Poly-Cycle Arena

POLY∙CYCLE ARENA

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POLY∙CYCLE ARENA: POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITE

COMPONENT-BASED TENSEGRITY SURFACE ARCHITECTURE FOR TEMPORARY APPLICATION AS SOLAR CANOPIES DURING THE 2020 TOKYO OLYMPICS.

Obuchi Laboratory University of Tokyo Graduate School of Engineering Department of Architecture

Printed in Tokyo, Japan for more information on Obuchi lab Visit www.obuchilab.com Obuchi Laboratory University of Tokyo Graduate School of Engineering Department of Architecture 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku Tokyo, 113-8656 Japan

POLY∙CYCLE ARENA: POLYSTYRENE COMPOSITE

COMPONENT-BASED TENSEGRITY SURFACE ARCHITECTURE FOR TEMPORARY APPLICATION AS SOLAR CANOPIES DURING THE 2020 TOKYO OLYMPICS.

CHRISTOPHER SJOBERG & YEONSANG SHIN Contributions from: Quangtuan Ta

Primary Advisor: Professor Yusuke Obuchi

Course Assistants: Toshikatsu Kiuchi & So Sugita

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introduction 7 chapter 1

15

RESEARCH BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: OLYMPICS 2020 1.1.

1.2.

1.3.

1.4.

1.5.

Olympic Intensities: Production & Consumption Tokyo 1964 Olympics Post Olympic Development of Tokyo Bay Development Realities Tokyo 2020: Research Agenda and Project Statement

chapter 2

16 19 22 25 31

36

THE PROPOSAL: THE OLYMPIC VENUE DESIGN 2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

2.5.

2.6.

Site Material Agenda Bubble Field 1.0 Bubble Field 2.0 Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena Project Brief

chapter 3

40 45 46 56 65 71

85

TENSEGRITY EXPLORATIONS 3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

3.4.

Tensegrity Research Positioning BioTensegrity: Form and Function 99 Failures Pavilion Project Precedent Form, Pattern, & Stability: Tensegrity Test Results

chapter 4

87 91 98 109

130

FORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS 4.1.

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

4.5.

Surface Forms and Shells Computational Design for Advanced Form-Making Venue Design Development Surface Agility as Assembly Strategy Form and Component Analysis

chapter 5 URBAN BACKGROUND OF MATERIAL RESEARCH 4

132 143 155 170 175

181

CONTENTS 5.1. Introduction 5.2.

Postwar Recovery and Advent of Plastic 5.3.

The Bubble Era 5.4.

Modern Tokyo 5.5.

2020 Tokyo Olympics 5.6.

Construction Strategies 5.7.

New Methodology 5.8.

Temporary Buildings

chapter 6

181 187 189 199 204 207 208 210

212

MATERIAL STUDIES 6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

6.4.

Background Tsukiji Market Recent Changes in Use of Polystyrene Material Circulation

chapter 7

212 223 234 238

253

FABRICATION 7.1.

Design Statement 7.2.

Fabrication Issues 7.3 Inflating Sheet Concept 7.4.

Assembling Tailored Parts 7.5.

Use of Ingot as a Raw Material 7.6.

Component Inflation 7.7. Fabrication

chapter 8

253 254 257 261 265 269 275

301

DESIGN PROPOSAL 8.1. Introduction 8.2.

Additional Details 8.3.

Fabrication Process 8.4.

Soft Skin + Hybrid Fabrication Stages by Section 8.5.

Geometry Based on Structural Analysis 8.6.

Defining Component Geometries 8.7.

Digital Simulation for Pattern and Fabrication 8.8.

Component Strengthening through Vertical Length Control 8.9. Inflation 8.10. Challenges regarding Scale 8.11. Digital Model

301 306 310 322 324 326 332 338 342 347 348

Conclusion 354 GEOMETRY, MATERIAL, STABILITY, TEMPORALITY

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Figure A.1 Buckminster Fuller with a tensegrity model.

6

INTRODUCTION

introduction As a team-based research and design effort at the Obuchi Laboratory, University of Tokyo School of Engineering, the following work presents the development of a project as an architectural and urban prototype, through the combined efforts of students Christopher Sjoberg and Yeonsang Shin, with contributions by Quangtuan Ta during the initial research and project formulation phase. Chapter 1 of this book describes the conditions and context in which the research and project are grounded, and also includes a declaration of the research agendas and project statement. Chapter 2 introduces the final Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project output, its formal characteristics, and a brief outline of the project’s site, material focus, and conceptual origins.

The remaining chapters delve into the detailed research, experiments, and discoveries which contribute to the particular development path of the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project. Within this detailed research, Chapters 3-4 focus on the principles of tensegrity, the formal, structural, and qualitative attributes of the X-shaped component, surface tensegrity architecture, and the development of the project form, while Chapters 5-8 focus on detaillevel development of the component element with regard to geometry, fabrication, and the flow of material within an urban context. Taken together, these pages document an expansion in the understanding and design potential of this unique architectural and urban prototype.

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SOURCING

CITY

COMPONENT FABRICATION

MATERIAL

COMPONENT

GEOMETRY

MATERIAL EXPERIMENTS PATTERN SITE AND CONTEXT

DIGITAL FEEDBACK PHYSICAL FEEDBACK

8

INTRODUCTION

NETWORK

SURFACE SHELL ASSEMBLY

ASSEMBLY

STRUCTURE

SURFACE AGILITY PATTERN

FORMAL CONSTRUCTION

FORM

STRUCTURAL TEST

PATTERN DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURAL RESPONSE DEVELOPMENT SITE AND CONTEXT

MATERIAL VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION/CONTRACTION FORMAL VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION/CONTRACTION

RESEARCH STATEMENT

This team research and associated Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project investigates and responds to current urban and construction challenges facing Japan, through a novel re-networking of formal, material, structural, and socio-economic criteria.

To do so, the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project operates within the intense urban conditions and temporary duration of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.

Ultimately,

this project acts both as an architectural prototype which delivers unique visual and spatial qualities, efficiencies through digital fabrication, and non-traditional construction strategies, and as an urban prototype which re-networks the flow of building materials, creating new life-cycle processes within the context of the city.

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MATERIAL PHASE CHANGE

Critical to the understanding of this research and the development of the Poly∙Cycle Arena project is the phenomena of material and formal phase change, both as a physical effect and conceptual framework. Utilizing polystyrene, a ubiquitous urban plastic which demonstrates the ability to expand up to 50 times in volume, new architectural potentials are created through a diversion of this existing material cycle into an COMPONENT enhanced material flow.

BEADS

DROPPLETS

TENSEGRITY SYSTEM

Material Diversion

PS FOAM

MATERIAL

PRODUCTS

PHASE CHANGE MIRCO DROPPLETS PARTICLES POLYSTYRENE MOLECULE HYDROCARBONS

MIRCO-PARTICLES

Figure A.2 Diagram of Phase Change Cycles 10

INTRODUCTION

SURFACE SHELLS

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ARCHITECTURAL FORM

Architectural Phase Change

This research examines how through a distinct set of computational design, digital fabrication, and physical prototyping processes, polystyrene’s cyclical transformation from molecule to architectural form and back to molecule can be captured to alter the relationship of the material to the city.

SURFACE SHELLS

TENSEGRITY SYSTEM

COMPONENT 11

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Timeline of INTENSITIES Olympic Production Intensities EXPANDING 1月

2月

3月

4月

5月

6月

7月

8月

9月

10月

11月

INFRASTRUCTURE SOLAR

SPORTS

VISITORS

Figure A.3 The Poly-Cycle Arena project materializes and de-materializes over a short period of time, capitalizing on the various intensities described in the diagram while delivering temporary, yet impactful architecture.

12

12月

13

3月

INTRODUCTION

14月

15月

16月

17月

18月

19月

20月

21月

22月

23月

24月

POLYSTYRENE

STADIUM

FABRICATION SPORTS

COMPUTATION VISITORS

WASTE OLYMPICS/PARAOLYMPIC GAMES 13

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Figure 1.1 Opening ceremonies of the Tokyo 1964 Ganes 14

CHAPTER 1

chapter 1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: OLYMPICS 2020

Since

the first modern Olympics Games in Athens 1896, the global sporting tournament has every four years served as the premier athletic competition for top talent from around the world. Beyond sports, however, the Games and the cities that serve as hosts have long acted as a forum for international diplomacy, a showcase of cultural heritage, a catalyst for economic development, a projection of political ideologies, and a platform for creative ingenuity. Perhaps nowhere are these characteristics better visualized, and their legacy better ingrained than in the Olympic venue architecture. From the awe-inspiring Bird’s Nest of Beijing 2008, to the environmentally sensitive venues and masterplanning of London 2012, the Olympics have a lasting impact on the places in which they occur. Despite recent Games being plagued by criticism of their excessive cost and overt commercialization, the Olympics still serve as an inspiration to billions.

Japan

is no stranger to this potential for transformation, having brought itself from the destruction of World War II to the successful host of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, emerging on the international stage as a global economic powerhouse and a technological innovator. Japan again demonstrated its hosting prowess when Sapporo welcomed the 1972 Winter Games, and Nagano in 1998, though these games arguably had a less transformational effect on the economic and political stature of the country. With Tokyo now destined to host the Summer Olympics in 2020, the time for a critical reexamination of the city’s environmental and development aspirations has arrived, as well as an opportunity to reestablish Japan’s reputation as a technologically ingenious, economically flourishing, and architecturally forward-thinking country. Using the 2020 Games as its impetus, the following architectural research and Olympic venue design project intends to serve as an urban and architectural prototype for how Japan might achieve these ambitions, while catalyzing a new system of development to carry it into the decades to come.

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1.1.

Olympic Intensities: Production & Consumption

As with any major international gathering, whether the World Cup or the World Expo, the Olympics require a highly focused and comprehensive orchestration of resources and activities to ensure an adequate response to the demands and necessities of a visiting audience. With the advent of mass media and the lowering price of commercial aviation, recent Olympics have attracted massive international audiences of 500,000 visitors or more (Office 2012), and billions more through television and online sources. With these large audiences comes a great influx of spending, turning the Olympics into a highly lucrative commercial opportunity for countries hoping to stimulate growth and development. The British Office for National Statistics notes that despite receiving 5% fewer total visitors during the London 2012 Olympics than the same period of 2011, money spent was 9% higher, with Olympic visitors spending on average 1,290 GBP per person, nearly twice that spent by other visitors (Office 2012).

While

spending by visitors of the Games is well known not to recuperate the enormous cost of infrastructural preparations preceding the Games, and there has been debate about the financial return of such events (Rose 2009), the costs accrued by host nations for recent Olympic Games such as Beijing ($40 billion), London 2012 ($14 billion), and Rio De Janeiro (estimated $14.4 billion) (Martin 2013), suggest governments see potential benefits worthy of such mammoth investments. New economic studies suggest that the effect of even bidding to host an Olympics may increase trade by nearly 30% by sending a signal to potential trading partners that the host country is wishing to expand its international exchange of goods and services (Rose 2008). Undoubtedly, the Olympics generate the political and economic climate within which a dramatic production of goods, materials, and resources are produced and consumed, the intensity of which mandates substantial innovation and rethinking of traditional processes. This is no less true in the field of Olympic venue architectural design.

Figure 1.2 The London 2012 Olympics saw much of its statistical data made public, with measures of the magnitude of production and consumption often finding their way into attractive web infographics (left).

16

CHAPTER 1

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Figure 1.3 “The Start of Sprinters Dash” Official 1964 Olympic Poster - Yusaku Kamekura, Osamu Hayasaki and Jo Murakoshi.

Figure 1.4 Japan inaugurates its first shinkansen line connecting Osaka and Tokyo on the 1st of October, 1964, eight days before the beginning of the Games.

(Martin 2013)

Figure 1.5 Signs in Ginza welcome Olympic visitors.

Evident in the photograph is the nascent development of the district into the shopping and tourist hub it is today.

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1.2.

Tokyo 1964 Olympics

In 1959, less than 15 years after the end of World War II, Japan won the bid to host the 1964 Olympics, making it the first Asian country to host the Games. Signaling that the country had emerged from its postwar shadows and intended to establish itself as a member of the world’s economically developed nations, Japan spent close to $10 billion dollars at the current rate, equal to nearly the entire national budget of the time, to radically modernize the city of Tokyo with key architectural and infrastructural projects, including the construction of vast highway networks, and the first shinkansen linking Tokyo and Osaka (Martin 2013). These modernization efforts were also reflected in the Olympic venue architecture, as University of Leeds lecturer Manuel Cresciani notes:

The ‘Olympic Buildings’ are designed to represent both an architectural and an engineering challenge to the existing world of construction. They aspire to become icons of a particular time and to set a new standard in terms of building technologies/materials (Cresciani 2008).

Within the venue architecture, a nation’s character could be projected to an international audience and a period of its history benchmarked as it progressed into the future.

Of

the thirty various venues constructed for the 1964 Olympics, perhaps none better characterize a nation hoping to portray its innovative and industrious capacity than the National Olympic Gymnasium complex

by Architect Prof. Kenzo Tange and Structural Engineer Prof. Yoshikatsu Tsuboi. The main building was composed of two crescent-shaped halves encompassing nearly 25,000 m2 of floor area, while the mast-supported suspension cable roof, using principles similarly employed in suspension bridges, gave an uninterrupted span for the nearly 50-meter by 100-meter aquatic event program and audience of 15,000 (Organization 1964). The roof profile evokes traditional Japanese temple design, connecting elements of the past with highly modern building strategies (Cresciani 2008). The annex is similar in design principle, yet includes a spiral form in plan; the roof is suspended from a single, central mast. At the time of their construction, the National Gymnasium buildings were the largest tensile structure buildings in the world and represented extraordinary engineering achievements. In addition, the low-slung roofs helped to reduce the volume of conditioned air, providing a both economical and visually stunning union of performance, structure and form (Cresciani 2008). This integration, begun by Nervi during the Rome Olympics of 1960, would be expanded in Tokyo by Tange, and serve as guiding principles of Olympics to follow.

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Figure 1.6 Plan view of the National Gymnasium (main building, and Annex) The buildings feature a sophisticated unison of formal and structural design strategies which relied heavily on civil engineering expertise (Organizing 1964).

Figure 1.7 Aerial view of Yoyogi Olympic Gymnasium complex designed by Japanese Architect Kenzo Tange (Organizing 1964).

20

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Figure 1.8 Sectional view of the National Gymnasium (main building, and Annex) The innovative tensile roof structure allowed for large, uninterrupted spans while giving the architecture a distinctive appearance (Organizing 1964).

Figure 1.9 Interior view of the main building housing the aquatic events. The longspan roof provides natural lighting for some 15,000 spectators (Organizing 1964).

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1.3.

Post Olympic Development of Tokyo Bay

During the decades following the Olympics, Japan, buoyed by the economic stimulus and infrastructural investment generated by the event, underwent rapid urban development. As the population of Tokyo grew and real estate prices rose, the city conducted a series of intensive engineering efforts to cope with the rate of residential, commercial, and industrial growth occurring. Perhaps nowhere was this more evident than in Tokyo Bay, as large scale land reclamation projects and refuse depositing transformed the geography of the bay, eventually encompassing nearly twenty percent of its surface area (Ministry 2005) and allowing for carte blanche urban development. While construction stagnated following the economic bubble burst of the 1980’s, development is again underway in advance of the 2020 Olympics Games (Chu 2014).

• 1974 The first conbini opens in Japan (Seven Eleven) • 1979 Landfill No.13 Completed • 1988 Rinkai Sub-urban Plan by City Government, Subway Toyosu station of Yurakucho Line completed • 1991 Aomi passenger terminal • 1993 Rainbow Bridge • 1995 Yuri Kamome transit line completed • 1996 Rinkai Line transit line completed • 1997 Fuji TV • 2006 Extension of Yuri Kamome line • 2012 Musashino University Campus • 2014 Purification of terrain in Toyosu to accommodate upcoming move of Tsukiji Market • 2015 Complete village making process in Aomi and North Ariake • 2016 Expected completion of complex in Tokyo Bay waterfront Area(Rinkai Area) 22

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.10 (above) Map showing the relative period of land expansion in Tokyo Bay (Ministry 2005).

Figure 1.11 (right) Aerial imagery showing the expansion of Tokyo bay landfill projects. From top, 1947, 1964, 1974, 2005 (History 2008).

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Figure 1.12 Architect Kenzo Tange’s neverrealized 1960 Tokyo Bay master plan proposal envisioned a radical re-networking of the city, through infrastructural interventions, allowing new routes of communication and mobility (Lin 2007).

Today the Tokyo bay region of Odaiba is being transformed with the planned construction of twenty-three of the total thirty-nine Olympic related venues (Chu 2014). Ultimately, city officials hope the Olympics will accelerate the completion of development of Waterfront City, a 442 hectares region of reclaimed land which the municipal government has been promoting since the mid 1980’s, and which between 2010 and 2016 is expected to quadruple in population to nearly 50,000 residents (Chu 2014). Harumi, the are located nearby (also made of reclaimed land), expects a final population of close to 43,000 after the Olympic villages are converted to commercially available residential properties (Chu 2014). What is most exceptional about this development is the condition of its existence, in which mere decades ago, the land simply did not exist upon which to build, being wrought from the bay floor and the refuse of the city to produce entirely new urban space.

This extracting of resources from existing city and natural structures offers valuable design and planning possibilities.

24

CHAPTER 1

decreasing trend and a long-term stagnation of overall construction investment persisted. However, according to forecasts published by RICE in July 2011, due to increased restoration/reconstruction investment for the Great East Japan Earthquake and recovering private sector investment, increases

1.4.

Development Realities

over the previous year are expected for FY2011 and FY2012.

Despite its long economic rise following the ‘64 Olympics, Japan’s

Figuretwo 1 decades Trends in Real Growth Rate economy has had over of GDP relatively slow growth following 㧔㧑㧕 the asset bubble burst and depressed spending that followed. Reflecting 14.0 these trends, the construction sector has experienced significant long term 12.0 declines. The effort to overcome these declines is hampered by Japan’s 10.0 rapidly aging society, with currently 22% of the population over sixty-five 8.0 years of age (D.M. 2014) and a net population decline of nearly 250,000 6.0 annually (Janowski 2013). More problematic to the building industry is the 4.0 shrinking working-age population, falling by nearly half a million annually 2.0 and resulting in a construction workforce which is now a third smaller than in 1997 (Janowski 2013). The decline in workforce would seem complimentary 0.0 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 to -2.0 the decline in demand, yet both are symptomatic of an entrenched 㧔( ; 㧕 economic condition requiring dramatic measures to upset.

-4.0 -6.0

Source) Cabinet Office, RICE

Figure 2 Trends in Real Construction Investment Declining Construction Investment

6TKNNKQP ;'0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0

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Figure 1.13 Historical data showing Japan’s construction sector, reflecting signifiMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andinTourism cant long-term declines beginning the early nineties (MLIT 2013).

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Figure 1.14 Financial Case Study

Case Study: Stadium Financial Operating Health

(red denotes stadiums operating poorly; black denotes stadiums operating well)

• Makuhari Messe

• Yokohama National Stadium

• Ajinomoto Stadium

• Tokyo Dome

• Tokyo Big Sight

• Jingu Stadium

• Saitama Stadium

• Tokyo National Stadium

• Saitama Super Arena

• Yoyogi National Gymnasium

• Budokan

• Ryogoku Kokugikan

26

PRESENT STATE OF METROPOLITAN EXPRESSWAY CHAPTER 1

Structural aging is spreading, where ones’ above 40 years occ length) and above nearly 50% (approx. 145 km) to t The Increasing Costs30 of years Agingdoes Infrastructure Years in Service (As of April 2012 )㻌 Tohoku EXPWY

Joban EXPWY

Saitama Pref.

5

1 Chiba Pref.

Tokyo Metropolis Chuo EXPWY

Keiyo Road Higashi-Kanto EXPWY

Meishin EXPWY

Daisan Keihin Road Kanaga wa Pref. > 40 yrs – Inner Circular Route and Haneda, Meguro, Yokohane Lines 30 to 39 yrs – Fukagawa, Mitsuzawa Lines 20 to 29 yrs – Misato, Kawaguchi, Kariba Lines 10 to 19 yrs – Daiba, Omiya Lines < 9 yrs – Kawasaki Line and Central Circular Route

Figure 1.15 Map representing the ages of various segments of the Tokyo 2013). and Tourism, Japan, All rights reserved .

Metropolitan Highway Network (MinistryTransport Copy right (c) 2013 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,

As a consequence of construction investments stuck in general decline over the last two decades, infrastructural spending has proven a favorite tool of Japanese policy makers hoping to stimulate economic growth, with nearly $2 trillion spent on such projects since 1990 (Janowski 2013). It is also a current tactic of majority party politician Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in seeking to reinvigorate the Japanese economy (Harlan 2013). Yet, as the 61st largest country, Japan already has the world’s fifth largest road network at roughly 1.2 million km, with 680,000 bridges and 10,000 tunnels. It is confronting a situation where it may have no use for extensive new infrastructure, nor be able to accept the debt burden and costly maintenance required to build 27

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA and maintain it (Janowski 2013). As Hosei University public policy professor Takayoshi Igarashi posits, “we cannot simply continue to build roads and infrastructure the way we used to at a time when the population is aging and shrinking” (Janowski 2013). Through the end of the current decade, spending on maintenance and repairs is expected to reach 5 trillion, well within Prime Minister Abe’s target for economic stimulus, but requiring a great accrual of debt to finance, and affecting Japan’s long term economic outlook (Janowski 2013). Clearly, Japan cannot feasibly support the continued expansion of infrastructure projects as demand is expected to follow the declining population trends.

Construction & Demolition of Recyclable Waste Supply and Demand in Japan

Fewer construction projects will lead to shrinking recycling markets for waste concrete and various other waste construction materials...It is probable that waste generation will exceed the demand for recyclable resources. If this happens, large amounts of redundant waste would have to be disposed of in landfill[s].

Tokyo Metropolitan Government,

Waste Management Division

(Bureau 2009)

Tohoku Construction Material and Labor Shortage Fixed Capital Formation

Maturation Stage

Cities Growth Stage

New Construction Projects:

Engineering works & Recyclable materials

Improvement Projects:

Demolition waste produced

Time Figure 1.16 Construction & Demolition of Recyclable Waste (Bureau 2009).

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As Japan prepares to host the 2020 games, the intensity of investment and development presents a range of construction related issues. On one hand, the near-term increase in demand is a welcome opportunity for Japan’s construction industry. Both the Shimizu Corporation and the Takenaka Corporation—two major national construction companies—have established Olympic task forces aimed at seeking out and winning lucrative Olympic related contracts. On the other hand, because construction contracting firms face long-term declines in demand and available labor, in order to profitably provide the workforce and resources necessary for the completion of the Games, workers, equipment and material are being diverted from other areas around Japan, chiefly from the much needed reconstruction efforts in the Tsunami devastated region of Tohoku, where many projects are suffering severe labor and building material shortages (Motegi 2014). Despite government assurances that Olympic development would be distributed throughout Japan, Tohoku in particular is already facing the negative consequences of the increase of Kanto-centered construction.

Ratio of Failed Bids Due to Lack of Bidders to All Land Ministry-Ordered Construction Projects

Figure 1.17 Recent historical data showing Japan’s current shortages of construction labor, and failed bids on public construction works (Motegi 2014).

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I TA G E Z ON H E R ne Hér ita ge E Zo

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Network Figure / R éseau1.18 routierTokyo

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2020 Olympic Venue Location Proposal. Organizers concentratRail Lines / L ignes ferroviaires ed venues within two distinct Olympic la nezones; The Heritage Zone, hosting the majority of track Subu rb an ra il Voie olympique Ré seau ferr oviaire de banlieu e and field events in either the New National Stadium or other renovated facilities, and Olympic pr iori ty rout e Major ur ban ar ter ial networ k Subw ay Ro ute olympique pr iori tair e Pr incipale ar tère ur baine Métr the Tokyo Bay Zone, hosting a variety of other stadiums from volleyball, aquatics, ten-o Li ght ra il nis and cycling. The Olympic Village will be situated between these intersecting zones Tr ains lége rs (Discover 2013).

Motorw ay Autoroute

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Figure 1.19 Tokyo 2020 Olympic Stadium, Digital Rendering, Zaha Hadid Architects.

1.5.

Tokyo 2020: Research Agenda and Project Statement

On

September 7th, 2013, Tokyo won the bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympic Games. With nearly 70% of Tokyo residents supporting the bid, up 14% since the March 11th earthquake and nuclear disaster, there is clear optimism that the Games might have the transformative effect on the country in the way they did some fifty years ago (D.M. 2013). With cost estimates for development of the Games ranging between $4.1 billion and $7.7 billion, Tokyo will see the construction of twenty-two brand new venues in addition to fifteen renovated structures, including some from the 1964 Games (Japan 2013)(Martin 2013). As in 1964, the architecture of the 2020 venues has an enormous opportunity to shape the international perception of contemporary Japan, and serve as a catalyst for new innovation and development strategies.

Yet Japan is a different country than it was a half-century ago. The economy is stagnant, the population in decline, and the world itself more connected, fluid, and complex. Japan must find progress no longer in an era of industrial efficiency, but in an era of information exchange and innovation.

Today, Tokyo seeks to emerge not from war, but from a sluggish economy and an eclipsed global influence. Answering how venue architecture might respond to these conditions while improving upon past Olympic architectural precedents will be crucial to hosting an impactful Olympic Games.

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Munich 1972: an architectural precedent for Tokyo 2020

In establishing the current criteria of nation-defining innovation

and form-making, the sleek, membranous architecture of the 1972 Munich Games serves as perhaps a more pertinent case study for Japan in 2020 than the sweeping tensile roof of Tange’s 1964 National Gymnasium.

While the designs for both Tokyo 1964 and Munich 1972 imbue a sense of optimism within their forms and serve as symbols of each nation’s arrival on the international economic and political stage, the tense in which they deliver this message differs. Tange, through form, manifests a connection of past with present; Munich departs with historical references to show the height of German technological achievements and architectural innovation, in effect projecting a connection of ‘present with future’ (Cresciani 2008).

It is in this manner that the full research potential of architectural and urban prototyping can be explored.

Figure 1.20 Munich Olympic Stadium by Gunther Behnisch & Frei Otto. The innovative design relied on a highly controlled organization of tensile forces and compressive elements interlaced with minimal surface membranes.

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Formulated as a collaboration between Gunther Behnisch, Frei Otto, and structural engineer Jรถrg Schlaich, the design for the Olympic venues consists of an expansive tensile membrane canopy connecting and covering various programmatic features of the site. Based on research developed

by Otto at the Institute of Lightweight Structures in Stuttgart, the canopy is both physically and visually light, relying on carefully calibrated tension guys, wires, and booms to support the minimal surface structure (Cresciani 2008). In targeting this novel approach to lightweight construction, the project employs strategies similar to those of natural structures: the minimal intensity of material consumption through the maximum use of formal and geometrical complexity. These principles may be summarized and put forth as research agendas in the following way: geometry is cheap, while material is expensive. While the Munich Games may not entirely satisfy this condition due to fabrication limitations of the time, the advent of digital tools in design, simulation, and fabrication presents the opportunity to truly explore and maximize the economic relationship between form and material.

Figure 1.21 The cutting edge precedent had no established ways of calculating the forces acting on the form, and therefore elaborate models were created to physically measure the stress incurred by the architecture.

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Design Tenets Tokyo Olympics 2020 1. Geometry is Inexpensive 2. Material is Expensive 3. Agility is Economical 4. Permanence is a Liability

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Research Agenda

Using

the Munich Olympic Stadium as a design springboard and research precedent, the architectural and urban investigations presented in this book adopt the postulations set forth during the 1972 Games regarding material and formal economy, as this condition may be only more true in the environmentally-conscious and resource critical world of today. The Tokyo 2020 Games will be no exception to these realities, but must also operate within the unique demographic, economic and infrastructural conditions of Japan. It is therefore necessary to expand the research agenda of the Munich Olympic architecture to address the changing nature of both construction strategy and construction legacy; a declining labor force and decreasing demand coupled with rising infrastructural maintenance costs. This response can be summarized in two additional guiding research principles for Tokyo 2020: that the ability of a form to be agile in structure and assembly represents a economical approach to construction, and that permanence in the traditional pursuit of architecture must now be considered as a potential economic liability to future generations.

