BE AU T Y
A study of cultural beauty obsession
Taisiya Teslya
BE AU T Y
A study of cultural beauty obsession
Taisiya Teslya
Contemporary American society celebrates and embraces physical beauty with an inexhaustible force.
A PR I Z ED POSESSION
Beaut y Obsession i n contemporar y A mer ica n societ y Physical attractiveness, one readily must admit is a “prized possession� as well as an esteemed one, in U.S. society today. Several positive qualities, such as happiness and success, are associated with attractiveness, and contemporary American society celebrates and embraces physical beauty with an inexhaustible force. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, American society was ob-
Appea ra nce nor m s a re sha
sessed with physical appearance. Moreover, the curvaceous became loquacious and presumptively and presumptuously sagacious. When two equally qualified women apply for a position: “You would rather hire the applicant that you find more attractive because society taught you to associate beauty with other favorable characteristics. These appearance norms, and especially attractiveness, “good looks”, and beauty, are based on and shaped by culture, cultural norms, and society and community standards. Relying on culture-bound judgements for appearance may reinforce existing prejudices and stereotypes. Such judgements have less to do with the importance of appearance to individuals or employers and more to do with society’s appearance expectations. And society’s affinity for beauty seems to have real psychological and economic consequences for people.
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$230,0 0 0 When it comes to business, one is reminded of an old adage: “Soap doesn’t sell, sex sells.” Clearly, U.S. society is concerned with appearance, attractiveness, “good looks,” and sexiness; and thus so is business. Contemporary society seems to be utterly and completely obsessed with physical attractiveness. In a business context, employers often make hiring decisions based on the appearance and attractiveness of the job applicants. Outward appearance plays a significant role in everyday life. Magazines and television programs that illustrate America’s obsession with appearance overrun society. Consequently, employers real-
Salary difference between attractive and average looking american workers.
ize that looks do matter, and their hiring decisions reflect this simple fact. In an appearance-based society such as the U.S. today, many employers care very much about the physical appearance of their employers, and some make employment decisions based, at least in part, on the physical appearance of employees and applicants. The commercial appeal of “cool, yet seductive, teenage sales associates, “hot” women at cosmetics and lingerie counters, and waitresses who resemble “scantily clad Barbie dolls” is clear. From an economic standpoint, employers have incentive to hire based on physical appearance. It apparently benefits financially from this incentive since according to Daniel Hamermesh, an economist at the University of Texas, over a lifetime and assuming today’s mean wages, “attractive” American workers on average make $230,000 more than their very plain-looking co-workers.
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After all, how can we possibly wrestle with our own nature?
BE AU T Y STA N DA R DS
Evolut iona r y vs Cu lt u ra l St a nda rds
People have been attempting for years to deconstruct and analyze the roots of modern standards of beauty. Feminism in particular has become quite focused on its negative impact upon women, especially in an age during which we are observing such disturbing rates of eating disorders. Even if we look globally we can see a historic profile of women going to seemingly great lengths to alter their appearance for the sake of beauty; unfortunately, often at the expense of their own health. Whether it’s tight corsets, painfully bound feet or a booming cosmetic surgery industry, we have yet been unable to shed this seemingly permanent phenomenon. Even in modern America, in which the feminist movement has tried so hard to raise consciousness about the avoidable tendency among women to harm their own bodies for the sake of an arbitrary standard of beauty, we still witness an alarming rate of anorexia and bulimia.
A perfectly symmetrical woman screams good genes and without even knowing it, men will flock to women that possess this geometrical balance.
Evolutionary theory outlines for us, for the first time in history, a scientific explanation for this gendered phenomenon. In our ancestral environment, as in the evolutionary past of every species, each sex was faced with the challenge of using observable traits to determine the reproductive benefit of one potential mate or another. Since the predominant concern of females had to be the protection, rearing and well-being of her young, she had to become particularly astute at determining, from the look of a male, whether he can provide these things for her. In order to demonstrate that he can provide for her the necessary protection and resources, males in every species had to become experts in showing outward displays of both physical prowess and status, and females had to become quite adept at reading these signals. Males seeking a mate had to do likewise, but along a different profile of characteristics. For him, it is in his reproductive best interest to find a female who is healthy, and able to bear young with minimal difficulty. Physical indications of health became the arena for this type of determination, and hence the evolution
of preferences in the dimensions of age, skin complexion, body shape, and other indications of health and (therefore) reproductive capacity. For instance, a preference for younger women (which is universally documented) evolved for men to narrow the range of potential mates to those still young enough to bear children. As women’s reproductive capacity drops off dramatically, so do men’s ratings of “attractiveness” for her, even if he is only shown her face. Clear, smooth skin, absent of sores and lesions, is another obvious indicator of health. Another surprising result of studies of male preferences indicates one for symmetry; the more symmetrical the facial features, the higher the rating for attractiveness. Research done by Steve Gangestad and Randy Thornhill has shown that, along with repeated environmental stressors, parasites can also cause physical asymmetries. The symmetry of physical features, therefore, was likely used as an indicator of physical health.
