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therapist is not committed to Islam or even if he is not a Muslim, he or she should introduce a spiritual dimension to his or her therapy since this will be more beneficial to his or her patients. REFERENCES (1) Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1993). The meaning and experience of happiness in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: I.S.T.A.C. (2) A-Attas, Sayid Muhammad Naquib (1978). Islam and secularism. Kuala Lumpur: ABIM. (3) Andrews, F.M. & Withey, S.B. (1976). Social indicators of wellbeing. New York: Plenum. (4) Argyle, M. (1989). Psychology of happiness. London: Routledge. (5) Badri, M.B. (1978). The dilemma of Muslim psychologists. London: M.W.H. Publishers. (6) Brown, S.C. ed. (1979) Philosophy of psychology. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd (7) Carson, R., Butcher, J. & Coleman, J. (1988). Abnormal psychology and modern life. Boston: Scott, Foresman & Co. (8) Carson, R., Butcher, J.(1992). Abnormal psychology and modern life. Harper Collins Publishers. (9) Corsini, R.C. ed. (1984). Concise Encyclpedia of psychology. New York: Wiley publications. (10) Edwards, P. Ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Macmillan Co. (11) Greene, W. (1976). Est 4 days to make your life work. New York: Pocket Books Co. (12) Myers, J. (1998). “Religiously committed clinical psychologists talking”, Clinical Psychology Forum, Leicester: British Psychological Society (July issue, No.117). (13) Peck, M.S. (1990). The road less travelled. London: Arrow Books. (14) Rusk, T. (1991). Instead of therapy.Carson: Hay House Inc. (15) Sarason, S.B. (1981). Psychology misdirected. New York: The Free Press. (16) Sarason, I.G. & Sarason, B.R. (1987). Abnormal psychology. Englewood Cliffs:Prentice-Hall Inc.
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the treatment of simple phobias, obsessions and similar symptoms that lend themselves to straight-forward behavior modification all other kinds of counseling techniques and psychotherapy need an in depth revision. From my experience, when applying cognitive and in-depth therapy, no permanent real improvement in a patient or a client can be achieved without some form of change in his or her worldview. Muslim therapists should accordingly aim at making this new worldview conducive to refined faith and happiness. For example, the majority of my guilt-laden depressed patients come with pessimistic beliefs about their evil wickedness and their strong belief that God is punishing them in this world and will punish them in the Hereafter for serious sins which they had committed or think they had committed. For such clients a Muslim therapist should first try to find anything good about them. Concentrating on any successful endeavor in their work, academic achievements, character, conscientious services to their elderly parents or their ethical values can give them a spiritual and psychological uplift. This is to be followed by a course of cognitive spiritual therapy based on istighfar and God’s forgiveness to all sins and His Love to all his slaves. I have repeatedly found that such a strategy can do wonders in bringing about happiness and spiritual ecstasy to depressed hearts. And helping the anxious patient to increase his faith in God’s predestination (qadha’ and qadar) and the value of du’a’ and prayer have always been very helpful to my anxiety-ridden patients. However, in doing so, Muslim therapists should make of themselves an Islamic model of what they preach and they should follow a gradual supportive and flexible route. Finally it must be stressed that the ideal aim of a committed Muslim therapist should be to secure the Pleasure of God through the alleviation of the psychological suffering of his or her brothers and sisters and to bring happiness to troubled hearts. However, if the 27
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problems may be referred to psychologists who ‘secularize’ the causes of their emotional unhappiness and end up worse than when they started therapy. In this respect, I remember a very convincing article I read back in the sixties in the British Journal of Psychiatry in which the author who had been a well known psychoanalyst resigned from the psychoanalytic association in her country after discovering that many patients came to her to be treated from the ‘treatment’ they received at the hands of her psychoanalytically oriented
colleagues. Her article was appropriately
