Pilot Thesis: The Accommodating City

The Accommodating City:

Enabling Environments for the Ageing

by Stefanie Kuhn University of Cambridge

/

Kings College

/

22. April. 14

/

Essay 4. Pilot Study

/

5000 words

An essay submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the MPhil in Architecture and Urban Design examination 2013-2015

1

The Accommodating City:

Enabling Environments for the Ageing

by Stefanie Kuhn University of Cambridge

/

Kings College

/

22. April. 14

/

Essay 4. Pilot Study

/

5000 words

An essay submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the MPhil in Architecture and Urban Design examination 2013-2015

3

Preface So, just what is wrong with city life? Why are more and more ‘older’ people fleeing the urban environment with its convenience of 24-hour shopping, entertainment on tap and instant company when it’s needed? Could it be that the reality is somewhat different to the apparent?

In only 15 years’ time, it is projected that some inner London boroughs will have seen their population make-up fall to comprise less than 10% of retired persons, compared with nearly 40% in some of the ‘leafier’ country and coastal towns.

This Paper focuses on the UK position, where counter-urbanisation poses a real challenge to how society caters for the polarization of the residency of age groups – young and old - to and from the cities and towns.

It addresses the functionality of infrastructures, with special focus on the built environment, and how both adaptation of the existing and visualization of the optimal new-build design can contribute to reinforce the achievement of positive Wellbeing.

It will look at whether a multi-generational community support network necessary to transcend the limiting impact of social separation can ever be realized within an environment where both social and physical barriers still persist. Importantly, it will seek to examine the concept of ‘Place’ as being not merely a ‘setting’, but an essential element that contributes to a person’s quality of life - and thus their Wellbeing.

It is argued by a few that it may be acceptable for a person’s Primary Group to consist of only age- related peers, but most observers advocate the benefits to be gained from age-integrated relationships, and thus, environments.

Ultimately, the Paper aims to arrive at the definition of a Catalogue of design principles, which with respect to barriers within the city environment could be used to assitively reduce, if not eliminate them.

The inevitable change in society’s age balance requires an innovative approach from planners, architects and society’s builders alike. Well-considered guidelines need to be adopted and embraced by those in a position to turn these into reality. By so doing, the ‘architecturally disabled’ will be supported towards making the continuing positive contribution of which they are eminently capable, even in their advanced years.

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Acknowledgements Firstly, a huge thank you to all the residents of various cities who have generously given their time to talk to me about this topic and their lives in general. Thank you especially to Christine McDonald at COPE (Cambridgeshire Older People’s Enterprise) for publishing my research interests in their newsletter to establish new connections.

In Cambridge I’d like to thank and acknowledge the encouragement and assistance of my Tutors, Ingrid Schroder and Alex Warnock-Smith, along with my Supervisor, Alan Short.

Fig 1

7

Lastly I’d like to thank my family, the true epitome of why a ‘primary group’ is essential. Without your love, support and encouragement I would be lost.

Defining Standards “Definition: Old: of or relating to advanced years or a long life” (Collins English Dictionary, 2014)

What is Old? “The ageing process is of course a biological reality which has its own dynamic, largely beyond human control. However, it is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age.

In the developed world, chronological time plays a paramount role. The age of 60 or 65, roughly equivalent to retirement ages in most developed countries is (identified by many) to be the beginning of old age.” (Gorman, 2000) Therefore, for the purpose of this thesis, with its focus on the Western world, primarily The United Kingdom, the pensionable age limit of 60 will be used to provide a common benchmark.

It is nevertheless, essential to recognise that “although there are commonly used definitions of old age, there is no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old. The common use of a calendar age to mark the threshold of old age assumes equivalence with biological age, yet at the same time, it is generally accepted that these two are not necessarily synonymous.” (WHO, 2013. p. ; Laws, 1997) A fact often reflected in the self-definition of old age given by some older people, which suggests they themselves believe ‘old’ is not so much associated with a birth date as it is related to ones health status.

(Freund, 1997).

To avoid this perhaps inappropriate ‘bracketing’, this paper will separate the term ‘Old age’ into three different subgroups in an attempt to better reflect and cater for individuals rather than a collective, and reflect their abledness rather than their age. I am not advocating that any of the people in these categories deserve or require any less ‘independence’ in regards to a full life, but am just acknowledging that individuals require a vary level of support to maintain an equal level of dependence.

These three groups are as follows: The Independent Older Active participation in the fabric of the city using resources present.

The Inter-dependent Older Less mobile, but an active independence still highly desired and achieved through an enabling environment..

The Dependent Older Minimal mobility and require a more intensive level of personal care however a decent level of stimulation is still vital..

Fig 2

9

When talking about the older population there exist three sub-population groups commonly referred to as the “young old” (aged 65-74), the “old” (74-84) and the “old-old” ( 84 +) (.Pirkl, J, 2009) I would argue that once more this is inaccurate in its portrayal, as it is

age-defining rather that ability-defining.

Introduction: Demographic Shifts

13

Population Ageing Age-selective Migration Cause & Effect Questioning The Current Wellbeing The Indices The AAAAI

Enabling Environments 29 The Ageing Process The Power of Place Addressing The Marginalised Turning Barriers into Enablers Participation In Society 79 Human Needs Inclusion = Participation = Connections The Informal The Formal Independent Living 89

ontents:

Conclusion: Re-laying the Foundations

101

Realigning the Marginalised Appendix 105 Bibliography & Figure References

133

11

C

One Size Does NOT Fit All Architecturally Disabled Labels and Type-casts

Introduction: Demographic Shifts

Population Ageing Age-selective Migration Cause & Effect Questioning The Current Wellbeing ‘Data Revolution’ The AAAAI 13

Percentage of the total population aged 60 years or over Fig 3. United Nations. (2012) 2050

Demographic Shifts 15

2012

Percentage of Total Population 65 and over

%

%

No. of Map Areas

2023 No. of Map Areas

35.6 to 43.1

0

35.6 to 43.1

1

28.1 to 35.5

11

28.1 to 35.5

48

20.7 to 28

120

20.7 to 28

204

13.1 to 20.6

267

13.1 to 20.6

152

5.6 to 13

36

5.6 to 13

29

2033 Percentage of Total Population 65 and over %

No. of Map Areas 35.6 to 43.1

15

28.1 to 35.5

122

20.7 to 28

188

13.1 to 20.6

65

5.6 to 13

18

The maps (Fig. 4) illustrate the projected population ageing and the locations likely to see the largest growth. Through this we are also able to identify ‘hotspots’ for counterurbanisation.

Demographic Shifts 17

2013 Percentage of Total Population 65 and over

London

Birmingham

Sheffield

Manchester 200m

UK Mean Value of People Aged 65+ Years 2013 - 17.6% average 2033 - 22.9% average (Projected) City

Population

2013

2033

London

7,200,000

9.8%

11.8%

Birmingham

992,000

13.1%

14.7%

Leeds

720,000

14.3%

16%

Sheffield

512,000

15.8%

17.9%

Manchester

420,000

10%

11.2%

19

Leeds

(Fig. 5)

“It becomes a question of whether we will manage change, or whether change will manage us.”

Year

Aged 65+

Aged 15 - 64

(Novelli, 2003, cited in Audit Commission, 2004. p. 2)

1950 The world, is about to face a new, unprecedented, challenge.

Population Ageing

2012

By 2050, the number of people aged 60 and over will have doubled since 2012, and will account for 22% of the world’s population (Fig. 3). For the first time in recorded history the number of people aged 65 or older globally will outnumber children under the age of 14 (WHO, 2011). Driven by increased life expectancy, falling fertility rates and medical advances, this shift is expected to continue at a considerable rate, with less-developed countries experiencing the most dramatic increase over a short space of time (United Nations, 2012).