Project Statement:

This team research and associated project aims to investigate and develop a response to the current challenges of sports venue design, according to specific formal, material, structural, and socio-economic criteria, for deployment within the context and limited duration of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics.

In doing so, the project seeks to ultimately serve as a broad reaching architectural and urban prototype capable of delivering unique visual and spatial qualities, efficiencies through digital fabrication and non-traditional construction strategies, and a positive re-imagining of building material and life-cycle processes.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

chapter 2 THE PROPOSAL: THE OLYMPIC VENUE DESIGN

Over the two year course of research development, the nature of the project output has inevitably evolved according to the findings of various investigations, experimentations, and the influence of peripheral events and activities at the Obuchi Research Laboratory. The project should therefore be considered as two distinct approaches to the proposal: the first, branded Bubble Field (existing in two versions, 1.0 and 2.0), establishes the initial investigations of the project pertaining to scale, response to temporality, and material focus; the second and final version, Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena, is the main vehicle for testing and responding to challenges of geometry, material, flexibility, and temporality within the context of the 2020 Olympic Games. The versions differ in their formal and structural logic, yet contain connective elements of focus, investigation, and decision-making. Chapter 2 will introduce first the site and leading material focus (which remains consistent between the two approaches), before explaining the formal, structural, and programmatic qualities (in which they differ).

36

CHAPTER 2

37

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA MAP A - Overall concept of the Olympic Games / Plan A - Concept général des Jeux Olympiques HERITAGE ZONE / Zone Héritage 1

3

Athletic s Athlétisme

4

Judo Judo

Football Football

5

Cyclin g (r oad : st ar t) C yclisme (sur route : départ )

Rugb y Rugb y

6

Weightli fting Haltérophili e

7

Bo xing Bo xe

Ta ble Te nnis Te nnis de table

Handball Handball

33 15k m

20

km

2

32

Opening / Closing Cer emony Cé rémonies d'ouvert ur e et de clôtur e

TOKYO BAY ZONE / Zone de la Baie de Toky o Ro wing Avir on

8

Vol ley ball Volley ball

9

Cyclin g (B MX) C yclisme (B MX)

10

Cyclin g (tra ck ) C yclisme (sur pis te)

20

Cyclin g (mount ai n bike) C yclisme (vélo tout terr ain)

11

Gymnasti cs (a rt isti c) Gymnastiqu e (art istiqu e)

21

Sa ilin g Voil e

Gymnasti cs (r hythmic) Gymnastiqu e (r ythmique )

22

Ca noe - ka yak (s la lom) Ca noë-kaya k (s la lom)

Gymnasti cs (tra mpolin e) Gymnastiqu e (tra mpolin e)

23

Ba dminton Ba dminton

Te nnis Te nnis

24

Bask etball Ba sk etball

25

Ar cher y Tir à l' ar c

26

Equest ri an (jumping ) Spor ts équestre s (s aut d'obstacle s)

12

19

Ca noe - ka yak (s pr int) Ca noë-kaya k (cours e en ligne)

Tr iathlo n Tr iathlo n Aquatics (mar athon sw imming ) Spor ts aquatiques (mar athon de natation )

13

14

Beac h Vol ley ball Volley ball de plage

15

Wr est ling Lu tte

16

F encin g Es cr ime

Equest ri an (dre ss age) Spor ts équestre s (dressag e) Equest ri an (e venting) Spor ts équestre s (concour s complet) Aquatics (s wimming) Spor ts aquatiques (natation) Aquatics (diving) Spor ts aquatiques (plongeon) Aquatics (s ynchronise d sw imming ) Spor ts aquatiques (natation sy nchronisée ) Aquatics (water polo) Spor ts aquatiques (water-polo)

27

Ta ek wondo Ta ek wondo 17

Hock ey Hock ey

18

Equest ri an (e venting ) Spor ts équestre s (concour s complet)

31 29 30

28

Football Preliminaries

OTHER VENUES /

Modern Pentathlon (fencing ) Pentathlon modern e (esc ri me) Foot ball Football

29 30

Modern Pentathlon (sw imming , ri ding, ru nning, shooting ) Pentathlon modern e (natation , équitation , cour se , tir ) 31

Cyclin g (r oad : finish ) C yclisme (sur route : ar ri vée)

32

Shooting Tir

OV

MMH

Phases pr éliminair es de Football

Autres Site s 33

Golf Golf

34

Foot ball Football

35

Foot ball Football

36

Foot ball Football

37

Foot ball Football

Olympic Vill age Vill age olympique Main Media Hotel Hôtel principal des médias

SAPPOROO

34

MIYAGI GI

35

SAITAMA

36

TOKY O YOKOHAMA A

0

200

400km

37

JAP AN JAPO N

Olympic Hospitali ty Site Si te d'hospitalit é olympique

IOC Hotel Hôtel du CI O IBC/ MPC

Inte rn ationa l Broadc as t Ce ntre / Main Pres s Ce ntre Ce ntre intern ationa l de ra dio et télé vision / Ce ntre pr inci pal de pres se

Live site Si te de re tr ansmis sio n en dire ct

00

Olympic competitio n venue Si te de compétitio n olympique

Figure 2.1 Official map of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic venue proposal (Discover 2013).

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CHAPTER 2

ues

teR oad mpique

I TA G E Z ON I TA G E Z ON H E R ne Hér ita ge HEE R ne Hér ita ge E Zo

4

4

7

2 1

2 1

5

5

6

7

6

Narita Int’l AIRPOR T

Narita AIRP

41k m

3

23 26 25 24

27

OV28

9

8

11

MMH 15

16

IBC/ MPC

14

PROJECT LOCATION

13

10 12

9

8

MMH 15

21

16

18

19

19

20 17

22

IBC/ MPC

14

18

22

20

21

10 km m

13

10 12

8km

11

23 26 25 24

27 28

10 km m

OV

8km

3

17

E yo E yo ON Tok ON Tok Z Z AY e AY e OB e d OB e d T OK Y l a B a i T OK Y l a B a i Z o n e de Z o n e de

N

W

Tokyo Int’ l AIRPOR T (Haneda)

Network / R éseau R oadroutier Network / R éseau routier

n en dire ct

venue ympique

Zo

Motorw ay Autoroute

Motorw ay Autoroute

Olympic la ne Voie olympique

Tokyo Int’ l AIRPOR T (Haneda)

E S

0

1

2

3

0

4

1

5km 2

3

Rail Lines / L ignes ferroviaires Rail Lines / L ignes ferrovia Olympic la ne Voie olympique

Olympic Olympic pr iori ty rout e Major ur ban ar ter ial networMajor k ur ban ar ter ial networprkiori ty rout e Robaine ute olympique pr iori tair eRo ute olympique pr iori tair e Pr incipale ar tère ur baine Pr incipale ar tère ur

Subu rb an ra il Subu rb an ra il Ré seau ferr oviaire de banlieu Réeseau ferr oviaire de ban Subw ay Métr o

Subw ay Métr o

Li ght ra il Tr ains lége rs

Li ght ra il Tr ains lége rs

39

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

2.1.

Site

In

order to intensify the constraints of the project and ground the research investigations in a scenario of current, real-world Olympic conditions, a venue and corresponding site were chosen according to the development outline of the Tokyo 2020 bidding proposal. When initiating the design phase of the project, the volleyball Arena and BMX Arena were initially targeted for their close proximity to a transit station and two other stadiums, their adjacency and water access to Tokyo Bay, and their relatively large scale: roughly one-hundred meters by eighty meters. This scale was chosen to pursue an architectural prototype which could build upon the research and precedents of Olympic venues past. Due to the absence of an immediate architectural or urban context, the design response germinated from the internal program requirements and broader material, structural, and formal research goals. While Bubble Field, version 1 of the project, focuses primarily on the volleyball arena as a program target, version 2, the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena, examines the neighboring BMX Arena in order to break with the circular form common for stadium design and instead develop a design which is more linear in plan.

Volleyball Arena Site

BMX Arena Site Ariake Tennis Nomori Station

Gymnastics Arena Site

Velodrome Arena Site

Figure 2.2 Area site plan showing the proximity of the BMX Arena and Volleyball Arena to other stadiums and transit station.

40

CHAPTER 2

Volleyball Arena Site BMX Arena Site

Figure 2.3 Google Earth aerial view of venue locations from the south. In this view, the lack of an immediate urban context can be observed.

Figure 2.4 Google StreetView image looking southwest towards the BMX Venue site, showing proximity to the Tokyo Bay water system.

41

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.5 Plastic debris forms a large percentage of marine pollution. Often toxic, plastic is particularly dangerous to the world’s oceans due to its slow degradation.

42

CHAPTER 2

43

N

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA 1 9 6 5

1960s

PERCEPTIONS OF PLASTIC 2 0 1 2 2014

?

2 0 2 0

2020

Figure 2.6 The various qualities and effects of plastics offered an interesting starting point for the research as it pertains to an architectural scale and application.

F L O AT I N G

STRONG IN TENSION

LIGHTNESS

T R A N S PA R E N C Y

(WEIGHT, COLOR, MOOD)

LOW-COST

R E S H A PA B L E

I N S U L AT I O N

RECYCLABILITY

Figure 2.7 The various qualities and effects of plastics.

44

M E LT I N G

CHAPTER 2

2.2.

Material Agenda

In setting the research agendas for the project, the material served

as a crucial element for the development of a new architectural prototype.

In response to current findings regarding the excessive stock of what may be called heavy infrastructure (primarily roads, bridges, and buildings of steel and concrete), and in keeping with the precedent of the 1972 Olympic Stadiumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pursuit of lightweight and minimal structures, plastics presents itself as a material with ample possibilities for investigation within an architectural context. In addition, plasticâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s highly ubiquitous presence in domestic and industrial applications and its environmental notoriety and geopolitical ramifications as an oil derivative establish a unique and important framework for the development of the project as an influential urban prototype. This project seeks to change the perception of plastics from one of low value and limited potential to a material of high-value worth, actively conserving and capable of a multitude of behaviors, effects, and qualities within the condition of architecture.

Litter Composition of the Tokyo Bay Seabed Polyethelyene 33.1% Polystyrene 20.1%

Unknown 18.1%

Others 5.0%

All Plastics 51.2%

Fishing Gear 3.5%

Polyvinyl Chloride 18.8%

Polyester 8.7%

Glass 2.1%

PolyPropylene 0.9% Metal 35.4%

Polyvinylidene Polyamide 0.2% Chloride 0.1%

Figure 2.8 This chart shows the percentage of various litter pollution found during surveys of the Tokyo Bay Seabed (Kuriyama 2003).

45

Resin types of plastic litters collected in 1998-2000 surveys. Resin

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

BUBBLE FIELD 2.3.

Bubble Field 1.0

Bubble

Field began by borrowing the site and venue strategies utilized in Frei Otto and Günter Behnisch’s 1972 Munich Olympic Stadium.

Employing a large, bioplastic tensile structure to cover and connect the proposed BMX and Volleyball Arenas to each other and to the Ariake Tennis Nomori Station, the membrane provides a visual coherence to the formally disparate buildings. Where the 1972 Munich Olympic membrane served only as a unifying formal gesture, providing limited protection from the elements, Bubble Field seeks to add intelligence and a performative capacity to the architecture through the impregnation of the membrane with a system of active algae growth and cultivation for the production of both bioplastics and human nutrients. The inclusion of algae cultivation figures prominently into the project’s material strategy and approach to temporality. While algae’s condition as living organisms necessitates a systems-integration approach to design, the bioplastic products of this system can be highly beneficial to the performance of architecture and athlete alike.

46

CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.9 Aerial view from the west of the Bubble Field membrane.

Figure 2.10 Interior view of the Volleyball Arena with membrane above. The cellular pattern and algae infrastructure are highly visible from both interior and exterior.

47

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.11 Location of Support /

Mechanical Towers

Figure 2.12 Membrane Cell Pattern

VOLLEYBALL ARENA

PUBLIC PLAZA

TRANSIT STATION BMX CYCLING GRANDSTAND

Figure 2.13 The initial phase of Bubble Field borrowed the programmatic and formal approach of the 1972 Olympic Games by spanning multiple event and public spaces with a continuous tensile membrane through adding the performance criteria of algae growth potential to the membrane.

48

CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.14 Membrane Surface

Figure 2.15 Continual Downwards

Flow Direction

Figure 2.16 Algae Growth Density

Figure 2.17 Intensity of Solar Gain 49

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.18 Current algae farming strategies include closed system photo bioreactors in which algae is grown while continuously circulating through tubing.

PLASTIC PRODUCTS

DISPOSAL

BUILDING MATERIAL ALGAE

Algae/Material Life-Cycle

9-12 months

OUTSIDE EXPOSURE WATER, BIOMASS, CARBON DIOXIDE BIO-DEGRADATION

Figure 2.19 Oil extracted from algae can be converted to plastic products. With time, those materials degrade, turning into biomass which can be then re-consumed by growing algae.

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CHAPTER 2

Algae Material Growth Cycle

Algae is the focus of much current environmental research due to the fact that its lipids and sugars can be processed into a variety of bio-fuels and bioplastics (Yeang 2008). The fuels are in effect carbon neutral, excluding processing energies, and the plastics break down into harmless organic biomass. In addition, various species of algae (such as spirulina) contain a high concentration of a variety of vitamins and minerals, which in supplement form can aid human diets (Grobbelaar 2000). Bubble Field takes advantage of these characteristics in order to create a cyclical material relationship between algae and architecture in which one is always producing the other. The membrane of Bubble Field produces both algae for continued bio-plastic material production and vitamin supplements for consumption by athletes during the Games.

Figure 2.20 Conceptual diagram showing the relationship between support columns and underground algae collection tanks (not to scale). Within the towers, all mechanical systems are contained to pump and process the algae fluid.

Figure 2.21 Aerial perspective rendering of the tensile membrane from the north.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Photosynthetic Cellular Design

Functioning

much like the surface of a leaf, whose chloroplasts convert sunlight into energy and nutrients for plant growth, the membrane of the Bubble Field project uses solar exposure to produce algae, which in turn can be processed into a bio-plastic construction material or human nutrients.

Additionally, during the process of algae growth, carbon dioxide is converted into oxygen, enhancing the conditions for athletic activities.

The

membrane’s cellular design pattern aids in the growth of algae and facilitates the membrane’s fabrication by allowing component cells to be fabricated individually before being connected on site. Because each cell is unique, digital fabrication processes can be utilized to construct individual cells.

Figure 2.22 Diagram of respiration and circulation of nutrients within a leaf.

Solar Energy CO2

Nitrogen+ Algae

ALGAE (2x)

Oxygen

Oxygen

Figure 2.23 Diagram of respiration and circulation of nutrients within a cellular unit on the membrane surface. Special plastic films like those found in high tech rainwear allow the exchange of gases without allowing water to escape.

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Breathable CO2 Membrane

Inter-Cellular Fluid Circuit

Algae Growth Track Oxygen trapping enclosure

Figure 2.24 Axonometric diagram showing the parts of each unit cell.

Figure 2.25 When cells are joined together, depicted here in a honeycomb arrangement, each cell is connected to each of ts neighbors. If one cell becomes clogged or damaged, the flow of algae fluid will reroute itself around the non-functioning cell.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Project Life Cycle

Just as algae has a life cycle in which it spawns, grows, breeds, and dies, the Bubble Field project exists in a perpetual cycle of two distinct phases.

One of infrastructural nature in which material is produced and amassed, the other of an architectural nature in which that material is converted into the OFF-EVENT POOLS forms and systems for which sports can be enhanced within the context of AT SCHOOLS

PRODUCTION PHASE

GROWTH INFRASTRUCTURE

CRUDE SUPPLY

BIOMASS

othe FIFA ASI

LIPID ALGAE GROWTH

bioplastic

bio-fuel

OUTPUT

AUTUMN

WINTER

SPRING

Figure 2.26 During the Pre/Post Event Phase, algae production occurs at an industrial scale to produce enough oil to be processed into bio-plastic for fabrication of the venue architecture.

54

SPRING

2-PHASES USAGE

BIO-GRADABLE

CHAPTER 2

RE-USE

the Olympic Games. After the Games, the architecture is allowed to decay, TRANSFORMATION being consumed by new algae, thus allowing the infrastructural phase to begin again. It is through this continual cycle of material, resources, and energies that the project becomes both responsive to fluctuating needs and TEMPORARY O M LY M P I C S 2 0 2 0 temporal in character.

STRUCTURE

EVENT PHASE

VENUE ARCHITECTURE

DIRECT SUPPLY

ALGAE GROWTH

EFFECTS

CO2 ABSORBTION

PRODUCTION

SUPPLEMENTS

O2

ELECTRICITY

OUTPUT calories vitamins proteins

SUMMER

AUT

Figure 2.27 During the Event Phase, algae production is shifted to an edible variety such as spirulina, which contains many vitamins and is beneficial for athletic performance. The production of algae occurs actively and visually within the architecture.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.28 Rendering of Bubble Field 2.0 from the north. In the foreground, algae growing cells are floated out to sea as part of the production phase of the project.

2.4.

Bubble Field 2.0

The second version of Bubble Field takes advantage of many of the core concepts of the first, such as the integration of algae production, the use of bio-plastic as a primary construction material, and the oscillation of the project between production and event phases. It breaks with the form version, however, in its formal and structural manifestation. Focusing solely on the Volleyball Arena, Bubble Field 2.0 is not on a tensile membrane but a series of abutted inflatable cells roughly five to eight meters in diameter which are encircled by a knitted network of tubing that additionally functions as the algae growing system. When inflated, the system works as a closedcell, inflated shell structure, with compression being transferred through air pressure and contained by the cell liners and knitted tubing infrastructure.

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Volleyball Arena Connection to Tokyo Bay

Rail Connection

Odaiba Connection

Figure 2.29 (above) Plan rendering depicting the scale of the surface envelope compared with the dashed Volleyball Arena boundary and court surface (solid line).

Figure 2.30 (below) The transparency of algae growing cells alters interior lighting.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.31 By controlling the distribution, speed, and path of the algae flow through the system, highly dynamic patterns can be generated based on the age/ density of algae growth and thus the regional color saturation of the algae tubes.

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59

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Refined Cell Design

Each inflatable structural cell is a simple membrane which can be produced in standardized sizes. It is the unique knitting pattern of exterior algae tubes which establishes the final size of each cell, its connection to neighboring cells, and the network with which algae flows through the system. What is advantageous about this system is that inflatable structures are highly forming to their constraints and allow great flexibility between fabrication and assembly stages, remaining small in volume until the moment when the structure is inflated. The cells also require relatively minimal effort to construct.

Figure 2.32 Detail showing connection of branching column to support Inflated Cell Structure.

GREY WATER CO2

in ALGAE

FILTERED WATER

out BIO MASS

O2

NUTRIENTS

Figure 2.33 Similar in function to the initial tensile membrane design of Bubble Field, the revised design uses the algae growing tube network in an additional functional role, through the stitching of cells together.

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Figure 2.34 The inter-cellular fluid lines are used to stitch the cells together. When the cells are then inflated, they form a tightly packed arrangement.

CELL MEMBRANE

KNIT PATTERN AROUND PLASTIC

AIR PRESSURE

KNIT TUBE PATTERN AS COMPRESSION

Figure 2.35 Fabrication steps for producing an algae-growing membrane cell.

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62

CHAPTER 2 Figure 2.36 Spectators cheer at the finish of a BMX race at the 2012 London Olympics.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

~5km

Figure 2.37 Map showing proximity of site to current Tsukiji Market. Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena forms a resource network with the market to procure construction materials.

Figure 2.38 Used polystyrene boxes before and after being processed at Tsukiji Market. The compressed polystyrene boards are sold to manufacturers for reuse.

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2.5.

Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena

As

the second and more research intensive version of the project output, Poly­­∙Cycle Arena marks a significant shift in approach to form, structure, and material treatment while more precisely illustrating the four design tenets established in the research agenda regarding geometry, materiality, agility, and temporality. While a focus on plastic is still central to the architectural and urban scenario of the research, the incorporation of active algae production was shelved in favor of a closer examination of the existing flow of plastic within the context of the city. This substitution recognized a desire to frame the research within an established urban resource network rather than on the development of a speculative infrastructure.

Of

specific interest for its myriad of physical states and material properties, polystyrene constitutes the driving material selection and focus of the Poly∙Cycle Arena fabrication strategy. The project’s proximity to Tsukiji Market, a major consumer and processor of polystyrene located a mere five kilometers by water from the arena site, establishes a synergetic connection to this intense node within the flow of plastic material in the city. This connectivity gives crucial support to the research of architectural impermanence, in which material is fluidly mobilized for the construction and limited life span of a venue before being reabsorbed back into the urban material network.

Volleyball Arena Site

BMX Arena Site Ariake Tennis Nomori Station

Gymnastics Arena Site

Velodrome Arena Site

Figure 2.39 BMX Arena area site map.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

© Hayato Wakabayashi

Tension Compression 66

CHAPTER 2

© Hayato Wakabayashi

Structural System Brief

The 99 Failures Pavilion, completed by Obuchi Laboratory at the University of Tokyo in fall 2013, was a component-based surface tensegrity system in which compressive, X-shaped components were connected to tension cables in a way such that no component touched another directly.

The unique quality of the system allowed the form to stabilize once the surface was correctly positioned and also allowed it to settle under selfweight. Until that moment, the surface had an almost fabric-like quality, allowing it to deform, within limits, thus greatly simplifying the assembly process, which took place horizontally on the ground. This surface tensegrity system served as the basis for the structural system and logic of the Poly­­­ ∙Cycle Arena, and was selected for its particular promise with respect to agile, lightweight form-making. While the pavilion required an advanced robotic guided laser to cut and weld the stainless steel components, Poly­­­ ∙Cycle Arena develops its own polystyrene composite fabrication process with lower-tech digital fabrication tools.

Figure 2.40 (top left) 99 Failures Pavilion, Obuchi Lab Fall 2013.

Figure 2.41 (top right) Pavilion hanging and assembly by crane.

Figure 2.42 (left) Structural detail of X-component surface tensegrity.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

BUBBLE FIELD • • •

Olympic Context/ Urbanism Algae Growth Bio-Plastics

• • • •

Fluid Flow/Organization Structural System/Logic Assembly Method Construction Logic

Figure 2.43 This diagram shows the fusion of ideas borrowed from the Bubble Field Version of the project, as well as the formal and structural component system from the 99 Failures pavilion.

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99

Failures

POLY∙CYCLE ARENA CH2 CH

CH CH CH • Structural System/Logic CH CH CH • CH Component Geometry/ Strength • 2D/3D Construction Logic • Formal Development 2

2

2

• Material Flow • Urbanism/Olympic context

POLY∙CYCLE ARENA

CH

CH CH2

CH CH2

CH CH2

CH CH2

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

70

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2.6.

Project Brief

In light of the defined research agenda and project goals, as well as the

scope and scale of past Olympic venue precedents (namely Otto’s Munich Canopy and Tange’s National Gymnasium), the chosen venue for Tokyo 2020 was thoroughly scrutinized for design potential and the broader ability for the project to serve as an architectural and urban prototype. Ultimately, a spectator canopy for the BMX Arena was selected as it presents ample scale, architectural prominence, and a structural challenge, thus indicating a context wherein a variety of design criteria could be developed and tested.

Primary Design Requirement: Design a spectator canopy for the 2020 Olympics BMX Arena.

Canopy Design: • The canopy should provide solar protection for spectators, while diminishing the impact of adverse weather.

• The canopy should provide unrestricted views of the BMX sport activities.

• The canopy should be visually and spatially dynamic, setting a new paradigm for lightweight stadium canopies.

Assembly and Construction • The canopy should be highly temporary in nature, existing on site for roughly the duration of the Games.

• The canopy should serve as a showcase of next-generation construction and material-use strategies.

• The canopy should interface with standard-regulation BMX design guidelines, with minimal alterations.

Figure 2.44 (top left) BMX racer composite image.

Figure 2.45 (left) Rendered plan of BMX Arena with north and south canopies.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.46 Plan of the southern c anopy. Here, the varying transparency of the surface cover membrane is visible.

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73

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

20 m

Figure 2.47 Elevation perspective of the arena.

35 m

60 m

North Canopy Shells: 9 Surface Area: 1940 m2

50 m 100 m 30 m

100 m

South Canopy Surface Area: 2950 m2 Shells: 15 Figure 2.48 Plan of arena canopy. (Field of play dashed in blue) 74

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Figure 2.49 Aerial perspective of arena canopy with support spaces.

75

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.50 View from beneath south canopy looking northeast.

Figure 2.51 View of south canopy from north canopy.

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Compressive Forces Tensile Forces

Figure 2.52 Aerial view of the north canopy depicting the counterbalancing effect of forward and rear facing shells, as well as the membraneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s varying opacity strips.

While

the project design underwent a series of variations during development, the final geometry and formal articulation consists of two distinct canopies covering the south and north spectator seating zones (figure 2.48). Each canopy is created from a continuous, ribbon-like surface running the length of the seating. The back and forth undulations of the surface form shell structures which cantilever both forward over the seating and backward over the proposed circulation ramps, forming a porous screen in elevation. This oscillation creates a flowing gestural form which echoes the movement of BMX riders along the ripples of the track (figure. 2.51).

It also serves the purpose of acting as a structural counter-balance, as one shell resists and restrains the other (figure 2.52).

The

two surfaces are each comprised of thousands of structural polystyrene components held in position by a network of tension cables in a system best described as component-based tensegrity surface architecture.

This system possesses both soft and rigid characteristics depending on its position and loading, and figures prominently into the formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s assembly strategy. A patchwork membrane of varying opacity strips cover the shells, thus providing weather protection, varying degrees of shading, and additional structural reinforcement to the shells (figure 2.52).

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.53 View from beneath south canopy, looking up spectator aisle.

From the visitors’ perspective, the undulating surfaces create highly dynamic and varied spatial conditions. Under the forward-leaning shells, spectators sense the lightness of the structure through the dappled shade and shadows cast by the components overhead (figure 2.53). Additionally, the striation of membrane opacities generates a diversity of solar exposure, for visitors who prefer more and visitors who prefer less.

At

the crest of the grandstand, a secondary membrane system consisting of small, minimal-surface canopies provides intimate gathering spaces for small groups (figure 2.54). The reflective surface of this membrane acts as a parabolic mirror, allowing an abstract view of event activities from spaces behind the grandstand, acting as a visual bridge between the inner and outer stadium activities.

Finally,

the rear-facing shells provide a facade-like screen to the proposed circulation ramp-way, which gently descends the back side of the grandstand. Smaller in scale than forward-facing shells, the visitors experience an alternating sense of exposure and enclosure as they pass behind these shells (figure 2.54). From the exterior, the downwards hanging shells expose the upper side of the striated canopy membrane.

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Figure 2.54 View looking north-east down the rear circulation ramp-way of the south canopy.

Figure 2.55 Eye-level perspective of the BMX Arena entrance. The rotation of the end shells provides arriving spectators a dramatic impression.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.56 Front elevation 80

CHAPTER 2

Figure 2.57 Physical model and structural prototype

Figure 2.58 Top gathering space 81

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 2.59 Undulating surface of forward and rear shells 82

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Figure 2.60 Shell overlapping

Figure 2.61 Top membrane surface 83

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 3.1 Needle Tower by American Sculptor Kenneth Snelson (1968).

