one where the hood may be partially opened. If this is the case, it would minimize this problem by increasing clearance without complete removal of the hood. The latch has a loose-pin which is secured by a piece of light line to the cross-piece adjacent, a hole being bored through to secure the line to. The drawings should be self-explanatory. The drain plugs are simple bungs with a slight taper for a snug fit, and with rope beckets or handles attached. There was also a leather washer fitted to the cistern (opposite, above left).

8.51 The pump dales These are portable so as not to impede traffic on deck when not in use. They are basically closed wooden troughs that discharge through the pump dale scuppers that you have already installed. The dales are made from 1" thick plank, and the outside dimensions are 10" square. Their length is such that they can be shipped into their slots in the cisterns and be long enough to reach the deck at the pump dale scupper. The diagrams (opposite page) should give you sufficient detail, should you wish to show them in position. The slide is of 2" thick wood and should be snug in its track. You will need to determine the exact angle that the slide makes with the dale by measurement from your model.

Report quoted by Brian Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, pages 75-76, from NMM SPB/3. Also see the description of these in section 8.55.

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As with the pump mechanism, this was a time of transition for the pump dale. I have also drawn the earlier form of dale (above right) which was bored and shaped from an elm log. The section closest to the slide was squared off and the outboard section round. A “take apart” model of Ajax, 1767, shows this form of dale.30 Either style would be appropriate at this period.

8.52 The sprocket wheel

This wheel is the head of the chain pump mechanism. Each consists of two gearwheel-like disks separated by 12 bolts around the periphery. The central hole in the disk is square, as are the peripheral ones which are set at 30° intervals. There are a total of four disks needed, and they may be either cut and filed from brass or possibly photo-etched. Each disk is about 1⁄4" thick, except for the inner side around the central hole which is thickened as a reinforcing shoulder. The outside diameter of each wheel is 2' 0". If you are making these other than by photo-etching, you will have a number of interesting turning and milling operations to carry out.

The model of this 74 gun ship is in the Science Museum, Kensington. It is illustrated in Sailing Ships, their History & Development, Part 1, Plate XXIII, by G.S. Laird Clowes, 1932, reprinted 1951.

Please refer to Appendix 8.1, as some ships are fitted with an earlier style of sprocket wheel.

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The spacer bolts are round in section, except for their square shouldered ends. These are then rounded and threaded for square nuts. The shoulders space the disks 12" apart, as measured from outside to outside. The bolts are 14" long overall. The drawing (right) shows the details. The assembled wheels are watchmakerlike pieces of workmanship to challenge your skills.

8.53 The axletree and winches The sprocket wheel turns on its spindle, more properly called the axletree. Along most of its length it is square, but sections of the axletree are round. It runs through four bearings: the two mounted on the top of the cistern and the rhodings of the main jeer and topsail sheet bitts. The sprocket wheel is retained by a cotter pin. The pin is driven through a slot on the axletree on the side opposite the shoulder. On either of the axletree crank-shaped winches are attached by squareholed couplings.

The elbow sections of the winches are square in section, and the cranked portions are smooth and round. Once again, the drawings (above) should make this clear. The details show how the sections transition from round to square.32 The axletree and winches may be fabricated from brass, silver soldered and chemically blackened. 32

100

These sketches are derived from the winches aboard Victory in Portsmouth.

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8.54 The axletree bearings These are bolted to the upper edges of the cistern. Their shape can be taken from the elevation drawing at the foot of page 96. Each is 2" wide. In the form of a split bearing, the upper part is bolted through the the lower part and into the cistern’s edge. Make sure that the axis of each bearing is aligned, both with each other and the rhodings.

8.55 The pump chains The chains themselves are formed from iron links that are somewhat similar to a modern bicycle chain. There are alternating single and double links. Each fourth single link carries a washer and leather. As an aside, the spacing of these washers was at about three foot intervals, giving the alternate name yard pump. The standard link length, between bolt centers, is 61⁄2". Each basic link is 1⁄2" thick (scale drawings below right). There were also special links available, half the standard length, for adjusting the overall length of the chain. There were several patterns of link shape used, those shown being but one style. The earliest Cole pumps had washers, called saucers or burrs, that were integral with the link that carried them, but this was found to be too inflexible in use, so that the older style of loose saucer that could be deflected was soon re-adopted.33 The “floating” type of saucer link is illustrated here with its saucers and leathers. A leather disk was sandwiched between two saucers, the saucer on the underside (with the link coming up) being slightly smaller in diameter than the top one. Each saucer was slightly dished in section, pinching the leather at its perimeter. If you wish to carry out this work, photo-etching would seem to be the most reasonable production method. Forelocked bolts held the chain links together, as illustrated. The bolts were 1⁄2" in diameter. To show their forelocks at quarter inch scale might be excessive!

Discussed in Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, pages 74-76, with a quotation excerpted from NMM SPB/33. 101

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

If you are installing the chains, the thread that you previously rigged through the pump tubes will assist in passing the completed chain. You may need a half length pair of links to complete the loop so that there is no excessive slack or tension on the chain. This will be tricky work to complete successfully.

8.56 The brake pumps The head mechanism for these is much simpler than that of the chain pumps. You had installed the tubes in section 6.37. I will describe the brakes now, but you may wish to delay installation of these until the model is nearly complete, because they are delicate and easily broken. The upper end of the pump has the brake or handle pivoting on a support. This is attached to the side of the tube above deck level. The upper end of the spear (see section 6.37) is hooked into the inboard end of the brake. The lever works on a bolt forelocked through the forked upright or stirrup. This is attached to the tube by the top reinforcing band and two bolts through the lower end of the fork. I have shown a wooden fork; these were alternatively made of wrought iron. (For a true elevation of the mechanism, see the scaled drawing provided in section 6.37.) There are many variations seen in contemporary models, one style of which is shown above. Another style has a metal yoke attached to the lever with a cross-bar handle so that two men can work the pump simultaneously (photograph on page 53). Note the orientation of the brake, set diagonally to the midline of the ship. The outlet is also set on the diagonal, facing outboard and aft.

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8.57 The aft ladderway The coaming is a smaller version of those for the hatchways on this deck and needs no description other than the drawings here. Construction is identical to the other coamings. The actual ladder or companion leading below will be described in Chapter Nine. There is a grating provided for this opening, but normally it would be stowed below. The remaining upper deck details will be described in the next chapter. They will include the capstan, cabin bulkhead and lights, companions, upper counter and the miscellaneous ring and eyebolts to be found along the upper deck. Chapter Nine will also detail the external fittings, head work and forecastle.

END OF CHAPTER EIGHT

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Appendix 8.1 The old-style sprocket wheel Some ships at this period were still fitted with an older style of sprocket wheel for the chain pump. The upper deck plan of Pegasus, ZAZ 4784, clearly shows the sprockets fitted on a smaller diameter solid wheel instead of the open cage of the newer type. This older style of wheel consists of an elm-wood drum 1' 4" in diameter and 8" thick with eight iron sprockets driven equidistantly around its periphery. The sprocket point is barbed to prevent easy withdrawal, and is of the style known as a ragged bolt. The drawings here should provide all the detail that you will need to construct this type of wheel.

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Thomas Blanckley, A Naval Expositor, 1750, illustrated on page 126.

CHAPTER

NINE

n this chapter we will complete the the upper deck details. Once again, the work will be varied and range from easy to challenging. Producing this chapter was also a challenging endeavor, but the pleasure that I have derived from the hours of research, writing and illustrating have been very rewarding. The most rewarding fact is that the information here will result in many more beautiful and accurate scale models than I could ever hope to build in my own lifetime. This chapter begins with the upper deck fittings, followed by inboard fittings along the bulwarks and various bulkhead partitions. Next, attention will be given to the main armament of the ship: six-pounder guns and their carriages, then completion of internal details on the upper deck.

This photograph shows King George the Third’s monogram on a 24 lb. cannon of 1808. Intertwined with the ‘G’ of ‘G.R.’ is a curlicue which is actually the Arabic numeral ‘3’. Use this picture as a guide when working on your master pattern for the guns. Note the crudely incised ‘XVIII’ on the second reinforce.

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9.1 The upper deck capstan The next feature to tackle is the upper deck capstan. Confusingly, it is called the lower capstan. It can be worked in tandem with the upper capstan on the quarter deck. Unlike the capstans of a few years later, this is a simple affair without the coupling device or complex pawl mechanism that came into vogue in the late 1780’s. A pawl is an anti-kickback device that prevents the capstan from reversing direction under load. Swan class ships had a much simpler pawl mechanism. Later capstans also had many other features which the Swan class sloops did not possess. The various parts of a typical capstan are drawn and labeled opposite. For now we will deal with the lower capstan. A convenient starting point is the central core, which is called the barrel. This runs the height of the machine and terminates at the lower end in an iron spindle that fits the socket of the capstan step (section 8.17). The length of the barrel should be taken from your NMM sheer and profile. It will be more convenient to make the barrel in two parts, dividing it at the top of the partners, (illustrated above and also see sections 9.6 & 9.7). There are two reasons for this. First, the installation of the lower capstan is easier before the quarter deck is added, and secondly the barrel needs to be twelve-sided in the upper part, but ten-sided in the lower section. This capstan is specific to Pegasus, but unless your ship’s profile shows a different capstan, you can follow the dimensions given here.

9.2 The capstan barrel The lower barrel is 1' 6" across in the lower and upper sections and is 1' 3" in diameter in its central portion. The turned section between the upper and lower capstans is called the capstan partners. It is easier to make the barrel in two parts and join them by a peg at the top of the partners. The illustrations (overleaf and in section 9.6) make this point clear.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

At the upper end of the barrel is a tenon, 11" square and 6 1⁄4" high. Below this is a twelve- sided section, which runs the length of the upper whelps (labelled, illustration on the previous page). A twelve-sided pattern is provided to help you lay out this section (opposite page, left). If you have the luxury of a dividing head on your lathe or mill, you can cut the faces at 30° intervals. Below the dodecagon is the turned partners. Note the change in diameter part-way down it. Below this is the ten-sided section, its length being the thickness of the trundlehead and lower whelps combined. The trundlehead is the cap to the lower capstan, illustrated and labeled on the previous page. The interval between the faces of the polygon in this section is 36°. The pattern (opposite right) shows the angles that you will need for your layout. The smaller polygons at the centers of the patterns represent sections of the barrel at 1:48 scale. There is an inset score in each alternate face of the barrel for the whelps. The lower whelps at the barrel are 6" thick, so each score should be 6" wide and 1" deep. The upper whelps are 5 1⁄2" thick at the barrel and are let in similarly. The illustration (below right) shows these features. You could omit the scores for modeling purposes, but the actual barrel was constructed this way. To act as basic bearings, iron ribs were let into the barrel around its circumference at quarter deck level. These are 9" long and 11⁄2" wide, spaced 11⁄2" apart. These ribs are let in by 1⁄4" and are 3⁄8" thick. There are countersunk holes near both ends of each rib for nails to retain them.

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There is an iron spindle fitted in the lower end of the barrel. A fairly complex one is described by Steel,1 but I think that a simpler version was used here. There is a blind hole drilled into the lower end of the barrel. This hole tapers from 5" to 41⁄4" in diameter over a depth of 1' 10 1⁄2".

9.3 The capstan spindle and plate The spindle is an iron rod 5" in diameter, tapering to 41⁄4" at the upper end. It is 2' 3" long. The 5" diameter parallel section, 4 1⁄2" long, will protrude below the barrel. A 7⁄ 8" diameter hole is bored through the spindle about 2 1⁄2" from its upper end for a bolt through the spindle. This bolt prevents the spindle from turning in its socket. To distribute the downward load on the spindle cup (section 9.4), there is an iron plate inset flush into the lower end of the the barrel. Steel2 specifies it as 1' 4" square, but this must be a typographical error, as the barrel diameter is only 1' 6". In proportion with Plate 7 in Steel, this plate should be 1' 0" square and 11⁄4" thick. It has four countersunk screw holes and a central 5" diameter hole for the spindle to pass through.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Plate 7, figure 1 and pages 388 et seq, Directions for making capstans and windasses. The Shipbuilders’ Repository of 1788 is silent on the subject of capstans.

ibid, Folio XL, line S.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

9.4 The spindle cup Steel describes the bearing as an iron cup inset in the capstan step (section 8.17). If you wish to add this detail, the cup is shaped in the form of a tapered cube. Mortise out the capstan step to accommodate the cup. It has a blind socket 5" deep, as illustrated here. The diameter of this hole is either 5", or should match the spindle diameter shown on your draught. A heavy slush of grease would have been put into the cup to lubricate the capstan and reduce noise!

9.5 The capstan ribs The position and spacing of these have already been described in section 9.2. They function as bearings at the capstan partners on the quarter deck. Each rib is slightly rounded in cross-section (illustrated at right) and has two countersunk holes for securing nails. A thick coating of grease would have been applied to minimize friction between bearing surfaces. The illustration of a capstan for an 80-gun ship in Steel (Plate 7) shows the upper ends of the ribs rounded off and pointed like a gothic arch. The illustration here shows this type, but it is possible that both ends were simply squared off.

9.6 The lower capstan whelps I will only deal with the lower capstan here; the upper capstan will be described with the other quarter deck details in Chapter Ten. There are five lower capstan whelps; one on each alternate face of the decagon. They are inset into their scores to a depth of 1". Each whelp tapers in section from the outside at the foot, where it is 8" thick, to the inner edge which is 6" thick. The inner edge is vertical where it fits the score, but the outer edge slopes and has a jog in it about two-thirds the way up. This jog is known as the surge (illustration opposite), and prevents the messenger cable from rising up the capstan as it winds around. The whelps have two horizontal scores on each side. These will house the upper and lower chocks (see sections 9.7 & 9.8). In some drawings I have seen these are represented by a birds-mouth score (similar to those of port sills). In others they are a simple angled score, as shown in section 9.1 and opposite.

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The drawings (right) give the dimensions and shape of the whelps. Note that the upper end of the whelp is an inch taller than its visible height. This is housed in a corresponding 1" deep score in the trundle head above it (dashed lines). A vexing point is that Steel (Plate 7) shows the whelp made of three layers or laminations (see drawing at right). At least one contemporary model3 also clearly shows this feature with black lines at the junction of the layers. However, no mention is made of this in either the description of capstan construction or the tables in Steel. The reason for layering the whelps is unclear to me. Possibly the inner layer had the grain of the wood running vertically, and the outer layers horizontally, as end grain would be more resistant to wear. However, this is simply speculation on my part. I leave this detail to your discretion. However, Steel does mention that the outside edge is “thirded” and bearded back by about 3 ⁄8", giving the face a slightly convex angled surface (illustrated below right).4 The scores for the upper chocks are located 1" above the surge (see plan above right). The upper chocks will be 2" thick. The lower chocks are 4" above the base of the lower capstan. These will be 3 3⁄4" thick. Each whelp is fixed to the barrel by two 3⁄4" bolts, one above and one below the surge. The positions of these are indicated at the right. Precision will be required for the production and assembling of these pieces, or you will have difficulty in fitting the chocks between without the trouble of custom fitting and shaving each one.

3 4

This is the model of Warrior, 74 guns, in the Science Museum. The capstan is unpainted. Steel, Naval Architecture, page 389.

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9.7 Upper chocks These are wedge-shaped pieces inserted between the whelps in the upper scores that you have cut. The included angle of each will be less than 72°, as the whelps are not parallel-sided. You will need to make a card pattern for these. The chocks are 2" thick (Steel specifies 2 1⁄8"). Some drawings show the outer edges as straight, others show a convex curve of similar radius to the trundle head. Contemporary models are equivocal on this point. I would curve the outer edges as shown to the right. Each chock is fixed in place by a 3⁄4" bolt through the barrel. I assume that the bolts would have one end peened and spread over a rove. The outer edges of the chocks are also slightly chamfered off.

9.8 Lower chocks These are usually shaped with a concave outer face, the radius of the curve being equal to that of the trundle head, which is 1' 8". The lower chocks are 3 3⁄ 4" thick. Each is also bolted through to the barrel by a 3⁄ 4" bolt, as shown in the illustration above. As for the upper chocks, a card pattern will need to be made first. The final shaping of the outer surface is best carefully carried out after assembly. Look at the illustration (above) carefully to note the change in angle of the lower chock faces where they sit in their scores.

9.9 The trundle head This consists of four pieces arranged in two layers. The joint in each layer is offset relative to the other. The drawings here (left) and on the following page give details of the individual pieces. The lower layer is 41⁄2" thick. Its central hole is ten-sided to fit the barrel. It has an outside diameter of 3' 2" on the NMM drawings, although Steel specifies 3' 0". The pieces will be held together with ten bolts, placed to avoid the whelps and bar holes.

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To fit the trundle head, you will need to assemble the individual pieces directly to the barrel. In full-size practice, the capstan bar holes were cut into the mating faces of each piece before assembly, but for modeling purposes you could make a temporary assembly of the parts, drill the holes on a lathe with a dividing head and subsequently square them. I mill slots into each half of the trundle head before assembly. The five capstan bar holes are 3 1⁄2" square and 9" deep. Later capstans had ten holes. Each hole is located between a whelp. Steel does not mention any taper to these holes, but can be seen in his Plate 7. Above each bar hole is a hole for a retaining pin, which is attached by a short chain. These were in use by the 1750’s, as they are mentioned in Blanckley (see section 9.11) and are also shown in Steel’s Plate 7. I have never seen these features on a model. 1" deep mortises for the whelps are cut into the lower surface of the lower pieces (shown above and left). Both layers are 4 1⁄2" thick. The joint between the upper two pieces is offset by 72° relative to the joint between the lower ones. The upper piece has a slightly sloping top. Steel states that it is bearded back to the periphery by 5⁄ 8" (full size) from 1" (full size) outside the barrel. As this bevel is negligible, it may be omitted. There are two reinforcing iron rings inset into the upper and lower surfaces of the trundle head. These are 3" wide and 3⁄ 8" thick. Their position is shown by the grey lines on the plan views opposite and shaded area on the illustrations above. Ten 3⁄4" saucer-headed (flat) bolts pass through them at equal intervals.

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The capstan is painted red in many contemporary models. If this was actually so, the paint must have worn off the whelps unless renewed frequently.

9.10 Capstan bars There are five bars of ash wood, should you wish to show them in place. Each is 8' 0" long. Steel specifies 9' 0", but then the sweep of the bars would not clear the main jeer bitt pins. If the bars are shown fixed in the trundle head, gratings should be in place over the aft hatch and ladderway, and the aft pillars for the pump brakes (and the brakes themselves) removed. The inner ends of the bars are the same size as the holes in the trundlehead, 3 1⁄2" square. They have a shoulder where they become 3 3⁄4" square (see drawing at left). There is a 1⁄2" diameter hole for the retaining pin at the appropriate position along the bar. The bars taper to 2 5⁄ 8" square at their outer ends. Here there is a 1⁄ 2" diameter hole drilled at right angles to the pin hole. The edges of the bars are well rounded off where the men will grip them. Incidentally, the bars are grasped underhand, not overhand as is often shown in popular illustrations. In the event of a kick-back, there is less likelihood of wrist or forearm fractures occurring. As a matter of interest, sometimes shorter bars called normans were used when there was little strain on the capstan. Capstan bars are left bright.

9.11 Capstan bar retaining pins The holes for these were mentioned in section 9.9. With the capstan bars housed, the pins are pushed home. They are kept captive on short lengths of chain. The illustration (right) is taken from Blanckley.5 I have no sizes for these pins, but think that they would be about 7" long and 3⁄4" in diameter. The far end of the chain would be secured to the top of the trundlehead with a small bolt. The chain will be very small at this scale, the links being in the order of 1" long. This will require ingenuity to make to scale. If you can find fine silver chain through a jewelers’ supply house, blackening it may be the easiest solution if you wish to include this feature. Remove the protective coating with lacquer thinner before oxidising the chain. Egg yolk, containing sulphur compounds, will do the trick.

114

Thomas Blanckley, A Naval Expositor, 1750, page 29 (the old-style long s is used here in the middle of the word ‘capston’).

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One puzzling question arises. With these retaining pins, there seems to be little reason for using a swifter. This is a length of line that is passed through holes in the outer ends of the capstan bars to hold them in position. Blanckley does not mention swifters, but Steel does.6 As Steel also shows the capstan bar pins, this seems contradictory. However, when under great strain, the swifter gives additional rigidity to the assembly, distributing the load on the bars more evenly and also providing handholds for additional men.

9.12 The capstan pawls There are two pawls that can arrest the motion of the capstan in either direction. Each pawl consists of an iron bar which swivels on a bolt inserted in the captan step. The form of the pawls is given in the accompanying illustration. They are about 1' 9" long, 3" wide and 11⁄2" deep with a thicker end. Large-headed bolts secure the pawls to the capstan step, shown in the plan view. The arrow shows a situation where the capstan is backing up in a counter-clockwise direction with the starboard side pawl engaged to prevent this. The port pawl is shown in both the engaged and disengaged positions. This must have been awkward, as pawls had to be moved by hand. Later pawl mechanisms were mounted on the capstan with horizonal pins. They dropped by gravity into a toothed circular pawl rim as the capstan turned. The pawls may be made of brass and chemically blackened. This type of pawl may be seen on several contemporary models, including Warrior in the Science Museum, Kensington. You may install the lower capstan and its pawls on the step at this stage of construction.

9.13 Aft cabin bulkheads The layout of two transverse bulkheads and a fore-and-aft one will be shown on your NMM upper deck plan. These partition off the captain’s accomodation. The fore athwartship bulkhead has two sets of double doors opening aft. On the port side these open into the coach and to starboard lead to the captain’s bedplace.

David Steel, Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging, 1794, section on Necessary Ropes, pages 199-200, Sweetman edition. The tables specify 11⁄2" circumference line.

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I should mention that some ships’ plans show a small scuttle to the bread room just aft of the mizen mast. This would have been fitted with the flat type of scuttle cover as described in section 6.25. A longitudinal bulkhead separates the two cabins. Aft of this, the second transverse bulkhead separates off the Great Cabin. It is an ironic name in this case, as it is only about the size of a small living room. There are two sets of double doors opening aft from the cabins forward. Making these bulkheads is a pleasant change from some of the other repetitive work that you have done. The same construction techniques that you used for the forecastle bulkhead may again be used here (see section 8.34). Bulkhead patterns, reconstructed for Pegasus, are shown (below and opposite) and may be adapted to suit your own ship. Take particular care when fitting the bulkheads against the inner planking at the side. The best strategy will be to fit and secure only the transverse bulkheads for now. Note that the fore and aft bulkhead needs to fit between the quarter deck beams and ledges above, so it will need to be inserted after that framing is in place. Make and fix cants (see section 8.35) to the upper deck; they will be helpful in locating the bulkheads accurately later on.

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Cants should be made in two parts; one side fixed to the deck, the other to the bulkhead. You will also need to provide a stop of some kind on the deckhead above. Note that the pattern for the fore and aft bulkhead (right) does not show the cutouts for the quarter deck ledges. Once the quarter deck is framed, make a card pattern to cut these into the upper edge of the bulkhead.

9.14 The upper counter The upper counter needs to be planked before you can complete the lights aft for the cabin. Like the lower counter, these planks will need to be individually cut to the appropriate curve. Two planks 9" to 10" wide will fill the upper counter. Once again, card pattern pieces are useful to obtain the correct shapes. The planks are 2" thick. The lowest plank will sit against the lip formed by the lower counter planking (section 7.7). The plank ends should run over the side planking and then be cut flush to them (illustration below). For the paint scheme, see page 310.

9.15 Framing the cabin lights It is now time to frame between the counter timbers so that the lights can be installed. Cut and fit short sills between each counter timber so that their upper edges are parallel with the top of the upper counter planking and 3" higher. Make sure that the upper surfaces of these sills are horizontal. In full size practice these sills were scored into the counter timbers in the same way as the port sills but, unless you are leaving off the counter planking, this detail will not be seen. The quarter deck transom defines the upper boundary of the lights. Carefully rebate the aft ends of the inner planking to match the the set-back of the linings as described overleaf (and illustrated at right).

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You can now line the sides of the openings to form a rebate for the framing and glazing of the lights. The rebate depth will depend on the thickness of your glazing material (read section 9.21 now) plus 1⁄32", actual size. (The latter measurement will be the thickness of the framing for the light.) Fit and glue retaining strips of wood, 1" thick, against the sides of the counter timbers (illustration at right). This horizontal cross-section shows the position of these strips. Be very careful installing them, or the munions (strips between the lights retaining them in the rebates) will not sit flush on the counter timbers later on. The illustration makes this clear. The trick to fixing the thin wood retaining strips is to dampen them well with a paintbrush before gluing up. If you do not do this, the moisture content in the glue will cause the strip to cup due to swelling of wood fibres on the glued side only, so that the outer edges will not adhere to the counter timber. Clarification: “munions” in the 18th century referred specifically to the strips between the lights, rather than the modern use of the word for the cross-bars of the lights themselves. I will refer to the latter as mullions to distinguish between the two items.

9.16 Rudder head trunk The conjectural drawing (below right) shows a trunk around the rudder as it passes through the Great Cabin. Cut card patterns to establish the shapes of the various sides which extend up to meet the deckhead above. (In large ships the rudder head ended at the level of the lights. Here the top of the trunk provided a convenient surface to use as a chart table.) You can adapt the design here to suit the cabinet-maker in you. I am not sure if the trunk would have been struck below during action but, in a large ship, the fore side would certainly be removable to provide access to the second mortise in the rudder head for emergency steering, should the tiller or rudder head above be shot away.

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9.17 Internal upper counter planking and lockers The counter timbers inside the Great Cabin between the upper deck and sills to the stern lights are still exposed. This area, on either side of the rudderhead trunk, was usually filled in by bench seats which doubled as lockers. If you do not wish to show these details, you may plank the whole area below the lights. Otherwise, construct the seats with hinged tops as illustrated below. The style for the lockers is adapted from that shown on a contemporary model.7 I’m sure that there were a variety of locker styles, so you may vary from this design. Note that the aft edges of the locker lids need to be straight so that the hinges align to open properly. A perspective and section of this area (below and overleaf ) is given as a guide. You will need to tailor these to suit your own model. There is space above the upper locker for one plank across the inner side of the upper counter and three more planks on the upper part of the lower counter. The top edge of the upper counter plank should be trimmed flush to the upper surface of the sills to the lights. The usual method of fitting card patterns and then cutting the planks to shape may be used here. Two triangular section pieces of wood are fitted below the lowest plank on either side of the stern post to which the lower locker lids will be hinged. At least one ship, Fly, had a second tier of lockers (illustrated above). The fronts are panelled, with an angled molding (corresponding to the waterway) at its junction with the deck.

Model of an unidentified fireship, circa 1771, in the National Maritime Museum reserve collection.

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9.18 Stern light sill covers Before installing the rudder head trunk, make and fit the sill covers for the stern lights. These form the visible sill surface with a lip on the forward side (illustrated below right). The aft side forms a stop for the light itself in combination with the lining pieces attached to the counter timbers.

The easiest method is to cut separate pieces of wood, 11⁄2" thick, to fit between each counter timber. Align these with the aft edges of the linings on the counter timber sides (A). Now add a strip forward of that which will overlap the top of the inner planking across the upper counter (B). The illustration (right) should make this clear. The joint line between the strip and individual pieces will be virtually invisible if this is carried out carefully. A similar technique will be used to cut planksheers for the forecastle and quarter decks. In this case the planksheer will be fitted to the timberheads instead of around counter timbers.

9.19 Counter timber covering boards The last step for the inner side of the stern lights is to cut and fit covering boards on the fore sides of the counter timbers. These cover the joints betweeen the timbers and the linings that you added a short while ago. They should be trimmed flush to the linings (illustration above). In large ships these boards would have been panelled.

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9.20 Frames for the stern lights There are five lights with varying angles to be made. The easiest way to make these frames is to first cut precise patterns for them. Use a reasonably thick card stock and glue a short handle to the outer surface. This makes test-fitting the pieces much easier. You may need to cut each pattern several times in order to get an accurate fit in the openings, but this is time well spent. Make sure each pattern is carefully labelled. No matter how good a model-maker you are, don’t assume that lights on both sides of the ship are exactly the same shape and size! You will need 11⁄2" square stock for the divisions into panes and 4" wide stock for the outer perimeter frames. Review Appendix 5.4 (in Volume One) before beginning construction. Use the techniques described to construct each frame around the carefully prepared card patterns. Save these patterns for cutting the glazing to size (see section 9.21). In a small ship, such as the Swan class, the lights would have been hinged to open out and up like a gun port lid, whereas in large ships of the line there would have been single-hung counterweighted sashes. In the Swan class the frames are in one plane, simplifying matters (assuming that you are showing the lights in the closed position; if not, you will need to modify these instructions). When each frame is complete, it will look a little strange with its outsize perimeter (illustration above). Part of this will soon be covered by the munions and a molding at the base. Compare the illustration above with the stern elevation on your draught. Score the upper horizontal piece to represent the line of the hinge, unless you wish to show the light in the open position. In that case, you will need to cut the outer frame down appropriately and add a narrow piece into the opening at the top from which to hinge the light. Double-check that all the horizontal mullions form an even curve across the range of lights. Any deviation is very apparent to the eye and spoils the visual flow of the stern. The vertical mullions should appear to converge consistently. Rebuild any frame that falls short of these ideals. If you are painting the frames, first use sanding sealer and then matte white. Try to keep the inner corners of the frames crisp by not allowing paint to build up in those places.

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9.21 Glazing the lights The next challenge is to cut the glazing for the stern lights. In my opinion, there is no really good substitute for glass. You can use clear acrylic or butyrate sheet, but I question the longevity of these materials. Certainly they are much easier to cut! Some authors recommend microscope slide cover glass. Personally, I have never had success in cutting glass this thin. It always seems to fracture while applying sufficient pressure to score its surface with a diamond point. If you can manage it, this material would be ideal. I use microscope slide glass, which is much thicker, without problem. Use the same card patterns that you made for the frames to cut the glass to size. Here is a tip: when cut, often the glass is a fraction too large to fit its opening. Unlike wood, which can be shaved down, it is impossible to re-cut glass. My solution is to use a coarse oilstone, and grind the edge or edges down until the glass slips neatly into place.

9.22 The stern light munions Once the frames are installed, the munions may be prepared . Once again, card patterns need to be made first. You can take the width, top and bottom, from your stern elevation. Find their height directly from your model. Each munion consists of a flat board with a classical fluted column or decorative garland attached to it (photograph on page 134). Decoration on the munions will be added at a later stage when completing the ornamentation of the stern and taffrail. The taffrail, variously spelled tafferel or taff-rail, is the area above the stern lights which is covered with decorative work. The munions are cut from 11⁄2" thick stock to match their pattern pieces. Carefully glue them in place over the frames and glazing of the lights. Once again, dampening the pieces before gluing will prevent the wood from cupping (assuming that you are using white or yellow glue). You will notice that in assembling lights by this method there is no need to use glue on either the glazing or the frames. It is impossible to glue in the glazing without traces of adhesive showing up when you have finished. By using this strategy the problem is avoided entirely.

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9.23 Companion ladders There are two ladders connecting the lower and upper decks. The wider of the two is at the fore hatch. It should be shown on your sheer and profile. The style and construction are similar to the ladder that you made earlier (section 6.39). The aft ladder is fitted aft of the capstan. Again, this should be shown on your draught. I have included representative drawings here; modify these to fit your own model. The essential thing in laying out the ladder styles are their angles; they must clear the openings on the deck below them. Note that the treads are parallel to the decks rather than horizontal.

9.24 Range cleats There are a number of details inside the upper deck bulwarks. The most prominent of these are the range cleats. These are shaped rather like modern cleats but are made of wood. The fore braces belay to these cleats aft, and the main course tacks to the forward pair. My reconstruction of the bulwarks in the waist shows their positions (two pages following). Range cleats measure 2' 9" in length and are 3" wide, shaped as shown (right). The cleats were fastened through the ship’s side by two bolts 5⁄ 8" in diameter. This is a feature that is not usually shown on models. Through bolts are easier to withdraw when a worn or broken range cleat needed replacing. When drilling holes through the cleats back them up with scrap hardwood to prevent splintering.

9.25 Knees to the gangboards Now is a convenient time to make and install the knees that will support the gangboards. These are narrow walkways that run along the top of the bulwark in the waist. They provide access to the forecastle from the quarter deck. These are not usually shown on the official drawings, but there are compelling reasons to believe that they were installed.

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Gangboards were already in common use by this period.7 The layout of the Swan class provides no space at the break of the forecastle to place a ladder leading to the upper deck. If one were placed here, it would need to be positioned next to the side. (The forecastle breastwork — a low railing — runs across the rest of the aft end of the forecastle.) To locate a ladder here would block the second gunport so that a gun could not be positioned or worked. For these reasons I believe that the gangboards were installed. A fixed gangway is shown placed at the fore end of the quarter deck. The plans for Pegasus and Atalanta label this feature “Fix’d Part of the Gangway”, implying that there was also another part. It acts as a platform and entryway for boarding via the steps on the side. The gangboards run forward from this platform to link it with the forecastle. A ladder from the fixed gangway allows access to both quarter deck and forecastle from upper deck level. The knees to the gangboards were probably of wood. By about 1780 wrought iron knees were being substituted (see section 11.3). The hanging part of each knee is bolted to the side of the ship, and the athwartship arm will support the gangboards. They are positioned as shown on the drawings (below and opposite, top). The aftermost knee supports the fixed gangway. (The gangboards and gangway will be completed in sections 11.1 and 11.3.)

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The earliest plan I have seen showing gangboards is of Beaver, 14 guns of 1761, illustrated in David Lyon’s The Sailing Navy List, page 95. A model of a 32-gun frigate on the ways in the National Maritime Museum (SLR0496) circa 1757, shows gangboards. A photograph of this model appears in Ship Models, Their Purpose and Development by Brian Lavery and Simon Stevens, page 82.

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The Shipbuilder’s Repository of 1788 omits mention of these knees. By the time Steel published his Naval Architecture in 1805 iron had replaced wood, so there are no specifications for these. The drawing is based on contemporary models and internal evidence from draughts. The upper edges of the athwartships arms follow the angle of the quarter and forecastle decks at the side to aid water run-off. Each knee is 4" thick, the arm against the side extending down to the spirketting. The athwartship arms of the forward five knees are 1' 5" long. The athwartship knee at the break of the quarter deck is 2' 9" wide. Inboard edges of the knees are well chamfered. You will need to make patterns to make these fay neatly against the inner planking. Secure the knees to the ship’s side using three bolts 3⁄4" in diameter.

9.26 Stopper bolts in the upper deck There are a number of ringbolts fixed in the upper deck. The large bolts shown fixed through the binding strake (see section 8.26) are stopper bolts. These are used for securing the anchor cables using short lines called stoppers. Stopper bolts are firmly secured by clenching over iron plates below the beams. (It will not be possible to show these on the model.) Stopper bolts are made of 11⁄4" diameter iron, 5" “in the clear”,1 meaning that the inside diameter of the ring is 5".

9.27 Top tackle eyebolts The positions of these eyebolts are shown on the deck plan (section 8.26). They are 1 3⁄ 8" in diameter and 51⁄4" in the clear. There are two eyebolts for the main mast. 1

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVI.

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9.28 Gun tackle ringbolts Ringbolts on the deck provide attachment for relieving tackles opposite each gun port. These are used to move the guns inboard. Refer to the deck plans in 8.26 for their positions. These bolts are 7⁄ 8" in diameter and 3" in the clear. Amidships, stopper bolts do double duty for this purpose.

9.29 Breeching ringbolts Either side of each gunport is a breeching ringbolt. These secure the breeching, a heavy line that limits the recoil of the gun. The center of the breeching either wraps once around the cascable (or cascabel) the rear of the gun (illustrated in section 9.35) or the line splits around the cascable with a contsplice.8 Guns after about 1787 were cast to the Blomefield pattern, which had an integral cascable ring, through which the breeching line was passed. The positions of the breeching ringbolts are shown (right). They are are 1" diameter and 4" in the clear. In two places on each side these are secured through the gangboard knees (illustrated at right). If you are rigging the guns, it may be easier to delay fixing the breeching ringbolts permanently.

9.30 Port tackle eyebolts Positioned as shown on either side of the ports, the outhaul tackle was attached to these eyebolts. Outhauls were used to run the gun out. The eyebolts are of 1" diameter iron, 13⁄4" in the clear. They are located above the breeching ringbolts.

9.31 Training tackle eyebolts These were useful for traversing the gun left or right. When the earlier Swan class ships were being built these were not yet fitted. If you are showing a ship represented later than 1779,9 then you may place one between each port in the center plank of the quickwork, oriented vertically. These are the same size as the port tackle eyebolts.

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Adrian Caruana states that this is a bowdlerization of cunt-splice, where the ‘u’ was replaced by ‘o’. (The History of English Sea Ordinance 1523-1875, Volume II, page 383.)

