Visualisation of Metaphors

An approach toward s

Visual Representation

of

Metaphors

ELECTIVE TWO Shubham Shreya Graphic Design Batch 2007 Guided by Dr. Tridha Gajjar

Index OVERVIEW | 6 VISUAL METAPHORS | 9 • • • • •

Definition Verbal vs. Visual What Where How Why So Basically David Grove’s Metaphor Therapy

METAPHORS AND METONYMY | 17 CODES AND SYSTEMS | 18 CONNOTATIONS AND DENOTATIONS | 19 COLOUR CONNOTATIONS | 20 METAPHORS IN ADS | 21 METAPHORICAL ILLUSTRATIONS | 23 • Michael Gibbs • Vladimir Kush • Banksy IMAGERY IN POEMS | 32 • New Criticism TYPE METAPHORS | 38 INITIAL APPROACH | 40 FINAL APPROACH | 45 • Explorations • End Visuals WEBLIOGRAPHY |57 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | 59

We make sense

of the world by our experience - Gregory Bateson

Metaphor is the concept of understanding one thing in terms of another. It is a figure of speech that constructs an analogy between two things or ideas; the analogy is conveyed by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other word.

Metaphor is an analogy between two objects or ideas. It asserts two things are the same. For example - All the world is a stage.

Simile is a figure of speech that indirectly compares two different things by using the words ‘like’, ‘as’ or ‘than’. For example - Her hair is like a meadow.

Pun is a form of word play which exploits numerous meanings of a statement allowing it to be understood in multiple ways for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. For example - I’m inclined to be laid back.

Metaphors are embodied within our neurology; they are not arbitrary. They contain a consistency. Most of the times our use of metaphors is subtle and unconsciously embedded in our everyday language.

George Lakoff and Mark Johnson state that we define our reality in terms of metaphors and then proceed to act on the basis of the metaphors. We draw inferences, set goals, make commitments and execute plans, all on the basis of how we in part structure our experience, consciously and unconsciously, by means of metaphors.

Overview

In classical theories of language, metaphor was seen as a matter of language and not thought. Metaphorical expressions were assumed to be mutually exclusive with the realm of ordinary everyday language: everyday language had no metaphor, and metaphor used mechanisms outside the realm of everyday conventional language.

(Ref. Contemporary Theory of Metaphors : J. Lakoff)

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When a metaphor or a pun is created, it is with an intent of communicating a particular idea or meaning. It is hence ‘constructed’ accordingly; it hence has a structure. Metaphors, in particular visual metaphors, are consciously created, particularly in poems. So, what happens when this creation is contextualised without changing the structure of the metaphor?

How does the mechanism of a metaphor function?

Taking off this concept and understanding of metaphors, I decided to explore the different kinds, theories and contexts related to metaphors.

The aim of this project is to probe further into and experiment with the representation of a linguistic term, visually in a graphical domain. It would be a graphical representation of human emotion extracted from text, particularly that from verses. It is an attempt to reflect my understanding, after research, of the various levels at which an information stands, how it may be perceived differently according to context. This project tries to analyse how text is portrayed by the author in a particular context; perceived and interpreted by the reader and then represent it visually using the appropriate medium of either photography or illustration depending on the requirement or the complexity.

IN OUR EVERYDAY LANGUAGE

THE USE OF METAPHORS IS

SUBTLE AND UNCONSCIOUS.

AS OUR METAPHORS

CHANGE AND EVOLVE,

OUR PERCEPTIONS OF

WHAT THEY REPRESENT IN OUR LIFE

CHANGE AND EVOLVE AS WELL.

BEHIND THE SEEMINGLY THROW-AWAY PHRASES

LIES A RICH SYMBOLIC WORLD

VITAL TO OUR HEALTH AND WELL-BEING.

The definition of a visual metaphor in terms of its underlying concept is consistent with the main tenets of conceptual metaphor theory, which is currently the dominant paradigm in the field of metaphor studies. Visual metaphors are visual expressions of metaphorical thoughts or concepts.

According to Noël Carroll’s definition of a visual metaphor, an image is not metaphorical unless it contains a visual fusion of parts from two separate areas of experience into one new, spatially bounded entity.

Instead of attempting a definition of a visual metaphor according to its surface realization, Kennedy suggests that any visual depiction can be seen as an instance of metaphor, ‘provided that its use is intended to occasion a metaphoric thought.’

Forceville, who has analysed pictorial metaphor in advertisements and on billboards, defines a visual metaphor in terms of the replacement of an expected visual element by an unexpected one. In order to speak of a metaphor, he argues, there must be no ‘pre-existent or conventional connection’ between these two elements. Although Forceville’s understanding of a visual metaphor is more flexible than the concept of visual fusion, it also seems to describe just one possible form a visual metaphor may take, albeit one which seems to be very common in advertisements.

Cognitive theorists, by contrast, proposed that metaphor is a property of thought rather than of language and that it is about ‘understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another’ (Lakoff and Johnson). According to this view, the mechanisms underlying a metaphor exist in the mind independently of language and what used to be referred to as a metaphor is now considered to be simply the surface realization of a particular way of thinking. Hence, any form of communication can be seen as an instance of metaphor, if it is able to induce a metaphoric thought or concept.

VISUAL METAPHORS :

Definitions

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Metaphors can be seen as indicators of the culturally shared preoccupations of the moment. Images are fundamentally representational, which would imply that the visual can be seen simply as expressing the same meanings as language, although in a more imprecise form. In fact, visual communication can and often does refer to ‘things’ that have no verbal translation at all (Morris).

While language is more precise in expressing some areas of meaning, other meanings may be shown more easily and more effectively in images rather than in words. If the visual mode of communication is less suitable for representing actions and chronology, then such meanings are likely to be expressed in a more metaphorical fashion, which allows them to be translated into an image based on the spatial rather than the temporal relations of elements.

Both in language and in the visual mode of communication, it is possible for the topic of a metaphor to be implied rather than explicitly mentioned (Goatly). The difference is that, in language, even the most abstract concept can, in theory, be given a verbal label. This means that there exists a choice in the verbal mode that may not exist in the visual mode. Goatly bases his theory of linguistic context on Roland Barthes’ perceptive and still highly influential theory of text-image relations. Barthes’ main argument is that the meaning of images is always related to a linguistic message. The most common function of the linguistic message is what he calls ‘anchorage’(text, such as a caption, that provides the link between the image and its context).

Images are by nature polysemous (capacity of a sign or signs to have multiple meanings), implying ‘a floating chain of signifieds’ (Barthes) language is needed in order to fix both the denoted and the connoted meanings of the visual by identifying and interpreting what the image is showing.