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chapter 3 TENSEGRITY EXPLORATIONS

This

chapter presents a study of tensegrity systems through precedent studies, digital design and simulation strategies, and physical prototyping in an attempt to uncover and make use of the unique characteristics and capacities of these systems. While tensegrity itself may define a broad range of structures, forms, and patterns (both man-made and natural), this research will focus to a greater extent on those examples which can be formally classified as surfaces, or those systems which can be arrayed along a surface. This focus serves to not only hone the scope of the research, but to align the research with previously completed investigations of the Obuchi Laboratoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 99 Failures Pavilion project, completed in the fall of 2013, which initiated studies of the X-shaped component and surface tensegrity architecture.

Beyond this qualification, these explorations seek to develop the most compelling design possibilities and opportunities for innovation regarding issues of formal and architectural sophistication, structural stability, and ease of assembly.

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Spaceship Earth (Epcot) Walt Disney Imagineering

US Pavilion Expo 67 Buckminster Fuller

Eden Project Grimshaw Architects

G

Tea House Kengo Kuma Assoc.

Dome esic d eo

Te n sil

eF

NA

Kurilpa Bridge Ove Arup & Partners

TENSEGRITY RESEARCH POLY∙CYCLE ARENA POSITIONING CH2 CH

ric

ab

Munich Olympic Stadium Frei Otto & Gunther Behnisch

stressed Cab le Pre

NA Denver International Fentress Architects

Octet Truss Buckminster Fuller

CH2 CH

CH2 CH

s

Easy K Kenneth Snelson

CH2

CH

CH

Double layer Tensegrity Laboratoire de Mécanique et Génie Civil

Temporary Pavilion Tokyo University of Science

POLY∙CYCLE ARENA

NA

CH

CH CH2

CH CH2

CH CH2

CH CH2

Figure 3.2 The Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena Project within the scope of tensegrity research.

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3.1.

Tensegrity Research Positioning

It

was Buckminster Fuller who is credited with coining the term “tensegrity” yet it is he and his student at the time, sculptor Kenneth Snelson, together who must be cited as the discoverers and pioneers of this novel formal property (Snelson 1990). In Snelson’s words:

Tensegrity describes a closed structural system composed of a set of three or more elongate compression struts within a network of tension tendons, the combined parts mutually supportive in such a way that the struts do not touch one another, but press outwardly against nodal points in the tension network to form a firm, triangulated, prestressed, tension and compression unit. (Snelson n.d.)

Key to this definition is the condition that compressive struts do not touch each other, yet are held in position solely through the arrangement and triangulation of tensile forces. In effect, this assures all loads on the struts are applied axially, preventing bending forces from occurring.

While this definition suits many of Fuller’s icosahedron variants and Snelson’s later works such as Needle Tower and Easy K, in which rod and cable assemblies appear to delicately float in mid-air, it was the introduction of Snelson’s WoodX-Column to Fuller (see Figure 3.3) that originally established the principles of discontinuous compression and continuous tension (Snelson 2012). What’s unique about this sculpture is that while the X shape is not true to Snelson’s definition (because two struts touch each other at an intersection, taken as a unit, they are discontinuous in compression from one another. The triangulation of tensile elements holds the X units in position. Snelson notes generally of tensegrity structures, however, that without triangulation, “such structures are flaccid and decidedly not firm” (Snelson n.d.).

It is precisely this characteristic of softness, which, when coupled with the shape of the “X” (unlike a purely linear compressive strut), has the potential to express surface area, and thus the surface qualities that give the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project a unique point of departure from the traditional tensegrity model and opportunities for research investigation.

Figure 3.3 WoodX-Column, sculpture, 1948. Kenneth Snelson. (Snelson 2012).

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Surface Tensegrity System Precedents

Recent

projects have studied the issue of tensegrity as it pertains to temporary or deployable structures. The Double-layer tensegrity grid prototype (figures 3.5 to 3.7) uses a modular tensegrity cube made of struts and cables. The cubes are arrayed across a surface. The cubic shape allows the module to fold, allowing a great reduction in volume when collapsed.

While capable of negotiating basic single and double curvatures (SMAILI 2006), its architectural potential for more complex form-making is less apparent.

A project in closer relationship to the X-based component tensegrity system is a temporary pavilion project which was completed in Noda, Japan by the Kojima Laboratory at the Tokyo University of Sciences. Constructed of a large semitransparent plastic membrane embedded with 131 aluminum compression bars, the pavilion stands nearly 4.25 meters high and covers an area of roughly 146 square meters (Temporary 2012). Through the particular arrangement of discontinuous compression members, the pavilion becomes structurally stable when adequate tension is applied (by anchoring its base), yet is highly flexible when being assembled flat on the ground (Temporary 2012)—two properties the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project seeks to achieve.

Figure 3.4 Temporary Pavilion, Noda Japan, completed by Kojima Laboratory, Tokyo University of Sciences. (Temporary 2012).

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Figure 3.5 Double-layer Tensegrity Grid prototype at Laboratoire de Mécanique et Génie Civil

Figure 3.6 Sectional detail of Double-layer Tensegrity Grid.

Figure 3.7 Grid array depicting repeating elements of Double-Layer Tensegrity Grid.

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3.2.

BioTensegrity: Form and Function

While Buckminster Fuller and Kenneth Snelson are jointly credited with being the first to conceptually explore, visualize, and categorize the mechanical and physical properties of tensegrity structures, tensegrity itself is not an invention, but an elemental and essential biological framework present in nearly all living organisms (Ingber 2003).

An astoundingly wide variety of natural systems, including carbon atoms, water molecules, proteins, viruses, cells, tissues and even humans and other living creatures, are constructed using a common form of architecture known as tensegrity. (Ingber 1998).

The fundamental mechanical properties and multi-functional roles of these tensegrity structures may be understood through an examination of the multitudinous anatomical apparatuses posited by biologists and physicians as being capable of performing as tensionally integral structures (present in all scales of biological form). In this regard, traditional approaches to architectural structure and design based on continual compressive elements may be challenged in light of the many advantages demonstrated in the hierarchical, distributive capacities of biological tensegrity systems. This section surveys a selection of such anatomical apparatuses as they pertain to tensegrity in order to demonstrate additional grounds for which the use of tensegrity systems within an architectural context may be usefully established.

Figure 3.8 (left) Grayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s anatomical illustration showing the various connective ligaments and muscles of the human back.

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Tensegrity as Biological Structure

Beginning in the 1970s, biologists and physicians, seeking to understand with greater clarity how physical forces such as gravity and movement act upon living organisms, began to focus on the way specific anatomical structures work in concert to dissipate, distribute, and harness bio-mechanical energy throughout the body, from the macro level down to the molecular level. These investigations eventually led to the prestressed tensegrity systems first articulated by Fuller and Snelson as conceptual models for the interactions of various structural and anatomical components that support a variety of functions within an organism. Chiefly among these researchers, David Robbie, MD, and Orthopedic Surgeon Stephen M. Levin first conjectured that tensegrity structures form the principal structural arrangement of various anatomical systems within living organisms— particularly the human body—leading Dr. Levin to coin the term “biotensegrity” as a way of distinguishing a new approach to classifying and studying the sophisticated structural systems of human form (Levin SM 1982 cited in Swanson II RL 2013).

At the cellular level, cell biologist Donald E. Ingber at Harvard Medical School has advanced research detailing the structural mechanisms within the cytoskeleton. He states, “my studies of cell biology and also of sculpture led me to realize that the question of how living things form has less to do with chemical composition than with architecture” (Ingber DE 1998). Central to Ingber’s research is the theory that because cells are directly linked through tensegrity structures to the movements and mechanical actions of larger scaled anatomical features, these mechanical stresses can alter cell behavior (including cell growth and gene differentiation) (Chen CS, Ingber DE 1999).

Ultimately, tensegrity structures exist in biology as a response to the existential trials of evolutionary life. The unique properties of tensegrity are selected by nature for their capacity to effectively distribute mechanical forces, allowing a complex system to function “mechanically as one” (Ingber 1998). Concurrently, tensegrity allows an organism to maximize its use of efficient tensile matter while reducing its dependence on metabolically costly compressive elements (Chen CS, Ingber DE 1999).

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Figure 3.9 “A prestressed tensegrity model that represents biotensegrity architecture at all size scales throughout the human body. Examples of biotensegrity at the molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, and organ system levels with corresponding tension and compression elements are presented. The junction of tension elements with a compression-resistant element can be viewed as a model of a focal adhesion (FA) complex within the cell, which provides the vital link between the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeletal biotensegrity system.” (Graphics, table, and text: Swanson II RL 2013)

“Level” Molecular

Tension (A) Attractive/Repulsive Forces

Cellular

Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Cells Lung - fiber system Muscle Tendon Ligaments Fascia

Tissue Organ Organ System (Musculoskeletal)

Compression (B) a-helix b-sheet DNA helix backbone Microtubules Extracellular matrix Extracellular matrix Ribs Bones Fascia

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Cytoskeletons and the Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

The structure of the cell has been under intense research investigation.

Dr. Donald E. Ingber of the Harvard Medical School leads a camp of scientists who posit that tensegrity is at the heart of cellular structure in a complex cellular scaffolding known as the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton of a cell consists of microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, all of which are nanometers wide. The rounded shape near the center of each of the photographs (figure 3.10) is the cell nucleus. The three components interconnect to create the cytoskeletal lattice, which stretches from the cell surface to the nucleus (Ingber 1998). The microtubles are believed by Ingber to function as small compressive struts (similar to those utilized in Snelson’s sculptures) which are connected to each other and the cell wall via this dense lattice of filaments (Ingber 2003). This arrangement allows compressive forces to be distributed throughout the cell without loading any particular region or structure beyond its capacity. Ingber posits that when macroorganism level mechanical forces pass down through the cellular level to the bio-molecular level they can effect the biochemical reactions that mediate cellular functions (Ingber 2003). “Studies confirmed that mechanical forces are transmitted over specific molecular paths in living cells, a finding that provided new insight into how cells sense mechanical stimuli that regulate tissue development” (Ingber 1998).

Figure 3.10 Magnified images of the cytoskeleton (Ingber 1998).

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Spinal Mechanics

At a larger scale, tensegrity has increasingly been the focus of studies seeking to explain the structural mechanisms at work in the skeletal systems of humans and other vertebrate species. Research generated during the last few decades suggests that the spine in particular must rely on the tensional capacity of ligaments to account for the type of loads and range of flexibility the body endures (Swanson II 2013).

The support system of the spine, and indeed the remainder of the body as well, is a function of continuous tension, discontinuous compression, so that the skeleton, rather than being a frame of support to which the muscles and ligaments and tendons attach, has to be considered as compression components suspended within a continuous tension network. (Levin 1982) This understanding of tensegrity systems within the field of osteology emerged from the work of Fuller and Snelson, but greatly challenged the previous structural hypothesis of the skeletal system as a continuous compressive frame or â&#x20AC;&#x153;stack of blocksâ&#x20AC;? (Levin 1982).

Figure 3.11 Three models of the human spine. (Left) anatomically accurate; (middle), the abstracted representation of spinal mechanics expressed as a tensegrity structure, and; (right) a hybridized model.

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Cranial Vault

Like the cytoskeleton’s ability to transfer mechanical forces though the cell, thus affecting the biochemical composition of the cell (which regulates cell growth), tensegrity is hypothesized to play a role in regulating the growth of the human skull during development (childhood). Long believed to be triggered by pressure exerted by a growing brain, research by cell biologist Graham Scarr suggests that the growth of the brain only signals the dura matter to begin cell growth of the skull lobes (Scarr 2008). The particular form of both the skull structure (see below) and the sutural edges (see left) suggests that growth of the skull occurs from a pulling apart of lobes under tension rather than a pushing apart under compression as previously assumed.

Figure 3.12 “Diagram showing how a geodesic tensegrity icosahedron (a) can be converted into a prestressed tensegrity structure using straight internal struts (b). The straight struts can be replaced with curved struts without altering the tensegrity principle (c). Curved plates (not shown) could be fixed to the curved struts so that they do not contact each other directly, and the structure would still remain stable” (image and text: Scarr 2008).

Frontal

Ethmoid crista galli

sphenoid

Parietal

Temporal

Figure 3.13 ”Tensegrity skull model, antero-lateral view” (Scarr 2008).

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Figure 3.14 Schematic diagram of part of the cranial vault showing how the bones could be kept apart through a prestressed tensegrity mechanism. (a) An internal view showing stylized curves found at sutural edges and tensile stresses in the dura mater (dotted lines). These tensile stresses create a secondary force (arrows) at their attachments that pushes the bones apart in a perpendicular direction. (b) A serrated suture as found in the sagittal suture, with the same effect seen at a smaller scale. Image and text: (Scarr 2008).

Conclusions & Design Approach

What ultimately can be understood from these biological case studies, is that tensegrity models possess the capacity for supporting not only highly intricate physical forms and mechanical movement within an organism, but also the capacity to translate and distribute these forces and motions across widely varying scales and material thresholds from the individual organism down to the bio-molecular level. This in turn regulates various functional and growth behaviors of the cells (Swanson II 2012).

This synergy between the macro-formal level and the micro-cellular level offers a valuable precedent for integrated system thinking. A translation of these biological tensegrity principles to an architectural tensegrity context, particularly the effects of force on form and growth, figure prominently in the design approach of the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project. Structural research for the project targets the unification and distribution of forces acting at both the formal level, and at the unique component response level.

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3.3.

99 Failures Pavilion Project Precedent

The

99 Failures pavilion project, produced by the Obuchi Laboratory at the University of Tokyo, serves as the primary structural and component system precedent and subject of research development for the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project. Initially formulated from ideas generated during first year master’s studies by students Miguel Puig, Ana Luisa Soares, and Ye Zhang, the 99 Failures pavilion is a collaborative research project between the Obuchi lab and the Obayashi Corporation. The pavilion project sought to explore and develop research regarding design, digital fabrication, assembly, and advanced material and construction processes with the ultimate objective of advancing research in lightweight form-making.

Perhaps

best described as tensegrity surface architecture, the pavilion consisted of more than 250 X-shaped components, each constructed of three layers of stainless steel sheet metal which were cut and welded together by a robot guided laser. Each component was inflated hydraulically, its shape deforming slightly into a metal “pillow” which, through three-dimensionality, gained rigidity and compressive strength by resisting buckling. These components were then connected in an alternating fashion to steel cables, forming surface-like segments which were finally joined to complete the form. The particular advantages of this surface tensegrity system lie in the ability of the system to behave in a flexible, fabric-like manner while being assembled flat on the ground, only assuming stability once all segments have been joined, and the structure has been oriented and secured in its final position.

Ultimately, the 99 Failures pavilion project introduces a broad range of concepts and ideas within its research agenda, many of which the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project seeks to develop and expand. Because of this relationship between projects, this section provides an overview of the 99 Failures pavilion to establish which elements of the project were borrowed or adapted within the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena context.

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Figure 3.15 Night illumination of the 99 Failures Pavilion Š Hayato Wakabayashi 99

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Tension Compression Figure 3.16 (above) Component assembly diagram with flow of forces through system.

Figure 3.17 (right) Photo of pavilion detail with illustration of flow of forces.

X-based Component Structural System

While

the flow of forces through the tensegrity surface may be visually difficult to decipher, adding to its appeal and interest, the structure may most easily be understood as simply two vertical rows of components in which one component hangs from the previous component of the adjacent row. This alternation occurs symmetrically on either side of the component rows as the number of rows in the system is expanded; the 99 Failures Pavilion included thirty rows, with the first row reconnecting to the last. In an attempt to illustrate this condition, the adjacent diagrams show a continual transfer of force flowing along a row of components (alternating between compression and tensile magnitudes). While these diagrams are highly representational in nature—computer simulation or advanced mathematics is needed to reveal the greater complexities of the system—the principle allows a basic understanding of the structural mechanisms at work.

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Tension Compression 101

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Figure 3.18 (above) Preparation of cable-component attachment bolts.

Figure 3.19 (left) Jig used to control precision of bolt location along cable.

Figure 3.20 (below) Author using large crimper to lock position of bolt along cable.

Cable Production

The cables from which the components essentially “hang” in unison are elements critical to the functionality of the system. Their precision is therefore paramount, as even small inaccuracies have a ripple effect through the performance and form of the structure. These photos show the measures taken to accurately measure and fix the bolts connecting component to cable in their proper position along the cable’s length. This particular strategy necessitated its own research pertaining to digital fabrication as a means of tool making.

This strategy was similarly proposed for the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project.

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Figure 3.21 Assembly sequence of hydraulically inflated components. Due to limits in the system’s flexibility, the pavilion was assembled in two halves. Surface folds were introduced in each half to further alleviate tensile stress buildup within the cables.

Figure 3.22 Here, the connection of the crane to the components can be seen. A minimum number of six attachment points were used to hang the assembled halves in an arrangement similar enough to the final arrangement that adding the last components would begin closing the shape into a single whole.

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Figure 3.23 The pavilion in final stages of construction. Once the halves were joined and the lowest components secured to a steel base ring, the crane slowly lowered the support jig, allowing the structure to load under self weight.

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Š Hayato Wakabayashi

Figure 3.24 (above) The completed 99 Failures pavilion.

Figure 3.25 (left) Representatives from Obayashi Corporation and staff from Obuchi Lab completing an assembly simulation with a 1:3 scale model of the pavilion.

Assembly Strategy: Agility and Stability

One of the most interesting aspects of the pavilion project was the unique assembly strategy. Because the components were fastened to a pliable cable in such a way that they did not directly contact one another, the assembly behaved as a semi-flexible surface capable of deforming within limits (without damaging or disconnecting). This feature was utilized during pavilion construction to allow components to be assembled into larger regions of the form. These regions could then be lifted through a precisely choreographed movement to generate an approximated three-dimensional form which was similar enough to the final form that any remaining assembly and joining of regions could be completed with minimal effort. This shifted the construction emphasis from on-site labor to factory based fabrication, which may more easily be automated. Additionally, the flexible nature of the assembly allowed disassembly to occur by simply reversing the procedure, a significant departure from traditional construction and demolition strategies.

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Flat Curvature

Negative Curvature

Figure 3.26 Curvature analysis of formal variation matrix.

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3.4.

Form, Pattern, & Stability: Tensegrity Test Results

Having

established the specific structural system and assembly strategy that the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project engages, it is necessary to evaluate the inherent properties and characteristics of the surface tensegrity system to serve as a base understanding for subsequent form-finding and decision making processes.

In this section, the findings of a series of digital simulation tests are discussed and the results are explained. To obtain these results, the nonlinear physics simulation software Kangaroo was used to digitally simulate the approximate physical behavior of the system. A parametrically controlled 10 m x 10 m catenary vault modeled within the Rhino3D software environment served as the test platform for conducting the various experiments. Within each category of test, a small series of tests were conducted, each with a third variable being adjusted. In most cases this third variable was the Vault Height Factor, or the length of the catenary arch relative to the width of the test vault. As a general rule, the results were produced by determining under which maximum gravity factor the test vault remained stable after running a total of 100,000 to 150,000 iterations (time steps) of the Kangaroo software. If the form being tested collapsed, the gravity factor was lowered and the simulation restarted. If the form remained stable, the gravity factor was increased and the simulation restarted. This process was repeated until the gravity factor was honed to the maximum value achievable.

Once

the maximum gravity factor was established, the test result and associated simulation parameter settings were saved into spreadsheet format to correlate the findings against various geometrical conditions and to display the results in a more readily understandable, graphical format.

These findings are discussed in the following pages.

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Grasshopper/Kangaroo Simulation Test Platform

Figure 3.27 Initial partitioning of base edge for the establishment of cables.

Figure 3.28 Cables constructed according to desired catenary curve parameter.

Figure 3.29 Cable lengths divide to establish component connection locations.

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Figure 3.30 Component frame is constructed to simulate rigidity of component panel.

Figure 3.31 Mesh constructed to visualize components and establish surface area.

Figure 3.32 Kangaroo gravity nodes applied at mesh vertices to apply force proportional to area.

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Column Width Testing Maximum Gravatational Load vs. Column Width

400 Total Gravatational Load

350 300 250 200 150 100 50

0 The objective of this to observe 30 what effect the columns (de0 10 test was20 40 width of50 60

Component Columns per scribed here as the number of columns per10m 10Vault mLength of sample vault length) played Height Factor 1.1 Vault Height Factor 1.3 Vault Height Factor 1.6 Vault Height Factor 2.0 on theVault structural capacity of the tensegrity system. The number of component columns was varied incrementally from a maximum of fifty down to a minimum of five. This range was tested under four Vault Height Factors of 1.1, 1.3, 1.6, and 2.0. The results were then compared along four unique criteria: Maximum Gravitational Load (area dependent), Maximum Gravitational Factor (applied force), Maximum Gravitational Load per Cable, and Deflection in meters.

Maximum Gravity Factor vs. Component Columns Maximum Gravity Factor

3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0

10

20

30

40

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60

Component Columns per 10m Vault Length

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

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Component Columns

50

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Vault Height Factor 1.1

1.08

0.97

0.87

0.76

0.66

0.54

0.44

0.33

0.22

0.11

Vault Height Factor 1.3

2.1

1.87

1.68

1.47

1.27

1.06

0.85

0.64

0.44

0.22

Vault Height Factor 1.6

2.66

2.39

2.13

1.86

1.61

1.34

1.09

0.82

0.56

0.29

Vault Height Factor 2.0

2.59

2.33

2.08

1.82

1.57

1.31

1.06

0.8

0.55

0.29

Figure 3.33 For each of the four cases, the data suggests a linear relationship between the number of columns and the capacity of the system, with the larger Vault Height Factor providing greater resistance.

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400 Total Gravatational Load

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0

10

20

30

40

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Component Columns per 10m Vault Length

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.6

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Component Columns

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

Vault Height Factor 1.1

84.23

75.83

67.85

59.46

51.47

42.3

34.31

25.93

17.16

8.77

Vault Height Factor 1.3

192.91

172.21

154.33

135.47

116.67

97.81

78.08

59.23

40.42

20.66

Vault Height Factor 1.6

299.53

269.79

239.85

210.11

181.29

151.56

122.74

93.02

63.06

33.39

Vault Height Factor 2.0

362.71

327.10

291.29

255.68

219.87

184.27

148.45

112.86

77.02

41.51

Figure 3.34 Again, when comparing the Maximum Gravitational Loads, which are surface area factors of the Maximum Gravity Factor, a linear relationship is observed.

Maximum Gravity Factor vs. Component Columns Maximum Gravity Load Maximum per Cable Gravity Factor

3.0 2.5 2.0

Maximum Cable Gravity Load

1.5

vs. Component Columns per 10m Leng th

1.0 8.0 0.5 6.0 0.0

4.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Component Columns per 10m Vault Length

2.0Height Factor 1.1 Vault

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.6

Vault Height Factor 2.0

0.0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Component Colums per 10m Vault Length

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.6

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Component Columns

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

Vault Height Factor 1.1

1.65

1.65

1.66

1.65

1.66

1.63

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1.62

1.56

1.46

Vault Height Factor 1.3

3.78

3.74

3.76

3.76

3.76

3.76

3.72

3.70

3.68

3.44

Vault Height Factor 1.6

5.87

5.87

5.85

5.84

5.85

5.83

5.85

5.81

5.73

5.56

Vault Height Factor 2.0

7.11

7.11

7.11

7.10

7.09

7.09

7.07

7.05

7.00

6.92

Figure 3.35 For each of the four Vault Height Factors, the data suggests a linear relationship between the number of columns and the capacity of the system, with the larger Vault Height Factors providing greater resistance. Deflection (m)

m)

vs. Component Columns per 10m Vault Length

0.7 0.6 0.5

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Deflection (m)

vs. Component Columns per 10m Vault Length 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Component Columns per 10m Vault Length

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.6

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Component Columns

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

Vault Height Factor 1.1

0.23

0.23

0.23

0.23

0.23

0.23

0.23

0.24

0.25

0.28

Vault Height Factor 1.3

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.22

0.24

Vault Height Factor 1.6

0.38

0.38

0.38

0.38

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.39

0.40

Vault Height Factor 2.0

0.58

0.58

0.58

0.58

0.58

0.59

0.59

0.59

0.59

0.60

Figure 3.36 When comparing the deflection of the simulated vault against the relative number of components, a near linear relationship is observed.

Corrugation Factor Testing

The Corrugation Factor Test sought to observe the effects of scaling (in an alternating pattern) the geometry of the tension cables relative to the vault width. This procedure created a corrugation in the vault surface which was similar to corrugated steel pipe, and affected the stiffness of the vault along the direction of corrugation. The degree of scaling was tested incrementally from original size (scale factor 1.0) to a maximum of 130% of the original size (scale factor 1.3). This range was tested under three Vault Height Factors of 1.1, 1.3, and 2.0. The results were then compared along four unique criteria: Maximum Gravitational Load (area dependent), Maximum Gravitational Factor (applied force), Deflection in meters, and Total Component Surface Area.

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Corrugation Factor 1.0

Corrugation Factor 1.05

Corrugation Factor 1.20

Figure 3.37 Displayed as a continual surface, the formal variation of the vaults becomes clearly visible with respect to the associated Corrugation Factor. The lower image series shows these same three vaults in elevation. The varying thickness of the tensegrity system becomes evident.

Corrugation Factor 1.15

Pivot axis

Figure 3.38 As the corrugation factor increases, the pivot axes of the component columns and the ground plane form progressively divergent angles. This divergence increases the stiffness of the vault by adding depth to the system in cross section, much as the corrugation in a plastic bottle rigidifies its structure.

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Maximum Gravity Factor vs. Corrugation Factor Maximum Gravity Maximum Factor Gravity Factor

5.0 4.0

Maximum Gravity Factor

3.0 2.0 5.0 1.0 4.0 0.0 3.00.95

vs. Corrugation Factor

1

1.05

1.1

2.0

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

1.35

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

1.0 0.0 0.95

1

Corrugation Factor

1.05

1

0.44 Vault Height Factor 1.1 Vault Height Factor 0.85 1.1 Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1.07

Vault Height Factor 1.3 1.1

1.05

1.15

1.1

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1.15

Corrugation Factor

0.77

1.56

Vault 1.3 1.95 Height Factor 3.61 2.26

4.5

1.2

1.9

1.2

1.25

2

1.25

1.3

1.3

2.07

1.92

Vault Factor 2.0 3.51 Height 3.08

2.45

1.99

3.15

1.6

1.1

2.25

1.35

Figure 3.39 The data suggests that there is a threshold beyond which the increasing corrugation of the system no longer renders higher structural performance despite increasing the depth of corrugation.

Maximum Gravatational Load Maximum Gravatational Maximum Load Gravatational Load

vs. Corrugation Factor 1000 800

Maximum Gravatational Load

600 400 1000 200 800 0 6000.95

vs. Corrugation Factor

1

1.05

1.1

400 200 0 0.95

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

1.35

1.3

1.35

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1 1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

1.05

1.1

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1.15

1.2

1.25

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Corrugation Factor

1

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.1

34.31

62.57

135.81

180.57

209.52

239.86

246.00

Vault Height Factor 1.3

78.08

190.78

398.07

446.64

453.64

415.30

384.96

Vault Height Factor 2.0

149.85

350.51

843.07

721.15

621.02

523.08

419.04

Figure 3.40 When examining the Maximum Gravitational Load factor under which the system remains stable, the results show again a threshold beyond which the system cannot accommodate increasing load.

116

CHAPTER 3

Deflection (m) vs. Corrugation Factor

Deflection (m)

Deflection (m)

0.8 0.6

Deflection (m)

0.4

vs. Corrugation Factor

0.8 0.2 0.6 0 0.95 0.4 0.2 0 0.95

1

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

1.35

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

1

Corrugation Factor

1

1.05

Vault Height Factor 1.3

1.05

1.1

1.1

1.15

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1.15

1.2

Corrugation Factor 0.41 0.49

0.23 Vault Height Factor 1.1 Vault 1.3 Height Factor 1.1 0.22 Vault Height Factor

Vault Factor 1.3 0.28 Height 0.40

Vault 0.35

Vault Height Factor 2.0

0.63

0.58

0.59

0.28

0.76

1.2

1.25

0.50

Height0.35 Factor 2.0 0.51

1.25

1.3

1.3

0.52

0.52

0.34

0.35

0.49

0.48

1.35

Total Component Surface Total Component Area (sq. m)Surface Area (sq. m)

Figure 3.41 The deflection of the system corresponding to increasing corrugation.