2050

As Figure 5 illustrates, between 1950 and 2012 the old-age support ratio (i.e. the relationship between the number of those in work or capable of it, and those who are assumed to have reached the end of their ‘full-time’ working life) in developed countries fell by one third from 12 working-age (15 to 64) people for each older person (65+) to a ration of 8:1. By 2050 the ratio is projected to decrease by a further 50% to only 4:1 (United Nations, 2012).

cities (UNFPA, 2007). The United Kingdom (UK) is no exception. Since the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century Great Britain has grown to become an Urban society, with 90% of it’s population in 2014 currently living in towns or cities (Brown, 2009).

Age-selective Migration In contrast to much of the world, however, the UK is now increasingly experiencing age-selective counter-urbanisation (Fielding, 2012). As the younger population continue to migrate to cities, the older are instead favouring counter-urbanisation and retreating to ‘retirement hotspots’ in rural areas (Fig 4). This imbalance is resulting in regional disparities where population figures in city areas like Hackney, London are expected to consist of only 10% of retirees by 2030, in contrast to rural places like Christchurch, Dorset at just short of 40% (ONS, 2011).

Cause and Effect These changes will challenge the functionality and relevance of the UK’s national infrastructures.

Population Ageing is not taking place in isolation, however. Other broad social trends are changing, too.

Economies are becoming increasingly globalised and technology is evolving rapidly. People are becoming less likely to marry, are having fewer children, and are preferring to live alone (WHO, 2011).

Not only will population ageing increasingly place strain upon labour markets and social security systems (pensions funding and public health provision) (NIA, 2007), but perhaps more importantly, when combined with counter-urbanisation and consequently declining support from families, it will influence the dynamic of how we live our lives. This in turn can directly affect one’s Wellbeing,

Urbanisation too, is playing a key role, with over 50% of the world’s population now living in towns and

“Wellbeing is an emotional experience which does not require intact cognition” (Ericsson, 2012, p. 3). Every

Fig 6 (Kuhn, 2014) Graphic showing the declining Old-age Support Ratio

Demographic Shifts 21

Demographic Shifts

Figure 4. Definition of Wellbeing

Resources Psychological Social Physical

Challenges

Wellbeing

Psychological Social Physical

Fig. 7. Dodge et al. (2012)

person in the world experiences a sense of Wellbeing, be it positive or negative, even those suffering from diseases such as dementia (Ericsson, 2012). To enable an understanding of how the irreversible shift in the population age-balance should be managed, it is essential to be clear as to what is meant by the term Wellbeing and consider how it may be defined, measured and optimised, “as without the use of agedisaggregated data, the issues surrounding ageing are often invisible” (HelpAge, 2013a. p.12).

A recent House of Lords report, ‘Ready for ageing?’ has suggested that the UK government, like many other countries, is “woefully underprepared” for the social and economic challenges presented by an ageing society (Triggle, 2013). Whilst there are some who regard old age in a negative light, and would refer to the age shift as a “time bomb” (Morris, 2013), there are those who believe that this age shift could be used as an opportunity to bring innovative solutions to many current socio-economic challenges (Age Platform EU, 2013). This paper will support the latter as being a more realistic and valuable position to take.

Questioning the Current However, to make it so, the way in which society is organised is likely to need a degree of ‘revolutionary’ action to make the changes required. Not only is more - and better - data necessary to understand and aid informed debates on ageing to help guide improved policy making (EuropeAid, 2013), but in some cases we will additionally need to address and reduce the causes of age-selective migration to help restore a multi-generational community support network. Older people can be a resource

for their families, communities and economies if living in a supportive and enabling environment. Statistics show however, that for many the lack of supportive infrastructure within their neighbourhood is acting as a barrier preventing them from taking on this role (WHO, 2007).

This thesis will question our current understanding of what a city should be and will evaluate the need to re-conceptualise the older population’s presence within such spaces. Novelli (2003) expresses the view that “Either our countries will make decisions about adapting to our ageing societies, or these decisions will be made for us by the sheer force of demographics and economics”.

Wellbeing The phenomenon of Wellbeing is undeniably complex, and although more research has been carried out in recent years, (e.g., Diener et al, 1999; Kahneman et al, 1999; Keyes et al, 2002; Seligman, 2011) the question of how it should be defined, (and even spelt), still remains largely unresolved, with most offerings being driven by dimensions and descriptions of Wellbeing rather than a de-facto definition.

For the sake of establishing a starting point, this paper will work from the definition provided by Dodge et al (2012. p. 230). Dodge’s model (Fig. 6) draws upon the pertinence of dynamic equilibrium theory of Wellbeing (Headey & Wearing, 1989), the effect of life challenges on homeostasis (Cummins, 2010) and the life-span model of development (Hendry & Kloep, 2002) to offer a summary definition of Wellbeing as “a state of equilibrium or balance that can be affected by life

The see-saw represents the drive of an individual to return to a set-point for wellbeing (Brickman and Campbell, 1971; Headey and Wearing 1989, 1991, 1992) as well as the individual’s need for equilibrium or homeostasis (Herzlich, 1973; Cummins, 2010). Now, however, the stocks and flows of Headey and Wearing (1992) have been replaced by the events or challenges”.

In essence, stable Wellbeing is (2002) society’s be measured, and over resources and challenges of Hendry and Kloep and success are the might elements that can affect the the when individuals have the necessary resources they years,supporting a number of Guides and Measurement individual’s equilibrium; tipping the see-saw from following side to side, Csikszentmihalyi’s need to meet a particular challenge.

When individuals Indices have, and continue to emerge.

(2002) updated concept of ‘flow’. This works just as Kloep, Hendry and Saunders (2009) have more challenges than resources, the see-saw dips, described:

along with the ‘quality’ of their Wellbeing, and vice-versa.

Arguably four of the most significant frameworks to

Each time an individual meets a challenge, the system of challenges and focus on Wellbeing of the older population include resources comes into a state of imbalance, as the individual is forced to adapt his Notably, the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2014) HelpAge International’s ‘Global AgeWatch Index’ or her meet this particular challenge 337). Fig. 7), the United Nation’s ‘Active defines health asresources “a state ofto complete physical, mental, (GAWI,(p.2013,

In essence, stable wellbeing is when psychological, and social well-being and not merely theindividuals absence have Ageingthe Index’ (AAI, 2013, Fig.social 8) andand the physical World Health they need toThus meet a particular psychological, social and/or physical challenge.

When (Fig. ofresources disease or infirmity”. another common term Organisation’s ‘Determinants of Active Ageing’ individuals moreofchallenges than resources, see-saw dips, along wellbeing, supporting thehave concept positive Wellbeing is the the 9) and ‘Age-friendly Citywith Topictheir Areas’ (WHO, 2011, phrase “Healthy Ageing”. This phrase is often used Fig.10). The overall aim of these frameworks is to gain and vice-versa. interchangeably withsupports terms such as Active Ageing, and/or The definition Headey and Wearing’s (1992) provide aim to ‚understand people data which canhow identify areascope affecting Successful Ageing, Ageing and Wellbeing and(p. thus6).qualify the potential of strategic with change and Positive how their levels of Productive well-being are affected‛ However, the proposed Ageing (Johnson et al, 2005).

Once again, whilst there to maintain improve its quality. is not definition contradicts Cummins’ idea of SWB initiatives being static whenor the individual ischallenged. no universal Instead, definition,we there is general acceptance would argue, in line with Hendry and Kloep’s theory, that a lack of that healthy will ageing involves more than just physical&orKloep, Examination of thewill frameworks reveals that manyofareas challenge lead to ‚stagnation‛ (Hendry 2002), which also affect the balance functional health. identified as determinants influencing Wellbeing are or the see-saw. The dynamic nature of the definition also reflects the viewpoint of Nic Marks, of can to the builtofenvironment. the New Economics Foundation. He recently spoke ofbe hisrelated interpretation wellbeing on BBC ‘Data Revolution’ Radio 4’s Reasons to be cheerful: The AAAAI Wellbeing is not a beach you go and lie on. It’s a sort of dynamic dance and Since 1990 when the first global Human Development there’s movement in that all the time and actually it’s the functuality of that Report was published, ‘Gross Domestic Product’ (GDP), Drawing on their existing methodology I have movement which actually is true levels of wellbeing (Nic Marks, Radio 4, 7 a commonly-used measure of economic performance, constructed an alternative measure (Fig. 11) that seeks January 2012) has formed the bedrock of assessing a country’s to clarify specifically how support for each of the progress in development terms (Morse, 2004). Finally, subject areas may be offered through appropriate 8. The considered strengths of the new definition in 2007, members of the OECD (Organisation for architectural intervention.