For those attempting to combat the harmful affects that standards of beauty have on women’s health, this evolutionary perspective threatens to undermine their long-sought conclusions that these standards are arbitrary and therefore avoidable. After all, how can we possibly wrestle with our own nature? It is tempting to use the evolutionary perspective as an excuse to throw up our hands in defeat, to just accept the fact that women will continue to strive toward these standards to their own detriment. But before we go and do something rash, or before we start blaming evolutionary theory for undermining our attempts to eliminate female subjugation and inequality, let’s slow down a bit and take a look at reality. Our biggest clue as to whether certain tendencies or traits have evolutionary roots is whether they are observed universally; that is, across time and cultures. For behaviors or standards that are only observed during a certain era or in a certain culture, it is usually safe to assume that they are culturally influenced, and therefore fluid and not inherent. However, if we observe a certain trait or tendency in, for instance, both the U.S. and an indigenous culture in the heart of South America, the lack of common social custom between the two would lead us to believe there might be more natural, or evolutionary, forces at work. What
we do know of standards of beauty is that they vary a great deal across time and culture. For instance, tiny feet is not a beauty trait with which we in America are (or ever were) particularly obsessed; women in China, however, found themselves binding their feet, often very painfully, to achieve this standard for a great many years. Compare the ideal female body shape and size of women in the Victorian era to those of today — we are all quite familiar with the art images of women back then, and that a full and vuluptous figure was the ideal. Today’s models look almost emaciated. Looking at these examples, we can logically conclude that an emaciated female figure or tiny female feet were not very strongly male-sought standards in our ancestral environment. For most any trait we use as an example, the obvious question to ask is, what reproductive purpose would this trait serve? If there is none, we can usually assume that it was born of culture, and not evolution. For instance, why would we not have evolved a distinguished preference for, say, belly-button shape? Answer: no purpose. The shape of the navel affects absolutely nothing of concern to us in a mate. Adapting to our ancestral environment layed the groundwork for modern standards of beauty, but cultures seem to have their own way of creating new twists and exaggerations to this tendency.
If a particular trait does not serve any reproductive purpose, we can assume that it that beauty standard was born of culture, and not evolution.
Even i f we look g loba l ly we ca n se e a h i stor ic prof i le of women goi n g to se em i n g ly g reat len g t h s to a lter t hei r appea ra nce for beaut y. This is not to say that some of our culturally-based preferences are completely arbitrary; at times, the current era’s preferences in a mate reflect important concerns. For instance, we find that in cultures during times of famine or even less severe need (but need, nonetheless) that the ideal standard of beauty for women is a much larger body size. Larger size and more body fat reflect status; it means she is well fed and healthy during a time that thinness would reflect malnutrition. However, during times of plenty, (like here in America), plumpness is not a reflection of status. Likewise, during eras in which lower-class laborors toiled predominantly outside for hours a day, tanned skin was an indication of lower status, and therefore the ideal standard of female beauty was very pale skin; women during those times
actually used white powdered cosmetics to exaggerate the paleness of their skin. Now, however, tanness is a reflection of leisure time (and higher status), so women strive for darker skin tones. It is difficult for individuals affected by these standards to understand the reality of how their particular culture is influencing their supposed free choice. Although the preferences might not be evolutionary, they are still difficult to extinguish. For instance, try telling a man in the U.S. that, had he been born in France, he would not demonstrate a preference for women with clean-shaven legs. It is hard for him to believe you. These preferences are deeply ingrained, even if they are cultural and not biological. Or try to get him to explain why he thinks that clean-shaven legs are inherently more beautiful. Or try to get him to admit that, had he been born during the Victorian era, he would be most attracted to women that outweigh him by 50 pounds with an exaggerated hourglass figure.
Contemporary American society celebrates and embraces physical beauty with an inexhaustible force.