These data suggest unique deflection conditions for vault geometry. The corrugation factor range of 1.10 -1.15 appears significantSurface as a transition threshold for the majority of Total Component Area (sq. m) tests conducted. vs. Corrugation Factor

400 300

Total Component Surface Area (sq. m)

200

vs. Corrugation Factor

400 100 300 0 0.95 200 100 0 0.95

1

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

1.35

1.3

1.35

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

1.05

1.1

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1.15

1.2

1.25

Corrugation Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Corrugation Factor

1

1.05

1.1

1.15

1.2

1.25

1.3

Vault Height Factor 1.1

77.99

81.26

87.06

95.04

104.76

115.87

128.12

Vault Height Factor 1.3

91.86

97.84

110.27

127.25

147.28

169.51

193.45

Vault Height Factor 2.0

140.04

155.09

187.35

228.94

276.01

326.93

380.94

Figure 3.42 This data shows that as the corrugation factor increases incrementally, the total component surface area increases at an accelerating rate. This rate likely accounts for the diminishing structural performance of the system at higher corrugation factors, particularly under high Vault Height Factor conditions.

117

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Height Factor Tests

1.1

1.5

2.5

The Vault Height Factor test examined the effect variations in the height of the simulation vault had on the stability of the structure. The height factor is actually a ratio given by the length across the vault surface relative to the vault width (see figure below). The vaults tested are each constructed from catenary curves with a Vault Height Factor which increases incrementally from 1.1 to 2.5. The results, specifically when examining the influence of the Vault Height Factor on the Maximum Gravitational Factor the structure can bear, suggest that an optimal height factor between 1.5 and 1.7 exists (in which the system achieves maximum stiffness).

Le n g th

length/width = Height Factor

Width

Figure 3.43 A representation of the incremental changes in the height of the vaults by changing the length across the surface relative to the width.

118

CHAPTER 3 Max i mum Gr av at at i onal Fac t or vs. Vault Height Factor Maximum Gravational Factor Gravational Factor Maximum

3.5 3 2.5

Max i mum Gr av at at i onal Fac t or

2

vs. Vault Height Factor

1.5 3.5 1 3 0.5 2.5 0 2 1.5

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

2.2

2.4

2.6

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

1

Standard Vault Shape

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

Porosity Factor 0.9

0.5

Vault 0 Height Factor 1 1.2 Standard Vault Shape

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

1.24

2.4 1.16 1.2

1.03

2.57 Height 2.99 3.22 3.16width) 3.01 Vault Factor3.29 (factor3.26 of vault

2.86

2.7

2.54

2.39

2.25

2.12

2.31

2.83

2.77

2.7

2.63

2.57

2.49

1.28 1.87 Porosity Factor 0.9 Vault Standard Shape

2.59

1.29

2.76

1.8 1.36 1.34

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

1.06

1.93

1.6 1.2

2

0.54 1.40.84

2.87

2.91

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

1.36

2 1.34 1.31 2.2 1.28

2.89

2.88

Porosity Factor 0.9

1.132.6

Figure 3.44 This data suggests that an optimal stiffness range lies in the 1.5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1.7 Vault Height Factor range.

Total Gravational Load vs. Vault Height Factor

Total Gravatational Load Total Gravatational Load

600 500

Total Gravational Load

400

vs. Vault Height Factor

300 600 200 500 100 400 0 300 1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.4

2.6

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

200 Standard Vault Shape

100

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

Porosity Factor 0.9

0 1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

2.2

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

Standard Vault Shape

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

Porosity Factor 0.9

Vault Height Factor

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

Standard Vault Shape

42.3

71.66

97.81

119.08

136.97

151.56

163.22

172.61

179.29

184.27

188.82

191.37

193.36

194.80

197.45

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

84.89

176.58

258.16

326.96

380.63

417.97

442.87

457.14

461.93

464.10

461.95

456.90

450.97

444.44

437.57

Porosity Factor 0.9

126.41

200.88

268.13

322.95

367.91

407.16

437.68

459.27

482.09

497.65

510.44

520.18

528.68

538.08

542.09

Figure 3.45 As vault height increases, the gravitatioanl load capacity of the system increases. Only tests featuring a Corrugation Factor of (1.05) indicate a diminished gravitational load capacity, and this is observed once the Vault Height Factor increases beyond a factor of 2.

119

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Deflection (m) vs. Vault Height Factor 0.8 Deflection (m)Deflection (m)

0.6

Deflection (m) vs. Vault Height Factor

0.4 0.8 0.2 0.6 0 0.4 -0.2 0.2 1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.4

2.6

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

0 Standard Vault Shape

-0.2 1

1.2

Vault Height Factor

1.4

1.6

Porosity Factor 0.9

1.8

2

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

0.23 0.19 Standard Vault Shape Standard Vault Shape Corrugation Factor (1.05) 0.28 0.25

Porosity Factor 0.9

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

-0.01

0.01

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width) 0.22 0.27 0.33 0.39 0.44 0.50 0.54

2

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 0.65

0.68

0.71

0.73

0.28

0.33

0.39

0.44

0.50

0.55

0.59

0.62

0.66

0.68

0.71

0.73

0.75

0.06

0.11

0.17

0.22

0.26

0.30

0.33

0.36

0.39

0.41

0.42

0.44

0.45

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

0.59

2.2

0.63

Porosity Factor 0.9

Figure 3.46 The lowest deflection is observed at smaller vault height factors. This is to be expected, as the length of the vault itself is shorter and therefore has a limited capacity for nominal deflection (compared to longer, higher vaults with similar gravitational loads).

Total Component TotalSurface Component Area (sq.m) Surface Area (sq.m)

Total Component Surface Area vs. Vault Height Factor 350 300 250 200 350 150 300 100 250 50 200 0 150 1 100 50 0 1

Total Component Surface Area vs. Vault Height Factor

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.4

2.6

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

Standard Vault Shape 1.2

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

1.4

1.6

Porosity Factor 0.9

1.8

2

2.2

Vault Height Factor (factor of vault width)

Standard Vault Shape

Corrugation Factor (1.05)

Porosity Factor 0.9

Vault Height Factor

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

2

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

Standard Vault Shape

78.33

85.31

92.27

99.23

106.17

113.11

120.02

126.92

133.80

140.66

147.52

154.33

161.13

167.93

174.73

91.49

100.45

109.35

118.21

127.04

135.85

144.66

153.46

162.27

171.09

179.88

188.69

197.53

206.40

107.42

116.07

124.69

133.3

141.87

150.41

158.92

167.39

175.85

184.27

192.66

201.02

209.37

217.71

Corrugation Factor (1.05) 82.42 Porosity Factor 0.9

98.76

Figure 3.47 A near linear relationship is observed between increasing Vault Height Factors and surface areas of components. The surface increases in length (along the catenary) with increases in the Vault Height Factor.

120

CHAPTER 3

Components Per Column Testing

4

7

10

The Components per Column tests seek to correlate the structural performance of the simulated vault with changes in the number of components per column.

Variation in the number of components per column has an additional relationship to the angle between components within each column (defined in these results as the average rotational offset). With this in mind, excluding the deflection results, data within this category of tests was represented in relation to both the number of components per row and the average rotational offset in degrees.

Deflection (m) vs. Components per Row 1 Deflection (m)

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Components per Row

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Components per Column

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Vault Height Factor 1.1

22.48

17.58

14.42

12.22

10.61

9.36

8.38

Vault Height Factor 1.3

35.23

27.21

22.13

18.66

16.11

14.19

12.66

Vault Height Factor 2.0

49.1

37.29

30.03

25.13

21.61

18.96

16.88

Figure 3.48 Deflection in meters, measured against the number of components per row.

Deflection (m) vs. Average Rotational Offset 1 )

0.8

121

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Deflection (m) vs. Components per Row

1 Deflection (m)

0.8 0.6 0.4

Deflection (m)

0.2

vs. Components per Row

1 0 Deflection (m)

0.8

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

10

11

Components per Row

0.6

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

4

6

8

0.4 0.2 0 3

5

7

9

Components per Row

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Deflection (m) vs. Average Rotational Offset 1 Deflection (m)

0.8 0.6 0.4

Deflection (m)

0.2

vs. Average Rotational Offset

1 0 Deflection (m)

0.8 0.6 0.4

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Average Rotational Offset (degrees)

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

0.2

Components per Column 0

4

10 1.1 Vault5Height Factor

0.95

15

Vault Height Factor 1.3

2.07

Vault Height Factor 2.0

2.61

5 20

6

7

0.4425

0.26 30

0.17 35

0.11 40

8

45 0.08

0.85

0.49

0.31

0.21

0.14

0.13

1.06

0.53

0.31

0.21

0.16

0.1

Average Rotational Offset (degrees)

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

9

10 50

0.06

55

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Figure 3.49 Deflection in meters measured against the number of components per row (upper) and their average rotational offset in degrees (lower).

122

CHAPTER 3

Maximum Gravatational Factor Maximum Gravatational Factor Maximum Gravatational Factor

vs. Components per Row 3 2.5 2 1.5

Maximum Gravatational Factor

1 0.5

vs. Components per Row

3 0 2.5 3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

10

11

Components per Row

2 1.5

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

4

6

8

1 0.5 0 3

5

7

9

Components per Row

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Maximum Gravatational Factor Maximum Gravatational Factor Maximum Gravatational Factor

vs. Average Rotational Offset 3 2.5 2 1.5

Maximum Gravatational Factor

1 0.5

vs. Average Rotational Offset

3 0 2.5 5

10

15

20

1.5

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Average Rotational Offset (degrees)

2

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

1 0.5

Components per Column 0

4

10 1.1 Vault5Height Factor

72.89

15

Vault Height Factor 1.3

186.72

Vault Height Factor 2.0

356.97

5 20

34.3125

6

7

20.49 30

13.49 35

8

78.08 45.53 29.03 Average Rotational Offset (degrees)

Vault Height Factor 1.1

148.45

75.28

44.45

Vault Height Factor 1.3

9

10

8.78 40

45 6.41

19.77

13.24

12.33

30.31

23.21

14.56

Vault Height Factor 2.0

50

4.82

55

Figure 3.50 Maximum Gravitational Factor sustained by the system, measured against the number of components per row (upper) and their average rotational offset in degrees (lower).

123

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Maximum Gravatational Load

Maximum Gravatational Load Maximum Gravatational Load

vs. Components per Row 400 300 200

Maximum Gravatational Load

100

vs. Components per Row

400 0 3

4

5

6

300

7

8

9

10

11

10

11

Components per Row

Vault Height Factor 1.1

200

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

6

8

100 0 3

4

5

7

9

Components per Row

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Maximum Gravatational Load Maximum Gravatational Load Maximum Gravatational Load

vs. Average Rotational Offset 400 300 200

Maximum Gravatational Load

100

vs. Average Rotational Offset

400 0 5

10

15

20

300 200

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Average Rotational Offset (degrees)

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

100

0 Components per Column 10 1.1 Vault 5Height Factor

4 15

72.89

Vault Height Factor 1.3

186.72

Vault Height Factor 2.0

356.97

5 20

34.31 25

6

7

8

30 20.49

35 13.49

40 8.78

456.41

19.77

13.24

12.33

30.31

23.21

14.56

78.08 Rotational 45.53Offset (degrees) 29.03 Average

Vault Height Factor 1.1

148.45

75.28

44.45

Vault Height Factor 1.3

9

Vault Height Factor 2.0

10 50

4.82

55

Figure 3.51 Total gravitational load sustained by system measured against the number of components per row (upper) and their average rotational offset in degrees (lower).

124

CHAPTER 3

Component Length Factor Testing

-0.9

0.0

0.9

The

component length factor is a parameter which determines the proportional spacing of components within the row. A larger component length factor elongates the components, reducing the distance from one component to the next in proportion to its length. Not only does the Component Length Factor affect the structural stiffness of the system, it also affects the visual opacity of the system. The closer together components in one row are attached to one another, the smaller the visual space between the two. This renders the surface more solid in appearance. This relationship between structural logic and visual quality offers great architectural design potential.

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

Component Length Factor (-)

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Component Length Factor (0)

x

x x

x x

x x

x x

Component Length Factor (+) Component Cable

Component Overlap (visual opacity)

x

Cable/Component Connection Point

Figure 3.52 Three conditions of component length factor are shown which denote the component attachment points along the cable and their effects on the visual opacity of the system.

125

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Maximum Gravitational Factor Maximum Gravational Factor Maximum Gravational Factor

vs. Component Length Factor 2.5 2 1.5

Maximum Gravitational Factor

1

vs. Component Length Factor

0.5 2.5 0 2 -1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Component Length Factor

1.5 Vault Height Factor 1.1

1 0.5

Component Length Factor

0Vault Height Factor 1.1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 Vault Height Factor 1.3 Vault Height Factor 2.0

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

-0.9

-0.6

-0.3

0

0.3

0.6

0.01

0.18

0.31

0.44

0.63

0.82

1.03

0

0.2 0.85

0.4 1.2

0.61.51

0.8 1.86

0.44 0.75 Component Length Factor1.06

1.45

1.85

2.3

-0.4

0.15 0.16

Vault Height Factor 1.1

-0.2

0.38

0.62

Vault Height Factor 1.3

0.9 1

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Maximum Gravatational Load ValueGravatational Load Value Maximum

Figure 3.53 This data suggests a near linear relationship between Component Length Factor and overall system stiffness. This is likely due to the nature of the geometrical reMaximum Gravational lationships. As the length of the component increases,Load the distance between the compovs. Component Length Factor nents within each column shortens.

Thus the amount of stretch in these cables is limited.

500 400 300

Maximum Gravational Load

200 100 500 0 400 -1

vs. Component Length Factor -0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

ComponentL engt hFac t or

300 Vault Height Factor 1.1

200

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

100 0 -1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

ComponentLengt hFac t or

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Component Length Factor

-0.9

-0.6

-0.3

0

0.3

0.6

0.9

Vault Height Factor 1.1

0.57

11.55

22.04

34.31

53.48

75.25

101.60

Vault Height Factor 1.3

10.13

28.76

51.95

78.08

119.90

162.98

215.63

Vault Height Factor 2.0

16.56

50.93

95.97

148.45

220.44

303.19

403.94

Figure 3.54 The total gravitational load experienced by the system measured against the component length factor.

126

CHAPTER 3

Deflection (m)

Deflection (m)

Deflection (m)

vs. Component Length Factor 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 Deflection (m) 0.4 vs. Component Length Factor 0.2 1.2 0 1 -0.2 0.8 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 Component Length Factor 0.4 Vault Height Factor 1.1 Vault Height Factor 1.3 Vault Height Factor 2.0 0.2 0 -0.2 Component Length Factor -0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0 0.3 0.6 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.60.07 0.50 0.41 0.32 0.23 0.15 Vault Height Factor 1.1 Vault Height Factor 1.3

0.40

0.34 Component

0.981.1 Vault Height Factor Vault 2.0 Height Factor

0.28 Length

Factor 0.22

0.79Height Factor 0.68 Vault 1.3

0.59 Vault

0.16

0.8

1

0.9

0.8 -0.01

0.11

0.06

0.51 Height Factor 2.00.43

0.36

1

Figure 3.55 The Component Length Factor increases along with the stiffness of the system.

Component Surface Component Area (sq.m.) Surface Area (sq.m.)

Component Total Surface Area vs. Component Length Factor 200 150

Component Total Surface Area

100

vs. Component Length Factor

50 200 0 150

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

100

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0.8

1

Component Length Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

50

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

0 -1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Component Length Factor

Vault Height Factor 1.1

Vault Height Factor 1.3

Vault Height Factor 2.0

Component Length Factor

-0.9

-0.6

-0.3

0

0.3

0.6

0.9

Vault Height Factor 1.1

57.25

64.17

71.08

77.99

84.88

91.77

98.64

Vault Height Factor 1.3

67.55

75.68

83.79

91.86

99.92

107.93

115.93

Vault Height Factor 2.0

103.47

115.75

127.96

140.04

152.03

163.89

175.62

Figure 3.56 As component length increases, the surface area of the component increases proportionally. Because the size of the vault remains the same, however, this increased component surface area accounts for the decreased visual porosity of the system.

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Component Length Factor

Figure 3.57 (plan) Opacity gradient across curvature of vaulted form.

Figure 3.58 (plan) Opacity gradient along length of vaulted form.

Figure 3.59 (plan) Opacity gradient demonstrating compression zones.

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Corrugation Factor

Figure 3.60 (perspective) Corrugation gradient increases towards the midsection.

Vault Height Factor

Figure 3.61 (perspective) Ripples created by varying the length of tensile cables.

Theme and Variation

While the various vault structural studies demonstrated the particular capacities of tensegrity patterns, they did not provide an adequate visual depiction of their potential as an architectural driver. These five diagrams served as quick sketches for testing the patterns and formal operations within a parametric environment, and provided basic proof that the tensegrity system offered potential within an architectural context.

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chapter 4 FORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANALYSIS

With a base understanding of how various component patterns affect the structural characteristics of X-based component tensegrity surfaces, Chapter 4 investigates the larger relationship of the system across varying formal conditions (leading to the development of the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena form). This is accomplished first through a topological categorization of surface forms and an establishment of limits and requirements of surfaces which are compatible with the tensegrity system. The research then focuses on the development of a series of computational design tools to expand the 130

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sophistication of form-making while streamlining the process for generating the particular component pattern. This includes the development of compound surface forms as well as branching networks of tensile cables. As the design approaches a final form, the agility of the tensegrity system and its "soft" or flexible structural characteristics are examined through physical prototyping to test assembly and construction strategies. Finally, forms are analyzed to understand how forces acting at the macro-formal level are translated down to individual component level effects.

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4.1.

Surface Forms and Shells

Swiss structural engineer Heinz Isler is known for his development of a vast catalog of shell structure geometries. Presented at the first congress of the International Association for Shell Structures, Isler laid out in his paper "New Shapes for Shells" a series of shell shapes for development, (figure 4.1) suggesting an “infinite spectrum of further forms” (Chilton 2010). Though his work primarily utilizes concrete and masonry materials, his drawings represent ideas of surface architecture in which form and structural performance are inseparably linked. In this regard, this principle is fundamentally aligned with the research pursuits of the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project. Beginning with a brief examination of surface architecture precedents, this section investigates the limits of the tensegrity system in relation to surface forms and completes a cataloging of potential forms for investigation.

Figure 4.1 Roof for the Sicli Company Building, 1970, Heinz Isler.

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Figure 4.2 Heinz Isler, ‘Natural Hills on different edge lines’, 1959 (Chilton 2009).

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Vault and Surface Architecture Precedents

Figure 4.3 The roof design by Eduardo Torroja for the Zarzuela horse race track in Madrid, Spain features arrayed, beamlike vaults which cantilever over the grandstand with a maximum thickness of only 14 cm (Bechthold 2008).

Figure 4.4 The roof of the Geschäftshaus Marktplatz in Lübeck, Germany relies on an array of synclastic concrete shells which are oriented in a complimentary fashion, thus allowing the span to be achieved while reflecting the local urban scale (Bechthold 2008).

Figure 4.5 Eladio Dieste’s port warehouse in Uruguay consists of arrayed "gaussian vaults" spanning 50m with a rise of 6.4m and a thickness of 13cm (Bechthold 2008).

The catenary arch shape with undulating profile maximizes material usage while resisting buckling forces (Pedreschi & Theodossopoulos 2007).

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Figure 4.6 The hangar at Loring AFB in the US state of Maine. Constructed by Roberts and Schaefer Company in cooperation with German firm Dyckerhoff & Widmann in 1947, the 340 foot span is known as a Z-D System—“a monolithic concrete span in which only the roof slab is the carrying structure” (National Park Service 1998).

Figure 4.7 Designed by Eugene Freyssinet, the concrete vault hangar in Orly features unique corrugation on the vault surface, reducing the need for large stiffening ribs present in similar structures.

Instead, stiffness was achieved through the folding of the surface, thus reducing the thickness and weight of the structure (Bechthold 2008).

Figure 4.8 The main terminal of Lambert - St. Louis International Airport, by American architect Minoru Yamasaki, features large, open spans achieved through the use of concrete shell groin vaults. (Sulzberger 2011).

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Surface and Tensegrity System Limits

Unlike Isler’s concrete shells, which consist of a single homogeneous material which distributes force consistently regardless of direction, the X-based component surface tensegrity architecture has unique directional characteristics and minimum proportional relationships that must be maintained. Because the tension cables of the system run in only one direction across a surface (denoted as the U direction in the adjacent figures), they primarily exhibit stiffness and bending resistance in this direction only.

Careful consideration of the directionality of the cable arrangement is essential to ensure the proper structural results. Additionally, a form must maintain minimal dimensions in order to prevent creation of components which are triangular in shape. Such components cannot accommodate the proper alternating connection pattern required of the X-based tensegrity system (figure 4.11). For these reasons, formal development must occur within the unique geometric constraints imposed by the component network.

Figure 4.9 UV Surface examples with component tensegrity pattern applied.

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U

V

Figure 4.10 Standard UV configuration of component system distribution.

U

X

V

Figure 4.11 Minimal U and V dimensions required to avoid zero-width components.

U

V Figure 4.12 Rotational UV Surface delineation concurrent with 99 Failures Pavilion.

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UV Compatible Shape Catalog Simple Vaults with Two Fixed Edges

Straight Cylinder

Standard Vault

Slim Vault

Advanced Vaults with Two Fixed Edges

Conoid Shape

Point

Inverted Truncated Cone

Rotational Systems with One Fixed Edge

Straight Cylinder

Fixed Edge Soft Edge 138

Truncated Cone

Inverted Truncated Cone

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Wide Vault

Raised Edge

Curving Vault

Point Arch

Tangent Point Arch

Cross Vault

Hyperboloid of Revolution

Flared Cone

Half Torus

Figure 4.13 This collection of UV surface shapes represents a library of shapes compatible with the X-based tensegrity system. They are roughly classified into vaults and revolved forms with one or two fixed edges.

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Vaulted Forms

Revolved Forms

Figure 4.14 These two categories of form support UV description and provide logical structural characteristics for the application of X-based component tensegrity in addition to programmatic potential for architectural use.

Formal Targets

While an infinite range of shape variation exists within UV surfaces compatible with the X-based tensegrity system, the surfaces can be generalized into two categories: vaulted forms and revolved forms. This research begins with the development of vaulted forms before shifting (for structural and programmatic reasons) to an examination of revolved forms.

As a preliminary trial of how a vaulted form might cover the stadium seating areas, two simple vaulted surfaces were modeled over the north and south canopies (figures 4.15–4.17. These surfaces were then populated with components which followed a pattern of increasing system opacity from the rear to the front of the grandstands, and a gradient of increasing corrugation factor towards the middle of the surface along its length. This scheme was quite effective with regards to solar protection, and provided visual interest at close proximity. Viewed from a distance, however, especially in elevation, the canopies lacked formal definition and grandeur. For this reason, more sophisticated form-making tools were required.

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Figure 4.15 Elevation of vaulted canopy scheme (supporting structure not shown).

Figure 4.16 Plan of vaulted canopy scheme with pattern differentiation. (supporting structure not shown).

Figure 4.17 Aerial perspective looking north (supporting structure not shown).

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Figure 4.18 The BMX venue site and five potential canopy arrangements for the BMX Venue, based on vaulted forms. The addition of openings or branching within the canopy profile relies on unique computational design strategies.

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4.2.

Computational Design for Advanced Form-Making

To progress the formal research of the X-based component surface tensegrity system, the regular grid distribution of components by UV surface division was reconditioned towards research which explored the ability to generate more complex forms and component patterns through compound surface shapes. This compounding of surfaces allowed far more sophisticated architectural forms to be generated while still maintaining an organizational coherence for the networking of components. Research also studied the strategy of branching tensile cables, which allowed for a more responsive distribution and proportioning of components across curved surfaces.

Figure 4.19 Shape Studies by Evolute and RFR Engineers. This formal series shows a progression of ordered subdivision used to optimize the form for construction.

(Pottmann 2012).

Fundamental

to this research is the development of a series of computational design tools which allow forms, surfaces, and patterns to be generated parametrically. While computational design tools are often used in the pursuit of a multitude of variations, this research primarily utilizes computational processes to organize and maintain the intricate logic and geometric relationships inherent in the surface tensegrity system. Consistent with previous computational work on this research, design tools were developed within the Rhino/Grasshopper software environment.

Figure 4.20 This highlighted region shows the critical division of the form which allows continuous UV panelization. (Pottmann 2012).

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Three-way Surface Computational Design Tool

Building

upon the merged toruses shape studies completed by Evolute and RFR Engineers (previous page) as both a demonstration of sophisticated surface subdivision and a formal challenge for applying tensegrity systems to complex, compound surfaces, this research identified a geometrical logic for negotiating an intersection of three surfaces with inherently bi-directional component rows. After initial sketching of the component pattern, a structural simulation was conducted in the Rhino/ Grasshopper environment to observe the effects of gravity on the system.

As figures 4.21 and 4.22 demonstrate, an arrangement of tension cables, in which component rows along the surface intersection adjoin asymmetrically like a zipper results in a rotational collapse at the intersection center, as this movement releases the tension of the system. Alternatively, joining

Figure 4.21 An initial attempt at three-way surface compounding. The attempt failed due to rotation and slackening of the intersecting tension cables.

Structurally Unstable

Structurally Stable

B

A

C

B

A

C

Figure 4.22 (left) An initial attempt at three-way surface compounding. The attempt failed due to rotation and slackening of the intersecting tension cables. (right) A successful compounding strategy which relies on a central "key" component.

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component rows symmetrically with a common component row and "Key" triangular unit at the intersection center balances tensile forces without loosening the cables (figure 4.22).

With

the surface intersection logic established, the tensegrity replication of the Merged Toruses shape led to the development of a design tool. A few simple input lines could generate a vaulted, compound surface form with corresponding component pattern. This tool allowed a faster realization of compound geometry while maintaining the necessary ordering of tension cables and component patterns. At this stage of the research, the majority of the process was automated, though the connective component rows were manually constructed digitally, prior to the structural simulation.

Merged Toruses

Figure 4.23 This diagram depicts the structurally stable output of the surface compounding digital design tool, derived from two hexagonal input curves. Colors denote the three distinct UV surfaces which constitute the form.

Surface Compounding Studies

Figure 4.24 A stable three-way surface intersection study with large corrugation factor of the surfaces. Colors denote the three distinct UV surfaces which constitute the form.

145

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA 1. Establish Hexagonal Offsets

2. Remove Overlapping Lines

3. Rebuild Line Segments as Curves

4. Subdivide Center Line

5. Connect Points to Closest Boundary Point

6. Connect Center Points to Closest Inner Boundary Point

7. Connect Center Line Points to Inner Boundary

8. Build Clean Mesh from Constructed Lines

Figure 4.25 Steps 1–8 of the tensegrity computational design tool.

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10. Rebuild Constructed Lines to Smooth Curves

11. Subdivide Smooth Curves

12. Project Points to Mesh Surface

13. Interpolate Projected Points to Form Tensile Cable Lines

14. Subdivide Cable Lines for Component Connection Points

15. Construct Components

This computational design process automates the application of components to a form, and demonstrates how a complex form can be logically constructed and organized. Critical to this process is the projecting of cable patterns onto the catenary mesh surface, which eliminates discrepancies in the surface curvature.

Figure 4.26 Steps 9â&#x20AC;&#x201C;15 of the tensegrity computational design tool.