VISUAL METAPHORS :

Verbal vs. Visual

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The concept of anchorage is not always adequate to describe the complex and often bidirectional transfer of meaning between verbal and visual modes of signification. The term ‘Anchorage’ was introduced by Barthes. He introduced the idea of anchorage along with the idea of ‘Relay’, which is a reciprocal relation between text and picture, in that each contributes its own part of the overall message. It also relates a sequence of pictures to each other. This technique is typically how comic-strip panes transition from one to the next, but is quite rarely used in advertising.

“It is a very common practice for the captions to news photographs to tell us, in words, exactly how the subject’s expression ought to be read” (Stuart Hall). This is a key aspect of the construction of an advertisement. When one sees an advertisement, he gets a certain kind of meaning for the image, within the overall context that the advertisement provides. It may seem as though the image was “made for” that particular advertisement. However, a moment’s thought will let you realize that, to a certain extent, any image can have any meaning. The text of an advertisement is primarily the extra information that guides the reader to a particular interpretation of the whole image. There could be many ways to interpret the Image that we see, but the anchorage points us to a relatively specific meaning.

Metaphor is a common element of many ordinary thought processes as all visual signs are, to an extent, based on a process of creating analogies. Because of this, the differentiation between a ‘literal’ image and a visual metaphor is never absolute but it will always depend on the discourse context and on the degree to which particular metaphors have become accepted as the ‘natural’, commonsensical way of representing certain meanings.

complex, problematic areas of experience in terms of more straightforward ones – there are also some important differences. In fact, the very definition of what is a problematic area seems to be partly influenced by the nature of the mode of communication in which a meaning is to be expressed.

Kress’ assumption that the spatial display of visual images is more suited to the task of representing the relations between elements than the verbal mode, which is better at expressing action and chronology.

Another important difference between the verbal and the visual mode is that the latter is restricted when it is used to portray ‘plurals’, so that groups of people are often reduced to one stereotypical image which purportedly represents the essence of this group. In contrast to the verbal mode, in which even the most abstract concept can, in theory, be given a verbal label, the depiction of an abstract identity in the visual mode is utterly impossible without the mediation of metaphors. Consequently, in many visual metaphors the meaning is not expressed directly in the image but is instead implied by the context. This context-dependency means that many visual metaphors are implicit rather than explicit and that they are often open to a wide range of possible interpretations, which depend on the attitudes and the level of knowledge of the reader. Forceville admits that it is no longer sufficient to regard the verbal message of an advertisement as always anchoring the visual: ‘Nowadays, the reverse situation obtains as well: the text of an advertisement is often deliberately ambiguous or enigmatic and requires information supplied by the picture to solve the riddle.’

In spite of many similarities between verbal and visual metaphor – such as the fact that they both tend to express

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Most visual metaphors do not contain a fusion of two separate elements into one, because either the topic (vehicle) is not shown explicitly at all. One metaphorical thought or concept can be expressed in many different ways. This however does not necessarily mean that there are no differences at the level of representation, especially with regard to the degree of implicitness of a metaphor and its emotional impact. The form in which a metaphor is expressed may have an important influence on its meaning and impact.

also cannot be determined once and for all as it depends on the specific discourse context. The constant repetition of particular metaphors encourages the unconscious or at least semi-conscious acceptance of a particular metaphorical concept as the normal, natural way of seeing a particular area of experience.

Researchers working within the cognitive paradigm tend to assume that some basic conceptual metaphors are influenced by our shared physical experiences as infants and that they can therefore be determined for all human beings (Lakoff and Johnson). It is now becoming increasingly clear, however, that the extent to which metaphors are connected to the way people think cannot be described universally, or even for a whole linguistic community, but must instead be explored in specific socio-political contexts. In fact, every individual reader or viewer is likely to bring his or her own experiences and assumptions to the interpretation process.

VISUAL METAPHORS :

WhatWhereHowWhy

Lakoff and Johnshon argue that much of our ordinary conceptual system is structured metaphorically, enabling us to understand complex areas of experience in terms of concepts with which we are more familiar. This differs with each individual. In any visual metaphor’s interpretation or understanding, there is the problem of plurality of readings.

Its is impossible to determine what metaphoric thought each depiction is supposed to cultivate. Every depiction or imagery is interpreted by an individual in separate ways due to their individual backgrounds and associations to things.

The degree to which the connection between two concepts strikes us as literal or metaphorical does not depend on any objective distance between the two but rather on how deeply the connection has been made in our conceptual system, in other words, on how conventional it is. Conventionality

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(Reference for this section is thanked for and taken from the article by Elizabeth El Refaie on the topic of Understanding Visual Metaphors : Example of Newspaper Cartoons. She studied Mass Media at Vienna University and trained and worked in journalism. In 2001 she completed her PhD at Bradford University. She has also published articles in the Journal of Sociolinguistics and German History)

What is it ?

A visual metaphor is a device for encouraging insights, a tool to think with. It is the task of the viewer to use the image for insight. It is the representation of a person, place, thing or idea by way of a visual image that suggests a particular association or a point of similarity.

Where all is it ?

Visual metaphors can be seen in abundance in cartoons, comic strips, paintings and advertisements. A familiar example is the technique of ‘juxtaposing’. For instance, a picture of a sports car is juxtaposed with the image of a panther, suggesting that the product has comparable qualities of speed, power, and endurance. A variation on this common technique is to merge elements of the car and the wild animal, creating a composite image.

How does it work ?

A visual metaphor uses our experiences, cultural backgrounds, our familiarity with images or things to create a meaning, either individually or by combining it with other images and references.

Why does it work ?

VISUAL METAPHORS :

So basically ...

Because of our experiential connections, it becomes easy for a visual metaphor to communicate a message or an idea more effectively. It also works because it places the metaphor in a context familiar and suited to the audience.

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(Ref. Noël Carroll, “Visual Metaphor,” in Beyond Aesthetics. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001)

(Ref. Stuart Kaplan, “Visual Metaphors in Print Advertising for Fashion Products,” in Handbook of Visual Communication, ed. by K. L. Smith. Routledge, 2005)

The technique was observed by therapists Penny Tompkins and James Lawley, who devoted several years to modelling and expanding David’s techniques into a methodology called ‘Symbolic Modelling’. David later developed his linguistic work into spatial methods, known as Clean Space, and Emergent Knowledge, inspired by the science of Emergence.