Admiralty order to fit training tackle eyebolts, June 10, 1779 a(ADM 106/2508).

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9.32 Preparation for the chain bolts Now is a good time to prepare for the chain bolts and preventer bolts while there is still adequate access to the upper deck. These secure the preventer plates, which are the metal straps outboard for the deadeyes chains (illustrations below and photograph on page 134). They pass through the ship’s side and are secured by forelocks inside the upper deck bulwarks. I have never seen forelocked through-bolts shown in a model. If you wish to show this detail, drill the holes now and fit the inside portions of the bolts. The bolt holes need to come through inboard between the spirketting seams, so the angles that you drill have to be carefully predetermined (illustrated below right). The first step will be to mark out the positions of the bolts on the outside of the model. In order to do this accurately, you will need to make dummy lower masts that are the length of the mast to the hounds. This is the point where the shrouds converge to at the level of the tops. The table below gives the measurements that you will need. Fore mast

Main mast

Mizen mast

44' 0"

48' 0"

36' 4"

Upper deck plank to base of step: 10' 7"

11' 6"

9' 8"

Hounds to upper deck plank:

Install the dummy masts and adjust their rake by means of temporary wedges in the partners. Take the varying degrees of rake for each mast from your sheer plan.

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The diverging lines of the chains may be accurately plotted by tying a thread from the top of the dummy mast. As you move the thread along the ship’s side you can determine the angle of each chain as it fans out from the common focal point. Lightly mark each line on the ship’s side. From your sheer plan, locate the outside position of the two bolts for each chain plate. On the NMM plans are also several smaller deadeyes on the fore and main channels. Two forward ones on the main channel and one on the fore channel are for breast backstays. The two aft deadeyes on the main channel are for the topmast backstay and topgallant mast backstay. The small channel aft of the fore channel is called a stool and carries the fore topmast and fore topgallant mast backstays. All these lines radiate from points higher on the masts, so extend the dummy masts to the distances above the upper deck given here: Topmast backstay

Topgallant mast backstay

Fore mast

74' 0"

92' 9"

Main mast

82' 0"

102' 0"

Note that the mizen chains are fastened by chain bolts only, without preventer plates or bolts. The angles of the bolts through the side need to be carefully calculated. Some chain bolt holes will need to be angled fore or aft to avoid the breeching ringbolts already fitted. The best strategy may be to drill blind holes inside and out, using a pin-vise to drill by hand for the former. You can then fit short bolts with forelocks inboard and short bolts with heads outboard. Their finished appearance will be identical. Steel specifies bolts with slightly differing diameters. The fore and main chain bolts are 13⁄ 8" in diameter and the preventer bolts 11⁄4". Bolts for the mizen chains are 11⁄ 8" in diameter10. This difference may be ignored at 1:48 scale.

9.33 Eyebolts around main mast There are also eight eyebolts for securing lines both sides of the main mast partners. Arranged as shown (right), they are of 3⁄4" diameter iron. Steel10, 11 does not mention their size in the clear, but 2 3⁄4" to 3" is proportional to their thickness.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LIV.

Ibid, Folio XXXVI.

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9.34 Eyebolts in the spirketting There are also a number of eyebolts in the spirketting opposite the mast of the same size as those around the main mast. I believe that they were also used to secure lines. Place them in the upper strake. Steel specifies six bolts, by which I understand him to mean three per side. Where they are placed is speculative as shown here (illustration at right), but they need to be placed clear of all other ironwork, the gun port, or its associated tackle. It is quite possible that these eyebolts were oriented vertically, rather than horizontally as shown, but I have no firm evidence about this detail. These eyebolts complete the details in the waist at upper deck level.

9.35 Upper deck armament The Swan class were armed with 14 guns (except those pierced for 16) and these were sixpounders. As upper deck space was very limited, I believe that the guns were the “short” sixes, measuring 6' 0" from muzzle to cascable. Below is an illustration identifying the principal parts of a gun.

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There are a number of guns to be made, so I suggest that you consider turning a master pattern and casting them. This would follow actual practice, as all full-size guns were manufactured in this way. It will also solve the difficulty of reproducing the raised monogram, (in this instance King George III’s ornamental initials GR, for Georgius Rex, and a crown) on the second reinforce. The pattern that I have shown is typical of guns of the 1770’s. The pattern was changed and simplified in the 1790’s by the omission of the chase astragal molding and the addition of the cascable ring. Also some of the barrel ring profiles were altered. For those of you who wish to pursue this subject in more detail, there are some excellent volumes available.12 There are a number of markings on a gun (illustration, previous page). The “broad arrow” marks it as State property and as a proof mark, showing that the gun had passed the official firing test without cracking. On the swell of the muzzle there are three nicks or grooves, center top and both sides, used for sighting purposes (see section 9.55 and photograph page 133). The maker’s mark appears with the year of manufacture (often on top of the first reinforce or the end of a trunnion). The gun’s weight 13 in hundredweights, quarters and pounds (cwt, qtr, lb) is also incised, e.g. 120-14 (meaning 12cwts 0qtrs 14lbs). The “official” weight of a 6' 0" six pounder was 12-1-0, but each casting varied slightly from this specification. There may also be other markings to show the gun’s serial number and its position in the battery. The vent field is the raised area at the vent or touch-hole. This is usually grooved or hollowed. Later guns had screw holes on the right side of the vent field for attaching a flintlock (see photograph on page 133). This replaced the slow match used for firing the gun in the late 1770’s.14 Locks were only fitted for action, so would not normally be attached. A scale drawing of such a lock is shown in David White’s book on the Diana.15 One source is Adrian B. Caruana, The History of English Sea Ordinance 1523-1875, Volume II: The Age of the System, 1715-1815, Jean Boudriot Publications, London 1997. 13 This archaic system of weight measurement in pounds (lbs), quarters (equal to 28lbs) and hundredweights (equal to 4 qtrs or 112 lbs) was used until the second half of the 20th century. A pound is approximately equivalent to .45 kg. 14 Brian Lavery, The Ship of the Line, Volume II, page 163. 15 The Anatomy of the Ship, The Frigate Diana, illustration G4/1, page 111. 12

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All parts of a gun are proportional to its bore or calibre. In the case of a six-pounder, its bore is 3.66". The ball was somewhat smaller in diameter: approximately 3.5". The difference in size is called windage. Rather than giving a table of dimensions for each part of the gun, simply use the drawings on the previous page. Those of you who want more detailed information should refer to either Adrian Caruana or other authority in the field of ordinance.

9.36 The master pattern for the guns I would suggest turning the master from boxwood, or acrylic plastic if your lathe has extremely low speed settings. The vent field, trunnions and monogram may be applied later. Note that the trunnions are not centered on the barrel, but are below the central axis. They are placed “by the third” (centered one third the way up the gun’s diameter), effectively positioning the top of the trunnion at the gun’s centerline. The trunnion diameter is equal to the calibre of the gun. Instead of boring the master pattern, leave a turned section attached beyond the muzzle (see illustrations on following pages). Make this at least 1⁄2" (actual measurement) long as a “handle” that will become the pouring vent. The volume and weight of metal that this represents will prevent too rapid a cooling and solidification of metal while pouring and will help force any air out of the mold. I recommend that you consider casting in lead-free pewter. In full-size gun-founding practice this handle was known as the gun head and was cut off before the gun was bored. Don’t make this aperture too small, or you will have trouble getting a quick pour. The vent field is shaped as shown. The monogram may be modeled in clay or wax. The smallest details may be added in white glue applied with a hypodermic syringe, cake decorating style.16 You may wish to consider texturing the surface of the master pattern, as cast iron has quite a rough surface, not a smooth one (see photograph, page 51).

9.37 The mold Once the master pattern is complete, a two-part mold may be made. I would advise you not to use plaster of Paris, which is too soft and will degrade rapidly with heat, or dental stone. Although the latter holds detail well, if the stone has even the slightest moisture content a nasty accident could occur while pouring hot metal. Also, dental stone tends to break down with heat. If you intend using casting resin, there may be mold separation difficulties with dental stone.

Another excellent method is demonstrated by Bernard Frölich, L’art du modélisme (The Art of the Modeler), pages 139-143. He uses an intermediate negative dental stone mold into which all the relief detail is carved. A subsequent positive casting is used to make the final rubber molds.

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I recommend using RTV rubber. (RTV stands for room temperature, selfvulcanising.) It is mixed from two or more component chemicals according to the manufacturer’s instructions. You will need to prepare the master pattern before attempting to make a mold. First make a small enclosure to contain the “pour.” Illustration board will be suitable for this purpose. Bury the master pattern halfway into a bed of modeling clay. You should include locator dimples or keys (see illustration at right). You will also need to take some stout wires and attach them to the master pattern as shown. The spaces left by these wires will become air escape vents, so that when casting no air bubbles or air entrapment will occur. If a parting agent is recommended in the manufacturer’s instructions, use it. Follow all directions carefully. Now pour the first half of the mold and allow it adequate time to cure. Once the rubber has cured, strip away the enclosure sides and base and carefully remove the modeling clay. With the rubber half-mold and master pattern as the bottom half of a new mold box, build new sides around it. Make sure that the vent wires and gun head are not displaced. When satisfied that all is in position, the assembly is ready for a second pour. Important: remember to coat the surface of the cured half with parting agent before pouring the second half of the mold! When the second half has cured, the mold may be taken apart and the master pattern removed. (Save this to make replacement molds if necessary.) Extract the vent wires and clean the mold surfaces thoroughly. If all has gone well, every detail of the master will be beautifully reproduced. For actual casting, the mold will need to stand on end (illustration on next spread). If it does not stand securely or is too flexible, construct an outer two-part “jacket” of dental stone that will hold and stabilize it. You do not want a mold tipping over while pouring! The mold halves may be firmly held together with string, rubber bands or tape.

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The vent field of a 24-pounder of 1808. Note the two large screw holes on the right side for a lock and two smaller holes in a recess for a gun sight on top. There is also a crudely engraved “VII” on the fore end of the vent field. (This is a Blomefield pattern gun of 1787, cast by the Carron Company.)

Left trunnion, showing the maker’s mark, Carron, and serial number, 71034. The nominal weight of a long iron 24-pounder gun (9' 6") is 50-2-0. This Blomefield pattern piece was cast in 1808.

Muzzle of the same 24-pounder, showing the sighting marks referred to in the text (section 9.35).

Detail of the side of a modern model of a 64 gun ship, showing details the tubes for the port tackle (above the ports and between the mizen chains). Note the port lid ringbolts. The eyebolts between the mizen chains are the preventer eyebolts, used for emergency re-rigging. The treenails are over scale in this model. (Author’s model.)

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Authors’ photographs, courtesy of the U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis

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The waist, contemporary model of Minerva, 1780. Note the fixed gangway, the gangboards and their iron knees. This model also has removable skid beams across the waist. See further commentary about the quarter deck breastwork, page 201.

Component parts and assembled gun carriage (author’s model).

Contemporary model, possibly of the Swan class, break of quarter deck. Note the gallows, brake pump handles, chain pumps and quarter deck breastwork.

A fine example of contemporary ‘split’ model, showing the pump dales and cisterns. The older style sprocket wheel (see page 104) is evident. The upper well, seen below the deck, has a latticework for ventilation instead of louvres. Upper capstan on the contemporary frigate model of Minerva (left). This capstan is painted red and the coamings are black. Note the capstan pawls, which are both disengaged. The coamings aft of the capstan (to the right) are not rabbeted for gratings: unusually the headledges are rabbeted instead.

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9.38 Gun-founding The most suitable casting material for your guns is lead-free pewter, also known as Crown pewter. This can be ordered through jewelers’ supply houses. Its melting point at 500°F is low enough to be heated in a metal ladle (also from the supply house) using a propane torch. The relatively low temperature means that your mold will last through many casting cycles before it begins to degrade. The other possibility is to use an epoxy casting resin. I am a little cautious of recommending this, as I do not know the longevity of this material. However, it does make beautiful air-free castings. Follow the manufacturer’s mixing and pouring instructions carefully. When casting in pewter, there are two points to be aware of. One, if a gun turns out below standard, it can be remelted and recast. The other is that a scum or dross of oxides forms on the surface of the molten metal in the ladle. This needs to be skimmed off just before pouring. A piece of wood such as a popsicle stick will do the trick. Make sure that you wear protective gloves and glasses. Also, work on an surface where a scorch-mark or two is not a problem. Some pewterers blow or brush a little talcum powder into the mold before pouring. This assists metal flow and helps to de-air the casting. I recommend following their example. Pour the hot metal rapidly until the vent is completely filled and a bubble of molten metal sits above the mold. Pewter cools rapidly and may be removed from the mold a minute after casting. If all has gone well, there will be little or no flashing. This is where metal has leaked between the mold halves. Unless the flashing is thick, indicating that the mold was not clamped together securely enough, this is not a problem. Any flashing, the gunhead and risers (the metal that has solidified in the air channels) should be removed and returned to the ladle for remelting. To prepare the gun for boring make a holding fixture so that the casting is not marred, as pewter is quite soft. The bore may be drilled either in a drill press, or by drill and chuck in the tailstock of your lathe. Center-punch the muzzle face so that the drill will not wander off-axis. Use a drill bit 3.66" in diameter. A #49 bit is a suitable size.

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9.39 Finishing the guns When cast, pewter is bright and shiny. You may either paint the guns or, better still, chemically blacken them. Pewter blackening solution is available from jewelers’ supply houses should you find that brass blackening solution does not work properly. It is used in exactly the same way as the brass colorant (Appendix 4.1). I had trouble in getting an even finish until I first gently abraded the surface of the metal with a brass wire-brush. I suspect that there may have been a chemical film deposited on the metal from the RTV rubber mold.

9.40 Gun carriages The next task is a repetitive one: making fourteen (or sixteen) gun carriages. Most readers are familiar with gun carriages, so I will only describe details that are not as well-known. The general layout and part names are given in the illustration below.

The train tackle eyebolt or loop at the rear of the carriage is sometimes seen oriented vertically. The brackets, which are the side pieces, were probably made of a single piece of wood rather than in two pieces as shown, because a six-pounder carriage was much smaller than one for a larger piece of ordinance. In the illustration above, all metal parts are indicated in pale grey.

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9.41 The brackets Begin by making the brackets. Mass production methods will ensure consistency for the number of pieces that you will need. A series of jigs will assist in cutting the contours of the brackets and aid in placement of the various holes to be drilled in them. The dimensions and shape of the brackets may be taken from the scale drawings. The brackets, 35⁄8" thick, are positioned in such a way so that they angle inward toward the front of the carriage. This is the same angle of taper as the gun barrel, which is 2° (illustrated below left). An suitably angled jig block will be required for assembling the carriages later on. I have indicated two iron pins that locate the pieces of the bracket relative to each other. These will be invisible and may be omitted. The long bolts holding the brackets and axles together may be cheated with an appropriate head protruding at one end and forelock at the other. You will need to drill for the bed, joint, eye and transom bolts, ringbolt and loops. Their diameters are as follows: Bed , joint, eye & transom bolts: Ringbolt diameter in the clear: Loop, in the clear:

1" 3" 1 1⁄2"

Burr dia.: Ringbolt metal diameter: Loop metal diameter:

1 7⁄ 8" Burr ring dia.: 7 ⁄ 8" 1 ⁄2"

13⁄4"

A burr is the head of a bolt, and the burr ring is a washer under this head. A recess or counterbore is needed for the heads of the three aft bolts. The forward two bolts have specialized heads to accomodate the capsquare, to be described shortly. Note the semi-circular hole for the trunnion and scores for the axletrees. A contemporary engraving17 shows these scores cut into the tops of the axletrees instead. I believe that this is an engraver’s error because the joints would be heavily stressed during recoil if they were constructed in this way. 17

Reproduced in Brian Lavery’s The Ship of the Line, Volume II, page 153.

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Metal plates (with the gun mounted they are not visible) back the loops on the inner sides of the brackets. These act as roves and are clearly illustrated on the contemporary engraving of a carrage18 (also illustrated at right). They are 11⁄2" square. They appear to be proud of the bracket face. The stem of the loop is peened over on this rove like the head of a rivet. This is a hidden detail, but is mentioned for the sake of completeness. When drilling the brackets for the loops, their outer surfaces need to be scored so that the loop is properly placed (illustration at left). It is incorrect for the whole loop, back to its shank, to stand proud of the outer surface of the bracket. It needs to be recessed as shown. One method of making this recess is to use a miniature U-gouge. I have found that a miniature slot screwdriver blade carefully pushed into the wood works very well. However, before adding any metalwork, I would suggest that the rest of the woodwork be taken care of first. The next detail is the mortise for the transom. This is the cross-member near the front of the carriage. It is angled as indicated (illustration top right). This mortise is 11⁄4" deep and 4" wide. Once again, a jig for marking and cutting this is necessary. Of course, once the carriage is assembled it will be impossible to tell whether a mortise was made or not, so it could be omitted. The advantage of cutting mortises is that they will locate the transom at both the correct angle and position.

9.42 The hind axletree Its archaic spelling is axeltree. The hind axletree is a rectangular-sectioned piece with ends that are turned circular. The hind trucks, the wheels, will revolve on these. The outer ends are reinforced with iron hoops. There are small mortises cut through the ends for retaining truck keys. Each hoop is slightly inset from the extreme end, which is chamfered.

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Illustration reproduced in Brian Lavery’s The Ship of the Line, Volume II, page 153.

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The hind axletree is the major structural cross-piece at the rear of the carriage. It is more substantial than the fore axletree. It is also partially mortised to locate the brackets. Its shape and dimensions are given on the drawing (below). Don’t forget to drill the two bracket bolts each side that will hold the axletree in position. These should align with the bracket holes that you have already drilled. There is also a hole in the aft side of the axletree for the train tackle loop . There are two rectangular truck key mortises to be drilled and squared, angled as shown in the illustration (right). They are not oriented up and down, but run at about a 20° angle from vertical, upper end backward. I have seen vertical keys on some carriage drawings, but these may be of a later date. It is much easier to drill these mortises before turning the axle ends. One method for forming the cylindrical ends of the axles is to make a hollow cutter, its central hole being the diameter of the axle. Mounted in the drill press, external cutting teeth will round off the axle ends. You will need a holding fixture for the axle blank to position it accurately. The reinforcing hoops may be simulated with strips of black paper, if you wish. This will save you having to turn two different diameters on the axletree ends. If you decide on metal hoops, they will have to be inset or you will not be able to mount the trucks, which are the wheels, later on. Metal hoops can be made of brass or copper. If you can find thin-wall tube of the correct diameter, simply part off 1" wide pieces. Otherwise you will need to bend up straps over a suitably sized mandrel and silver solder the ends together. Blacken them in the usual manner.

9.43 The fore axletree This is the same overall length as the hind axletree, but the breadth between the brackets is less due to the taper of the carriage when assembled. Note that the underside of the fore axletree is rounded. There are two holes bored at suitable angles for the capsquare eyebolts and holes on the turned portions for the truck keys.

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9.44 The transom This is an angled crosspiece, 4" thick, at the front of the carriage. The transom sits partially over the front axletree and is mortised into the brackets. The transom bolt passes horizontally through it, uniting brackets and transom. Again, the shape and details of this piece are shown in the drawing (right). Note that the sides of the transom will not be quite parallel to each other, because the brackets diverge.

9.45 The bolster The bolster is a stout balk of timber that sits on the hind axletree. It provides a base for the bed of the carriage. The bed is a plank that the wedge-shaped quoin can slide along, thus elevating or depressing the muzzle of the gun. The bolster is a rectangular block of wood whose dimensions are 11" long, 35⁄8" wide and 41⁄2" deep. Note the slight angle of the top surface, inclined to match the angle of the bed (illustration below).

9.46 The bed This is a slightly tapered plank, grooved on its undersurface near the front and rear, that sits over the bed bolt and the bolster. Its rear end is hollowed in a cove section as shown (below). The principal dimensions of the bed are 211⁄2" long and 2 5⁄ 8" thick. It tapers from 6 5⁄ 8" to 4" in width. The fore notch for the bed bolt is 11⁄4" wide by 7⁄ 8" deep. It is set 21⁄2" in from the front edge. The after notch is about 1⁄2" deep and is the width of the bolster beneath. I believe that the bed was usually nailed to the bolster.

9.47 The quoin This wedge-shaped piece sits on the bed. As viewed from above, it should be shaped to match the taper of the bed. Its upper surface was often hollowed to suit the diameter of the gun’s base ring. Take the dimensions from the drawing opposite, remembering that this is at twice scale size if you are working at 1:48 scale. The width of the quoin should be about 5" at its aft end. All its edges should be chamfered off lightly in the usual way.

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There is a turned handle attached at the rear of the quoin. The form of this handle varied: it could be quite bulbous like the cascable button (as shown below and opposite), or elongated like the handle of a belaying pin (as illustrated in section 9.40). Whichever form you choose, it should not exceed 5" to 6" in length overall for a carriage of this size.

9.48 The fore axletree stays These are not usually shown on drawings of carriages and may have been optional. As they are unlikely to be visible, they may be omitted. I will describe them for interest’s sake. Each stay is a flat iron strap about 3" wide and 1⁄2" thick. It is bent into a shallow “S” and is drilled for the capsquare eyebolt and capsquare joint bolt. The illustration (right) shows the position of this stay. The fitting of the bolts will be described next.

9.49 The carriage bolts These are shown in the illustration to the right. More or less running vertically, there are three bracket bolts, a capsquare joint bolt and a capsquare eyebolt. The latter two have specialized heads, which I will describe shortly. Horizontally there is the bed bolt, running between the brackets, which will support the bed and quoin, and the transom bolt, which passes through the transom as shown. The vertical bolts are forelocked at the underside of the brackets. The horizontal ones seem to have had a washer under the head as well as under the forelock. It is possible that one end was threaded and a nut applied over the washer like a modern carriage bolt. The reason that the bolts are forelocked is so that the carriage could easily be disassembled for maintenance and repairs. The gunner’s and carpenter’s stores would have contained numerous spare parts for repairing damaged carriages.

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9.50 The capsquare A capsquare is the retaining clasp for the gun’s trunnion. It is 2 5⁄ 8" wide and 1⁄2" thick. Its shape is shown (right). The ends of the capsquare are thickened, rounded and slotted for the bolt heads as shown. The aft slot articulates with the joint bolt head, which is a square sectioned loop, not a circular one as usually seen in models. The fore slot slips over the head of the capsquare eyebolt, which has a specialized eye. A retaining pin, the capsquare key, (on a fine chain) is passed through this eye, holding the capsquare tight to the top of the bracket. The dimensions of the capsquare for a six-pounder carriage are given here. To make capsquares, cut and bend up suitable gauge brass strip. One way to make the ends is to solder a fine wire across, then cut the ends short and file them flush. The two slots will need to be drilled and squared out. The half-round may be soldered to the flat sections. This is a soldering job where the joints are in close proximity. Start with the highest melting point solder to make the first joint. Subsequent joints should be made using medium then low-melting point solders. Protect finished joints by using a heat sink. An old-fashioned but effective way is to use a piece of freshly cut apple or potato over the joints to be protected. Choose, according to taste! To mass-produce capsquares, consider making a die and counter-die and stamping them out of brass strip. Capsquares are mounted parallel to the brackets, which means that right and left handed pairs are required because of the slight angles involved.

9.51 The capsquare joint bolt Its shape is shown in several illustrations. The shank of this long bolt is 1" in diameter. The eye is flattened (see above). It is about 21⁄2" outside diameter, 1" inside diameter and 3⁄4" thick. It passes almost vertically through the bracket (illustrated in section 9.49) and is forelocked in position.

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9.52 The capsquare eyebolt and key The head of this forelocked bolt is shaped rather like a needle’s eye (illustration at right). There is a slot for the capsquare key that retains the capsquare in position. The slot is about 11⁄2" long and slightly over 1⁄4" wide. The key is 1⁄4" thick and 21⁄2" long, shaped as shown. A short chain, attached to a staple, secures the key to the outer side of the carriage bracket forward of the trunnion hole. Some illustrations show the chain somewhat longer and the staple attached below the trunnion hole. Again, the interpretation is up to you. I would choose the method illustrated (right).

9.53 The fore and hind trucks Trucks are the wheels that the carriage moves on. Both sets of trucks are the same thickness, 3 5⁄ 8", which is equal to the bore of the gun. They are made up of two layers of wood, rather like the trundlehead of the capstan (see section 9.9). However, Adrian Caruana categorically states that trucks were never made of two layers.19 Perhaps extant examples of trucks constructed in layers are more modern. If you decide on layered trucks, they should be held together by six 3⁄4" diameter bolts equidistantly spaced halfway between the outside and inside diameters (shown at right). The hole for the axletree is 4" in diameter and should be a snug turning fit. I had special cutters made that would drill the central holes and cut the discs from sheet stock in one operation. The fore trucks are 12" in diameter. Take the other dimensions from the plan (above right). The hind trucks are similar, except for the outside diameter and the position of the bolts. The diameter of the hind trucks are 10 1⁄2", and the bolt centers are positioned halfway between the central hole and the periphery. Remember to soften the edges of all the trucks with a small chamfer, most easily done using a sanding stick with the truck is mounted on a mandrel in your lathe’s headstock. Use your slowest speed to do this.

The History of English Sea Ordinance 1523-1875, Volume II, Chapter 10, page 359.

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9.54 The truck keys Keys hold the trucks in position on the axletrees. Early keys were spike-like with a turned or curled-over head. Later these were modified and appear similar to that illustrated (at right). The handle of the key is wider than the tapered shaft and is grooved. The key is about 1⁄2" thick and 6 1⁄2" long. Other details may be taken from the drawing.

9.55 Tompions Not often seen, except on earlier Admiralty models, these add a touch of color. A tompion (earlier spellings are tampion or tampon) is a tapered plug that was inserted into the end of the gun barrel to protect the bore when the gun was housed. These plugs have flattened, rounded ends and were painted red in the models referred to. You may opt to show these on your model.

9.56 Breeching The breeching is a heavy line that limits the gun’s recoil. It attaches to the ringbolts on either side of the gunport, passes through the breeching ringbolts and either divides to pass around the cascable button in a contsplice or is looped once around it. (In 1787 the patterns of the guns were changed to add a vertical cascable ring and the breeching was passed through this.) The ends of the breeching rope reeve through their ring bolts, are half-hitched and the ends seized (illustration opposite, far right). The length of the breeching rope is three times the length of the gun’s bore. The line should be 4" in circumference, which is about 11⁄4" in diameter. (For the uninitiated, ropes are always specified by their circumference, not diameter. To calculate the diameter of a line, divide the circumference by 3.1416.) For those of you that are unfamiliar with splicing and seizing techniques, I will refer you to books on the subject.20 Information is also available on the Internet. Ropemaking is another subject covered by other books,21 and it is not a difficult job to construct one’s own miniature ropewalk to produce lines of the correct diameters and lay.

20 21

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One good resource is The Ashley Book of Knots, Doubleday, 1944 numerous reprints. Longridge’s The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, pages 204-210, is one good reference.

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9.57 Gun tackles Also known as port or side tackles, these lines were used to run out the guns. They have two single blocks, as illustrated (below, top left). Only 32-pounder guns or larger had a single and double block (bottom left). I cannot find reference to the block size, but 5" or 6" blocks (detailed in Appendix 9.1) would be proportional. Both blocks are stropped. A strop is a loop of rope around the block that has been served. Serving is narrow line wound tightly around the rope loop. There are two sets of tackles per gun, one on each side. The outboard end of each tackle hooks to an eyebolt in the ship’s side, and the inboard end hooks to the aft loop of the carriage. The line is 11⁄2" in circumference. When not in use, port tackles were neatly frapped as shown (below right).

9.58 The train tackle Also known as relieving tackle, this was used at the rear of the gun. Train tackle consists of two 5" or 6" long single blocks. One end of the tackle hooks to the deck ringbolt inboard of the gun, and the running end hooks into the loop on the hind axletree. This line is also 11⁄2" in circumference. These tackles would only be rigged when the gun was cleared for action. The illustration (above left) shows the standing end of the line (the end that is fixed) eyespliced and attached to one becket of the double-becketed strop. A becket is simply a loop that is seized into the strop. Once again, I refer you to another authority for details of how to strop blocks.22 22

This is described in The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, C.N. Longridge, pages 215-218.

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9.59 Gun aprons An apron was a shaped sheet of lead that covered and protected the vent field and touch hole when the gun was loaded but not in use. Again, this is a detail not shown in models and might be an interesting feature to include. The sketch indicates how this might have looked. It was held in position by light lines around the breech. Use oxidised pewter foil or dulled aluminum to represent lead.

9.60 Gun port lids In a Swan class ship only a few ports had lids fitted. The port furthest forward, really a half port, would have a vertically hinged lid, and port #9 has a regular lid. (For those whose ships are pierced for 16 guns, both aftermost ports will also have lids.) Port lids are made up of two layers of plank held together by the bolts of their hinges. The lids’ outer planks match the general run of the topside planking (illustrated below). The lids also have to conform to the shape of the hull and port openings, so each will need to be made and fitted individually. First make a heavy card pattern for each port lid. Tranfer the lines of the plank seams directly to each pattern once you are satisfied with their fit. The total thickness of the lids needs to equal the thickness of the outside planking. When closed tightly against the port stops the outside of the lid should be flush with the outside of the hull. Therefore each layer will be 1" thick. You will need to offset the inner layer of plank from the outside layer. In actual practice the inside layer was composed of three vertical planks. As the surface is curved, you will need to build the lid over a shaped block of wood. This will help fix its shape. Note that the under-edge is slightly beveled so that the lid will clear the sill as it closes (illustrated at right and opposite page). In large ships where the wales are cut into by the aft gun ports, the plank thickness is increased to match the outside contour of the hull. Inner surfaces and edges of the lids were traditionally painted red.

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9.61 Gun port lid hinges These are a specialized type of hinge. In earlier periods they could be quite fancy with trefoil ends, but by the mid 1700’s they were much plainer. Their details may be taken from the drawings. There are several points to note. Not only do the hinge straps taper in width, except where they widen out at the lower ends, but they also taper in thickness. Each hinge is subtly different from any other. The length of each strap varies so that the axes of their knuckles lie along a horizontal line, and their lower ends are about 1" to 11⁄2" from the lower edge of the lid. The bolts through the straps are placed clear of the seams in the outer planking. The port tackle ringbolts should lie along a horizontal line. Bolts for the inside ringbolts are fitted just above the outer ones. The general conformation and dimensions of the hinges may be scaled from the drawings (left). For the model, straps should be cut from 1" thick brass sheet and tapered down by file to about 1 ⁄2" at the lower end. It is surprising how a small detail like this can stand out if omitted! Remember to check which hinges are left- and right-handed. The knuckle is made from a section of 1⁄16" (actual) brass tubing. The two pieces can be silver-soldered together (illustration below). All the bolts, except the inside ringbolts, are round-headed outboard and their inboard ends flat.

9.62 Port hooks These are specialized bolts whose heads are shaped as shown (lower right). The inner ends of the bolts are forelocked over the clamp above the port. Take their dimensions from the drawings above. Port hooks are always fitted clear of any planking seams. This is one reason that the outside planks were “brought down” (widened) above the ports fore and aft to move any seam up and away from the edge of the ports.

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The inboard face of the head of each port hook is angled to match the contour of the ship’s side at that point (see side elevation, lower left). It is easiest, perhaps, to drill the head blank first, then file it to shape. The shank of the hook and the pin can then be silver-soldered on. I have no actual dimensions for these, but a 1" shank and a 11⁄2" pin will be about right. Once again, “handed” pairs of hooks will be needed. You may wish to delay fitting the port lids until final assembly if you plan to show them in the open position. All port metalwork should be chemically blackened.

9.63 The #1 port lid This narrow lid is vertically hinged, although the artist of this ship’s portrait painted this as a regular port (see photograph, page 201). I am unsure whether it hinged on the forward or aft side of the port. I suspect that it was hinged on the forward side to act as a wind deflector for ventilation. The hinges and hooks are similar in style to those of the other lids. Note that in this case both port hooks both point upward. Remember to fit a ringbolt on the inside of the lid at the center of its aft side.

9.64 Port tackle tubes Each port has two tackle lines which pass through the hull, and holes need to be drilled for them. They are situated vertically above the hinges and placed to avoid plank seams both inside and out. They come inboard through the upper part of the deck clamp. The holes also need to be positioned below the line of the channels which are indicated on your NMM draught. These holes,about 1" in diameter, are lined with leather tubes that extend outboard by about 2". My method of representing leather port tackle tubes is to wrap a couple of turns of thin paper around a waxed drill shank of suitable diameter using white glue as adhesive. When the tube is dry, it can be sliced into short sections before sliding them off the drill shank. The tubes may then be colored to resemble brown oiled leather. I use a brown fine-tipped permanent marker. Finally each tube is glued into its hole, so that the end result resembles the illustration (left). An example of tubes produced using this technique may be seen in the photograph on page 133.

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9.65 Port tackle It would be extremely challenging to rig complete sets of port tackle, as the deck beams above need to be fitted first. I will describe this tackle, but suggest that you only show the outboard visible part. The laniards are of 2" rope. The outboard ends are eyespliced around the hinge ringbolts (illustration on opposite page).

One end of the laniard leads inboard through a leather tube, then loops to pass out of the other tube to the second lid ringbolt. Inboard a thimble is seized into the bight (illustration above). A thimble is an iron ring that has a grooved outer surface and a bight is a loop in the line as it doubles back on itself. The line length needs to be such that the lid can be fully closed. This is attached by a hook through the thimble to a single block tackle, whose standing end hooks to an eyebolt in the beam above. The drawing (above) shows this arrangement. The two single blocks are either 5" or 6" long and the tackle is of 2" line. The running end is secured to a small wooden cleat inboard of the eyebolt. (If you wish to show the eyebolts and cleats you will need to make a note of the beams that carry these fittings, then make and install them before fixing the beams in position, as described in Chapter Ten.)

END OF CHAPTER NINE

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Appendix 9.1 Blocks These items are often poorly made by modelers. Their size and proportion are usually correct, but their shape is too square and “blocky.” The following notes will assist you in making correctly contoured blocks for your model. The principal parts of a single block shell are shown to the right. Note its oval shape and how rounded the outer surfaces are. Also note that the hole for the pin is below the centerline of the shell, nearer to the arse end. The scores in the cheek of the block become shallower as they approach the pin-hole, and are deepest near the ends of the block. Small single blocks were carved from the solid, but larger ones were made in three layers. I find that, at 1:48 scale, it is easier to use the three-layer system for all my single blocks, except for very small ones which are simply drilled. I “sandwich” up my double and triple blocks. Proportions for single and double blocks are given below. You may conveniently scale the drawing to match the length of the blocks that you are constructing. If you are going to rig your model, there are other blocks which are more specialized. Details of these are given in other volumes,1 but the proportions will be maintained, except in the case of specific “thin” blocks. Real blocks had pins with square heads so that the pin would not turn in the shell. Once the block is stropped the pin will be invisible, so this need not be done in model construction. The sheave was of lignum vitae so, to imitate this in a block where the sheave will be visible, I would paint the sheave a satin black. The shell can remain “bright.” In naval practice, the shell was tarred in the scores under the strop.

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Steel’s Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging , Lees’ The Masting and Rigging of English Shipof-War 1625-1860 and Longridge’s The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships are all excellent resources.

CHAPTER TEN

CHAPTER

TEN

n this chapter there will be a change of pace while some external details are completed. Then it is time for some attention to the quarter deck and forecastle. There are many fittings to be made which will stretch your existing skills and add new ones to them. This chapter begins with the fabrication and application of the outboard moldings and other external details along the sides and stern of the model. The forecastle will be dealt with next, including the catheads which are integrated with the beams of this deck. Finally, the quarter deck and its fittings will be described.

Three-quarter stern view of King Fisher, the companion painting to that shown on page 201. Both these paintings are in the collection of the Science Museum, Kensington. Other paintings in the series of all the different rates are held either by the Science Museum or the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich.

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10.1 The tuck molding There are several sets of moldings to make. There are many variations on the scratch stock method of making these. The principle of a scratch stock is a hardened steel negative profile that is dragged along a length of wood strip, shearing wood away to form the molded shape. Each molding on the ship has its own distinctive profile, and that of the tuck molding is shown on the following page. It is 4" deep. The tuck molding covers the seam between the lowest plank of the lower counter and the butt ends of the lower hull planking. You will only need two short lengths of this molding, so it will be a good introduction to manufacturing decorative moldings and rails.