The authors of the current advocate World that the vigour and freshness of this new proposed Economic Cooperation and paper Development) definition embraces a numberofofthis strengths: optimism and and the Forum recognised the limitations measure,simplicity, and For universal this reasonapplication, the structure of this paper basis for for “the measurement. called production of high-quality, facts-based exploration of how the built environment, specifically the information that can be used by all of society to form city, can better accommodate the older population‘s a shared view of national Well-being and its evolution ability to actively age will be approached according 230 www.internationaljournalofwellbeing.org to over time” (ONS, 2011; OECD, 2007). the Architecturally Assistive Active Ageing Index (Kuhn, 2014). By so doing, it will be demonstrated how the Focus was finally being placed on the concept of potentially negative impact of counter-urbanisation Wellbeing as being a contributory factor in how a might potentially be reduced.

Demographic Shifts 23

equilibrium/homeostasis; and the fluctuating state between challenges and resources.

Consequently, we would like to propose a new definition of wellbeing as the balance point between an individual’s resource pool and the challenges faced:

Income Security

Health Status

Employment And Education

Enabling Environment

Domains

Pension Income Coverage

Life Expectancy At 60

Employment Of Older People

Social Connections

Indicators

Domains Indicators

Active Ageing Index

(Fig. 8)

Poverty Rate In Old Age

Healthy Life Expectancy At 60

Education Status Of Older People

Relative Welfare Of Older People

Psychological Wellbeing

GDP Per Capita

(Fig. 9)

Employment

Participation In Society

Independant, Healthy & Secure Living

Capacity & Enabling Environment For Active Ageing

Employment Rate 55 - 59

Voluntary Activities

Physical Excercise

Remaining Life Expectancy At Age 65

Physical Safety

Employment Rate 60 - 64

Care To Children /Grandchildren

Access To Health And Dental Care

Share Of Healthy Life Expectancy At Age 55

Civic Freedom

Employment Rate 65 - 69

Care To Older Adults

Independant Living

Mental Wellbeing

Access To Public Transport

Employment Rate 70 - 74

Political Participation

Financial Security

Use of ICT

Physical Safety

Social Connectedness

Lifelong Learning

Educational Attainment

Actual Experience Of Active Ageing*

Capacity to Actively Age*

The Global AgeWatch (GAW) Index (Fig. 8. GAWI, 2013) developed by HelpAge International is the first of its kind to construct an analytical framework seeking to measure and monitor the economic and social Wellbeing of older people (60+ years) at a global level.

The Active Ageing Index (AAI) (Fig. 9. AAI, 2013), developed by the European Commission of the United Nations., is a composite index, also utilising 4 defined domains, but with a different methodology applied to the calculation of the scoring outcome.

The GAW Index is calculated as a geometric mean of four domains, whilst the domain-specific indices are arrived at by aggregating values of indicators that represent how near a country is to the ideal value. “These domains have been selected because they were identified by older people and policy makers alike as key enablers of older people’s wellbeing.“ (HelpAge, 2013b)

The Index offers National and European policy makers a way to measure the extent to which older people can realise their full potential in terms of the four domains to lead an active life. There is evident similarity with the GAW Index, with regards to the choice of domain subject areas, with both models featuring recognition of the capacity of the individuals to impact their environment as well as be impacted by it.

Demographic Shifts 25

Global AgeWatch Index

Age-friendly City Topic Areas

Physical Determinants

Social Determinants

Civic Participation and Employment

Respect and Social Inclusion

Social Participation

Transportation

Domains

Personal Determinants

Age-friendly City

Participation in Society

Enabling Environment

Appropriate Living

Indicators

Health and Social Services

Domains

Economic Determinants

(Fig. 12)

(Fig. 11)

Indicators

Domains

(Fig. 10)

Architecturally Assistive Active Ageing Index (AAAAI) (Kuhn, 2014)

Employment*

Security

Home Suitability

Volunteering*

Access to Services

Financial Stability*

Care Giving*

Physical Activity*

Respect and Social Inclusion

Outdoor Spaces and Building

Civic Participation*

Transportation

Economic Determinants

Outdoor Spaces and Building

Behavioural Determinants

Community Support and Health Services

Later Learning*

Communication and Information

Communication and Information*

Housing

Support*

Social Connections*

* Architecture can not produce a physical result but can assist.

The Determinants of Active Ageing, created by the World Health Organisation (WHO) builds upon their original Active Ageing Framework, to expand on the three domains they believe influence ones ability to actively age: Participation, Health, and Security. WHO recognise that “active ageing depends on a variety of influences or determinants that surround individuals, families and nations....(and that) all of these factors, and the interaction between them, play an important role in affecting how well individuals age.” (WHO, 2007) Continuing this theory, WHO have completed global research to create the ‘Age-friendly City Topic Areas’ checklist, which highlights to City Policy Planners identified determinants specifically within Cities which have been identified by the ageing population globally to influence their ability to actively age.

As with the other frameworks shown, the AAAAI highlights determinants which could affect one’s ability to actively age, however this Index concentrates its focus on aspects which this paper considers can be influenced by the built environment.

The three domains along with their 13 indicators all overlap and interact.

Demographic Shifts 27

Determinants of Active Ageing

E

nabling Environments

The Ageing Process The Power of Place Addressing The Marginalised Turning Barriers into Enablers 29

11 9 1

8

2 Fig 13

Elvire Foster

1

5 3

11

4

5 Miles

- Independent Older -Primary Transport Mode: Bus, Train, and Walking

Independent Owned House Bus Stop Golf Course and Club House Railway Station Garden Centre and Pub Local Shops Hospital Shopping Centre Church Central London Family Relatives

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

6

7

1000m 2000m

Fig. 14 (Kuhn, S. 2014) Maps Illustrate Elvire Foster’s average weekly movements Movement Routes

Identified Barriers/ Enablers

“Where ever I go I have my eyes to the ground.

I’m terrified I might fall over.”

“Ah the traffic light race! You do have to be pretty speedy to get across in time”

“I don’t mind stairs in general, but at some underground stations there are just too many, and no lift, and with the pace everyone walks at it can be a bit tough to keep up.”

“I’d be lost without good public transport connections. Trains.... buses....I wouldn’t mind a stop a little closer to my house though.

Oh...and an enclosed shelter! You can get rather wet when waiting.

“I tend to avoid areas that are a bit run down with graffiti and such like or have no street lights.

The journey takes longer but I feel safer.”

Enabling Environments 31

10

12

10

9 87

11

1

6

Fig 15 2 Miles

Peter Edwards - Inter-dependent Older -Primary Transport Mode: Bus and Walking

1

5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Independent Owned House Coffee Shop Green Space/Beach Bowling Green Bus Stop Doctors Surgery Laundrette Food Store Pharmacy Barbers Post Office Bank Family Relatives

2 4 3

3 3

500m 1000m Fig .16 (Kuhn, S. 2014) Maps Illustrate Peter Edward’s average weekly movements Movement Routes

Identified Barriers/ Enablers 800

m

50 0 m

“I get a little confused sometimes, just because everything looks so similar.”

“My ‘local’ shops need to be a lot closer.

Fortunately the bus does go that way so if I’m too tired to walk back with a heavy trolly I catch that.”

POST OFFICE

“There’s no bench on this long stretch so I often plop myself on that wall until I’ve caught my breathe.”

“100% the best thing about where I live...green space for walks or simply to sit and enjoy all the activity going on around”

“I do love a good game of bowls.

Its more than just exercise its very social”

“I occasionally go somewhere new, but it’s hard to tell what the different shops are sometimes.”

