FIRE IN THE WHOLE The urgent need to talk about Firescapes.
The Bartlett School of Architecture, UCL MLA year 2, Landscape Architecture BARC0111 : Landscape, Ecology & Urban Environments Module tutor: Ana Abram Student: Alexandra Souvatzi Academic year: 2021/22 Submission date: 16/12/2021
Word Count: 2100
/i/
/ INDEX /
Index
p. ii
Introduction
p. 02
Climate change manifesto
p. 04
Chapter 02
p.05
Firescape diagram
p. 05
Chapter 02 written analysis
p. 06
Landfill restoration diagram
07
Qunli stormwater park diagram
08
Bilbao landslide control diagram
09
Debris-sheds speculative project diagram
p. 10
Chapter 03
p.11
Controlled burn management diagram
p. 11
Chapter 03 written analysis
p. 12
Aboriginal fire regime diagram
p. 13
Aboriginal landscape layout diagram
p. 15
Examples of prescribed burning worldwirde
p. 16
Conclusion
p. 18
Bibliography
p. iii
List of Figures
p. v
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Fig. 01 People fleeing the wildfire on a ferry boat at the island of Evia, Greece. The fire reached the sea before it was distinguished (August 2021). Source: ΚΑΘΑΡΟΣ ΟΥΡΑΝΟΣ (2021). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqv8XrpF1Hc&list=PLoTl-oAe0aLBY1 g91Fi9eH9YMWm8flte0&index=1 Almost 800 wildfires were reported in Italy
Fig. 02 In the first 2 weeks of August, the Mediterranean was hit by a severe and extensive heatwave. As a result, wildfires burnt extensive areas of the countries in the basin. Source: https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/map/#t:adv;d:2021-0801..2021-08-12;@16.9,41.7,6z / 01 /
10-12% forest cover burned in Greece, 100,000 hectares
170,000 hectares burned in Turkey’s coast
/ INTRODUCTION /
This summer, hell was unleashed in Greece, much like the rest of the Mediterranean. The most intense and extensive heatwave of the last decades hit the Mediterranean basin, with evening temperatures reaching 40°C (E.M.Y., 2021). Catastrophic wildfires were ignited within a week, contributing to suffocating environmental conditions [Fig. 01,02]. Residents and visitors were asked to either lock themselves at home to protect from hazardous air particles, or to evacuate whole areas by any means possible, surrendering their properties to the flames. Unprecedented weather conditions are a direct impact of the upcoming climate crisis. In the past 50 years, the climate zones have shifted notably towards the poles, with desertification processes expanding to temperate climates (Jones, 2018). Abrupt heatwaves and continuous aridity signify that the world has entered the era of catastrophic megafires (Struzik, 2020). This year it is my sheer intention to study fire and its environmental impacts, both benign and destructive. I seek to comprehend the complex relations between flammability and rebirth in fire-prone ecosystems, managing techniques for forest wildfires and multidisciplinary approaches to solving post-fire issues. In this study, the investigation begins with design solutions for a variety of related issues, such as fireproof landscaping, stormwater and erosion management and continues in focused research on controlled burning practices.
