International Journal of Advances in Management Science (IJ-AMS) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014 DOI: 10.14355/ijams.2014.0303.03
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The Mechanism of Entrepreneurs’ decisionmaking in the Spillover Effects of Industry Unethical Behavior: A Theoretical Reflection under the Chinese Cultural Context Feng Jiaojiao*1, Wattegama W.G.E.J. 2, Muhammad Ishaq3, Qing Ping4 Collage of Economics and Management, Huazhong AgriculturalUniversity Wuhan, P.R. China,430070 fengjiaojiao2009@163.com; 2erandhiw@yahoo.com; 3ishqecon@gmail.com; 4qingping@mail.hzau.edu.cn
*1
Abstract Ethical issues in businesses in China are at large. Chinese entrepreneurs depend mainly on their personal relations as the guidance of business ethics. The concept of “guanxi” is inherent in Chinese work ethics and can be conceived as a cultural way of doing businesses in China. This study attempts to find out how the decision-making of a firm is affected by the unethical behaviour of other firms in the industry. The key facets of relational embeddedness include interpersonal trust and trustworthiness, overlapping identities, and feelings of closeness or interpersonal solidarity. Based on the nature of business in China, the prevailing unethical behaviour of a firm in an industry has a spillover effects on other firms and compel them to make an unethical decision. Hence, the main proposition of the study is that; an unethical behaviour in the industry spillover its effects into unethical decision-making of a firm in that industry. The highly embededness in relations and external locus of control also lead to moral disengagement of an entrepreneur thereby commit an unethical decision. Therefore, when an unethical behaviour has occurred in the industry, the monitoring mechanism should convey the attention to the other entrepreneurs to avoid the spillover of that unethical behaviour. Keywords Unethical Decision Making; Moral Disengagement; Relational Embaddedness; Locus of Control
Introduction There is a saying in China: “Jin zhu zhe chi, jin mo zhe hei.” That means “If you live with a lame person you will learn to limp”, or “one who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and one who stays near ink gets stained black.” With the implementation of “open door policies” in 1979 and consecutive government efforts (shift from Communist ideology), private entrepreneurship in
China developed many folds. But despite its profound growth, the second biggest economy of the world is passing through the issue of ethics in businesses. According to incomplete statistics as on July 27, 2012, the State Administration for Industry and Commerce of China (SAIC) reports that 34,000 cases are not meeting the food safety standards during the first half of the year. On December 18, 2012, CCTV exposes the use of illegal drugs for fattening chickens, resulting in a drop of Yum sales in China by 25%. Accordingly, it is proved that even though the Chinese government has made great efforts with respect to legislation that is used to advance market oriented economic reform, the widespread term of ‘legalistic culture’ has not effectively established within Chinese society. As Guthrie (1998) states, a legalistic culture runs much deeper than the simple construction of the laws. But the mere existence of laws on the paper does not necessarily imply that social and economic players in the society will understand or view the laws as important in their daily lives. This type of transition is viewed as an incremental process that occurs in China over a significant period of time. Moreover, it should be noted that Chinese entrepreneurs are more likely to rely on their personal relationships rather than contractual relations to govern business interactions (Wong & Chan, 1999). According to Liang (1989), the law is emphasized as a means of punishment and governmental control as opposed to a means of preserving rights, freedom and justice. Peerenboom (2002) suggests that the traditional Confucian emphasis on personal virtue may cause the reluctant and reticent attitude of the Chinese entrepreneurs towards the law. However, it is well recognized that Western legal cultures are indeed legalistic in nature and legalism is seen as a clear feature of Western
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business routines (Lin & Miller, 2003). Besides this, due to its culture, Chinese entrepreneurs depend mainly on their personal relations to run businesses (Wong & Chan, 1999). According to Karande et al. (2000) business ethics and values are also guided by the national culture rather than only on economic ideology and legislation, i.e. the culture force and lead the business behaviours. The reviewed literature reveals the fact that previous studies have mainly highlighted the attitude and behaviour of consumers, but the researches from the business perspective is a neglected area. Further, most of the available have been studied to discuss about unethical business practices by western firms and also none of the study highlights the effect of an unethical behaviour of an industry on the decision-making of a firm in that industry. These firms may have a unique socioeconomic and cultural environment and wrong doing by firms may occur repeatedly. However, to name the conditions that are responsible for committing corporate crimes and list out the interaction among antecedent settings