Enabling Environments 33

8

13

2

3 1 Fig 17

1 5 Miles

4

Jill Canham - Dependent Older Sheltered Accommodation Pavilion Allotments Wardens Office Gated Entrance Family Relatives

-Primary Transport Mode: Walking and Driven Minibus

1 2 3 4 5 6

5 20m Fig. 18 (Kuhn, S. 2014) Maps Illustrate Jill Canham’s average weekly movements Movement Routes

Identified Barriers/ Enablers

WC

“I don’t often leave here.

Going out was difficult and embarressing. Simple things like finding suitable bathrooms and never seeing over counters. I internet shop now.”

“You can see the chunks I’ve taken out of the wood where I’ve hit the frame so often.”

“It’s nice having the Pavilion. We have 3 organised social events a week, but you can go there and have tea in the sun room together whenever you like.”

“We are very lucky to have so much green space in a city I know, but there’s no where to sit or do things.

Just lawns. Nothing happening.”

“Since they’ve put those gates up, no one comes in anymore. I used to enjoy watching any activity going on.”

“I can’t leave my house via my front door because of the ledge.

They couldn’t put a ramp in due to the gas canister so I can only get out via the back.”

Enabling Environments 35

6

“It is essential to the quality of life of older people that they are able to actively maintain their connections to the places where they live.”

(Peace et al. 2006. p.57)

“For the majority of people the ageing process creates challenges that the design of the built environment currently does little to address or ameliorate.” (Burton & Mitchell. 2006. p7) The Ageing Process In the UK Disability Discrimination Act (UK Gov, 2005) the term disability is legally defined to encompass physical, sensory or mental conditions.

Any or all of such things can be caused by the ageing process.

As the human body ages, physical, mental and psychological changes occur. These often include multiple minor impairments in eyesight, hearing, memory, dexterity and mobility. Even if not necessarily severe enough to be classed as disabled, all of said conditions can affect an older persons ability to understand, use, navigate and enjoy their environment (Burton & Mitchell. 2006).

The Power of Place The importance of the role that our surroundings play in our lives has been explored through ‘peopleenvironment relationship’ theory for many years (Tuan, 1977; Laws 1997; Dixon and Durrheim, 2000; Casakin & Bernardo, 2012).

The notion of Place – essentially the ‘presence’ of the environment - which from a phenomenological perspective is powerful conceptually and practically - is always present in human life, young OR old (Heidegger, 1962; Merleau-Ponty, 1962).

It is recognised by many that “place gathers worlds spatially and environmentally, marking out centres of human action, intention and meaning, that in turn contribute to the making of place” (Seamon, 2012, cited in Casakin & Bernardo, 2012).

As philosopher Edward Casey (2009. p.15) writes place “is at once the limit and the condition of all that exists… It is through our engagement with place that our own human being is made real.” It allows us to create and sustain a sense of self. It is arguably imperative then that the place where an older person lives, be recognised, not merely as a ‘setting’, but as an essential element contributing to their quality of life - and thus their Wellbeing (Peace et al. 2006).

Development in gerontology research has shown that for the majority of older people in Britain there is a strong desire to remain in a ‘regular’ neighbourhood - as opposed to a collective retirement community for as long as possible. Furthermore, Peace et al’s (2006. p.57) research recognises that “because people live always in time and place, and because of their intimate connections with specific places, loss of place is seen as a serious disadvantage.“ This is especially true for those with dementia where “following a regular routine in familiar surroundings is even more essential” (Patoine & Mattoli, 2001. p.11).

In order to prolong this desired level of autonomy and security however older people need a physical environment that assists them to ‘actively age’. (Audit Commission, 2004) This in turn will not only benefit the individuals Wellbeing but allow them the possibility to remain a potential resource for their families, communities and economies (WHO, 2011).

Addressing The Marginalised In a 2006 Spotlight survey (ref) it was reported that over one million older people had expressed feeling trapped within their own homes. Whilst positive progress continues to be made in creating “safe”, “easy to use” indoor environments (discussed further in chapter 3) it is essential we recognise that all aspects of the built environment must be addressed, and that unless older people can safely and effectively engage in their external surroundings they will continue to both feel and be housebound. “The resulting increase in physical frailty, social isolation, low self-esteem and loss of independence can be debilitating both physically and psychologically” (Burton & Mitchell.

2006. p32).

Encouraged by increasing awareness as well as antidiscrimination legislation, attitudes towards design for disabilities has seen a positive shift. Where attention was once focused on adapting the person to fit their environment, the more current and commonly accepted ‘social model’ recognises the person not as having disabilities but rather that they are being “Architecturally disabled” (Goldsmith, 1997) by their surrounding environment and products (Imrie, 2001; Lacey, 2004).

The increased introduction of certain planning guidelines and building regulations is to be commended. (Building Regulations, (Part M), 2010; ODPM, (Delivering Sustainable Communities) 2005).

However, as progress has primarily focused on the prevention and reduction of inaccessibility to buildings and transport for those regarded as having sensory or physical impairments, many barriers still exist and

people are still being left out (Imrie & Kumar, 1998).

“Until the design of the built environment takes into account the diverse needs of all users, many people will continue to be restricted or excluded from the outside world” (Burton & Mitchell. 2006. p.19).

Arguably, a more suitable design approach to complement current demographics is that of ‘Inclusive Design’, a philosophy commended in the 2005 UK Planning Policy Statement as an approach for delivering “sustainable communities” (ODPM, 2005 para. 35). Inclusive design focuses on the creation of environments, services and products that cater for as many people as possible, irrespective of ability, age, education or income (Clarkson et al. 2003). “It seeks both to avoid creating barriers in the first place and, through intelligent use of resources, to provide as much facilitation as possible to reach human goals.”

(Steinfeld, E. 2012. p.3; Dong et al, 2012; RICAbility.

2014; Design Council; 2014) Turning Barriers into Enablers ‘The Accommodating City’ fits clearly within the concept of Inclusive Design to address at a variety of scales how the built environment could better assist Active Ageing within an urban setting.

Over the following pages a Design Principle Catalogue has been created, supported by both independent and prominent research, to identify noted barriers within the City and suggest how design could be used to assitively reduce, if not eliminate, said barriers.

Enabling Environments 37

Enabling Environments

Enabling Environments 39

Design Principle Appendix

Older people often have reduced ranges in terms of mobility, and can be prone to disorientation, especially if suffering from Dementia. Having long and seemingly endless stretches of road can make older people feel the journey is longer than it truly is, and may cause them to think it is unachievable, leading to a reduced motivation to make the journey at all.

Additionally, a common fear when making a journey is that they may not be able to find their way, which is often compounded by a lack of street hierarchy and confusing street junctions such as crossroads, where multiple similar route options are present.

B1

Barrier: Street Types and Legibility Long straight streets with many crossroads leading to similar routes will discourage an older person from making the journey at all, for fear of getting lost and not being physically able to complete it.

E1 B1

Fig. 19. Marylebone, London

Enablers: Street Structure Making Navigation Easier Streets should be built in an irregular grid pattern with adjacent streets branching off in forks or t-junctions rather than crossroads where possible. A clear hierarchy of street types should be established by making a distinction in profile, length and types of uses.

Enabling Environments 41

Outdoor Spaces and Building

Direct routes are essential when creating a well functioning pedestrian system Older people often tire quickly and can become disheartened by the thought of what appears to be a never-ending journey.

B2

Barrier: Indirect, Lengthy Routes Long roads with few connecting streets result in an older pedestrian having to make unnecessarily, tiring indirect routes to their desired destination. The journey can appear dull and disorientating if continuous stretches of large building blocks are encountered.

E2

Enablers: Street structure making movement easier Small building blocks on short streets of around 60-100m will improve access to direct routes, helping a journey appear and become more achievable.

Fig. 20. Islington, London

B2

Enabling Environments 43

Outdoor Spaces and Building

E3

Elderly pedestrians will often navigate a place using specific landmarks and buildings. It is the presence of such landmarks that adds to the attractiveness and legibility of a space, and helps prevent an older person becoming disorientated or uninterested. These features can be distinguished into categories such as historic or civic buildings, unusual structures, places of specific activity, areas of environmentally aesthetic significance, or simply practical features such post boxes or bus shelters.