BODY I M AGE
evolution of beauty standards: Ancient Egypt
evolution of beauty standards: Ancient Greece
Evolut ion of beaut y st a nda rds
large eyes
plump
pale skin
full-bodied
slim waist
fair skin
small feet
evolution of beauty standards: Renaissance
evolution of beauty standards: Han Dynasty
ample bosom
narrow shoulders
rounded stomach
slender
full hips
high waist
fair skin
evolution of beauty standards: Roaring 20s
evolution of beauty standards: Victorian England
symmetrical face
desirably plump
short bob hairstyle
full-figured
flat-chested
cinched waist
downplayed waist
corsets
boyish figure
evolution of beauty standards: HEroin Chic
evolution of beauty standards: Supermodel Era
curvy willowy
hourglass figure thin
large breasts adolescent phisique
slim waist
athletic
waifish
svelte but curvy
extremely thin
tall
translucent skin
toned arms
androgynous
evolution of beauty standards: Swinging 60s
evolution of beauty standards: Hollywood Age
Post moder n B eaut y Idea l flat stomach healthy skin large breasts and butt thigh gap
Med ia Ex posu re a nd t he “Per fect” Body
Why have obesity and eating disorders become so common in children and adolescents? Along with an unhealthy obsession with food, diet, and appearance, there also seems to be an underlying belief in an “ideal” body weight and shape. For those young people who believe that they fall short of this ideal (as the vast majority do), the outcome is low self-esteem, biased perceptions about how much food they should eat, and a tendency towards poor eating habits that can aggravate health problems. Adolescents diagnosed with serious eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia often report that their symptoms can be linked to the bullying they often receive from their age peers as well as the unrealistic media images presented
as an ideal for them to follow. When overweight people are shown at all, they are presented as comic relief and often ridiculed. The romantic heroes and heroines on the other hand, typically have bodies that are smaller and thinner than average. This is especially true for female characters while males are allowed the option of “bulking up” with greater muscle development. Content analysis of female characters show a bias towards body weights well below the recommended size and weight for people in their age group. As a result, adolescent females who are unable to conform to the ideal being put forward by movie and television find themselves taking extreme measures to be more like their role models. With thinness presented as the ideal body shape
Anyone falling short of this ideal is vulnerable to depression, poor self-esteem, and general body dissatisfaction
and a necessary prerequisite for health and happiness, anyone falling short of this ideal is vulnerable to depression, poor self-esteem, and general body dissatisfaction. The effect of media content on ideas of physical beauty appears remarkably robust with women reporting greater feelings of inadequacy regardless of their real body weight. Though the problem is most commonly seen in females, it isn’t hardly limited to them. While there is a slightly wider variation in body shapes among male characters in movies and television who are presented as ideals of physical attractiveness, obesity is still regarded as unattractive. Though the impact of media exposure and body dissatisfaction appears strong in adult males and females, adolescent males and females appear just as vulnerable. A recent study published in the Journal of Media Psychology examined the effect of media exposure on body image in early adolescents. Conducted by two Israeli researchers, the study focused on adolescents since they are especially vulnerable to media influence due to f the biological changes their bodies are undergoing during puberty. As well, media influences play an important role in personality development, peer pressure, and the development of a sense of identity as adolescents make the transition to young adulthood. Brain development during puberty also means greater cognitive complexity and a need for developing individuality.
The study also represented a test of the social comparison theory first proposed by Leon Festinger during the 1950s. According to Festinger’s theory, people rely on external models on which to form their self-perceptions. These models can come from people they know in real-life or through the popular media. This can lead to downward or upward comparisons depending on whether the the model makes them feel superior or inferior by comparison. In the case of physical attractiveness, seeing media celebrities presenting a certain standard of beauty leads to upward comparisons which can lead to increased action to resemble that standard. Research has demonstrated the depression and despair that women often feel over falling short of the media models presented to them. While men are hardly immune to the social modeling effect, it is probably not a coincidence that women are often held to a higher standard and face greater criticism for falling short. This can be even more apparent with adolescent females and the pressure they receive from their age peers.
According to the tripartite model of social comparison theory, there are three basic motivations for self-comparison with others: self-evaluation, self-improvement, and self-enhancement . When comparing themselves to a favourite movie, television, or video game character, adolescents tend to rely on all three motivations to meet the ideal being set for them. In the study, 391 middle-school students (182 males and 209 females) with an average age of 13 years completed anonymous questionnaires in a group setting. Along with being asked the number of hours they spent watching television, surfing the Internet, and playing video games, they were also asked to choose a favourite same-sex character. The media characters the students in the study selected were analysed for common features as well as the extent to which the students compared themselves to these characters. According to the study results, 191 media characters were identified in the study, most being from teen-oriented shows with some adult characters thrown in (eg., Barney Stinson from How I Met Your Mother). In terms of character body shape,
the bias was definitely towards thin characters. When rated for physical attractiveness, there was a strong negative correlation between perceived attractiveness and body shape with bigger characters considered less attractive. Analysis of study results showed that social comparison with a favourite character strongly predicted level of body dissatisfaction compared to the ideal that the characters represented. As expected, females showed greater dissatisfaction with actual body weight and body image appears related to likelihood of dieting behaviour in the previous year. By combining the different variables in the study, the researchers developed a prediction model that demonstrated the link between social comparison and body image. While the study results were consistent with previous research showing the impact of media exposure on body dissatisfaction, the study focused on favourite television characters and how they can affect the way adolescents view their bodies. Along with conveying the message that being thin was important, the characters reinforced that message by being likeable and easy to identify with by their adolescent fans.
