S k e l e t a l C o n s t r u c t i o n B u i l d i n g
C o n s t r u c t i o n
I I
Chang Huey Yi 0322898 . Angela Wee 0322970 . Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099 . Cha Yun Xian 0322048. Chan Koon Qi 0322000 . Huynh Minh Nhat Dinh 0313309
building_c Design Consideration
Design Development
Orthographic Drawings
01 02 03 04 06 10 29 39 40 41 42 on II
Introduction
contents
Construction Process Construction Details - Steel Base Frame & Foundation - Octagonal steel Columns - Timber Decking - Bracing & Bench - Roof Analysis of Design - Skeletal Frame Construction - Loads & Forces - Materiality - Accessiblity & User’s Experience
Load Test
Renderings
Conclusion References
01
INTRODUCTION/ In this project, we are tasked to construct a temporary bus shelter that has a maximum height of 600mm and a maximum base of 400mm x 800mm.In order to produce a strong and stable structure, we are responsible to understand and demonstrate the knowledge of skeletal frames and its joints. The joints should be constructed to reflect the actual joints. We were also required to clearly define all building components such as roofs, walls, floors and columns. Before the construction of the bus shelter, two forms are to be chosen and merged to achieve a form to be built upon. After conducting several discussions, our team members chose to combine the cuboid and the octagonal prism to form a desired bus shelter design. a stable base to be built or derived from, and the hexagonal pyramid, which when tessellated into a surface provides strong support from lateral/horizontal forces.
02.
Design consideration Weather Resistance
Stability
- Choice of materials must withstand hot and humid tropical climate. - Has good ventilation to provide user comfort.
- Skeletal frame structure that is able to resist vertical and horizontal loads imposed on it - Stable structure which prevents uplift or overturning due to wind loads
Safety
Materials And Construction
- Adequately open bus shelter which provides visibility in and out of the structure, thus allowing users to see traffic conditions and oncoming vehicles. - Design which takes into consideration human ergonomics and anthropometry to provide convenience of use.
- High durability and strength - Materials which are readily available - Less harmful impact to the environment
03.
Design Development
The initial design of the bus stop is of a quarter cylinder with a cuboid base.
Due to some amendments and after some design consideration, the main frame of the bus stop was changed to a more geometrical form. The final design kept the previous cylinder form but uses cuboids as a subtractive element to create an octagonal prism as the main frame.
Quarter of Cylinder
The highlighted areas are subtracted from the cylinder form.
Cuboid
04.
ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS
3566MM
3512MM
2836MM
Roof Plan
1149MM
Floor Plan
SCALE 1 : 250
05.
ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS 3566MM
2836MM
3613MM
Side Elevation
3613MM
Front Elevation
SCALE 1 : 250
06 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
06.
Construction Process 2. Foundation
1. Pre-Construction
A detailed 3D model is generated using the 3DS Max software. The model includes all specific dimensions of the bus shelter which can be extracted and used.
The dimensions obtained from the 3D model were scaled down to 1:5 to ease the construction of the physical model.
Steel sheet formworks were created according to the dimensions of the model’s pad footings.
Concrete mixture is later mixed and poured into the formworks. The steel base plate, together with the anchor bolts, were placed into the mixture before the concrete sets.
The mild steel I beams were cut according to the desired lengths using a steel cutter chop saw. The tools and expertise were provided by Kutub Alam Metalworks.
The steel beams, together with the steel angle cleats, were placed on a bench type drilling machine to drill the desired holes for the installment of the nuts and bolts.
The individual steel beams, girders and columns were organized neatly before they are being assembled.
3. Steel Base Frame
Long mild steel pieces, which conforms to the dimensions of the model’s steel I beams, were welded together.
07.
Construction Process
The workers were briefed by our group members regarding the position and the connection method of the steel base frame members.
The girders, beams and columns were connected together by welding and by the use of nuts and bolts.
4. Octagonal Steel Columns
Individual segments of the columns were cut and welded together to form the desired octagonal shape.
After the concrete sets, the pad footings were taken out of the formworks.
5. Bracing
The octagonal steel columns are welded onto the steel base frame.
Before the instalment of the K type bracings, a steel tube is welded onto the back of the octagonal columns to secure their positions.