B3

Barrier:

Lack of Features or Landmarks

The lack of distinctiveness of a place can cause elderly people to become disorientated and make it hard to navigate around.

E3

Fig. 21. Westgate Street, Leeds

Enablers: Inclusion of Distinguishing Landmarks

By including a variety of distinguishing landmarks in an area, especially at key junctions, an elderly person is able to use key features as reference points to navigate by. Such landmarks will also add to the local identity of a place, and give people a sense of familiarity and belonging.

Enabling Environments 45

Outdoor Spaces and Building

The older population are most likely to look to their immediate surroundings for provision of the necessities as well as leisure pastimes.

With walking being their main mode of transport this can be seriously limiting in terms of the services they are able to access. If neighbourhoods are restricted to one type of use, for example if they are primarily residential, it can be difficult for elderly people to reach the variety of facilities they need. It also makes getting around in the neighbourhood monotonous and mundane if all streets have the same primary use.

B4

Barrier: Limited Variation in Neighbourhood and Street Use Uniformity in areas leads to lack of reachable facilities for older people, reduced street activity in certain areas and confusion caused by similar surroundings.

E4

Enablers: Mixed Use Areas Providing mixed use areas for older people to live in can enable them to access a wider range of facilities and feel more included in an area that other age groups use also. The variation in use of the streets can reduce disorientation by providing distinct features for better navigation, whilst also improving the areas crime safety as a variety of buildings will provide a wider ‘active’ time and thus longer street surveillance.

Fig. 22. Ritson Street, Liverpool

B4

Enabling Environments 47

Access to Services

The UK government (DTLR, 2001) states that a 10 minute walk- where one is calculated to cover roughly 800 meters- is a comfortable distance from a residential dwelling within which to access primary services. This is supported by the Urban Design Compendium (Davies, 2000), which additionally further recommends a newsagent be located within a 5 minute (400m) walk and a post box and telephone box within 2-3 minutes (250m).

B5

Barrier: Walkability to Services The primary mode of transport for the older generation is on foot (Schittich, 2012), with most regular outings focused on reaching particular services and facilities. However, as the body ages, mobility and strength increasingly deteriorate, making physical exercise, though still important, more tiresome.

Whilst the recommended timings appear suitable, the calculated distance covered in the given time is not appropriate for an ageing society.

E5

Enabler: The 800m Radius Research has found that people are more likely to go out and utilise their local services and facilities if they are located within an appropriate walking distance from ones house. Not only does this suggest that people stay at home due to the barriers they encounter, rather than through choice (Peace, 1982; Burton & Mitchell, 2006), but also that a lack of access to facilities is not only inconvenient for older people, but has the potential to reduce both their physical activity, as well as chance opportunities of social contact.

Carstens (1985) study showed that people in their mid-70’s on average take 10-20 minutes to walk 400m to 500m, whilst requiring a rest at least every 10 minutes. Based on research and independent findings the revised distances are suggested as a more appropriate standard.

Fig. 23

Primary Services and Facilities Within 0 - 500m

Secondry Services and Facilities Within 0 - 800m

Post Box - 125m Telephone Box - 125m Bus Stop - 250m Food Store Post Office Bank Health Centre Green Space

Dentist Optician Laundrette Local Shops Place of Worship Libray Community and Leisure Facilities Large Green Space

Enabling Environments 49

Access to Services

Many older people eventually stop driving due to safety or financial reasons. As indicated by subject participants, public transport can be crucial in enabling one to continue to access places and people beyond any distance they determine unwalkable.

Good transport networks will favour all people whilst additionally benefitting the city by reducing congested roads and emissions.

B6 E6

Barrier: Public Transport Stops and Destinations

Longer walking distances to public transport stops make older people feel tired and more vulnerable, therefore reducing the likelihood that they will make the journey at all.

Enablers: The 250m Rule Transport Stops should be located within a maximum walking distance of 250 meters from any dwelling, and located near primary facilities or connection routes.

E6

Fig. 24. Baker Street, London

Enabling Environments 51

Transportation

When making a journey on public services older people need to feel safe and comfortable whilst using the transport, but also whilst waiting to use the transport. Inclement weather, as well as a feeling of unease can prevent an older person feeling comfortable waiting to use a public service. These issues can also affect all members of the public, particularly the vulnerable and those with small children.

B7

Barrier:

Public Transport Stops

Older people need to feel sheltered from the elements whilst waiting for public transport, but not so enclosed that they feel isolated and unsafe.

E7

Enablers: Safety and Shelter Shelters should be enclosed on all sides with transparent walls or large windows, so that occupants can be seen from the outside and can see approaching transport from the inside. They should contain night lighting and comfortable seating, preferably with back and arm rests,

Fig. 25. West Liverpool BakerDerby Street,Road, London

E7

Enabling Environments 53

Transportation

Older people will often need to use the toilet more frequently than when they were younger. This can prove to be a potential limiting factor when deciding to go out, and can limit how comfortable they feel going away from home, even for a short period of time. It is often the concern of where, and how to operate the public toilet that is most worrying to an older person.

B8

E8

Barrier: Where and How? A lack of public toilet can prevent an older person from wanting to go out. Even when they are present they can also cause concern if they are difficult to access (stairs), not disabled or the older person is unfamiliar or anxious about the new technology associated with the public toilet they have to access.

Enablers: Safe and Simple Public toilets should be located in an open and public area, helping those more vulnerable to feel safe. They should be disable friendly, on ground level, simple to operate, and have doors that need no more than 2kg of pressure to open and close.

B8

Fig. 26. Broadwick Street, London

Enabling Environments 55

Security

When venturing out it is an important consideration for older people as to where they will be able to rest. Very often older people cannot walk for extended periods of time and need somewhere to sit down. With modern seating areas sometimes being unrecognisable it is important that older people are able to identify and feel comfortable on public seating.

B9

Barrier:

Rest Spots

Older people frequently struggle to walk for longer than 10 minutes without resting, and public spaces do not always cater for them to be able to do so, and when they do it is not always appropriate seating.

E9

E9

Fig. 27. New Road, Brighton

Enablers: Public Seating Public spaces should provide sufficient seating every 100 – 125 metres. It should be situated with a good view of surrounding areas and activity, along a well paved pedestrian route. Having seats at right angles to eachother can aid those with hearing or sight problems to see and chat with their friends. To cater for older people public seating should have a supportive backrest and, if possible, arm rests to aid standing.

Enabling Environments 57

Security

Fear of falling is one of the highest risks older people must negotiate. Wherever possible streets should remain on the same level or provide the use of appropriate ramps and steps.. This will not only benefit older people unsteady on their feet or who tire easily but provide a better more inclusive environment assisting those in wheelchairs and parents with child buggies.

B10

Barrier: Changes in Street Level Changes in street level can cause restricted access to those with mobility problems.

E10

E10

Fig. 28. Southbank, London

Enablers: Ramps or Steps Changes in street level can be tackled with well laid ramps, with a gradient of no more than 5%. Alternatively, steps can be used with short straight runs of between 3-12 steps per run, and clearly marked with well lit, even surfaces and handrails. Where significant level changes unavoidable lifts should be provided as an alternative. Building entrances should also be designed to allow for disabled access.

Enabling Environments 59

Security

Crossing the street can be a stressful occurrence for an older person, as they are limited by speed of mobility, as well as hearing difficulties and slower reaction times. They can often take longer to cross the road, and on particularly wide roads may become tired or feel pressured to go at an uncomfortable speed. These problems can often apply to other members of the public, particularly families with young children.

B11

Barrier:

Pedestrian Crossing Points

Older people can often feel scared or unsafe when it comes to crossing the road. They can have limited mobility and speed and can be confused by different signals.