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Medial Axis Form Generation Design Tool

In

order to progress the formal aspects of this research, produce a program-specific output of the canopy design for the BMX venue, and increase the agility and ease of use of the design tool, increased computational sophistication was required. Therefore, a mathematical approach was chosen which relied on the generation of a medial axis (also referred to as a topological skeleton), to parametrically divide complex forms into simple geometric conditions. By doing so, the geometries can be organized according to the specifications required within the tensegrity system. The geometry organization produces both the descriptive formal surface and the network of tension cables. Through this design tool, forms can be fluidly controlled and rendered through merely the manipulation of a few input boundary conditions. Figures 4.28 and 4.29 depict this strategy, applied to the site as a potential stadium scheme.

Figure 4.27 Sample output of the Medial Axis form generation design tool showing the relationship between a form's boundary curves and its medial axis (thick red line).

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Boundary edge

Figure 4.28 Canopy scheme for BMX stadium design which uses the medial axis generator to derive form from input boundary curves. (Catenary mesh stage shown.)

Figure 4.29 Canopy scheme depicting representational surface form with projected component cable pattern. (Components not yet integrated into design tool.)

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA 1. Establish Boundary Curves

2. Create Voronoi Cells

3. Isolate Center Edge

4. Determine Medial Axis

5. Curve Endpoints

6. Unify Endpoints

7. Subdivide Medial Axis

8. Offset Points

9. Determine Closest Boundary Points

10. Create Boundary Edge Connections

Figure 4.30 Steps 1–10 of medial axis-based form generation design tool.

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12. Generate Mesh

13. Conduct Physics Simulation

14. Generate Catenary

Figure 4.31 Steps 11–14 of medial axis-based form generation.

Medial Axis Design Tool, Form Generation Procedure

The medial axis method of form generation begins with establishing boundary curves which dictate the planar arrangement of the form (1).

These curves are then subdivided to form the centroids of voronoi cells (2).

Edges within the boundary region that do not intersect with boundary edges represent the medial axis (3–4). The medial axis lines are then simplified, unifying their start and end points at intersection points (5–6). The simplified lines are subdivided and offset perpendicularly on either side of the axis lines (7–8). Next, the point of the boundary curve closest to each offset axis panel is found, and a line is drawn from the boundary point back to the original medial axis subdivision point (9–10). Discrepancies at axis intersections are resolved, leaving a clean set of lines which transverse one boundary point, travel through the medial axis, and end at another boundary point (11).

These transversal lines are essential to generating a clean mesh pattern (12).

Finally, the boundaries of the mesh are anchored, and the mesh is subjected to an upwards force which generates a catenary, vaulted form (13–14).

Although not shown in these figures, the transversal lines are also used to establish the cable pattern for the system. This is achieved by projecting the transversal lines upwards onto the catenary mesh surface.

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Figure 4.32 Fan coral displays a highly intricate pattern of branching.

Cable Branching Patterns

Building

on the previous research studies, which examined how surface intersection and compounding can generate sophisticated forms and patterns, research next examined the manipulation of not just the shape of the surface form, but of the tensile cable network distributed across that surface. The research focused on the development of a cable branching strategy capable of adapting component distributions over a guide surface from a standard grid to an intelligent and shape-responsive arrangement.

This capability is useful when networking components over a surface that has a high degree of curvature because it prevents components on the outer edge of the curved surface from being dramatically larger than those along its inner radius. This has important implications for component fabrication, as it narrows the range of component sizes.

Because the X-based component surface tensegrity system requires adjacent rows which alternate between even and odd numbers of components, an input of precisely three component rows is required for branching, resulting in five rows continuing through the pattern (figure 4.33).

Critical to the implementation of this pattern is the presence of a "key" component, a slightly elongated component within the center branching row which shifts its attachment points from an odd-to-even, or even-to-odd classification.

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ODD and EVEN Component Columns

Ordering Strategies

Component Ordering Strategies

Odd and Even Component Columns E

O

Conflict

E

O

E

O

E

O

E

O

E

O

E

O

E

O

E

O E

E

O

E

O

Single Location Splitting

Conflict point

E

O

E

O

Single Location Splitting Double Columns

Component

Key component

E

O

E

O

E

Double Location Splitting Consecutive Columns

Odd row

Even row

Figure 4.33 (left, center) Diagram depicting the challenge of branching component rows without disrupting the component order, or containing components which become triangular in shape. (right) A successful branching pattern.

Figure 4.34 Image showing construction of cable branching and components.

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Cantilever

Auxiliary Structure & Facade

Auxiliary Structure Vault

Cantilever with Ramp

Cantilever with Facade

Cantilever with Facade & Structure

Vault with Ramp & Structure

Cantilever with Ramp

Cantilever with Ramp & Facade Figure 4.35 Sectional studies of potential canopy forms and their profiles.

Ultimately, the Cantilever with Ramp & Facade form was selected for development.

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4.3.

Venue Design Development

Given

that design requirements for seating in athletic and venue support spaces are highly regulated and depend on programmatic expertise, an arena solar canopy was selected as the primary programmatic design target because it offered great potential for architectural development. It also presented the structural challenges potentially capable of advancing the research of surface tensegrity systems. Formal explorations began with a sectional study of various canopy shapes (figure 4.35). Two major design decisions were made through these explorations.

Firstly, the decision was made to refrain from restricting the view of the BMX track from the spectator seating area to enhance the audience experience. This decision necessitated that any auxiliary structure be located either at the top of or behind the grandstand. The decision was motivated by an attempt to minimize the use of towers, booms, and guy wires (concurrent with the research objectives of developing agile, temporary architecture), thus preventing overt formal references to the Munich Olympic Stadium. If the Munich games presented a mastery of tensile surfaces, the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena should showcase a unique compressive surface capacity. Secondly, while a canopy covering only the spectator seating area was initially considered, the relative lack of interest on the backside of the grandstand seating structure presented an opportunity for the canopy to provide elevational interest as a facade-like design element, partially sheltering a proposed rear circulation rampway.

Taken together, these decisions all but eliminated the use of vaultlike structures because such structures require both edges be supported.

In addition, the rather straightforward, linear appearance of vault-like structures, despite whichever pattern effects might be applied, doesn't offer the visual or formal exuberance deserving of the Olympics. Therefore, a shift in the formal logic of design development was required.

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Torus

Flared Cone

Figure 4.36 Departing with the torus-like form of the 99 Failures Pavilion, research focuses on variations of the flared cone.

From Torus to Flared Cone

In order to achieve the degree of cantilever desired for the stadium canopy, rotational shapes were re-examined. Though the 99 Failures pavilion demonstrated the ability of the torus to exhibit cantilever (figure 4.37), a closer study of the flared cone was conducted to broaden the formal research of the tensegrity system and discover a cantilevered form with external rather than internal coverage. Initial structural simulations on a standard flared cone shape validated the shape's potential while also revealing a unique phenomenon of stability. In a test where the flared cone only exhibited negative slope when measured from exterior to interior, the form partially inverted curvature, gaining height when simulated due to pretension in the cables (figure 4.38). Yet, if the form slopes slightly in a positive degree toward the outer edge of the flared cone, the form will maintain its shape, settling downwards until reaching structural equilibrium.

Figure 4.37 99 Failures pavilion, and the cantilever achieved in the center of the structure (blue lines emphasize cable paths).

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Before Simulation

After Simulation

Figure 4.38 The initial form partially inverts its curvature during the structural simulation as a result of slight pretension built into the simulation process.

Before Simulation

After Simulation

Figure 4.39 By inducing a slight initial downwards curvature to the formâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s edges, the simulated result maintains its suggested form, settling slightly before stabilizing.

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Figure 4.40 Profile edges (black) and catenary network (red) of design tool output.

Continual Surface Computational Design Tool

A dramatic formal shift from previously established shape studies was pursued through the development of this continual surface computational design tool. Loosely borrowing the cantilever logic of the flared cone, the design tool unifies a series of connected flared cones through a continuous ribbon-like surface. As the surface flows from one cone to the next, it passes an inflection point where the curvature inverts itself; the interior face becoming the exterior, and vice-versa. Through these transformations, the X-based component tensegrity capability is ensured because the surface maintains its UV coordinate designations. The sophistication of the tool allowed formal investigations to go beyond the metrics of shading, scale, and structure to qualitative criteria such as visual flow, lightness of shape, and formal character. Four schemes are shown in the in the next few pages to show the mutability of the UV surface and the design capacity of the computational design tool. The fourth and final scheme was the final form (north canopy) chosen for the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena.

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Figure 4.41 Scheme 1 elevation showing straight projection of canopy.

Figure 4.42 Scheme 1 aerial perspective.

Figure 4.43 Scheme 1 aerial perspective (rear).

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Figure 4.44 Scheme 2 elevation showing middle crest of shell height.

Figure 4.45 Scheme 2 aerial perspective showing strong linear arrangement.

Figure 4.46 Scheme 2 aerial perspective (rear) showing balance of fore and aft shells.

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Figure 4.47 Scheme 3 elevation showing middle depression of shell height.

Figure 4.48 Scheme 3 aerial perspective showing height of end shells.

Figure 4.49 Scheme 3 aerial perspective (rear).

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Figure 4.50 Final scheme elevation showing undulation of shell heights.

Figure 4.51 Final scheme aerial perspective.

Figure 4.52 Final scheme aerial perspective (rear) showing rear facade-like shells.

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Figure 4.53 Final scheme elevation showing undulation of shell heights.

Final Form

The final form was selected for its visual and formal balance, scale, and coverage. The gently undulating shells appear light and natural, reflecting the movement of racers along the BMX course. Geometrically, these forward and rear facing shells are united architecturally and structurally through the continual, undulating surface of the form. As Figure 4.54 depicts, the shells play a critical role as structural counterbalances to one another, reducing (though not eliminating) the amount of anchoring required to secure the structure. Ultimately, this form best epitomizes a cohesion of sound architectural qualities and innovative structural rationale.

Compressive Forces Tensile Forces

Figure 4.54 Rendering of north canopy form depicting structural strategy.

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X

X

X

X

1. Interpolate arc on input curve (red dash).

2. Adjust number of arc segments (shells).

3. Adjust arc spacing, which influences shell size.

4. Extend end arc lengths, which rotates end shells.

5. Adjust top arc tangencies at inflection points (prepares for offset).

6. Offset top arcs from center point by scale factor or factors for front and back shells.

7. Elongate shells from central axis of arcs.

8. Rotate shells to smooth transition from ends.

Figure 4.55 Transformation of a UV surface procedure into final architectural form.

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9. Raise top edge by minimum height factor.

10. Add additional height parameter for overlapping of shells.

11. Rotate shell tips downward; small amount for front, large amount for rear.

12. Rotate entire top edge around input line.

13. Rotate front base edges upwards to allow 14. Adjust number of arc segments (shells). circulation through the surface.

UV Surface Transformation Procedure

The

diagrams in Figure 4.55 show the organizational logic of the design tool used to create the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena form. While these steps can be taken progressively as the processes for determining the final form, each step also represents the application of a unique formal and computational parameter used to manipulate the surface into the desired shape. By using a continuous rectangular surface, the UV coordinate logic is preserved, thus facilitating the propagation of the component pattern. Through a controlled contortion of this surface, however, its formal and visual identity can be greatly altered.

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Cantilever Assistance, Structural Membrane

Because of the large cantilevered span required to cover spectator seating without view-interrupting secondary supports, a major tensegrity system development was incorporated to increase the bending resistance of the shells, limiting their formal deformation under gravity. This system relies on the unique capacity of the component design to vary widely in thickness due to the expandable properties of their polystyrene cores (discussed in detail in the following chapters). This component formability, coupled with the desire to integrate a weather protection capacity to the otherwise porous component structure, resulted in the development of a structural membrane. This membrane attaches to the tops of components, whose differentiated thicknesses allow the overall depth of the structural system to vary. With a greater thickness (like that of a truss or beam), comes greater bending resistance. This condition was validated by means of a digital structural simulation, in which a simple cantilever test was established to compare the effects, with and without the structural membrane present (figure 4.57). Additionally, a physical prototype of a single canopy shell that was measured before and after the application of the membrane showed less downward bending once the membrane had been applied.

Component Base Component Thickness Simulated Structural Membrane

Figure 4.56 Membrane simulation diagram with differentiated component thicknesses. Blue lines simulate the effects of a rigid component. Green lines simulate the effects of an anchored membrane.

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Before Simulation

After Simulation

Without Structural Membrane

With Structural Membrane

With Structural Membrane Figure 4.57 (top) Cantilever simulation with no structural membrane. (center) A basic cantilever with structural membrane and 3D component frame. (bottom) Basic cantilever variation; the structural membrane maintains initial shape.

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Membrane Base Ring 1

Membrane Base Ring 2

Rain Collection Points

Figure 4.58 Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena south canopy detail with yellow tangency lines for membrane curvature visualization.

Figure 4.59 Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena south canopy detail with rendered membrane showing the variegated opacity strips composing the membrane surface.

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Components Tension Cables Structural Membrane Foundation Base Rings

Figure 4.60 Diagrammatic canopy section showing the relationship of the membrane (blue), to the components (red), primary tensile cables (black) and base (gray).

Architectural Effects

In order to add both visual interest and enhanced architectural effects to the venue design, treatment of the structural membrane is a driving force of the project's architectural character. Constructed of hundreds of strips of membrane material which varies in opacity, the assembled pattern expresses both gradual gradation along the length of the canopy and locally produces a variegated visual and shading effect. This effect is multiplied as the shells overlap, one casting shadows on others, creating a visual complexity of light and shadow (figure 4.59).

As the membrane reaches the base, it attaches to a foundation base ring which transfers the membrane's tensile forces to the foundation. A second membrane, constructed as a minimal surface, spans between this ring and a second base ring, rotationally offset from the first. This effectively shields the area which is not directly under the canopy from solar radiation while directing rainwater sideways across the surface to two collection points. Together the membranes function as a dynamic, multi-functional architectural feature that provides a structural enhancement, solar shading, and weather protection while giving a sophisticated visual identity to the project.

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4.4.

Surface Agility as Assembly Strategy

Large architectural and infrastructure projects are known to require intensive construction and assembly strategies, particularly cantilevered and overhanging structures such as canopies, roofs, and arches, which often require costly scaffolding or support structures. During the construction of the Beijing Olympic Stadium, the enormous, crisscrossing steel truss sections required a total of seventy-eight temporary steel support towers to support the structure while the sections were joined together (figure 4.61) (Enerpac 2014). Once joined, crews then precisely lowered the support points beneath the canopy via specially designed hydraulic jacks until the structure became self-supported (Enerpac 2014). While successful in the end, and less costly than hiring the number of high-capacity cranes necessary to complete the assembly (Enerpac 2014), the construction of such a great quantity of temporary, auxiliary structures suggests economy can be found in the implementation of alternative assembly strategies.

Figure 4.61 (top) A view showing the large support columns used to temporarily support the inner ring of the Beijing Olympic Stadium Canopy during construction. (bottom) A worker removes a brace from the underside of the ring (Enerpac 2004).

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Figure 4.62 A simulated transition from a 2D tensegrity surface to a 3D form.

In temporary projects, reliance on additional supports or scaffolding can inhibit bold form-making in favor of construction simplicity and economy.

Challenging this notion, the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena project, drawing on experience from the 99 Failures Pavilion, relies on the "soft" characteristics of its tensegrity system to allow a streamlined process of assembly. Demonstrated in a 1:10 scale prototype, the components of each shell are first connected to tension cables while laying flat on the ground. Next, each assembled shell is hoisted from a precise set of points which impel the surface into an approximation of its final form. Finally, the base of the shell is anchored, and through a backwards pull on the vertical ends of the surface, the shell is brought rigidly into position. Once one shell is secure, the next is erected in serial fashion until the canopy is complete. This strategy avoids labor intensive and costly scaffolding while achieving a dramatic, cantilevered form.

Figure 4.63 Completed 1:10 MDF and acrylic prototype. 1.5 m x 1.0 m x 0.6 m 171

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Assembly strategy: Lifting sequence

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Figure 4.64 Steps 1–8: The shell is constructed on the ground in a near-flat arrangement. Six hoists are attached around the crest of the shell. Once the shell is lifted, the vertical edges are placed in position via pin joints. As the shell is raised, the base components are attached to the base ring. As the vertical edges rotate upwards, their tips move toward each other.

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9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Figure 4.65 Steps 9â&#x20AC;&#x201C;16: As the shell continues to rise, the vertical edges are pulled back and away from the cantilever with great force. Once the shell has reached its highest point, the vertical edges are pulled taught with the shell and are anchored in place. The crest is slowly lowered until the hoist cables are slack, at which point the cables are removed. Finally, the membrane strips are attached to the components and to each other.

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Figure 4.66 Phenotypes of the species Anolis marmoratus found on the island of Guadeloupe (Legreneur 2013).

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4.5.

Form and Component Analysis

In

biology, individual organisms within a population are described according to two distinct classification criteria known as genotype and phenotype. The genotype defines the genetic material, the DNA, which is inherited from an organism’s parents, and unites organisms as a common species (Lewontin 2011). The phenotype, however, classifies specifically those physical, behavioral, or metabolic characteristics which cannot be attributed to inheritance, and instead are manifested in an individual as a result of external or environmental factors (Lewontin 2011). Where genotype defines the code (the set of genetic guidelines from which an organism develops), phenotype represents the particular execution of that code in response to external influences.

Within

the context of computational design, genotype can be considered the general geometric relationships which govern a form, while the phenotype is analogous to the particular inputs and external processes which produce the specific formal output. In order to translate the macroscale forces acting on the Poly­­­∙Cycle Arena down to individual componentscale design responses, the structure is simulated digitally to identify the particular pattern of compression, tension and bending experienced by the form. These results can then be analyzed, visualized, and codified, with the resulting data feeding each component a unique set of initial conditions from which it develops its own individual phenotype.

Figure 4.67 Fitness and Genotype-Phenotype map. From an extensive genotype possibility space, various phenotypes emerge, possessing various levels of fitness depending on their particular attributes (Stadler 2002).

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Force Intensity Tension

Compression

Figure 4.68 Components develop unique force distributions based on their location within the system. Components with the largest compressive loads generally occur at the canopy edges and along branching component rows.

Force Visualization

Force Intensity Tension

Compression

Figure 4.69 This enlargement clearly shows how components experience unique compressive loads where rows diverge.

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Asymmetrical Loading Less

More

Figure 4.70 This analysis identifies which of the two diagonal directions of each X-shaped component experiences greater compressive load (direction of the cylinder) and how great that difference is (diameter and color intensity of the cylinder).

Component Force Analysis

In order to determine the particular loads acting on each individual component, the components are subjected to a gravitational force within the Kangaroo physics simulation engine. Each of the component’s six lines– arranged in squares with connecting diagonals–are measured before and after the simulation. Because an identical k spring constant is used for all component lines, the difference in lengths before and after the simulation as a percentage of starting length, gives a representational yet nuanced view of the unique forces acting upon each individual component. Primary analysis included an examination of the compressive and tensile loads acting along the component’s profile edges (figures 4.68 and 4.69), though diagonal forces were also taken into account as they pertain to compressive stability of the component shape (figure 4.70). Taken together, these analyses give a comprehensive understanding of the balance of forces throughout the component network. Furthermore, as further chapters discuss in more detail the numerical output of these analyses is directly supplied to the component design script to affect each component’s formal outcome in response to its observed loads.

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Bending Visualization Less Bending – More Bending

Figure 4.71 Analysis of pavilion component bending simulation. (Extrusion distances correspond to color gradient and are for visualization purposes only).

Component Bending Analysis

In addition to compressive and tensile loads, bending forces within components is a major structural concern. In a procedure similar to the previous simulations, bending was analyzed by measuring the planarity of each component before and after simulation (since all components are planar before running the simulation, only the post simulation result is necessary).

In general, bending intensity within components is highest where the canopy form exhibits the greatest degree of compound curvature, suggesting that formal circumstances are reflected in component behaviors.

While

these analytical methods are not of structural engineeringcaliber, they do provide a relational picture of component forces across varying parameters. In order to conduct a preliminary check and ensure that the results of the simulation tests reflected real structural behavior, the same simulation was conducted on the 99 Failures Pavilion form (Figure 4.72).

These results were then compared to the pavilion components, some of which incurred bending damage during construction and a large windstorm (Figure 4.73). The components which experienced physical bending correlated surprisingly closely with those experiencing the greatest amount of bending in the simulation.

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Bending Visualization

Less Bending â&#x20AC;&#x201C; More Bending

Figure 4.72 Analysis of pavilion component bending simulation. (Extrusion distances correspond to color gradient and are for visualization purposes only.)

15

13

14

12

11

10

16

Bending Visualization 9

8

7

17 18

6

5 4

19

3

20

2

21 1 22

29 23

0

28 24

25

26

27

Corner Reinforcement Cross Reinforcement

Figure 4.73 Pavilion photograph overlaid with applied reinforcement where damage or bending was observed. (only reinforcements visible in perspective shown).

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chapter 5 URBAN BACKGROUND OF MATERIAL RESEARCH

5.1.

Introduction

Tokyo,

Japan’s capital and the world’s most populous metropolis (with a population of thirteen million) population was selected as the host of the 2020 Olympics. Large parts of Tokyo were destroyed in the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 and the air raids of 1945.

Following that, however, active recovery contributed to prosperous years and the rapid growth of the Japanese economy. There were countless construction projects to expand infrastructures, and sometimes exaggerated buildings were planned or constructed as displays of wealth.

With

the rapid changes to the city, people’s use of materials have also changed a great deal. New materials have been introduced, and societal conception and awareness of them have also changed with the times, particularly plastic products that became available after war, and were widely distributed over a short period of time. Nowadays, however, these plastics are considered old materials that cause environmental pollution.

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The Changing Perception of Plastics

1960

182

1980

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2014

2020

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Figure 5.1 Most urban infrastructure was destroyed during the pacific campaigns of World War II. Firebombing raids were conducted from 1942 to 1945. (AP Photo)

Figure 5.2 Public housing complexes called danchi were constructed during the post war recovery to provide citizens with housing. Concrete and cement, the representative materials of the era, were widely used to aid in the rapid recovery of the city.

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Figure 5.3 “Plan of Tokyo 1960” The University of Tokyo, Tange Lab (C) Tange Architects

Figure 5.4 Repair work on the ruined Tokyo Station Marunouchi Building in 1946, which was damaged by air raids during WW II. Scanned from p.124 of “History of stations.

Terminals in Tokyo” 185

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Figure 5.5 Tokyo Monorail before the 1964 Tokyo Olympics (C) KYODO

Figure 5.6 Monorail in 1964 (KUNIAKI SAEKI 1964)

Figure 5.7 Shuto Highway (KUNIAKI SAEKI 1964) 186

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Figure 5.8 (upper left)1960s TV (upper right) Hula-hoops in 1958, Tokyo (lower left) Perm heater made of plastic Figure 5.9 (lower right) Plastic bucket advertisement

5.2.

Postwar Recovery and Advent of Plastic

Tokyo recovered quickly, and a new era began. Social infrastructure like transportation and road networks were newly constructed or organized before the 1964 Olympic Games.

Plastic

began to be mass produced and widely used in the mid 1950s. The 1955 invention of the plastic container in 1955 became popular and came into wide use. Sekisuiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commercial poster (above) shows how the plastic bucket attracted public attention in the 1960s. It was considered a necessity for marriage. With advancements in technology and the rapid growth of Japanese industry, plastic was applied in various uses, from sundries to electronic products.

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Figure 5.10 Tokyo 1992, (EP Broadcasting Company) 188

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5.3.

Bubble Era

Economic

historians usually date the beginning of the bubble economy to September 1985, when Japan and five other nations signed the Plaza Accord in New York. That agreement called for the depreciation of the dollar against the yen and was supposed to increase the number of U.S. exports by making them cheaper.

This agreement also made it cheaper for Japanese companies to purchase foreign assets. Companies went on an overseas buying spree, picking properties like Rockefeller Center in New York and golf courses in Hawaii and California.

By December 1989, the benchmark Nikkei 225 stock average had reached nearly 39,000. But beginning in 1990, the stock market began a downward spiral that saw it lose more than $2 trillion by December 1990, effectively ending the bubble era.

(E. JOHNSTON 2009)

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Figure 5.11 Ueno subway station, 1927

Figure 5.15 1955 subway map

Figure 5.12 Tokyo subway station, 1955

Figure 5.16 1965 subway map

Figure 5.13 Tokyo metro, 1983

Figure 5.17 1990 subway map

Figure 5.14 Shibuya station, 2008

Figure 5.18 2014 subway map

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Figure 5.19 (above) Shibuya subway station (bottom) Otemachi subway station

Subways

in Tokyo have been constructed gradually along with the growth of Japan’s economy. Most basic transportation lines were recovered before the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. With the skyrocketing Japanese economy, transportation networks grew more and more complicated, and some parts overlapped. Many “extra” line and stations were created during that era.

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Figure 5.20 As of October 1, 2007, the population of Tokyo was estimated to be 12.790 million

Figure 5.21 Production of Plastic in Japan (Japan Plastic Industry Foundation)

The 1980s were the golden age of the Japanese economy. As the population of Tokyo increased, more and more materials and resources were consumed in the city. Although there were many plastics which had already been created in the lab, they took time to become available (such as PP (1957), PS (1960), and PET bottles (1973)). However, by the 1980s, most kinds of plastics had begun to be produced commercially, and they were then introduced to the public step by step.

Those inventions encouraged people to get familiar with plastic, however, plastic waste also built up rapidly.

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Figure 5.22 Apple III, 1980

Figure 5.24 Toys from the 1980s

Figure 5.23 Aiwa Cassette 1983 from Boom Box project (C) LYLE OWERKO

Figure 5.25 Kitchen utensils made of plastic

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Figure 5.26 Nishi Shinjuku Skyscraper Cluster

Figure 5.27 Budget for construction investments

Figure 5.28 Nikkei 225 index from 1985 to 2014 194

Tokyo

CHAPTER 5

kept expanding and creating more infrastructure.

Construction booming peaked in the bubble period, but after 1989, it

began to decrease.

People in the Bubble

era, were interested in making enormous structures. Shimizu construction Figure 5.29 Taisei Corporation X-seed 4000 planned a gigantic pyramid in Tokyo while Taisei corporation proposed artificial volcano-shaped and mixeduse building resembling Mt. Fuji.

Those two projects represented the ideas of the future of architecture in the 1980s. Infrastructure was expanded as much as possible and the maximum number of resources were used. Supported by a booming economy and an endless budget and resources, both projects maximized Figure 5.30 The Shimizu TRY 2004 scale by adding concrete and steel beams.

Figure 5.31 High-rise residential zone in the Tokyo Bay area 195

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Figure 5.32 Tokyo Sky Tree and Mt. Fuji 196

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Figure 5.33 The bullet train in Yurakucho 1964 (left) and 2014 (right)

Figure 5.34 Tokyo Tower from 3rd Daiba, 1963, published by Mainichi Shimbun

Figure 5.35 View of downtown Tokyo from Toyosu, Koto-ku.

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5.4.

Modern Tokyo

The 1964 Olympics triggered a huge public investment for the building of domestic infrastructures such as Olympic venues and transportation networks. These developments aimed to maximize hosting dividends both in national prestige and tourist dollars. Quantitative expansion represented the demand of the era. Mass-produced buildings were widespread, especially a type of housing complex known as a danchi, which was a popular type of residence.

Tokyo won its bid to host the 2020 Olympic Games. For a half century, Tokyo has grown as the most populous metropolitan area in the world, however, the current condition of the aging infrastructures which were built in a booming economy require a large budget for maintenance. New methodologies for constructing venues will be necessary for sustainable management. Building as few structures as possible while reusing those created in the 1964 Olympics or making use of temporary structures are current strategies considered, following the precedent of the 2010 London Olympics.

The

social infrastructure of Tokyo largely relies on developments of forty years ago. The life span of structures is closely related to that of concrete. Visible cracks are easily found on highways, and the municipal government is investing a great deal of money to repair them and reinforce the structures overall. The same problems area also evident in other concrete-based infrastructure more than 30 years old.