are the challenges for researchers (Baucus and Near 1991). The present study attempts to find out how the decision-making of a firm is affected by the unethical behaviour of other firms in the industry while considering the human and social psychological aspects of the decision making process. As a result, it is anticipated that the study results may provide a new way of thinking in understanding the decision making of a firm, enrich existing research and provide constructive guidance with the presentation of most relevant theories and concepts. Literature Review Under this section, the study explores theoretical insights into the reason for making unethical decisions by a particular firm as a spillover effect from the industry’s unethical behaviour under the Chinese socio-cultural context. Social Learning Theory According to Rotter (1966), the social learning theory which is an integration of learning theory and personality theory says that human personality represents an interaction of the individual with his or her environment. One cannot speak of a personality, internal to the individual that is independent of the environment. Neither can one focus on behaviour as being an automatic response to an objective set of environmental stimuli. Rather, to understand 98
behaviour, one must take both the individual (i.e., his or her life history of learning and experiences) and the environment (i.e., those stimuli that the person is aware of and responding to) into the consideration. Rotter describes personality as a relatively stable set of potentials for responding to situations in a particular way. Rotter sees that changing the way the person thinks, or changing the environment the person is responding to, the behaviour will change accordingly. He does not believe there is a critical period after which personality is set. But, the more life experience that you have built up certain sets of beliefs, the more effort and intervention required for change to occur. Rotter conceives of people in an optimistic way. He sees them as being drawn forward by their goals, seeking to maximize their reinforcement, rather than just avoiding punishment. He has introduced four main components of behaviour potential, expectancy, reinforcement value, and psychological situation in to his social learning theory in order to model the predicting behaviour of a person. Social Comparison Theory The American social psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954 proposed the social comparison theory. According to the theory, it says that each individual in the absence of objective circumstances, use others as a comparison yardstick for self- evaluation. Further, Festinger points out that in upward social comparison, each individual compares with those who are more socialized and in downward social comparison, for the reverse comparison. Moreover, this theory explains why the media people claim to imitate a model. Social comparison can improve self-confidence as individuals, and become the basis for rational selfimprovement. However, when the comparison is not practical to establish a standard, then these features are disabled. Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the question of where the control of events resides (Bridge et al., 2003) and the individuals' belief of what affects outcomes. Therefore, locus of control is defined as the degree to which an individual believes that she or he, rather than uncontrollable external forces, is responsible for one’s own outcomes in life (Rotter, 1966). Further, Rotter (1966) divides locus of control into an internal locus of control and external locus of control. The individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to believe that they have the ability to influence their work context and are therefore more likely to feel
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empowered (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) than individuals with an external locus of control. The latter individuals are more likely to believe that their work environment is controlled by others and by external forces over which they have no control. Thus, individuals with external locus of control are less likely to feel empowered (Wang et al., 2013). From entrepreneurship context, Vandeker- ckhove and Dentchev (2005) state that locus of control shows the way that entrepreneurs tend to take a central position in their stakeholder environments. Rotter (1966) argues that individuals with internal locus of control would be likely to seek entrepreneurial roles because they desire positions in which their actions have a direct and measurable impact on results.
great importance to the relationship between them, which is also so-called ‘guanxi’. Guanxi is a critical one that is distinguishing many Chinese business practices from those of Westerners. The term guanxi is generally conceptualized as interpersonal ties (Gu et al, 2008). Bian (1997) has defined guanxi as ‘the relationship or relation, but its essence is a set of interpersonal connections that facilitate exchanges of favours between people’. Similarly Davies et al. (2003) have defined it as interpersonal relationships based on particularistic criteria or ties. This concept is inherent in Chinese work ethics and can be conceived as a cultural way of doing business in China. Indeed, the purpose of guanxi is to share the scarce resources that otherwise are not available (Su et al., 2003).