E11

Enablers: Countdown Times and Traffic Islands The installation of pedestrian crossings with clear markings, drop curbs and visual crossing, countdown and audible signals can enable older pedestrians to cross more safely. Traffic islands will further reduce the distance needing to be covered in one go on larger roads.

B11

Fig. 29. High Holborn, London

Enabling Environments 61

Security

Older people can often feel intimidated and unsafe walking close to a main road or highway. The sudden onset of loud noises and the continuous drone of traffic can make the experience an unpleasant one, and hearing difficulties can be disorientating. The addition of barriers between pavement and road can help an older person feel safe and make them more likely to use a busy street, meaning they are more likely to be able to access locations with a wider range of facilities.

B12

Barrier:

Pavement Proximity

The proximity of pavements to busy traffic causes older people to feel unsafe and disorientated by the speed and noise.

E12

Enablers: Green Buffers and Barriers Environmental barriers such as trees and shrubs provide an acoustic barrier between traffic and pedestrians. Also, having a grass verge and foliage beside the road increases the distance between street users, and improves the overall aesthetics of walking alongside a road.

E12

E12

Fig. 30. Amsterdam, Golders Green, The London Netherlands

Enabling Environments 63

Outdoor Spaces and Building

It can be very frustrating for an older person to try and navigate their way around a place with poor or confusing signage. The ability to correctly interpret a sign is dependent upon the ease with which it can be seen, read, and followed, and those which are ambiguous or too detailed only serve to further confuse and disorientate someone who is elderly or has cognitive problems.

B13

Barrier:

Poor Signage

Signs that are hard to read, have too little or the wrong information and are designed in a way that is difficult to understand, will only disorientate and confuse and older person more.

E13

Enablers: Plain and Simple Signs should be designed so that text is easily read, with simple and essential information only, and with relevant and unambiguous symbols. They should be placed relevant to the information they are trying to give and be visible against their background.

E13

Fig. 31. Golders Green, London

Enabling Environments 65

Security

When deciding whether or not to go out an older person will subconsciously weigh up the risks and if any factors of their journey are deemed too risky, in particular, anything that could increase the risk of falling or their physical security, then that person may decide not to venture out. With this in mind it is important that a street is configured in such a way as to reduce the risk for older people, and make it a pleasant experience.

B14

Barrier: Street lighting, Pavements and Maintenance Lack of adequate lighting, poor maintenance of an area, too little space and presence of clutter and uneven paving can lead older people to decide not to venture out on foot.

E14

Enablers: Proper Provision and Maintenance Proper street lighting and maintenance of the streets, such as removal of graffiti etc, will help reduce an older persons perception of it being a dangerous place. Plentiful space provision for all pavement users; and the avoidance of making the area too cluttered, such as with signs or accessories like bike racks.. In addition, pavements should be made a minimum width of 2 metres to allow those with mobility problems or aids to pass safely and of a material that is smooth, non-reflective and minimally patterned to reduce tripping, glare and dizziness/confusion. There should additionally be drop curbs beside pedestrian crossings, and drains and grates should sit flush with the pavement and have small enough holes so that walking sticks or feet could not become stuck.

Fig. 32. Shoreditch, London

B14

Enabling Environments 67

Security

Public spaces and green spaces are important for maintaining social contact with the outside world and preventing older people from becoming isolated. They are particularly important within a city as a means of urban escape.

B15

Barrier: Formal Spaces Older people, especially for those with cognitive impairments often stay clear of formal public spaces as they find them intimidating and hard to interpret. If located by road sides they can often find it very difficult to hear also.

E15

Enablers: Informal Spaces Informal squares and green spaces can provide a more psychologically comfortable environment of either high levels of activity or soft landscapes with quiet seating areas where they can sit comfortably and relax.

E15

Fig. 33. Russel Square, London

Enabling Environments 69

Outdoor Spaces and Building

People will instinctively mistrust an area that appears closed and isolated, and it is particularly important to older people that they feel safe and protected in a public area.

B16

Barrier: Entrances Facing Away From The Street Buildings facing away from the street cause the area to feel closed and insecure. Older people may also struggle to locate an entrance if the building is facing away from the street, leading to frustration and unwillingness to try again. Additionally, unreadable facades make the building use hard for older people to identify.

E16

Enablers: Active Frontages and Readable Facades Buildings that face into the street are more inviting and provide better public views both from inside and outside, helping those that may be more insecure feel safer that they can be seen at all times. The building facade should where possible reflect its internal use. They should also have entrances that are easy to locate, with the appropriate signs and contrasting materials.

B16

Fig. 34. Newcastle

Enabling Environments 71

Security

1ha Block (100x100m)

Perimeter blocks

Improve legibility through architectural features at the corner of blocks

Create active frontages: 10-15/100m

Provide street trees >70+/ha

Increase pavement widths to support stop, stay and play.

Mix building types and uses within blocks.

Provide usable private green space

Home patch (500x500m)

A legible irregular street network: blocks 80 - 100m

Mix of street types: Home zone, pedestrianised, rambla, carriageways

Bicycle lane network (protected) with secure storage provision

Neighbourhood (800x800m)

Access to services and facilities within 200/500 and 800m

Provide access to large public green spaces connected by a green corridor of pocket parks.

Organise a street hierarchy support different uses

Human scale streets - optimum street width to building height ratio.

Diversity of mixed housing and tenure types.

Enabling Environments 73

Fig.35 (Kuhn, 2014)

17

Fig.36 (Kuhn, 2014) Using the transport systems primarily to visit out of the area, or when too tired to complete return trips, these people walk different routes and travel further around their neighbourhood experiencing much of their local surroundings.

16 12

Services 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

11

Compulsory Bus Stops Residence Convenience Store Community Facilities Nursery/Primary School Pharmacy Bank Post Office Doctors Surgery Dentist Opticians Food Store Place of Worship Hairdresser Leisure Facilities Library Open Green Space Open Square Secondary School Clothing Store

Illustrated Enablers E1

E2 E5 E6 E15

Irregular Grid Few crossroads Short Streets Access to Services Transport Stops Open/Green Space

8

5 13

16 1 34 2 19

6

14 7

18

9 10

16

15

Enabling Environments 75

Active Older / Inter-dependent Older

Fig.37 (Kuhn, 2014) These people are likely to tire more easily or have cognitive impairments which prohibit them from journeying too far. Destinations at a close range will be walked to, often by the most direct route, whilst available transport systems are there to support them to reach facilities and places should they desire.

T 18 1

16

5

3 1

Services 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 16 17 18 20 21 22

Bus Stops Residence Convenience Store Community Facilities Nursery/Primary School Pharmacy Bank Post Office Hairdresser Open Green Space Open Square Clothing Store Coffee Shop Restaurant Book Store

20 21

PB 13

17

2

PB

E3

4

20

Illustrated Enablers E3 Landmarkers E4 Mixed Use E5 Access to Services E6 Transport Stops E15 Open/Green Space

6

E3

22

E3 7

Enabling Environments 77

Inter-dependent Older / Dependent Older

P

articipation In Society

Human Needs Inclusion = Participation = Connections The Informal The Formal 79

Participation In Society

Participation In Society “(A) person’s behavioural and psychological state can be better understood with knowledge of the context in which the person behaves.”

(Lawton. 1980. p.2)

Following the concept of Place theory, Manzo & Perkin (2006) explain how our intra-psychic phenomena that is, the emotions we feel towards our environment - impact our behaviour towards such places, thus influencing whether and how we might participate.

In the previous chapter we focused on identified barriers within the built environment and how we can use applied design to help reduce or even remove them. The indicators within this domain however cannot be approached in the same direct way.

Architecture can not force people to participate in society. Nor can it create community cohesion.

What it has the potential to do, however, is lay the ‘foundations’ of social infrastructure necessary to encourage and support social relationships. This in turn, has the potential to influence behaviour in a positive way.

Human Needs “In terms of interaction at the practical and everyday level, it is the neighbourhood that continues to be the more significant point of attachment to society for most older people”. It is not surprising then that communities (“a collective consciousness of social relationships” (Gilleard et al, 2007) based on neighbourhoods were acknowledged by many older people to be essential to their Wellbeing and sense of identity (Peace et al, 2006. p.74 ; CABE, 2005).