Figure 5.36 Kachidoki Bridge & Tokyo Tower Figure 5.37 On November 29, 1970, the double-leaf bascule Kachidoki Bridge over the Sumida River reopened after a one and a half year hiatus. Tsukiji Fish Market is at the center of the image, with Hamarikyu Onshi Garden on the left and Tokyo Tower and the World Trade Center Build- ing in Hamamatsucho in the background.

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 5.38 A shop in Tsukiji Market, 2010

Figure 5.42 Various kinds of PET bottles

Figure 5.39 PVC (polyvinyl chloride), the third-most wide- ly produced plastic

Figure 5.43 A plastic bag, the most commonly found plastic in daily life.

Figure 5.40 Xile, a flexible tunnel made of plastic designed by Swedish designer Mats Karlsson

Figure 5.44 Various kinds of modern plastic products

Figure 5.41 Plastic clothing by Paule Ka, Spring 2012.

Different kinds of plastic are used in various ways in modern daily life.

With the advancement of technology, the weight of plastics has become lighter, production has become cheaper, and plastic has become a daily necessity.

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Figure 5.45 Types of plastic 201

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202

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The Shuto highway was constructed and

opened in 1963 for the Olympics. According to the data from the Metropolitan Expressway company, which manges the Shuto Highway, more than 900,000 cars use the highway every day, on average (JUNE 2014). However, the structures are now deteriorating, and the government is trying to find a way to do reinforcement and maintenance work while not impacting the flow of daily transportation.

The deadliest Japanese roadway accident in history occurred when the ceiling of Sasago Tunnel, collapsed on the Chuo highway in Yamanashi. Nine people died and two were injured (CTV).

Murayama housing complex was built in 1964 with 5,260 households. Construction included reinforcements to improve old buildings. A new plan was established for reconstruction between 2015 and 2030. Because there are many danchi complexes of similar age, the city must address how to maintain them.

Tokyo Outer Underground Discharge Channel is newer than the above-mentioned projects.

It was first planned in 1992, and construction was completed in 2009. The city spent an astronomical amount of money to maintain the gigantic infrastructure.

Figure 5.46 Shuto Highway from Edogawabashi junction. This was the first junction on the highway.

Figure 5.47 After the Sasago Tunnel ceiling collapse accident, 2013 Figure 5.48 Murayama Apartment Complex in Tokyo, photo taken from Asahi newspaperâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s helicopter Figure 5.49 The Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel, Kasukabe, Saitama, Japan 203

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Figure 5.50 New National Stadium, (C) Zaha Hadid Architects

5.5.

2020 Tokyo Olympics

Forty

Years have passed since the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. Tokyo has expanded, but the venues of the 1964 Olympics remain.

The

Figure 5.51 IOC President Jacque Rogge shows a card displaying Tokyo, the city chosen to host the 2020 Summer Olympics, in Buenos Aires.

Figure 5.52 The Japanese Olympic Commit- tee shows their delight

204

next Olympics should not follow the methodology of the past. It should be an opportunity to project a new vision of architecture, and to consider the future.

There are a number of extra infrastructural developments in Tokyo which consume huge amounts of the metropolitan budget.

CHAPTER 5

Figure 5.53 National Stadium designed by Mitsuo Katayama, the main ven- ue for the 1964 Olympics

Figure 5.54 Yoyogi Gymnasium in 1964 (above) and now (below) designed by Kenzo Tange

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Figure 5.55 Civic Arena deconstruction steps 206

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5.6.

Construction Strategies

Traditional Construction Strategy Precedents The Civic Arena in Pittsburgh was the home of the Pittsburgh Penguins, from 1967 to 2010. At its closing in 2010, the Civic Arena was the oldest and third smallest arena in the NHL by official capacity (the Islanders and Oilers arenas seat fewer). In later years, the arenaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s staff was forced to use space for multiple purposes never intended in the buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s original design (The Huffington Post, 5th July 2012).

The arena illustrates a traditional way of recycling construction materials. Building demolition begins after detaching valuable and profitable materials. While structural frameworks are collected and recycled, leftover concrete parts are ground into small gravel.

Figure 5.56 Conventional steps of construction ma- terial recycling 207

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Figure 5.57 London Aquatics Centre

5.7.

New Methodology

Zaha’s London Aquatics Centre in Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park illustrates a method of managing infrastructure efficiently and economically.

There are other potential methods for reducing maintenance budgets following the Olympic Games, in contrast to the handling of the 2004 Athens Olympic venues, which are abandoned, and the Beijing Olympic venues, which are also deserted. These Olympics have resulted in huge budget deficits.

Having a construction and maintenance strategy could be a method of addressing these issues, and Zaha’s project shows one promising example.

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Figure 5.58 London Aquatics Centre Infographic

After the Paralympic Games, the Aquatic Centre was dismantled, resulting in a smaller space. The frame wings on either side of the central space were removed, unbolted, and sold. The PVC wrap that temporarily enclosed the space was also sold, and the seats and toilets were reused elsewhere.

The Water Polo Arenaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sloping silver roof is made from air-inflated recyclable plastic and covers 6,710 square meters. The upper-roof layer consists of robust aluminum, half of which is recycled. 150,000 tons of concrete were poured during the construction, using a mix of 40% cement replacement and up to 76% recycled aggregate.

For

the wings, two demountable grandstands were constructed to house the majority of spectators, decreasing the capacity from 25,00 seats to 17,500. This economic option consists of a steel structure, plywood decking and polymerbased materials for the cover (Gulfnews.com 2012 July).

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5.8.

Temporary Buildings

Figure 5.59 99 Failures Pavilion, Obuchi Lab, The University of Tokyo, 2013

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Figure 5.60 The 2012 Olympic basketball stadium was designed as a temporary structure and is considered the largest ever arena to be built for the games.

Figure 5.61 The 2012 Olympic basketball stadium

211

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chapter 6 MATERIAL STUDIES

6.1.

Background

The term plastics applies to a wide range of materials that at some stage in manufacturing are capable of “flowing” such that they can be extruded, molded, cast, spun or applied as a coating. There are currently some 20 different groups of plastics, each with numerous grades and varieties. Plastics are incredibly versatile materials; they are inexpensive, lightweight, strong, durable, and corrosion-resistant, with high thermal and electrical insulation properties. The diversity of polymers and the versatility of their properties facilitate the production of a vast array of plastic products that bring technological advances, energy savings and various other societal benefits. (R C Thompson 2009)

Japan

has a relatively short history of using plastic, but the material has spread quickly to people’s lives. In the 1930s, synthetic resin, acrylic, and nylon were produced to make military products and vehicles. In the 1950s, these military technologies became available to the public, and private companies began plastic fabrication in 1949 by making polyvinyl chloride (SETECH).

In

the 1950s, following the boom of mass production within the chemical industry, more products began to be introduced and commercialized. From TV to the plastic bucket, plastics became widely used and considered as an innovative material. In 1960, annual consumption of plastic was 5.8 kg per person, however in 2000, it had increased to 91.4 kg (16 times greater than 40 years prior) (PWMI).

Figure 6.1 In 1941, Dow invented a process for extruding polystyrene to achieve a closed-cell foam that resists moisture.

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Brief History of Polystyrene 1839 A German apothecary called Eduard Simon discovered polystyrene.

He isolated the substance from natural resin but did not know what he had discovered 1930 Scientists at I.G. Farben (today BASF) developed a way to commercially manufacture polystyrene 1930s Several Dow researchers developed an inhibitor that was key to the commercial process for producing very pure styrene at a low cost. It enabled the production of a polystyrene that was so clear, people said it looked like crystal. They called it STYRON Polystyrene 1937 The Dow Chemical Company introduced polystyrene products to the U.S. market 1959 The Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam (STYRON 2014)

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Figure 6.2 Recycling Performance

Now, plastic is considered a wasteful, environmentally harmful resource.

Domestic plastic disposal in Japan in 2012 reached 9,290,000 tons (PWMI).

Plastic is no longer considered a futuristic material. Plastic products are all around. Disposable products made of plastic are widely used and quickly thrown away. Since most plastics are non-biodegradable, however, 56.8% are recycled as a material, and 30.7% are incinerated to produce energy in a process called thermal recycling.

Bioplastic, which is either bio-based, biodegradable, or features both properties, will contribute to changing the public perception of plastic. It is light, easy to produce, and strong, but can be returned to nature.

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Figure 6.3 Chuo Teibo Landfill 215

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98% Air (light and waterproof)

Changes volume

Rigid (easily fractured)

8Co2

4H20 Various Applications

Eco-friendly (Returns to (8Co2+4H20)n upon complete combustion)

Infinite life-cycle (repeatedly expands and dissolves)

Polystyrene, the 6th category of plastic.

Polystyrene is the most common type of plastic. It is inflatable, and can easily form a shape. Moreover, it is lightweight, but strong, and can revert to natural elements upon complete combustion.

Alternatively, the material can also be re-materialized and used again.

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Figure 6.4 Dispos- Figure 6.7 Packing Figure 6.10 P o l y able polystyrene peanuts styrene insulation containers Figure 6.5 Insulated cups

Figure 6.8 Figure 6.11 Packaging for elec- Geofoam tronic goods

Figure 6.6 Polysty- Figure 6.9 U r b a n Figure 6.12 rene fish boxes have model made of blue Surfboard made of excellent insulation foam polystyrene performance

Polystyrene

has come into wide use. Advancements in chemical science established a variety of types of polystyrene, and developments in fabrication technology have enhanced the quality of polystyrene products.

There are many patents for different polystyrene fabrication techniques.

These

days, plastics are a requisite for life. From food containers to large scale construction foam, humans are making the best use of this material.

217

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General Waste Industrial Waste Domestic Plastic Product Consumption Domestic Plastic Production Amount

Effective Use Rate (%)

Amount (10,000t)

Figure 6.13 Plastic Production and Waste Disposal in Japan (PWMI) Report of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Plastic Products(2013)

Material Recycle

Chemical Recycle

Thermal Recycle

Combustion

Landfill

Effective Use Rate

Figure 6.14 Effective Use Rate of Used Plastic(PWMI) 218

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Figure 6.15 Plastic waste at the Tsurumi recycling center in Yokohama. Photograph: The Asahi Shimbun/Getty Images

Figure 6.16 Yoyogi Park after cherry blossom picnics, April 2012

Figure 6.17 Plastic containers in Tsukiji Market 219

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214 tons of polystyrene are collected and disposed of every day.

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120 tons of polystyrene are incinerated (thermally recycled) every day.

Total Amount of Material and Thermal Recycled Polystyrene = 334 tons (85.8 % of 389 tons) 221

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Figure 6.18 Tsukiji market

Figure 6.19 Statistics from Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, Annual Changes of the amounts of Garbage Disposal

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Figure 6.20 Tsukiji market interior

6.2.

Tsukiji Market

Tsukiji is the biggest wholesale fish and seafood market in the world and is also one of the largest wholesale food markets of any kind (McCurry).

According to the graph on the left (Fig. 6.19), an average of seven tons of polystyrene garbage are disposed of every day from Tsukiji market (20% of the total amount of garbage). Because the market is just 5 km from the BMX venue, material could be transported via barge to a petrochemical complex near Kawasaki, adjacent to Tokyo bay, and after re-treatment and fabrication steps, could be transported back to the site before construction.

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Figure 6.21 Products in Tsukiji (2012)

Figure 6.22 Disposal by Products’ Category in Tsukiji (2012)

According

to statistics from Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market, 22,165 of a total of 39,007 tons of garbage comes from sea food. Among this garbage, the amount of polystyrene waste occupies approximately 12%, or 2,694 tons annually. The volume of this polystyrene waste is huge, however, because of its lightness, it seems less when considered in terms of the graph based on weight.

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Figure 6.23 Tsukiji inner market

Figure 6.24 Tsukiji inner market

Figure 6.25 Tsukiji inner market

Figure 6.26 Tsukiji inner market 225

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Tsukiji Market Polystyrene Processing Case Study

The amount of polystyrene collected and disposed of over a three day period in Japan (642 tons)

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Each bar represents the amount of daily polystyrene consumption in Tsukiji (7 t)

Consumption in Tsukiji over three days (21 t)

Poly cycle arena consumption over three days (2.2 t) (total 22 t for one month of use)

227

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Polystyrene Volume Analysis

Before Construction : 20 m3

After Construction : 580 m3

228

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229

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~5 km

Since

the Olympic venue for the BMX Stadium is located just 5 km from the BMX venue, material scan be transported by barge to the Keihin petrochemical complex near Kawasaki, adjacent

Figure 6.27 A barge ship transporting sand 230

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to Tokyo bay. After rematerialization and component fabrication steps, components will be transported back to the site before construction.

Figure 6.28 A view of Keihin Industrial Complex

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Figure 6.29 Polystyrene Containers in Tsukiji 232

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Figure 6.30 Types of plastics

Main Characteristics - 98% air (lightweight) - Highly efficient (resource saving) - Low-cost and various applications - Rigid (easy to fracture) - Does not decompose easily - Changes volume (before and after inflation) - Infinite life-cycle (repeatedly expands and dissolves) - Returns to (8Co2+4H20)n upon complete combustion)

Figure 6.31 Inner tissue of expanded polystyrene 233

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6.3. Recent Changes in Use of Polystyrene Figure 6.32 Cups made of various polystyrenes

Figure 6.33 Polystyrene packing

Polystyrene

is widely used in different fields. Some artists make use of polystyrene to make objects. It is light material which can be deformed easily, so it is well-suited for product manufacturing. Also, a polystyrene village in Kyushu shows the application of polystyrene in building houses.

Figure 6.34 Polystyrene containers in Tsukiji Market

Figure 6.35 Synbra Technology’s BioFoam E-PLA foam complements the company’s wide range of polystyrene foam products.

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Figure 6.36 Polymerization, Polystyrene Art Work, Baptiste Debombourg, 2003

Figure 6.37 Tara Donovan, Styrofoam Cups, 2003.

Represented by Pace Gallery

Figure 6.38 Cluster of Residential Polystyrene domes, Aso Farm Land, Kumamoto 235

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Three Different types of Polystyrene Recycling - Material Recycling - polystyrene is recycled as a raw plastic material, then is used to make a variety of plastic products.

- Chemical Recycling - polystyrene is heated, recycled as gas and oil, and used as fuel.

- Thermal Recycling - polystyrene is used to make electricity by utilizing the energy output produced through burning the material.

Buildings, Infrastructure Construction

Fragmentation

Dissolving by Heat

Ingot

Recycled Polystyrene (EPS to EPS)

Recycled Pallet

Video, Casette Case Stationary, Poly-synthetic Wood

Used Polystyrene

Compression Dissolving by Solution

Use as a replacement for cokes in steel manufacturing Oil Gas Coke and Chemical Fuel RDF, RPF Heat energy is used to save electricity, and is also used to fabricate another polystyrene

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Figure 6.39 C o n v e n t i o n a l use - spray foam applied directly to the roof sheathing, eliminating any ventilation

Figure 6.42 Zaha Hadid Architects, Kartal Pendik Masterplan, Polystyrene with Polyurethane shell

Figure 6.40 Insulation techniques using expandable polystyrene

Figure 6.43 John Powers: God’s Comic, 2010, Sculpture constructed from polystyrene blocks with a polyurethane shell

Figure 6.41 Improved insulation techniques using expandable polystyrene

Figure 6.44 MADE installations

by Snarkitecture, São Paulo – Brazil

CONVENTIONAL

ARTISTIC

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6.4.

Material Circulation

Refined in Petroleum / Chemical Plant

Crude Oil from Oil Field

Naftha

Benzene

Mono Styrene

Photo Frame

Ingot

CD Cases

Sheets

Recycled Products

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1st Expansion

Beads

Recycled Pallets

Pre-expanded Foam

Expanded Polystyrene

Ingot Machine

Expansion in controlled environment

Used polystyrene is dissolved in Limone, Acetone, or Kerosene to make ingot

239

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Figure 6.45 Oil Platform (C) PA Figure 6.46 Crude Oil (NEL)

Figure 6.47 Naphtha (VM&P) Figure 6.48 Naphtha crackers at the Tokuyama plant (Earth Changes Media 2014)

Figure 6.49 Benzen (Eiji Kumamoto) Figure 6.50 Styrene Monomer (TAP Plastic)

Styrene Monomer

Polymerization

Polystyrene

Figure 6.51 The reaction scheme for producing polystyrene from styrene monomer (I.Boustead, 2005) 240

CHAPTER 6

Polystyrene has an endless life cycle. First, it is made from crude oil, but it requires more than four processes (chemical treatment for extruding Naphtha, Benzene, and Mono Styrene) to deform into beads, which are the raw form of polystyrene.

The production of styrene monomer can be thought of as replacing one of the hydrogen atoms in ethylene with a benzene ring (C6H6). The monomer is then polymerized is a manner similar to polyethylene; that is, the double bonds in the monomer molecules are opened and neighboring molecules link together to form a chain. The repeat unit has the same chemical composition as the styrene monomer.

Figure 6.52 Outline flow chart for the production of polystyrene (I.Boustead, 2005) 241

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Crude oil refining produces a fraction known as naphtha which contains a mixture of low molecular weight, saturated hydrocarbons of various composition. This is converted into a smaller group of unsaturated hydrocarbons by cracking - a process in which the naphtha is heated to a high temperature in the absence of air, maintained for a short time at this high temperature and then very rapidly cooled back to a low temperature when all of the reactions stop and the mix of products is essentially fixed. The resulting mixture is then separated into its constituent components by distillation producing principally ethylene (C2H4), propylene (C3H6), mixed butanes of general formula C4H8 and a number of other compounds which find uses elsewhere in the petrochemical plant either as feed stocks or fuels. The precise mix of products from cracking are determined by a number of factors such as cracking temperature, residence time, and the nature of the feedstock can be adjusted to produce the required mix of products.

Natural gas is also converted into ethylene, propylene, butanes and other products by cracking. Although benzene is usually present in small quantities in crude oil, its direct extraction is usually uneconomic. However, one by product of naphtha cracking is a liquid usually referred to as pyrolysis gasoline which is high in unsaturated aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The benzene fraction in pyrolysis gasoline can be extracted by repeated distillation and it is thought that about half of all benzene used in Europe is produced in this way.

Benzene is also produced directly from naphtha by a process known as catalytic reforming. The basic feedstock is converted into a mixture of products of which the principal components are benzene, toluene and xylene (the process is often referred to as the BTX process). Benzene and other aromatics are isolated in the pure state from the output of the reformer by solvent extraction and fractional distillation (I.Boustead, 2005).

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A Blowing Agent

Polystyrene Beads Figure 6.53 A Blowing Agent

A blowing agent is a chemical substance that is widely used in generating gas to expand rubber, plastics, and ceramics to create foam. It is also referred to as â&#x20AC;&#x153;baking powderâ&#x20AC;? for rubber, plastics, and ceramics. Blowing agents are used to provide the following advantages and features: (Eiwa Chemical) 1. Lightweight 2. Heat Insulation 3. Sound Absorbency 4. Elasticity 5. Permeability 6. Electrical Insulation 7. Excellent Textures 8. Wood Grain 9. Shock Absorbency

There are two types of blowing agent which can be used to inflate polystyrene beads.

1. Butane gas (C4H10) in Japan 2. Pentane gas (C5H12) in other countries

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Figure 6.54 Bag of Polystyrene Beads Figure 6.55 Manufacturer of cell foam products (Jiangsu Litian New Material 2012) and insulation board in Expanded Polystyrene

Figure 6.56 Polystyrene manufacturer in Romania, (C) Masterplast

Figure 6.57 Steps to produce expanded polystyrene, (Nissin Plastic 2014) 244

CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.58 10 cu-ft of Expanded Polystyrene, bead bags (Eccleston & Hart Ltd 2013)

2% of Petroleum

98% of Air

Figure 6.60 Composition of Polystyrene

Figure 6.59 Raw beads and polystyrene particles after pre-expansion process (steamed, pressurized), (Megumi Fukumitsu 2007)

Pre-expansion is conducted to ensure good inflation quality. After that, through a second expansion in industrial conditions (pressure and heat under control), polystyrene is produced. Using Limone or an acetone, polystyrene dissolves into a gel condition. When it is dried out, it turns to ingot, which can be reused as a raw plastic material, or can be processed into recycled pallets (the form of the material prior to becoming beads.

No Dioxin Emission

Air

CO2+ Water

Polystyrene

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Figure 6.61 Polystyrene Packaging, (Soso Corporation 2010)

Figure 6.62 Dissolving Polystyrene into Acetone (Soso Corporation 2010)

Figure 6.63 Gel type mixture. Turns to ingot when dry (Soso Corporation 2010) 246

CHAPTER 6

Figure 6.64 Melted and solidified ingot, (Megumi Fukumitsu 2007)

Figure 6.65 Ingot (Fresh Akita 2010)

Figure 6.66 Acetone (C) Klean Strip

Figure 6.67 Limone (C) TAMIYA

Figure 6.68 K e ro s e n e (C) CROWN

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Figure 6.69 CD cases are made of crystal polystyrene, 2012 (C) Shell

Figure 6.70 Photo Frame made of Recycled Polystyrene (Intcojane, 2013), Greenmax Recycling 248

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Figure 6.71 General purpose polystyrene/recycled pellets (C) Kamdar Plastic

Figure 6.72 Recycled polystyrene beads (C) Styro, 2013

When the gel completely dries, it turns into a solid ingot, which is the raw form of recycled polystyrene plastic. Plastic products such as CD cases, photo frames, and polystyrene sheets are produced.

Such

products are collected, and then are melted to remove all impurities. After repeating the process several times, pure plastics are filtered and then chopped into small pieces called â&#x20AC;&#x153;recycled pellets.â&#x20AC;?

The process makes both raw plastic material and recycled beads. Bead fabrication requires a special process for inserting and capturing foaming agents.

249

250

solid

film

foam

POSITIVE IMPACT

OBJECT

days, and are then disposed of quickly. However, these products take hundreds of years to break down in landfills or in nature.

After a few weeks of fabrication, products are used within several

NEGATIVE IMPACT

GRAIN

GRAIN

NEGATIVE IMPACT

hundreds of years

days

weeks

MOLECULE

WASTE

USE

MANUFACTURE

MOLECULE

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

POSITIVE IMPACT

NEUTRAL

NEUTRAL

GRAIN

weeks

REPROCESSING

POSITIVE IMPACT

ARCHITECTURE

weeks

USE

NEUTRAL

GRAIN

weeks

REPROCESSING

POSITIVE IMPACT

OBJECT

days

USE

items.

When the event is over, reprocessing occurs again and changes shape to become other everyday

span. Products are disposed of after a dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use. By reprocessing the material, however, we can make use of the resources permanently. The material can be an architectural material for a period of several weeks.

A new material strategy illustrates a continuous and sustainable material cycle with an infinite life

OBJECT

days

weeks

GRAIN

USE

MANUFACTURE

NEUTRAL

GRAIN

weeks

REPROCESSING

CHAPTER 6

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252

CHAPTER 7

chapter 7 FABRICATION

Inflate two sheets of plastic, then use the expansion of polystyrene to achieve a hard and solid condition.

7.1.

Design Statement

Through component fabrication, we aim to make a component at the 1:5 scale.

By making use of the characteristics of polystyrene, which can be inflated up to 50 times larger than the original bead form, experiments have been done to make components for a tensegrity structure which will be used in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic BMX Stadium.

Polystyrene

beads are put in soft plastic skins. The two-dimensional original condition becomes a three-dimensional component through the heating and steaming process in a pressurized condition.

Getting

the maximum amount of inflation and achieving an equal distribution of polystyrene are critical. Our goal was to make a pure polystyrene component for the tensegrity structure. The skin is made of polystyrene sheets, and the inside is filled with polystyrene particles. We also made mechanical joints, which were necessary for fastening skins while the inside was inflated with laser-cutting polystyrene boards.

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7.2.

Fabrication Issues

1. Form Making Strategies - Assembly, Casting, Air Inflation, Foam Expansion 2. Different Inflation Strategies - Water Inflation vs. Cooking 3. Choice of Material for Skin - Soft Materials vs. Hard Materials 4. Component Composition - Pure Polystyrene vs. Hybrids with Light Metal Details 5. Customization of Details - Mass Production vs. Customized Designs for Details

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Assembly

Casting (ingot)

Inflation

Foam expansion

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Structural System from the 99 Failures Pavilion

Air Substitution System Polystyrene form packing

COMPONENT Past Geometry + New Material

Research needed to develop polystyrene components of adequate structural capacity 256

CHAPTER 7

7.3.

Inflating Sheet Concept

Figure 7.1 “Against the Sculptural” 2003, Installation of inflated soft plastic, Onishi Yasuaki

Figure 7.2 “Panel Screen,” 33 cm pillow, inflated stainless steel, full blown metal 257

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.3 “99 Failures Pavilion,” 2013, inflated stainless steel, Obuchi Laboratory

Figure 7.4 “The Silvery Pillow,” reflecting the sunset on the beach. Photo by Jarred Seng / Image courtesy of Sculpture by the Sea Figure 7.5 (above right) “Balloon Dog Red,” 1994-2000, high chromium stainless steel with transparent color coating, Jeff Koons, The Beyeler Foundation (C) Design Boom Figure 7.6 (bottom right) “Tulips,” 1995-2004, high chromium stainless steel with transparent color coating, Jeff Koons, Guggenheim Bilbao Museo 258

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.7 Inflation cept

Con-

To achieve the same quality as the inflated metal components used in the 99 Failures Pavilion Project, which exhibited a much greater degree of strength after wrinkles were introduced to the surface, a solid plastic component was inflated using an air compressor.

The component was made of two sheets of PVC, and the edges and corners were sealed with double-sided tape designed for use with plastic.

Various types of glue, a soldering iron, and general use double-sided tape were used, but it was very difficult to create a perfect seal while capturing the air inside required to make creases.

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Figure 7.8 Heat-based inflation process

Room temperature air does not result in any stretching or wrinkling of the component. Moreover, technically it was difficult to make an ideal balloon with hard plastic and glue or double-sided tape.

Thus,

research next explored the introduction of heat to the component during the inflation process. However, due to the limited range of the heat gun , producing deformations of equal quality was challenging. We also tried with softer plastic (Figs. 7.10, 7.11) and differentiated airtight strategies; however, both strategies were unsuccessful.

Figure 7.9 Component made of PVC after simultaneous heating and inflation.

260

Figure 7.10 Component made of PE Figure 7.11 Component made of PE with saw-tooth joints

CHAPTER 7

7.4.

Assembling Tailored Parts

Figure 7.12 Component

The

aim in component fabrication was to make a component by assembling tailored parts with threedimensional volume. Curvatures on the top and bottom surface strengthen whole geometry.

The

top and bottom sheets were fixed in place with a bolt in the center, and the four side parts remaining were assembled before being fixed with glue or tape.

The process was time and labor consuming without the use of any mechanical joints or improved assembly strategy.

Figure 7.13 Component

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Figure 7.14 (­above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures

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Figure 7.15 (足above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures

Figure 7.16 (足above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures

Figure 7.17 (足above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures

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Figure 7.18 (­above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures

Figure 7.19 (­above) A component proposal based on one-way curvatures (below) A component proposal based on two-way curvatures 264

CHAPTER 7

7.5.

Use of Ingot as a Raw Material

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These

images illustrate the results of experiments into dissolving polystyrene pieces with acetone.

Polystyrene completely changed its form from solid to liquid. After a 24 hour drying period, it changed to a solid, crystallized type of plastic with captured air inside.

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Figure 7.20 Component fabrication concept

Figure 7.21 Insertion of acetone-dissolved polystyrene

Dense / Heavy

Acetone Trapped

Lighter but still Strong

Dry more

Figure 7.22 Parameters for ingot quality control

The more air is trapped in the gel, the lower the density achieved.

However, drying captured gel inside the component was challenging. Holes are necessary to inject the material inside the component, however, the gel also comes out through the holes.