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Fig. 03 Amid the worst heatwave in three decades in Greece, almost a third of the island of Evia was surrendered to the flames. The lady’s reaction to fleeing her home was shared by international media. Courtecy: Konstantinos Tsakalidis Source: https://time.com/6123078/top-100-photos-2021/ / 03 /
/ CLIMATE CHANGE MANIFESTO /
Wildfire is the most pervasive disturbance an ecosystem can undergo (Fernandes et al, 2010). In recent years, uncontrolled forest fires surged all over the globe. Australia, Siberia, the Amazon, California and the Mediterranean have been confronted with repetitive fire fronts roaming through their lands, destroying both natural systems and human settlements. Scientific predictions on future climate conditions, point out with certainty that extreme fire weather will only increase its frequency in the years to come (IPCC, 2021). The consequences of uncontrolled wildfire in natural systems have various levels. Direct impact includes ecosystem destruction, as mature vegetation and decomposers are destroyed. At the same time, harmful gases are released in the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution and greenhouse emissions, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and more1 (IPCC, 2021). Furthermore, indirect consequences on post-fire landscapes are equally important. Soil erosion accelerates, stripping the land of its nutritious layers. The runoff material forms landslides and debris with destructive power (Schuler, 2021). In case of intense rainfall, sudden floods and powerful streams that flow until they reach a flat end. Finally, a wildfire outcome not to be omitted is political decisions on scarred landscapes. In a host of cases, such areas are prone to encroachment from investors or private interest. Agricultural fields enter the forest, cities expand towards natural habitat, or industrial benefits enter zones of preservation. However, as Pyne (2020) argues, Earth is a planet that regenerates with fire. In the past, humans evolved using controlled fires as a mean to organize landscape. In contemporary world, Aboriginal landscape burning practices are still a paradigm of such coexistence. Pyrodiversity is a term used to describe fire as a keystone process, that transforms the succession of flora in a fireprone landscape, resulting in habitat diversity and rebirth (Bird et al, 2016). Burning can both destroy and regenerate a landscape. Under such a threat, landscape architects can play a crucial role to limit its consequences and restore destroyed habitat. In this study, I seek to understand how landscape architecture can engage with wildfires both as a prevention tool and as a post-catastrophe restoration method.
1
SO2, NOX, CO, BC, OC, NH3, NMVOCs / 04 /
Zone 1 : Low & irrigated plants Fire-resistant paths Mulch & gravel Ember resistant Zone 2: The greenbelt Low succulents Occasional irrigation Zone 3: Native species Mediterranean species Low growth Little irrigation – grasses removal Burn quickly – Small flames Zone 4: Native vegetation Thinned mosaic pattern Remove overgrowth Prune every 3-5 years It will burn completely
Owen Dell & Associates LLC
100’
70’
50’
30’
5’
RIOS Associates
House
Zone 3: Wildland Do not modify Fire Dept. maintenance Zone 2: Native habitat Remove overgrowth Fire discontinuity Zone 1: Low density Mediterranean species Low ignition vegetation
Maintainance & Irrigation gradient
Fig. 04 Innovative fire landscapes aim to reduce fuel surrounding the property. In this diagram, there are demonstrated two different, yet similar, approaches to such gardens. The zoning is based on the guidance of California’s fire department. (Author’s own diagram) / 05 /
Zone 0: No vegetation No mulch Only soil & gravel Interior: Online guidance Fire-resistant material Fire-proofing house
/ CHAPTER 2 /
Fire-proofing Recently, a considerable amount of research has been done regarding post-fire landscapes, especially in California, a state severely hit by wildfires. Government organizations attempt to educate citizens on methods of fire-proofing their homes, especially the surrounding landscape. One striking example of such a case is ‘Firescape’, a garden open for visitors that demonstrates vegetation typologies and techniques able to slow fire down [Fig. 04]. Here, the landscape architects have recognized four distinct zones that act as a first line of defense (S.M. Growers, 2019) following the guidelines of California Law (ASLA, 2019). Each zone has different irrigation and maintenance needs, from highly curated close to the house, to basic trimming every few years towards the wild landscape. The design intention is to create a natural buffer (ASLA, 2019) by using plants that are either fire-resistant, meaning they regenerate after burn, or fire-retardant, which do not burn fast and create small flames (S.M. Growers, 2019). Another interesting approach is ‘Wildfire Resilience’. This study is more engaged with ignitions by embers carried by the wind. The zoning focuses on wildfire discontinuity by placing vegetation and walls to act as fuel break (RIOS, 2020). A stimulating addition is the creation of GIS maps and branding of a website, to share information with residents. Stormwater management Facing floods by intense rainfall is a matter that requires the coordination of multidisciplinary teams (DOMUS,2012). Such problems have been dealt with mostly by engineers, with costly infrastructure that directs water to bigger bodies, instead of holding it locally (Saunders, 2012). Landscape architects can influence change and coordinate teams to create infrastructures that hold, filter and reuse stormwater, instead of wasting it. At the outskirts of Barcelona, a landfill conversion project by BattleiRoig provided the opportunity to engage actively with water flows [Fig. 05]. Main intent was to separate landfill water from stormwater runoff, which should be slowed down to prevent erosion, and hold on site to assist for regeneration (Zeunert, 2017). The terraced design acted as drainage system, directing rainwater towards allocated reservoirs on the margins of the site. Then, it served for irrigation during dry months (BATTLEIROIG, 2021). Simultaneously, contaminated water was stored in underground pools and treated before its release (Zeunert, 2017). Similarly, Turenscape engaged with stormwater management within the strict boundaries of urban development, in Qunli, China [Fig. 06]. They introduced ‘Green Sponges’; earthworks of holes and mounds to collect, clean and store water, where it will slowly infiltrate into the aquifer (Saunders, 2012). A pipe on the perimeter distributes urban runoff evenly in the landscape, then slopes and gravity direct it in the wetlands. Landslides and debris In a host of cases, landslides occur within the cities with devastating consequences in the build environment. Especially towards the suburbs, it’s not uncommon that neighborhoods are constructed on mountain-hills or embankments, creating physical boundaries in the urban context. Such is the case in Bilbao, where IDOM architects were commissioned to solve a problematic eroding slope of 18 m [Fig. 07]. Via a triangular, playful retaining wall, they succeeded in unifying the space, enhance accessibility and eliminate the social barrier of the cliff (ArchDaily,2008). Even though their design was an undeniable success, it is worth questioning; are concrete modules sufficient in managing big-scale mountain slides? Or a more sustainable solution can be found? In a speculative approach upon post-fire landslides, Kochanowski (2020) proposes a different urban planning, the debris-shed [Fig. 08]. As debris flows are historically repetitive and depend on terrain steepness, linear interventions can be placed strategically within the cities to absorb such falls of matter. Starting on the mountain, mircobasins on burnt hillsides could capture falling debris before they start an unstoppable chain reaction. Following, slopes could be converted into terraced ‘bladders’ that collect and hold stormwater. Further down and within the city, streets can be transformed into eco-corridors that allow natural flows and reinforce wildlife habitat (the Wild, 2020).
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A channel runs on the perimeter of the site, which collects stormwater and distributes it equally within it. The water is guided to ponds where is used for irrigation during dry months (Zeunert, 2017).
The proposal adapts to the slopes of the site by creating a terraced plot system. This solution holds water on site and prevents erosion (BATTLEIROIG, 2021).
Path from compacted soil
Uncompressed soil
Infrastructure containing layer
Filtering fabric
Filling with stabilizing soil
Filtering material
Compacted waste layers
Geotextile
Pre-existing landfill
Compacted clay
Fig. 05 For this project, the separation of stormwater and landfill water was essential. Thus, there is a careful study of water runoff slopes, storage, and reuse. Landfill is sealed with waterproof sheets and its liquids are collected by a draining pipe, guiding them to a treatment unit. (Author’s own diagram) / 07 /
Draining gravel
City stormwater runoff A perimetrical pipe collects stormwater and distribtes it equally within the park
Dense urban fabric
Road
Cleansing ponds
Paving stones Aggregate layer Compacted soil Wooden urban firniture Native species planting Planting soil Remediating native wetland species Normal water level Wooden piles Filtering ponds in different cleansing stasges Wetland bottom Sediment layers Subsoil
Fig. 06 Turenscape created an ‘ecological infrastructure’; as Kongjian Yu points out, nature has the ability to clean and regulate flows if left alone (Ethel, 2012). The design creates a necklace of earthworks towards the city to direct stormwater, while the inner part sees no intervention. (Author’s own diagram) / 08 /
Steel support beam compacted on the cliff
Wooden finish on bench
Reinforced concrete module with steel frame
Conrete terrace
Smooth concrete suface
Draining channel
Aggregate
Aggregate
Base protection course
Draining pipe
Compacted soil
1
1 3
2 3
5 4 5
4 1
4
1 2 3 4 5
Grass Planting soil
Stone paved path Concrete terrace Grass coverage Exposed bedrock Conctrete module
Structure of modules Exposed existing rock
5
Packted support Cast concrete Bedrock Concrete terrace for structural support Draining channel 2 1
Fig. 07 Instead of casting the whole cliff with concrete, the architects designed a playful landscape that both protects from landslides and returns the landscape to public realm. Traces of the existing rock are revealed in places. (Author’s own diagram) / 09 /
Uncontrolled wildfires expand fast when fuel load is abundant.