Rectangular holow sections were later welded in between the octagonal steel columns.
08.
Construction process 6. Bench
Steel gusset plates were later welded in the middle of the rectangular hollow sections.
The angle bars were later connected to the gusset plates using nuts and bolts. After the completion of the K type bracings, the side bracings were later installed.
Custom made gusset plates were first welded onto the octagonal steel frames and the bracings were later connected to them using nuts and bolts.
After the installment of the bracings, the steel support of the benches were installed onto the back girders of the steel base frame.
Steel L cleats were made and secured onto the octagonal steel columns. The Z purlins were later connected to the L cleats using nuts and bolts.
The Z purlins were installed one by one from the front to the back of the model.
Grey textured polycarbonate pieces were first measured.
7. Roof
Zinc sheets were shaped into the Z purlins according to the specified dimensions.
09.
Construction process 8. Timber Decking
The polycarbonate pieces were cut using circular saws.
Self-drilling screws were later used to connect the polycarbonate pieces to the Z purlins underneath.
The timber sill plates were first installed onto the steel base frame using self drilling screws, The timber joists were later installed onto the sill plates using steel L brackets.
Completed Model
The decking and stair step were secured into position using screws.
The concrete pad footings were later welded to the steel base frame, marking the model’s completion.
The timber decking pieces, such as stair step, decking and bench covering were placed onto the model before being installed.
10 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
10.
Construction Details
Steel base frame & columns
Plan View Of Steel Base Frame
Perspective View of Bus Stop
Overall view of steel skeletal frames and joints used for the bus shelter.
Octagonal Steel Columns
11.
Construction Details
Steel base frame
Plan View Of Steel Base Frame - The steel base frame forms the lowermost part of the bus shelter’s base. - If functions to allow the octagonal steel columns, benches and timber decking to be connected to it and to be connected to the concrete pad footings below, thus forming a unified skeletal frame construction.
Back
A
B
C
A
C
B
C
A
C
B
A
Front
Steel I-Beam Type A
Steel I-Beam Type B
Steel I-Beam Type C
Functions as girders and joins the concrete pad footings in a single row. Length : 1739.5MM
Functions as girders and connects the front and back concrete pad footings . Length : 1325MM
Functions as floor beams.
89MM
150MM
7.6MM
4MM
Length : 1407MM & 1480MM
76MM
121.8MM
127MM
7.6MM
4MM
76MM
96.6MM
127MM
7.6MM
4MM
96.6MM
12.
Construction Details
Steel base frame
Steel Base Frame Dimensions
Back 500MM
1250MM
1250MM
500MM
1325MM
1000MM
4000MM
Front
1470MM
507.835MM
1325MM
13.
Construction Details
Steel base frame
Plan View Of Steel Base Frame
Weld
1
A
2
3
C
4
E
Weld
Weld
Weld
B
D 5
6
7
Materials
F
8
Connections
Angle Bracket (A/B/C/D/E/F)
Hex Head Bolt & Nut
Height & Width : 40MM Thickness : 3MM
F : 16MM D : 11MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM
Length : 120MM
(A&B)
(C&D)
(E&F)
Angle Bracket (1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8) Height & Width : 40MM Thickness : 3MM
Length : 100MM
H
F D T L
C
(1,2, 3,4)
(5,6, 7,8)
14.
Construction Details
Steel base frame
Plan View Of Steel Base Frame
Connections (A)
(B) Steel Floor Beam To Girder Connection Top flange of the beam is coped to allow the top of the beam to be flush with the top of the grider.
Grider
Top and bottom flange as well as web are rigidly welded to the stee column.
Beam
Grider
Steel angle cleats are bolted to web of girder and beam. Steel angle cleat is bolted to the steel column.
Beam
Coped Beam Flange Grider
15.
Construction Details
concrete pad footing
Side Elevation Of Steel Frame Base
Steel I-Beam Type B
Front Back
Materiality
Connections
Pad Footing (Back)
Steel H Column
(A) Concrete Pad Footing Details
Width & Length : 500MM Height : 400MM
Anchor Bolt 150MM
Height Width
150MM
Length
6.5MM
4MM Thick Steel Base Plate 123.6MM
9.4MM
Pad Footing (Front)
Anchor Bolt Washer
Width & Length : 500MM Height : 200MM
W.Diameter : 30MM N.Diameter : 28.5MM W.Height : 6MM N.Height : 2.2MM Anchor Bolt Diameter : 19.05MM NH
Height Width
Length
20MM Thick Grout
WD WH
D
ND
(B) Steel Column And Foundation Connection
Bearing Plates are required to distributed the concentrated load imposed by the columns above so that the resultant unit bearing pressure does not exceed the allowable unit stress for the supporting material.