Clean Language enables clients to access buried knowledge and intuition through metaphor. Clean Space does the same through literally moving people around the room. Emergence is the science of how things are achieved through connections. It involves the theories of chaos and six degrees of separation and explains how ant colonies are formed or search engines operate, through repetitive connections rather than being controlled by any one leader.

David Grove’s

Metaphor Therapy David Grove (d. 8th January 2008) is remembered for a life dedicated to pioneering work in language, metaphor and spatial techniques in Clean Language, Clean Space and Emergent Knowledge. He was from New Zealand and spent many years in the US working with patients suffering from traumatic memories. During this time he pioneered the ground breaking technique of Clean Language. He discovered that patients would often speak in metaphor when describing their experience and that the most effective treatment was to honour their metaphors by asking open questions which reflected the patient’s exact words.

Over a period of years, David identified 13 questions that would least influence the patient in their metaphorical journey, and he gave this process the name, “Clean Language”.

movements of the body, sounds and other nonverbal behavior. There can be a lot of information stored in a gesture, a glance, or even a sigh.

The Metaphor Therapy developed by David Grove is a process which facilitates profound change by working within a person’s own symbolic representation of their problem or issue. Client’s words, gestures, sighs, ‘lines of sight’ and other non-verbal cues provide entry to this out-of-awareness symbolic world.

“Metaphor mediates the interface between the conscious and unconscious mind.” - D. Grove When a client says “I keep running up against a wall” Grove not only assumes this metaphor is an accurate description of the person’s experience but also that it is the best and most complete description available to the client at that moment. Thus, what kind of wall it is, where it appears to be within the client’s perceptual space, its size and shape, the direction of the running will all be symbolic of the ‘replicating mechanism’ that keeps this person repeating the particular behaviors they describe over and over again.

Language is so much more than words, and so there is Clean Language Without Words which asks clean questions of

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(Ref. www.clean language.co.uk)



partforstands a larger whole a

Semiosis or generating meaning can be done in a text by using metaphors and metonymy; it is most often used to create connotative meaning.

Metonymy is a figure of speech used in rhetoric in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. Metaphor expresses the unfamiliar (tenor) in terms of the familiar (vehicle). The tenor and vehicle are usually unrelated. The receiver must make an imaginative leap to understand a fresh metaphor.

Metonymy is the term used to describe the invocation of an object or idea using an associative detail; thus a syntagmatic dimension. Metonymy is based on continuity: it does not require an imaginative leap (transposition) as metaphor does (Chandler). Fiske notes that the metaphor simultaneously exploits similarity and difference. It works paradigmatically because the vehicle and the tenor must have enough similarity to place them in the same paradigm, but enough difference for the comparison to have the necessary element of contrast. Metaphors are often used and very successfully, by advertisers to sell products. In the advertisement an event or object will be used as a metaphor for a product or idea.

For instance, in the case of Coca-Cola, ‘the good life, fun and youth’ will be used as a metaphor for the soft drink.

Metaphors & Metonymy

Fiske notes that the selection of metonym is crucial because from it the reader/receiver constructs the unknown remainder of reality. It is thus important for the semiotician and translator to take the whole context into consideration before deducing what a metonym stands for. If the translator deduces a meaning not intended by the source creator, the signification of the other signs and the text as a whole will create a different meaning and effect in the target text than in the source text.

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For the purposes of advertisements, metonymies are powerful indicators of reality because they work indexically. For example, a shot of a street strewn with bodies and blood, shown on television, is a metonym of violence and murder.

Semioticians organise signs into systems, which are governed by rules or conventions that are agreed upon by all the members of the community who use that code (Fiske 1982: 68). These rules represent a social dimension: the code is a set of practices familiar to the users of the medium operating within a broad cultural framework. Members of a specific culture will understand the codes that operate within that culture.

(Ref. http://ilze.org/semio/008.htm)

Codes are dynamic systems that change all the time and are therefore socio-culturally and historically influenced. Due to the fact that codes and culture inter-relate dynamically, the translator needs to be very sensitive to the codes operating in the target culture so that the linguistic choices made during the translation process reflect the culture at that point in time.

Some codes are unique to a specific medium or to closely related media (e.g. fade to black in television and film); other codes are shared by several media (e.g. scene breaks) and some are drawn from cultural practices which are not tied to a medium (e.g. body language).

Broadcast and narrowcast codes are defined by the nature of the audience. All advertisements are aimed at a specific target audience and although the focus has not been on the receiver as such, but more on the message, it is important for the semiotician and translator to be aware of the codes at work in an advertisement.

Members of a mass audience share a broadcast code; it has to cater for heterogeneity. (This is most evident in international persuasive advertisements for soft drinks such as Coca-Cola or Levis jeans.) This type of code is simple; has immediate appeal and does not require an “education” to understand them (Fiske 1982: 78). Used in advertisements, for example, this type of code binds people within a certain culture together; they communicate by means of things they have in common.

Codes & Systems

Narrowcast codes are aimed at a specific audience. In an advertisement, for instance, a narrowcast code, having a defined, limited audience would be opera music, whereas a pop song would be broadcast. Fiske notes that they do not rely on a shared communal experience but on a common educational or intellectual experience. Narrowcast codes

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can be seen as elitist or socially divisive and for this reason the translator has to be especially sensitive when translating within this type of code. The receivers will be educated; and if misguided choices are made in terms of style, register, vocabulary, etc. the receivers could be alienated and not respond as the receivers in the source language.

Fiske makes a valid observation when he says that - Narrowcast codes have acquired the function in our mass society of stressing the difference between “us” (the users of the code) and “them” (the laymen, the lowbrows). Broadcast codes stress the similarities amongst “us” (the majority).

The creators of advertisements are fully aware of these two types of codes and use them according to the aim of their marketing campaigns. An exclusive product such as a Rolls Royce motor car is aimed at a very specific group of people in terms of status, income, etc. A persuasive advertisement aimed at the prospective buyers of these cars would be addressed in a way that will emphasise the receiver’s social status, individuality and the exclusivity of the product that is a reflection of the owner of such a vehicle.

(Ref. http://ilze.org/semio/008.htm)

Denotation refers to the “first order” of signification generated by the relationship between the signifier and the signified within the sign; or the initial, common-sense and obvious meaning of the sign (Fiske 1982: 91). According to Roland Barthes (cited in Fiske 1982: 91) the referents of the sign have their referents in the external reality.

Connotation refers to the “second order” of signification.