The researchers developed a prediction model that demostrates the link between social comparison and body image.
According to the study authors, the appeal of these characters can work in one of two ways: either the character becomes a role model to be imitated as closely as possible, or the viewer develops a “one-sided friendship” with the character. Media research has shown that adolescents often depend on television characters to “find their way” in the world and to set a standard for them to follow. The stronger the perceived relationshp with the favourite character, the greater the motivation to be as much like them as possible, including in terms of body shape. The results indicate that the standard of beauty widely presented on television, movies, and video games is having a powerful effect on adolescents. This effect reinforces the low self-esteem that can lead to risky behaviour such as excessive dieting. By focusing on early adolescents, who are often vulnerable because their personalities and self-image are still forming, the research helps demonstrate the power of media on how young people view themselves. Recognizing the risk associated with presenting adolescents with an unrealistic standard for beauty can help combat the currrent obsession with physical thinness. Popular media figures appear to play a strong role in promoting unhealthy eating habits that can endanger the health of young people.
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After all, how can we possibly wrestle with our own nature?
IN CONCLUSION
Add ressi n g t he problem There are many factors that may contribute to a poor female body image. We live in a culture where thinness and beauty are highly valued for women and wealth and success are often considered to go hand in hand with a slim figure. Media images of ridiculously thin women are everywhere – television shows, movies, popular magazines. The media often glamorizes a very thin body for women. These are also the pictures that are being shown to teenagers in a time of their lives that they are particularly susceptible to peer pressure and looking good.
Poor body i ma ge leads
Due to this influence, poor body image can begin to develop at a very young age. Over fifty percent of 9 and 10 year-old girls feel better about themselves if they are on a diet, even though the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that only 18 percent of adolescents are really overweight. About 80 percent of girls in this age group say that they have dieted in an attempt to lose weight. Likewise some boys as young as grades nine and ten are being found to use anabolic steroids in an attempt to gain more muscle mass. It is more commonly thought that negative body image affects only girls and women, but this is not the case. Men and boys suffer negative body image too, but they are simply less likely to admit to being affected than girls are because it is less socially acceptable for men to admit to caring what they look like.
The effects of a poor body image of women can be profound. The weight loss industry is very profitable and marketing firms know exactly how to sell products to people with the promise that their lives will be better if they lose weight or buy a certain brand of clothing. “Low Fat” and “Fat Free” are two of the most successful marketing terms that a food product can use in order to sell better. Clothing firms use size zero models in their advertisements that are often photoshopped to alien-like dimensions that would be unachievable and unhealthy in any human being. For someone genetically predisposed to an eating disorder, dieting caused by a negative body image could trigger one. However for the majority of the population, what happens is a preoccupation with diet, low self-esteem, low self-confidence and never feeling that one’s body is adequate.
In addition to leading to the development of eating disorders, a poor body image can contribute to depression, anxiety, problems in relationships, the development of substance abuse problems, and consequently various health problems. Poor self-esteem often contributes to problems in relationships, the workplace, and any area in life that requires confidence. Ultimately a negative body image can lead to unhappiness and depression both of which are also symptoms of low self-confidence. The saddest thing of all is that all of these negative feelings might be being brought about just so some company somewhere can sell more products.
to depre ssion a nd a n x iet y
While campaigns for real beauty will continue to try and break the mold, advertisers will not change until the public votes for it with their wallets. After all, advertising agencies, and the companies they represent, are first and foremost in this for the money. And until the public responds more favorably to images of real people, very little is going to change. However, we can all put pressure on brands to represent us in more realistic ways, especially by calling it out on social media. And of course, we should all do whatever we can to educate the children and young adults of the world that advertising is not a reflection of what we should be, but rather, a convenient fantasy designed to sell something.
Visit www.beautyculture.com for more information.
Physical attractiveness, one readily must admit is a “prized possession� as well as an esteemed one, in U.S. society today. Several positive qualities, such as happiness and success, are associated with attractiveness. Contemporary American society celebrates and embraces physical beauty with an inexhaustible force.
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