16.
Construction Details
octagonal steel frame 1255MM
564MM 144째
1168MM
534MM
141째
1290MM
1176MM
141째
3160MM 1158MM
135.5째
1253MM
1260MM
1670MM
1670MM
1193MM
Steel Base Frame
Side Elevation of Octagonal Steel Frame
Front Elevation Of Octagonal Steel Frame
6 steel I-beam segments were cut according to the specific dimensions and were later welded together at certain angles to form the desired octagonal shape.
17.
Construction Details
octagonal steel frame
Perspective View of Bus Stop
Materiality I-Beam
Hex Head Bolt & Nut F : 16MM D : 11MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM 76MM
127MM
4MM
H
F D
96.6MM
C
T L
7.6MM
Steel Angle Cleat
Steel Butt Plate
Height & Length & Width : 70MM Thickness : 6MM
Width & Length : 150MM
Thickness : 20MM
Perspective View Of Octagonal Steel Frame
Connections (A) External View
(B) Internal View
Steel Angle Cleat bolted to the steel column and butt plate below to increase the stability of the connection
Steel Butt Plate is used to transfer load due to change in nominal size of top and bottom columns
(C) Octagonal Steel Frame Connection Weld
Octagonal Steel Column
Weld
18.
Construction Details
Timber construction
Perspective View of Timber Floor Structure 1149MM
Structure Levels 3512MM
(C) Timber Deck
(A) Sill Plate (B) Timber Joist
19.
Construction Details
Sill plate Materiality
Perspective View of Sill Plate Structure
Sill Plate A
Sill Plate B
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 70MM Length : 965MM Thickness : 100MM
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 70MM Length : 1160MM Thickness : 100MM
Self Driling Screw D1 : 4MM D2 : 10MM Length : 63.5MM Head : 5MM H D1
Plan View of Sill Plate Structure
D2 L
Connections A
B
B
B
B
B
A
Timber sill plates are aligned and placed above steel I-beams of the bus shelter, function as the bottom level of timber floor construction to allow a flat, even surface for timber joist framing.
(A) Sill Plate
Self Driling Screw I-Beam Each sill plates are connected to the steel I-beams underneath using self-drilling screw to secure it.
20.
Construction Details
Timber Joist
Perspective View of Timber Joist Structure
Materiality Timber Joist
Self Tapping Screw
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 58MM Length : 1139MM Thickness : 20MM
D1 : 3MM D2 : 10MM Length : 38MM Head : 5MM
H
D1
D2
L
Steel L Bracket Head & Length : 50MM Thickness : 5MM Width : 70MM
Plan View of Timber Joist Structure
Connections Timber joists are distributed evenly above sill plates to support anticipated load of bus shelter. Each joists are laid with a span of 247mm and secured to sill plates using steel L bracket and wood screws.
(A)
(B) Timber Joist Self Tapping Screw
L Bracket
Self Tapping Screw
L Bracket Timber Joist
Sill Plate
21.
Construction Details
Timber Deck
Perspective View of Timber Deck Structure
Materiality Timber Planks
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 58MM Length : 1139MM Thickness : 20MM
Self Tapping Screw
D1 : 3MM D2 : 10MM Length : 38MM Head : 5MM
H
A
B
D1
D2
L
Stairs (A)
Stairs (B)
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 329MM Length : 3338MM Thickness : 20MM
Types of Timber : Merbau Wood Width : 68MM Length : 3470 Thickness : 20MM
Plan View of Timber Deck Structure
Connections (A) Timber Planks Self Tapping Screw
Timber Deck & Joist Connection Timber Joist
Timber planks are laid above joists to create a finished look for the timber decking. The planks cover up the floor structure of bus shelter to provide a flat and safe surface for passengers’ use. Each timber planks is secured to the floor joists underneath using wood screws.