10.2 Method of making moldings First you will need to soften or anneal a piece of steel. Many authors advocate using a piece of old hacksaw blade for this purpose. To soften the metal, heat it to a bright cherry red with your propane torch and then allow it to air-cool slowly. Once cold, you can mark out the profile on the straight edge of the steel. Carefully file out the shape that you need in reverse using Swiss files. I have what are called watchmakers’ screw slot files. These are very thin files whose edges can cut extremely narrow slots. These are invaluable provided that you can locate a source for them. (I bought mine some years ago as a close-out of manufacturers’ excess stock.) Once satisfied with the profile that you have cut, the steel may be re-hardened. To do this, re-heat it to a bright cherry red, but this time cool it rapidly by plunging it into an oil bath. After you have done this, gently reheat the piece in an oven for a while at 250°F, then allow it to air cool. This final stage relieves any stresses in the steel. Mount the scraper in a wooden handle for comfort and you are ready to make your first molding. Boxwood is one suitable specie for making the cleanest moldings. Make sure that the grain is running straight. Mount a piece of the overall dimensions required on an illustration board base using rubber cement. With firm pressure, draw the scratch stock towards you. Repeat this process until the flat of the scraper runs along the backing board. This indicates that you have reached the correct depth and section. Usually the first quarter inch (full size) or so of the molding is not as well cut as the rest, so discard it. Remove the completed molding from its backing. You are now ready to apply pieces of it to your model.

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10.3 The tuck molding, continued Now that you have a method of making moldings, we will go into particular details. The tuck molding is placed over the upper ends of the lower hull planking. The angle of this surface changes from almost vertical at its inner end to a greater one at the outboard end (see illustration and study your model). Therefore the molding needs to be made the thickness shown in the section (right), and when completed it will be carefully shaped on its inboard face. Remember to make a left and right handed pair! Start by measuring the length from the side of the stern post to the inner edge of the main wale. Cut a length of molding just a little longer than this. Using an extremely sharp chisel, trim the inboard end to a snug fit against the stern post. Next, carefully pare down the forward face of the molding to fit against the planking, keeping the upper edge a constant width along its length. The outboard end is profiled as illustrated (lower right), not simply cut off square (check the stern elevation on your NMM plan). The outer corner of the molding was usually radiused around rather than angled. There is a slight curve to the molding that follows the curve of the lower counter. This can be easily accommodated without the use of heat or steam. Glue and treenail the moldings into place. Four or five treenails placed equidistantly should be sufficient. It will be easiest to drill through the concave part of the molding. If you do this, you will need a micro-gouge or Swiss file to trim the cut ends of the treenails flush to the contour of the molding. Moldings on the ship are left bright. Apply either sanding sealer or a low satin varnish to finish them. This completes the tuck. The moldings along the side of the ship, described in the following sections, will be easier to make.

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10.4 The waist rail The waist rail is the lowest ornamental rail running along the side of the ship. The gun ports cut into this rail at intervals. Its upper edge defines the border of the frieze that you painted or applied earlier. The cross-section for this rail (right) is shaped in exactly the same manner as the tuck rail. This time the back of the rail is not contoured, which simplifies the work considerably. Steel 1 gives its section as 21⁄4" by 5", but on the NMM draughts the rail measures 51⁄2" deep. Use this measurement for your stock. As a matter of interest, in naval shipbuilding these rails were applied over the planking, but in merchant yards each rail was usually raised (molded) from a solid plank which was made thicker for this purpose.2 One tip that will make applying sections of rail easier: run a thin temporary batten along the side of the ship whose upper edge is at the level of the lower edge of the rail. Rubber cement will hold it in position. This way you will have a reference for the pieces to form a smooth curve when viewed from bow or stern. The rails are cut at right angles to the port openings, flush with the ends of the outer planking. However, some models I have seen show the cut ends radiused in a similar manner to the ends of the tuck moldings. There are several other interruptions to the run of the waist rail. At the bow there are the main rail of the head and the cathead supporter. The main rail is the large, uppermost curved member of the structure of the head. The cathead supporter is the inverted knee or standard that supports the underside of the cathead. As these items have yet to be made, leave off these sections of the rail for now. Carefully label and store the moldings. Note the thin sliver of rail showing above port #8. The other feature that interrupts the rail aft is the quarter badge. This decorative structure contains a light for the great cabin. Again, have additional lengths of rail reserved for later on.

10.5 The sheer rail This rail runs parallel to and above the waist rail. It is also cut into by the various channels that support the chains. Channels are the long platforms that protrude horizontally from the ship’s side. It will be easier to make and fit the channels, chesstree and fenders before completing the sheer rail. (These items are described in sections 10.8 to 10.13, which you may refer to now.) The chesstree holds a sheave for the fore tack. Fenders prevent damage to the ship when hoisting barrels up the side. 1, 2

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI.

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10.6 The fore channel The fore channels carry the foremast chains. Contemporary draughts do not show a plan view of the channels, so all dimensions are estimates based on contemporary models. The fore channels are 4 1⁄2" thick at the inboard edge and taper to 23⁄4" outboard, the upper surface horizontal. You will need to adjust the pattern to fit the side of your own ship. Steel suggests that the channels be 1' 6" wide, “or sufficient to clear the shrouds of the roughtree rail.” 3 In large ships several pieces of wood were tabled together to make up the width of the channel. There is a narrow molding retaining the chains that needs to be made and fitted. It is not fixed permanently until after the chains are installed. The aft end of each fore channel is angled to facilitate stowing the anchors. The fore ends are shaped in a graceful serpentine curve. The slots in the outboard sides of the channels follow the line of each shroud. It is helpful to mark out the slot positions on the upper surfaces of the channels, fit them to the ship’s side, and run the thread from the appropriate “masthead” as you did for the chains to mark the slot angles on the outboard edges. Check that the chain positions on your NMM plan are the same as above, and adjust if necessary. The fore channels are fixed to the side with six 7⁄ 8" bolts driven through them horizontally. Now, a problematic detail. At this period wooden standards were usually fitted above the channels (illustrated below right). However, iron supporting T-plates below the channels were beginning to replace these due to shortage of compass timber. With no strong evidence either way, I would fit wooden standards (see the photograph on page 133). The section (below right) gives you the general shape of these knees, of which there are three, each 2" thick. Chamfer off the edges of these knees in the usual manner.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LIII.

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There are also two swivel ring bolts fitted on each fore channel for use with running rigging. The rings are of 3⁄4" diameter iron and are 2" in the clear. The swivel eye passes through the channel and a square backing plate beneath (illustration at right). The head of the eye turns under the plate. I estimate the plate to be 3" square. The positions of the swivel ring bolts are shown on the plan (below, opposite page). The profile on the edges of the channels and their moldings may be made in the same way as the tuck and waist rail moldings. Temporarily assemble the channel and molding as a unit, using treenails to hold the molding in position. You will need to carefully heat-bend this molding near the aft end. Cut in the profile carefully along the edges and ends. In this case there is no depth stop as you had for the other profiles that you cut, so watch the remaining “flat” along the edge of the workpiece and stop cutting when this has just disappeared in the curved bullnose of the molding profile. The upper surfaces of channels on contemporary models are either left bright or painted a matt black. The paint on contemporary models now appears greyish, but it is difficult to tell if this was the original color or the result of an accumulation of centuries of dust! Either finish appears to be correct, so the choice is yours.

10.7 The stool The stool is a small subsidiary channel aft of each fore channel. The stools carry the deadeyes for the topmast and topgallant mast backstays. They are miniature versions of a regular channel. All channels have stools aft of them in large ships. In the Swan class there are only stools for the fore channels. Each stool is 31⁄2" thick at its inboard edge and tapers to 21⁄2" at the outboard edge.4 Stools are fixed to the side by two 7⁄ 8" bolts. Take the positions of the cut-outs for the chains from your own draught. Mark the angles of the chains as you did for the channels and shape the edge molding as before. Stools do not require standards or iron supports.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LIV.

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10.8 The chesstree Also spelled chestree, this is shown on NMM sheer draughts as a vertical molding running upward from the main wale to the planksheer just aft of the forward fixed block in the side. There is one on each side, port and starboard. Each carries a sheave for the main tack, leading the line to the fixed block. Chesstrees are sided 6". (On the draught for Pegasus this measures 5"). There is a slight but perceptible taper downward and reduction in molded dimension from 41⁄2" at the top to 11⁄2" at the wale. The sheaves are 5" in diameter and 2" thick, located at the same level as the fixed block forward of the chesstree. Each chesstree is fixed to the ship’s side by three 3⁄4" bolts.5 You will need to shape the inboard surface carefully for it to fay neatly against the ship’s side. Note the shape of the molding on the chesstree’s outboard edge (right). The top of the chesstree is level with the upper side of the covering board or planksheer in the waist, which you have yet to add.

10.9 The fenders There are a pair of fenders attached to the ship’s side just forward of the entry steps, opposite the main hatch. On the sheer draught they are similar in appearance to the chesstree, but serve a different purpose. They act as guides and replaceable wear strips for raising barrels and casks up the ship’s side. The method of raising casks is called parbuckling. An excerpt from an illustration (right) in Steel’s Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging 6 makes this procedure clear, although here the cask is shown being parbuckled up the side of a wharf instead of a ship. According to Steel, the fenders are sided 31⁄2" and moulded 4" at the upper ends. They taper by 1" in their length from above to below. The Swan class draughts show them as 4 1⁄2" sided. Three 5⁄ 8" bolts secure them to the ship’s side.7 Again, you will need to shape the fenders carefully to fit the side of the ship and then mold the outer surfaces as before.

5, 7

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10.10 The entry steps Next aft are the entry steps. Deeply molded on three sides, the inboard face of each step is angled so that its upper surface is horizontal. There are six steps on each side of the ship. The steps are 2' 9" long and about 7" wide. For handholds there were two lines with knots at regular intervals suspended over each side of the steps. These are entering ropes. They attach to iron stanchions at the head of the entry way. We will deal with these items later on. Begin with a length of stock long enough to form all the steps from. I suggest using boxwood for this purpose. The blank should be 7" wide and 6" deep. The profile shown on your draught is run along one side of the stock. When formed, cut off 2' 9" lengths from this strip. The ends of the steps now need to match the profile of the outer face. I use various Swiss files to achieve this contour. Make sure that all the steps’ ends match: an odd assortment of differing profiles really detracts from the end result. Bevel the inboard face of each step to match the contour of the hull (illustration at left). Carefully mark the positions of the steps on the side of the hull. Ensure that the upper surface of each step remains the full depth while you bevel. All but the highest step and lowest two have a “bright” finish. Either sanding sealer or satin varnish are suitable. The steps on the main wale are painted black to match. The top step is painted to match the freize. Glue and treenail the steps in position.

10.11 The main channel Construct these similarly to the fore channels (section 10.6). In this case, the stool is integrated into aft end of each channel. Two interpretations are shown (below). Both are taken from contemporary models. My preference would be for the variant version. If you choose to make the channels to this alternative pattern, note the change in placement of the standards (illustrated below).

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There are seven 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts securing the channels to the side. Four standards support the channels. Dimensions of the standards are similar to those of the fore channel. However, the side arms are long enough to reach the upper edge of the drift rail. The drift rail is the highest decorative rail on the side of the ship at quarter deck level. As for the fore channels, two swivel ringbolts are fitted (illustrated below). The moldings along the channel edges are identical to those of the fore channels and are worked in the same way.

10.12 The main studdingsail boom irons Specialized iron supports for the main studding sail boom are fitted to the main channels. (For non-native English speakers, “studding sail” is pronounced “stun’sl.”) The main studding sail boom is a pole-like spar which is stowed along the outer edge of the main channel. There are two iron supports for this spar attached to each channel. There is an eyestrap forward and a gooseneck aft (plan view below).

The eyestrap is shown in the drawings (below right). A hook on the end of the boom fits into this eye and acts as a pivot for the boom to be deployed outboard. The eyestrap is 3" wide and tapers in thickness from 1" outboard to 3⁄8" inboard. The shoulder area at the edge of the channel is a little thicker at 13⁄8". The hole for the eye is 13⁄8" in diameter and its center is placed 41⁄2" out from the edge of the channel. It is secured to the channel by three 3⁄4" diameter bolts. The tail of the eyestrap tapers slightly in width as well as thickness. The outboard end of the boom rests in the hollow of the gooseneck. This hollow (right) has an internal diameter8 of 7". Otherwise it is similar in appearance to the eyestrap. Remember to soften all the edges before blackening the brass in the usual way.

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Steel, Folio LV gives this dimension as 12". As the boom diameter is only 7", this must be an error..

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10.13 The mizen channel Next aft are the mizen channels. These are a smaller version of the other channels so need only two standards to support them. The side arms of the standards go as high as the lower edge of the drift rail. The channels are 4" thick at the side and taper to 21⁄2" thick at the outer edge. Use the same methods for marking out and shaping them as before. Measure the length of the channels from the sheer draught, as the curve of the sheer slightly foreshortens the plan view given here (right).

10.14 The swivel gun mounts There are a number of swivel gun mounts shown on the sheer draught. There are three on each side of the forecastle and five on each side of the quarter deck. These mounts are stout baulks of timber bolted to the outside of the bulwarks following the line of the topside. The mount slopes inward athwartships. Its top surface is cut at an angle that follows the sheer line (as seen from the side) and horizontally athwartships. The lower part of each mount is square in section and the upper part octagonal. Note the shape of the transitional shoulders. There is an iron reinforcing hoop around the top of each mount. A reinforcing strap runs across the top and down the fore and aft sides of the mount, with a central hole for the socket. Begin with 9" square stock. Remember the 7-10-7 rule that you used for the pump tubes (section 6.35) to mark out and cut the octagonal section. The lower end of the mount is shaped as shown (right). The sides are cut away at an angle as shown on your NMM draught. Its outboard face is shaped to a quarter round. Chamfer the outboard edges of the squared section.

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Drill out the socket. It is 11⁄2" in diameter and 9" deep. There are two iron reinforcements; a recessed strap that runs over the top of the mount and a hoop driven over the top. At such a small scale, the strap may be made of thin shim to avoid having to cut rebates into the sides of the mount. The scale drawings (right) will assist you. The wider section around the socket is for the shoulder of the swivel gun yoke to bear on. The strap arms extend 1' 0" down each side of the mount. The strap is secured by a through bolt that passes just below the socket. The hoops are 1⁄2" thick and 2" wide. Each of these will need to be shaped to fit the varying angles at the top of each swivel mount. The bolt heads securing the hoops are about 1⁄2" in diameter. The positions of the swivel mounts can be transferred from your NMM drawings. The mount nearest the bow is difficult to locate from the sheer plan. I have drawn a plan view (below left) of the position of this item and other fittings at the bow. The head of the main rail curves downward and forward under the swivel mount. It is backed by a lining whose joints alternate with the scarphs of this rail and acts as a reinforcement. The relationship of the main rail to the cathead and swivel mount can be understood by examining the sheer draught in conjunction with the plan view here. All these items will be described in detail in Chapter Eleven. Note: for easy reference all swivel mounts are numbered sequentially from the bow. This will clarify the sectional details given on the following page.

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The sections below will help you visualize the positions of the mounts relative to the rails. The planksheer and roughtree rails will be notched to fit around them. The planksheer, sometimes called the covering board, is a flat board covering the tops of the timbers and planking. The roughtree rail is the rail along the sides of the quarter deck and will be bolted to the swivel mounts.

10.15 The drift rail The drift rail is the most challenging rail to make. It is the uppermost rail on the ship, running along the toptimber line. It is interrupted by the swivel gun mounts and channel standards, as well as the other items that also interrupt the waist rail. There is one hance forward and two hances aft. A hance is the ornamental scroll of the rail at changes in level — the drifts — of the topside. These scrolls will need to be cut by hand. The section for the drift rail is given below. It is 4" by 21⁄4" in section and made in the same way as the other rails. The gently curved section may be cut overlength, the molding cut, then the ends trimmed to the joint lines and angles indicated above. It is then a simple matter to mate the adjacent sections of molding. The scroll are next. I recommend extending these along the straight sections rather than making a joints at the points where the volute (the spiral part) of the scroll or curve begins. The reason will become apparent when you come to make them. It will help to match up the curved and straight sections of rail.

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The scroll will be cut from stock 21⁄4" thick. Leave the straight section overlength for now. This block was referred to as the drift piece. Cut around the outline carefully with a scroll saw, then mount the blank on a piece of scrap illustration board with rubber cement. Use the scratch stock on the straight section to cut the profile of the rail. Now it will be easy to transition this contour into the volute. The illustration (below) and photograph (page 178) show the shape of the scroll. If you are uncertain of the three-dimensional shape of this scroll, I strongly suggest that you make a maquette. This is a model of what you are attempting to carve. In this case, make an oversize pattern in modeling clay. I recommend making a maquette for every carving. It is an excellent way to work out problems without wasting wood and will act a three-dimensional aid to the actual work-piece. Sculptors have used this method for centuries. There are beautiful examples of maquettes in both wood and wax to be seen in the British National Maritime Museum and the French Musée National de la Marine in Paris. You will find the exercise of making a study model particularly useful when it comes to making the figure and other complex carvings. Begin by cutting in the concave profile around the curve of the scroll. This is where you will need micro-sized gouges. Be sure to stop this cut where the volute terminates in the curlicue or button (A). Next, lower the inner side of the curve to the level of the semi-circular section. Now shape the half-round. I find a small scraper cut to shape helpful in keeping the section consistent around the curve. The very end of this, next to the button, will need to be carefully hand-cut (B). The next stage is a little more difficult to visualize. The outside curve needs to gently taper in thickness from C to D, then increase to the button, where it is the full depth of the blank again. This will give the impression of the button protruding higher from the scroll. (Another way of thinking of this is of a gentle ramp down from C to D, then a little more steeply up in a slightly concave line to E.) You will see that you need to modify the concave section until the outer flat is the same width from C around to the button. Do not remove the scroll from the backing board until it is complete and ready to install on your model. This is a reliable method of making scrolls. You will probably spoil your first few efforts, but I encourage you to persist. Soon you will be cutting scrolls cleanly and with confidence.

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10.16 The lower counter rail This rail sits at the junction of lower and upper counters. Its section is shown here (lower illustration, right), and is shaped using your scratch stock. The rail is 41⁄2" deep. Make a scratch stock profile as you did for the tuck rail to form it. As the rail takes a compound curve, the blank should first be cut to the round-up of the edge of the counter. Use a card pattern to determine this curve. (It will not be identical to that of the elevation of the stern!) If you try to bend the rail to a compound curve after shaping it, you will have great difficulty in getting it to lie properly along the edge of the counter. It will also be easier to angle the fore face of the rail before rubber cementing it to the backing board. You will need to shape your scraper at the appropriate angle to form the rail profile. Take care to avoid undercuts. Take each pass gently to avoid gouging in too deeply. Finish any undercut areas using a Swiss file. Note that the lower surface of this rail should sit one inch below the knuckle formed between lower and upper counter. Contemporary models consistently show this feature. I am not sure of the reason for this constructional detail, other than it acting as a drip edge. The outer ends of the rail are shaped to the same section as the rail itself: check this detail on your NMM draught.

10.17 The upper counter rail The upper edge of this rail is level with the top of the knuckle of the upper counter. It is 4" deep and its section is shown (upper illustration, above right). It is similar to the upper counter rail and is made in the same way. The outer ends of the rail are also profiled in the same way as the tuck rail.

10.18 The forecastle deck beams It is now time to return to the interior of the ship and work on the uppermost decks. The seven forecastle deck beams round up more than those of the upper deck at 6" in a 22' 2" span. The pattern for this round up is given on the Mylar drawing, below the body plan. The forecastle beams are 6 1⁄2" wide by 5" deep.9 The beam ends sit on the clamps and are not let down into it as the upper deck beams. Note that beam #3 (illustrated overleaf ) is scored for the for topsail sheet bitt uprights (section 8.13).

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLVI.

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One problematic detail is that of the breast beam. This is the aftermost beam at the break of the forecastle. On the NMM plans it is delineated with the same dimensions as the other beams; normally it was of larger overall dimensions.10 A typical breast beam is shown (right, upper illustration). The reasons for the beam taking this form were threefold. Firstly, the beam was rabbeted to receive the ends of the deck planking and secondly, a molding was cut into its top face to act as a spurnwater and drip edge. Thirdly, the larger scantling added strength to the edge of the deck. Please study the illustrations text below and in section 10.33 before proceeding with this beam! Construct the beam to that of the section shown (above, lower illustration). It is much easier to fabricate it in pieces rather than cut it from a single piece of stock. Its finished appearance is identical. One way to to do this (if you are planking the deck) is to lay the lip section last, after the deck is completed. Trim the hooding ends of the planks first and then fit the lip section. When I built Polyphemus, the forecastle, quarter and poop decks were built off the model, so it was easy to run the deck under a miniature router bit in the drill press, trimming the plank ends perfectly.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLVI gives measurements 10" sided and 9" deep (W and H above).

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10.19 Forecastle deck hanging knees These are similar to those of the upper deck, should you decide leave off planking to show them. They are sided 4 1⁄2", with athwartship arms 2' 9" long. The side arms are long enough to reach the top of the upper deck spirketting below. With the changing shape of the ship’s side, each will require careful card pattern cutting and fitting. The hanging knees are fastened with seven 3⁄4" diameter bolts. A typical bolting pattern is shown (right). Chamfer off the curved inboard under edges of the knees.

10.20 Forecastle deck lodging knees A smaller version of the lodging knees to the upper deck, these are also sided 41⁄2" and have athwartship arms 3' 0" long. Their shapes are given on the plan (below opposite). Six 3⁄4" diameter bolts are used to fasten each lodging knee to the beams and frames. Three bolts fasten the knee to the ship’s side and three to the adjacent beam in a pattern similar to that shown above.

10.21 Forecastle deck carlings In addition to carlings defining the openings for the steam gratings and chimney cowl, there is also a carling on each side of the bowsprit (see below opposite). My conjecture (although I can find no mention in the literature) is that a partner was required for a solid foundation to the deck planking (also see section 10.22). The carlings are rabbeted half their depth to receive this partner. All carlings are 4" deep and to the widths indicated on the plan.

10.22 The bowsprit and fore mast plank partners The bowsprit plank partner(delineated opposite) has its hole running through at an angle. A jig will be helpful for getting this angle correct. (For an alternative partner arrangement, see section 10.29.) I would assume that both the bowsprit and fore mast partners are of 2" plank inset flush to the top of the beams. Make the hole for the fore mast 1" larger than the mast diameter of 16 3⁄8".

10.23 Forecastle deck ledges There are very few forecastle ledges. This deck carries much less weight than the upper deck so such reinforcement is not neccessary. In addition, reducing mass high in the ship is a stability consideration. Ledges are placed to frame in the steam gratings and galley chimney cowl. These ledges are let into the carlings as indicated (left). The joints are cut in the same way as for the upper deck ledges. Check the NMM plans first to see if the layout for your own ship is identical.

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10.24 The half-hook This is my own term for the pieces on either side of the bowsprit partners. They are not detailed in any drawing or specified by Steel, but there needs to be a solid foundation for the waterway and deck planking. I admit to being master shipwright here! The half-hooks are shown in the plan (previous spread). Cut card patterns to fit your model first. These pieces are 4" thick. Be your own shipwright in making the joints to the carlings and first forecastle beam.

10.25 The cathead It is now time to construct and install the catheads. In a ship of this type, the cathead stives (angles) upward to its outer end.11 It passes inboard through the topside and deck, and angles to fay against the underside of forecastle beams 1 and 2. The plan (previous spread) and sectional diagram (below right) will make this clear. Make sure that your mark-out is accurate before cutting through the bulwark and lodging knee inboard to fit around the cathead! Begin with oversized stock (the actual cathead was cut from compass timber) and saw the blank out to the molded shape, then trim it to its siding. The inboard end of the cathead (cat tail) curves to clear the fore topsail sheet bitt pins (see plan on previous spread). Note the notch in its upper surface to accommodate the deck planking. The business end of the cathead has two sheave holes cut through it. Note that these slots are cut vertically rather than at right angles to the cathead (illustration below). These slots are 13⁄8" wide and long enough to accommodate sheaves 9" in diameter. Note that the sheaves are offset slightly inboard of the slot center and also offset, so that the tops of the sheaves are flush with the upper surface of the cathead. This helps prevent the possibility of fouling (jamming) the catfalls.12 The iron sheave pin is 11⁄2" in diameter. The mark-out for the pin has to be carefully measured to ensure correct location of the sheaves.

Steel specifies a stive of 5" in every foot, (Naval Architecture, Folio XLVI) but the drawings show a shallower angle measuring slightly under 4 in 12. 12 Goodwin, The Sailing Man of War 1650-1850, page 198. 11

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The cat tail is secured to each beam by two 7⁄ 8" bolts. Note that it is scored to fit the underside of the deck beams. Because the cat tail crosses the beams at an angle, mark and cut these scores carefully. Also, to ensure that the sides of the cathead sit truly vertically, these scores will be deeper on their fore sides. The exposed edges of the cathead should be chamfered as usual. Attached to the outboard end of the cathead is a decorative cap carved with a stylized lion’s head, crown or an eight-pointed star-like motif. Some NMM plans of Swan class ships that I have examined13 show the latter design. None show a lion’s head or crown. If your plan does not give this detail, I would recommend using the star design as a safe choice. Take its overall measurements from your NMM plans. Mark out the design carefully on a boxwood blank (A, below). In cases where outer face is vertical leave allowance for the stive. Once marked out, cut down the design to the ground between the rays of the star (B). The ground is the lowest level of the carving. Next define the central boss (C). You might consider turning this if you doubt your miniature carving skills. To cut the rays of the star, first reduce their height by about half, then slope each ray down to the periphery so that the surface is flat with the point of each ray just above the level of the ground. Lightly re-mark the centerline of each ray, and carefully cut the angled faces from the centerline down to the ground (D). Clean up all the corners, especially around the central boss, and you should have a cap that resembles the drawing (above).

These include Nymph and Pegasus. Other plans do not show this detail.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Contemporary models sometimes show a textured finish to the ground of relief carvings. A random arrangement of small dots is one common treatment. This can be done easily with a small pointed tool. Make sure that the dots form an irregular random pattern. The final step is to angle the upper and lower sides to match that of the stive of the cathead, unless the end is square to the cathead. The cap may be left bright or painted. If you choose to use paint, the ground should be a dark ultramarine blue, the rays yellow ochre, and the boss picked out in red. Another more decorative possibility is to gild, although this is a modelmaker’s fantasy. The last items to be added to the cathead are the sheaves. These were made either of lignum vitae, an extremely tough wood, or brass. They are 13⁄ 8" thick and 9" in diameter. The hole for the sheave pins are 11⁄2" in diameter. The sheaves themselves are conveniently turned from wood or brass. The pin (1⁄32", actual diameter) is of brass wire cut a fraction longer than the width of the cathead and the ends gently “mushroomed” using a small nail set tool. Use a very fine brush to put a drop of blackening agent on each end of the pins.

10.26 Coaming to the steam gratings These are similar to coamings previously made (section 6.26). Provided that your coamings are identical in size to those shown (below right), you can take the measurements off this drawing. Remember to allow for the round up of the head ledges. In contemporary models the round up seems to be between 1" and 2" over 2' 0". The corners of the steam gratings are all rounded off above deck level, as shown. The color or finish should match the other coamings that have already been made.

10.27 Steam gratings These are smaller in mesh than the hatch gratings. Their patterns are given (right), and they may be contructed in the same way as the gratings that you have previously made (section 6.27). These should round up to match the head ledges and lie flush with them. They have a bright finish.

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10.28 The galley cowl The metal base for this is pierced by a circular hole of a suitable diameter to fit the upper chimney (section 8.31). The base also has a round-up which matches the head ledges. It is bolted to the coaming rebate by a 3⁄4" diameter bolt in each corner (illustration on opposite page, bottom). The base may be finished in matt black to match the stove. The cowl itself can be one of many styles. I am unsure whether the protean variety of shapes were due to experimentation, whimsy, or simply a “house style” of the yard that built the ship. Your NMM plan should give you the form used on your particular ship. If not, a style frequently seen is shown here. The body of the cowl may be made of 5⁄16" diameter (actual size) thin-walled brass tubing, silver-soldering the angled joint. There are thin rims, made from wire, around the ends. The cowl sits over the upper chimney and can rotate on it. There is an adjustable cover or baffle which slides in two tubes fitted to each side of the cowl. Two handles allow the cowl to be turned downwind. All these components may be made of brass and finished matt black to match the base. Put the cowl away until final assembly.

10.29 The forecastle waterway and deck planking The forecastle deck planking is 21⁄2" thick and the waterway 4" thick. The latter has a cross-section shaped similarly to the quarter deck waterway (see illustration below left). The planking layout (see overleaf ) is a reconstruction based on contemporary models. The athwartships “plank” at the aft end is, of course, part of the breast beam (see section 10.18). Once again, the amount of planking to be shown is a personal preference. I have also shown an alternative plank partner for the bowsprit; at least one contemporary model shows such an arrangement14 (next page, top right). Here the deck planking is laid up to the partner, which is about 1" higher than the surrounding planking, making it about 4" thick. Its edges are chamfered down to meet the deck.

NMM model SLR 0344, an experimental frigate fitted with Shanck’s sliding keels, circa 1795.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Each plank may be laid in a single length without any butts, as the forecastle is less than 22' 0" long. The fastenings are as described for the other decks. The planks nearest the centerline may be edge-set. Once you are a few planks out from the center, each should be shaped rather than forced into position. Fitting the planks neatly around the cathead and bowsprit will be an interesting exercise. Note that the fore topsail sheet bitt pins pass through the deck, but that the fore jeer bitts (see section 10.31) are bolted down on the deck. Leave the circular gap for the fore mast a little loose for now: it will be filled later with wedges and a mast coat, which is a canvas cover.

10.30 The fore topsail sheet crosspiece This was made some time ago (section 8.13), and may now be permanently installed in its scores. A single 3⁄4" bolt secures the crosspiece through each pin. The cheek blocks, if not fitted before, may also be attached and the various sheaves and pins fitted. The bitts may be left bright or painted red to match the color scheme that you have already established. Bitts are sometimes seen painted black on contemporary models. Presumably this was done to increase visual contrast at night.

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10.31 Fore jeer bitt pins and standards The fore jeer bitts (also spelled jear) are unusual in that they are bolted down over the deck and to the forecastle deck beams rather than having pins that pass through the deck. The pin portion of the bitt is integral with the standard, as illustrated (below). The general form of the bitts is similar to that of the fore topsail sheet bitts; its cross-piece is of similar dimensions and shape. It is fixed to each combination standard and pin by a single 3⁄4" bolt. The scores in the pins for the cross-piece are 11⁄4" deep. Cut the standards from 7" thick stock. The pin portion is 7" square. Chamfer off the edges as usual. There is a central slot cut through the standard fore-and-aft to accommodate a sheave 7" in diameter and 17⁄ 8" thick (shown at right). There is also a 3" wide cheek block on the outer sides of each bitt, each with a 7" sheave 1" thick. These features are identical to those of the topsail sheet bitts. The space between the standards is either 2' 2" or sufficent to clear the steam grating coamings by 1" on either side. I have indicated how the bitts may have been bolted to the forecastle beams below (side elevation, above right). The fore jeer bitts are finished in the same way as for the fore topsail sheet bitts. A contentious point is that of belaying pins. One often sees rows of pins on the bitts of modern models, but contemporary models rarely show these until the end of the eighteenth century. If you wish to show pins on the cross-pieces that is up to you, but my choice would be to omit them here. It would be accurate to show pin racks attached to the mizen shrouds at this date, should you decide to rig your model. At this period most lines belayed around timberheads, on cleats, on the eyebolts in the side and around the bases of the masts, or along the roughtree rails.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

10.32 Eyebolts at the foot of the foremast On each side of the fore mast there are four eyebolts used for belaying lines. They are of 7⁄ 8" diameter iron, 17⁄ 8" diameter in the clear. They attach through the planking to the carlings below. There are two additional eyebolts15 just aft of the foremast (illustrated at right), one each for the main topmast backstay and preventer stay. They are of 11⁄ 8" diameter iron and 23⁄ 8" diameter in the clear.

10.33 Forecastle bulwark planking (26, 27, 28) There is a narrow area of exposed framing inside the bulwark of the forecastle. This needs closing in with 2" thick plank. The expansion of this area is shown (below left). There is a small piece of plank (strake 26) at the aft end of the bulwark that covers the framing aft of the breast beam. You can cut back the molding on the edge of the breast beam to fit the plank to. At the fore end there are two strakes, the lower one interrupted by the cathead as it runs inboard. At the bow, the plank fits around the bowsprit as shown in the perspective illustration (below right). If you are painting the inside of the bulwark red, you may wish to make the two planks in a single piece and paint it before installation.

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Steel specifies only one such bolt in Naval Architecture (Folio XLVIII), but two are required by his decription in Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging (Progressive Method of Rigging Ships section).

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There is an interesting detail to be attended to at the aft end of the deck. Study the illustration (previous page, lower left) and drawing (below right). The outer edge of the breast beam needs to be carefully hollowed to make a channel for water to drain from the deck and waterway on to the gangboards or into the waist of the ship. Water then drains outboard through the scuppers. The outboard side of this hollow channel follows the angle of the waterway forward of it. If this is not done, water would pool at the aft corners of the forecastle and promote rot.

10.34 Ironwork inside the bulwark There are several belaying eyebolts fitted to the inside of the forecastle bulwark, abreast of the fore mast. There are four on each side. They are made of 7⁄ 8" diameter iron, 17⁄ 8" in the clear. Remember to recess them as you did for the loops on the gun carriages (section 9.41).

10.35 Ironwork in the breast beam There are four belaying eyebolts in the aft edge of the breast beam that may be made and installed now. There are two each side of 7⁄ 8" diameter iron and 21⁄2" in the clear. They are spaced as indicated on the drawing (right). These eyebolts are also recessed in the same way as the other eyebolts in the bulwarks and on the gun carriages.

10.36 The forecastle breastwork This is the name for the railings at the aft end of the forecastle. The belfry is contiguous with the breastwork. The belfry is a taller structure at the midline housing the ship’s bell. The breastwork stanchions contain sheaves for the running rigging and there are also cleats on the belfry for belaying points. Overleaf are drawings of the breastwork. If your specific ship’s drawing appears different from that shown, follow the “as launched” version for your own model.

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There are four stanchions whose profile should be shown on your draught. If not, follow the scale drawing given (below right). The stanchions are 41⁄4" square and are slotted fore-and-aft for a 4" diameter sheave 7⁄ 8" thick below the rail. The tops are shaped as indicated, with all edges chamfered off. They stand vertically, so that the lower ends need to be very carefully trimmed. To secure the stanchions, I would peg the lower ends and dowel them through the deck to the breast beam beneath. Measure very carefully before drilling any holes in the finished deck! The short length of rail is 8" wide by 21⁄2" thick with molded edges. Make sure that the rail has a curvature that follows that of the forecastle deck round up. Its midship end is squared off. It is very difficult to cut the holes for the stanchions accurately through the rail, so I use a little cheat that works well. Instead of cutting square through-holes, I cut stock the width of the stanchion plus one side of the overhang. I then carefully mark and cut the slots into one side, repeatedly offering the rail up to the stanchions until they are a perfect fit (A, below). A strip of the rail-thickness stock is then glued to the slotted side of the rail (B). Once the glue is set, the assembly is lightly sanded, the ends trimmed and the molding worked on the edges (C). Carefully carried out, the glue line is virtually invisible, even if the rail is left unpainted. To secure the rail at the correct level on the stanchions, use wooden blocks of appropriate height placed on the deck to act as a gauge while gluing up.

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The forecastle of a 38 gun frigate, circa 1780. The catheads are well shown with their tails running diagonally under the forecastle beams. Note the breast hook over the bowsprit housing and the eyebolts at the foot of the fore mast.

Contemporary model of Minerva, 38 guns, of 1780. All the head structures are well shown.

Forecastle of Resolution under construction, showing another view of the catheads. Note the notch acting as a landing for the planking. (Author’s model.)

Comparative view of Polyphemus, 64 guns of 1781. This ship of the line has a beakhead bulkhead. (Author’s model.) A view of Minerva’s head from above (left). This shows the head gratings and seats of ease, as well as the boomkins. All these structures are described in detail, beginning on page 206. Photographs of Minerva, from the Rogers’ Collection, are by courtesy of the U.S. Naval Academy Museum and Major Grant H. Walker.

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Gangboards in the waist of a contemporary model of a sixth rate, possibly Swan class. Iron supports for the gangboards terminate in forks for skid beams. The standard in the waist is unusual in such a small ship. The waist stanchions and rough-tree rail are described on page 274.

A view of the first drift and the hance. This detail of the scroll (see page 164) will assist in carving the hance pieces. Contemporary model, circa 1780. A completed coaming (right) ready for installation. Note the rounded corners above deck level: the coaming seam with the deck planking is at a right angle. In this example, the rabbet of the coaming was added as a separate piece once the coaming was assembled. The complex half-lap dovetail joints are apparent. (Author’s model.)

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Two views (above) of a method of holding internal planks temporarily in position. Small plastic cable ties are used. There is just sufficient space between the frames to pass these through. Note the backing batten on the outside of the hull. The planks should be formed to the internal curve rather than be sprung into place. This method is used by Dr. Greg Herbert.