Fire changes the soil’s chemistry. In combination with dead roots, it’s prone to erosion.
There is no organic material to hold the water of rainstorms, thus it follows the landscape downhill.
Debris accelerate as they fall, carrying away material as they flow downhill.
Current condition of fire cycle and outcomes towards the city Prescribed burn patches clear out the fuel and limit wildfires
The Debris-Sheds are small parks on crucial locations that catch the debris before they accelerate.
Slope-Sponges collect runoff water and hold it as a water supply for irrigation needs.
Speculative proposal for fire adaptation of the city and landscape Debris-Sheds
Slope Spoonges
Linear Parks
Fig. 08 In this study, Kochanowski expands the idea of eco-corridors to cover the whole fire-prone landscape surrounding the city. He proposes a holistic approach to deal with wildfires and their consequences. Images: Kochanowaski G. source : https://www.the-wild.org (Author’s own diagram) / 10 /
Linear parks within the city allow flows to pass through, while providing open space.
Removing fire from a fire-prone landscape
When fire is removed, the forest starts to overgrow. Tree density increases, while shrubs and wildgrasses fill the underfloor.
In the case of a wildfire, the abundance of fuel helps the flames expand fast and reach the tree canopies.
The result is a complete distruction of the landscape. Decomposers die together with flora and fauna. The soil changes its chemical consistency.
Grazing animals can assist to control the overgrowing grasses. However, it should be done with care, otherwise they could destroy the habitat.
Tree thining and bush trimming is an efficient way to diminish the fuel within the forest. It should be done in accordance with the local forestry organization.
Controlled burning efficiently reduces the fuel as well as ensures firebreaks in the occasion of wildfire.
The manged landscape gains the benefits of nutrient breakdown caused by small scale fire. Species have space to grow and seed.
Managing a fire-prone landscape
Fig. 09 It is fundamental that the landscape receives the correct amount of fire (Pyne, 2020). Small, controlled burns, in combination with manual management can protect wild forests from burning to the ground. (Author’s own diagram) / 11 /
/ CHAPTER 3 / Fire necessity More often than not, fire is considered to be only a disaster (Fernandes et al, 2010). However, Pyne (2020) argues that preventing fire-prone vegetation from burning is equally catastrophic to lighting up other type of biomes [Fig. 09]. Certain habitats need fire to initiate a chain reaction of ecological succession, in order to regenerate and enhance biodiversity. Contemporary research reveals such biological processes that are yet to be explored, like the emergence of post-fire fungi as the first line of rebirth (Shechet, 2021). The absence of controlled burning, leaves space for fuel to build up in forests, assisting intense and aggressive wildfires to occur. Regardless of the extensive wildfire cases of the last decade, Western thought is hard to convince that landscapes can be shaped by fire to their benefit (Pyne, 2019). In order to understand such management, one can turn to indigenous thinking, especially towards the fire regimes of aboriginal tribes in Australia. Landscape mosaics The population of Matu, are often described as ecosystem engineers or foundational facilitators (Bird et al, 2016). Their influence on their habitat is fundamental and essential for symbiosis. Each year they burn intentionally around 30,000 hectares of their region, lighting up a new spot almost daily. As Pyne (2019, p.52) describes, their attitude is ‘burn early, burn light, burn often’. Based on seasonal changes, different areas dry up, so different landscapes are burned. Their flames are low, slow advancing, directed. With fire they build corridors, where they move, hunt and camp. The result is a collage of landscapes of diverse successional stages, each inviting other animals based on their vegetation growth (Bird et al, 2016). As Rhys puts it, Matu are ‘firestick farming’ (qtd. in