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Figure 7.23 Process for inserting gel inside of the component

Figure 7.24 Melting down of polystyrene skins after ingot insertion

We used polystyrene sheets for component skins. Saw-toothed joints connected two tailored laser-cut sheets. However, the gel trapped inside the component did not dry well. It indicated many defects, and had begun to crack. The acetone remaining in the gel got through the polystyrene outer covers by dissolving it, and the component then finally collapsed.

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Aluminum Pressure Cooker Water capacity: 6 L Weight: 2.0 kg Operating Pressure: 80 kpa Height 245 mm, Diameter 255 mm

7.6.

Component Inflation

The

pressure cooker used for fabrication has a capacity of 6 L of capacity, weight 2.0 kg, and can operate at up to 80 kpa pressure. Since there are limitations on the cookerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s size (255 mm width, 245 mm height), 1:5 scale components (200 mm long) were the maximum sizes which could be produced in the lab.

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Polystyrene

beads can expand up to 50 times in perfectly controlled industrial conditions

In lab conditions, with a 6 L rice cooker and a portable gas stove, the beads expanded up to six times their original size GAS CONTENT STRENGTH OF PARTICLES

4g

3 STRONGER

7g

8 (%) WEAKER

14 g

We started our first trial by inflating beads in a paper cup. The cap of a PET bottle (7 g) was used to measure the amount of beads. These experiments, provided approximate volume after cooking.

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7g

14g

21g

More tests were done to determine whether it was possible to increase polystyrene density. PET bottles were used for these tests because they are easy to seal. 60 holes were made on the surface of each bottle to allow steam inside.

A PET bottle filled with 3 caps of beads showed an industrial level of density.

This result indicated that under perfectly sealed conditions with strong skins, it is possible to make polystyrene much denser.

Figure 7.25 Component fabrication (bead inflating process) 271

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.26 Bottle section with 36 ml of inflated beads 272

CHAPTER 7

273

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Different types of joints were applied to each different model.

We tried many ways of attaching two sheets and sealing the shape while inflating the polystyrene beads. Glue, bonds, double sided tape, and stick irons were used, but all had limits in producing a perfect balloon.

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TYPE 1

7.7.

Fabrication

1922 (961 x 2) Holes, 20 Joints TYPE 2

4474 (2237 x2) + 80 (20 x4) Holes, 60 Joints 275

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.27 Before and after inflating polystyrene beads with a pressure cooker

BEADS

4

8

14

16

20

(g)

HEATING

3

4

5

7

10

(min)

STEAMING

0.5

1

2

3

HOLES

200

600

1000

2000

(min) 4000

By differentiating the amount of beads, number of holes in the skins, cooking time, and steaming time after heating, we determined the ideal input.

After repeating experiments, then we decided that inserting 14 g of beads for 4 minutes of heating and 1 minute of steaming with 600 holes was an optimized condition for equal quality inflation.

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1. Cut two sheets and glue them with 2. Place mechanical joints, then insert double-sided tape (except for one beads inside through the unsealed side) side

3. Seal the unsealed side and finish 4. Place tape to control curvature. This placing mechanical joints. prevents the center part from overinflating.

5. Prepare for cooking. Put some water 6. After 5 minutes of cooking, release under the component. the steam and take out the component.

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Experiment Detail

Beads : 10.5 g (1.5 caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 3 minutes Steaming Time : 1 minute Water : 300 ml 278

CHAPTER 7

Experiment Detail

Beads : 42 g (6 Caps) Holes : 4000 Cooking Time : 10 minutes Steaming Time : 3 minutes Water : 300 ml 279

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Experiment Details Beads : 2 Caps Holes : 2000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 1 minute Water : 300 ml Used tiny plastic stands, taped edges

Experiment Details Beads : 2.5 Caps Holes : 2000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Used tiny plastic stands, cracks 280

CHAPTER 7

Experiment Details Beads : 2 Caps Holes : 2000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 1 minute Water : 300 ml Wooden base, Dents

Experiment Details Beads : 2 Caps Holes : 2000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Rotate the component to be perpendicular to the ground

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Because

the polystyrene sheets stretched while being heated and a higher degree of expansion happened around the center of the component, some joints around the central part popped up. Taping was implemented to prevent those problems. The tape blocked the heat and lessened the amount of direct heat conduction on the polystyrene sheets.

As a result, components were able to achieve equal expansion qualities without any notable damage or gaps on the edges.

Experiment Details Beads : 2 Caps Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Central parts are taped tightly

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Type

II layerings were applied to deepen the component and strengthen the whole geometry by providing more space for inflating beads.

Sheets inside were designed to function like accordion or stretchable water pipe. Unlike other experiments, sheets were woven with steel wires to keep the inside sealed.

As a result, due to the heated steel wire and an imbalance between the inner expansion pressure and the outer holding durability, a side part popped out.

Experiment Details Beads : 2 Caps Holes : 4000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Four tiny plastic bases, multiple layers, wire woven, edges were taped before steaming.

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284

CHAPTER 7

Soft Material

Hard Material

Two different strategies were explored to create a component surface.

Use of a soft material allowed good quality corners.

285

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.28 Model without inner frame

Figure 7.29 Model with frame

Figure 7.30 Model with frame II 286

CHAPTER 7

A waterproof tarp was tested as a new skin. Figure 3.29 shows the maximum amount of inflation without an internal frame inside. Figures 3.30 and 3.31 include inner structures made of acrylic, however, they indicated an unequal distribution of beads, which caused an over-inflation of local parts, thus resulting in popping.

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Water : 300 ml Without inner frame

Steaming Time : 2 minutes

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml The first trial after inserting inner frame

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Water : 300 ml Use of steel instead of acrylics

Steaming Time : 2 minutes

287

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Figure 7.31 Pattern design for local inflation controlling

Experiment Detail Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 200 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Place sixteen local controllers (bind with paper string)to check the pattern on the surface and the strength after they are applied

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Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 200 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Place six controllers and add polystyrene buttons to prevent slipping

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 Caps) Holes : 200 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Place six controllers in a differentiating pattern and add polystyrene buttons to prevent slipping

289

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Two sheets of polystyrene boards were woven with a synthetic elastic string. 5 mm bolts and nuts were also placed for local inflation control.

Shells created after steaming showed equal qualities of bead inflation and distribution.

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 7 minutes Steaming Time : 3 minutes Water : 300 ml Woven with a synthetic elastic string and local controllers

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Hard plastic and polystyrene boards which were used for the skin of the component can be inflated, however, it is hard to preserve the seal of edge parts after inflation. Through these experiments, our research team was able to determine the appropriate amount of beads, cooking time, and how much the component will inflate, however, to use them as a part of tensegrity structure, inflation must be precisely controlled to secure locations for cable connections.

291

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

An inner frame is added between two outer skins to maintain a precise distance for use within a tensegrity structure. Because acrylic has a relatively high glass transition temperature (105 °C), we assumed it would not deform while the beads were inflated, however, some bending occurred because of the inner pressure and the unequal distribution of beads.

Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Used acrylic internal frame, anti-slip button was replaced with MDF, but tore after exposure to pressure and steam

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Different types of inner frames with wider surfaces and greater numbers of holes were examined. Since the holes on the frame distributed an unequal spread of beads between upper and lower parts, the quality improved, and both parts rendered a more balanced form.

Figure 7.32 Inner frame with different numbers of holes Experiment Details Beads : 14 g (2 caps) Holes : 1000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 2 minutes Water : 300 ml Used acrylic internal frame, sewed with a sewing machine

293

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Beads

Steam

........... .... ............ ....

...... ........... ........... ......

..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... ..... ..... ..... .....

..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

Figure 7.33 Sectional diagram of how beads inflate the component

The

idea was developed while considering strategies for strengthening overall component geometry. At this stage, an inner plate was used for this reason. Fabrication began with adding beads inside of skins which covered a geometry. After insertion, the component was sealed by weaving (approximately 1:10 scale) or zipping (for larger scale).

Figure 7.34 Components after inflation 294

CHAPTER 7

295

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.35 Rhino modeling of vertically stretched component 296

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7.36 Fabrication of quadrangular pyramid with soft fabric

A soft fabric was chosen to maximize volume of the component. Also, it was tailored to create a component with height on the Z axis capable of connecting to a membrane on the top of the canopy. Our initial assumption was that the form would produce a quadrangular, pyramid-shaped component (Fig 7.36) However, after expansion, it indicated an exaggerated sphere-like shape.

Experiment Details Beads : 21 g (3 Caps) Holes : 2000 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 3 minutes Water : 300 ml 297

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Figure 7.37 Before inflation

Figure 7.39 On pressure cooker

Figure 7.41 Top view 298

Figure 7.38 Detail

Figure 7.40 Excessive stretching of the skin

Figure 7.42 Bottom view

CHAPTER 7

The

same experiment was repeated with a different material. Soft sheets of PVC were chosen and tailored to be a quadrangular pyramid.

However, the material had a lower glass transition temperature (80째 C) than that of polystyrene (95째 C), and at the boiling point of water (100째 C), the surface first melted and then collapsed completely.

Experiment Details Beads : 21 g (3 Caps) Holes : 600 Cooking Time : 5 minutes Steaming Time : 3 minutes Water : 300 ml Used softer fabrics for skin part

299

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300

CHAPTER 8

chapter 8 DESIGN PROPOSAL

8.1.

Introduction

This

chapter will introduce attempted fabrication strategies. Through the use of a computer-based geometry calculation system, while considering the features of polystyrene and thinking of the aesthetic visual effect, design parameters were defined and then applied to each component.

For

real scale fabrication, our research proposes a compromise plan.

Instead of creating a component consisting of 100% pure polystyrene, we will introduce a hybrid strategy with light metal and polystyrene, which has more flexibility in terms of reuse or re-materialization.

301

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Figure 8.1 Component detail of 99 Failures pavilion

Figure 8.2 Component details of 99 Failures pavilion 302

CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.3 Component Details of POLY∙CYCLE ARENA 303

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

Pure Polystyrene

Polystyrene Sheet + Polystyrene

304

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Hybrid Component

Aluminium (Recyclable) + Polystyrene

305

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

8.2.

Additional Details

An inner plate was added to strengthen the geometry.

Polystyrene is strong, but because it is easily fractured, we propose the use of a light metal frame. Aluminum will be used in real scale. Additionally, woven seams will be replaced with zippers for easier fabrication.

In the 1:5 model, 3D printed caps were used to finish each corner and hold the edges of the fabrics. A customized metal cap will replace the cap in the real size fabrication.

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CHAPTER 8

The scale of each part is determined to make the component as close to real scale, proportion, and size as possible. The volume of the cap part was smaller compared to the previous model. The inner plate was extended and will penetrate the 3D printed part.

The cable will be linked at the end corner of the penetrating inner plate.

307

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8.3.

Fabrication Process

Figure 8.4 (left) Waterproof tarp (center) Nylon Mesh (right) Nylon

Figure 8.5 Skins stapled and sewn to seal the inside

Figure 8.6 Inner frame and top and bottom skins before assembly 310

CHAPTER 8

We changed the material for the outer skin to a softer material for several reasons. It was hard to create a perfect seal with a hard material. Since the central part is denser than the other parts, it expanded more than other parts. The inequality caused gaps or openings in some parts. Also technically, there were difficulties fabricating and placing physical joints in the right positions.

Three

fabrics (Fig. 8.4) performed well, especially nylon mesh and nylon, which showed appropriate stretch and deformation capabilities after cooking. Nylon was ultimately chosen to continue more experiments.

311

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Mass Production

312

CHAPTER 8

Customized (3D print)

HOLE FOR JOINT NUT

SPACE FOR ATTACHING SHEETS

313

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Figure 8.7 3D Printed Cap in 1:10 Scale

Figure 8.8 Metal spinning a 1250 mm hemisphere.

Figure 8.9 10 gage steel parabolic cone 7.00” diameter X 8” height. Used as a support cone for a solar energy project. (C) Helander Metal

314

CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.10 Inner Frame + Caps

An

inner plate was added to strengthen the geometry.

Polystyrene is strong, but because it is easily fractured, we proposed the placement of a light metal frame. Aluminum will be used in real scale. Woven seams will be replaced with zippers for easier fabrication. In the 1:10 model, 3D printed caps were used to finish each corner and hold the edges of fabrics. The fixed edges will prevent fabrics from becoming detached while inflating polystyrene beads in the skin. A customized metal cap will replace it in the real size fabrication.

315

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HOLE FOR JOINT BOLT

SPACE FOR ATTACHING SHEETS

SPACE FOR ATTACHING SHEETS 316

CHAPTER 8

317

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Figure 8.12 Inserting beads

The amount of beads is measured with a PET bottle cap which can contain 7 g of beads. The top of the PET bottle makes a good funnel, increasing insertion efficiency.

Figure 8.11 Analysis

After finishing bead insertion, two skins are both stapled and sewn to be sealed. The same process was repeated again to connect the top and bottom skins. Sewing was used on the 1:10 scale, however, at a bigger scale, a sewing machine will make fabrication faster and more precise.

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Figure 8.13 (left) Glue insertion

(right) Gluing the corner

Because there were many problems which resulted from an unequal expansion of polystyrene beads (caused by local concentrations of beads), we used glue to fix the placement of beads inside the component).

Figure 8.14 (left) Without glue

(right) After gluing

319

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

320

CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.15 Inner Frame + Caps

Figure 8.16 Inner Frame + Caps 321

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA

8.4.

Soft Skin + Hybrid Fabrication Stages by Section

This

diagram summarizes the processes mentioned in the previous section.

In total, four layers will be used to create one component unit.

Rods, which are essential for adjusting the local inflation rate, are located in four spots on the surface.

As

indicated in the bottom image, an inner frame is used to maintain the balance of inflation between front and back sides. Additionally, this means the polystyrene will just act as reinforcement against component buckling, and will not act as a structural element by itself.

The frame extends past the penetrating caps on the edge. This direct connection from frame to cable is structurally very stable.

Membrane Connection Thickness Control Rod Cable Connection

Inner Frame

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Steam

Heat

After 3 minutes of cooking, when the water boils, the beads begin to inflate

Section of completely formed component 323

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Figure 8.17 Variation of component width with controlling parameters 325

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Defining Component Geometries

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Tension

Force Intensity

Compression

Parameter for controlling the width of components

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Figure 8.18 Compression analysis

Figure 8.19 Geometry based on analysis

Figure 8.20 Geometry based on analysis 329

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The geometry is determined by the positioning of the components on four points on the cable. To avoid collisions, which result from overlapping components, design parameters are defined based on X shapes linking each point on the diagonal side. Plus, a digital structural analysis was applied to calculate the smallest volume possible. As a result, each component has its own geometry, which is reflected in the analysis. The more vertically compressed. the thicker and chubbier the component will be. In addition, the bulging metal plate in the center supports a center stick which creates vertical height and connects to the membrane on the top side of the canopy.

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8.7.

332 Figure 8.22 Top view of Inflation Simulation

Figure 8.21 Axonometric view of Inflation Simulation

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Digital Simulation for Pattern and Fabrication

CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.24 Cushion with four parameters

A Kangaroo simulation helped estimate geometric deformations after inflation. The appropriate distances between parameters on the component surface to control the local degree of inflation were defined through the simulation. The bumpy surface created by the parameters performs not only reinforcement but also serves as an aesthetic design element.

The Figure 8.23 Cushion with four parameters

more components are tightened, the more the bead particles are distributed, but the total thickness becomes shorter.

The more the components are released, the bumpier the resulting render.

Five

Figure 8.25 Cushion with four parameters

bolts were added to the final proposal. A center bolt was designed to connect the membrane on the top. The remaining four bolts were placed on lines leading from the center of the component to each corner. Based on a structural analysis, a particular distance of depth is decided, and then the bolt is tightened with nuts before inflation.

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335

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Cable is connected on the edge of component Bolts and nuts are placed through the hole on each cap to hold the fabric and create a high quality corner finish

Flexing on the surface strengthens the component

336

Caps hold the fabric

Caps hold the fabric

Caps hold the fabric

Caps hold the fabric

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8.8. Component Strengthening through Vertical Length Control

These diagrams show sections of each component with different controller tightness values.

The bulging 3D printed plate on the top will support a center stick which creates a thicker cross section, thus resulting in a better connection to the membrane on the top side of the canopy.

The

more the controller tightens, the more the bead particles are distributed, but total thickness of the component decreases.

Since

longer components will allow more space for adequate inflation, thickness, which will provide reinforcement, will be decided by adjusting the length of the rod.

Maintain same value 338

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Stage 1, Same length of rod

Stage 2, Increase the right rod by 35%

Stage 3, Increase 35% more

Stronger 339

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Force Intensity Tension

340

Compression

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Lighter

Denser

This image depicts the concept of component strengthening through the use of a vertical controller.

In this process, we applied a structural analysis to determine the dominant diagonal direction. In this case, the direction from top-left to bottom-right was more compressed other directions. Thus, we were able to loosen the vertical controller along the dominant line, resulting in more thickness and strengthening the component.

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8.9. Inflation

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The component inflated and the beads were well-distributed, however, because the scale was limited due to size of the pressure cooker, the maximum stretch factor of the nylon restricted the total thickness of the component.

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Button-like bolts and nuts are parameters for controlling the thickness of components. The local inflation rate can be adjusted by differentiating the length of the component. Since longer components will provide more space for inflation, the thickness of the component will provide reinforcement. Following compression analysis, the more compressed diagonal axis will be determined, and by releasing bolts on that axis, the component will be strengthened.

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Figure 8.26 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sumairu Foamâ&#x20AC;?

Polyurethane, Spray Foam, 570g, ABC Shokai

8.10. Challenges Regarding Scale

To break out of the limitations of a small pressure cooker, we attempted to make a foam without using a pressure pot. Spray foam was chosen as a substitute for polystyrene beads, which form a hard and solid foam after being sprayed.

The spray foam formed very well at the first stage; however, particles of

spray foam were tiny enough to get through the space between the mesh tissue.

Consequentially, the trial failed because too much liquid got out.

There was one more challenge with a waterproof tarp with two hundred laser-cut 1 mm diameter holes. Leaking occurred via the holes, and when the leaking stopped while drying, the liquid inside was trapped.

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8.11. Digital Model

The rendered image shows details which have been applied and combined on the component. Components are primarily made of light metals such as aluminum. After the Olympic events, both the polystyrene and the metal details are to be reused or rematerialized.

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Caps made of aluminum help to enhance the quality of the inflation of the corner parts. Plus, since these caps prevent distortion or overinflation, the four corners of the components are able to maintain their location after cooking.

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Skins were sewn by hand for the fabrication of the 1:10 scale model, however, in actual scale, all soft parts will be sewn precisely and will be equipped with a zipper using a machine.

In the polystyrene manufacturing factory, the re-fabricated caps and details are easily assembled along with fabric pockets with beads inside. After cooking, all components are delivered to the construction site.

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Conclusion GEOMETRY, MATERIAL, STABILITY, TEMPORALITY

The Poly-Cycle Arena project demonstrates an advancement of the Olympic venue typology through an intense integration and synchronization of formal, structural, material, and urban criteria. The project, as an output of these research investigations, responds critically and directly to the four research tenets laid out in the introduction.

1. Geometry

is Inexpensive: In comparison to traditional construction strategies, POLY∙CYCLE ARENA has strength in terms of the economic aspect of its geometric design. With computational design technology, it is possible to calculate the minimum amount of material required to build a structure. In particular, since the BMX stadium for the Tokyo 2020 Olympics is proposed as a temporary structure, the design parameters can be changed to meet the needs of the building.

The structural analysis reflects on the parameters which determine the geometry of the component. Each unit is customized, and shows different proportions in accordance with the compression and tension forces acting upon it. Patterns rendered from those variations provide aesthetic qualities.

These factors allow the research to make a step forward from the 99 Failures pavilion.

In

terms of construction, this new strategy suggests potential cost reductions because all the components can be pre-fabricated off-site in a factory, and can be precisely crafted by machines or digital-based tools.

On-site, because most tasks consist of placing components on cables, even unskilled laborers can support the assembly process.

2. Material

is Expensive: Polystyrene is an attractive material with an almost infinite life cycle. Re-use of an urban waste product as an architectural material for technological and infrastructural support is essential. Although polystyrene products are cheap and omnipresent, their processing and development is expensive. Society has already paid for the construction of chemical industrial infrastructure, and Japan is well situated to make use of this situation for new polystyrene architecture. Moreover, because Japan is a country which shows over-dependence on imported oil, petroleum-based products must be treated as resources.

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REFERENCES

3. Agility

is Economical: Taken two-fold, in both the digital framework of computational design and the physical realm of construction assembly, agility implies movement and the ability to quickly readjust position in response to dynamic circumstances. Through the research and development of computational design tools, which are able to fluidly adapt to changes in form and pattern, the exploration of tensegrity design has been greatly streamlined, reducing the amount of technical examination in favor of a greater focus on the qualitative aspects of design. More significant, however, is the agility gained through the unique structural properties of component based surface tensegrity. By taking advantage of both the system’s “soft” and rigid characteristics, scaffolding and auxiliary structural elements are minimized, allowing the assembly of components to be conducted at ground level before simply raising and fastening the surface into position.

4. Permanence is Liability: What Olympics past have demonstrated is that even some of the best intentioned buildings fall into disuse. With Japan’s particularly large infrastructural stockpile and declining population, designing a venue which is temporary in duration but architecturally worthy of the world’s attention is a critical intersection which the Poly∙Cycle Arena occupies.

Just as the venue is erected through a relatively minimal-intensity lifting procedure, it can just as easily be lowered by reversing the process. But more than merely benefiting from a labor-saving deconstruction process, the very nature of tensegrity architecture, which relies not on large, rigidly connected structural elements, but on an aggregation of many small scale components, lends itself to temporary form-making. The particular contributions of scale, formal characteristics, and material flow integrated by the system ensure that temporary architecture can be made meaningfully and interestingly, without passing on costly maintenance and the prospect of post-olympic disuse.

Ultimately,

the Poly-Cycle Arena project functions not just as a speculative proposal for the 2020 Games, but as an architectural and urban prototype able to re-network the flow of polystyrene, an omnipresent urban material, to its benefit. The specific organization of polystyrene and its transformation by digital fabrication processes, aligned with the structural and formal characteristics of tensegrity systems, produces an architecture which encourages innovative form-making and diverse architectural experiences, offers inherent fabrication and assembly advantages, and establishes a legacy of minimal burden on future budgets, resources, and ecologies.

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SOURCING

CITY

COMPONENT FABRICATION

MATERIAL

COMPONENT

GEOMETRY

MATERIAL EXPERIMENTS PATTERN SITE AND CONTEXT

DIGITAL FEEDBACK PHYSICAL FEEDBACK

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NETWORK

SURFACE SHELL ASSEMBLY

ASSEMBLY

STRUCTURE

SURFACE AGILITY PATTERN

FORMAL CONSTRUCTION

FORM

STRUCTURAL TEST

PATTERN DEVELOPMENT STRUCTURAL RESPONSE DEVELOPMENT SITE AND CONTEXT

MATERIAL VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION/CONTRACTION FORMAL VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION/CONTRACTION

Through the ability of the system, across all scales and material thresholds, to quickly coalesce into a unique, program-specific architecture when demand appears, the city may in effect become its own material ecosystem in which the flow of resources is continually distributed and re-networked. The union of polystyrene and tensegrity allows the system to just as quickly and easily be consumed by the city, returning material to the urban flow and offering future potential for temporary architecture across the urban landscape.

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FIGURE CITATIONS

INTRODUCTION Figure A.1 [Untitled photography of Buckminster Fuller] Retreived December 6, 2013, from http://denaturing.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/blog-fuller-tensegrity.jpg

CHAPTER 1 Figure 1.1 [Untitled photograph of Olympic Ceremony]. Retrieved July 10, 2014, from http:// jto.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/so20130825a1a.jpg Figure 1.2 London Summer Games by the Numbers. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http:// blog.visual.ly/2012-london-olympics-infographics/ Figure 1.3 [Untitled Olympic poster]. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://jto.s3.amazonaws. com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/nn20130926f1b.jpg Figure 1.4 [Untitled photograph of shinkansen]. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://jto. s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/nn20130926f1b.jpg Figure 1.5 [Untitled photograph of Ginza]. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://www. susanbkason.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Ginza-2.jpg

361

POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 1.6 (Organizing 1964) Figure 1.7 [Untitled photograph of Yoyogi stadium complex]. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://www.cmdingenieros.com/wp-content/uploads/27_1-Large.jpg Figure 1.8 (Organizing 1964) Figure 1.9 [Untitled photograph of Yoyogi stadium interior]. Retrieved July 11, 2014, from http://www.cmdingenieros.com/wp-content/uploads/27_3-Large.jpg Figure 1.10 (Ministry 2005) Figure 1.11 (History 2008) Figure 1.12 [Untitled Image of master plan]. Retrieved July, 11, 2014, from http:// classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/856/flashcards/749856/png/tokyo_bay_ plan1322588087010.pn Figure 1.13 (MLIT 2013) Figure 1.14 (Case Studies) Stadium Finances. Retrieved December 7, 2014. From:

1. Makuhari Messe

2. Tokyo Stadium (Ajinomoto Stadium) http://refe.cocolog-nifty.com/photos/ uncategorized/2007/10/06/imgp0967.jpg

3. Tokyo Big Sight http://ebijin.cocolog-nifty.com/photos/ uncategorized/2007/08/18/imgp4369.jpg

4. Saitama Stadium http://bigcircle.jp/tourblog/wp/wp-content/ ads/2010/02/%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%82%B8%E3%5.