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10.37 The spar rack I have been unable to determine the official name for these U-shaped racks on each side of the belfry. Their purpose is to hold the forward ends of spare spars lashed in the waist of the ship. They act as a height block, so that the fore end of the quarter deck, gallows crosspiece and this block are all at the same level. They are the same width as the breastwork rail, 8", and are hollowed as shown (previous spread). This fitting is not always shown on the deck plans and simply shows a gap between the inner end of the rail and the belfry. Slightly chamfer the edges of these racks. Both the breastwork rails and racks are usually painted black in contemporary models.

10.38 The belfry This is a rather decorative feature, even in a small ship. The design varied widely from yard to yard and from ship to ship, probably at the fancy of the local joiner. If your own draught is skimpy on details, you can adapt the drawings given here. The belfry is supported by two stanchions. These are decorative to a greater or lesser extent. In large ships they may have panelled sides or be split into two pillars each side with a cross-piece. However, for a humble sixth rate, the design here is more than adequate. The stanchions attach to a canopy or roof. This has either the form shown or is a simpler shallow arched piece. The top is protected with sheet lead cover, turned slightly around the sides. Between the stanchions is the headstock, or bell beam. This piece has a short trunnion on each end that fits into blind holes in the stanchions. The headstock is bound with either one wide metal strap (above right) or two narrower angled bands (see overleaf ) which attach to the top of the bell. As for everything else, the size of bell for each rate was specified, although I have not seen any relevant tables. The size that I have drawn appears to be about right. Above the headstock is the bell crank; this was not always fitted to small ships. In many cases a rope was attached directly to the clapper of the bell instead. The choice is yours.

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Begin by making the canopy. This is an exercise in patience as you will have to cut and file this to shape by hand. It is probably easiest to cut the concavity into the underside of your blank first. A piece 12" thick will be adequate. Work the molding along the straight sections next. Finish the underside by cutting the moldings into the curved section. Complete the canopy by turning it over and cutting the convex top to match the profile. Be thankful that you are not building a ship of the line; the cruciform-shaped canopy had four arched sides! The stanchions are next and should be somewhat more straightforward to make. They are cut from stock 41⁄4" thick and 9" wide. Cut in the moldings using Swiss files. Fit either short tenons or drill for pegs to attach the stanchions to the canopy and deck. Remember to angle the feet of the stanchions so that the belfry will sit vertically when viewed from the side. Drill blind holes for the headstock trunnions. The headstock is about 3" thick, shaped as shown on the drawing (previous page). The strap or straps are made of brass shim, blackened to resemble wrought iron. The variation of strapwork is shown here (below right). The bell is bolted to the straps. If you are making a crank, it should be shaped as indicated. Later you will attach a 2" white rope16 to it so that the bell may be rung from the upper deck. The bell itself may by turned from brass and either bronzed or, if your model is more stylized, gold-plated. It is quite small, about 8" or 9" in diameter and about the same height. Try to get the shape correct. Many models sport something looking more like an inverted egg-cup! There are two wooden cleats for the fore topgallant yard braces attached to the outer sides of the stanchions. Shape and fit them as shown on the scale drawings (previous page). The belfry may be left bright or painted black. The top should be painted medium grey to resemble lead. To assemble the belfry, first slip the headstock assembly between the two stanchions and then glue on the canopy. Make sure that the assembly is square before the glue sets up. The completed belfry may then be glued in position on the forecastle. The locating pegs will allow you to position it accurately. 16

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Remember that ropes are measured by their circumference.

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10.39 The quarter deck beams The forecastle completed, it is time to turn attention aft to the quarter deck. The sequence of construction will be similar: the beams will be installed, then the hanging and lodging knees, followed by the various carlings and partners. (For convenience, a scale drawing is shown on the following two page spread.) The round up of the quarter deck is given on the Mylar plan just below the body plan. There are a total of fifteen beams, of which twelve are regular ones 7" wide by 51⁄2". There are two wider beams, numbers 4 and 5, which flank the upper capstan partners and are 8" wide. The other atypical beam is the breast beam, which is similar to that of the forecastle in section. The aft end of the deck is defined by the quarter deck transom, which you made and installed some time ago (see section 7.3). There is a large space between beam 15 and the transom. Obviously some support is needed here, so a half beam is fitted as shown. Generally half beams were omitted from Admiralty draughts and must be inferred. The half beam is scored into the central structure that outlines the hole for the rudderhead to turn in. This framing in is not shown on any drawings, so I have shown one way that this might be done (below right).

10.40 Rudderhead framing I have drawn a three-piece “partner” that frames the aperture and will provide a solid support for the planking. It is 5" thick, with its upper surface flush to the upper side of beam 15, the head of the stern post and the rabbet of the transom. The hole should just be large enough for the rudderhead to turn freely. You will need to make your own patterns, because even a fraction of a degree difference in the angle of the stern post in your model will shift the axis of rotation of the rudder forward or aft. The rabbeted joints should be similar to those of the capstan partners on the upper deck (see section 8.17). The partners are scored into beam 15 and the transom by half their depth, and their upper side is flush with the top of the beam and rabbet in the transom. The half beams are then scored on in the usual way once the “partner” has been fitted.

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10.41 The mizen mast partners Steel does not mention any partner here, but one certainly needs to be fitted at this level. Again, my drawing (above) is conjectural. This plank partner can be 2" thick. The hole is an inch or so larger around than the 12" diameter mast. Score the partner down until it is flush to the tops of beams 9 and 10.

10.42 Quarter deck capstan partners This is similar to that on the upper deck, but it is only 5" thick. As far as I can determine, the partners are entirely above the level of the deck. Presumably they rest on carlings, which Steel does not mention. The upper surface of the partner is horizontal, i.e. at right angles to the axis of the capstan. I have designed the carlings to the partner so that they halfjoint to the adjacent beams from above, raising the bottom edge of the partners to deck plank level (illustration at left). These carlings are 5" deep and 7" wide with a rebate for the deck planks. Take your measurements from the scale drawing opposite.

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There are bearer pieces running along the beams that the partners also rest on. The aft bearer is the width of the beam at 8", but the fore bearer is only 3" wide. The upper surfaces of the bearers are horizontal, and the lower surfaces fit the round up and angle of the tops of the beams. I have drawn the partners in three pieces with rabbeted joints. It is wedge-shaped so that its upper surface is horizontal. The inner diameter of the iron hoop for the capstan spindle is 1' 31⁄4" in diameter. It acts as the bearing surface for the capstan ribs (see section 9.5). I think that the hoop would be about 1⁄2" thick and 4" wide. Measure and mark out the hole in the partners carefully so that it aligns with the lower capstan and its spindle. Again, Steel is silent on this subject, but the partners should be bolted securely to the beams and carlings. Note the stanchion socket holes on the fore corners (see section 10.67). You may beg to differ with my reconstruction and provide partners of your own design.

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10.43 Quarter deck carlings There are a number of gratings, a companion, ladderway and scuttles to be framed with carlings. A companion is a form of light to the deck below. The carlings are all 5" deep and are of varying widths. Take their measurements from the scale drawing on the previous spread. Check that the openings shown on the plans for your own ship are identical. If not, modify this scheme to fit.

10.44 Quarter deck hanging knees These follow the pattern for the other hanging knees in the ship. They are 5" wide, their side arms extend down 6" below the top of the spirketting. Card patterns are a big help here! The thwartship arms are 2' 9" long. There are seven 3⁄4" diameter bolts through each knee.

10.45 Quarter deck lodging knees These are 41⁄4" sided and the thwartship arms 3' 0" long. Their bolts are also 3⁄4" in diameter. There are three bolts on each arm, except where the side arm is too short.

10.46 Quarter deck transom knee There is an iron knee reinforcing the junction of the transom with the ship’s side. Only its weight is specified by Steel.16 I have drawn what seems to be a reasonable size. Note that the side arm is cast under the half beam forward of it. There is a filling piece above the clamp between the half beam and the transom under the iron knee. This should should be fitted first. The thickness of this shim is the same as that of the clamp. There are several 3⁄4" diameter bolts through the iron knee. Steel only specifies that there should be three in the thwarthships arm, one “long enough to take a bolt in the timber next the side,” and “two bolts before the gallery door.” In the case of a sixth rate with a quarter badge, the latter does not apply. Again, your interpretation of this knee may differ from mine. However, it must be structurally sound.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLII: 1 1 14 (i.e. one hundredweight, one quarter, fourteen pounds).

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10.47 Coaming to the companion The companion is the aftermost opening in the deck just forward of the mizen mast. Its size varies for different ships of the Swan class, so follow the NMM plan. The general construction will be similar, whatever its size. The coamings (and head ledges) are 4" wide and 7" high. Above the level of the planking they taper to 3" in width at the top. There is a small but distinct narrowing of the sides going aft as seen in plan view (drawing at right). The coaming sides are rabbeted 11⁄2" deep and wide. The corner joints are cut in the usual way (see section 6.26). Note that the aft corners of the coamings are radiused off above deck level. The underside of the head ledges conform to the round up of the beams, but their upper surfaces are not rounded up in this instance.

10.48 The grating coamings These are also delineated (above right). In this case, the coamings run in one continuous piece fore and aft. Again, note the narrowing from forward to aft. The coamings are rabbeted 11⁄2" wide and deep to receive their gratings. The aft head ledge is cut to fit the companion head ledge aft of it. The sloped sides fay to each other (see longitudinal section, above). Its forward edge is level with the forward edge of beam 8. The other two head ledges are 7" wide. They all round up by 2". The head ledges score down on their beams by 7⁄ 8", although this may be omitted in the model.17 The forward ends of the coamings abut the capstan partners.

10.49 The quarter deck gratings The gratings are much finer in mesh than those on the upper deck. The transverse members are 11⁄2" in section. The fore and aft strips are 3⁄4" thick. Patterns are given for these overleaf.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLIII

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You will notice that the spacing of the athwartships strips is slightly different for each grating to suit its aperture. The fore and aft strips are consistently spaced. The outboard ones are wider and tapered slightly to fit. Remember that these gratings have a 2" round up. In some contemporary models, the gratings fan out proportionally to the width of the openings. This is a complication that would require a custom jig for cutting the athwartship strips. Not impossible, but it would add a level of difficulty that most modelers would prefer to avoid!

10.50 The companion top Frankly, this is a thorny subject. Often a pitched roof skylight ( ) is shown on modern models. I believe that these did not come into general use until closer towards the end of the century. From about 1750, ships of the line had clerestory style lights that could be removed and replaced by gratings for ventilation and tarpaulin covers over them for foul weather. I am not certain what a Swan class ship would have carried. The only reference I can find is that an order of 1779 allowed sloops of 300 tons to have one companion “afore the mizzen mast, to extend one space from beam to beam, to be three feet broad and about six inches in the sides above the deck.” 18 Showing either a grating or clerestory-style companion would be safe. A design for the latter is given here (below right). You can work out how to build this feature, depending on the thickness of glass or glass substitute that you are using. Each side may be assembled from veneer or thin wood stock. The triple lamination method, as you did for the bulkheads, works well. Veneer is usually 1⁄20" thick (actual) which scales out at just over 2", full size. It can be reduced to 11⁄2" in thickness during the final sanding process.

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PRO ADM106/2508, 11th May 1779, quoted by Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, page 243.

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10.51 Scuttles There are two scuttles shown on the deck plans, but the Atalanta draught shows a third central scuttle between the breast beam and beam 2. I believe this to be drafting error. The only purpose of a scuttle in this position would be to allow the pump tubes to be withdrawn and replaced. As the quarter deck does not extend over the chain pumps in this class of ship, it is unneccessary. The two square scuttles are for the top tackles. These are double or triple purchase tackles used to raise or lower the topmasts and are only rigged as occasion demanded. You will recall making and installing a stout eyebolt each side on the upper deck for this purchase (see section 9.27). Make two carlings 41⁄2" wide to frame in each scuttle (near right illustration). If you plan on showing the top tackle rigged, then the scuttle lids (far right) should be omitted. Scuttle lids are made in two layers, each 21⁄2" thick. The lower layer is rebated so that the scuttle will sit flush to the deck. Fit two small ring bolts to the lid to facilitate its removal.

10.52 The quarter deck ladderway coaming This is constructed in the same way as the other coamings. The width of the coamings and head ledges is 41⁄2". The coaming is 8" high; this its height above the beams. The head ledges round up by 2". There is a taper to the outside of the coaming as shown on the drawing. No grating will be required for this opening, as there will be a rail constructed around it.

10.53 The quarter deck waterway I have drawn this 12" wide. Its width is not specified by Steel. It is 4" thick and is bearded back under the spirketting by 1⁄4". As this amount is so small, it may be ignored. Its section is shown here. The inboard section is the thickness of the deck planking, which is 21⁄2".

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10.54 Quarter deck planking The quarter deck planking is 21⁄2" thick and follows the scheme shown (above). At this period the planking was tapered, without “joggled” planks to the waterway. The aft ends of the planks bed on the quarter deck transom. Take care to angle the hooding ends accurately to fit the rabbet. My layout is a reconstruction based on contemporary models.

10.55 Quarter deck bulwark planking (27, 28) There is still an exposed sliver of framing along the bulwark that needs to be covered. This is filled in by 21⁄2" thick plank. The elevation drawing (below) shows one possible way in which this spirketting was done. If a wider plank were available, the aft plank of strake 27 may have filled the space without the addition of strake 28 as shown above. If you are painting the inside bulwark red, you may wish to consider pre-painting the planks to avoid a difficult masking job.

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10.56 Drainage at the break of the quarter deck There is a drainage channel in the fore end of the deck, similar to that at the break of the forecastle (see section 10.33). You will need to trim back the outboard part of the waterway to accomodate the planksheer which will run above the side planking and on top of the frames (right). The forward end of the quarter deck is above the bulwark top and will be covered later by this planksheer.

10.57 Ironwork for the quarter deck There are just a few eyebolts to make and fit. There are four eyebolts in the spirketting of 7⁄ 8" diameter iron and 13⁄4" in the clear. Although not mentioned by Steel, there should also be four eyebolts in the breast beam, similar to the forecastle (see section 10.35).

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10.58 The tiller There is direct evidence19 that ships in the Swan class were fitted with a wheel “as launched.” However, there are mechanical difficulties associated with the rigging of a tiller to a wheel on the quarter deck. The most vexing is the alternate lengthening and shortening of the tiller rope as the wheel is put over. Contrary to expectation, the action is not linear. Each side of the rope tightens and slackens in an unpredictable manner. This peculiarity has been explained by John Harland.20 Later on, ways of overcoming this difficulty were devised, but in the 1770’s this was far in the future. The illustration (below right) shows one possible design if you are only going to fit a tiller and omit the wheel. The tail is square in section, tapering from 9" square to 7", to fit the mortise that you cut in the rudder head some time ago (section 7.33). The aft face of the tail is chamfered. I have cranked the tiller slightly so that its fore end is about 3' 0" above deck level. This is a comfortable height to hold. Note on the drawing where the rectangular section changes to a circular one for the grip (below). Of course, some tillers were more ornate, perhaps with a carved Turks head as the finial. A Turk’s head is an ornamental knot in the form of a ball. This description holds true only for ships without a wheel. However, if you are going to fit a wheel, the tiller end is slightly longer, plain and rectangular in section, as described in the following section, 10.59.

This is shown in some detail on the deck plans of Vulture, 3609/52, ZAZ unknown. 20 John Harland, The Early History of the Steering Wheel, The Mariner’s Mirror, Vol. 58, No. 1, February 1972, pages 41-68. Note especially the graph on page 43 of this discussion. 19

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10.59 The steering wheel The deck plans of Vulture clearly delineate a steering wheel as “original equipment” installed when the ship was built. The position of the blocks and lead of the tiller rope are precisely shown, including five turns of rope around the barrel of the wheel. Interestingly, there is no indication of a wheel shown on the sheer and profile. The following description is for those fitting a wheel to their model. Two stanchions are set vertically in the quarter deck just aft of the mizen mast. They attach to beams 10 and 11, to which they are scored (illustrated overleaf ). Steel gives stanchion height above deck as 3' 7", 11" wide and 4" thick.21 In other plans that I have examined, the spokes of the wheel clear the deck by only about 3". Therefore I would make the stanchion height 3' 3" above the deck. Do not install the stanchions until the wheel is completed!

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLIII.

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In a sloop these stanchions would be of simple design. At most they would have an incised panel on their outer faces. I have suggested such a design (below). The inner faces have blind holes 6" in diameter as bearings for the barrel spindles. The barrel is 1' 9" long (not including the spindles that turn in the stanchions) and 1' 1" in diameter.22 There is a wider diameter rim at its aft end to prevent the tiller rope from running off the aft end of the barrel. It is 1' 3" in diameter. (in Steel’s tables the figures for the two different barrel diameters are accidentally transposed.) Each spindle should be about 3" long and 6" in diameter. The scale drawings (previous page and right) show the details of this piece. This is where lathework experience is very useful. First turn the barrel with its integral spindles. Note that the fore spindle passes through the hub of the wheel. The barrel is a relatively easy “one off ” item. Next prepare a pattern to turn the spokes. This will be used in the duplicating device that you made earlier (see section 6.40). The ten spokes can be turned from 2" square section boxwood. Remember to leave the portion that passes through the rim square in section as well as the inner ends of the spokes, which should be left overlength for now. The wheel itself is 5' 0" overall in diameter and is of either ten or twelve spoke design. As it is smaller in size than in large ships, I would make a wheel with ten spokes.

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Taken from the quarter deck plan of Vulture, old ref. 3609/52. Steel specifies a 2' 0" long barrel.

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There are many different methods of making a wheel. I will describe how I tackled this job for the double wheel of Polyphemus. You may have another preferred or better method. The hub and rim should be made at the same time. The hub is 1' 5" in diameter and 5" thick. The rim is made of sections which are 3" thick. Mark out a piece of illustration board with the radiating pattern of lines at 36° intervals (given on previous page). Drill a central hole through the board 6" in diameter. Now lower the central area of the board by 1". Because the hub is 2" thicker than the rim, the finished wheel will be asymmetric as seen from the side if you omit to take this step. Rubber cement a hub blank which has been pre-drilled with a 6" hole to the center of the board. Now assemble ten oversized wedge-shaped pieces of 3" thick rim stock in position, gluing the joints between the segments with epoxy resin glue and rubber cementing the rim pieces to the board. The assembly should now look like the illustration (above). Construct a set-up on the drill press similar to when you drilled the deadeyes (section 12.4). The illustration board carrying the blanks needs to revolve over a fixed board with a register mark so that you can accurately index the moveable upper board every 36°. This set-up should be attached to an x-y adjustable table. Move the setup so that the “near” edge of a small end mill in the chuck describes a circle 1' 5" in diameter. Setting the drill in motion at a suitable speed, gently lower the mill into the hub blank by a few thou. If you attempt to take too deep a cut, you risk the blank either coming loose and flying off or disintegrating. Slowly feed the workpiece into the mill. Once you have completed the initial cut through a full circle, lower the mill by a few more thou. and repeat this operation until you have cut through the 5" blank to shape the hub. Do not remove it from the board yet!

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Follow a similar procedure to cut the rim from the pieced-up blank. The outer diameter of the rim is 4' 1" and the inner diameter 3' 7". Once again, do not detach the rim from the carrier board yet. The work should now appear as shown (illustration at right). Now chuck an end mill that will cut a 2" wide path. This time the upper board needs to be oriented with the centers of the rim segments aligned with the x-axis of your set-up. (This is an offset of 18°.) Make sure that the cutter head passes exactly over the center of the hub before continuing. Lock the y-axis of the table and feed the assembly under the cutter using the x-axis movement. Gradually score the hub and rim to half the depth of the rim: i.e. by 11⁄2". Rather than complete the cut for one pair of spokes at a time, make a pass across the assembly, then rotate the table to the next position using a witness mark. Repeat for all five pairs of spokes before lowering the mill a few more thou. for the next pass. Once this stage of milling is complete, the assembly should look like the drawing ( lower illustration, above right). The next task is to notch the spokes in their square sections below the hand-grips with a score 3" wide and 1" deep. These scores can either be milled or filed out by hand (illustration at left). Reduce the inner ends of the spokes the same way. You can now assemble the spokes on the wheel. Cut off any excess length of at the hub end, keeping the central hole for the barrel spindle clear. Again, I used epoxy resin for this assembly. Once all the spokes are secured, remove the wheel carefully from its building board and clean it up with fine sandpaper.

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There is one more step remaining to complete the wheel. You will need to cut two very thin facing pieces for the rim. I made these from very thin card stock using a circle cutter with an extremely sharp blade. Their dimension should be about 1⁄2" less than the rim itself, both inside and outside radii. I painted the facing pieces the same color as the wood used for the wheel and carefully glued them in place. You can optionally drill and treenail through the rim and spokes. The wheel and barrel can now be assembled with the stanchions and secured to the beams. To complete the steering gear you will need four stropped 6" single blocks attached to eyebolts in the spirketting near deck level. Note that the forward block on the starboard side is positioned ahead of that on the port side by five turns of the tiller rope (see illustration on page 191). An iron band fitted with two eyes, called a horn hoop, is fitted to the fore end of the tiller. It is 2" wide and about 1⁄2" thick. As the tiller rope is 3" in circumference, the eyes on each side of the horn hoop shopuld be of 1" diameter iron, 11⁄4" in the clear. The tiller should be straight as seen from the side, unlike the curved version used when a wheel is not fitted (see section 10.58).

The tiller rope is 3" “white rope” 23 and is eyespliced at each end to the eyes of the horn hoop. It reeves through the blocks at the side and takes five turns around the steering wheel barrel (illustrated on page 191). With the wheel and tiller at amidships position, a nail is driven through the tiller rope in the third turn on the barrel at top center. As space between the tiller, rope, wheel and mizen mast is so small, the helmsman must have stood to port to steer. The ropes leading across the deck must have been an awkward obstruction too. Given the difficulties of the geometry of this set-up,24 this must have been a very cumbersome arrangement.

23 24

Steel, Rigging and Seamanship, Volume II, Table, page 129. John Harland, The Early History of the Steering Wheel, The Mariner’s Mirror, Vol. 58, No. 1, February 1972, pages 41-68. 195

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10.60 The upper capstan The lower capstan has already been made and installed (see section 9.1). The upper one, assuming that you have made the spindle in two parts, is now the focus of attention. First make sure that the upper spindle sits at the correct height to the quarter deck partners when it is united with the lower spindle. Make any adjustment that you need to; hopefully none is required. The sequence from here on will parallel that of the lower capstan construction.

10.61 The upper capstan whelps There are six upper capstan whelps which are similar to the lower ones. Make them to the dimensions given in the drawing (below) and the text. The whelps fit into 1" deep scores in the spindle and the drum head. The drum head is the circular top analogous to the trundle head of the lower capstan. The whelps are 73⁄8" at the outer lower edge and 61⁄4" at the top, tapering to 51⁄2" at the inner edge. To keep the assembly accurately angled, use the twelve-sided pattern given in section 9.2 to build the unit on. Scores for the upper chocks, 2" wide, are cut 11⁄8" above the surge. Those for the lower chocks are 35⁄8" above the base of the whelp and accomodate chocks 31⁄8" thick. These scores may be either angled or birdsmouthed. The sheer and profile drawing of Fly actually shows this detail of angled scores! There are two 3⁄4" diameter bolts through each pair of whelps.

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Note that each of the three pairs of bolts through opposite pairs of whelps must be at different heights to clear each other through the center of the barrel. The upper capstan should now appear as in the illustration (top right).

10.62 The upper chocks These are 2" thick and are similar to the lower capstan chocks. Each chock is secured to the barrel by a 3⁄4" diameter blind bolt.

10.63 The lower chocks These are 3 18" thick and have concave edges. A 3⁄4" diameter blind bolt secures each chock to the barrel. Steel25 mentions 3" thick chocks “close up under the lower chock,” which I take to mean some variety of support block. As these are not specified in any other way and are hidden from view, these reinforcements may be omitted.

10.64 The drumhead This is constructed in two layers, similarly to the trundle head (see section 9.9). Each layer, 3' 2" in diameter, is in two sections.26 The upper layer is 53⁄4" thick and the lower layer 5" thick. The tenon in the spindle passes through the lower layer and is mortised by 11⁄2" into the upper layer. The ten capstan bar holes are 33⁄4" square, tapering to 25⁄8" square. They are 101⁄2" deep. There are two inset circular reinforcing plates, 31⁄4" wide by 3⁄8" thick. These plates have ten countersunk holes, one between each bar hole, for 3⁄4" diameter bolts. These are identical to those on the trundle head (see section 9.9). The illustration (left) should make these features clear.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVIII.

Steel (ibid) specifies 3' 8", but check your own draught.

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There are six shallow mortises in the underside of the lower layer. These are 1" deep. They are arranged around the square mortise as shown (below). Note that the inner corners of four of these shallow mortises intrude slightly into the square one.

The top of the drum head is usually shown with a step-down in models, which I assume shows a cap over the drum head. This looks to be about 1" deep, but is not specified by Steel. The section (above) shows the profile of the drum head. The upper layer beards down toward the periphery by 3 ⁄4", so that the drumhead edge is 10" deep. The drum head perimeter usually has two turned beads, also indicated on the section. Drill holes for the capstan bar retaining pins as you did in the trundle head (see section 9.11). Here there are ten holes just inside the circular iron plate.

10.65 The upper capstan bars and pins The bars are 8' 6" long27 and are otherwise identical to those for the lower capstan (see section 9.10). The retaining pins and chains for the capstan bars are also identical to those that you made earlier.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXIX specifies 9' 0", but this comes too close to the breastwork.

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10.66 The upper capstan pawls These are similar in size and finish to those on the lower capstan (see section 9.12) and are bolted to the upper capstan partners. The plan view (far right) shows the position of the axes for the two pawls. To complete work on the capstan assembly, connect the upper capstan to the lower spindle by its pin.

10.67 The quarter deck ladderway This is constructed in the same way as the the other ladders that you have made (see sections 6.39 and 9.23). The drawing (right) gives the layout. Check that the height between the quarter deck and upper deck is the same as on this drawing and make any adjustment necessary. I believe that the upper end of the ladder was placed to starboard.

10.68 The ladderway railings These are either of wood or metal. The draught of Fly shows iron stanchions (also called newels) and rails. The iron version is given (right). In addition, there would be rope handrails going down, with eyesplices placed over the tops of the stanchions. The lower ends are secured to small eyebolts on the deck below. The stanchions taper slightly from about 11⁄4" in diameter at the base to 1" at the finial or knob. They are removed when the capstan is in use, so have 3⁄4" diameter extensions below the base stops that fit into sockets in the locations shown. Note that the shorter aft stanchions are fitted to holes in the capstan partners, not the ladderway coaming. This is clearly indicated on the Fly sheer and profile drawing.

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Rings are forged on near the upper ends of the stanchions. These rings, with eyes 3⁄4" in the clear, carry the rails which are made of 3⁄4" diameter iron. All ironwork is blackened in the usual way.

10.69 The quarter deck breastwork Analogous to that of the forecastle, it is a little more ornate for the benefit of the officers. The stanchions were usually turned, which will give your duplicating device (see section 6.40) some further use. There are five stanchions made from 5 3⁄4" square stock. It is virtually impossible to turn these identically without a duplicator. Individual ships have slightly different patterns for these stanchions, but all have two slots for 5 1⁄4" diameter sheaves 3⁄4" thick. These will need careful marking out and drilling. The breastwork is such a prominent feature it is worth taking time on. Carefully mark and drill for the stanchion pegs in the breast beam.

The rails are similar to those on the forecastle and are 2 1⁄2" thick (section 10.36). Check your draught for their correct widths. The same strategy can be used to make and fit them as before (see section 10.36). In the next chapter the gangways in the waist will be constructed and then work on the head of the ship; these details will test your abilities and skills.

END OF CHAPTER TEN

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ELEVEN

his chapter will concentrate on the outboard decorative work and details of the model. As these are added, the model will begin to look more and more like a finished ship. There are an assortment of parts to be made which will require skills that you have either acquired by now or will need to hone. The problem of producing convincing carvings will be the biggest challenge for most, but the strategies that I shall outline should get you over the worst hurdles.

This three-quarter bow view of King Fisher, 14 guns, is one of a series of paintings executed for King George III in the late 1770’s. These were derived by mechanical perspective drawings from the draughts, not the ships themselves. By demonstrating the latest in British naval architectural achievement, their purpose was to stimulate the King’s interest in the Navy. The perspective drawings were by Joseph Williams and J. Bimner. Joseph Marshall was the painter. Note the bill-board (section12.10) and the headwork. The first port at the bow is shown as a regular gun port, which was not the case for the Swan class.

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11.1 The fixed gangway The first item to make will be the fixed part of the gangway. This is a platform, each side, just forward of the quarter deck. It has several functions. It acts as the head of the entryway into the ship and as a step down from quarter deck level to the gangboards in the waist. It also provides access to the quarter deck from the waist via a ladderway. The shape of this gangway varies slightly from ship to ship, but all have a shallow curve toward the forward end. The aft end of this gangway is bolted under the quarter deck breast beam, and the forward end is supported by a hanging knee to the side. The platform is lightly framed.Some models that I have examined show a molding, similar to that on the breast beam, under the overhanging lip. The drawings here give my reconstruction of how such a platform may have been constructed. The perimeter frame of the gangway is made of 4" by 4" section wood. The athwartship members are 4" wide by 3" deep. The outboard ends tenon into the string of the waist. Note the curved piece and its aft tenon. The joints are similar to those of the ledges into the carlings of the decks. The hanging knee is 4" thick. Its newel post (position indicated at right, plan view) and access ladder will be detailed in Chapter Twelve. The outboard edge of the forward end of the gangway appears above the level of the covering board (or planksheer) in the waist. Note that the gangway is canted at the same angle as the outboard ends of the quarter deck beams, so that water will drain both forward and outboard off it. Again, I stress that the structural description above is only my own interpretation.

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11.2 The planksheer in the waist Before you can make and install the gangboards, you will need to fit the planksheer in the waist. Sometimes called the covering board, this flat plank covers the tops of the frames and both inner and outer planking. It runs from the fore hance to the first hance aft. It is 3" thick, although Steel1 specifies 21⁄2". The planksheer needs to be wide enough to overhang the outboard side of the planking by 3" and be flush to the top of the inner planking. Its section is shown in the drawing (right). Note that the outboard edge is molded. The planksheer will need to be carefully fitted to the upper ends of the chesstree (section 10.8), fenders (section 10.9) and at the scrolls of the hances (section 10.15). You can either cut scores in the edge of the planksheer or notch the upper ends of the chesstree and fenders. Either way, a neat tight joint is necessary. I prefer to take scores out of the edge of the planksheer, as this is easier to do.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI.

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The planksheer was painted black. If painting your model, do this before installation using a lowgloss oil-based paint and, once thoroughly dry, finish it by rubbing down with a little powdered pumice and water. To apply pumice, use a damp pad made from scrap felt. Any white deposit remaining may be removed with a damp cloth. This will give a nice satin finish.

11.3 The gangboards Steel specifies that gangboards along the side of the waist are 3' 0" wide.2 However, this reference is for 1805, about 30 years later than the Swan class. This passageway became wider over time until the waist was completely closed in. Here the gangboards cannot be wider than the forward end of the fixed part of the gangway. I have drawn them 1' 6" wide (illustration at left). Two 9" planks are bolted together with 3⁄4" diameter bolts driven horizontally at 4' 0" intervals. Fit the outboard edge of the gangboard accurately to the planksheer. The seam between the planks is caulked in the same way as you treated the deck planking. During this period there were many developmental changes to the waist, so either wood or iron knees would be appropriate. I have drawn both possibilities (at left). If made of iron, the knee was known as a gangboard crane. The positions of these knees are shown across the bottom of this spread. The gangboards’ upper surface is flush with the top of the planksheer, and they cant outboard at the same angle as the gangways. To complete the gangboards, chamfer off the inboard edges as shown (section, opposite page). Later you will fit stanchions on the outboard side of the planksheer as a safety rail.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XXXVIII.

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11.4 The breast hook over the bowsprit Moving to the bow of the ship, there is a breast hook over the bowsprit. It is fitted just below the drift rail. It is 7 3⁄4" thick and measures 11' 0" in length along its arms. There are eight 3⁄4" diameter bolts securing the breast hook to the upper ends of the bollard timbers and hawse pieces. Make sure that the upper surface of the breast hook is flush with the toptimbers and planking. Depending on your own model, you may need to hollow the underside of the breast hook slightly at its forward edge for the bowsprit to clear as it passes through. Check that the upper and lower surfaces of the breast hook conform to the line of the toptimbers, and are rounded up or hollowed respectively. If it does not, the planksheer will not seat properly when you install it. Chamfer the edges of the breast hook off in the usual way.

11.5 Structures of the head Before beginning to construct the head of the ship, a familiarity with its nomenclature will be helpful. Terms such as head rail and head timber can quickly become confusing. The following illustrations should clarify matters. The view (opposite top) is not a specific ship of the Swan class, but is representative. For instance, the draught of Atalanta shows no first head timber, and the trail board runs only as far aft as the fore side of the stem. The forward end of the lower cheek is treated somewhat differently for various ships in the class, and so on. Compare the illustrations with your own draught. Another thing to note is that several structures normally fitted are usually omitted from all draughts. A case in point is the false rail. Also the various head gratings and seats of ease are not delineated. These different components will be described in the sequence that they should be constructed.

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Each part of this complex structure is not particularly strong, but it is amazing how the rigid the composite assembly becomes. On many models, the elements seen from the side are fitted but none of the remaining structures are shown. On the previous page is an overhead view of the headwork. Take time with these drawings to become acquainted with the names of each part.

11.6 The lower cheek The foundation for the headwork will be the two cheeks. These are substantial lateral supports for the knee of the head and are in the form of large knees. The forward arm of the lower cheek has a slight upward curve. The arm against the side is almost straight, following the sheer of the wale to which it attaches. Steel specifies the side arm as 7' 0" long. The length of the fore arm may be taken from your Mylar drawing. The sided dimension of the lower cheek is 61⁄2" at the aft end, tapering slightly toward the fore end. The cheek is molded 8" along the side and tapers to 31⁄4" at its forward end. The plan drawing (below) does not take into account the upward curve of the cheek or the bevel of the arm against the side. In any case, you will need to modify the pattern to suit your own model. The outer surface of the cheek is molded to the section shown (right). Occasionally this section was a variant of this shape: your sheer plan may indicate this. File a suitable profile tool, sizing it to the siding of the wider (aft) end of the cheek. As you cut this profile, twist the cutter slightly so that the outer sides stay in contact with the sides of the cheek. This way the molding will taper proportionately along the cheek. The center beads of the moldings are usually painted black. The outer beads are left bright. The best strategy is to seal the wood first, then paint. Any stray spots of paint on the outer beads can be carefully scraped off when thoroughly dry. There are eight 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts which attach each cheek to the knee and wale. Four bolts secure each arm. The bolts in the knee of the head pass right through both cheeks and are clenched over. Take time to make sure that the lower cheeks are positioned exactly and symmetrically on your model; if they are not you will find it impossible to fit the rest of the headwork correctly as this is the foundation for everything above them.

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The fore end of the lower cheek is treated differently in each ship. Sometimes it terminates in a scroll or an ornamental acanthus leaf (below right). It may also simply be cut off vertically. Usually the terminals are actually carved as part of the figure, attached to the feet and subsequently joined to the cheek. The joint line is usually placed vertically in line with and below the fore edge of the first head timber (see upper illustration on previous spread). However, this detail is more easily dealt with as a separate item. I suggest making a clay maquette before beginning the actual carving (refer to section 11.40). The sketches (right) will assist you. Take time to work out the problems in three dimensions before resorting to your carving tools. These smaller carvings are good practice before you tackle the larger ones.

11.7 The upper cheek This echoes the shape of the lower cheek, but extends forward and upward as the hair bracket. The fore end of the upper cheek will be scarphed to the hair bracket. An approximate pattern is given (below right). This does not allow for the bevel on the aft arm. Cut your own card patterns to fit your model. The scarph joint is placed just above the slot for the gammoning where it will be subsequently hidden. (Its position on your model may be different than on the plan given here.) The upper cheek sits above and parallel to the lower cheek. The space between them is 1' 1". Its dimensions are sided aft 6", and sided fore end 5";3 molded dimensions aft end 71⁄2" and fore end 3". The cheek is fixed by eight 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts. The outer surfaces are shaped as the lower cheek. Delay attaching the upper cheeks to the knee of the head until the hair bracket (section 11.8) has been made and scarphed to it. 3

Steel gives this dimension as 31⁄2". Naval Architecture, Folio XLIX 209

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11.8 The hair bracket The hair bracket is the forward extension to the upper cheek. This piece is named not for its slim profile, but because the upper end terminates in a small scroll which is level with the hair of the figure. Note that its shape swells out sideways in the upper half and is even wider at the button of the scroll (see the plan and illustration on the previous page and below). The sketches given here will assist you in carving the scrolls. If you have any doubt about the shape of a scroll, save yourself trouble by making a clay maquette first (see section 11.40). Before working in the molding, attach the hair bracket to the upper cheek. Make sure that the two parts are aligned accurately. If not, the scroll will either be out of position or the upper cheek will not be parallel to the lower one. Either way, the visual flow of the headwork will be spoiled, so take the time and care to get this correct. The outboard surface is molded in continuity with the upper cheek. You will find it easier to cut a smaller version of the contour scraper for this than use the same one that you did for the lower and upper cheeks. Cut in the scroll and then attach the cheek and hair bracket assembly to the knee of the head, making sure that the position is accurate and that both sides are symmetrical. Shape the top and aft surfaces of the lacing piece to match the scroll of the hair bracket. This completes the foundation for what is to follow.