Hall sees this as the associative meaning, since it describes the interaction that occurs when a sign meets the feelings or emotions of the users and the value of their culture. Connotation describes the interaction that takes place when the sign meets the emotions of the user and the values of his culture. It is directly related to the inner reality of the receiver and is thus highly subjective. It involves emotional overtones, subjective interpretation, socio-cultural values and ideological assumptions (Chandler: WWW).

and cultural group would have similar connotations with certain words and concepts. Because signs on the connotative level are more open to interpretation, the translator must pay attention to the choice of words used to translate a text into a target language and culture.

The connotations of a language expression are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about its denotation (or reference) and also from experiences, beliefs, and prejudices about the contexts in which the expression is typically used. Connotations are judged on the basis of whether the phrases in which the colour terms occur are typically orthophemistic, euphemistic or dysphemistic.

According to Fiske (1982: 91): This is when meanings move towards the subjective, or at least the inter subjective: it is when the interpretant is influenced as much by the interpreter as by the object or the sign.

He is of the opinion that connotation is largely arbitrary, specific to one culture, but often has an iconic dimension. It can be said that certain words, for instance words referring to bodily functions or genitals, would have similar connotations across a broad spectrum of languages and cultures.

Connotations

& Denotations

In terms of advertisements made for television, connotations can be created from the tone of voice of the actor, that is, what he feels about a product or a situation; for the translator of text the choice of words involves connotation.

Connotation is linked to emotions and our view of the words concerned and their associations. The translator can assume to a certain degree that other users of a specific language

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(Ref. http://ilze.org/semio/008.htm)

Colour holds an important part in advertisements and otherwise for conveying a message. Colour based metaphors are a subclass of appearance based metaphors (metonyms).

Sighted people have direct sensory perception of the light waves that constitute colour; those who are blind from birth are deprived of this perception but they do know, as sighted people also know, that colours are associated with certain perceivable objects (Davidoff 1997; Allan 2001).

Given that connotations are pragmatic effects that arise from encyclopaedic knowledge about denotata (an actual object referred to by a linguistic expression), it has to be colourbearing objects that give rise to the connotations of colour terms (Allan 2007). Keith Allan classifies the connotations of colours in terms of ‘X-phemisms’ a term used in Allan and Burridge 2006 for the union set of orthophemisms: straighttalking, dysphemisms: offensive language, and euphemisms: sweet-talking.

Black is used orthophemistically but not euphemistically; it more often has dysphemistic connotations than other colours. It is often connected to darkness, night, death, decay and evil deeds.

Black has often been used dysphemistically of human skin colour, though it can be orthophemistic. Except for the phrases in the black “solvent, in profit”, black tie event “formal social gathering” and black-coat for a “clergyman”, the colour black is regarded unfavourably.

As a colour it is characterized by the absence of light and can therefore denote enveloping darkness, the sombre, the dismal, the sad, and the gloomy. A black day may give rise to the black dog, in other words, a black mood. Black is associated in western communities with funereal clothes and other matters pertaining to death.

An orthophemism is typically more formal and more direct (or literal) than the corresponding euphemism.

A euphemism is a word or phrase used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression. It avoids possible loss of face: either the speaker’s own positive face or through giving offence, the negative face of the hearer or some third party.

It is typically more colloquial, figurative and indirect than the corresponding orthophemism.

A dysphemism is a word or phrase with connotations that are offensive either about the denotatum and/or to people addressed or overhearing the utterance.

(Ref. http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/linguistics/staff/kallan-works-connotations-of-

Colour Connotations

Lets take the example of the colour black and the connotations it has.

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colour-terms.pdf) { Article by Keith Allan on the connotations of colour terms: colour based X-phemisms}

Metaphors are very common in advertisements. They are created in order to be used as tools of conveying the message better and probably in a more powerful, attractive and different manner. The form that is used as metaphor conveys something about the product or service. For instance, the presence of a beautiful woman or a handsome man in a perfume advertisement is conscious and is intended to generate the quality of the smell of the perfume by using something other than the smell, a photograph. It tries to substitute the unprintable experience of the product by an image.

A synecdoche (si-nek-duh-kee) is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing. All graphic design that uses photography contains visual synecdoche. This is because all photographs capture the subject in the fraction of a second. Thus the image created is necessarily a part or a detail of a larger whole.

Manually produced graphic design which depicts a still image of an action or process also contains synecdoche. However, unlike the medium of photography, this is not guaranteed by the nature of the mode of representation. It is the result of selecting a part or a detail of the action or process and capturing that in the image. For instance, the visual on the cover page of any of the Famous Five series by Enid Blyton, is a synecdoche as it chooses to represent a part or a particular frame of a situation in the book.

(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

Such an imagery, manual or photographic, allows for the expansion of the frame to visualize the larger picture and also allows inference of the succeeding and preceding events of the moment captured.

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(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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Michael Gibbs Michael Gibbs has been a freelance illustrator since the early ‘80s. After majoring in architecture for a year at the University of Maryland, he attended Pratt Institute as a photography major, switching to illustration in his final year. Michael’s style has evolved from traditional painting to a unique blend of traditional and digital techniques, with frequent forays into purely digital illustration. His work has been featured in books on illustration and design skills, including Information Graphics and Visual Clues and Step-by-Step Graphics.

Clients include magazines like Newsweek, Time, Harvard Business Review, Diablo and InfoWorld; corporations like Wachovia, United Airlines, IBM, Sears, American Airlines, CitiGroup and Oracle; institutions including Johns Hopkins, the IMF, BET, American University, and World Bank; publishers like Harper Collins, Dell Books, TOR Books, Ziff-Davis and Random House; newspapers including The Washington Post, The New York TImes, The Hartford Courant, The San Francisco Chronicle and The Bermuda Royal Gazette; associations such as the American Federation of Teachers, The American Bankers Association, to name a few.

Metaphorical Illustrations

work was included in the Spectrum Best of Spectrum Sci-fi/ Fantasy show at the Society of Illustrators. Gibbs creates metaphors in his illustrations for magazine covers, posters etc by which he not only creates an interesting visual but also expresses his message in a more interesting and unique way.

Metaphorical illustration is unparalleled in its ability to visually explain complex subject matter. From the Greek ‘metapherein’ meaning ‘to transfer’, metaphors transfer concepts and meaning from one subject to another, making an implicit comparison between the abstract and the concrete. The illustration You’re Red, I’m Green by Gibbs was accompanied by an article about accepting others’ differences. The concept of ethnic differences was communicated by substituting animals for people and by the use of colour.