titled, “Psychotherapy for failures of psychoanalytic treatment”. Muslim psychotherapists and counselors should strongly believe that real happiness, which cures the patient without relapses, cannot be achieved without taking the spiritual dimension into consideration. They should boldly lay aside Western teachings about ‘nonjudgmentalism’ and neutrality. They should be aware of the fact that they would never be neutral if they apply Western theory and practices with their Muslim patients. Once they explain to their clients what they plan to do, they would have already biased them with accepting secular speculative theory as a ‘science’. The main aim of an Islamic therapy should not be to help the client with his or her problems of “adjustment” or to bring about “satisfaction”. It must be directed towards attaining happiness. And since this aim cannot be achieved without tapping the spiritual aspects, Islamic therapy is indeed a value-laden therapy. This, in no way implies that Islamically oriented therapists should discard all the Western psychotherapeutic methods and techniques which they have learned, particularly the ones that have shown some efficiency such as behavior and cognitive therapy. However, they should be able to boldly and critically adapt them to suit the nature of Muslim clients and their main goals of life in this world and the Hereafter. In fact, other than
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bedrock of the psychological theories on which they received their training on. It is soulless and anti-religious. Within this secular psychotherapeutic milieu religious patients, or even psychologists, may be considered as abnormal misfits. Joanna Myers writes in the Clinical psychology forum of the British Psychological Society that the responses to questions posed to a small group of the very few religiously committed British psychologists have shown that their secular colleagues, who constitute the great majority of psychologists, …”held generalized derogatory attitudes to religion, (which) led them to anticipate that such attitudes will be leveled equally at themselves as at religious clients…some colleagues view religious faith as merely a psychological phenomenon, and probably attribute it to the assumed psychological immaturity of the believer… All participants reported listening to prejudiced talk from secular peers towards religion in a wholesale manner. They (religious psychologists)…endured inner valueclashes between their religious beliefs and their academic and professional involvement in psychology (1998, p.31) Religious participants went on to criticize the theory and practice of contemporary clinical psychology. Myers reports that: “Participants talked about clinical psychology at the level of theory and training. Mainstream theories were reported as lacking because of their limited, materialistic worldview. The prestige that such theories lend to the ignoring of religious issues was seen as filtering down into the process of training. If absorbed by the trainees as a standard of practice, this has the capacity to perpetuate such professional neglect in succeeding generations of clinical psychologists” (p. 31-32, italics ours). In such “despiritualized” therapeutic environment religious patients may even be harmed by secular therapy. It is ironical that some Western religious patients who recognize the importance of the spiritual in their life 25
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determinants. This has naturally led to the development of psychotherapy without a soul to ‘treat’ a patient without a soul! Essential Features of an Islamically oriented psychotherapy: For a more detailed elucidation of this topic, I refer the reader to my long article “Counseling and psychotherapy from an Islamic perspective” which was published in Al-Shajarah, the Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (1996, Vol. 1, Nos. 1&2). I will however give a brief discussion on the subject hereunder. It is lamentable to see the great majority of Muslim counselors and psychotherapists sheepishly aping the Western materialistic theories and their applications with their Muslim clients and patients.
Muslim
university lecturers ceaselessly repeat the ’gospel‘ of nonjudgmentalism followed by the strict warning to their trainees not to influence their clients with their own values and religious beliefs. This is regrettable because some Western psychologists, though very few in number, have already rejected this pseudo nonjudgmental approach. Listen for an example to the lucid words of one of America‘s most distinguished psychiatrists: "The separation of science and religion... had a profound effect upon the practice of psychotherapy. I was taught - as virtually all psychiatrists are taught - that psychotherapy should somehow be a scientific form of endeavor. An ideal of "pure science" was held before us, and we were admonished that science should be "value free."