11.9 The wash cant I have seen few models with wash cants installed. These are wood structures, placed under the lower cheeks. As the ship plunges into a head sea, water is deflected from striking the undersides of the cheeks and headwork. I had originally assumed that the wash cant was cut and shaped from a single solid piece of wood, but recently reproduced photographs of a contemporary shipbuilders’ model4 indicate that this was composed of a number of sections. Although this particular model has one-piece wash cants, there are deep scores indicating separate pieces laid diagonally. You may choose to construct your wash cants either way. 4

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It is easiest to make the wash cants in either sections or two pieces. Shape a glued, laminated wood blank as shown here. The junction line with the main wale and knee of the head may vary somewhat from these drawings. Wash cants may be painted black.

11.10 The trail boards The trail board is an ornamental carved board attached against the knee of the head between the upper and lower cheeks on each side (upper illustration, section 11.5). It is pierced by the slot for the gammoning. The length of these vary. In most ships the trail board extends from the forward end of the lower cheek to the junction of the stem and main wale (e.g. Nymph). In some ships it stops at the fore end of the stem (Atalanta) and in others is continued with a separate piece along the main wale (Fly). Trail boards are carved to reflect the classical story suggested by the subject of the figure. For example, Atalanta’s figure is of Atalanta herself holding one of her golden apples. The other two apples — for there are three in the story — are shown on the trail board, entwined in stylized apple branches. Nymph’s trail board shows a hunting dog. It is a good idea to read the classical myth represented by the carved works of your ship. This will clarify many of the ornamental details. Good books on mythology are readily available in bookstores and libraries.5 In brief, a little research of your own will be very helpful here.

Classical Mythology, Seventh edition, by Mark P. O. Morford and Robert J. Lenardon, Oxford University Press, is one recommended source. 211

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The trail board should be about 3" thick. The port side should mirror the starboard side. Begin with a card pattern for each side (there may be small discrepancies between them!) and when you are satisfied with the fit, transfer the shape to your stock and cut out. You may need to fit the pattern around the scroll of the lower cheek, if fitted. Take care when cutting the gammoning slot to match the slot in the knee of the head exactly. Its position may vary from the illustration (below) on different ships. Mount the trail board blanks on illustration board with rubber cement. Mark out the design using graphite paper. Cut back the ground around the motifs. The ground should be left about 1" thick. (In some models it is completely cut away, revealing the knee of the head beneath.) The motifs themselves can then be carefully shaped in relief. I should like to comment on carved works shown in “as built” plans. The standard of artistry displayed by different draughtsmen varies widely. In the case of Atalanta the drawing skills demonstrated by the draftsman are far superior to those seen on the Nymph draught. A certain degree of interpretation will be required. If you are not an artist, consider seeking help from a local art school in redrawing the carvings first. A good drawing as a starting point will help you immeasurably. Another source of help is the local library. Seek out books of English sculpture and carving of the period. These will show you the style that you should try to emulate in your own work. The carvings shown in these books would have influenced the sculptors of the original ship’s decorative work. Sometimes, however, the carved work may have been more vernacular in character.6 Photographs of carvings on contemporary models are also excellent references. To finish, a little judicious undercutting will give added dimension to the design. Once again, if you are uncertain about carving, make a maquette first to work out the details before committing to wood.

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The recent recovery off the Scilly Isles of the port quarter figure of Colossus, 74 guns of 1787, shows a carving style reminiscent of that seen in sculpture a century earlier.

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11.11 Chocks under the gammoning There is a chock each side between the gammoning slot and the upper cheek above, to eliminate an angle in the gammoning as it reeves through the slot. It is quarter-round in section and may be conveniently added at this stage in construction. The drawings (left and in section 11.5) show a typical chock. Its shape and position vary from ship to ship.

11.12 The bolster The bolster or naval hood (upper illustration in section 11.5) is another variety of chock. It is designed to reduce wear on cables as they bend out of the hawse holes. It is roughly quarter round in section with rounded ends and is grooved where the hawse holes are located. It should be a little less than the thickness of the width of the upper cheek. Its height is shown on your NMM profile plan. The illustration (upper right) shows its general form, which varies from ship to ship. Note the softened edges of the grooves which run fore-and-aft, not at right angles to the bolster. Each bolster is secured by six 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts. The lead linings continue over the wear surfaces of the bolster (right) and are nailed down similarly to the scupper linings.

11.13 The main rail This seems to be a stumbling block for model-makers. I have read all kind of advice, ranging from trial and error — usually resulting in error! — to bending a piece of wire until it “looks right.” None of this is necessary. A projection drawing will produce exactly the shape required. A moment’s thought will help you understand that the ship’s profile actually gives the correct shape of the rail, but in distorted form. Seen from above, it is straight (see section 11.5). As the rail “slopes away” from the viewer on the sheer draught, it is foreshortened in one plane. The height is shown at full scale, but its length is foreshortened or “shrunk.” Provided that the true length of the rail is known or can be calculated, a correct pattern drawing can be made.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The drawings that follow show how this can be carried out. (An easier way these days is by using a computer illustration or photographic program: simply scan the profile of the head and then “stretch” the image to the correct length on the y axis!) The first step is to find the length of the rail. This can be done by plotting the rail on the plan view by projecting (i.e. extending) the lines down from the profile, or elevation in modern terms. As you do this, you will realize that it is exactly the same procedure that you used for the stove top in Chapter Eight (section 8.32). If you substitute “apparent height” and “actual height” for “apparent length” and “actual length,” you will understand the concept. To ensure that the rail will be correct length for your model, double check by measuring the distance from the fore side of the cathead at the side (‘A’ at left, plan view) to the back of the hair bracket (‘B’ at left, elevation). Having found this distance, you can now draft the main rail stretched to its true length. The traditional way is to divide the projected rail into equal parts: eight is a convenient number (illustrated opposite top left). Mark baselines on both drawings, then divide the actual length into the same number of parts. Transfer heights at each vertical to the new drawing and connect them in fair curves.

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If you have a computer and scanner, simply scan in the projected view, and expand the image to the correct length by altering the x axis, keeping the y axis unchanged. Either method should produce a result that will be very close to the corrected elevational view that I have drawn for Pegasus (above right). You can now be confident that your main rails will be correct in curvature, height and length, to accurately reflect the draught. The main rail is made of several pieces that are scarphed together. Steel6 specifies scarphs 1' 3" long. To further strengthen the rail, it is backed by a lining whose joints alternate with those of the rail. This feature can be seen in the plan view (opposite left), and will be described in section 11.14. The main rail is sided 51⁄2" at the head, tapering in a regular manner to 3 1⁄8" thick (if Steel is to be taken literally!) at the fore end. The best strategy is to cut all the pieces from stock 51⁄2" thick and fit the scarphs before tapering. A suggested layout of these is drawn in solid lines (right). The grey lines are the alternating scarphs of the lining. Leave the fore end of the main rail overlength for now. Please read sections 11.13a and 11.14 before proceeding!

11.13a Planksheer to the main rail Before you cut the pieces for the main rail, be aware that in the actual ship there is a 1" thick protective top called the planksheer to the main rail (illustration following page). If you wish to build this separately, cut the main rail 1" narrower the molding way, taking this off the upper edge. However, will be easier to cut the planksheer edge into the outboard molding of the main rail.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLIX.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

11.14 Lining to the main rail This consists of boards 21⁄2" thick, whose joints alternate with those of the main rail. It is attached to the inboard side of the main rail. I have suggested where the scarphs may be placed (illustration on previous page). Once the rail and its lining are glued up, rubber cement the assembly to a piece of illustration board. You can then taper the rail using sanding blocks prior to cutting in the moldings. The forward end should taper to a thickness of approximately 31⁄8".

11.15 Molding the main rail This is an interesting operation. You will need to make two profile cutters. One is for the aft part of the rail and another similar one, at a slightly smaller size, for the fore part. To complicate matters, the head of the mail rail is squared off, terminating in a timberhead. Also the moldings are worked in stages as the rail begins to curve forward. Study the illustrations to understand this before committing to wood.

Bevel the outer face of the main rail first to reduce wear on the molding cutters and yourself (upper sectional drawing, above right). The shape of the molding is quite complex (lower sectional drawing). If you feel that this is too difficult, use the alternative profile. The upper step-down in the level of the outer surface of the rail reveals the profile of the planksheer and is about 1" lower than the outer surface above the step (illustration at right). The lower step-down is where the molding profile emerges. The transitional area is hollowed as shown.

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The section of rail in the S of the step-down will need to be finished by hand after the rest of the rail is shaped with the cutters. (In some ships, the S is replaced by a more ornate shape.) Once you are satisfied with the main rail you can free it from its illustration board base. Mark out the timberhead, but do not cut and shape it yet.

11.16 Fitting the main rail The main rail is now ready to be fitted to the ship. There are several conditions to be met. Firstly, the plane of the rail must be vertical as seen end-on from ahead. Secondly, the head of the main rail must be vertical. Thirdly, the top of the timberhead must be at the correct height above the toptimber line. Fourthly, the aft face of the head must butt snugly against the cathead. In order to do so, you must take a small triangular score out of the aft face of the rail, as the cathead is not at right angles to the line of the rail (see illustrations below). Once you are satisfied with its position and fit, drill for two 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts and temporarily pin the head of the main rail to the ship’s side. Now turn your attention to the forward end. You will need to do some delicate trimming so that the rail neatly fits the aft side of the hair bracket and lacing without any visible gap. The two rails join at the centerline of the lacing. Go very carefully here. If you trim off too much you will need to start over! There will be a triangular step at the top of the forward end of the rail (upper illustration at right). This is normal, and Forward ends of will be covered later by the bolster main rails fitted (see upper illustration, section 11.5). Make sure that the forward end also sits at the correct height. When you have satisfied yourself that all is as it should be, drill and pin the fore end of the rail in position. Accuracy here determines placement of all the other elements of the headwork that have yet to be made.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

11.17 The head beam and knees The head beam runs athwartships and ties the head rails together and forms the foundation for the head gratings (lower illustration in section 11.5). These three members are tied together by knees. The plan view (below right) shows their relationship. The beam is sided 71⁄2" and is 51⁄2" deep. Note that its section (elevation, right) is not quite rectangular but a parellelogram. The head beam rounds up by 11⁄2" in its length. It is half-jointed to the standard, as indicated in the drawings. The beam is secured through the standard to the stem head by one or two 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts. The knees are sided 4" with arms 2' 3" long. They are secured by two 3⁄4" diameter bolts through each arm. The drawings (right) should make these structures clear to you. Once the head beam and knees are secured permanently (delay doing this for the moment), it is amazing how rigid the head structure will become. It is advisable to leave things temporarily pinned, as it will be much easier to install the head gratings later on than if these pieces are permanently fitted at this point.

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11.18 The cross-piece of the head This is positioned in line with the fourth head timber (see sections 11.5 and 11.23), just forward of the fore gammoning slot, and ties the head rails together in the same way as the head beam. It is 3" wide and has an extreme rhomboidal section (see elevation opposite page). It is also rounded up by the same amount as the head beam but, because of its angle upward, this curve seems exaggerated. It is bolted directly to the main rail. Attach the cross-piece temporarily for the moment.

11.19 The false rail This is a bit of a misnomer, as the false rail is not a rail but a board. For some reason this item is rarely shown on sheer draughts. The false rail has a serpentine shape, an incised panel effect on the outboard side and a scroll. It is fixed vertically on top of the curve of the main rail, reinforcing it and screening the aft seats of ease (illustrated in section 11.5). Not all sixth rates were fitted with aft seats of ease, although it is likely that the Swan class were fitted with these. I have drawn a reconstruction of the false rail, based on other draughts of the period,7 for completeness. Its exact shape varied from builder to builder. The false rail is 4" thick, and is bolted to the main rail by 3⁄4" diameter bolts. The incised panel is about 1" deep. Make the joint between the rails a perfect fit. A gap will spoil the appearance of the head and a misfit will distort the shape of the main rail when it is permanently attached later on. The inner faces of the false and main rails should be flush with each other.

Based on sixth rate draughts of Comet, 14 guns of 1782 and Inspector, 16 guns of 1783.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Painted contemporary models show the false rail with a variety of treatments. In most cases it is painted matt black on all surfaces. The upper surface of the main rail is also painted black. A few models have black false rails with the bevelled surfaces of the panel picked out in ochre. Once completed, do not permanently fix the false rail to the main rail yet.

11.20 The head carlings These two fore-and-aft members will define the aperture for the gammoning to pass through. They also support the head gratings. Head carlings are let into the head beam and cross-piece in the same way as the deck carlings are joined to the beams. The head carlings are 3" sided and 4" deep. They follow the curve of the main rail, but in its projected form (i.e. sheer view). You will need to reduce the depth forward to 3" to meet the crosspiece. Note that the upper surfaces of the carlings are bevelled to match the round up of the head beam and cross-piece. Their distance apart has to be sufficient for the gammoning to pass through. Mark out and cut the scores into the head beam following the plan (right), and then carry out the same operation on the cross-piece. Do not permanently attach the carlings yet.

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11.21 The lower rail of the head The position and angle of this rail is determined by several factors: it is not an arbitary choice. The following criteria have to be met. Firstly, the rail must be clear of the gammoning. Secondly, the rail should be placed clear of the discharge chute for the forward seats of ease. Thirdly, in the case of the Swan class, the aft end of the rail must clear the inner hawse hole. The position of the rail is found using a plan view (below left). The discharge chute will be positioned very close to the lower rail, so you may imagine the result when the ship was in harbor! At sea the area would be self-cleaning. The true length of the lower rail can be found using exactly the same method as for the main rail. Trace the projected view of the rail (upper left) from your NMM plan and draw in a base line (see illustrations on next page). Divide the horizontal length into equal parts. Take the measurement from the back edge of the hair bracket to the inner side of the inner hawse hole on your own model. Draw a new base line to this length, divide it into the same equal number of parts and transfer the vertical heights. Joining up the spot heights with a smooth curve will give you the true shape of this rail. Alternatively, you may use a computer to stretch the image of the rail along its y-axis by the appropriate amount.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The lower rail is sided 31⁄2" at its aft end and 2 7⁄ 8" at the fore end. Leave the ends a little over-length to allow for trimming. Rubber cement the rail to a piece of illustration board before cutting the molding, just as you did for the main rail. This time you will only need one size of profile cutter. A typical section is also given (below right). The molding is stopped as shown at its aft end (also below right). I have also seen models where the stop is simply vertical. When the molding has been run to your satisfaction, clean up the aft end and remove it from the backing board. The delicate operation of fitting the rail is next. Remove all the other pieces of headwork, if they are still in position, and accurately mark where the ends of the rail will sit. It is now a matter of taking off a little shaving here and there until the rail sits exactly on its marks with the inner face vertical when viewed from above. If the bolster is a high one, you will need to trim the rail to fit it. Drill both ends of the rail for temporary pins to hold it in position. You will need to place and remove this rail many times when cutting and fitting the head timbers (see the upper illustration section 11.5).

11.22 Preparation for the head gratings The head gratings form the surface of the head and are a series of wooden ledges set into the head beam, knees, carlings and lining of the head rail. The plan view (opposite) gives a typical layout for these gratings, normally omitted from official drawings. Steel8 specifies the ledges as 21⁄2" wide and 2" deep. I would make them 3" wide for convenience, as this dimension fits them conveniently in the spaces required. You will notice that the ledges are not rectangular in section the further forward they are (see section, opposite top). In some models, generally fifth-rates and above, the aft set of ledges run athwartships rather than fan out as shown here. Before proceeding, please read section 11.33 on the seats of ease.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio L.

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There are several pieces that need to be made and fitted prior to installing the ledges. The first of these is the batten that runs around the bow of the ship. This needs careful shaping and needs to be installed with its upper surface level with the head beam (see section below left). Make the batten 4" deep and 3" wide. Note the difference in batten length if you are planning on fitting the aft seat of ease. Pin it in place temporarily for the moment. My own method of cutting the scores for the ledges is to use a square or triangular section Swiss file. Mark the limit of the score on the upper surface of the piece that you are working on. Now file a sloping score into the workpiece to the line. Obviously very accurate marking out is required followed by meticulous filing. Assemble the various components in position to mark them out, then disassemble them to cut the scores. Begin by marking and cutting the scores on the inner side of the head rail linings and carlings. Make sure that these scores line up so that the ledges will run in straight lines athwartships. The scores on the edges of the knees and the battens will be a challenge to mark and cut accurately and neatly. The aim is to have all the ledges fan out in a regular manner as shown on the plan view (left). Note the angled cross-ledges that frame the fore seats of ease. Add these scores to the head beam. Once satisfied with your work, carefully label and store the head beam, knees, carlings, cross-piece for the moment. The battens should be fixed around the bow now, as it will be difficult to attach them later in construction.

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THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

11.23 Drafting the head timbers The head timbers support the rails of the head and appear as vertical shapes in profile view. Most Swan class ships have four head timbers. Some plans show only three timbers, the aftermost one being omitted. These are tricky to work out and make, but the use of projection drawing will simplify the process. (The direction of numbering of the head timbers is Steel’s.9) Begin by carefully marking off the positions of the head timbers along the upper cheek. Place the main rail in position and pin it securely. You will be taking measurements from between it and the upper cheek. Begin with the fourth (foremost) head timber. Measure the vertical distance from the lower surface of the main rail to the upper cheek at the forward edge of this head timber (dimension “a”, illustration on opposite page). Next measure the horizontal distance from the inner edge of the upper cheek to the underside of the main rail at the forward edge of the head timber (dimension “b”). From here you may either work out a projection drawing or make a rough card pattern that can be refined. Most model-makers will prefer the latter method, but the following drawings and text illustrate how the shape of a head timber may be developed.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio XLIX.

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By projecting the various intersections of the head timber and rails, one can develop a drawing that resembles the one shown below (upper right). This represents the fore face of head timber #4 and the rails as they pass through that plane. The obliquity of upper and lower surfaces the main rail seem extreme, but are actually correct. This is because the rail not only angles upward at this point, but also inward toward the centerline. It would only be level in this plane if the rail were parallel to the centerline. Repeat the process for the aft face of the head timber, which will give you a complete pattern (below, bottom center). You will need to cut the head timber an inch narrower than the outboard side of the pattern; otherwise the covering board (see section 11.24) will protrude past the main rail above it and the upper cheek below. The covering board is an ornamental facing, usually with panel motif, nailed to the outer surface of each head timber.

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11.23A Head timbers, card pattern method For an alternative method, cut a rectangular piece of card to the two measurements that you have determined (a and b, previous page). Cut a large notch in your card pattern that will fit loosely around the lower rail and place the card vertically in the correct position. Temporarily refit the lower rail. Mark the upper and lower heights of the lower rail as it passes the pattern (step 1, below left). Cut a new card with a slot the width of the lower rail at this point. Place this second pattern piece in position and mark the inner side of the lower rail on it ( step 2, below right).

By now you will notice that the card touches the outer edge of the underside of the main rail, but that its inner edge is higher. This is because the rail is not only angled upward at this point but also inward (in plan view) toward the center-line. It would only be level if the rail were parallel to the centerline. The easiest way to deal with this angle is to glue a scrap of card to your pattern ensuring it is tight against the underside of the main rail (step 3, right). You will need to make a similar accommodation for the lower rail. Glue a further scrap of card to snug against the underside of the lower rail. Mark the inner sides of both rails, the outer side of the lower rail, width of the upper cheek and the top of the standard extension piece (illustration a, opposite).

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From this pattern you can draw an outline for the fore face of the first head timber (illustrations b and c, at left). There will be a slight curve to the outer edge of the timber, from which you should deduct 1" for the thickness of the covering board. The covering board is an ornamental facing, usually with panel motif, on the outer surface of the head timber. The top of the fourth head timber is notched for the main rail and will fit under the cross-piece. An additional complication is that it straddles the extension to the standard, forming a V. Make sure that both sides are symmetrical. Repeat the same exercise for the aft face of the head timber and superimpose the two patterns (illustration d, above). Both patterns are needed to cut the actual head timber, or the blank will be too small. Draw the overall shape for cutting out using both patterns. Use either process to determine the patterns for the remaining head timbers. Remember that the main rail slopes in the opposite direction at head timber #1, so that the aft face will be higher. Your own patterns should closely resemble those shown here, drawn for Pegasus. The scale drawings below were developed by projection drawing from the draughts, not by the card method. This was exactly how the shipwrights did this full size, drawing them out on the mold loft floor.

Patterns for head timbers, view from forward, scale 1:48

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11.24 Constructing the head timbers and covering boards Each head timber varies in sided thickness.9 Many draughts do not show this subtlety. It is easiest to begin with the fourth (foremost) head timber. It is the narrowest with a sided dimension of 31⁄2". Mark the head timber out carefully from your pattern and cut it out, keeping it fractionally oversize. It may be made from two pieces scarphed together (plan on previous page). First cut the notch for the extension piece, gradually widening the slot until it slips into place. Progressively bevel the top of the slot and the foot of the head timber until it sits perfectly positioned and vertical on its marked station. Remove the head timber. Set the main rails in position on your model, making sure that they are securely pinned. Gently insert the head timber to see where and how much needs to be shaved off the notch at the top. You will need patience while you set up and remove the timber repeatedly until it fits perfectly, supporting the main rail without any stress. Now it is time to repeat this set-up and removal cycle with the lower rails until they too fit neatly into their places. If all has been lofted properly, they will sit snugly against the head timber on their inner sides. Once you are satisfied with the fit of the rails, remove the lower rails and head timber, and carefully shape the curved outboard surfaces. The faces will twist as they rise from the upper cheeks to meet the main rails at the same angle as the outboard edges of the rail. When this has been accomplished, cut some 1" thick stock for the covering boards. These need to be steamed to match the twist of the outboard faces of the head timber. Make the blanks over-width. Once they have been shaped, rubber cement them to the head timber and pare the edges down flush to the fore and aft faces of the timber. Carefully remove and label them for later. If you wish, you can mark out and cut in the panels before removing the covering boards while they are supported by the head timber. If you are painting your model, the fore, aft and upper faces of the head timber should be painted either black or dark blue before you permanently attach it. Glue the head timber to the upper cheeks making sure that it is truly vertical. Pin it to the extension piece for security. The third head timber is sided 4 1⁄2" and is constructed in exactly the same way as the fourth one. In this case the angles and curvatures are less extreme. When complete, glue and pin it in position. Again, ensure that the timber is absolutely vertical when seen from the side.

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However, Steel’s Naval Architecture, Folio XLIX, specifies three head timbers. These are (fore to aft) 21⁄2", 31⁄2" and 41⁄2" thick. The Shipbuilder’s Repository, 1788, closer in date, gives no information.

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The second head timber is 5" thick. It is dealt with in exactly the same fashion as before. This time the recesses for the rails will be almost horizontal. The first or aftermost head timber is sided 41⁄2" and is quite short, as it abuts the bow of the ship just above the bolster between the hawse holes. Remember that the rails are now rising, so the angles of the recesses are reversed as compared to the head timbers that you have already completed. Take your time to achieve a good fit against the bow of the ship.

11.25 Head of the main rail: completion Here is a contentious point; this could be finished in one of two ways. The easier of the two methods was to simply shape the timberhead at the head of the rail, then bolt it to the ship’s side. However, contemporary models10 show that the timberhead was often enlarged. This was an extension of a suitably positioned toptimber with a slightly wedge-shaped intermediate piece of wood. The draughts are ambiguous on this point, but the relationship of the timberhead of fore cant frame #4 to the head of the main rail offers a strong suggestion. The drawings (below) show the appearance of both versions of this feature. If you are painting your model, the head of the main rail should be a satin black, either from the level of the planksheer upward or just the timberhead from the shoulder. The rest of the rail is bright. The main rail can now be permanently installed. On the actual ship, it was fastened to the head timbers with a 5⁄8" diameter bolt at each joint and at the fore ends. There are two 7⁄ 8" diameter bolts holding the head of each main rail to the sides.

The NMM models of Amazon, 32 guns of 1773 and Mermaid, 32 guns of 1784, show the simpler head of the main rail with a separate timberhead inboard of it. The Annapolis model of Minerva, 38 guns of 1780, has the compound form. 229

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11.26 The saddle It is now time to cover the unfinished triangular fore ends of the main rail. This is accomplished by a shaped block of wood called the saddle. It attaches to the aft face of the head of the lacing piece. Its form varied, and the sketches below will assist you in making this piece.

The simpler version simply fairs the general shape of the rails up onto the back of the lacing. The more complex version is rather shell-like in form and slightly overlaps the fore ends of the main rail. There are two shallow hollows in the back of the piece, and the forward end extends over the top of the lacing. Should you have the opportunity to study contemporary models for yourself, you will find other variations on this theme. For a sixth rate the simpler version may be more appropriate but, as master shipwright, the choice is yours. Shape the underside to fit before finishing the upper surfaces.

11.27 The gammoning If you are planning on rigging your model, I highly recommend installing the bowsprit and its gammoning now, as it will be very awkward to thread the line through the completed headwork and frap it properly.

This drawing is excerpted from the sparring 230

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I am not going to describe the rigging process, as there are several excellent books readily available on this subject.11 However, a drawing of the bowsprit is provided (below) so that you can construct it now if you wish. (A complete sparring plan is available from Dr. Greg Herbert at dvm27@comcast.net. This is an extract of that drawing.) There are several cleats nailed to the bowsprit that prevent the gammoning from sliding aft. The exact position of these is determined by stepping the bowsprit and taking a vertical line upward from the aft end of the gammoning slot. You can then mark in the correct placement of the cleats. There are a minimum of five cleats and possibly seven or nine, depending on the source referenced. They are 7" long and about 2" wide. There is also a saddle for the running rigging. It is 6" thick with the upper part beveled on the aft edge (illustration below, left page). This saddle is pierced with a semicircular line of holes for lines to run through and is a form of fairlead. The various staysail and jib downhauls will run through this saddle. I cannot find a reference to an exact number of holes (Steel says “several”), but as a minimum of four will be required, five to seven seems reasonable. For a detailed description of bowsprits and their various fittings, I refer you to Steel’s Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging (in the Sweetman edition, pages 36 and 37).

Rigging Period Ship Models by Lennarth Petersson, The Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625-1860, by James Lees and Steel’s Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging, Sweetman edition, are all highly recommended.

sparring plan for a sixth rate, scale 1:48. 231

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11.28 Headwork assembly Now it is finally time to permanently attach the head timbers and lower rails. Glue and pin them in position. Next install the head beam and its knees, then the cross-piece. Fix the head carlings in their scores. Do not install the false rail yet, though. You are now ready to construct the ledges.

11.29 The ledges of the head The scores that you cut earlier for these will position the ledges accurately. The ledges next to the bow will be easiest to make as they are level and rectangular in section (illustrated below). All it will take is some patience to make each ledge the correct length with the ends at the appropriate angles so that there is no gap when they are fitted and glued in. Because of their parallelogram-shaped cross-section, you will need to cut stock to a width of 3", but deeper for the ledges forward of the head beam. First to be made are the second ledges forward of the head beam. These will need to be scored for the miniature carlings that frame in the forward seats of ease. These mini-carlings take the same curvature as the head carlings when seen from the side. Note the angles that they take. The remaining ledges are fairly straightforward to make and fit. One strategy is to angle the lower face of each ledge leaving the upper surfaces proud of the carlings and rails and then sand all the ledges down flush once they have been glued in. You can now attach the planksheer to the main rail (if made separately) and finally the false rail.

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In some contemporary models, the head gratings and upper surfaces of the main rail are painted black. In others they are bright. If you opt for a painted finish you should also color the standard and head of the stem to match. I would recommend a matt finish.

11.30 Finishing the covering boards You had cut and shaped these earlier (section 11.24). If you have not cut in the panel motifs on the faces of these, you should do so now. In some contemporary models the covering boards are bright, in others the panels are painted dark blue. In yet other models, only the bevelled portion of the panels are painted. Again, any of these choices is correct. When you have completed the finish on the covering boards, they may be carefully glued into position over the lower rails.

11.31 The cathead supporter The cathead supporter is in the form of a standard or inverted knee supporting the cathead. Frankly, this piece will pose a challenge. It not only has to form a smooth curve when seen from any angle, but also has to fit the contours of the ship’s side to perfection. Because of the compound curves involved, a pattern for the supporter cannot be given. Even if this were possible, you would still need to modify the pattern to suit your own ship. This, with the eking rail and planking excepted, are probably the only timbers in the ship that curve in more than one plane. It may be helpful to tape a piece of paper cut to the aft curve of the supporter against the bow of the ship before proceeding.

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Immediately below the cathead the supporter is vertical, but it immediately begins to curve and curl around the bow. It is scarphed to the eking rail, which is a continuation of the tail of the cathead supporter (illustration below). This too curves around the bow to the outer hawse hole, lining up with the lower rail. On some ships the ekeing rail continues between the hawse holes. One possible position of the scarph joint is indicated. The supporter is 51⁄2" wide, and its shape is suggested in the profile draught. Start with a piece about 12" thick and a little longer than the finished supporter in order to form the curve. Cut the upper surface to approximately the angle of steeve of the cathead, then rough out the curve on the aft side. The next step is the most difficult. This is to make the inner face fay exactly to the ship’s side as it curves around to the bow. If you have difficulty visualising this, it may help to make a negative impression of the ship’s side with a piece of modeling clay, using that as a guide to cutting the inner face of the supporter. Once the inner side is close to fitting the ship’s side, refine the top surface to match the underside of the cathead before finishing the inner face. You can now form the curve of the aft side as it progressively turns forward around the bow. This is where the paper pattern taped to the ship’s side is useful. Once you are satisfied that the sweep of the aft side is correct, trim the forward face concave, echoing the curve of the aft face. This face, of course, will also twist as it descends. Now cut the outboard face in what Steel calls a “handsome manner.” Keep this face at right angles to the aft one, so that it too turns forward. Finally cut the scarph where the eking rail will join it. The outer face of the supporter is molded to the section shown in the drawing (opposite page), but wait until the eking rail is cut and scarphed to it before cutting this profile.

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11.32 The eking rail This has already been defined as the continuation of the cathead supporter. The eking rail continues to twist around the bow, curving in two planes (illustration below). In some ships the eking continues across the hawse holes with suitable gaps for clearance. In these cases the inner end of the eking rail is cut at an angle to fay neatly against the aft end of the lower rail of the head. As before, you will need to start with an oversized piece and progressively work the various faces. Begin by shaping the inner face, allowing sufficient material for the scarph with the supporter. Carefully mark and cut the scarph, making sure that everything aligns to leave enough wood to shape the eking. Glue the scarph with both pieces against the ship’s side. Next, mark and cut the lower curve to match the paper pattern, ensuring that the turn of this surface is a smooth continuation with that of the supporter. Cut the upper edge of the eking, again making sure that all the curves are fair. If appropriate, cut the angle where the eking rail meets the lower rail, otherwise trim the eking to fit around the hawse holes. Complete by shaping the outer face to conform, a comparatively simple job. The outer surface of cathead supporter and eking rail are molded. This molding terminates near the upper end of the supporter (illustration above). The molding profile is similar to that shown (left). Make a suitable scratch stock cutter and run it as you did for the other moldings. The semicircular upper end of this molding will need to be carefully shaped by hand.

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11.33 The seats of ease The Swan class may have had two or four seats of ease. I am uncertain which is correct, but if two were placed in the aft corners of the headwork, they would discharge directly over the outer ends of the eking rails and upper cheeks. However, this is not unlikely as many contemporary models show exactly such an arrangement.12 Therefore I shall show them in the drawings that follow. You can decide which configuration to build. Begin with the two forward seats, which would certainly have been fitted. Because of the limited area in such a small ship, the discharge tubes on which the actual seat rests have a parallelogram-shaped section rather than a square one, unlike ships of the line.13 This allows the bottom end of the chute to clear the lower rail. The tubes are 9" across each face and are of 1" thick board. They extend 1' 3" above the level of the gratings. The lower end of the chute is bevelled to match the angle of the second head timber just aft of it (above right). The seats themselves are of 1" thick wood, about 14" square and each pierced with a hole 7" in diameter. It is easiest to drill the hole in an oversized piece of stock. This way there is less likelihood of splitting the workpiece. I presume that the large overhang around the periphery of the seat was for holding onto in a seaway! The tubes are installed so that they are vertical. 12, 13

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One example is Minerva, 38 guns of 1782 in the Rogers’ Collection.

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The aft seats, if you are installing them, are tucked into the angle between the false rail and bow. They each consist of a vertical board and a horizontal one. The latter is pierced with a 7" diameter hole. There are no discharge tubes for these seats. The result of this location for them is better imagined than seen! You can see how these are tucked into the corner between the false rail and bow in both the scaled drawing (opposite) and the perspective view (below). A card template cut first will help in shaping the seat. Once again, drill the blank first before reducing it to the final size.

For those of you painting your models, the discharge tubes are black with the seat either black or bright. The Minerva model previously referred to has yet a different style: the forward seats and tubes are painted black, but the aft seats and their vertical boards are painted red, matching the paintwork at the top of the side.

11.34 The decorative rails at the bow You can now carefully trim the remaining pieces of the waist, sheer and drift rails that you put away earlier (sections 10.4, 10.5 & 10.15) and fit them against the cathead supporter and around the bow to the stem. They may be permanently attached now.

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11.35 The planksheer of the forecastle It is now time to close in the top of the forecastle bulwark with its planksheer or covering board. As there are a number of timberheads to accommodate, this is not as straightforward as the planksheer in the waist. The best strategy is to cut the planksheer in two pieces in the same way as the forecastle and quarter deck breast rails (section 10.36). Once again a card pattern is helpful. The division line should run along the inboard faces of the timberheads. The plan (below) gives an approximate developed shape. Because of the curvature of the bow, you will need to fit and remove the pattern by lowering and lifting it over the timberheads rather than sliding it off. I have suggested scarph joints, as this planksheer could not be made of one continuous piece.

The planksheer is 21⁄2" thick. There are notches for the three forecastle swivel gun mounts and the head of the main rail. You may also need to allow a gap for the head of the main rail/timberhead junction (see section 11.25, compound style). The aftermost piece of the planksheer incorporates a scrolled terminal. This needs to have slightly sloped sides that match the tumblehome of the topside at this point. Contemporary models show the top of the scroll contoured with three lobes, shown in the outboard detail sketch (above). The outboard and inboard faces of the rail are molded to the same section as that of the waist planksheer (section 11.2). If painted, the planksheer should be satin black. Prepainting the rail before installation will save a lot of masking difficulties.

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11.36 Cat block for the falls This rather decorative fixed block is a snatch block. It is bolted to the planksheer just aft of the head of the main rail. A snatch block is one whose slot or swallow is open on one side, so that the cat fall does not need to be reeved through from its end. The swallow curves upward at its fore end; the portion of the block forward of here is known as the stopper. The tail of the cat block is mortised around the timberhead aft of it. Steel14 defines the use of this item: “...that the fall may lead in fair upon deck.” The cat block is 9" wide and 7" thick. Note that in plan view it follows the curve of the planksheer. The ornamental tail may vary on your own ship from the one shown here, so check your NMM draught. Note that the tail has a mortise for a timberhead to pass through. The sheave for this block is 8" in diameter and 13⁄8" thick. The pin is probably about 1" in diameter. If painting, match the color of the planksheer to which it is attached.

11.37 The boomkin capsquare This is the retaining hoop for the boomkin as it passes over the main rail. The boomkin itself is a stout spar that projects diagonally forward and down from the ship’s head. The capsquare is similar in form to those of the gun carriages (section 9.50), but larger. However, the angle that the boomkin passes over the rail is not a right angle. In order to determine the position and angle one needs to know the position of the fore yard arm when braced around as far as it can go, the limiting factor being the foremost shroud. A scale drawing (following page) can provide this information fairly quickly when the length of the fore yard is known, which for a sixth-rate is 48' 5".15 The other factors to consider are that the boomkin heel rests against the side just outboard of the bowsprit, and it must clear the fore seat of ease.