In order to explore the cultural dimensions for which the trait of local of control is continued to be studied, some studies have contributed to understanding Chinese ethical and business values and behaviours under inner/outer-directed perspective. The concept of inner/outer-directed refers to whether people perceive themselves as inter-directed (or internal locus of control), and possessing control over their environment; or outer-directed (or external locus of control) and being controlled by one’s environment. Chen and Partington (2004) suggest that Chinese culture displays an outer-directed characteristic, while Westerners in contrast tend to be inner directed. The outer-directed characteristic along with Chinese collectivism, harmony, and relationship culture influences Chinese business people, especially in relation to their approach to conflict resolution (Pheng and Leong, 2000). Thus, when resolving conflicts, Chinese business people tend to emphasize the importance of harmony, the preservation of ‘face’ (i.e. called mianzi), the need to maintain good relationships and avoid direct debates or confrontation. This may be contrasted with Westerners who generally encourage open discussion in the context of disagreements and conflicts in order to get problems solved quickly rather than quietly (Chen & Partington, 2004).
Aside from the philosophy, there were practical reasons for merely relying on relationships before the revolution of China as the available laws were few and there were lack of institutional support for effective enforcement of the laws. Consequently, people had to rely on guanxi rather than on laws to carry out businesses and they dealt with family and friends based on the assumptions of their surrounding community which was long enough to reciprocate favours (Ambler et al., 2008). However, after the Cultural Revolution, again guanxi became important as it was the only way to get things done through difficult times (Gold, 1985). To the Chinese, guanxi is a personal connection to which the parties are bound by an implicit psychological contract to maintain a long term relationship, mutual commitment, loyalty, and obligation beyond the bounds of a written contract (Chen and Chen, 2004). According to Gu et al. (2008), Chinese entrepreneurs are heavily embedded in these local networks and social connections. In contrast to the impersonal nature of structural embeddedness, Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998) define relational embeddedness as the ‘personal relationships that people have developed with each other through a history of interactions’. The key facets of relational embeddedness include interpersonal trust and trustworthiness, overlapping identities, and feelings of closeness or interpersonal solidarity.
Relational Embeddedness At the exploration of entrepreneurs’ external environments, it should be balanced by considering the influences from economic, social and political forces in order to evaluate entrepreneurs’ minds, perceptions and approaches regarding ethical issues in the cultural contexts. Due to the influence of traditional Chinese culture, Chinese people attach
Moral Disengagement Bandura (1986) introduces the theory of moral disengagement the social cognitive theory. According to social cognitive theory, when self-regulatory capabilities work properly, illegal behaviour is deterred through the self-condemnation for the individuals who anticipate that they would suffer
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conflicting with their internalized moral standards. The moral disengagement theory explains how this self-regulatory process fails when moral disengagement mechanisms disable the cognitive links between the self-condemnation and illegal behaviour (Bandura, 1986, 1991). The moral disengagement is theorized to explain how individuals can engage in unethical behaviours without apparent cognitive pressure, such as corporate unethical behaviour and corruption (Bandura et al., 2000; Brief et al., 2001; Moore, 2008). Further, Bandura (1986) suggests that moral disengagement contains a set of eight interrelated cognitive mechanisms that facilitate unethical behaviour, namely moral justification, advantageous comparison, euphemistic label, shirk responsibility, responsibility diffusion, neglect or misinterpret the results, dehumanizing and responsibility attribution. Three mechanisms of moral disengagement, moral justification, euphemistic labelling and advantageous comparison restructure unethical acts cognitively so that they appear less harmful. Moral justification cognitively reframes unethical behaviours as being in the service of a worthy goal (Kramer, 1990; Rapoport and Alexander, 1982). The euphemistic label uses sanitized language to rename inappropriate actions to make them appear softer. Advantageous comparison contrasts the behaviour under consideration and an even more reprehensible behaviour, but making the former innocuous (Bandura, 2001). The displacement and diffusion of responsibility mechanism obscures the moral agency of the actor. Distortion of consequences, dehumanization, and the attribution of blame mechanisms reduce or eliminate the self-censure to be activated (Sykes and Matza, 1957). Moral disengagement has been found to play an important role in unethical actions and decisions (Moore et al., 2012), which contains cheating, theft, self-serving decision making by persons in authority, antisocial workplace behaviour (Shu, Gino and Bazerman, 2011), and shirking civic duties (Caprara, et al, 2009). Also, additional research identified that individual difference variables (trait cynicism and chance locus of control) are positively related to moral disengagement and others (empathy and moral identity) are negatively related to it (Moore et al., 2012). Methodology After reviewing the literature, the study proposes a mechanism of entrepreneurs’ unethical decision making when some firms in the industry have