His illustrations have received recognition from the Society of Illustrator of Los Angeles, 3x3 Magazine Illustration Annual, American Illustration, Spectrum Annual of Science Fiction/ Fantasy Illustration, The Art Directors Club of Metropolitan Washington and New Jersey, The Illustrators Club of Washington, the Addies and others. He was honored with a Spectrum Gold Medal award in 2004, and multiple Silver Addy awards in 2005 for his posters for the Pittsburgh Opera.

He is a member of the Illustrators Club of Washington and serves on its Board of Directors and was the chairman of the Club’s show committee for four years. In the fall of 2005, his

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(Ref. http://www.michaelgibbs.com)

Cracks In The Foundation | American Banker’s Association

Fishing For Ideas | Adweek

Quest For Knowledge | Bellcore

Eye Spy | Editorial art

Death Penalty | Editorial art

The Iceberg Effect | Editorial art

You’re red, I’m green | Editorial art

Time to Renew | Editorial art

(Ref. http://www.michaelgibbs.com/illustration_conceptual.html)

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Vladimir Kush Vladimir Kush was born in 1965 in Moscow, Russia. He is an artist specialising in the use of metaphor as his creative method in the art of painting. He calls his style Metaphorical Realism. Vladimir Kush entered the Moscow Higher Art and Craft School at age 17, but a year later he was conscripted.

After military service and graduating the Institute of Fine Arts, Vladimir painted portraits on Arbat Street.

In 1990 he flew to Los Angeles (where 20 of his works were exhibited) and began his “American Odyssey.” In 1993, Kush painted several panels featuring the prehistoric whales that now decorate the Whale Museum on Kaanapali Beach in Maui. In 2001 Kush opened his first gallery, Kush Fine Art in Lahaina, Hawaii. In 1997 Vladimir Kush painted his piece entitled “Wind” from which many other paintings have evolved.

Vladimir Kush also creates sculptures of his metaphorical concepts in Bronze and Precious Metals with Gemstones as well as jewelry . In December 2009, he introduced his first furniture piece into his portfolio.

His work, I feel, follows the literal translation of metaphorical thought into images.

(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

(Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Kush)

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(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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BANKSY Banksy is the pseudonym of a British graffiti artist, political activist and painter, whose identity is unconfirmed. His satirical street art and subversive epigrams combine irreverent dark humour with graffiti done in a distinctive stencilling technique. Known for his contempt for the government in labeling graffiti as vandalism merely because it does not serve a profit to them, Banksy displays his art on public surfaces such as walls and even going as far as to build physical prop pieces. His works of political and social commentary have been featured on streets, walls, and bridges of cities throughout the world.

Banksy’s work was born out of the Bristol underground scene which involved collaborations between artists and musicians. Observers have noted that his style is similar to Blek le Rat, who began to work with stencils in 1981 in Paris and members of the anarcho-punk band Crass who maintained a graffiti stencil campaign on the London Tube System in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Banksy, I personally feel uses visual metaphors in his own unique style to communicate his thoughts and ideas. And he does so brilliantly.

(Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/banksy)

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(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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- Robert Frost

Certain literary metaphors are not supported by visuals directly. They are left for the mind’s eye to perceive. For instance, in poems metaphors are used to describe people, places, objects, moods, expressions etc. They created a mental imagery with the help of the words, which is varied in each person’s case and yet is significant and powerful due to the certain ways in which we make connections to objects, places, people and characteristics.

For example, the line from André Breton - my wife whose waist is an hourglass, the metaphor is more in the image created rather than the words. Also, without referring to which part or even saying that it is a part of the hourglass that the waist is like, one is able to immediately understand and visualize what the lines intend.

‘Without a contradiction between language and reality there is no mobility of concepts, no mobility of signs, and the relationship between concepts and signs become automatized. Activity comes to a halt, and the awareness of reality dies out.’

- Roman Jakobson. What is Poetry?

Language, according to Jakobson, is a way of expression and development of culture. He says poetic language shifts the common language balance between word and thing. In such a way, lingual shifts make it possible to use the language individually for each person and to make new literary precedents called poetry.

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Poetry is piece of literature written in meter or verse expressing various emotions that are expressed by the use of variety of techniques including metaphors, similes and onomatopoeia. The emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the use of techniques such as repetition, meter and rhyme is what is commonly used to distinguish poetry from prose.

Poems often make heavy use of imagery and word association to convey emotions. The structural elements in a poem include the line, couplet, strophe and stanza. Poets combine language and a structure to create imaginative and expressive work. The structures are also used when considering the visual effect of a finished poem.

Imagery refers to the pictures that we perceive with our mind’s eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin and through which we experience the world created by poetic language. It evokes the meaning and truth of human experiences in a more perceptible and tangible form than philosophy. It is a device by which the poet makes his meaning strong, clear and sure.

The poet uses sound words, words of color and touch in addition to figures of speech while constructing a poem.

Although most of the image-making words in any language appeal to sight (visual images), there are also images that appeal to the senses of touch (tactile), sound (auditory), taste (gustatory), smell (olfactory) and motion.

Imagery in Poems

Imagery poems draw the reader into poetic experiences by touching on the images and senses which the reader is already familiar with. The use of images in this type of poetry serves to intensify the impact of the work. Imagery is not created just to “decorate� a poem or make it sound good. It helps a poet create and represent successfully his idea or subject. To a reader, imagery is equally important as it provides his imagination with something palpable to seize upon.

There are six different kinds of images, namely :

1) Simple Description - Simple description of visible objects or actions 2) Dramatic Situation (a) Dramatic Monologue - as soon as the reader becomes aware that the poem is a dramatic monologue, he visualizes a speaker with the result that the particularity of the situation is evident. (b) Dialogue - has the same effect as dramatic monologue.

3) Story - Description, narration causes the reader or hearer to form images. When the reader realizes that he is being told a tale he visualizes from habit in order to not miss the point of the story.

4) Metonymy - When a poet uses metonymy, he names one thing when he really means another thing with which the first is closely connected. For example - Seven little foreheads stared up at me from the first row, where foreheads is used in place of eyes.

5) Synecdoche - When a poet uses synecdoche, he names a part of a thing when he means whole thing or vice versa.

6) Onomatopoeia - Although imagery usually refers to visual images, there are also aural images. The use of words which sound like their meaning is called onomatopoeia, for instance - buzz, hiss, clang , splash, murmur, chatter.

A poem is a world created from all that the poet has known, felt, seen and thought. The image-making poetic faculty and the imagination blend together his memories and immediate perceptions into a variety of associations to objects and people. However apparently direct and unadorned the poet makes his verses, he will employ images. However simple his statement, he can not make it abstract.