14 15

Steel, Naval Architecture, Chapter I, Explanation of terms &c. (sic) used in shipbuilding, page 9. Steel, Mastmaking, etc., Dimensions of masts and yards in the Royal Navy, page 50 (page 54, Sweetman edn.).

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The long axis of the fore yard is some distance (about 2' 6") forward of the mast because it is suspended by slings and jeers from the fore top. For details of these features consult a standard book on rigging.16 The yard, braced hard, is drawn as shown (below right), and a line is drawn at right angles to the keel from the yard arm toward the head. A line representing the mid-line of the boomkin is drawn so that its heel rests a little outboard of the bowsprit and stem and passes clear of the seat of ease. This scale drawing determines the angle and position of the capsquare along the main rail.(A rule of thumb is that the yard braces to a 45° angle and that the boomkin’s outer end is about in line with the hair bracket.) The boomkin will extend beyond the position of the block, as a shoulder is cut in the end of the spar for the strop to loop around. Details of this will be covered shortly (section 11.38). To make the capsquare you need to know the 17 diameter of the boomkin. According to Steel it is 11" in diameter if made of fir, and 8" if of oak. You can choose either for your model, but the oak spar will look less clumsy with its narrower diameter. Using the information above, you can construct a suitably shaped capsquare to bolt to the false rail in the correct position (illustration at left). The details of this capsquare are similar to those for the gun carriages (section 9.50). It is 4" wide. Steel implies that the boomkin is bolted to the rail, but I have seen contemporary models with capsquares. The false rail is grooved as shown to give a bearing surface for the lower side of the boomkin.

Rigging Period Ship Models, Lennarth Petersson, pages 34-35, and The Anatomy of Nelson’s Ships, C. N. Longridge, Plan 8 (facing Plate 54) show this feature well. 17 Steel, Elements of Naval Architecture, Folio L. 16

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11.38 The boomkin The boomkin projects forward and downward from the head of the ship. At this period it was also curved downward toward the outer end. (I used to think that the boomkins on museum models had warped over time!) Each boomkin carries a shoulder block on its outer end through which the fore tack reeves. A shoulder block has a projecting lip on one side of the swallow to prevent the line jamming as it passes through. The fore tack controls the lower corner of the fore course. The fore course is the sail attached to the fore yard. The drawings (below) give the details of this spar in two versions: the fir spar, 8" in diameter, is 3" larger than the oak one. The spar tapers to 2⁄3 of its given diameter at its outer end. The inboard portion is straight, the outboard part curving downward. In some contemporary models the curve is arciform as shown here, but in others there is an angular turn down just outboard of the main rail. In others the curve is more extreme. Another variation seen is an octagonal inboard section. The heel of the spar either tenons into the bow of the ship or rests in a shallow socket. The length of the shoulder outboard appears equal to the diameter of the spar, either 8" or 5", depending on which version you are making. Its form is shown (left). On some models the boomkin is painted black inboard of the capsquare. The section outboard is left bright.

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11.39 The berthing rail The berthing rail is a horizontal iron rail spanning the curve or bag of the main rail. It acts as the framework for a safety netting in lieu of a bulwark. (It is also referred to as a horse.) In the early 1800’s this was replaced with a solid board structure. This rail is supported by a stanchion with an eye at its upper end which hooks to an eyebolt at each end. The illustrations (right and section 11.33) show details of the berthing rail. Begin by making and positioning the eyebolts on the main rail. The eyebolts are 11⁄8" diameter iron with eyes 13⁄4" in the clear. The stanchion is of 11⁄4" diameter iron with an eye that is 13⁄4" in the clear at its upper end. It is secured vertically in the false rail. However, it is easiest to thread the berthing rail through the stanchion before securing the latter permanently. The berthing rail itself is 13⁄4" in diameter. Each end turns down at a right angle to engage the eyes in the main rail. If you are planning to show the head netting, it should have a 3" or 4" mesh. This is placed on the diagonal. In order to secure its lower edge, small hooks will need to be driven into the main rail at distances apart corresponding to the mesh size. The area around the boomkin capsquare and at the fore end of the false rail will be a particular challenge. As you can see from the illustration (left), the netting will need to be custom made to fit this irregular space. It will be a real challenge to show this successfully!

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11.40 The figure: making a maquette (study model) Now, another challenge; that of the figure. With a few exceptions, such as Pegasus, most ships have a human or god-like figure. For most of us, even the more artistic, carving is a difficult task to carry out successfully. There are, however, strategies to help tip the odds in your favor. The best strategy is to build a detailed maquette or study model of the figure before trying to translate it into a carving. In this way, many of the problems can be worked through before committing to wood. I would make the maquette in modeling clay. This model should be at least to 1:24 scale, if not 1:12. At a larger scale the work will be easier . It is not difficult to proportion the figure back to 1:48 scale again. Build a mock-up of the upper part of the knee of the head and hair bracket and mount it on a solid base. As modeling clay is quite heavy, make sure that the base projects forward far enough so that the maquette will not tip over. First, general proportions of the human figure. If these are off, the whole figure will look badly executed even if exquisitely detailed. In several of the Swan class drawings the draftsman was not a competent artist and the figure is poorly drawn. For instance, on the Nymph draught the figure’s breasts sit on her collarbones! On the other hand, Atalanta’s figure is well delineated. The scaled drawings (below and overleaf ) will assist you in correctly shaping your own figure. Use these proportions rather than those from the draught to shape the clay. If the particular brand of clay you are using is soft and has a tendency to droop, embed a wire or wood armature to support it.

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Begin by modeling the torso and legs. The legs are symmetrically placed, but the figure often has its upper body and arms placed asymmetrically. Once you have approximated the main masses, without concerning yourself with draperies or arms, turn the upper part of the body to starboard and then turn and or tilt the neck and head slightly back again (illustrated at left). This is easy to accomplish with modeling clay and will give life to a figure, as opposed to a static and wooden “straight ahead” pose. Most contemporary carved figures that I have studied have these twists and turns. The head of the figure should be oriented to look toward the horizon. This possibly means extending the head on the neck by lifting the chin. Experiment with the maquette until you have a pose that looks right. If the left arm is extended, which is often the case, the shoulder on that side is turned forward and the other shoulder back. Next add the arms, noting the lengths of upper and lower arm and size of the hands. The fingertips reach to mid-thigh when the arm is straight at the side. When the arm is bent this distance will be less. The length of an open hand is the distance from the chin to forehead. When posing an open hand, it is more aethetic to space the fore and middle fingers, group the middle and fourth fingers together, and pose the little finger separately (illustrated at far left). This will avoid the appearance of a bunch of bananas! The elbows should be somewhat bent for a more graceful appearance. If uncertain about the details of human anatomy, check your local library for artists’ books on life drawing.18 I cannot cover every possibility here, as this would make a complete volume of its own.

One of the best volumes on this subject is Figure drawing and Anatomy for the Artist by John Raynes, Bonanza Books, New York 1986, ISBN 0-517-60122-2. It shows the figure and muscles in action.

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Now turn your attention to the head and face. First, make sure that the general size meets the proportions illustrated previously. There are several points to be aware of. The first is that eye-level is located halfway down the length of the head. The eyes are not placed at the front of the head, but inset quite far back. Look at the profile illustrations to understand this point. The lower part of the face is forward of the upper part in profile, and the corners of the mouth are inset into the face, not stuck on its surface. The illustration (left) will also help you to get these features right. Now you have worked out the most difficult part of the figure, you can add the hair and head-dress masses and begin to consider the drapery. You will see that there is a large gap between the back of the figure and the lacing/hair bracket assembly. This gap is invariably filled by a cloak or cape of some sort flowing down the back of the figure. As you model this in clay, try to get the effect of material fluttering in a breeze, introducing a further illusion of movement. Look to achieve a ribbon-like effect with any trailing draperies (illustration at right). Study photographs of contemporary statuary; the figure carvers of the day would have been heavily influenced by artistic sculptors’ styles. If the figure is holding attributes such as Atalanta’s apple or Mercury’s caduceus, work out how the hand is grasping the object. Modeled in clay first, it is much easier to adjust things than trying to carve blindly and optimistically in wood!

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A completed upper capstan showing the pieces making up the drumhead, iron reinforcing ring and various bolts holding the assembly together. The starboard pawl is disengaged.

The headwork in progress. This detail shows the component pieces of the knee of the head, the cheeks and hair bracket. Note how the terminal scroll is carved. In this model of Resolution, 1773, the relative position of the hawse holes to the cheeks differs from that of the Swan class ships.

Two photographs showing the cathead supporter and eking rail in progress. The supporter is temporarily located (upper picture). A paper pattern is taped in position as a guide for the lower edge of the rail. The eking, in two scarphed pieces, has been added (lower photo) and shaped ready for molding.

(At right) cheeks, hair bracket and eking rails with moldings run and temporarily pinned in position. (All photographs this page are of the author’s model.)

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Three photographs of a maquette for the figure of Comet, 14 guns, of 1783. It is modeled at a scale of 1:12. Lighting direction and angle are important when working on either maquettes or carvings. Note the turn and tilt of the head, shoulders and torso. This is particularly evident in the close-up (left). Attention to details like this will help make a figure look less wooden. In the photograph above, note the space between the figure itself and the cloak. Observe the relationship between these and the knee of the head aft of them. Note the sense of movement in the masses of drapery and hair. Study these pictures before working on your own maquette. Details of techniques for carving figures are found beginning on page 243.

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11.41 Carving the figure Once you are satisfied with your maquette — and this may take you some time — you can begin to plan the actual carving process. An outstretched arm is better added separately later on than trying to carve it across the grain (see example below). Besides, much of the basic block of wood for the figure would be wasted. English box, if available, is ideal for carved work. The following description is a guide and not intended to be exhaustive. The first step is to carve a slot to fit the knee of the head. This slot tapers in two planes. It is narrowest at the top and front of the figure. Make the block about 1" actual size over-length so that you can secure it in a vise while carving (illustration below). Gradually widen the slot until it is a snug fit on the knee of the head. When satisfied with the fit, glue a small spacer in the slot below the feet to prevent the splitting the block when clamping it.

Mark the outside of the block where the finished figure will meet it. In the example above, the left elbow and right shoulder are such spots. My next recommendation may be surprising. Do not mark the profile and front elevation on the blank. My reason for this suggestion is that, unless you are a very experienced carver, you will end up with a square and blocky figure. My recommendation is to imagine your maquette with a light cloth draped over it. This will be the initial rough shape of your blank (illustrated overleaf ). Remove all suggestions of the squared block as soon as possible. Once the main roughing out is accomplished using either hand or machine tools, mark in the principal axes of the face and eyes.

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If the head and neck do not satisfy you, you can start over without having spent too much time on the rest of the figure. Leave adequate material for the head-dress and hair, and work the face area into a shape resembling a 16th century helm and vizor. The crease of the vizor should be exactly aligned with the long axis of the face, which may not be vertical or facing directly forward (illustrated below). Notice that there is no attempt to detail anything yet. Here repeated reference to your maquette is extremely helpful. In order to transfer measurements from the large-scale maquette to the smaller carved version, this is one occasion that proportional dividers can be very useful. If you do not own a pair, you can easily make a pair in wood or brass with the arm lengths in the ratio that you require, either 2:1 or 4:1, as the case may be. For most modelers, the face is the greatest area of anxiety. Provided that the rough-out is oriented correctly to the rest of the figure and is proportionate to your maquette, everything else will follow. The next task is to define the planes of the face. Draw a line at right angles to the long axis crease of the face at eye level (below left). This will help you scoop away unwanted areas of wood on either side of what will be the nose. Now use small gouges to carry out this operation until the head looks something like the illustration (below right). At this point something resembling a face will begin to emerge from the wood. However, there is much yet left to do! Double-check that the two principle axes of the head are oriented correctly and that you have resisted the unconscious temptation to straighten up the head by cutting in the hollows at the same level, unless the head is to be posed exactly with ears level and looking directly ahead.

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The next step is to rough out the lower half of the face. Draw a guide line at the bottom of the nose so that you do not cut away too much and end up with insufficient material for it (near right). Remove some wood below the nose and narrow the sides of the lower face a little (far right). Having reached this stage, turn your attention to the upper half of the face. Mark the lower limit of the head-dress or hair (below, far left). Now cut back the forehead to the correct level as seen from the side and trim the upper part of the nose back to approximately its final angle (near left). If you have been successful so far, you should have a head that looks something like the illustration. Notice that you have cut progressively in from all sides so that you do not have a “blockhead.” Up to this point most of the cuts that you have made have been more-or-less straight. From here on you will be carving using curving cuts. The eye areas are next. The eyeball is spherical and inset behind the upper and lower lids beneath the brow ridge. Notice the relationship of the eye masses to the brow; seen from the side they are set into the head further back than one might think (illustration a, below). Beginners nearly always place the eyes too far forward. Carve around the eyes as if they were closed for now. Check that the various planes of the face as seen from the side are in correct relationship. A vertical line drawn downward from the forehead, as viewed from the side, should show not only the nose but the lower face ahead of it (illustration b, left). If this is not yet the case, pare back the planes of the forehead further.

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Now proceed to rough out the mouth area. Hollow out around the area that will eventually form the lips. Note the inset at the sides of the mouth, and begin to define the jaw-line (illustrated at left). From this point on it is just a matter of carefully refining the shapes and then detailing eyes, nose and mouth. Check your progress frequently against the maquette that you spent so much time on. If in doubt, consult good black and white photographs of sculpture from the period to see how sculptors dealt with these problems. Black and white photographs, rather than color, make it easier for one to analyze patterns of light and shade. As you cut away gradually to reveal the form, define the edges of the hair and head-dress masses. The forehead is squarer than the rest of the face, with the outer corners of the brows protruding furthest. The eyelids curve around each eyeball. Notice that more of the eyeball sits above the lid opening than below (illustration a, right). This means that the curve of the eyeball slants downward as seen from the side and does not face forward (b, right). Once the form of the closed eye is correct, carefully cut back the eye area to form the margins of the upper and lower lids (center right). Cut in deeper under the upper lid, making it thicker than the lower lid. At 1:48 scale you will need to simplify things by a semicircular cut with a small curved gouge to produce a shadow that represents the iris (lower right). If you are uncertain about this last step, leave the eyes as they are; they will look better this way than messing it up after so much work! If you are painting the model, do not cut in the irises at all. Remember that the lower face is less squared off than the upper face, particularly in female figures, so pay attention to this point. The upper lip is cut in facing diagonally downward to create a shadow, and the lower lip rolls around, creating a light area with a sharp shadow beneath the center (left). The lips curve around the teeth so that the outer corners are set back further than the center. This is accentuated if smiling; the outer corners of the mouth pull back and in as well as upward. Check this by observing people or looking at yourself in a mirror.

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Next move onto the hair mass and head-dress, if any. Don’t try to detail the hair yet, just work out the larger tresses and curls. These should be simplified and abstracted somewhat. Try to vary the size of every part and vary the curves in each wave. Don’t forget to undercut in places and make each tress flow out from the head. Hopefully you left the area full enough to give you scope for developing the hair. Once the masses are well defined and look right from all angles, add texture with a small V-gouge. Don’t cut short, straight choppy lines, but follow controlled curved parallel paths, changing the angle of the figure in the vise as necessary so that you have a well-honed tool under control at all times. Just one slip can ruin hours of work! The example (above right) shows spiral veining running around the tresses, rather than straight along, giving a sense of movement to the hair By the time that you have completed the head and neck, you will be far more confident about completing the job. Gradually work up the draperies as you did the hair: main masses first, imbuing the shapes with a sense of flow and movement. Most figure have a gap between the small of the back and the cloak. Here, carve in deeply until you break through. This space will give the figure a much more delicate appearance, so don’t omit to do this if the design will allow for it. The arms and legs should not be difficult. Remember to check back to your maquette frequently as you work, and examine your carving critically from all angles. If the figure has footwear, leave additional material to carve this from. Start with the appearance of a leg wearing a boot, then work down between sandal straps to the contours of the leg and foot. Hands are a little more challenging. Start with a shape that is not too small. Try to carve the appearance of a heavy mitt over the hand inside. Make sure that this mitt articulates naturally with the wrist and forearm. You can then gradually work down the surfaces to a thumb and fingers which are webbed together. Refine the thumb, then carve between the fingers and finally refine the pose of each digit.

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Any attached limbs or accessories can then be carved and added. Where possible, peg the joints of limbs for additional security. Delicate details, such as Mercury’s caduceus (see illustration below), were originally made of iron and then painted. Wood would have succumbed rapidly to the elements.

Figures in the late eighteenth century were generally painted in full color. By modern tastes the paintwork would have been somewhat garish. It is highly improbable that the figure of a sixth-rate would have ever been gilded. If you are not painting it, leave the figure in natural wood. Either a coat of matt varnish or sanding sealer is appropriate. An old toothbrush will help raise a slight sheen on the surface. I hope that this brief description of carving will help you through the process of producing an acceptable figure as well as give you an appreciation for carved works in general. You should be able to extrapolate the information given in these notes to produce satisfactory decorative work for your model.

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11.42 For the utterly challenged would-be carver Don’t be discouraged if your first, second or third effort is unsatisfactory. There is a steep learning curve to climb. My early figure carving attempts were many, and the scrap box well supplied. Learning to carve will take time and effort, but at some point in the process the “ah ha!” moment should arrive. That said, should you find carving to be a completely hopeless experiment for you, the alternative is to model the figure in just the same way as the maquette. Don’t feel badly about lack of success with artistic carving; those beautiful contemporary models were made by several specialist craftsmen, not all of whom could match the quality of each other’s particular work. As you are working alone, it is the exceptional modeler who has the range of skills required to do everything well. One possible modeling material is called Sculpey III. It is a modeling clay which is bakeable and is available in a wide range of colors from craft stores.19 The advantage of this material is that you can model it in stages, bake the figure, then file or carve away parts that you are not happy with. You can then add new clay to the baked figure as often as you wish and bake it on. It is possible to use a wire armature (or even aluminum foil) for additional support inside the figure. If you wish to smooth a surface before baking, a little rubbing alcohol on a cotton swab will work well. Don’t overdose the surface with alcohol though! When completed, sculptures in this material will take paint. The only drawback is that its longevity is unknown. Please read and follow the baking instructions carefully; too little heat will result in uncured material, too much heat will distort and possibly crack it. If you need more information on carving, the local library is a useful source and there are many sites on the Web with information on both carving and using modeling clays.

END OF CHAPTER ELEVEN

There are a number of Web-based informational resources for modeling clays. One useful site is http://www.elvenwork.com/tips.html#A.

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e have finally arrived at the last chapter. This has been a fascinating exercise to write and illustrate. At the beginning I had no idea that this project would be of such interest to others, or so time-consuming. As a result, I have had very little time in my own workshop and feel more like an arm-chair expert! At first I thought that the circulation of this book in practicum form would be limited to a couple of dozen enthusiasts at best. The earliest parts had hand-drawn sketch illustrations and were produced on a basic word-processing program. Once I realized that this project would have “legs,” I undertook the arduous and sometimes frustrating task of mastering layout and illustration programs for preparing each part. The end result has been well worth the effort, I think. If nothing else it has honed my computer rather than modeling skills. I owe heartfelt thanks to each participant in the original practicum who believed in and supported this project. Without their support and imput, this would never have been completed, nor would it have gone on to book form. To each, my gratitude. Also, many thanks to Dupont Communications and SeaWatchBooks LLC who also believed enough in this project to translate it into the two volumes that you are holding now. In addition, most of the photographs in this book of a model of Pegasus are the fine work of my collegue and business partner Dr. Greg Herbert. It is thanks to his encouragement and support that this project ever came into being.

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12.1 Miscellaneous ironwork at the head Most details of the head of the ship were covered in the previous chapter, but there are several other eyebolts and ringbolts to be made and installed in preparation for rigging the ship. The first of these is at the knee of the head. On each side is a triangular ringbolt for the boomkin lashings. These are the stays that support the boomkin. This ringbolt is of 7⁄ 8" diameter iron and 4" in the clear.1 I take this to mean the distance from the center of one side to the inside angle opposite it. Next to be made are the eyebolts for the bobstays. There is one each side in the lowest strake of the main wale, fastened through the bollard timber. Made of 11⁄2" diameter iron, they are 21⁄2" in the clear.2 I have seen several plans that also show eyebolts through the upper end of the bollard timbers just below the timberhead. These are oriented vertically (illustrated below). Steel does not mention these, but they will be needed for laniards that set up the fore topmast stay (starboard) and fore topmast preventer stay (port side).3 Next are two eyebolts on each side in the main wale for the bowsprit shrouds. These are of 1" diameter iron, 2 1⁄4" in the clear.4, 5 These are set almost horizontally (illustration at left). The eyes should be aligned in the direction of the bowsprit shrouds.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio L. 3 L. Petersson, Rigging Period Ship Models, illustrated on page 18. 4 Ibid, illustrated on page 20. 5 Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI. 1, 2

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12.2 Ironwork on the fore channel You have already installed the swivel bolts in the fore channels (see section 10.6). There are several other fittings to be made. First are eyebolts for the fore studding sail booms. These are positioned in the ship’s side just forward of the fore ends of each channel. (Unlike the main studding sail booms, these booms are stowed inboard.) The eyebolts are of 1" diameter iron, 13⁄8" in the clear (illustration below). They will take the gooseneck fittings (illustration at right) at the inboard end of the studding sail booms (also see section 12.3). Next is a length of metal chain on each side, the shankpainter chain, used to secure the anchors. They are attached to the fore channels. Each chain is 9' 6" long and consists of links 3⁄4" in diameter. I would use very fine silver chain from a jeweler’s shop. If you can find chain measuring 20 to 24 links to the inch, this would be ideal. Strip the protective lacquer coat from the chain before trying to oxidize it. The chain is secured at one end with an eyebolt of 11⁄2" diameter iron. Steel does not give its inside diameter, but about 11⁄2" in the clear would seem reasonable. This bolt is driven in the side at the position shown in the illustration (below).

12.3 The fore & main studding sail booms These are round-sectioned spars (right). If showing them, you will need to make four of these: two for the fore channels and two identical ones for the main channels. Note that the taper starts one third the way along this spar. Each boom is fitted with an iron band and gooseneck on the inner end which will attach to the eyebolt (described in section 12.2) when they are deployed. The gooseneck is made of 13⁄4" diameter iron. There is a 1" diameter through hole bored close to the outer end as shown.

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12.4 The fore channel deadeyes The deadeyes for the fore channels need to be made next. If you plan on rigging your model, you will need to double the quantities given here for each size. (Also refer to sections 12.16, 12.18 & 12.22.) The numbers quoted are for an unrigged model. There are two sizes of deadeye required. The larger size, 10" in diameter, are for the shrouds to the fore mast, 14 of which are required. The two smaller ones, 7" in diameter, are for the (topmast) breast backstay.6

10"

As with everything else on the ship, deadeyes are formed to strict proportions. Their thickness is one inch more than one-half the diameter. The holes, 11⁄4" in diameter for the larger deadeyes and 1" for the smaller size, are set in one quarter of the deadeye diameter from the edges. For the lower deadeyes, the single hole is placed lowermost. The edges of the holes are scored for the laniards (illustration above right). If rigging, the hole on the upper deadeye that takes the stopper knot of the laniard is not relieved on the inboard side. The circumferential score is the width of the binding and half its depth.7 In actual examples of deadeye, it does not go all the way around (illustrated above). This detail may be ignored. Deadeye bindings are 11⁄4" in diameter and topmast backstay bindings 1" in diameter. Deadeyes may be turned using a forming tool on the lathe. Parting off is tricky; deadeyes have a tendency to spin away, never to be seen again! Make a few extras, as some may split when drilling for the laniards. To drill laniard holes, use a dividing head on the lathe if you have one or set up your drill press with a simple jig (left). You will need to turn a separate collar on a stem for each size of deadeye. A grubscrew secures the deadeye in the collar while you drill the holes.

Steel, Mastmaking, etc., Vol. II, A table of the quantities and dimensions of the standing and running rigging, 16 and 14 Gun Sloops, 300 and 280 Tons, pages 122-123. Naval Architecture specifies deadeyes 1" larger.

Ibid, Volume I, The practice of block-making, page 158. 261

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12.5 The fore chains These each consist of four pieces. There is the deadeye binding or upper link, the middle link, lower or toe link and the chain or preventer plate. These parts are illustrated at the right and also in section 9.32. If you have not already established the lines of the various chains, follow the directions in section 9.32. Constructing chains is an interesting challenge as each pair, port and starboard, is a slightly different length. The middle links need to be of increasing length as the angle of each chain increases, while the upper and toe links in any gang of chains remain constant. A gang is a group of chains associated with a particular channel. Begin with the upper links or deadeye bindings. Their length needs to be such that they pass around the groove in the deadeye, come together at the channel and then form a loop below the channel. There should be enough length in the neck formed below the deadeye for the latter to be pulled up a scale inch or two above the channel when under tension. The bindings are of 11⁄4" diameter iron. You will need to make a sample loop or two to find the correct length of wire required for the bindings. I strongly recommend that you make and silver solder the bindings in the same way as you did the ringbolts. Use hard (high melting point) silver solder. The basic binding will form a large loop which will later be slipped over the deadeye and squeezed tight with a small pair of round-nosed pliers. Do not install the deadeyes in their bindings yet! You do not want to scorch them while soldering the chains. That said, make an extra loop and put it around one deadeye which you will use for fitting purposes shortly. The backstay deadeye chain is of 1" diameter iron and does not have a preventer plate (see illustration, section 12.6). As the deadeye is of smaller diameter, you will have to figure out the length of wire required for its binding, so that the narrow section and loop below the channel will be the correct size.

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All the toe links may be made next. Remember that the sheer draft gives a foreshortened view of these; their true length must be determined from a side elevation and by projection drawing. Once again, establish the length of wire required first. You can then cut all the loops to the same length from wire 11⁄4" in diameter. Use high melting point silver solder to form the loops (far left). The links may easily be formed after soldering as the metal is now soft. Their shape is such that you will need to hold a drill shank in the vice to squeeze the lower loop round for the chain bolt. The diameter of the fore chain bolts are 13⁄8", but make the loop 11⁄2" in diameter (1⁄32" drill size). Once the link is formed (center, above), the lower loop must be angled so that the chain will sit at the correct angle against the ship’s side (above and left, opposite page). Take the sample bound deadeye that you have prepared and place it in position on the channel. To do this you will need to remove the molding that you temporarily installed earlier. Pin a toe link in place through the hole that you drilled (section 9.32) so that you can measure the length of the middle link. To do this, I use a length of soft wire as shown (right). Once you are satisfied that the link length is correct, disassemble the chain. I use a small jig set in my vise to bend the actual middle link (illustration below left). There is one fixed pin and one moveable one, so that I can adjust the distance between the two until the bent wire pattern slides around the outside of the pins, as shown. The moveable pin is then secured by the set screw. It is then easy to bend and trim a middle link, 11⁄4" in diameter, to length over the pins. You can make a pair of middle links to the same length at the same time; one link for each side of the ship.

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Take a deadeye binding and a toe link and thread them on one of the middle links. The middle link can now be closed up ready for soldering. Pin the chain in a line on your soldering pad. With adequate flux and using medium or easy silver solder, connect the middle link. Pickle the resulting chain to remove oxidation and flux; then chemically blacken it. To finish, I use an old toothbrush to polish it up. Once this is done, the deadeye can be installed in its binding by squeezing the binding around it with round-nosed pliers. The lower eye of the binding should be bent so that the deadeye is in line with the shroud to the masthead (illustration right). The preventer or chain plates are next. “Plates” is actually a misnomer, as they were forged from square section bar stock (far left). In contemporary models one can see a joint line down the center of the plate indicating this. For model work it is easier to file out brass sheet (near left). Preventer plates are 11⁄8" thick. Again, each pair are a slightly different length. Each has a bend or crank near the upper end to accommodate the toe link. Allow a little extra length for this crank when making your pattern. One method of making these plates is to cut a strip of brass to the width across the rounded ends, which is 41⁄2" (illustration 1, below right). After drilling two holes 11⁄2" in diameter at the correct distance apart, part the plate off the strip (2). Round the ends (3) and then file the edges of the center sections alternately and equally until the plate just slips between the jaws of a set of calipers preset to a width of 3" (4) . Blend the ends into the narrow section and score the center with a scriber (5). Lightly chamfer all the outer edges. To form the offset crank, set up a steel plate on the workbench with a piece of sheet metal 11⁄4" thick clamped to it. You can use this as a form to carefully bend the crank (6). When satisfied with the plate, clean it up and blacken it in the usual way. Repeat this process for all 14 fore channel plates.

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The chain bolts and preventer bolts are next. The chain bolts are 13⁄8" in diameter and the preventer bolts 11⁄4". I would not be concerned with the difference in diameter at 1:48 scale, especially as the heads will conceal the actual diameter of the shank. If you can obtain them, model railroaders’ copper flat-headed rivets with a shank diameter of 1⁄32" (actual) are almost exactly the correct size.8 Blacken all the components. Assemble the chains in the channels and pin them to the ship’s side. A small dab of epoxy may be used for security here. You can now install the channel molding over the chains.

12.6 Preventer bolts There is more ironwork to be made associated with the fore channels. These are the preventer bolts. These are eyebolts used to anchor temporary jury-rigged shrouds, should the chains be shot away in battle or part in storm conditions. There are four per side, each of 11⁄4 " diameter iron and 3" in the clear. Their positions are shown (right). They are placed in line with and between the chain bolts. Normally, in a sixthrate, the bolt forward of the port would be positioned between the plates, but the billboard (see section 12.10) makes this arrangement impossible. Note that the eyes are angled to align with the chains.

12.7 Fish davit cleat Attached to the drift rail above the first gun port is a fitting for the fish davit. The fish davit is a long square-sectioned spar used in hoisting the crown of the anchor (see section 12.9). It became obsolete in around 1780, to be replaced by a shorter spar that was placed in a step on the channel itself. As the outboard end of the fish davit is passed over the side, the fish davit cleat locates the spar and prevents wear on the rail.

Round-headed rivets, which can be modified using a file, are available from www.chronos.ltd.uk.

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A typical fish davit cleat, if not delineated on your NMM sheer plan, is shown (right) and in section 12.12. It is centered on the rail and is fitted around one of the timberheads at its fore end in the same way as the cat snatch block (section 11.36). If painting your model, the cleat is finished in black. Steel does not mention this item because it was obsolete by 1805. I imagine it to be bolted to the rail with two 1" diameter bolts.

12.8 The spanshackle rings The spanshackle rings are square rings (if the description is not an oxymoron!) on the forecastle. The inboard end of the fish davit is secured through it. Each is bolted securely through one of the forecastle beams. The long fish davit was no longer in use by the time that Steel’s Naval Architecture was published, so is not mentioned. Each ring is 11" in the clear to take the end of the spar. You may either make them from 11⁄2" square section wire or cut them from brass sheet. Their shape is shown (right). The section of the ring where the eyebolt articulates with the spanshackle should be rounded off. The eyebolts should be of about 11⁄4" diameter iron, 2" in the clear. Secure them through forecastle beam #5 just outboard of the standards to the fore jeer bitts (section 10.31). This is also shown in the plan view (below). Interestingly, Blankley describes the bolt as a long one that passes through the forecastle beam and down through the upper deck beam to a forelock below that.9 Were that the case, these extended bolts would pass through the riding bitt standards unless the latter are offset.10

266

Thomas Blanckley, A Naval Expositor, 1750, page 155, Spanshakle (sic).

Deck plans of Vulture (ZAZ unknown, old ref. 3609/52) shows this variation, interestingly enough.

C H A P T E RTWELVE T W E LV E CHAPTER

12.9 The fish davit You may wish to show the fish davit rigged. This was a substantial piece of timber used as a crane to hoist the crown end of the anchor. According to Lees,10 this was replaced in 1773 by a shorter spar which was fitted to the channel, but the presence of the cleat on the rail of Swan class ships implies that the longer spar was still in use in small ships in the late 1770’s.

The length of the fish davit equals that of the extreme breadth of the ship. In the case of the Swan class this is 26' 10". Other dimensions are given on the scale drawing (above). Unlike other spars, the fish davit is square throughout its length, tapering slightly as shown. The edges and corners should be chamfered off as usual. There are two heavy eyebolts on its upper side one quarter the length in from the ends. There are a total of eleven holes drilled through the sides at 1' 6" intervals for handrope eyestrops. These eyestrops fasten a handrope which is threaded through them. The handrope passes through the end holes (above right) before looping around to splice to itself. The rope is of 2" circumference, and Steel specifies it as “worn,” presumably meaning flexible and well stretched.11 When stowed, I imagine that the fish davit would be carried in the waist of the ship. If it were placed across the forecastle on its cleats, it would not clear the galley cowl. There is a good illustration of how it was rigged taken from Falconer’s Dictionary of the Marine reproduced in Lavery.12 The accompanying photograph of a model shows an anchor being fished. (The model in this photograph is erroneously identified as Sovereign of the Seas.)

Steel, Rigging and Seamanship, Vol. II, A table of the quantities and dimensions of the standing and running rigging, 16 and 14 Gun Sloops, page 129.

Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600-1815, page 53.

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12.10 The billboard, bolster and lining These prominent details are usually omitted from official draughts. As the anchor is fished, it swings in a wide arc up the ship’s side. To prevent the anchor flukes (illustration on opposite page) from catching the fore chains or scraping the side, a barrier is built to protect these structures. The lining is a series of short planks laid over the ship’s wale. Its curves are designed on radii centered at the cathead. Ornamental V-grooves are cut along its curved edges (illustrated right). Above the lining is a solid baulk of timber called the bolster. This acts as a platform for a sailor to stand on when taking soundings with a lead. It is also a base for the billboard above; a flat planked surface protecting the foremost fore chains. The drawing here is a reconstruction. The replaceable oak lining planks on the wale are 21⁄2" thick, each fixed with two 3⁄4" saucer-headed bolts at each end which are forelocked through the side of the ship.13 The lower edge is bearded back (see section, above right). The bolster is of oak, 6' 6" long, 8" wide and 7" deep. It is secured through the ship’s side by four 7⁄ 8" diameter forelocked bolts. The inner surface of the bolster fays to the ship’s side so that the upper surface is horizontal athwartships. The inner surface needs to be scored to fit around the fore chainplates (see above right, section). In a small ship there are two stanchions for the billboard. In large ships there were up to four of these stanchions. These stanchions support the billboard planks. They are 4" wide in the foreand-aft direction and 5" thick. The billboard planks are 21⁄2" thick.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LV.

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12.11 The anchors The ship carried five anchors. There are three 20 cwt (hundredweight, 1 cwt. equals 112 lbs) anchors, a 7 cwt stream anchor and a 3 cwt 2 qtr kedge anchor. The three large anchors, which were identical, were called the best bower, small bower and sheet anchors. The various parts of an anchor are illustrated (right). Anchors were made of many narrow iron bars wrought together. The wooden stock is not shown in this drawing. The trend is the thickest parallel portion of the shank, and runs a distance equal to the length of the arm from the throat. Anchors were made to strict proportions. Scale drawings for these are given.14 20 cwt anchors (2,240 lbs or about 1,017 kg) have a shank length of 13' 0".15 Their arms are 4' 41⁄2" long from the throat to the end of the bill. Other given measurements are those of the palm or fluke, which is 1' 9 3⁄4" broad and 11⁄2" thick. The trend is 55⁄8" across (slightly less in the plane of the ring) and tapers to 51⁄8" at the small or small round, which is actually octagonal in section, just below the square. The outside diameter of the ring is 1' 9 3⁄4", and it is made of 2 9⁄16" diameter iron. You will need three of these anchors in total. They may be fabricated from brass and blackened or from wood and painted a dull black. It is amazing to realize that these were all hand-forged; anchors for a first-rate could be as large as 19' 8" long and weigh 81cwt (9,072 lbs or 4,120 kg).

Adapted from Steel’s Rigging and Seamanship, Vol. I, unnumbered plates opposite pages 77 and 78. 15 Ibid, table: The most approved dimensions and weight of anchors, page 81. 14

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The 7cwt stream anchor is a smaller version of the 20cwt anchors that you have just made. This scale drawing (right) 16 gives its size and proportions. The shank of the stream 17 anchor is 9' 0" long. Its arms are 3' 0" long from the throat to the end of the bill. Other measurements are those of the fluke, 1' 4" wide and 1" thick. The trend is 4" across (but is slightly less in the plane of the ring) tapering to 3 1⁄2" at the small round. The anchor ring’s outside diameter is 1' 4". It is made of iron 13⁄4" in diameter. Incidentally, the engraver of Steel’s plates shows rings that are much larger in diameter than the dimensions given in his tables. The kedge anchor is identical in pattern to the other anchors, but is smaller and may have an iron stock instead of a wooden one. At this period both styles were used. However, the ironstocked variety was obsolescent in1794. Steel states that “...their stocks were formerly of iron but are now mostly of wood.” 17 This seems to be a retrograde step, but perhaps was an economy measure. The choice of which type to make is yours. The iron stocked style with its retaining collar and forelock is shown (below right). The shank for the kedge anchor is 7' 0" long.18 Its arms are 2' 4" long from the throat to the end of the bill. The fluke has a width of 1' 0" and is 7⁄ 8" thick. The trend is 3" across, slightly less in the direction of the ring, tapering to 21⁄2" at the small round. The ring has an outside diameter of 1' 0", and is made of 11⁄4" diameter iron. The iron stock is 2" in diameter at the center with a slot for a forelock to pass through. The stock also has a retaining swell or collar. Steel shows the bent end worked in a fancy fish-tail terminal (illustrated right), which allows the forelock to be withdrawn and the stock stowed against the shank without it falling out. 16

Adapted from Steel’s Rigging and Seamanship, Vol. I, unnumbered plates opposite pages 77 and 78. Ibid, table: The most approved dimensions and weight of anchors, page 81.