The pertinence of Group Theory in the social environment has been expressed by Sociologists for many years. Primary Groups, that is, “two or more persons behaving in relation to each other in a way that is intimate, cohesive and personal“ (Lundberg cited in Clement, 2010. p.106) are described to be the “foundation and nucleus of social structure, (satisfying many of the) psychological and physical needs of the individuals” (Clement, 2010. p.107). Groups such as a Family, a Friendship group or a small Community are considered to be in said category. In contrast to the former are Secondary Groups. These take a formal and impersonal nature, often “concerned with specialised interests, and guided by consideration of efficiency” (Lundberg cited in Clement, 2010. p.107) For example, Schools, Clubs, Work places and Religion.

The positive attributes of a primary group can be illustrated in Lowenthal & Haven’s (1968) study which showed that older people who had a close friend were happier and in better mental health than those who did not. Not only do primary groups enhance Wellbeing but they are essential to life forming the link between the individual and the larger society (Simmel et al, 2009; Thorson, 2013).

As social norms continue to change in modern industrialised societies however, Secondary groups too play an ever increasing and vital role. As Clement (2010) explains, “due to the growth of cities and population, the complexity of social structure and the differentiation of interests, Secondary groups have

become a necessity” in providing social interactions with the potential to facilitate growth of Primary connections.

can be addressed through design by using both formal and informal opportunities.

The Informal

Whilst some like Rosow (1967) argue that it is acceptable and appropriate for one’s Primary Group to consist of only age-related peers, most advocate the benefits to be gained from age-integrated relationships, and thus, environments (Mumford, 1956; Van Vliet, 2009; Raynes, 2004). Schittich (2012, p.12) argues, it can help create “the utopia in which the “other” and the “alien” are seen not as a threat, but rather as a benefit” and potential role model. This desire is supported by the older generation themselves who have “underlined the great need to facilitate and organize encounters between the generations” in cities (WHO, 2007. p.47).

Enabling design features addressed in the Design Principle Appendix could allow older people the ability and confidence to leave their own home and use their neighbourhood. Simply this action in itself can provide the necessary facilitation to encourage informal interactions with neighbours on the street, assistants in shops or people enjoying recreation in the park. As Burton & Mitchell (2006. p42) support, “contact might be a chat or just a greeting and a smile, but this can make a huge difference to people, especially those who live on their own, giving them real contact with the outside world”.

Inclusion = Participation = Connections “The extent to which older people participate in the social, civic and economic life of the city is closely linked to their experience of inclusion” (WHO, 2007. p.45).

Ageism is identified as one of the major barriers of Social Inclusion in urban settings, and attributed to by factors such as “the impersonality of large and growing cities, the lack of interaction between generations, and the general lack of public knowledge about ageing and older people” (WHO, 2007. p.46; AgeUK, 2011). Arguably then, if we can design inclusive neighbourhoods where all ages are able to participate, we could not only increase respect, but raise awareness and understanding of just what being old actually means.

There are a number of ways in which social participation

Design features at a neighbourhood scale can be incremental informal facilitators for participation.

Despite some potential negatives, not only does a high density, mixed-use neighbourhood improve viability of and access to community services but the social proximity encourages positive interaction and diversity (Gehl, 2004; Wood et al 2010). The use of active frontages and versatile ‘nodes of activity’ along pavements or urban squares can create a ‘stage set’ for a lively and interesting environment that would promote usability and thus integration. (Bently et al, 2003) Conscious design decisions regarding natural environmental factors like wind paths and orientation for maximum sun coverage also play an important role in determining the appealability of certain spaces for lingering (Davis, 2000).

On a smaller scale simply design details like ‘residential decks’ has the potential to promote positive social

81

As lessons from the New Towns Review (DCLG(b), 2006) identify, “residents need local social networks and shared community experiences to build a sense of belonging and identity... Inadequate social infrastructure is not just an inconvenience for residents

but has significant long-term consequences [“New Town Blues” - isolation, depression, fear of crime, issues with community cohesion (Cullen, 1953)], and associated costs for communities - [Out-migration].”

410,000 older people have an unmet need for help with practical household jobs

Participation In Society

A full-time nursery place for a child under two now costs £9,850 a year

Fig. 39 (AgeUK, 2014)

interaction between residents whilst additionally providing good surveillance of surrounding areas (Schittich, 2007).

The Formal “Participating in leisure, social, cultural and spiritual activities in the community, as well as with the family, allows older people to continue to exercise their competence, to enjoy respect and esteem, and to maintain or establish supportive and caring relationships. It fosters social integration and is the key to staying informed” (WHO, 2007). However, as clearly indicated by many older people and researchers alike, the capacity to participate both in formal and informal social life is largely dependent on actually having suitable access to such opportunities in the first place.

(Gehl, 2010; Pillimer et al. 2000) Unsurprisingly, the provision and walkable access to facilities such as a restaurant or cafe, or the ‘social club’ and activities lawn are often one of the highly commended aspects given by residents living in purpose built Retirement Villages. (Kroucher, 2006)

Fig.38 (Kuhn, 2014)

A key design principle relevant when providing facilities and environments which incorporate multi-generational services is the creation of spaces which will support and protect one’s right and ability to withdraw. to a private space. “The existence of other parts of the facility, which are not characterized by high-energy intergenerational exchange where people can escape to find some privacy is particularly important.” (Kaplan et al, 1998) Many speak of the benefits of having a broad variety of leisure or ‘interest’ clubs that all generations can attend (BJF, 2014; ICIP, 2014; JRF, 2014) but to enable such functions to happen carefully conceived and adaptable spaces must be designed. They must cater for both small and large group gatherings, active as well as passive activities, and intergenerational as well as mono-generational activities. “It is important that the program staff and participants have some control over their environment in terms of being able to manipulate their surroundings to facilitate their comfort and the achievement of their program/activity objective“ (Kaplan et al, 1998). Flexible design using movable parts, such as sliding walls and flexible seating arrangements could help such requirements be achieved. Value is to be placed on environments which promote “natural communications” (Blackmore, 2010) whereby relations can form as a gradual and continual process.

83

As identified in the Active Ageing Index (AAI, 2013), participation through employment or volunteering can promote integration and wellbeing whilst having positive benefits for both those giving and receiving.

Whether working the till in a local cafe or providing educational support at a local school, roles “in which senior adults see themselves providing a service have a particularly strong positive impact on how they view themselves and their lives.“ (Kaplan et al, 1998) Furthermore, the concept of Caregiving, for both older and younger people can be truly capitalised in an age-integrated neighbourhood and has the potential to provide economic benefits. whilst relieving pressure

and costs on care services. (Feddersen, 2009) Where the old might provide child care for the young, the young might assist the old by completing tasks they are unable to preform. (Fig.40) Once again however the above opportunities rely not only on suitable access to these services for all older people (Pillemer et al.

2000) but the creation and maintenance of a mixeduse age-integrated neighbourhood.

Public Semi Public / Private Private

Participation In Society

Explorative studies into co-housing strategies which promote social interaction Fig.41 (Kuhn, 2014)

Fig.40 (Kuhn, 2014) Playing with creating differecnt zones in a courtyard block 85

Participation In Society

Fig.42 (Kuhn, 2014)

87

A

ppropriate

Living

One Size Does NOT Fit All Architecturally Disabled Labels and Type-casts 89

“There is no good reason why tomorrow’s public purse should pay for today’s design” defects.” (.p. 40)

One Size Does NOT Fit All “Individual older people are complex social beings for whom sense of place is intrinsic to ontological security and who, for the most part, actively pursue living circumstances that promote a life of quality in their own terms” (Peace et al, 2006 p.57).