(Ref. http://litera1no4.tripod.com/imagery_frame.html) 33

New Criticism is a type of formalist current of literary theory that dominated Anglo-American literary criticism in the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading, particularly of poetry, to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained, self-referential aesthetic object. The New Criticism has sometimes been called an objective approach to literature.

New Critics treat a work of literature as if it were self-contained. They do not consider the reader’s response, author’s intention or historical and cultural contexts. They perform a close reading of the text and believe the structure and meaning of the text should not be examined separately. New Critics especially appreciate the use of literary devices in a text.

New Critical reading places great emphasis on the particular over the general, paying close attention to individual words, syntax, and the order in which sentences and ideas unfold as they are read. They look at imagery, metaphor, rhythm, meter.

The notion of ambiguity is an important concept within New Criticism; several prominent New Critics have been enamored above all else with the way that a text can display multiple simultaneous meanings. In the 1930s, I. A. Richards borrowed Sigmund Freud’s term “overdetermination” to refer to the multiple meanings which he believed were always simultaneously present in language. To Richards, claiming that a work has “One And Only One True Meaning” is an act of superstition (The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 39).

New Criticism

For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was quite irrelevant, and potentially distracting. On the other side of the page, so to speak, Wimsatt proposed an “affective fallacy”, discounting the reader’s peculiar reaction (or violence of reaction) as a valid measure of a text (“what it is” vs. “what it does”). This has wide-ranging implications that serve to exclude trivial but deeply affective advertisements and

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propaganda from the artistic canon. Taken together, these fallacies might compel one to refer to a text and its functioning as an autonomous entity, intimate with but independent of both author and reader.

Formal elements such as rhyme, meter, setting, characterization and plot were used to identify the theme of the text.

In addition to the theme, the New Critics also looked for paradox, ambiguity, irony and tension to help establish the single best interpretation of the text. Such an approach may be criticized as constituting a conservative attempt to isolate the text as a solid, immutable entity, shielded from any external influences such as those of race, class, and gender.

One of the most common grievances is an objection to the idea of the text as autonomous; detractors react against a perceived anti-historicism, accusing the New Critics of divorcing literature from its place in history by emphasizing the text as autonomous. New Criticism isolates the work of art from its past and its context.”

Russell Reising argues that the New Criticism devalues literature that is representational or realist. Likewise, Scholes accuses the methodology as denying any text of “cognitive quality”. Terence Hawkes writes that the fundamental close reading technique is based on the assumption that “the subject and the object of study; the reader and the text are stable and independent forms, rather than products of the unconscious process of signification”, an assumption which he identifies as the “ideology of liberal humanism,” which is attributed to the New Critics who are “accused of attempting to disguise the interests at work in their critical processes.”

(Ref. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Criticism)

Good typography is invisible

Given the many different things typography is used to do, it would be surprising if there were a single optimum way of understanding how it works, or how it works when it works well.

Most simple models are based on an even simpler model of verbal communication, according to which words articulate thoughts in order to transmit those thoughts from the mind of their author to the minds of the audience. This suggests that any thoughts extraneous those in question get in the way of good, effective communication.

What is probably the most used metaphor for typography builds on these assumptions by seeing printed words as a visual conduit of thought. We look through them to see the thoughts, as one might look through a window to see a landscape, or look through a glass to see its contents. Beatrice Warde, New York emigre and Monotype publicist, popularised this metaphor in her 1932 essay The Crystal goblet or printing should be invisible : ‘Writing, and printing are quite literally forms of thought transference. The most important thing about printing is that it conveys thoughts, ideas and images from one mind to other minds. Type well used is invisible as type. The book typographer has the job of erecting a window between the reader inside the room and the landscape which is the author’s words. The mental eye focuses through the type and not upon it. The type which , through any arbitrary warping of design or excess of ‘colour,’ gets in the way of the mental picture to be conveyed, is a bad type. And if what I have said is true of book printing, even of the most exquisite limited editions, it is fifty times more obvious in advertising, where the one and only justification for the purpose of space is that you are conveying a message, that you are implanting a desire, straight into the mind of the reader.’

Type Metaphors

Kerrie Jacobs in her An existential guide to type (Metropolis 1988) says : ‘Certain things work better when we are unaware

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of them. Letters on a printed page are like that. If the design of a typeface, a text face, demands attention, there’s a problem.’

This idea of clarity of communication in which any distinctive characteristics are interpreted as unnecessary ornament found a natural place in certain ideologies in the early 20th century concerning what it is to be modern. Here’s Walter Drexel in 1927 (in What is New Typography?) : The goal of the new typography is an objective and impersonal presentation, free of individuality. We have only one duty: to be objective and typical.’

Jan Tschihold (in The New Typography): ‘The most important requirement is to be objective. It is absolutely necessary to omit everything that is not needed. A good letter is one that expresses itself, or rather “speaks,” with the utmost distinctness and clarity. And a good typeface has no purpose beyond being of the highest clarity.’

In this passage Tschihold makes use of a different type metaphor, according to which type is understood in vocal rather than visual terms. Type is the voice with which the content speaks to the reader, rather than a window onto the content.

‘The legibility of a typeface has an exact parallel in the audibility of the human voice. A lecturer must make every word audible and distinct; yet within the limits of audibility lie the whole range of speaking tomes from a metallic monotonous drawl to the infinitely flexible and persuasive tones of the good speaker.’ - Beatrice Ward on the choice of typeface.

The vocal metaphor has definite advantages over the visual.

With the visual, there is the suggestion of a single extreme defining perfection in type: utter lack of character, total transparency, giving an objective view of content with utmost clarity. There is, unsurprisingly, no such typography. The vocal

metaphor, by contrast, suggests that some degree of variety is inevitable, and even desirable.

Warde goes on to say that ‘If “the tone of voice” of a typeface does not count, then nothing counts that distinguishes man from the other animals. Not only notation but connotations is part of the proper study of mankind. The best part of typographic wisdom lies in the study of connotation, the suitability of form to content. People who love ideas must have a love of words, and that means, given a chance, they will take a vivid interest in the clothes that words wear. They will use such technically indefensible words such as “romantic,” “chill,” “jaunty” to describe different typefaces.’

I feel Jessica Helfland makes a very powerful and important statement when she states that ‘e-mail eliminates the distinctiveness that typography has traditionally brought to our written communiqués. Though its supporters endorse the democratic nature of such homogeneity, the truth is, it’s boring.