It was nonsense, of
course. It is not possible to do anything, much less practice psychotherapy, without values. All along, we psychotherapists were operating within a value system so close to us that we were not particularly conscious of it." (M. S. Peck, 1990, pp.236-7). Muslim therapists and counselors should clearly understand that this “value system which is so close that it cannot be detected” is indeed the
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desperately looking for happiness within a secular nonjudgmental psychotherapeutic setting which will never be able to provide it since it is based on a truncated world view and a deformed image of man. It is an image that sees man only as a biological psycho-cultural animal. The human soul is like the sun. It sends its spiritual rays of light to green plants so that they may change the hydrogen and oxygen with the carbon in carbon dioxide into sugar. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen will never make sugar without the sublime energy of sun light. Similarly, manipulating the biological, psychological and socio-cultural elements in man cannot bring about happiness without the light of the soul which interacts with each and every aspect of human existence. The philosophy of Western modernity, secular humanism, supported by the modern social sciences practically denies the existence of this radiating sun of the human soul. This is so since it has submitted to the new secular god of science and its technology. According to this secular, so called, value-free nonjudgmental approach in psychotherapy, appealing to the spiritual dimension of clients carries the 'danger' of moralizing while any reference to talking about doing "good" and avoiding "evil" practices is a painful reminder of the unacceptable religious preaching of the Middle Ages which Western modernity came to tear up by the roots. Moralizing, 'indoctrination' and the use of religious teachings and sentiments are considered detestable practices among modern Western psychotherapists as they carry the 'danger' of interfering with the right of people to do whatever they want with their lives. On the other hand, using value-free non-religious psychotherapeutic means is not only more 'democratic', but it goes very well with the mechanistic concept of the nature of man as a machine as portrayed by early Western philosophers and scientists such as Descartes, Newton and Locke. A machine totally determined by changes in his environment, his unconscious motivation or his biological 23
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endeavor a highly paid ‘job’. That is in fact the main reason why counselors and psychotherapists continue, and will continue, to be in great demand in modern Western societies. Practically anybody, even without any professional training, who comes up with any new kind of ‘therapeutic fad' or cult to alleviate unhappiness in lonely desperate customers, however absurd these new techniques may be, would find many clients and may be very rich in a very short time. Remember, for example the Erhard Seminars Training (EST) of the seventies which took America by storm. Thousands upon thousands of unhappy and emotionally troubled Americans paid a high fee in order to be physically and psychologically tortured by EST officers. The EST staff would not give the trainees any food, nothing to sit on for endless hours but hard straight-backed chairs and little opportunity to go to the bathroom. When their resistance to physical stress has weakened they would yell and scream at them with abusive insults till many of them weep, vomit or faint. Listen to this vivid experience of William Greene, an author who attended an EST four-day seminar: “Once again I scanned the row, but no one would make eye contact with me. So instead, I began to watch the people. A long-haired young man began to cry-hysterically. Snot dripped out of his nose and into his beard. His mouth hung open and a long string of spit dribbled out onto his flannel shirt. Two people fainted and one person threw up. Every time an EST staff member removed himself from in front of a trainee, that person was usually dissolved into mush” (1976, pp.70-71). Why do Americans and Westerners in general continue to respond with eager optimistic and to pay generously to any new therapeutic fad in spite of the successive failures of earlier claims? Because they don’t have any other alternative; this is a sadly tragic situation since they are
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My humble experience has reassured me that happiness cannot be an enduring attribute of a person who has no faith in God and who believes that this world is the beginning and end of his existence. In a matter of a few years his “happy” birth day parties will only be a grim reminder for his encounter with nothingness. The extremely happy days of falling in love with his fiancé become difficult years of marriage conflicts and arguments as the two lovers descend from the sky of idealism to the down-to-earth practicalities of everything life and grimly realize each other’s irritating peculiarities. His vibrant health of youth in which he enjoyed all sorts of foods and exercise deteriorates to permanent sickness in which delicious high cholesterol foods are replaced by drab low calorie diet and enjoyable exercise become an inconvenient doctor’s prescription. Materialistic secular society of the “here” and “now” very quickly breed citizens who are deluded into believing that the uninhibited pursuit of worldly pleasures and material possessions as
the fastest road to
happiness. Tom Rusk, an American psychiatrist who has realized the fallaciousness of this assertion has this to say: “In America, we have a great number of people enjoying political liberties and personal wealth unsurpassed in human history.