82%A2%E3%83%A0%E7%94%BB%E5%83%8F1.jpg

5. Saitama Super Arena http://cache5.amanaimages.com/ cen3tzG4fTr7Gtw1PoeRer/22531000125.jpg

6. Budokan http://tokyopopline.com/images/2013/01/th__29X4918.jpg

7. Yokohama National Stadium http://www.shochi-honbu.metro.tokyo.jp/bidcommittee/jp/plan/venue/images/photo33.jpg

8. Tokyo Dome http://oc34nheart.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/tokyodome3.jpg

9. Jingu Stadium http://www.meijijingugaien.jp/gaien-news/images/IMG_3170.jpg

10. Tokyo National Stadium

11. Yoyogi National Gymnasium http://sports.geocities.jp/futsal_yoyogi/s-P1420338. jpg

12. Ryogoku Kokugikan http://www7b.biglobe.ne.jp/~koto-awahp/ kotoawahp/0702sumidadai9.JPG

Figure 1.15 (Ministry 2013) Figure 1.16 (Bureau 2009) Figure 1.17 (Motegi 2014) Figure 1.18 (Discover 2013)

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http://www.jps.or.jp/APPC12/makuhari.jpg

http://www.04u.jp/img/1012151.jpg

REFERENCES Figure 1.19 [Untitled rendering of stadium]. Retrieved June 11, 2014, from http://www. progettarearchitettura.it/files/2013/09/ZHA_New-National-Stadium-ofJapan-4.jpg Figure 1.20 [Untitled photograph of Munich Olympic Stadium] Retrieved July 3, 2014, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Munich_-_Frei_Otto_ Tensed_structures_-_5293.jpg Figure 1.21 [Untitled image of structural simulation]. Retrieved July 3, 2014, from http:// nocloudinthesky.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/large-measurement-modelmunich_otto2.jpg

CHAPTER 2 Figure 2.1 (Discover 2013) Figure 2.5 [Untitled photograph of plastic debris]. Retrieved July 14, 2014, from http://www. plasticoceans.net/wp-content/uploads/DSC_03023.jpg Figure 2.8 (Kuriyama 2003) Figure 2.18 Photobioreactor with green algae. Retrieved July 27, 2014, from http://www. schott.com/english/news/press.html?NID=4212 Figure 2.22 [Untitled illustration of a leaf]. Retrieved June 18, 2013, from http://faculty.ksu. edu.sa/3188/Pictures%20Library/Forms/DispForm.aspx?ID=2 Figure 2.36 Neal, L. (photographer). [Photograph of London BMX Venue]. Retrieved December 19, 2013, from http://espn.go.com/action/photos/gallery/_/ id/8256225/image/1/olympic-park-gallery-2012-olympic-bmx-finals-london-uk Figure 2.44 [Untitled composite photograph of BMX racer]. Retrieved March 9, 2014, from http://farm4.staticflickr.com/3732/9538825410_d6609d2528_b.jpg

CHAPTER 3 Figure 3.1 Snelson, K. (sculptor). (1968). [Sculpture], Retrieved July 19, 2014, from http:// s3.amazonaws.com/production.mediajoint.prx.org/public/piece_files/1640/ snelson_medium_close_up.jpg Figure 3.3 (Snelson 2012) Figure 3.4 (Temporary 2012) Figure 3.5 (Motro 2006) Figure 3.6 (Ibid) Figure 3.7 (Ibid) Figure 3.8 Gray, H. Anatomy of the Human Body. [Illustration] Retrieved January, 20,2014 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Gray409.png

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 3.9 (Swanson II RL 2013) Figure 3.10 (Ingber 1998) Figure 3.11 [Untitled composite image of spine] Retrieved January 20, 2014, from http:// www.intensiondesigns.com/images/fig_6_Stellated_Tetrahedron.jpg Figure 3.12 (Scarr 2008) Figure 3.13 (Ibid) Figure 3.14 (Ibid)

CHAPTER 4 Figure 4.1 Roof for the Sicli Company Building [Photograph] Retrieved February 5, 2014, from http://www.ce.jhu.edu/perspectives/protected/ids/Buildings/Roof%20 for%20the%20Sicli%20Company%20Building/1.jpg Figure 4.2 (Chilton 2009) Figure 4.3 Michavila , X., n.d., Retrieved February 6, 2014 , from http://www.flickr.com/ photos/ximo_michavila/9128215277/sizes/l/in/photolist-eUCuo2-eYKvFTeTBXEV-eXpjw8-eUCuf6-eZRsof-eZRsdA-inBPgC-iNnmD5-djXyYi-djXDbgdjXC8T-djXAKr-djXA4T-djXERV-djXzAR-djXxP6-djXCME-djXDP7-djXyi4djXGCC-djXFGA-djXDQz/ Figure 4.4 [Untitled image of Geschäftshaus Marktplatz]. Retrieved February 6, 2014, from: http://www.panoramio.com/photo/118145 Figure 4.5 [Untitled image of Eladio Dieste’s port warehouse]. Retrieved February 6th, 2014, from: http://24.media.tumblr.com/62292eff7b4ce87dc317c066d3031521/ tumblr_mt37s0ZF7S1qat99uo1_1280.jpg Figure 4.6 [Untitled photograph Loring AFB Hangar]. Retrieved February 6th, 2014, from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Loring_Arch_Interior. jpg Figure 4.7 [Untitled photograph of Orly Hangar]. Retrieved February 6th, 2014, from: https:// fp.auburn.edu/heinmic/ConcreteHistory/images/Large/L-orly_hanger.jpg Figure 4.19 (Pottmann 2012) Figure 4.20 (Ibid) Figure 4.32 [Untitled photographs of fan coral] Retrieved April 25, 2014, from: http://blog. nature.org/science/files/2013/01/Damaged-coral-Rod-Salm.jpg and http:// underwaterescapades.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/gorgeous-pink-fan-coraldiving-in-the-maldives.jpg?w=949 Figure 4.61 [Untitled Photographs of Beijing Stadium Construction] Retrieved July 20, 2014, from http://www.enerpac.com/en-us/projects/markets/buildings-andstadiums-0/enerpac-helps-the-beijing-s-bird-s-nest-to-stand-on-its-own-feet Figure 4.66 Legreneur, P. (Collaborator) (2013). Anoles of Guadeloupe. [Photographic Poster], Retrieved July 25, 2014, from: http://www.anoleannals.org/author/legreneurpierre/

364

REFERENCES Figure 4.67 (Stadler 2002)

CHAPTER 5 Figure 5.1 [Tokyo after Firebombing] Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://cdn.theatlantic. com/static/infocus/ww2_19/s_w19_09101251.jpg Figure 5.2 [Takane Danchi after construction] Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://livedoor. blogimg.jp/vivit2011p2/imgs/8/5/85fb11d1.jpg Figure 5.3 A.Kawasumi. (1961). [Plan of Tokyo 1960], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.mori.art.museum/html/jp/press-re/pdf/metaboli_20110706v2_j.pdf Figure 5.4 [Repair work on ruin of Tokyo Station Marunouchi Building] (1946) Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/ Reconstruction_work_of_Tokyo_station_Marunouchi_building.jpg Figure 5.5 [Tokyo Monorail and Metropolitan Expressway] (1964), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri.kyodo.co.jp/314/ Figure 5.6 K. Saeki (1964). [Tokyo Monorail in 1964], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// dansa.minim.ne.jp/a3605-Haneda-1964Olympic.htm Figure 5.7 K. Saeki (1964). [Shuto Highway], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://dansa. minim.ne.jp/a3605-Haneda-1964Olympic.htm Figure 5.8

(UPPER LEFT) [Television in 1960], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://legacy-cdn. smosh.com/smosh-pit/122010/Showa_TV.jpg

(UPPER RIGHT) [Hula-hoops in 1958, Tokyo], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri. kyodo.co.jp/292

(BOTTOM LEFT) [Perm heater made of Plastic ], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.sekisui.co.jp/company/outline/yurai/ayumi/__icsFiles/ artimage/2012/08/23/c01coolyurai/hst_img_04.jpg

(BOTTOM RIGHT) [Plastic bucket advertisement], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.sekisui.co.jp/company/outline/yurai/ayumi/__icsFiles/ artimage/2012/08/23/c01coolyurai/hst_img_03.jpg

Figure 5.9 [Tokyo 1992], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=gugzhkp_UUQ Figure 5.10 [Subway Ueno station in 1927], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://syowakara. com/03syowaA/03print/35subway/SAp3502uenoSt.jpg Figure 5.11 [Subway Tokyo Station of Marunouchi Line in 1955], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www7b.biglobe.ne.jp/~ophl/tokyoeki_marunouchi/tokyoeki_ fukan/subway1.jpg Figure 5.12 [Tokyo Metro in 1983], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://41-31.at.webry. info/200708/article_1.html Figure 5.13 [Subway Shibuya station in 2008], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://old-staff. cocolog-nifty.com/blog/photos/uncategorized/2008/06/14/000.jpg

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 5.14 [Subway Map in 1955], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://azisava.sakura.ne.jp/ rail/metro-history/ Figure 5.15 [Subway Map in 1965], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://azisava.sakura.ne.jp/ rail/metro-history/ Figure 5.16 [Subway Map in 1990], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://azisava.sakura.ne.jp/ rail/metro-history/ Figure 5.17 [Subway Map in 2014], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://azisava.sakura.ne.jp/ rail/metro-history/ Figure 5.18

(Top) [Subway Shibuya Station], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. tokyometro.jp/station/shibuya/yardmap/images/yardmap.gif

(Bottom) [Subway Otemachi Station], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. tokyometro.jp/station/otemachi/yardmap/images/yardmap.gif

Figure 5.19 [Population of Tokyo], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blacktokyo.com/wpcontent/uploads/2008/12/a07_01n.gif Figure 5.20 Japan Plastic Industry Foundation (2010), [Production of Plastic in Japan], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.jpif.gr.jp/2hello/conts/image/ toukei1.gif Figure 5.21 [Apple III] (1980), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.blogcdn.com/www. engadget.com/media/2006/04/Apple3small.jpg Figure 5.22, L. Owerko, [Aiwa Cassette 1983 from Boom Box Project], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://i108.photobucket.com/albums/n19/eldarsuperstar/music/ boombox/boombox13.jpg Figure 5.23 [Toys of 1980’s], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://image.space.rakuten.co.jp/ lg01/20/0000715820/76/imge2f42e89zikfzj.jpeg Figure 5.24 [Kitchen utensils made of plastic], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from https://img1. etsystatic.com/038/2/6262900/il_570xN.506257515_1nhm.jpg Figure 5.25 [Nishi Shinjuku Skyscraper Cluster], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. panoramio.com/photo/81859276 Figure 5.26 Ministry of Land, Infrasturcture, Transport and Toursim, (2010), [Budget for investmentment on construction], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// members3.jcom.home.ne.jp/takaaki.mitsuhashi/20120510-1.jpg Figure 5.27 [Nikkei 225 index from 1985 to 2014], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// images.mises.org/5170/Figure7.png Figure 5.28 [Taisei Corporation X-seed 4000], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. taisei.co.jp/140th/images/future_img01.png Figure 5.29 [The Shimizu TRY 2004], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://noticias. masverdedigital.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/try2004.jpg Figure 5.30 [Highrise Residential Zone in Tokyo Bay Area], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blog-imgs-58.fc2.com/k/i/r/kiribou0634/blog_import_52f2408767bba. jpg Figure 5.31 [Tokyo Sky Tree and Mount Fuji], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://tokyo-sky-

366

REFERENCES tree.up.d.seesaa.net/tokyo-sky-tree/image/20130408_3.JPG?d=a1 Figure 5.32 [Shinkansen in Yurakucho in 1964 and 2014], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri.kyodo.co.jp/267/ Figure 5.33 Mainichi Shimbun (1963), [Tokyo tower from 3rd Daiba], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://showa.mainichi.jp/photos/ikeda1960/ik086230.jpg Figure 5.34 [View of Tokyo Downtown from Toyosu, Koto-ku], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-iFqddUvV9yY/Tm8uP0nz3oI/AAAAAAAAAu8/ nVz9xtWn7II/s1600/110913%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA.JPG Figure 5.35

[Kachidoki Bridge & Tokyo Tower], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri. kyodo.co.jp/175/

Figure 5.36 [A shop in Tsukiji Market taken in 2010], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://stat.ameba.jp/user_images/20100729/22/nemo-memo/1d/f2/j/ o0540040510665155126.jpg Figure 5.37 [PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the third-most widely produced plastic] Retrieved from http://31.media.tumblr.com/a04fe908721dc242ece1de86801a1176/ tumblr_mi39mfNzgj1rw1p5qo2_1280.jpg Figure 5.38 Mats Karlsson (2008, Februry 7), [Xile], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// static.dezeen.com/uploads/2008/02/linkpage.jpg Figure 5.39 Paule Ka (2012), [Plastic clothing], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://3. bp.blogspot.com/-ISdR6s5Dur4/UKIFaqDRHUI/AAAAAAAAAFk/ E4NSoiHWubo/s1600/plastic-clothing-by-Paule-Ka-spring-2012.jpg Figure 5.40 [Various kinds of PET bottles], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://greenbuzzz. com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/plastic_bottles-www.mohawkflooring. com_.jpg Figure 5.41 Sophie Vela (2012), [Plastic Bag] Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://edition.cnn. com/2012/10/03/world/gallery/eco-youth-photo/index.html Figure 5.42 [Various kinds of Plastic Products these days], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.sciencelearn.co.nz/var/sciencelearn/storage/images/innovation/ innovation-stories/biospife/articles/bioplastics/853674-1-eng-NZ/Bioplastics. jpg Figure 5.43 [Types of Plastic], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://ndla.no/sites/default/files/ images/plastikkfarger2.png Figure 5.44 [Shuto Highway from Edogawabashi junction], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.shutoko.jp/~/media/Images/customer/fun/ nostalgic/05edobashi_l.jpg Figure 5.45 Asahi Newspaper, [After ceiling collapse accident of Sasago tunne], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.asahi.com/area/yamanashi/viewphoto_ yamanashi.html?area-pg/TKY201301150412.jpg Figure 5.46 Asahi Newspaper, [Murayama Apartment Complex in Tokyo], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.asahi.com/articles/images/AS20140402000903_ comm.jpg Figure 5.47 [The Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://livedoor.4.blogimg.jp/mamesoku/imgs/f/3/f3fe16bb.jpg

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 5.48 Zaha Hadid Architects (2012, November), [New National Stadium], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://kyouno.com/turezure/olympic2020-tokyo-001.jpg Figure 5.49 AFP (2013, September), [IOC President Jacque Rogge shows a card displaying Tokyo], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.asahi.com/sports/ gallery/2020hostcity/01.html Figure 5.50 Alexander Hassenstein / Getty Images (2013), [Japanese Olympic Committee are showing their delight], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.zaikei.co.jp/ files/photonews/2013090911362306pns.jpg Figure 5.51 [National Stadium designed by Mitsuo Katayama], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri.kyodo.co.jp/185/ Figure 5.52 [Yoyogi Gymnasium in 1964 and now], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://jpri. kyodo.co.jp/180/ Figure 5.53 [Deconstruction Steps of Civic Arena], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from (1) http://media.pennlive.com/midstate_impact/photo/igloo-pittsburghjpg67643d4e325efd97.jpg, (2) http://www.post-gazette.com/image/2013/12/04/ ca49,49,2183,1471/20131208arena3-2.jpg, (3) https://c2.staticflickr. com/8/7185/6977680033_dbea9539b3_z.jpg, and (4) https://c1.staticflickr. com/9/8001/7105740191_698c2baecd_z.jpg Figure 5.54 [Conventional Steps of Construction Material Recycling], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from (1) http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/InsideMellon.jpg; (2) http://www.tubecityonline.com/almanac/images/100922b.jpg; (3) http://www. yazcountry.com/rob/sports/DSC_7854%20%28Medium%29.JPG; (4) http:// constructionmaterialsrecycling.com/images/CMR2.JPG; and (5) http://www. prestonhauling.net/Crushed_Concrete.jpg Figure 5.55

(1) Architen Landrell (2012), [Aquatics Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.wemade2012.co.uk/images/photos/gallery/architen-111205_LOCOG_ AC_004.jpg

(2) LLDC (2012), [Disassembling of Aquatic Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london_city/london-aquaticscentre-l230513-3.jpg

(3) Dan Kitwood/Getty Images (2012), [London Aquatics Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Travel/Pix/ pictures/2014/4/7/1396875799089/The-aquatics-centre-008.jpg

(4) Olympic Delivery Authority, [London Aquatics Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.e-architect.co.uk/images/jpgs/london/aquatics_centre_ o161110.jpg

(5) Hufton + Crow (2012), [Aquatics Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://i2.wp.com/static.dezeen.com/uploads/2014/02/Zaha-HadidsOlympic-aquatics-centre-due-to-open-in-its-completed-form-_dezeen_11. jpg?resize=468%2C321

(6) Al Bello/AP (2012), [Michael Phelps of the USA dives off the starting block at the Aquatics Centre on the opening day of Olympic competition.], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Sport/Pix/ pictures/2012/7/28/1343485703339/Michael-Phelps-of-the-USA-007.jpg

368

REFERENCES Figure 5.56 Hugo Alberto Sanchez Garcia (2012), [Infographics of London Aquatics Centre], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://api.ning.com/files/XtRoC87Z91Vc MbcncWK1GQw0j29rH0f5xBWv6HrAMZMYmwD7jyIKQGsKah1qzOTRqfLQebzApVNdNzpROmVnNAvoFQLLfwh/aquaticscentre.jpg Figure 5.58 Anthony Charton (2012), [2012 Olympic basketball stadium], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.tuvie.com/wp-content/uploads/london-2012-temporary-olympicgames-basketball-arena-architecture3.jpg Figure 5.59 Geoff Pugh (2011), [2012 Olympic basketball stadium], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/01686/basketball-interio_1686598i. jpg

CHAPTER 6 Figure 6.1 [Invention of Styrofoam] (1941), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// styrofoamaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/second-feature-inventorimage.jpg Figure 6.2 [Recycling Performance], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.jepsa.jp/recycle/ img/results_img_03.jpg Figure 6.3 [Chuo Teibo Landfill], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://soymayonnais.blog118.fc2. com Figure 6.4 [Disposable Polystyrene Containers] http://sosnyc.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/trays4. jpg Figure 6.5 [Packing Peanuts], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.transpack.co.uk/i/ products/Loose-Fill--638-x-387.jpg Figure 6.6 [Polystyrene Insulation], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://imgs.ebuild.com/guide/ products/2005/GPA/2009/Fall09c_bp_GPA_Dow1SIS_opt.jpeg Figure 6.7 [Insulated Cups], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.wfdenny.co.uk/images/ EPS%20Cup%2010.jpg Figure 6.8 [Packaging for electronic goods], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// gigglehd.com/zbxe/files/attach/images/5806136/769/946/010/ bce5c35d1f1b32c5c51062a7f4571d8f_2.jpg Figure 6.9 [Geofoam], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from https://c1.staticflickr. com/5/4001/4288547195_0ce78cda5b_z.jpg Figure 6.10 [Polystyrene Fish Boxes which have excellent insulation performance], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://siranepake.co.jp/image/sh210-1.jpg Figure 6.11 [Urban Model made of Blue Foam], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// urbanchange.eu/arquivos/vacantNL01.jpg Figure 6.12 [Surfboard made of Polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.prowall. com/images/surf-blanks-stacked.jpg Figure 6.13 [Plastic Production and Waste Disposal in Japan (PWMI)] (2013), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.pwmi.or.jp/pdf/panf2.pdf Figure 6.14 [Effective Use Rate of Used Plastic (PWMI)], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.pwmi.or.jp/pdf/panf2.pdf

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA Figure 6.15 Asahi Newspaper / Getty Image, [Plastic waste at the Tsurumi recycling centre in Yokohama], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/ Guardian/About/General/2011/12/29/1325154838061/Plastic-waste-at-theTsur-007.jpg Figure 6.16 [Yoyogi Park after Cherry Blossom Picnics, April 2012], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://sokuup.net/img/soku_13897.jpg Figure 6.17 [Plastic Containers in Tsukiji Market], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. residuosprofesional.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/poliestireno.jpg Figure 6.18 [Tsukiji Market], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Tsukiji_fish_ market_%281%29.jpg Figure 6.19 Statistics from Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market (2012), [Annual Changes of the amounts of Garbage Disposal], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.shijou.metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/gyosei/04/haiki/24-01.pdf Figure 6.20 [Tsukiji market inside], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://hqworld.net/gallery/ data/media/84/tsukiji_fish_market__tokoyo__1994.jpg Figure 6.21 [Products in Tsukiji] (2012), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.shijou. metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/gyosei/04/haiki/24-02.pdf Figure 6.22 [Disposal by Products’ Category in Tsukiji] (2012), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.shijou.metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/gyosei/04/haiki/24-02.pdf Figure 6.27 [A barge ship transporting sand], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://ak.picdn. net/shutterstock/videos/251503/preview/stock-footage-a-view-of-a-bargeship-transporting-sand.jpg Figure 6.28 [A view of Keihin Industrial Complex], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://image. nnp-photo.co.jp/comp/0336A00274.jpg Figure 6.30 [Types of Plastics], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from https://nowastewednesdays. files.wordpress.com/2012/02/1-7-plastic-recycling1.jpg Figure 6.31 [Inner Tissue of Expanded Polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.ishiyamapack.co.jp/polystyrene/images/polystyrene_index_img_03.gif Figure 6.32 [Cups made of various polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. pslc.ws/macrog/kidsmac/images/pscups.jpg Figure 6.33 [Polystyrene Packing], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.global-enertec. de/s/cc_images/cache_24271799.jpg?t=1400271478 Figure 6.34 [Polystyrene containers in Tsukiji Market], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.comicbunch.com/blog/hensyubu/%E7%AF%89%E5%9C%B0_2.jpg Figure 6.35 [Synbra Technology’s BioFoam E-PLA foam complements the company’s wide range of polystyrene foam products.], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// www.packaging-gateway.com/contractor_images/synbra/1-biofoam.jpg Figure 6.36 Baptiste Debombourg (2003), [Polymerisation], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.baptistedebombourg.com/files/imagecache/visio_hr/visio/salle3. jpg Figure 6.37 Tara Donovan (2003), [Artistic work with Polystyrene Cup], Retrieved July 30,

370

REFERENCES 2014, from http://www.inspirationgreen.com/assets/images/Art/Styrofoam/ Tare%20Donovan-CupsLA.jpg Figure 6.38 [Cluster of Residential Polystyrene Domes, Aso Farm Land, Kumamoto].

Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.econote.it/wp-content/ uploads/2011/07/89334673-600x250.jpg Figure 6.39 [Conventional use - spray foam applied directly to the roof sheathing, eliminating any ventilation], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.structuretech1. com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Spray-Foam-Insulation.jpg Figure 6.40 [Insulation techniques using expandable polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.foamequipment.com/Portals/78693/images/icf%20 foundation%20crop.jpg Figure 6.41 [Improved insulation techniques using expandable polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/graphics/english/transtek/roadtalk/ rt16-4/aligning%20EPS.jpg Figure 6.42 [Zaha Hadid Architects, Kartal Pendik Masterplan, Polystyrene with Polyurethane shell], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.interiordesign.net/media/ photos/152/152842-zaha5.jpg Figure 6.43 [John Powers: God’s Comic, 2010, Sculpture constructed from polystyrene blocks with Polyurethane shell], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. generatorx.no/wp-content/uploads/abstraktAbstrakt-John-Powers_01.jpg Figure 6.44 [MADE installations by Snarkitecture, São Paulo – Brazil], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://retaildesignblog.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/MADEinstallations-by-Snarkitecture-Sao-Paulo-Brazil.jpg Figure 6.45 [Oil Platform (C) PA], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://i2.dailyrecord.co.uk/ incoming/article3391664.ece/alternates/s2197/Oil-platformJPG.jpg Figure 6.46 [Crude Oil (NEL)], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.tuvnel.com/assets/ content_images/Heavy_Oil__lo_res.JPG Figure 6.47 [Naphtha (VM&P)], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://ecx.images-amazon.com/ images/I/61lWvYu-PqL._SL1500_.jpg Figure 6.48 [Naphtha crackers at the Tokuyama plant] (2014), Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://earthchangesmedia.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/image-21902.jpg Figure 6.49 Eiji Kumamoto, [Benzen], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blog-imgs-13.fc2. com/k/u/m/kumamotoeiji/gold6.jpg Figure 6.50 [Styrene Monomer], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.tapplastics.com/ uploads/products/Styrene_Monomer-xl.jpg Figure 6.51 I.Boustead (2005), [The reaction scheme for producing polystyrene from styrene monomer], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.inference.phy.cam. ac.uk/sustainable/LCA/elcd/external_docs/gpps_31116f06-fabd-11da-974d0800200c9a66.pdf Figure 6.52 I.Boustead (2005), [Outline flow chart for the production of polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/ sustainable/LCA/elcd/external_docs/gpps_31116f06-fabd-11da-974d0800200c9a66.pdf Figure 6.53 (1) [Butane Gas], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.towsure.com/images/

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POLY­­­∙CYCLE ARENA products/1043/detail/butane-camping-gas-cartridge-227g-pack-of-4.jpg; (2) [Pentane Gas], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from https://shopcross.com/sites/ default/files/images/products/calgas.jpg Figure 6.54 [Bag of Polystyrene Beads (Jiangsu Litian New Material 2012)], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://i01.i.aliimg.com/photo/v2/210055795_1/EPS_font_b_ EXPANDABLE_b_font_font.jpg Figure 6.55 [Manufacturer of cell foam products and insulation board in Expanded Polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.automa.co.za/sites/ default/files/styles/large/public/field/image/Sebenza%20moulding%20 factory_2.jpg?itok=HcHmNpYZ Figure 6.56 [Polystyrene manufacturer in Romania, (C) Masterplast], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from (LEFT) http://www.masterplast.hu/files/tiny_mce/Image/hungary/hirek/ eps_gyar2.jpg; (RIGHT) http://www.masterplast.hu/files/tiny_mce/Image/ hungary/hirek/eps_gyar.jpg Figure 6.57 Nissin Plastic (2014), [How to Produce Expanded Polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.nissinplastics.co.jp/OLEPSseikeihou.html Figure 6.58 [10 cu-ft of Expanded Polystyrene, bead bags ], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://ecclestons.com/catalog/images/polywebsite%20-%20077sm2.jpg Figure 6.59 Megumi Fukumitsu (2007), [Raw beads and polystyrene particle after preexpansion process (steamed, pressurized)], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://polyforma.gr/int/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/black_eps1.jpg Figure 6.60 [Composition of Polystyrene], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from

(TOP) http://www.onisikasei.co.jp/environment/images/cont1_pic.jpg

(BOTTOM) http://www.onisikasei.co.jp/environment/images/cont2_pic.gif

Figure 6.61 Soso Corporation (2010), [Polystyrene Packaging], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blog-imgs-45.fc2.com/s/o/s/soso922/109-0989_IMG.jpg Figure 6.62 Soso Corporation (2010), [Gel type of mixture, it turns to ingot when it is dry], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blog-imgs-45.fc2.com/s/o/s/ soso922/110-1035_IMG.jpg Figure 6.63 Soso Corporation (2010), [Dissolving Polystyrene into Acetone], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://blog-imgs-45.fc2.com/s/o/s/soso922/110-1007_IMG.jpg Figure 6.64 Megumi Fukumitsu (2007), Melted and Solidified Ingot, Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://trendy.nikkeibp.co.jp/lc/eco_fukumitsu/070601_03.jpg Figure 6.65 Fresh Akita (2010), [Ingot], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://pds.exblog.jp/ pds/1/201010/15/01/d0162301_15205183.jpg Figure 6.66 [Acetone (C) Klean Strip], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.hho4free. com/additives/acetone.jpg Figure 6.67 [Limonene (C) TAMIYA], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.super-hobby. com/zdjecia/0/7/1/1777_rd.jpg Figure 2.68 [Kerosene (C) CROWN], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://s3.amazonaws.com/ rapgenius/10099497.jpg Figure 6.69 [CD cases are made of crystal polystyrene, 2012 (C) Shell], Retrieved July 30,

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REFERENCES 2014, from https://c2.staticflickr.com/8/7140/7802267084_1d2c4ffca3_z.jpg Figure 6.70 [Photo Frame made of Recycled Polystyrene (Intcojane, 2013), Greenmax Recycling], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.greenmax-recycling. com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Photo-Frame-7.jpg Figure 6.71 [General Purpose Polystyrene Recycled/pellets (C) Kamdar Plastic], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://catalog.wlimg.com/1/358170/other-images/49222.jpg Figure 6.72 [Recycled polystyrene beads (C) Styro, 2013], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.styrouae.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Recycled-beads11. jpg

CHAPTER 7 Figure 7.1 Onishi Yasuaki (2003), [Against the sculptural], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.designboom.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/onishi-yasuakiinflates-plastic-volumes-for-granship-window-designboom-02.jpg Figure 7.2 [Panel Screen], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://static.squarespace.com/c/50f6 8563e4b018f68bd1842f/51054c49e4b00ee3050cccd2/51054cc3e4b0d2690e 9b8c42/1359317574088/DLX_0004_06.jpg?format=1000w Figure 7.4 Jarred Seng, [The Silvery Pillow], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www. designboom.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/norton-flavel-inflatesmassive-wine-cask-bag-on-australian-beach-designboom-03.jpg Figure 7.5 [Balloon Dog Red], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.designboom.com/ weblog/images/images_2/anita/ART/jeffkoons01.jpg Figure 7.6 [Tulips], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://images.guggenheim-bilbao.es/src/ uploads/2012/05/Koons_J_Tulipanes.jpg

CHAPTER 8 Figure 8.8 [Metal Spinning a 1250 mm Hemisphere], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http:// i1.ytimg.com/vi/soCh9U2TU48/0.jpg Figure 8.9 [10 gage steel parabolic cone 7.00” diameter X 8” height.], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://www.helandermetal.com/images/cone03-large.jpg Figure 8.28 [Sumairu Foam, Polyurethane, Spray Foam, 570 g, ABC Shokai], Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://net-kenzai.jp/files/images/other/C/%E4%BD%8F%E3% 81%BE%E3%81%84%E3%82%8B%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E 3%83%A0BIG.jpg

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