22.
Construction Details
K Type Bracing Materials Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
Angle Bar
Length : 1750MM Thickness : 5MM
Length : 1185MM Thickness : 5MM
Width : 90MM
Height : 50MM
Width & Height : 50MM
Gusset Plate
Hex Head Bolt & Nut
Gusset plates are usually in square, rectangular, triangular or customised shapes.
F : 16MM D : 11MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM H
F D
C
T L
Connections (A)
Weld
Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
(B) Hex Head Bolts & Nuts
Angle Bar
Gusset Plate Gusset Plate Angle Bar
I-Beam Hex Head Bolts & Nuts
Weld Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
23.
Construction Details
Bracing Materials Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
Hex Head Bolt & Nut
Gusset Plate
Length : 1750MM Width : 90MM Height : 50MM Thickness : 5MM
F : 16MM D : 11MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM
Gusset plates are usually rectangular, triangular or shapes.
H
in square, customised
F D
C
T L
Connections (A)
(B)
(C) I-Beam
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
Gusset Plate
Gusset Plate
I-Beam
I-Beam
Weld Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
Weld
Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
Weld
Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
Gusset Plate
Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS)
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
Foundation I-Beam
24.
Construction Details
bench Materials Self Tapping Screw
Hex Head Bolt & Nut
D1 : 11MM D2 : 15MM Length : 30MM Head : 7MM
F : 16MM D : 11MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM
H
H
D1
F
D2
D
L
C
T L
Square Hollow Sections (SHS)
Angle Cleat
Length : 600MM Thickness : 5MM
Height : 30MM Width : 30MM
Width & Height : 50MM
Triangle Bracket Length & Height : 300MM Thickness : 5MM
Length : 45MM Thickness : 5MM
Timber Plank Width : 30MM
Types of Timber : Wood-Plastic Composite Length : 1650MM Width : 430MM Thickness : 50MM
25.
Construction Details
Bench Connections (A)
(B) Wood Planks
Triangle Bracket
Self Tapping Screw
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
Square Hollow Section (SHS)
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts Triangle Bracket Square Hollow Section (SHS)
I-Beam Angle Cleat
Angle Cleat
I-Beam
(C)
Wood Planks
Self Tapping Screw
Square Hollow Section (SHS)
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts Angle Cleat
I-Beam
Triangle Bracket
26.
Construction Details
Roof
Z Purlins To L Cheats
Materiality Z Purlin
Width : 106MM Height : 100MM
L Cheats
Width : 50MM Height : 80MM
Length : 3566MM Thickness : 2MM
Length : 75MM Thickness : 1.5MM
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts F : 16MM D : 11.2MM Length : 20MM Head : 6.58MM H
F D
C
T L
Connections (A)
(B) Z Purlin Z Purlin L Cheat Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
L Cheat
Hex Head Nuts & Bolts
27.
Construction Details
Roof
Z Purlins To Polycarbonate Roof
Materiality Solid & Textured Polycarbonate (A)
Solid & Textured Polycarbonate (B)
Solid & Textured Polycarbonate (C)
Solid & Textured Polycarbonate (D)
Width : 714MM Length : 124MM Thickness : 3MM
Width : 714MM Length : 270MM Thickness : 3MM
Width : 714MM Length : 267MM Thickness : 3MM
Width : 714MM Length : 262MM Thickness : 3MM
Connections (A)
C D
(B)
Customized Cap
Polycarbonate
Self Drilling Screw
B A
Z Purlin
Z Purlin Polycarbonate
I-Beam
28.
Construction Details
Roof
Polycarbonate Roof To Cap
Materiality Cap (A)
Cap (B)
Cap (C)
Self Driling Screw
Material : Customized Steel Length : 3566MM Width : 375MM Height : 10MM Thickness : 2MM
Material : Customized Steel Length : 3566MM Width : 375MM Height : 10MM Thickness : 2MM
Material : Customized Steel Length : 3566MM Width : 375MM Height : 10MM Thickness : 2MM
D1 : 4.5MM D2 : 5.5MM Length : 32MM Head : 5MM
H D1 D2 L
Connections (A)
(B) Customized Cap
C
B
Self-Drilling Screw
Self-Drilling Screw
Customized Cap
A Z Purlin Polycarbonate Polycarbonate
Z Purlin
I-Beam
29 ANALYSIS OF DESIGN
29.