Later developments in environmental gerontology have moved to positions that emphasize the aspirations of most older people in the UK to live in mainstream housing for as long as possible (Peace et al, 2006; Adams 2012). This is reflected in national statistics which showed in 2010 of the 92 million people aged over 65, 89 per cent were living in Mainstream Housing. (ONS, 2013) while the remaining 11 per cent were living in Specialist Retirement Housing (6%) or Residential Care (5%).

Government policy encourages older people to remain in their own home, supported where necessary by domiciliary services (Holland et al, 2001). Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2010, p.5) however challenges this political “assumption that home-based living should, wherever possible be the ideal for older people” arguing the point that “living in your own home does not in itself promote ‘independent living’ (just as living in a communal setting does not necessarily prelude it) and that not all people with care and support needs can and want to live in their own homes indefinitely”.

Supported by AgeUK (2014) is the view that, “an older person’s health can benefit from a move to more suitable housing as long as it is an informed choice and they remain in control”. Arguably then

as social isolation is increasingly recognised to be a threat to older peoples health and wellbeing, but an increasing number of older people live alone and report loneliness, then some encouragement might be better placed on consideration of housing models that are consciously ‘sociable’, such as cohousing and Homeshare, which have proved to be most beneficial in countries like the Netherlands, in providing a choice for occupants who might desire a more sociable living environment? (Brenton, 1998; Peace et al, 2006; Hasselaar, 2011)

having to leave their neighbourhood to get it. As Davies et al (2000) states it will additionally promote social diversity as “pepper-potting’ different tenures throughout an area ensures that a variety of housing types and ownership patterns are sprinkled, rather than clustered into exclusive enclaves.“ - a positive attribute as criticism is often received from older people regarding traditional ‘specialist’ housing as “ghettos cut off from the local community” (Salter et al, 2013).

Architecturally Disabled

Research supports that regardless of an older person’s living arrangements or the level of care and support one requires, the desire for autonomy, a positive living environment, meaningful relationships and a meaningful daily and community life appears unanimous for all. (Branfield, 2010; Burke, 2010; Cattan, 2010) “Most people’s homes connect them into a social network of neighbours, relatives and friends.” It is access to these Primary Groups and their ‘place’ that many older people value and thus are most fearful of losing should they have to leave their own homes.

(Hanson, J (2001, p.37) cited in Holland et al, 2001) Based on the diversity of older people, and the knowledge of the research above, it is arguable that not only is there a need for choice in housing, as policy makers acknowledge (DCLG, 2008; CABE, 2009), but that a full variety of such housing should be made available in one neighbourhood. This action would truly promote the ethos behind ‘ageing in place’ by also allowing for those who may eventually need extra support housing to not be hesitant about

As previously mentioned, “People who are inconvenienced by their environment are architecturally disabled.” (Hanson, 2001, p.35) cited in Holland et al, 2001) People do not have to be medically disabled, nor do they necessarily require more intensive care, yet as a result of their ‘inappropriate’ accommodation they may be forced to move out of their home. This can for some be “distressing or even traumatic”. (JRF, 2010) In 1990, the Habinteg Housing Association (Goodman,2011) set a precedent for new build homes by producing the Lifetime Homes Standard, which incorporates a set of 16 generic design criteria.. This standard provides flexibility and adaptability within the design and structure, removing the barriers often exposing people to architectural disability and thus it is able to meet a diverse range of needs over time.

(Goodman,2011) This could have financial benefits by reducing both subsidies to adapt future houses and time spent in later care-settings. (Kelly, M. 2001, cited in Holland et al, 2001)

Since 2004, the Greater London Authority (GLA, 2004) has declared that all new homes built in London meet the Lifetime Homes Standard. Whilst this is a positive step, newly built homes account for just a fraction of the total housing stock and of the estimated 23.2 million existing dwellings in England (DCLG, 2013) 30% currently fail to even meet the Decent Homes Standard (Palmer, 2013; DCLG, 2006), let alone a Lifetime Home Standard. Nevertheless, despite the enormity of the task, if we wish to successfully provide enough appropriate housing to support the projected ageing population we will need to evaluate our existing housing stock and adapt accordingly. (Marx, L. cited in Schittich, C (2007)) It is arguable, that what would suit most older people best is to be housed in ‘normal’ buildings well located and appropriately designed for their needs, not ‘special’ and indicative of some disability. Then should they consider an alternative to the mainstream, it would be fuelled by their own desire to benefit from its advantages, rather than being compelled to do so by circumstances.

Labels and Type-casts As Peace & Holland (2001, p.17, cited in Holland et al, 2001) would suggest, “as we reach for housing that will support and enable in later life, it is in the interests of all of us to find ways to challenge the institutional ageism that has contributed to the development of most currently available forms of housing and support.” By 2050, 1 in 4 of the UK population will be 65 or older (Rutherford, 2012). The current and arguably ageist, preoccupation which exists with ‘dismembering’ the housing stock into innumerable

Appropriate Living 91

Appropriate Living

How it can be hidden

special needs groupings must change, (Holland et al, 2001; Palmore et al, 2005) because this once ‘Special’ group will increasingly become a majority in society.

Not only are there benefits to be gained from mixed tenures as previously mentioned, but the concept of actually integrating the various forms of available housing within the ‘block’ could further promote full integration and reduce the inappropriately ageist view of what ‘old people’ housing is. (Fig As Habinteg (1997,1998) discovered after consulting their disabled clients, they did not want their homes to be located together in “a cripples’ corner”, but rather scattered throughout the development to ensure they were fully integrated.

The same again has been noted in the renewal of certain High rise flats which despite catering for a variety of housing types, from ‘lifetime’ flats to warden assisted communes, prevent an outsider from being able to distinguish between what one might call ‘special housing’ and ‘normal’ housing. (McGrail et al, 2001, cited in Holland et al, 2001)

Circulation

Shops/Offices

1-2 bed Flats

3-4 bed Apartments

Shared Accommodation

Appropriate Living 93

Fig.43 (Kuhn, 2014)

R

e-laying The

Foundations

Realigning the Marginalised

95

“The barriers, (the) gaps, and the suggestions for improvement.”

Re-laying The Foundations

Re-laying The Foundations (WHO, 2011. p. 55)

Realigning the Marginalised Society as a whole, and specifically those responsible for shaping the built environment (councils, policy planners, urban planners, architects and product designers), need to accept responsibility for investing in opportunities and services for all older people; to see them as full citizens and a resource for society, rather than as dependent on it, so that they may actively age with a high levels of Wellbeing. There is a need to further study existing models of communities like Naturally Occurring Retirement Communites and Cohousing which may provide a greater insight into qualities for age- friendly neighbourhoods.

A co-ordinated approach towards a properlyfunctioning integrated society model, supported by an appropriate, adaptable but targeted built environment appears to be the key to turning the ageing population from being regarded as an ‘issue’ into an opportunity. Both emotional and physical needs have to be met, and in a co-ordinated way.

And this must be achieved in respect of both the older people as well as the younger communities with whom a degree of integration, or at least cooperation, will pay dividends.

It will take courage and determination, though, and above all vision to achieve this goal, but the contribution that careful development of an appropriate, built environment could make, suitably adapted to accommodate the changing circumstances, cannot be under-estimated.

We must adapt our policies if we wish to realign 21st century environments to fit and prosper from the realities of 21st century demographics.

97

Like the challenge that faces a redcoat at Butlins, it’s simply not good enough to put on a ‘one-theme’ show and hope that it will keep everyone entertained. The audience will be made up of a variety of characters, each seeing the performance from their own ‘angle’.

For them to all go home happy, they must each find something in the show to enjoy, and the pleasure will then become infectious, amplifying the enjoyment of those around them.

The unavoidable change in society’s age balance requires an innovative approach from planners, architects and society’s builders alike. For the benefits to accrue for all, a contribution from every player is needed. It would not be wrong to say that the ‘whole’ outcome of a properly-developed society on physical, emotional and practical levels could be so much more than the simple sum of the parts (individual contributors).

B

ibliography

& Figure Ref.

99

Bibliography & Figure Ref. “An investment in knowledge, always pays the best interest�

(Benjamin Franklin, cited in Ujang (2011, p.12)

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