17, 18

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As one might expect, anchor stocks are made in proportion to their anchors. Each stock is made of oak in two halves. These are held together by iron hoops, bolts and treenails. The length of the stock is the sum of half the diameter of the ring plus the shank length. Its maximum width and depth is the same size in inches rather than feet (i.e. a 9' 0" stock would be 9" wide and deep). According to Steel, the stock tapers to half its width and height at the ends. All the old drawings show the ends a little larger than this, so I have also drawn them this way. Each half of the stock is scored to fit the shank. At the center is a 1" vertical gap between the two pieces to prevent rot. This space is proportionally less for the smaller sizes. There are also mortises cut in the scores to receive the nut, which are the two rectangular projections from the square of the shank (illustrated on previous pages). These prevent the stock from slipping up or down the shank. Three sizes of stock are shown, the smallest being for the kedge anchor should you wish to show this with a wooden stock.

There are four 7⁄ 8" bolts securing the center section of the stock and three treenails on each side between the hoops. Each hoop is 23⁄4" wide and about 1⁄2" thick. The outer hoops appear to be driven on at about a distance equivalent to the width of the stock at its outer ends. The inner hoops appear to be about twice the maximum width of the stock apart. The ends of the stock are rounded off to prevent snagging the copper sheathing as the anchor is weighed.19

An Admiralty order to do this was issued May 16th 1780 (ADM 106/2508), but presumably this was seen earlier than this on coppered ships. It would also be correct to show the stock ends squared off on Swan class models prior to this date.

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Anchors are not bent to their cables unless about to be used. Should you wish to show the sheet and bower anchors prepared for mooring or weighing, there are many reference books that show the way in which this is done. However, one piece of ropework is seen on the anchor ring, the puddening. This fancy ropework reduces chafing of the ring of the anchor against the cable. Its appearance is shown (right). It consists of either 21⁄2" or 2" rope (Steel specifies “worn”) with 3⁄4" seizings.21 In practice, the ring was covered with tarred canvas before the rope puddening was applied. There are five separate strands of rope applied side by side to the ring, retained by bands of seizing. These seizings were sometimes snaked; the final turns being zig-zagged over the round turns. 20

12.12 Forecastle stanchions and netting The forecastle bulwark is very low. It is raised by the addition of iron stanchions and netting. Again, this kind of detail is not seen on the official draughts. I have reconstructed this barrier based on a contemporary model.22

I have no reference for dimensions of the stanchions, but they vary in height as shown, (above). They are about 11⁄4" in diameter, tapering slightly upward. There is swell or collar at the base of each stanchion. The aftermost stanchion is 2' 3" high. Their eyes should be 1" in the clear. Stanchions are placed approximately equidistantly, centered on the planksheer. They are vertical as viewed from the side, but are canted to align with the toptimbers and timberheads as viewed from fore or aft (illustration to right). Note the short stanchion attached to the top of the snatch block (above).

D’ Arcy Lever, The Young Officers’ Sheet Anchor, 1818. Steel, Rigging and Seamanship, Volume II, Table, page 129. All rope sizes are circumference, not diameter. 22 Amazon, 32 guns of 1773 in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, reference SLR0315. 20 21

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A 21⁄2" top-rope or passing rope is theaded through the stanchion eyes. This line terminates aft in a crowned wallnut through a small eyebolt in the planksheer. A wallnut is a decorative knob-like knot at the end of a line. Forward, the passing rope ends in an eye and thimble. A laniard connects this to another small eyebolt on the side of the bollard timber. This laniard adjusts the tension on the passing rope. The netting, similar to that of the head netting (section 11.39), is made from 3 ⁄4" line with a 3"or 4" mesh. It would be logical to omit the netting between the stanchions at the fish davit cleat and at the snatch block aft of the cathead. The netting would also be attached to a line snaked through the bottom mesh at its lower edge as illustrated (opposite page). The line is presumably clove-hitched to the stanchions.

12.13 The swivel guns This is an appropriate time to turn attention to the swivel guns. They fire 1⁄2 lb balls and are 3' 0" long. In most respects they are miniature versions of the guns that you made earlier but are fitted with a training handle or tiller. The form of the tiller varies; in some cases it seems to have been cast integrally with the gun in place of the button of the cascable (see sections 9.35 to 9.39). Also, the length of tiller varied considerably. I have opted to show a shorter tiller due to the limited space on a sixth-rate. The scale drawing (right) gives the proportions and details of these guns. The calibre or bore of a half-pounder is 1.69". Note the Broad Arrow proof mark and gun’s weight stamped on the upper surface of the first reinforce. The pivot mount or yoke is an interesting feature. Most contemporary models and drawings show a straight Y-shaped yoke. The drawings (above and upper left) are based on an offset yoke at Carisbrook Castle, Isle of Wight.23 My rationale for using this style is that it moves the trunnion outboard by some 6", leaving the muzzle further clear of the rigging. Also less space is needed inboard to traverse the gun on a small deck. I have also included a drawing of a conventional swivel mount (below left) for those who disagree with my assessment. There are yet other variations, some with longer stems, seen on contemporary models. Store the completed swivels and mounts until time for the final assembly.

From drawings by R. J. Collins, Model Engineer, Vol. 116, No. 2915, (April 4, 1957) page 486.

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12.14 Waist stanchions and rough-tree rail In order to use the gangboards safely, a barrier is erected along the waist of the ship. A few draughts show this feature. There are a number of iron stanchions topped by a rough-tree rail. Contemporary models, when fitted with these, show a wooden rail rather than a passing rope. At the aft end of the waist, above the entry steps, are two more stanchions for the entry ropes. These will be described shortly (see section 12.17).

The drawing (above) is a conjectural reconstruction of this rail and its stanchions, based on contemporary models and draughts.24 The stanchions pass through the planksheer (illustration at left) and have U-shaped brackets for the rail. Although I have not seen examples of this, there needs to be some method of retaining the rough-tree rail in its brackets. I imagine a forelocked pin through each bracket would fulfill this function.The detail drawing shows the shape of the stanchions which, with the exception of the foremost one, are all 3' 6" high. The plain wooden rail is 4" deep and 2" wide. The netting is similar to that on the forecastle, with the top and bottom ropes probably clove hitched to the stanchions and possibly siezed to the rough-tree rail above. The netting runs along the inboard side of the stanchions.

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One example of model is that of the 14-gun sloop at Annapolis, catalog number 43, thought to be of a Swan class ship (see inset front dust jacket photographs).

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12.15 Eyebolts in the side of the ship There are more eyebolts to be fitted in the side of the ship for attaching the standing ends of running rigging. Foremost is an eyebolt for the main tack. This is placed close to and below the fixed block for the running part of this line. It is of 11⁄4" iron and is 23⁄8" in the clear. Position it in the strake below the sweep port. There is a similar eyebolt under the double fixed block further aft for the standing end of the fore sheet. This eyebolt should be fixed through the same strake about 1' 0" forward of the sweep port below the fixed block. All eyes should align with the standing part of the lines which attach to them.

12.16 The fore stool chains Make and install the fore topmast and topgallantmast backstay chains. The stool that you made (section 10.7) is a scaled-down version of the fore channel supporting two deadeyes and their chains. These deadeyes are 7" in diameter. There are no preventer plates to these chains. The links are of 1" diameter iron and the chain bolts 13⁄8" in diameter. These are made and installed in exactly the same way as you made the foremast deadeyes and chains (sections 12.4 and 12.5).

12.17 The entry stanchions and entering ropes These stanchions are straightforward to make and are similar in style to those on the forecastle. They are positioned above each side of the entry steps (illustration below right). The eyes of the stanchions are 11⁄8" in the clear. The entering ropes are of 3" line and attach through the eyes of the stanchions with a crowned wallnut (see section 12.12). The lines extend down the side of the ship to just above the waterline, where the lower ends hang free. Each rope is knotted at intervals with diamond knots and terminate with another crowned wallnut. A diamond knot can be simulated at this small scale by a simple half-hitch. To have the lines fall naturally, I moisten them with very dilute white glue on a small brush, manipulate them into a position that looks natural and allow them to dry. Dilute the glue with distilled or deionised water. If you use tap-water, it may leave an ugly white deposit on the surface of the lines.

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12.18 The main mast deadeyes and chains These are similar to those of the fore mast. The principal difference is that the topmast and topgallant mast backstay chains are carried on the aft part of the channel rather than on a separate stool (see section 10.11). Another small difference is that there is no deadeye for a breast backstay. The backstay will eventually attach to the two eyebolts aready fitted to the channel. The deadeyes for the shrouds are 10" in diameter, the topmast backstay deadeyes 8" in diameter, and the topgallant backstay deadeyes 7" in diameter.25 They are proportioned and made as those for the fore mast (section 12.4). You will need eighteen 10" deadeyes (double these quantities if rigging your ship), two 8" deadeyes and two 7" ones. Some ships have an additional main shroud each side. It is interesting to note that deadeye diameter increased over time. In The Shipbuilder’s Repository of 1788, the main shroud deadeyes are specified as 9" in diameter, Steel in Rigging and Seamanship of 1794 gives a diameter of 10" and by 1805, in his Naval Architecture, this measurement has increased to 11". The chains and preventer plates are made in exactly in the same way as before (section 12.5). By now this should be straightforward if not rather tedious work, but the appearance of a completed gang of deadeyes and their chains is rewarding to look at. Attach the channel molding over the completed chains.

12.19 Main preventer eyebolts There are four eyebolts per side, each of 11⁄4" diameter iron and 3" in the clear. They may be driven between the first, second and third chains and between the fifth, six and seventh chains in the same manner as the fore preventer bolts (section 12.6). Make sure that they are in line with the chain bolts and angled in the same way as those of the fore chains.

12.20 The fixed gangway newel post and railing You may recall a space reserved for a newel post (section 11.1) at the inboard fore corner of the fixed gangway. The newel is a decorative, turned post that supports a rail running to the quarter deck breastwork. The rail is further supported by a curved iron strap shown on your NMM sheer and profile. Each ship has a variation on this theme, so I have drawn a representative view (opposite right, top). Follow your own NMM draught for specific details. 25

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Steel, Rigging and Seamanship, Volume II, A table of the quantities and dimensions of the standing and running rigging, 16 and 14 Gun Sloops, 300 and 280 Tons, pages 122-123.

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The rail has a puzzling feature. With the relative positions of newel and quarter deck breastwork (section 10.68), the rail should run to the outboard side of the outer breastwork stanchion. The draughts that I have examined show this rail joining the stanchion on its forward side. (Incidentally, the draughts show the midship stanchions of the breastwork which, due to the round-up of the quarter deck, are about 6" higher than the outer stanchions to which the rail attaches. The actual point of attachment for the rail is higher up the stanchion than shown on the draught.) My own interpretation is to crank the rail near its aft end (illustrated right and below). Another solution is to run a straight length of rail at an angle from the newel to the stanchion. However, this arrangement is not as neat nor as safe. The choice is yours. Newel posts can be turned to match the profile shown on your NMM plan. Begin with 5" square stock. The finished height is about 3' 6". It is a good idea to turn integral pegs on the bases of the newels and drill corresponding holes at the corners of the fixed parts of the gangway. The rail has a cross-section that is similar to that drawn (below right). It is about 41⁄2" wide and 3" thick. The serpentine iron strap bracing the rail is about 3" wide and 1" thick. It should also be cranked to match the curve of the rail. Its vertical curve will be less than shown on the draught as the difference in height is about 6" less than drawn. (See the note in parenthesis in the first paragraph above.) Here it may be easiest to bend a piece of wire to use as a pattern before cutting and shaping the strap itself. At least one sheer plan, that of Vulture, does not show these details. The information here should be sufficient to reconstruct these features, if necessary.

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12.21 The entry steps to the waist There are sets of steps on both sides leading from the fixed part of the gangway down to the waist of the ship. The official draughts usually show these steps with parallel treads, but contemporary models often show winding steps. A winding stair (pronounced wine-ding) is one whose treads turn through an angle, like part of a spiral staircase. Winding steps make more sense here, as the arrangement shown on the deck plan would create a danger, especially with the top step positioned beneath the edge of the gangway. Begin by checking the height between the gangway and upper deck. If it is different from the scaled drawing (right), you will need to make an adjustment. First cut the styles out to match the drawing (or its modification). Groove the styles in exactly the same way as you did for the other ladderways. Remember that you are making a left and right handed set! The grooves will need to be made on opposite sides of each pair of styles. The treads can then be cut to match the plan view (above) from 11⁄2" thick stock. Note that the top tread is slightly wider than the others to cover the gap below the gangway curve. If you are painting the styles, do so now. Assemble styles and treads in the usual manner. You will need to distort the assembly very slightly to allow for the sheer of the deck. The styles should stand vertically when viewed athwartships.

12.22 The mizen deadeyes and chains These are similar to the fore and main chains. The deadeyes are 8" in diameter and the chains of 11⁄8" diameter iron.26 The chain bolts are also 11⁄8" in diameter. Note the absence of chain plates (opposite page, top). There are two preventer eyebolts also of 11⁄8" diameter iron, 2" in the clear. These should be placed as shown in the illustration. All these items are made in the same way as for the main and fore chains. Once permanently installed, you can fix the molding along the channel edge.

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Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LIV. Masting, etc., specifies 5" deadeyes, but 8" is in accord with the Swan class draughts.

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12.23 Swivel bolt There is a swiveling eyebolt on each side of the ship. It turns in a plate fixed to the main wale below the mizen chains (illustration at right). This eyebolt is used to secure ships’ boats. The 27 eye is of 11⁄8" diameter iron, 31⁄8" in the clear. The size of the plate is not specified by Steel, so I would make it of 3⁄4" thick iron, either 3" square or circular. Steel is vague about its position, “under the fore part of the mizen chains,” so place it about 5' 0" above the waterline in the highest strake of the main wale.

12.24 The quarter deck planksheer Now is the time to make and fit the quarter deck planksheer. This is similar to that of the forecastle (section 11.35). The main difference is that there is an additional hance just aft of the break of the quarter deck. Once again, make the planksheer in two strips with an outer section notched to fit around the timberheads. You will need to cut additional notches for the swivel mounts. The drawing below is the starting point for the planksheer. You will need to modify the patterns to fit your own model. The joint lines are simply suggested ones; change these if you wish. The edges of the planksheer are molded to match those of forecastle and waist.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI.

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12.25 Fixed block for the main sheet This is another item that many draughts do not show. In later ships it is built into the solid bulwark of the quarter deck. In the case of Swan class ships with an open bulwark, the block is attached to the planksheer nearly opposite the mizen mast. I have taken its form and position from the sheer draught of Atalanta. The block, which is 10" wide, has ornamental hances at each end and is fitted around a timberhead in a similar manner to the cat block (section 11.36). It also sits inboard of a swivel gun mount. The block is fastened to the planksheer with two bolts. Its sheave is the same diameter as the width of the block at 10" and is 13⁄4" thick. Sometimes the sheave is slightly angled, fore end upward, similar to the main brace fixed block (illustration 12.27, top of opposite page).

12.26 Rudderhead cover Moving inboard, the head of the rudder which protrudes above the quarter deck needs protection from the weather. A small cover is provided for this purpose. This is enclosed on seven of its eight sides, the tiller passing through the open forward side. The drawing (below), based on a deck plan of Inspector, 16 guns, of 1782 is partly conjectural.28 I have indicated panelled sides; the aft side should have a similar treatment. There is a small quarter-round molding around the base of the cover. The top, which is curved athwartships, is made of 1" planks covered with tarpaulin. Its corners are rounded off. The cover should be removable to ship and unship either tiller or rudder. It would presumably be struck below in action. Defer attaching this feature permanently until the taffarel and its fittings are completed (sections 12.30 to 12.33 and 12.37 to 12.38).

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NMM draught ZAZ4477: as built deck plans. The tiller is also delineated in the hard over position.

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12.27 Fixed block for the main brace This is situated as far aft as possible and is similar in form to the block for the main sheet (section 12.25). Once again, this is rarely shown on the official draughts. The block, 8" wide, is fitted around the upper end of the outer side counter timber. Its sheave is 8" in diameter and 1" thick. On some drawings the sheave is shown as horizontal but, if angled as shown, (right) it would be less liable to jamming.

12.28 Miscellaneous ironwork in the ship’s side aft There are a number of other eyebolts used for attaching standing ends of lines aft. There is one for the main brace and another for the main sheet. These are placed below the fixed block for the main sheet (illustration below). Alternatively, the eyebolt for the main brace is sometimes positioned near its fixed block above the quarter badge, but there is insufficent space in some cases. The main sheet eyebolt is of 11⁄4" diameter iron, 2 5⁄8" in the clear. The main brace eyebolt is of 1" diameter iron, 2 1⁄8" in the clear. There is an eyebolt on each side in the “turn of the buttock” for the rudder pendants of 1" diameter iron, 23⁄8" in the clear.29 Drive these through the center of the second plank below the main wale into the fashion piece beneath (illustrated at right). There are also two hooks on each side driven through the tuck molding to which the rudder chains can attach. Not specified by Steel, I should make them from 1" diameter iron and about 21⁄2" clear. Based on examples seen on contemporary models, they seem to be spaced equidistantly along the tuck molding (illustrated overleaf ). The chain is similar to that of the shankpainter in size (section 12.2) and attaches to the spectacle plate with a U-shaped shackle. 29

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI.

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12.29 Structures of the stern The time has come to complete the stern. In a sixth-rate this is less extensive than in larger ships and is less complex than the headwork. The gallery lights are already in place and the stern awaits its more decorative elements. First, familiarize yourself with the names of the different structures shown in the illustration below.

There are three principal pieces to the stern gallery surround. Above is the taffarel, which curves aft above the lights, and on each side is a quarter piece running down to, and partly over, the main wale. These pieces are richly carved with mythological figures, scrolls or other decorative elements which vary from ship to ship. As each ship is so different in design, I can only give you some general notes on making these pieces.

12.30 The taffarel pattern The best way to tackle this elaborately carved curved board is to build up each element on a thinner curved base. Alternatively spelled taffrail, you will first need to make a card pattern. Note its joint line with the quarter pieces (illustration above). Start by cutting an oversize piece of card to the curve of the top of the lights across the stern. Mark a centerline and the intersection points of the outermost munions on this curve.

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Next measure the height at the midline from the underside of the necking (illustration opposite) to the highest point of the taffarel. Be sure to take this measurement (B, below, stage 1) from your sheer and profile drawing, as the stern elevation on the body plan shows this distance (A, below) foreshortened. You are now ready to expand the drawing. Do this expansion in two stages. If you try to expand width and height simultaneously you are sure to get confused. Start with the height. Using the outline from the stern elevation on your NMM plan (or adapt the drawing below), divide the width into any number of convenient divisions and draw verticals. Measure the center height, and calculate the multiplication factor to expand this to the true height that you measured from the sheer and profile. Apply this factor to the other heights and develop the new “true height” outline of the taffarel (stage 2, below).

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Now you are ready to expand the width in a similar manner. Measure the width across the necking from the outer sides of the outermost munions from the stern elevation (measurement C, previous page). Measure off the distance marked already on your pattern blank or from the half breadth. This will give you the multiplication factor for expanding the pattern width as you did the height. Now cut the card pattern to this expanded shape (stage 3, previous page) and it should be accurate for shape and fit. Check this on your model and make any adjustment necessary.

12.31 The taffarel base I recommend making a form cut to the curvature of the quarter deck transom to build the taffarel on. Bandsaw or scroll-saw it from pine. Keep both pieces (illustration below right). Either laminate the taffarel or cooper it from vertical pieces. In the real ship the taffarel was composed of horizontal planks. My preference is to laminate. If you are not painting your model, use the coopered method or the lamination lines will show when carving the coves (see opposite page). To laminate the taffarel, use three 2" layers for a total of 6" thickness. Note that this thickness is required only from the arch of the cove downward (see illustrations, previous spread and opposite top). The taffarel is only 2" thick above this line. Either use veneer or cut stock to thickness. Clamp the layers together between the positive and negative forms when gluing up, with two layers to act as packing above the coves. Orient the layers with their grain running at right-angles to each other, those of the outer layers running vertically. Line the form with plastic film so that the taffarel does not adhere to it. Use sufficient adhesive; when clamping up there should be glue squeeze-out to show that the joints are not glue-starved. Once the glue has cured, mark your pattern on the blank. Reduce the height by 1 1⁄2" in depth along the top before cutting out the taffarel. This is to allow for the capping rail which will be described shortly. Keep the taffarel on its convex form while you cut it out on the scroll saw. Note that the lower edge will need to be cut on a standing bevel of approximately 20°. Measure this angle from your own model. The upper edges may be beveled appropriately after cutting out. Carefully cut down the upper layers to the upper limit of the necking. This will provide the base for the carved work.

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Next, mark out the coves on the taffarel. (Some ships have a single cove; others have three as shown here.) These are carved into the surface to a depth of about 3". Each has a scooped shape (shown at left). The perimeter of each cove coincides with the lower edge of the arch of the cove moldings (illustration in section 12.29). The profile of the scooped shape is indicated on the sheer and profile of your NMM plan (also see illustration, section 12.37). Necking moldings will be added later. Before commencing to carve, please read through the next paragraph. In contemporary models the decoration on the coves is usually carved in low relief, with the background treated with a textured finish. This is not difficult to do. The following work should be carried out while the taffarel is supported on its convex form piece. Carve the coves down to about 1" above their finished contour and mark out the relief work. Carefully lower the background to its final level. You can now shape and detail the ribbons or foliage. Finally use a very small punch to dot the background with a regular but random texture. An example of this is shown (below). If you are painting your model, this background is usually painted in red with the relief detail picked out in yellow ochre. An alternative might be to leave the relief in natural wood.

Next are the arch of the cove moldings. These are usually decorative, with either a ropework or diamond lozenge pattern. Check your NMM drawings for their style. They are about 11⁄2" thick and 2 1⁄2" wide. You will need to cut blanks from a very tight-grained piece of boxwood, or cut the molding in sections. Mark the repeats in pencil to get the spacing consistent along the length of the molding before carving the pattern. When completed, carefully glue the cove moldings into position on the taffarel. There is also a plainer half-round molding, the necking, (see illustration, section 12.29) running inside the cove to be cut, curved, fitted and glued into place.

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All the carved work on the taffarel is in relief, so the back of each element needs to be curved to fit it. The easiest way to do this is to rubber-cement sandpaper to the positive form that you used as a support for the taffarel. It is then easy to sand the back of each figure to the correct curve. Each ship’s decoration varies, so I can only give a general guide to achieving a good end result. When tracing each element, remember that on the stern elevation each figure is foreshortened vertically. Scanning and stretching the design by computer is the easiest way to compensate for this. Break down the carvings into a number of small elements; should you mess up one piece, it will mean that only a small replacement will be required. Once again, maquettes will prove extremely useful in working out the flow of draperies and limb positions. Each element of the relief work is no more than 6" thick at most, so that you will need to compress the carving in depth. This should not be too difficult to adapt to after your previous work in the round. One point of refinement when carving in relief is to undercut certain areas to give the impression that the carving is in higher relief or in the round. If you can study contemporary models or good photographs of them, you will see how this is done. The carving will look more delicate in appearance and not seem to be stuck onto the taffarel like an appliqué. As you assemble the carvings for the taffarel, do not glue them on yet. Mark their positions lightly on the taffarel for now. Before final assembly you will first need to drill and peg the taffarel through the counter timbers which support it. For those painting, the background color should be the same dark blue that you used for the counters. Scrape the areas behind the figures bare of paint so that glue adhesion will not be a problem. There is a little more detail to be attended to on the taffarel. It is reinforced outboard of the hull on its forward side by 4" to match the thickness of the quarter pieces (illustrated at right). This will give a total thickness of 6". I have seen the fore faces of the taffarel and quarter pieces also decoratively carved but suspect that, if this was done at all for a sixth rate, it was kept very simple.

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In most ships’ draughts there is what appears to be a narrow molding fitted in sections along the upper edge of the taffarel. This is actually a capping rail, 11⁄2" thick and 8" or 9" wide, that covers the upper edge of the taffarel and the upper ends of the counter timbers (illustration below). Trim the upper ends of the counter timbers now; the exception is where the counter timbers are extended upward to a taffarel fife rail (Appendix 12.1). In some ships this rail is flush to the aft side of the taffarel, so appears to be absent on the elevation. Its edge profile, if it protrudes aft of the taffarel, is a simple half-round. The capping rail will need careful bending, shaping and fitting, especially if the taffarel profile has angled intersections. Please read section 12.37 and Appendix 12.1 before making this rail, as the ensign capsquare base (section 12.37) will need to be incorporated. The section of capping rail outside the side counter timbers often has a carved outer surface. In some cases it has a simple incised design; in other ships it features a low relief scroll. Check your NMM sheer draught to see if a particular style of decoration is indicated. The capping rail finish should match the carvings, if this is shown as an overlap on your draught. The aft face is either painted ochre or left bright. If the rail is flush outboard with the taffarel, its outboard face should match the tafferel. The top and fore edges are usually black. The hatched lines in the illustration (previous page to left) show the quarter pieces and represent the blocks before carving. The fore side of the quarter piece will be flush with the fore side of the thickness piece. With the taffarel secured and the capping rail in place, you can begin to mount the individual carvings above the cove. You may choose to use glue alone or use treenails for additional security. Be careful not to use so much glue that excess will squeeze out from behind the carvings. I use small quantities of epoxy, taping each element in place until the glue has cured. It is very gratifying to see the design as a whole begin to emerge along the taffarel.

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12.32 The pilasters The aft surfaces of the munions are still visible between the stern lights and will be covered by ornamentation. In some ships the decorative motifs are classical reeded columns, in others garlanded panels. Some draughts show plain stern munions,30 but the corresponding munions on the quarter badge may give a clue to the decorative finish which was certainly also applied to the stern. Reeded columns are the easier of the two types to make. Examples of both designs are shown (above). Reeding consists of parallel grooves, usually semicircular, along the length of a flat column. Usually the grooves stop short of the top and bottom of the column and are known as stopped reeding. There is an ornamental capital at the head of the column and a base at the foot. Crosssections of the pilasters are flat and rectangular. Their thickness can be taken from the profile of the stern on your sheer draught. Typically the column section is between 1" and 11⁄2" thick. The pilasters may be built up using appropriately dimensioned pieces. One way of showing stopped reeding is to groove a long length of column and then cut off a length of reeded section at the appropriate angles. Glue this up with shorter lengths of plain column top and bottom to complete the unit. If you are a skilled machinist, you could mill the stopped reeds to their correct length on each column. Reeded columns on contemporary models were often made of ivory with the reeding picked out in black or dark blue. I would suggest a natural wood finish with the reeds picked out in color. Paint in the reeds without worrying about spill-over, and when the paint is thoroughly dry, scrape the surface clean with a sharp razor blade or steel scraper. Garlanded panels are a different matter. Short of carving every single garland individually in relief — and including the quarter badges there are 14 of them — one method might be to carve either a single garland or a left and right-handed pair and cast duplicates in resin. The castings may be subsequently applied to the munions and painted ochre or matched in color to the wood finish of the other carved work. The inset panel background is painted dark blue for contrast. Do not install the pilasters for the moment. 30

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An example is the stern of Pegasus. Only the quarter badge shows the reeded column detail.

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12.33 Sills and stops for the lights: completing the gallery There are sills at the base of the lights (see illustration, section 12.29). Most ships also have stops above the lights. Both sills and stops have quarter round outer edges and are painted dark blue. The munions, where not covered by pilasters or garlands, are also dark blue. Carry out this painting (assuming that you are using paint) before attaching the decorative work permanently. The stern now begins to appear nearly complete. However, there is one more item to consider before moving on to the quarter pieces.

12.34 The rudder coat I had not described this item earlier as I had no details of its construction. I have since found a description of the rudder coat in a full facsimile copy of Steel’s Rigging and Seamanship.31 A rudder coat is a bag-like canvas affair that seals the gap between the rudderhead and the helm port in the lower counter. This prevents a following sea from washing aboard through such a substantial aperture. The rudder coat is tubular and made of gored strips of heavy canvas, as illustrated (right and below). To gore simply means to taper. In this case, the gores curve slightly. The smaller end of the tube is nailed around the rudderhead just above the upper hance while the coat is inverted. It is then turned up and the wider end nailed around the inside of the helm port. The excess loose canvas hangs down, allowing the rudder to turn freely.

The rudder coat will be awkward to install on your model, which might explain why this feature is rarely seen. If you are really ingenious and like a challenge, model it in fine linen, dyed dark brown to represent tarred canvas. The seams are 1" wide and the circumference of the coat has 2" to 3" tablings. A tabling is simply a hem. Don’t join the edges a (left), as in the prototype, but tuck them carefully between the rudder and stern post.

Ibid, Volume 1, page 142.

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12.35 The quarter pieces These will be the greatest challenge, but by this stage you have had considerable experience in carving. The quarter pieces extend from the taffarel base on each side down to, and over, part of the main wale aft. Depending on the actual design for your ship, divide the quarter pieces at about the level of the lower counter rail and carve the pieces separately. Note that the design of the carvings include an open space between the ship’s side and the quarter piece, level with the outer pilasters. (The outer pilasters cover the outer planking ends.) This space is a vestigal remnant of the open upper balconies in larger ships of the early seventeen hundreds. In some drawings the head of the quarter figure overlaps the lower edge of the taffarel, and allowance will need to be made for this. The first step to successfully carve the quarter figure is to build a maquette. The design is extremely complex in some drawings. In the case of Fly, the quarter figures are tritons blowing horns and mounted on dolphins. The figures twist around, and the dolphins wind in sinuous curves between and around the tritons’ fin-like legs (illustrated at right). Triton was a merman, the son of Poseidon, supreme god of the sea, and Amphitrite, a nereid. (This couple appear on Fly’s tafferel above, flanking the central motif of the four Winds.) The lower part of each triton is fish-like, and the horn is traditionally in the form of a conch shell. The quarter figures on other ships are a little less dramatic! Once again, when interpreting the NMM drawings, make allowance for the draftsman’s drawing abilities. In every instance give the subjects some life and movement as you did for the figure (see section 11.40). Once you have worked out the problems in modeling clay, make a mirror image for the opposite side. You will find it impossible to carve a port side figure from a starboard side maquette! Carry out the same exercise for the lower part of the quarter piece on each side. Popular motifs here seem to be fish, squid and other sea creatures. These relief figures should be easier to carve than the upper quarter pieces.

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Saw out blanks for the quarter pieces and fit them very carefully to the ship’s side and taffarel. Having done so, it may be helpful to attach the blanks to some scrap stock in order to hold them securely while you carve. Use the same techniques as you did for the figure. Another helpful hint is to carve port and starboard quarter pieces at the same time, alternating work between the two pieces rather than completing one before starting the other. If you are uncertain, re-read section 11.41 before beginning. With any luck you may succeed with the carvings the first time, but if not, be persistent and try again. Once you are satisfied with your quarter pieces, they can be finished in paint to match the taffarel figures or left in natural wood, then glued and pinned in place. Your stern gallery is now complete.

12.36 Ironwork on the quarter pieces There are several eyebolts driven into the head of the quarter pieces (technically the outer ends of the taffarel). There are two eyebolts for the mizen vangs and the stern ladder. Each is made of 1" diameter iron, with eyes 21⁄8" in the clear. According to Steel there are further eyebolts of the same size for the mizen sheets, main brace, fore brace, topsail halliards and the mizen truss.32 This is not consistent with other authors, who state that the eyes are for the guy pendant, mizen topsail and mizen topgallant sail braces. Regardless, I would place three eyebolts on each side, and one more as shown for the iron brace or rod for the stern lantern (see section 12.49).

12.37 Fittings for the ensign staff Inboard, on the quarter deck centerline, is a step and capsquare for the ensign staff. The ensign staff is a flag pole that the ensign is flown from. The capsquare base is set into the capping rail and is detailed as illustrated (right and on the following page). The capsquare is similar to those of the gun carriages, (see section 9.50) except that the angle of the ensign staff needs to be accommodated.

Steel, Naval Architecture, Folio LVI.

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The block supporting the capsquare may need modification. This will depend on the shape of the capping rail or taffarel fife rail ( for this item see Appendix 12.1) for your particular ship. The design is adapted from capsquares seen on contemporary models. Blacken the metalwork and, if painting, match the color of the woodwork to that of the capping rail (or taffarel fife rail, if fitted). The step for the ensign staff is simply a wooden block on the deck for the heel of the staff to rest in. The base of the staff is 41⁄2" in diameter, so there is a hole this size drilled in the step for this purpose. Take the dimensions for the step from the scale drawing (right). Adjust the angle of the hole to suit your ship.

12.38 The ensign staff This is a simple spar surmounted by a truck. Steel33 describes a truck as “an oblate spheroid”, in other words, a flattened ball. The truck, which is made of elm, is mortised and attached by a square tenon at the top of the staff. It is pierced for two small sheaves. This is shown in the drawing (below right). The truck appears to have a diameter three times that of the top of the staff, and is about one-third its diameter in thickness. The ensign staff is 24' 0" long and 41⁄2" in diameter. Steel does not mention a taper for this spar, but I would taper it slightly anyway. A scale drawing is given (below).

Ensign staff, scale 1:48 Extract from the masting and sparring plan34

33 34

292

Steel, Rigging and Seamanship, Volume I, page 12. The masting and sparring plan is available through Dr. Greg Herbert at dvm27@comcast.net.

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12.39 The quarter rail or rough-tree rail This is sometimes referred to as the rough-tree rail, but Steel35 calls the rails along the waist and quarters as rough-tree rails and those from the stern to the gangway as quarter rails, “serving as a fence to prevent anyone from falling overboard, &c. or birthing up the quarters.” Steel specifies the quarter rail as 6" wide and 4 1⁄2" deep. Perversely, he refers to this item as the rough-tree rail in his tables!36 However, most draughts indicate a rail about 3" deep, depending on the individual ship. It curves gently in plan view, following the contour of the quarter deck. It is supported by the swivel gun mounts, to which it is bolted, the outer counter timberhead aft and an iron stanchion near the forward end. These are shown on the NMM sheer draughts. The vertical sides of the rail are often molded like those of the planksheer. The fore end of the quarter rail sweeps down to end in a small scroll on the planksheer. You may take the shape of this from your own NMM plan. The aft end terminates flush with the aft side of the outer counter timber, except in ships with a taffarel fife rail (see appendix 12.1). If painting your model, a satin finish black for the quarter rail and its supports is usual.

12.40 The quarter badge In the Swan class, as in most small ships of the period, a quarter badge is substituted for the quarter gallery. This structure, which is fitted to the ship’s side aft, is ornately carved and decorated. It varies considerably from ship to ship. However, certain features are common to all. The names of the various component parts are indicated in the representative illustration (right).

Steel, Naval Architecture, pages 53 and 57-58.

Ibid, Folio XLIII.

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12.41 The lower stool The whole structure of the badge is based on the upper and lower stools. These are pieces of plank shaped to fit the side of the ship and are placed exactly parallel to each other as a foundation for the other elements. Their edges are molded to form a decorative rail. Begin with the lower stool. It is most important that this be located accurately on the side of the ship. If it is misplaced in either height or slope, the rest of the badge will not be correct. The lower stool is shaped so that it projects no further from the ship’s side than the quarter pieces. Many modern models show badges that project too far. A heavy sea could carry such a badge away. The outboard shape is usually elliptical, although occasionally it has three angled faces to match the lights above it. Athwartships, the lower stool sits horizontally. I would make this oversize on the inboard side so that the molding can be cut cleanly before you fit the stool to the ship’s side. The pattern and dimensions (right) will need to be modified for your own ship. In at least one ship, Vulture, the badge appears to be a flat structure against the ship’s side rather than elliptical in cross-section. Transfer your pattern to a piece of stock of suitable thickness, allowing extra material on the inboard side, and cut the stool to shape. Cut in the decorative molding, remembering that the profile shown on your NMM plan is elongated. This is because the molding meets the ship’s side at an acute angle as seen from above. When you are satisfied with the molding, trim off the excess material on the inboard side to the inboard line. The inboard face will need to be slightly beveled to meet the ship’s tumblehome. Use your height gauge to mark the placement of the stool on the ship’s side and cross-check the position of your mark-out very carefully. It should coincide with the lower edge of the aperture for the light in the ship’s side. When you are certain that all is accurately positioned, glue and pin the lower stool in place.