In the land of e-mail, we all “sound” alike: Everyone writes in system fonts.’

a less impoverished, multivocal use of flexible metaphors. An example of this is Jonathan Hoefler’s discussion in the extras to Gary Hustwit’s (2007) Helvetica film: ‘Typography has this real poverty of terms to describe things, in terms of x-height and cap-height and weight and so on. We tend to use a lot of qualitative terms that are entirely subjective like “this has that Saturn V rocket early NASA quality; it needs to have that orange plastic Olivetti typewriter Roman Holiday espresso feel,”. There’s really no way to express the qualitative properties of a typeface without resorting to things that are fully outside it. We’re constantly saying things like “this feels like Erik Satie, it needs to be Debussy.”’

Typographic settings for a text give form to metaphoric connotations through compositional arrangement, juxtaposition, and typographic manipulation. For example, the silent ‘h’ in ‘honest’ could be used as metaphor or concept in some context to represent deafness or hearing disabilities.

Savan quotes James Wines, Pulitzer Prize winner for graphics: ‘Helvetica is part of a psychological enslavement. It’s a subconscious plot: getting people to do, think, say what you want them to. It assumes you accept some system. It means it’s predetermined that you’re on their route, that it’s not casually happening to you.’

‘You see Helvetica and you perceive order’ - Massimo Vignelli.

Whether one agrees with it or not, this way of describing and understanding type suggests that even the riches of the vocal metaphor are limited. Systematicity and order are features not easily understood in terms of a tone of voice. Perhaps then, the many and varied roles of typography are poorly suited to monolithic understanding. Maybe what is needed is

(Ref. http://www.typeg.org/words/02_metaphor.html)

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Before arriving at the final concept however, i explored another approach to context change. I based this approach on the typography of a subject and the medium in which the message is communicated.

When a message is sent out with the help of type, the medium in which the reader receives it makes a particular kind of impression and the message is perceived as experientially different. I will discuss the initial idea, so it is not complete in its nature. It is only the surface analysis, due to which i may have ignored some mediums; also because i chose to not further delve into this concept. In the following pages, I discuss the few points by which, according to my analysis, a message becomes experientially different and why. Lets take the example of the following few lines from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray and see an overview of how the medium and type affect a message.

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark unfathom’d caves of ocean bear, Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

Initial Approach 40

Medium One : SMS

Viewing surface on a screen smaller than your palm

Distractions of the environment around

(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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The message (lines of the poem) would be received in the preset font of the phone. Also due to the width of the display area, the lines will break causing confusion and difficulty reading. The reading time and manner also matters and so, having to scroll down will also work against it. Plus, if the text exceeds the letter limit, the message will get broken into parts and that does not go on the positive side of the tally table. The richness of the words will become diluted due to this boring consistency. The font of the phone was created to enable message reading effectively and not to convey emotions as deep as those in a poem. And no, emoticons do not suffice.

Medium Two : E mail

Advertisements at the top

Heavily loaded toolbar at the top, The size of the page view is bigger than the cell phone surely, but it also brings more number of elements on the display area. Then there’s the entire process of notification of new e-mails and then finding the mail. Such things take away from the readers experience and dulls the beauty of the poem.

Navigational buttons and other windows

Pop up menus and messages

Lines typed in the system font, most probably tweaked and tampered with to an ugly extent.

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Medium Three : Newspaper Newspapers are reputed to be one of the most heavily crowded mediums of information communication. From headlines to articles, advertisements to announcements, it is super crowded with text and images of various kinds of fonts, sizes and colours. If you see the left side of this page, you shall be able to see what i mean. Although news papers follow a grid and a particular layout, the end result is too crowded if one wishes to express oneself so deeply. Something like the lines of the poem, may be read by millions in one go, but does it have the same emotional impact as it is supposed to? Perhaps not. Of course there are means of achieving something closes to that, but it would ask for better typography and a larger space, away from the hustle and bustle of the advertisements, articles, headlines and images.

Books are also a medium of communication which can be informative or knowledge-based. But a book of poems, assorted or otherwise, comes with its own background, intent and specific target audience. It is made keeping into consideration

(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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Medium Four :

Posters & Illustrations Now here is a medium which comes close to expressing closely the intent of the lines, more closely than other mediums. Posters and illustrations can be combined or taken separately. Firstly, i feel that they’d be able to represent it better because they can be customized and are hence more expressive. So, creativity takes a path of creativity. Due to the freedom with the tools of expression, the complexity of the emotions can be brought about in a free manner. They needn’t stick to grids and layouts and use only one font. They may vary in size and composition as well. As demonstrated on the left, with the reference and help of Google Images, the typographic posters are more emotive than the previous three mediums discussed.

(Ref. http://www.google.com/imghp)

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Coming back to where i started from : So, what happens when the creation is contextualised without changing the structure of the metaphor? How does it affect or influence a visual? What message does it communicate and how?

For this purpose i chose to take some lines from poems and decided to experiment with them. I began with trying to illustrate the lines of the poem with typography alone.

For this I took the line, took each letter or word apart and tried to manipulate it to give out the emotion of the poem or metaphor used.

Final Approach : Explorations 45

“ Turned to cinders by her eye : � ~ The Hourglass by Ben Jonson.

Here I have taken the letters apart, played with the sizes and arrangement, purely with the intent of seeing what effect they have on the reader’s mind and if it can give rise to an interesting visual with or without relating to the metaphor.

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“ Even ashes of lovers find no rest ” ~ The Hourglass by Ben Jonson Here the composition has been created to give the feel of “ashes” that are mentioned in the metaphor and the letters have been tweaked accordingly. Please keep in mind that the visuals shown here were not finals, hence it is only a conceptual imagery you are looking at. The idea was not followed through.

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“I wander’d lonely as a cloud that floats on high o’er vales and hills...” ~ Daffodils by William Wordsworth I decided to use illustrations in my visuals next. First, I combined the text with the illustration. The illustration visualises the metaphor in the lines. It actually shows vales and hills. Then i gave it the context of an advertisement, to see whether the lines become commercial along with their use for an advertisement and lose their ‘charm’. For this, i super-imposed the product (Westside footwear) for which the ad is and recreated the metaphor without changing the structure of the metaphor, to represent something other than what the poem talks about. The clouds have been personified as the footwear. I also took the liberty of adding a tag line to the product, to add another level to the change of context.

It makes the visual and the poem experientially different for the receiver.

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“I wander’d lonely as a cloud that floats on high o’er vales and hills...” ~ Daffodils by William Wordsworth Rather than personifying the metaphor itself, with this approach, I tried to recreate the feeling the metaphor and the poem give, through the illustration. I also changed the style of the visual to see what effect it has; whether it adds to or takes away from the appeal of the advertisement. From a hand-drawn to a vector image, the difference is stark.