Analysis of design
Analysis of design Rain The bus shelter is designed to protect its users from rain as rainwater will be channelled down from the roof to the ground by its octagonal roof shape. To ensure smooth rainwater drainage, the uppermost part of the roof was tilted at a 5° angle. Silicon sealant is also applied in between the polycarbonate roofings to prevent water from seeping into the structure.
5°
Sunlight Polycarbonate is a strong thermoplastic material that can withstand high temperature. The grey coloured polycarbonate pieces reduces direct sunlight penetration into the structure to reduce the effects of heat, yet at the same time creating an adequately lit interior environment.
Humidity And Corrosion Stainless steel and merbau wood is used as the material for the skeletal frame as well as flooring as they are able to withstand high humidity. To prevent corrosion due to excessive moisture of the ground, stainless steel is used as the base of the structure instead of timber.
Ventilation As the bus shelter is not designed to be fully enclosed, natural ventilation is able to occusr at all sides of the structure to provide maximum comfot to the users. Wind movement through the bus shelter is also important to reduce the humidity level within the structure.
30.
Analysis of design
Steel skeletal frame construction
Steel Skeletal Frame Construction - Steel skeletal frame is a structure which consists of vertical and horizontal members to support the floors, roof and walls of a building which are all attached to the frame. - The structure is used to resist vertical forces (gravity, rain, dead and live load) and lateral forces (wind & earthquakes).
Vertical Members
Horizontal Members Z Purlins
Bracing Octagonal Steel Column
Steel Column
- Columns which support horizontal members. - Support members that are under compressive force.
Beam
Grider
- Beams which support loads on longitudinal axis. - Designed to sustain loads perpendicular to their length.
31.
Analysis of design
Steel skeletal frame construction
Relationship Between Horizontal And Vertical Members Z Purlins help to secure and stabilize the octagonal frames’ positions.
Octagonal Steel Frames
Griders connect the octagonal steel frames with the front pad footings, allowing the loads they carry to be transferred to the front foundations.
Braced Frame Structures - Resist lateral forces by the axial action of bracing and columns. - Stabilizes the frame against earthquakes and strong winds.
Side Bracing
K Type Bracing
32.
Analysis of design
Steel skeletal frame construction
Members Of Bus Shelter Steel skeletal frame structures are made from many parts called members and joined together to make a whole structure.
Customized Cap
Z Purlins
K Type Bracing Octagonal Steel Column
Steel Column
Bracing
Bench Support Beam
Grider Concrete Pad Footing
33.
Loads & forces
Analysis of design
(A) Load System: One Way System Direction of the load transfer mechanism of the structure for channelling loads to the ground acts in one direction only.
Perspective View Of Bus Stop
Plan View Of Steel Base Frame
Concentrated Load
Concentrated Load
Concentrated Load
Concentrated Load
One Way Load Distribution
Concentrated Load
Co n
d
ce n
tra ted
Lo a
d
n ce n Co
d te a r t
a Lo
Concentrated Load
34.
Analysis of design
Loads & forces
(B) External Forces
Static Load (Dead Load)
Live Loads
- Forces caused by the weight of the structure’s permanent elements and components. - A constant permanent force acting on the structure during its entire lifespan.
- Result of non-permanent objects, such as people and precipitation, which imposes load on the structure. - The intensity of the loading will vary considerably at different times.
Precipitation
Human
35.
Analysis of design
Loads & forces
(B) External Forces
Wind Load - Wind forces act on both the main structure (steel column) and the individual cladding units (polycarbonate roof pieces). Suction (Uplift)
- The bus shelter is braced to resist the lateral load, thus preventing uplift and overturning of the structure. - The bus shelter is also anchored to the ground to prevent the whole building from being blown away. - The cladding has to be securely fixed to prevent the wind from ripping it away from the structure.
Lift
Suction Push
Stable Conditions Of Superstructure
Possible Result Of Wind Loads (A)
Polycarbonate Roofing
Bracing
(B)
Uplift Overturning
Concrete Pad Footing Foundations
36.