Pyne, 2019, p.51). This process has several stages (Bird et al, 2016). First, they burn the dense, overgrown vegetation, in order to be able to see small animals, such as lizards, below and hunt them efficiently. A few months after, the freshly grown grasses invite grazing animals to the landscape, thus they eat, get fat and then are hunted2. The next 1-4 years, fruiting shrubs and legumes grow, feeding both humans and animals. Lastly, within a decade, the patch has grown wild grasses that begin to take over the landscape. At this point, it should be burnt again, otherwise it will become overgrown and will not serve the purposes of the tribe anymore [Fig. 10]. An aboriginal landscape increases and sustains biodiversity due to its mix of succession stages [Fig. 11]. The designed habitats interact with each other, creating bonds necessary for the food chain. At the same time, the spread of wildfires in the landscape is restrained, as already burnt corridors cut through the fields and there is no fuel to accelerate the flames. Furthermore, this mosaic landscape has a political notion as well. As Pyne (2019, p.51) points out, the visual impact of human activity implied the ‘rights and duties of biotic citizenship’. This means that when a tribe changes the landscape, they are also responsible to maintain or enhance its symbiotic relations. It is a give and take agreement. Could this become a paradigm for preservation today? Controlled burning As wildfires threaten preserved natural areas, scientists and engineers try to find new ways to avoid their devastating outcomes. Fire-prone landscapes have evolved with it, and they need it to regenerate. When fire is restricted, they overgrow and burn aggressively. California, a state severely hit by such events, decided to include aboriginal practices to their fire prevention policies (Schuler, 2021). Prescribed burning has a few parameters to be considered. These are ignition, spread and using fire to distinguish fire (Fernandes et al, 2010). Thinning vegetation is also important to avoid high flames that could reach tree canopies. Although, the most important decision is timing. Weather conditions should be ideal; no wind, medium humidity and temperature (Christensen, 2005). The need for such considerations has given space to fire ecologists to emerge (Christensen, 2005). Imitating aboriginal practices is not an easy task; accumulated fuel and extreme weather conditions raise the need for careful management. However, national parks have begun to include prescribed burns to their schemes, such as Yellowstone in USA and Baniff in Canada, acting as paradigms for fire landscape studies [Fig. 12].
Interestingly a similar approach was followed by indigenous people at the other side of the globe, in Latin America (Pyne, 2019). 2
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Stage 1 - the ‘Nyurnma’
Stage 2 - the ‘
Burnt area
Nutrients released from burnt material
Tribes burn these landscapes so they can hunt lizzards below the bush
Decomposers regenerate the soil
Few months later
Stage 4 - the ‘Manguu’
Big mammal types feed on the landscape and are hunted
Shrubs and grasses start to become dense and overgrown
St a rt
Over
Roots reach the deeper soil layers
Fig. 10 Aboriginal tribes recognize 5 stages within their managed landscapes (Bird et all, 2016). They intend to have patches of different growth within a region, as it is a valid indicator of biodiversity and thus, food resources. (Author’s own diagram) / 13 /
‘Waru - waru’
Stage 3 - the ‘Nyukura’ Fruting shrubs Small grazing animals begin to apear
Larger grazing mammals appear. They feed and the tribe hunts them
Waru is the fresh sprouts of grasses
Herbs and seed grasses
Root networks begin to form on topsoil
Roots expand on the topsoil
1-4 years later
5-10 years later
Stage 5 - the ‘Kunarka’ The landscape becomes dense and overgrown. Trees and shribs outcompete grasses Large mammals can’t feed on this landscape. Smaller ones and lizards can hide efficiently in the underfloor Roots reach the bedrock
Leave landscape unburnt
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Nyurnma