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unethical behaviours under Chinese culture. Then, some propositions are established based on the proposed model. It will expect to test the propositions empirically in Chinese entrepreneurial context and analysis will be performed using PROCESS software (Hayes, 2013). Research Model From the study, it will expect to address the question of when an unethical behaviour appears in the industry, will the firm follow and imitate the same or will it take this as a warning when making decisions? As a result, it is intended to explore that why other entrepreneurs will follow the unethical behaviours, and what is the psychological mechanism of them to make unethical decision making in their business. Based on the social comparison theory and sociallearning theory, the model of the present study was established. Figure 1 shows the proposed model.
FIG. 1 RESEARCH MODEL
Keeping in view of the nature of business in China, where guanxi dominates, the business environment and the legislation culture is not well developed. Therefore, the prevailing unethical behaviour of a firm in the industry has a spillover effect on other firms and compels them to make an unethical decision. Therefore, it is proposed that: Proposition 1: The entrepreneurs’ unethical decision-making is influenced by the unethical behaviour in the industry. According to the theory of moral disengagement, the self-regulatory process of an individual fails when moral disengagement mechanisms disable the cognitive links between the self-condemnation and illegal behaviour (Bandura, 1986, 1991) and it explain how individuals can engage in unethical behaviours without apparent cognitive pressure, such as the
International Journal of Advances in Management Science (IJ-AMS) Volume 3 Issue 3, August 2014
corporate unethical behaviour and corruption (Bandura et al., 2000; Brief et al., 2001; Moore, 2008). Further, moral disengagement plays an important role in unethical actions and decisions (Moore et al., 2012). Based on that, it is proposed that: Proposition 2: Entrepreneurs’ moral disengagement mediates the relationship between unethical behaviours in the industry and firm’s unethical decision making. In the peculiar business environment in China and from the perspective of their cultural values, the Chinese entrepreneurs weigh more on guanxi. The high embededness in relations and personal attachment lead to moral disengagement and to commit an unethical decision. According to the theory of moral disengagement, the self-regulatory process of an individual fails when moral disengagement mechanisms disable the cognitive links between the self-condemnation and illegal behaviour (Bandura, 1986, 1991) and it explain how individuals can engage in unethical behaviours without apparent cognitive pressure, such as the corporate unethical behaviour and corruption (Bandura, Caprara, & Zsolnai, 2000; Brief et al., 2001; Moore, 2008). Further, moral disengagement plays an important role in unethical actions and decisions (Moore et al., 2012). Therefore, it is proposed that: Proposition 3: Relational embededness mediates the relationship between unethical behaviours in the industry and entrepreneurs’ moral disengagement. Also, when the relational embededness is high, the more unethical behaviours in the industry, the more likely the entrepreneurs’ moral disengagement occurs. As the Chinese culture displays outer-directed (i.e. external locus of control) characteristic along with collectivism, Chinese entrepreneurs emphasize high importance on maintaining harmony and the protection of the mianzi (Pheng and Leong, 2000). Therefore, it is proposed that; Proposition 4: The entrepreneurs’ locus of control mediates the relationship between unethical behaviours in the industry and entrepreneurs’ moral disengagement. When the entrepreneurs’ is external locus of control, the more unethical behaviours in the industry, the more likely the entrepreneurs’ moral disengagement