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“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day Thou art more lovely and more temperate Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May And summer’s lease hath too short a date” ~ The 18th Sonnet by William Shakespere Here the structure has remained constant, as in the others, and by plain juxtaposition of an image, it has been contextualised and the metaphor has come to mean something entirely different, the metaphor represents something other than what was intended by the poet, using the same words and lines in the same order. The essence of the lines of the poem also diminishes slightly, I feel, when used to sell a product (or a service), but it lends its essence to the product instead, enhancing its value.

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“Two roads diverged in a wood and I; I took the one less travelled by and that has made all the difference� ~ The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost With this visual i tried to use the lines for a service instead of a commercial product. These particular lines, i feel are very powerful. So i wanted to use them in a way that does not take away from the meaning. Although the lines here stand for the roads diverging into the woods that the poet is faced with, i chose to use the metaphor to convey career choices one faces at some given point of time in their life. With this approach, the lines have been used to promote a career and not just sell a service. The lines and hypothetical logo added at the bottom, have a great importance in the entire visual.

They help in conveying the meaning of the visual more clearly.

Of course, it can be used to sell the services of the company which chooses to adapt this approach.

I decided to take this approach forward and came up with one of the final visuals.

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Final Approach : Visuals 52

There are two final visuals. This being one of them, advertises for a service provided by a hypothetical website called www.careeroptions.org. I looked at the kind of advertisement language followed by such providers and wanted to make the advertisement visually different and stand out from the rest. This approach of course comes with its pre-defined and specific target audience. One may take this as an educative or promotive poster/visual or a commercial advertisement for the website.

In order to make the visual different, i applied a different technique than the usual ones. Instead of making just an illustration, i created a ‘set’ as i would like to call it. I made illustrations and then cut them out and placed them on a board. Played around with the compositions of the elements and then photographed it. The typography came later.

The way the typography is applied has a great impact to a visual (as has been discussed earlier in this document). So, a lot of questions arose before i came to this conclusion. I had to go through the decision making process which involved choosing how the typography would be used : 1. Whether it will be plain, clean and simple 2. If it would merge with the visual 3. Or if it should be the visual I saw this visual appearing in magazines, hence chose for the elements to be detailed enough. After discussions with my guide, i had to rearrange the elements for it ended up “looking like a maple leaf”. That’s not what I wanted, hence the re-compositing. The type too was not entirely suited to the visual.

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Explorations with fonts and layout

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This is the second visual showing another application of the approach. With this visual i take on the literal translations of the metaphors used in the poem and choose to depict the summer with sun and clouds, the buds of my with buds. However, I made the visual abstract in order for it to be a little diffreent. Since I am placing it in the context of an advertisement of Starbucks Coffee, I so took liberties of putting in a coffee plant that does not really resemble one in actuality but gives the fair idea of it. Also i made it look as though it is coming out of the ground, which also happens to be covered in coffee. It has been an attempt for the imagery in the lines to take a literal shape with visual metaphors.

For the text I chose a font which is not calligraphic but is similar to a handwriting. Type here acts as metaphor as it attempts to bring about the emotions and feel of the poet and the lines. It is less restricted and ‘free flowing’ as compared to say a sans serif font. I also felt that it goes with the entire idea of a ‘relaxed’ coffee at Starbucks. The explorations with type as well as colour are on the following page.

The colours chosen pertain to the connotations they hold and also in this case the context they are supporting. I first chose blue which although complimented the visual, persay, ended up taking away the entire feel of summerr, as it is a cool colour and conotes to colder things, ice for instance. Brown was chosen as i wanted the visual to relate and give a feel of coffee. True there exists a variety of coffee, but the minute someone says ‘what’s the colour of coffee’, you think brown.

Green was chosen simply because when you think Starbucks, the colours you end up thinking of are brown; because of coffee and green; because of the logo.

The tagline “As hot as summer” was added to further amplify the meaning and connotations of the visual and the lines.

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Explorations with fonts and colours

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References that were taken for the project and subject research have been provided along with the text in most cases. However, the document and research would not have been possible without the help of the following websites and links : (In no particular order) http://www.writesville.com/writesville/2006/01/examples_of_met.html http://somniloquy.org/archive/v2/poetry/statements.php?item=11 http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ http://www.poetry-online.org/poetry-about-death-index.htm http://elyntromey.com/therapyblog/?cat=7 http://www.academon.com/Term-Paper-Metaphors-in-Daily-Life/102353 http://ard.bmj.com/content/65/7/852.extract http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/34459.Metaphors_We_Live_By http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/nc/ncintro.html http://quinlanapenglish.blogspot.com/2009/03/elegy-written-in-country-churchyard.html http://cummingsstudyguides.net/ThoGray.html http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/230332/georgic http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/nc/ncintro.html http://www.metaphoricalillustration.com/illustration_03.html

Webliography

http://www.jimwrightonline.com/pdfdocs/mentalimg.pdf http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Das.html

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http://arjunpuri.wordpress.com/2009/05/31/poems-of-kamala-das/ http://www.types-of-poetry.org.uk/27-imagery-poems.htm http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/tool.poem.cat.1.1.html?id=23 http://www.michaelgibbs.com/illustration_conceptual.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_periods http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/19694 ( double bind: three women of harlem renaissance) http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/jonson/benbib.htm (ben jonson poems) http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Renaissance_poets (wiki renaissance poets) http://www.typeg.org/words/02_metaphor.html (typography and metaphors) http://www.designingwithtype.com/purchase/index.html ( design with type) http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/linguistics/staff/kallan-works-connotations-of-colour-terms.pdf (colour connotations) http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/punterm.htm (Puns) http://www.writers-free-reference.com/10poems.htm (famous poem lines) http://www.deviantart.com/ http://www.starbucks.com/about-us http://www.suite101.com/content/dont-drink-and-drive-this-summer-tipsy-tow-a119247 http://www.jabberwocky.com/carroll/walrus.html http://www.purchase.edu http://www.cooper.edu

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Acknowledgements I sincerely thank my guide, Dr. Tridha Gajjar, for her patience, guidance and constant support throughout the project.

A lot goes into a project. But without feedback I don’t think it would go too far. So for their feedback and support from the initial to the completion stage, I would like to specially thank Lavanya Naidu and Akanksha Jain. Big thanks to Hannelore who lent me her camera.

Adding to the list of people I want to thank are : Madhusudan Mukerjee, Jyotish, Anish, Krish, Prachi, Harsha, Nandini, my batch mates and everyone else who spent time looking at and listening to my project details and giving me their feedback.

Maa, Pa, April, thank you.

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