Waru - waru
Natural
Nyukura
Kunarka
Manguu
Fig. 11 The patches are recognizable in the landscape. Fire corridors are also used for circulation purposes as well as to isolate certain habitats that are not well adjusted to fire (Pyne, 2019). Aboriginal philosophy on landscapes is depicted also in their characteristic paintings. Image source: (Bird et al, 2016, p. 70) (Author’s own diagram) / 15 /
Lincoln Marsh USA
Portugal, France, Spain
Parks & Wildlife Australia
Baniff Canada
Yellowstone USA
Fig. 12 Forest managing organizations worldwide reproduce aboriginal fire practices to their reservation areas. Such practices are done with scientific care and the results are being studied carefully. (Author’s own diagram) / 16 /
Fig. 13 A post-wildfire pine forest in Greece. The wind directed the flames through it, but their relatively low intensity did not burn the trees to the ground. In a way, fire thinned the forest and helped trees to obtain more space and reach the sunlight. (Author’s own archive, 2018) / 17 /
/ CONCLUSION /
The implemented research made me realize that fire should not be treated as an enemy in all circumstances [Fig. 13]. Rather, it is a natural phenomenon that cannot be excluded from Earth processes. Landscape architects tend to design for completely removing fire from their projects or preservation proposals. However, in many cases it can be used as means for regeneration. Furthermore, when designing for urban areas surrounded by fire-prone landscapes, it is essential to take into consideration the directions of bigscale flows. Where will stormwater and debris flow? How could their force be decreased or directed? In case of wildfire, where will residents gather in order to be safe? How could their properties be protected through design gestures? Ideas discussed in this study may seem unimaginable to be realized, however they are built up from the parameters that landscape architects are engaging with. In aboriginal thought, ‘country must be used and appropriately burned if life is to continue’ (qtd. in Bird et al, 2016). In the age of megafires, it is essential to create landscapes that have fire as an ally, not as an enemy.
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/ BIBLIOGRAPHY /
ARTICLES Ethel Baraona Pohl (2012). ‘Nature as Infrastructure’, DOMUS, (19 January). Available at: https://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/2012/01/19/nature-as-infrastructure.html (Accessed: 4 December 2021) Bird W. Douglas, Bird B. Rebecca, Codding F Brian, Taylor Nyalangka (2016). ‘A Landscape Architecture of Fire. Cultural Emergence and Ecological Pyrodiversity in Australia’s Western Desert’, Current Anthropology, (Volume 57, Supplement 13). Available at: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/685763 (Accessed: 1 December 2021) Christensen L. Norman (2005). ‘Fire in the Parks: A case study for Change Management’, Fire management, (Volume 22, 4). Available at: http://www.georgewright.org/224christensen1.pdf (Accessed: 30 November 2021) Collected work (2017). ‘Restoration of the Vall d’en Joan Deposit, El Garraf’, Arquitectura Viva, 207: Monografias, pp.64-68. Available at: https://arquitecturaviva.com/works/restauracion-del-vertedero-de-la-vall-den-joan-4 (Accessed: 4 December 2021) Fernandes M. Paulo, Rego C. Francisco, Rigolt Eric (2010). ‘The FIRE PARADOX project: Towards science-based fire management in Europe’, Forest Ecology and Management, (14 December). Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112710007279 (Accessed: 25 November 2021) Shechet Ellie (2021). ‘This Fire-Loving Fungus Eats Charcoal, if It Must’, The New York Times, (28 November). Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/28/science/fungus-wildfire-charcoal.html (Accessed: 5 December 2021) Struzik Ed (2020). ‘The Age of Megafires: The World Hits a Climate Tipping Point’, Yale Environment 360, (17 September). Available at: https://e360.yale.edu/features/the-age-of-megafires-the-world-hits-a-climate-tipping-point (Accessed: 29 November 2021) Pyne J. Stephen (2020). ‘Our Burning Planet: Why we must Learn to Live with Fire’, Yale Environment 360, (20 October). Available at: https://e360.yale.edu/features/our-burning-planet-why-we-must-learn-to-live-with-fire (Accessed: 29 November 2021) Schuler A. Timothy (2021). ‘Fire at the Doorstep’, Landscape Architecture Magazine, (14 January). Available at: https://landscapearchitecturemagazine.org/2021/01/14/fire-at-the-doorstep/ (Accessed: 1 December 2021) ArchDaily (2008). ‘Galindez Slope and Pau Casals Square / ACXT’, ArchDaiy, (17 November). Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/9093/galindez-slope-and-pau-casals-square-acxt (Accessed: 4 December 2021) BOOKS Pyne J. Stephen (2019). ‘Aboriginal ire: Controlling the Spark’ in Pyne, Fire: A brief history. Seattle: University of Washington Press Zeunert Joshua (2017). Landscape Architecture and Environmental Sustainability. NY: Bloomsbury Visual Arts Zimmermann Astrid (ed.) (2011). Constructing Landscape. Materials, Techniques, Structural Components. Birkhäuser: Basel
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Saunders William (ed.) (2012). Designed Ecologies. The Landscape Architecture of Kongjian Yu. Birkhäuser: Basel ORGANISATIONS ASLA (2019). ‘Firescape Demonstration Garden’. Available at: https://climate.asla.org/FirescapeDemonstrationGarden.html (Accessed: 30 November 2021) Ε.Μ.Υ. (2021). ‘SIGNIFICANT WEATHER and CLIMATIC EVENTS in GREECE’. Available at: http://www.emy.gr/emy/el/pdf/heatwave_2021.pdf (Accessed: 30 November 2021) Lincoln March Natural Area (2021). ‘Conservation & Prescribed Burns’. Available at: https://lincolnmarsh.org/conservation/ (Accessed: 30 November 2021) The Wild (2020). ‘Wild. Research Lab’ by Greg Kochanowski. Available at: https://www.the-wild.org (Accessed: 4 December 2021) REPORTS IPCC (2021). Climate Change 2021. The Physical Science Basis. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/download/ (Accessed: 20 October 2021) VIDEOS ΚΑΘΑΡΟΣ ΟΥΡΑΝΟΣ (2021). ‘Συγκλονιστικό βίντεο εκκένωσης της Λίμνης Ευβοίας μέσα απο το φερι μποτ’. [Online video]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqv8XrpF1Hc&list=PLoTl-oAe0aLBY1g91Fi9eH9YMWm8flte0&index=1 (Accessed: 30 November 2021) WEBSITES BATTLEIROIG (2021). ‘Landscape restoration of the controlled waste landfill of the Vall de Joan, in the Garraf Natural Park. The progressive recovery of life in the old landfill, configuring a new agricultural landscape through topography, hydrology and vegetation.’ Available at: https://www.batlleiroig.com/en/projectes/diposit-del-garraf/ (Accessed: 4 December 2021) RIOS (2020). ‘Wildfire Resilience for Home and Landscape’. Available at: https://www.rios.com/projects/sustainable-defensible-space/ (Accessed: 1 December 2021) San Marcos Growers (2019). ‘Firescape Garden’. Available at: https://www.smgrowers.com/resources/firescape.asp (Accessed: 30 November 2021) TURENSCAPE (2017). ‘Qunli Stormwater Park: A Green Sponge For A Water-Resilient City’. Available at: https://www.turenscape.com/en/project/detail/4646.html (Accessed: 4 December 2021)
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/ LIST OF FIGURES /
Fig. 01 People fleeing the wildfire on a ferry boat at the island of Evia, Greece. The fire reached the sea before it was distinguished. Source: ΚΑΘΑΡΟΣ ΟΥΡΑΝΟΣ (2021). ‘Συγκλονιστικό βίντεο εκκένωσης της Λίμνης Ευβοίας μέσα απο το φερι μποτ’. [Online video]. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqv8XrpF1Hc&list=PLoTl-oAe 0aLBY1g91Fi9eH9YMWm8flte0&index=1 (Accessed: 30 November 2021) Fig. 02 In the first 2 weeks of August, the Mediterranean was hit by a severe and extensive heatwave. As a result, wildfires burnt extensive areas of the countries in the basin. Source: NASA (2021). ‘Fire Information for Rescue Management System’. Available at: https://firms.