Analysis of design
Loads & forces
(C) Role Of Foundation
Reduction Of Load Intensity
Counterbalance Weights
Foundations distribute the loads of the superstructure to a larger area (ground).
Concrete pad footings at the front of the structure are twice as large than the back footings. The foundations function with the bracings to counteract the huge amount of dead load present at the back of the bus shelter.
Huge dead load imposed by permanent members
Bracing Superstructure
200MM High Footing
Substructure 400MM High Footing
37.
Analysis of design
materiality
Exploded Axonometric of Bus Stop
Stainless Steel
Polycarbonate
Characteristics Of Material Chosen : - High corrosion resistance. - Fire and heat resistant. - Aesthetic appearance provides a modern and attractive appearance. - Hygienic, easy to clean - Great strength, can bend without cracking.
Polycarbonate (PC) plastics are a naturally transparent amorphous thermoplastic. Polycarbonate polymers are used to produce a variety of materials and are particularly useful for products that requires impact resistance and/or transparency (e.g. in bullet-proof glass). Characteristics Of Material Chosen : - Lightweight - Durable - Energy Saving - Light Transmission - Price Comparison - Damage Resistance - Fire Resistance - Safety
Wood-Plastic Composite Merbau Wood
Wood plastic composite is a hybrid material composed of natural wood and plastic fiber.
Characteristics Of Material Chosen : - High durability of merbau wood allows it to endure harsh temperature and climates and other extreme conditions so that it can withstand outdoor uses.
Characteristics Of Material Chosen : - Easy to maintain and clean. - Ultra violet light resistant and its colour does not fade easily. - Highly durable and is not affected by rain and hot conditions. - Slip resistant - Weather resistant
- Merbau is naturally oily timber, which makes it resistant to splitting and cracking. - Merbau require maintenance. - Weather resistant
very
minimal
Concrete A concrete pad footing is the simplest and cost effective footing used for the vertical support and the transfer of building loads to the ground.
38.
Analysis of design
Accessibility and Users’ Experience
A stair step is specifically designed to provide a smooth transition from the exterior ground to the interior of the bus shelter. The tread of the stair is designed within the boundaries of the steel base frame to create a refined bus shelter design. The wide opening at the front provides easy access into and out of the structure for the users. With considerations of antopometry and human ergonomics, parts of the structure were designed to provide comfort for its users. The height of the stair riser, timber decking, bench as well as the interior space follows the basic measurement of human body parts, allowing them to be user friendly.
With Stairs
Without Stairs
Bench Height = 450MM
Bench Height = 450MM 310MM
150MM 160MM
39.
Load Test (A) Roof
(B) Timber Decking
(C) Bench
Test subject : 500ml water bottle (0.5 kg each) Unit : 6 water bottles Total load : 3 kg Representation : Live load imposed onto the roof Test result : Successful. The octagonal steel columns are able to withstand the loads imposed onto the structure.
Test subject : 500ml water bottle (0.5 kg each), 90mm x 210mm clay bricks (3.5kg each) Unit : 6 clay bricks and 6 water bottles Total load : 26 kg Representation : Live load imposed onto tne timber decking Test result : Successful. The timber decking is able to withstand the loads imposed onto the structure.
Test subject : 500ml water bottle (0.5 kg each), 90mm x 210mm clay bricks (3.5kg each) Unit : 4 clay bricks and 2 water bottles Total load : 15 kg Representation : Live load imposed onto the benches Test result : Successful. The benches are able to withstand the loads imposed onto the structure.
40.
Renderings
41
CONCLUSION/ In conclusion, the bus shelter is a steel skeletal frame construction designed to accommodate 5 or 6 users.Design considerations such as weather resistance, safety and stability were considered before the start of the design stagE to ensure that the bus shelter constructed is able to meet all user and structural requirements, thereby providing maximum comfort and assurance to the users. Being a steel skeletal frame construction, the bus shelter consists of multiple construction details that function to connect all members to form a unified whole. As such, careful research was conducted to include the most suitable connectors into the structure’s design. Loads and forces were also considered before and after the finalization of the structure’s design to ensure that the structure is able to withstand all dead and live loads. Having that said, all members and joints of the structure is important in their own way to ensure its stability and effectiveness, as the saying goes: A house divided against itself cannot stand.
42.
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