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12.42 The upper stool If it were not for the bell-top, the upper stool would be as easy to make as the lower stool. However, the layout of this piece is similar. Bell-top refers to the arched section and light below. Referring to the drawing (right), you will see that the shape of the upper stool in plan repeats the shape of the lower one, but fractionally smaller in size. A moment’s consideration will confirm that if the munions are to be parallel to each other, the layout must necessarily be the same. The only difference is that the upper stool is displaced aft by the distance of slope of the munions. (The upper and lower stool shapes are superimposed in the plan view only to demonstrate this point.) Start by making the upper stool in the same way as you did the lower stool, as if it were a flat piece. Cut it out, mold the edge, and finish the inner edge to fit the hull. Now mark the joint lines with the bell-top piece on the upper surface and set the stool aside for the moment. The bell section of the stool is next. Mark out a piece of stock and scroll-saw it to shape. The curve is an irregular skewed ellipse; if you cut a regular ellipse, it will look quite wrong on the model. Alternatively, a strip of wood may be steamed to shape on a mold. Make this piece overlength so that you can cut the molding beyond what will become the angled joint (illustration at left). Note that the outboard edge has a slight but noticeable curve in plan view (top of page). As you mold this edge, be particularly careful when working against the grain. To cut the joints, draw the joint lines on paper so that you can place the pieces over the pattern to match the angles with your chisel as you cut them, just as you did for the drift rail (section 10.15). I have drawn an example here (left) which may or may not match your own model.

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Once you have cut the angle into the straight sections of upper stool, you can carefully glue the three pieces together on the pattern. To ensure that the geometry of the badge is maintained, cut a piece of scrap wood to use as a spacer between the lower and upper stools. This will ensure that the upper stool is installed absolutely parallel to the lower one (illustration at left). Carefully glue and pin the upper stool in position.

12.43 Munions and lights Next to be made are the munions. These will need very careful cutting and fitting so that they are also parallel to each other. The munions that touch the sides of the ship are particularly fussy to fit, as the inboard faces need to be angled off to a fine edge. Take your time to get these right. Again, temporary spacers between the munions in the spaces for the lights will help ensure parallelism. Before permanently fixing the munions, it is a good idea to provide very slim stops for the lights and their glass. The two smaller lights, if fitted to your ship, can be made in the same way as those for the stern gallery. The larger light with its curved top will be more of a challenge. One strategy would be to make a curved form and steam a strip of wood around it (below). The critical part would be to make the form exactly twice the width of the stock narrower than the opening. Another method would be to shape the inside of the curve from a piece of thin flat stock before shaping the outer curve. This will be a tricky job to do either way. Once completed, the lights can be installed and retained by their outer sills. The pilasters for the munions are similar to those that you made for the stern gallery and should be straightforward to make and fit.

12.44 The upper finishing Each ship’s upper finishing is unique and highly ornamented, and you will need to use your artistic judgement in making it. The given factors are the boundary in plan view based on the shape of the upper stool on which it sits, the curve of the bell-top of the stool and the profile against the ship’s side in elevation.

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Although this piece looks roof-like in elevation, it is cut from stock no more than 1' 0" thick. The decoration is in relief. Once again you will need to interpret the motifs and make a maquette before carving. Some designs will require additional pieces glued and pinned to the main piece. Cut the lower edge of the blank to the elevational profile first (step A, below). Refine the fit of the underside to the upper stool around the bell-top. Remember to allow for the extra thickness of stock for the tumble-home of the ship’s side while adjusting the fit (step B). When you are satisfied with this, lay out the rest of the elevational profile and cut it out (step C). For this, because of the projected view, a spiral scroll-saw blade that will cut in all directions is useful so that the tilt of the table can remain constant. Remember not to rotate the blank while cutting! Finally trim the inner face to fit the side of the ship and cut the plan view shape out (step D). The upper finishing is now ready to be shaped and carved. Remember that the carvings are in relief and not in the round, so that you will follow a similar technique as you did for the taffarel figures. In some ships the upper finishing design shows high relief figures with deep undercuts. In such cases it will be easier to carve the figures separately and then attach them to the upper finishing.

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12.45 The lower finishing The lower finishing is usually divided into two parts by the lower finishing rail. The section above this rail is parallel to the lower stool. Its shape is defined by the lower stool above, the profile where it meets the ship’s side and the lower finishing rail below (illustration at right, representive only). The outer curve of the lower finishing rail echoes that of the stool above. Take the thickness of the upper part of the lower finishing from your sheer draught. Cut it out to the upper surface plan and fit the inboard face to the side of the ship. Next mark and cut the profiles of the ends; then shape the piece to the lower surface profile. It is now ready to receive the decorative treatment shown on your own NMM sheer draught. The lower finishing rail is easily cut to shape from stock of suitable thickness and the molding profile cut along its edge (below). The lower part of the lower finishing and its drop, the lower terminal knob, is derived in much the same way as the upper part, the curve in plan view following the curves above. The drop on one side is pierced for a discharge tube from the head inside the captain’s cabin. Fit the inboard surface to the ship’s side carefully, as any gap here will not look good. Once satisfied with the fit, mark and cut the contour of the piece in elevation. Shape the outboard surfaces and carve in the decorative elements as you did for the upper finishing piece. You can either assemble the lower finishing pieces and lower finishing rail before attaching them to the ship’s side, or you can attach each piece in turn to complete the lower part of the quarter badge. To complete the external sides of the ship, cut and attach short lengths of waist, drift and sheer rails aft of the quarter badge as appropriate.

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12.46 The console brackets There is yet more decoration associated with the quarter badge. There are two decorative scrolls flanking the badge at the level of the lights. They are attached to the ship’s side (see illustration, section 12.40). These ornaments are called console brackets or canting livres. Once again, they are low relief carvings. The boards from which they are carved are no more than 3" thick. There are many variations of design, so follow those for your own ship.

12.47 Iron stanchions on the quarters There are specialized stanchions called hammock cranes with netting to hold the hammock rolls along the quarters of the ship. These are J-shaped and vary in height. As with the quarter rail, the line of the tops of these follow the sheer of the quarter deck. The general shape and position of these stanchions are given in the drawings (below and at right). The layout is conjectural, based on other draughts and contemporary models. Each crane is of 11⁄4" square section iron. The eye at the upper end is 1" in the clear. There are two holes for 3⁄4" bolts at the lower end. Each crane is curved to provide 71⁄2" of clearance with the quarter rail. This represents the diameter of a tightly rolled hammock. The details of passing ropes and netting are similar to the arrangement on the forecastle with the tensioning laniard situated at the aft end (see section 12.12).

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12.48 The stern lantern The last item required to complete the hull of your model is a stern lantern. In a sixth-rate the number of lanterns carried was not fixed. It is reasonable to suppose that there was a single lantern mounted centrally on the taffarel. Its various parts are identified on the diagram (right). In practice, the lantern was made of sheet and cast metal, subsequently painted to resemble wood. Except for the crank, it may be easier to make the lantern of wood. Lanterns in the eighteenth century were usually hexagonal, and the easiest pieces to begin with are the two rims. I have drawn the lantern to scale (below), which will assist you in cutting the rims to size. One strategy for building a tapered structure is to build the central section (the lights) over a shaped form or mandrel. This method worked with great success for my model of Polyphemus. Begin with a piece of clear acrylic 1⁄2" (actual) thick. From this cut a tapered form that will be the base for building up the lantern. It is easiest to cut a hexagon the size of the upper end of the light, less twice the thickness of the stock that you will use for the munions. When you have made sure that the piece is truly hexagonal and that all sides are equal in width, you can cut in a suitable taper. Having ensured that the taper is correct and that the angles are still true, mark off the upper and lower ends of the lights section at the correct angles and cut the mandrel to length. Now progressively sand and then polish the acrylic until it is completely clear.37 37

300

Acrylic plastic polishing kits are readily available. Micro-Mark is one source.

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Originally I thought that the clear acrylic core could remain inside the lantern and act as glazing, but once the piece was polished I realized that it looked wrong due to internal refraction of light. However, the highly polished finish is still necessary so that the munions will not stick to the mandrel when gluing up the assembly. Cut stock 1" thick for the munions. Cut ample 1" wide strips from this for the cross-bars, as well as 11⁄2" wide strips for the top horizontals and 2" wide strips for the lower ones. Cut more stock than you will require, as the slightest miscut piece will have to be scrapped and remade. The next step is the trickest to carry out. You will need to cut pieces with the cross-section shown (below) for the adjacent long edges of the lights. If you have a tilting arbor on your miniature saw, this will be straightforward to carry out by setting it over to 30°. If not, you will need to make an auxiliary table at 30° to place over your table and the blade, parallel and next to the fence. Again, cut considerably more stock than you will actually require. Don’t be concerned with what will become the outer corners, as they will be formed when you rub down the completed section. Once all the stock is cut, commence to assemble the cagework. Note that the fore side is fitted with a door instead of lights (illustration, opposite page). Begin the aft face with one long edge, which can be cut a little overlength for the moment, and the top and bottom rails (stage A, at left). Add the second long edge, carefully applying white glue to the joints with a fine brush. Next measure and cut the vertical munion and finally add the horizontals to the first side (stage B). Continue around successive sides, making sure that the top and bottom bars are level with the ends of your mandrel (stage C). Once complete, allow adequate time for the glue to set before attempting to rub down each face in turn on a 400-grit sandpaper board (stage D). The mandrel should now slip out without difficulty.

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If you are painting the model, the inside of the lantern should be painted red before adding the lower rim. This is a little tricky, but with patience it can be done. Gently scrape off any paint that has accidentally been deposited on the sides of the munions. Before continuing with the top and bottom of the lantern, reinforce and stabilize the lights by gluing on the lower rim. In the real lantern, the inside of the lower rim had a metallic surface. You may indicate this with aluminum foil. This rim, once fitted, will strengthen the assembly considerably. In the original lanterns the upper rim was hollow, allowing heat to rise and escape through the vent above (see illustration on previous spread). Because of its asymmetry, constructing the roof is an interesting challenge. Take an oversize piece of stock 6" thick and drill a small hole centrally through it. This hole should be drilled at an angle of 14 1⁄2° using a drill press. This angle is the central axis of the lantern, as seen from the side. Using the hole as a guide, mark out the base hexagon on the lower side of the blank and the upper hexagon on the upper side. Make sure that both mark-outs are accurately placed relative to the hole and to each other. To cut the blank out, set your scroll-saw table to 14 1⁄2° and use a spiral blade so that the blank will appear as shown (illustration at right) when cut out. If you do not have this facility, you will need to cut the fore and aft faces first at 14 1⁄2°, mark the same angle at the center of the sides, and cut the intermediate faces by hand and eye. The next step is to cut in the curves of the fore and aft faces, as their contours can be taken directly from the side elevation. With these faces established, the two remaining faces on each side may be shaped. Aim on having the intersecting line between the side faces appear as a straight line when viewed directly from the side (illustration at right). Follow the same procedure for shaping the vent with its slits (see illustration, section 12.48) and then its roof. Of course, on the actual lantern these sections were hollow sheet metal shells rather than solid pieces, but this simplification will be hard to detect in a model. The guide holes that you drilled may be used for a locating peg when assembling the sections. Do not attach the roof and upper rim yet, as the glazing needs to be taken care of first.

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It is possible to cut microscope cover glass to shape and fit it inside the lantern, but this is difficult as the material is so brittle. When building my own lanterns, I gave up trying to do this and used transparent nitrile plastic instead, which is thin enough and easy to cut. I am unsure of its longevity but, if over time the transparency diminishes, this will not detract from the model. Once the glazing is fitted, the upper rim, roof and vent pieces may be added. Be very careful to align each piece accurately with the one below. The base section and stool with their moldings may be fabricated using the same methods as described for the upper part of the lantern. Make sure that the stool is through-drilled to take the tang of the iron crank or support bracket.

12.49 The lantern crank and support rods The crank is made of 3" thick brass cut to shape (illustration at right) and blackened. Note the tang for the stool. The crank fits into a hole through the carved work in the taffarel. Somehow this seems sacrilegious after all the care that was put into the carvings! Mount the lantern on the tang of the crank. Note the level of the lantern; on some modern models it is placed far too high. The lantern requires further stabilization. Two iron support rods run from two small eyebolts in the upper rim of the lantern to eyebolts in the capping rail of the tafferel (illustrated below). Make these rods about 1⁄2" in diameter. You will need to spend some time getting the length of the rods between their hooked ends correct. Blacken all the parts as usual.

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12.50 Conclusion If you have not already done so, it is time to design and make your own display baseboard and pedestals to mount your model on. There will doubtless be some tidying up to be done and dust to be removed with a soft brush before either casing your model or continuing to mast and rig the ship. I have deliberately not continued this work with descriptions of masting and rigging, as there are several easily available standard works on the subject.38 However, a sparring plan is available through Dr. Greg Herbert. There are some subsidary topics which are covered in the appendices to this part. I am sure that there have been some inadvertant omissions or errors for which I take sole responsibility. I hope that this journey has been as fascinating and challenging for you to read as it has been for me to write. We have finally arrived safely in harbor and are about to drop anchor. It is time to thank you for signing on for this lengthy voyage of discovery and wish you well with your own modelmaking adventures. Bon voyage!

New Year’s Day, 2006

43° 46' 01" N

80° 52' 15" W

FINIS, D.G.

304

Steel, Elements of Mastmaking, Sailmaking and Rigging, Sweetman edition, New York. Petersson, Rigging Period Ship Models, Chatham Publishing/Naval Institute Press. Lees, The Masting and Rigging of English Ships of War, 1625-1860, Chatham/Naval Institute Press.

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Appendix 12.1 The taffarel fife rail In some ship such as Atalanta, there is an additional rail above and parallel to the taffarel. This rail is called the taffarel fife rail. It is attached to the upper ends of the counter timbers. Its outer ends are often mitred to the aft ends of the quarter rails. The fife rail is 10" wide and 21⁄2" thick. My own theory is that the name fife is derived from “fifth” as it is the fifth rail, counting upward, from the waist rail: waist rail, channel rail (discontinued by this date) sheer rail, drift rail, and fife rail.

Appendix 12.2 Belaying pins Some readers may be wondering at the omission of any mention of belaying pins. At this date, the only pin rails regularly fitted were attached to the mizen shrouds. The rows of pin rails and pins in bitt crosspieces were only adopted over the last years of the century. Gradually, the open timberheads disappeared inside solid bulwarks, first aft and then forward. Lines at this period were belayed to the timberheads and rails.

Appendix 12.3 Ships’ boats The construction of ships’ boats is well covered by other writers. At this date, the official complement of boats consisted of a 19' longboat and a 26' pinnace (1761 Establishment). In 1777, sloops of more than 300 tons were allowed an additional 18' four-oared cutter, referred to as a “jolly-boat.” In 1781 a 24' and a 16' cutter were added, for a total of five boats.1 Which of these to include, should you wish to do so, is “Captain’s fancy.” The books referenced below1, 2 give adequate information and illustrations from which to build the ships’ boats. A table of scantlings for the different boats probably carried by Swan class sloops is given on the following two pages.

1 2

W.E. May, The Boats of Men-of-War, 1999 revised edition, Chatham/Naval Institute Press, pp.56-57. Brian Lavery, The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War 1600-1815, pages 212-235.

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Dimensions and scantlings for ships boats, transcribed from Steel’s Naval Architecture, 1805, part of Folio LVII 19ft longboat Breadth, moulded 7' 1" Depth, midships 2' 10" afore 3' 3" abaft 3' 4" Keel, sided midships 33⁄4" depth below rabbet 5" 3 above rabbet for deadwood ⁄4" 1 Stem, sided 3 ⁄2" afore the rabbet at the head 5" abaft the rabbet 11⁄8" Transom, broad across 3' 4" thick, or sided 21⁄4" knees, sided 2" Stern post, sided at the tuck 3" at the keel 21⁄2" broad, fore and aft at the keel 10" (transom included) at the head 41⁄2" Floor timbers sided 13⁄4" moulded at the head 15⁄8" at the throat 33⁄4" Futtocks, sided at the heels 13⁄4" sided at the heads 11⁄2" moulded at the heads 11⁄2" Scarph of the timbers 1' 10" Keelson, broad 101⁄2" thick 11⁄2" Footwaling, thick 1" Rising, broad 61⁄2" thick 1"

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25ft pinnace 6' 0" 2' 7" 3' 2" 3' 5" 33⁄4" 4" 7 ⁄ 8" 1 3 ⁄2" 31⁄4" 21⁄4" 3' 6" 2" iron 3" 21⁄2" 91⁄4" 21⁄4" 11⁄2" 13⁄8" 35⁄8" 13⁄8" 11⁄4" 11⁄4" 1' 8" 101⁄2" 11⁄8" 3 ⁄4" 1 4 ⁄8" 7 ⁄ 8"

16ft cutter 6' 0" 2' 3" 2' 9" 2' 9" 3" 23⁄4" 3 ⁄4" 3 2 ⁄4" 4" 11⁄4" 2' 4" 11⁄4" 11⁄4" 21⁄2" 2" 7" 3" 11⁄4" 11⁄8" 2" 11⁄8" 7 ⁄ 8" 7 ⁄ 8" 1' 7" 8" 7 ⁄ 8" 5 ⁄8" 1 3 ⁄2" 3 ⁄4"

25ft cutter 6' 10" 2' 8" 3' 3" 3' 4" 33⁄4" 31⁄2" 7 ⁄ 8" 31⁄4" 43⁄4" 13⁄8" 3' 1" 11⁄2" 11⁄2" 2 7⁄ 8" 21⁄2" 9" 4" 11⁄2" 11⁄4" 23⁄4" 13⁄8" 11⁄8" 11⁄8" 1' 10" 91⁄2" 11⁄8" 3 ⁄4" 4" 7 ⁄ 8"

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Dimensions and scantlings for ships boats, transcribed from Steel’s Naval Architecture, 1805, part of Folio LVIII

Thwarts, main

broad thick after broad thick fore broad thick loose broad thick Knees upon the thwarts, sided Benches, broad thick Deadwood, sided Bottom, thick Landing strake, broad Upper strake, broad Gunwale, deep thick Breast hook, sided length moulded at the throat **Ears, sided length Chocks, thick length Washboards, broad bow quarter Bowsprit step iron Windlass, diameter Chocks, thick broad Rudder, breadth at the heel breadth at the hance breadth at the head thickness

19ft longboat 10" 3" 9" 2" 10" 21⁄4" 8" 11⁄2" 21⁄4" 11" 11⁄4" 2" 7 ⁄ 8" 3 8 ⁄4" 8" 21⁄4" 2" 2" 2' 10" 4" 21⁄2" 1' 2" 2" 1' 1" 51⁄4"

7" 4" 9" 1' 6" 1' 0 1⁄2" 7" 11⁄4"

25ft pinnace 91⁄2" 11⁄2" 81⁄2" 15⁄8" 71⁄2" 13⁄8" 71⁄2" 11⁄8"

16ft cutter 7" 13⁄8" 7" 11⁄2" 9" 13⁄4" 7" 11⁄2"

25ft cutter 9" 11⁄2" 8" 13⁄4" 10" 2" 8" 11⁄2"

iron 11" 11⁄8" 21⁄2" 7 ⁄ 8" 1 6 ⁄2" 61⁄2" 31⁄2" 11⁄2" 11⁄2" 2' 0" 31⁄2" 11⁄2" 10" 11⁄4" 1' 0" 4" 5"

1" 10" 11⁄8" 2" 5 ⁄8" 4" 41⁄2" 11⁄2" 2" 11⁄2" 1' 6" 21⁄2" 11⁄4" 9" 11⁄4" 11" 41⁄2"

11⁄8" 11" 11⁄4" 21⁄2" 3 ⁄4" 5" 6" 13⁄4" 21⁄4" 2" 1' 8" 3" 11⁄2" 1' 2" 11⁄4" 1' 2" 5" *

1' 3" 1' 0" 71⁄2" 1"

1' 1" 10" 6" 7 ⁄ 8"

1' 4" 1' 1" 7" 1"

* Steel gives this measurement as 5' 0", which is obviously a typographic error. ** Ears: Knee pieces at the fore part on the outside, at the height of the gunwale.

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308

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In a Top-sail gale ———————————————————{Behaves well and will go 8 or 8 1⁄ 2 knots How she steers, and how she Wears and Stays —————{Steers well & wears well, but rather slack in stays

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W. Brown. Captn Wm Sorlen - master

10th The Trim of the Ship ———————————————————————————————————————————————————————{By the Stern

9th What height is her lowest Gundeck-Port then above the Surface of the Water? ——————————————————- { 5. 6

Afore —— 12. 6 { Abaft —— 13. 10

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——— Afore —— Above is the best Sailing draft of Water, we have experienced Abaft ——

8th What is her Draft of Water, when victualled to six Months, and stored for Foreign Service? ————————

{

7th If upon Trial the best sailing Draft of Water given as above should not prove to be so, what is the best sailing Draft of Water?

5th How she behaves in lying Too or a Try, under a Mainsail and also under a Mizon ballanc’d —————————————–{Lyes too well under Storm Staysails, or close Reefed Maintopsail, but never tried under Mainsail or balanced Mizen 6th What a Roader she is, and how she careens? ———————————————————————————————–{As good a Roader as Ships of her description, Never careened

4th The most Knots she runs before the Wind: and how she rolls in the Trough of the Sea ———————————————{10 1⁄ 2 knots rolls easy having never carried away shroud or backstay, although been in heavy Seas

How she proves in Sailing thro’ all the Variations of the Wind, from its being a point or two abaft the A Stiff Weatherly feel in all Variations of the Winds, pitches easy from 4 Knots to 10 3rd beam, to its veering forward upon the Bow-line in every Strength of Gale, especially in a stiff Gale, and a — head Sea; and how many Knots she runs in each Circumstance ; and how she carries her Helm———— Carries 1⁄ 2 turn a Weather (? - word indecipherable)

{

2nd In each Circumstance above-mentioned (in Sailing with other Ships) in what Proportion she gathers to — A Weatherly Ship, but never had any trial with King’s Ships Windward, and in what Proportion the fore reaches, and in general her Proportion of Lee-way ——— Lee way for 1⁄ 2 a point to 3 Points

Query the 1st

4. 10

In a Top-gallant gale ——————————————————{Behaves well and will go 7 knots

Her lowest Gundeck -Port will then be above the Surface of the Water —————————

{ or as much lighter (at the same Difference) as she is able to bear Sail

In.

Her best Sailing Draft of Water, when victualled and stored for Channel Service, Afore 12. 3 being given this Day of April 1792 Abaft 13. 6

OBSERVATIONS of the Qualities of His Majesty’s Ship Zebra

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Public Records Office, Kew, photo courtesy of Michael Scheu.

C H A P T E R T W E LV E

Opposite: a transcript of the sailing qualities for Zebra. Above: a similar spread from the Sailing Qualities book for Atalanta. These were individual printed forms that were subsequently bound together.

309

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

The illustration above gives a typical design seen the lower and upper counters. This scheme is based on a number of contemporary models, reflecting the decorative style of this era. Alternatively, the counters may be either painted in ultramarine only or the model left unpainted. Note that the ship’s name is painted in as tall a letter as the counter will hold. The ship’s name was always painted on, never applied in relief. The latter is a stylized model-maker’s convention which seems to have become prevalent in models over the past thirty years. Follow the seriffed type style shown and don’t forget the period (full stop) which was used after the name. Read the instructions and suggestions in the appendices for Chapter Seven (see page 49) to execute the design. The friezes along the sides (pages 27 to 30) are also painted using the same colors. The color samples shown on the rear dust jacket are approximate, but will assist those unfamiliar with color names to visualize the hues referred to in the text.

310

COLOR R E F REFERENCE E R E N C E P HPHOTOGRAPHS OTOGRAPHS

Two views of the head of the model of Minerva, 38 guns of 1780, in the Rogers’ Collection at Annapolis. The many points of interest illustrated are described in detail from page 206 on. Notable is the superb quality of the headwork and carvings. This is a standard to aim for, even if difficult to achieve! For those that are painting your model, these photographs will be of help.

311

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Two useful views of the topside of Minerva showing details of contemporary friezework.

312

COLOR REFERENCE REFE R E N C E P H PHOTOGRAPHS OTOGRAPHS

A view (above) of the break of the quarter deck, showing the drip edge on the breast beam, as described in the text (see pages 166 & 189). Note the scuttle lid for the top tackle lying on the deck next to the scuttle. This is the author’s model of Resolution, in progress. Another view (left) of the headwork of Minerva. Close study of the photographs of this model will be very helpful when constructing the head of your own model.

313

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Three views of the headwork of Minerva of 1783. The upper photograph shows the wash cant well. This is tricky to shape and fit. The bolster for the hawses is worth study. The shape and fit of the head timbers is well demonstrated. Note the cathead supporter and eking rail moldings. The transitional areas of molding on the main rail are also instructive to study. Another point of interest is the discharge tube for the fore seat of ease. Note how the lower end is angled relative to the head timbers. In this model the trail boards are carved completely through so that the background level is actually the knee of the head beneath. A variation of the star motif is shown on the end of the cathead (bottom photograph). The aft seat of ease is painted red in this model. Note the cat block, fitting around one of the forecastle timberheads. There are additional snatch blocks, forward of the cat block, for running rigging. All photographs on this spread were taken by Dr. Greg Herbert and are by courtesy of the U. S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis.

314

COLOR R E FREFERENCE E R E N C E P HPHOTOGRAPHS OTOGRAPHS

The quarter gallery of Minerva (left). Although the Swan class has a quarter badge, this view is helpful for its quarter figure and tafferel. This particular model also has friezework along the upper counter and gallery lower finishing. The billboard, bolster and lining for the anchor (center left). The chain plates are bent to fit the ship’s side. Note the continuation of the paintwork across the standards to the fore channel. The ten-spoke double wheel of Minerva (lower left). The stanchions to the wheel are more elaborate than one would expect on a sixth rate. The inner faces of both stanchions are flat rather than molded. The starboard stern lantern and its supports (lower right).

315

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

Fore platforms and bulkheads. In this model the starboard side of these structures are omitted.(Dr. Greg Herbert’s model of Pegasus.)

Magazine and palleting on the aft platform. The cartridge rack is on the port side.

Run of planking under the buttocks up to the wing transom. (Author’s model of Resolution.)

316

Lower deck complete, upper deck beams being fitted. Note the ventilation louvres of the sail room in the foreground.

Main mast partners, upper deck and upper well below.

Detail of a beam arm (lower deck) and opposed lodging knees amidships on the upper deck. Note the wider ledge fitted in the outboard tier.

REFERENCE PHOTOGRAPHS

Three photographs of Pegasus under construction. Framing is complete and faired (left). The harpins and ribbands have been installed. The fore ends of the harpins are clearly shown here. Ribbands and harpins are described in Volume One, sections 4.4 to 4.10. The middle photograph shows Pegasus’ fillings being added. In the original ships fillings were of oak. This made a solid structure as high as the floor heads. It prevented bilge water from accumulating on the garboard and bottom planking between the frames. This feature is rarely seen in models. The wing transom knees installed and the scores cut for the lower deck beams (below left). These are tricky to fit neatly, and patience will be required to get a satisfactory result. Note the short stern post, not typical of most Swan class ships, the sleepers and crutch aft. In the foreground is the framing for the aft platform. In this model the ceiling is installed to port, while on the starboard side small pieces of plank are fitted under the sleeper, crutch and other internal features.

317

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

INDEX, Volume Two A Aft cabin bulkheads Aft hatch and gratings Aft ladderway Anchors Aprons, gun Axletree bearings Axletree B Barrel, capstan Bars, upper capstan Batten, elm Battens, hammock Beam arms Beams, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Bearings, axletree Bed Belfry Bending planking Berthing rail Billboard Black strake Blocks Bolster, for anchor gun carriage for hawse holes Boom irons, main studdingsail Boomkin capsquare Boomkins Bowsprit partners Bowsprit step Brackets, gun carriage Brake pumps Breast beam, lower deck ironwork Breast hook, over bowsprit upper deck Breastwork, forecastle quarter deck

318

115 94 102 269 146 101 100

107 198 36 55, 58 59 165 181 57 101 140 179 16 242 268 18 150 268 140 213 160 239 241 167 64 137 102 55 175 206 75 175 200

Breeching ringbolts Breeching Brushes, cleaning and care of Bucklers Bulkhead cants Bulkhead, forecastle aft cabin Bulwark planking, forecastle quarter deck Cants, bulkhead Capsquare, boomkin Capsquare eyebolt Capsquare joint bolt Capsquare key Capsquares Capstan bar retaining pins Capstan barrel bars partners pawls ribs spindle plate spindle step Carlings, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Carriage bolts Cat block Cathead supporter Cathead Chain bolts Chain pumps, further notes Chains, pump Channel, mizen fore main Chesstree Chocks, gammoning Cistern hoods Cisterns

126 144 25 78 90 88 115 174 188 90 239 143 142 143 142 114 107 114 182 115 110 109 109 68 167 184 68 141 239 233 168 127 46 101 161 156 159 158 213 97 96

INDEX

Coamings, quarter deck for steam gratings fore hatch main hatch Color of bulkheads Coloring wood Companion ladders Companion top Console brackets Copper plates Copper, the color of Counter timber covering boards Counter timbers, inner middle Covering boards, head timbers counter timbers Cowl, galley Cross-piece of head

185 170 91 92 91 16 123 186 299 34 36 120 9 10 228, 233 120 171 219

D Decorative rails at the bow Drafting the head timbers Drainage, break of quarter deck Draught marks Drift rail Drumhead, upper capstan

237 224 189 38 163 197

E Eking rail Ensign staff fittings Ensign staff Entering ropes Entry stanchions Entry steps, on the side Entry steps, to the waist Eyebolts, in the side around main mast at foot of foremast in spirketting

235 291 292 275 275 159 278 275 128 174 129

F False rail Fenders Figure carving Fish davit cleat Fish davit Fixed block, for main brace for main sheet Fixed gangway, newel post railing Fixed gangway Fore axletree stays Fore axletree Fore chains Fore channel ironwork deadeyes Fore hatch coamings gratings Fore jeer bitt pins standards Fore mast partners, forecastle upper deck Fore stool chains Fore topsail sheet crosspiece Fore trucks Forecastle breastwork bulkhead bulwark planking bulwark, ironwork carlings deck beams hanging knees ledges lodging knees netting planking planksheer stanchions waterway Frames, stern lights

219 158 249 265 26 281 280 276 276 203 141 139 262 156 260 261 91 91 173 173 167 63 275 172 143 175 88 174 175 167 165 167 167 167 272 171 238 272 171 121

319

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

320

Framing, for cabin lights Friezes, painting

117 27

G Galley cowl Galley stove Gallows crosspiece Gammoning Gangboard knees Gangboards Garboard strake Glazing Gratings, fore hatch Gratings, main hatch quarter deck Gudgeons Gun aprons Gun carriages Gun mounts, swivel Gun port lid hinges lids Gun tackle ringbolts Gun tackles Gun-founding

171 80, 86 93 230 123 205 18 122 91 92 185 44 146 136 161 147 146 126 145 135

H Hair bracket Half hook Hammock battens Hanging knees, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Hawse hole linings Head beam Head carlings Head gratings Head of main rail Head timbers Head, ironwork for Helm port Helm, maximum angle of

210 168 55,58 167 184 60 75 218 220 222 229 228 259 11 47

Hind axletree Hind trucks Hinges, gun port lid Hook, upper deck

138 143 147 56

I Inner counter timbers Internal counter planking Iron stanchions on the quarters Ironwork, aft in the breast beam inside forecastle bulwark

9 119 299 281 175 175

J Joint bolt, capsquare

142

K Keys, truck Knees, to head beam

144 218

L Ladderway coaming, quarter deck Ladderway railings Ladderway, aft quarter deck Lantern, stern crank support rods Lead protective sheathing Ledges, of the head upper deck forecastle Lining, for anchor Lining off Lining, main rail Linings, hawse hole Lodging knees, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Lower capstan whelps lower chocks

187 199 102 199 300 303 303 37 232 68 167 268 19 216 75 167 184 60 110 112

INDEX

Lower capstan upper chocks, Lower cheek Lower chocks, lower capstan upper capstan Lower counter rail Lower counter Lower deck breast beam Lower finishing Lower rail Lower stool M Main channel Main hatch coamings gratings Main jeer bitts crosspiece Main mast chains deadeyes partners Main preventer eyebolts Main rail fitting head of lining of molding planksheer to Main topsail sheet bitt crosspiece Main wale Making moldings Manger Maquette Master pattern, for guns Middle counter timbers Mizen chains channel deadeyes Mizen mast partners, quarter deck upper deck Mold, for casting guns Munions, stern light

112 208 112 197 165 13 55 298 221 294

159 92 92 93 276 276 60 276 213 217 229 216 216 215 92 14, 17 153 79 242 131 10 278 161 278 182 65 131 122

N Newel post

276

O Old-style sprocket wheel Outer planking, finishing

104 23

P Paint brushes Paint colors Painting , lower counter friezes techniques Partners, bowsprit capstan fore mast, forecastle fore mast, upper deck main mast mizen mast, quarter deck mizen mast, upper deck Pawls, lower capstan upper capstan Pilasters Pillars and stanchions, for pumps Pintles and straps Plank, bottom upon the drifts Planking, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Planksheer in the waist to the main rail Port hooks Port lids, gun Port stops, upper deck Port tackle eyebolts tubes Preventer bolts Projection drawing Pump chains

25 24, 49 49 27 26 167 182 167 63 60 182 65 115 199 288 94 41 20 23 171 188 74 204 215 147 146 69 149 126 148 265 86 101

321

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

322

Pump dales Pumps, brake

98 102

Q Quarter badge lights munions Quarter deck beams breastwork bulwark planking carlings gratings hanging knees iron work ladderway coamings ladderway lodging knees planking planksheer scuttles transom knees transom waterway Quarter piece ironwork Quarter pieces Quarter rail (roughtree rail) Quickwork, upper deck Quoin

293 296 296 181 200 188 184 185 184 189 187 199 184 188 279 187 184 11 187 291 290 293 71 140

R Rail, drift fife, tafferel lower counter sheer upper counter waist Railings, ladderway Range cleats Retaining pins, capstan bar Rhodings Riding bitt crosspiece backing

163 305 165 155 165 155 199 123 114 95 80

Riding bitt crosspiece standards Roughtree rail (quarter rail) Rough-tree rail Rudder coat Rudder head trunk Rudder, shipping Rudderhead cover framing hoops

80 80 293 274 289 118 45 280 181 43

S Saddle Sailing qualities for Zebra Scantlings for ships’ boats Scuppers Scuttles, quarter deck Seats of ease Sheer rail Sills, external for the stern lights internal for the stern lights Sixteen gun ship, planking variation Spanshackle rings Spar rack Spectacle plate Spindle cup Spindle plate, capstan Spindle, capstan Spirketting, upper deck Sprocket wheel old-style Standards, riding bitt Stays, fore axletree Steam gratings Steering wheel Step, bowsprit capstan Stern framing, finishing Stern lantern Stern light munions sill covers

230 308 306 73 187 236 155 289 120 22 266 179 43 110 109 109 71 99 104 80 141 170 191 64 68 12 300 122 120

INDEX

Stern light frames Stern lockers Stern structures Stool Stops, for the stern lights Straps to the counter timbers Studding sail booms Stuff of the topside Swivel bolt Swivel gun mounts Swivel guns

121 119 282 157 289 12 260 22 279 161 273

T Tackles, gun Tafferel base fife rail pattern Thickstuff Tiller Tompions Top tackle eyebolts Trail boards Training tackle eyebolts Transom knee, quarter deck Transom Transom, quarter deck Tricing battens Truck keys Trundle head Tuck molding

145 284 305 282 20 190 144 125 211 126 184 140 11 59 144 112 153, 154

U Underwater protection Upper deck hanging knees Upper capstan

31 60 196

Upper cheek Upper chocks, lower capstan upper capstan Upper counter rail Upper counter Upper deck beams breast hook capstan (lower capstan) carlings hook ledges lodging knees planking port stops quickwork spirketting stopper bolts transom knees transom waterway Upper finishing Upper stool

209 112 197 165 117 57 75 107 68 56 68 60 74 69 71 71 125 60 60 70 296 295

W Waist rail stanchions Wash cant Waterway, forecastle quarter deck upper deck Whelps, lower capstan upper capstan Winches

155 274 210 171 187 70 110 196 100

Z Zebra, sailing qualities

308

323

THE FULLY FRAMED MODEL, THE HMN SWAN CLASS SLOOPS 1767-1780 VOLUME TWO

324