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/map/#t:adv;d:2021-08-01..2021-08(Accessed: 30 November 2021) Fig. 03 Amid the worst heatwave in three decades in Greece, almost a third of the island of Evia was surrendered to the flames. The lady’s reaction to fleeing her home was shared by international media. Courtecy: Konstantinos Tsakalidis Source: Time Photo Department (2021). ‘TIME’s top 100 Photos of 2021’, TIME, (24 November). Available at: https://time.com/6123078/top-100-photos-2021/ (Accessed: 30 November 2021) Fig. 04 Innovative fire landscapes aim to reduce fuel surrounding the property. In this diagram, there are demonstrated two different, yet similar, approaches to such gardens. The zoning is based on the guidance of California’s fire department. Author’s own diagram (2021) Fig. 05 For this project the separation of stormwater and landfill water was essential. Thus, there is a careful study of water runoff slopes, storage, and reuse. Landfill is sealed with waterproof sheets and its liquids are collected by a draining pipe, guiding them to a treatment unit. Author’s own diagram (2021) Base Image Source: Collected work (2017). ‘Restoration of the Vall d’en Joan Deposit, El Garraf’, Arquitectura Viva, 207: Monografias, pp.64-68. Available at: https://arquitecturaviva.com/works/restauracion-del-vertedero-de-la-vall-den-joan-4 (Accessed: 4 December 2021) Fig. 06 Turenscape created an ‘ecological infrastructure’; as Kongjian Yu points out, nature has the ability to clean and regulate flows if left alone (Ethel, 2012). The design creates a necklace of earthworks towards the city to direct stormwater, while the inner part sees no intervention. Author’s own diagram (2021) Information source: Saunders William (ed.) (2012). Designed Ecologies. The Landscape Architecture of Kongjian Yu. Birkhäuser: Basel Fig. 07 Instead of casting the whole cliff with concrete, the architects designed a playful landscape that both protects from landslides and returns the landscape to public realm. Traces of the existing rock are revealed in places. Author’s own diagram (2021)
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Information source: ArchDaily (2008). ‘Galindez Slope and Pau Casals Square / ACXT, ArchDaiy, (17 November). Available at: https://www.archdaily.com/9093/galindez-slope-and-pau-casals-square-acxt (Accessed: 4 December 2021) Fig.08 In this study, Kochanowski expands the idea of eco-corridors to cover the whole fire-prone landscape surrounding the city. He proposes a holistic approach to deal with wildfires and their consequences. Author’s own diagram (2021) Image source: The Wild (2020). ‘Wild. Research Lab’ by Greg Kochanowski. Available at: https://www.the-wild.org (Accessed: 4 December 2021) Fig. 09 It is fundamental that the landscape receives the correct amount of fire (Pyne, 2020). Small, controlled burns, in combination with manual management can protect wild forests from burning to the ground. Author’s own diagram (2021) Fig. 10 Aboriginal tribes recognize 5 stages within their managed landscapes (Bird et all, 2016). They intend to have patches of different growth within a region, as it is a valid indicator of biodiversity and thus, food resources. Author’s own diagram (2021) Fig. 11 The patches are recognizable in the landscape. Fire corridors are also used for circulation purposes as well as to isolate certain habitats that are not well adjusted to fire (Pyne, 2019). Aboriginal philosophy on landscapes is depicted also in their characteristic paintings. Author’s own diagram (2021) Image source: Bird W. Douglas, Bird B. Rebecca, Codding F Brian, Taylor Nyalangka (2016). ‘A Landscape Architecture of Fire. Cultural Emergence and Ecological Pyrodiversity in Australia’s Western Desert’, Current Anthropology, (Volume 57, Supplement 13). Available at: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/685763 (Accessed: 1 December 2021) Fig. 12 Forest managing organizations worldwide reproduce aboriginal fire practices to their reservation areas. Such practices are done with scientific care and the results are being studied carefully. Author’s own diagram (2021) Fig. 13 A post-wildfire pine forest in Greece. The wind directed the flames through it, but the relatively low intensity did not burn the trees to the ground. In a way, fire thinned the forest and helped trees to obtain more space and reach the sunlight. Author’s own archive (2018)
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