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occurs. Control Variables The factors that are related to the soundness of a firm and personal attributes of a decision maker have received more research attention in the past. The firm attributes include the financial position, production level, the level of the work force and image of a firm while personal attributes of an individual decision maker include nationality, gender, age, values, level of education, religion, employment, etc. It is generally believed that firms having sound financial position, state of the art production technology, skilled manpower and high profile are seldom involved in making an unethical decision (Birch, 1994; Harris and Bromiley, 2007; Karpoff et al., 2009; Patterson, 1993). In addition to these, the personal attributes like religion, nationality, gender, age, the moral values, education (type and years) and working experience play an important role and guide the decision making process. In the past researches, it has been investigated a mix response for these attributes. But the present study will keep these personal attributes and the position of a firm given and treat all these as control variables. Implications Through this paper, it was able to develop a theoretical framework for understanding the mechanism of entrepreneur’s unethical decision making influenced by the unethical behaviour of the industry. Hence, the present study suggests that moral disengagement plays an important role in an unethical decision-making process and it has identified some implications to prevent spillover the effects of such unethical behaviours. First, when an unethical behaviour has occurred in the industry, the monitoring mechanism of the industry should convey the attention to the other entrepreneurs to avoid the spillover of that unethical behaviour. Because entrepreneurs tend to make unethical decisions to imitate other firms in the same industry as we proposed. Second, the entrepreneurs should emphasize and disseminate correct values and morality, which can reduce moral disengagement to a certain extent and enhance moral consistency. According to moral disengagement theory, it indicates that disengagement often occurs through restructuring cognitive of harm-producing decisions or actions. Therefore, it is significant for entrepreneurs to build
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good values. Third, from the relational embeddedness perspective, the entrepreneurs should keep appropriate distant with others. Finally, from the human resources perspective, the firm can hire their workforce with the trait of internal locus of control. Only then, the entrepreneurs are less influenced by the outside circumstances.
should signal this behaviour to the other entrepreneurs to avoid the spillover of that unethical behaviour. Moreover, the entrepreneurs themselves should also emphasize and disseminate correct values and morality, which can reduce moral disengagement to a certain extent and enhance moral consistency. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Conclusion Despite the fastest growth in businesses, China is facing ethical issues at large. Chinese entrepreneurs depend mainly on their personal relations to run businesses and the business ethics and values are also guided by the national culture rather than only on economic ideology and legislation. Therefore the present study attempts to find out how the decisionmaking of a firm is affected by the unethical behaviour of the industry. According to social learning theory human personality represents an interaction of the individual with his or her environment. While social comparison theory speaks about each individual in the absence of objective circumstances, use others as a comparison yardstick for self- evaluation. The individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to believe that they have the ability to influence their work context and the individuals with external locus of control are more likely to believe that their work environment is controlled by others and by external forces over which they have no control. Chinese people attach great importance to the relationship between them (guanxi). This concept of guanxi is inherent in Chinese work ethics and can be conceived as a cultural way of doing business in China. This concept developed in the absence of business law and people rely on guanxi to carry out businesses. Therefore, guanxi is still important for Chinese entrepreneurs as it is the only way to get things done during difficult times. The moral disengagement theory explains how this self-regulatory process fails when moral disengagement mechanisms disable the cognitive links between the self-condemnation and illegal behaviour. The moral disengagement has been found to play an important role in unethical actions and decisions which contains cheating, theft, selfserving decision making by persons in authority, antisocial workplace behaviour. Based on the nature of business in China, the prevailing unethical behaviour of a firm in industry has a spillover effects on other firms and compel them to make an unethical decision. In nut shell, when an unethical behaviour occurs in the industry, the monitoring mechanism of the industry
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Supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities Program No. 2013SC38, NSFC 71073064 and NSFC 71273106 REFERENCES
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(NSFC); hosting the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities Program No. 2013SC38. The marketing conference in hubei province- (Second Prize).