These
conditions are envied and increasingly emulated by the rest of the world. Yet certainly no one would claim that we have discovered the secret of human happiness. We are troubled, addicted, violent, lonely, and afraid,” (1991, p. 11, italics ours). Citizens in a secular materialistic society would view the “unsatiated” pursuit of physical and psychological pleasures as a much more important practice than caring for the elderly and the astounding numbers of the young who succumb to psychological, mental and physical disorders or life crises. The only way such a society can give time and help to such lonely and unhappy persons is by making such a humanitarian 21
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his good nature! An Islamic perspective of happiness and how it can Influence counseling and psychotherapy: The essential elements of an Islamic perspective of happiness are clear to every Muslim; it has already been discussed. For readers who wish to get a more thorough elucidation of the subject, I would recommend the small condensed book by Professor Al-Atttas, The meaning and experience of happiness in Islam. However, I should like to conclude this paper with a brief down-to-earth discussion of Islamic happiness in a counseling or psychotherapeutic setting. As I have mentioned, Islamic happiness has a deep spiritual dimension linking this world with the Hereafter and fostering love and submission to the Almighty Allah. This gives the true faithful believer enduring joy and happiness in the face of all the problems and agonies of life. This is what a good Muslim therapist should try to inculcate in his patients and clients through a planned psycho-spiritual cognitive therapy. My 45 years of practice as a psychotherapist and counselor have increased my belief in the Qur’anic verses related to happiness in this world and in the Hereafter. Listen for example to the Holy Qur’an as it clearly portrays this in the following two verses: Do those (unbelievers) who do evil deeds think that We shall make them equal with those who believe and do righteous deeds whether in their life or after death? How erroneous is their judgment (Surat al-Jathiah, Verse No.21). Do not be dazzled by their wealth nor their children (and their followers). Allah’s Wish is to punish them with these things in this world and their souls will perish in disbelief (, Verses No. 55 And Verse No. 85 in Surat Attaubah).ýý
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impulses. He should feel no guilt since he is simply following his nature. To further relieve the Westerners from any guilt, Freud postulated his famous theory of the full authority of the sexual and aggressive unconscious impulses in determining human behavior. He stressed that mental health and “happiness” can only be achieved by getting rid of sexual repression and suppression. His great influence as a thinker and therapist fueled the sexual revolution. Western societies have now become the most sexually liberated in human history, but the ’waters‘ of happiness are nothing but a receding mirage. Similarly, behaviorism and humanistic psychology supported the cause of secularization by different more daring routes. Behaviorism claimed that human nature, if he has any nature at all, is fully determined by his environment; a completely neutral white slate; a tabula rasae. His values, religions and laws are simply a product of his culture. And since every corner of the world has a different society with different cultures, there is no place in behaviorism for any Truth with a capital “T” or any fixed values and spiritual guided teachings; everything is relative. Hence man is freed from any ethical responsibility and can pursue his ‘happy’ pleasures in any way he wants so long as he does not publicly break the law. Humanistic psychology, the third main perspective in Western psychology found Westerners already liberated by Freudianism and behaviorism, so it took the nature of man to new horizons of secularization and the pursuit of pleasure without guilt. Man’s nature is good, as humanistic psychology professes. But this goodness has nothing to do with morality or virtue. What is important for man is to actualize himself. It does not matter whether he wants to actualize himself as an atheist, a homosexual or whatever vices one can think of within the lax mores of Western society. If this is what he thinks he really wants to be then this is 19
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mental illness is the main reason for the inflated number of neurotics in the Western world - more than 20 million in the United States (Carson, 1988). This statistic increases with two or three million neurotics with every new edition of the textbook! The 1992 edition of the same book by Carson increases the estimate of American neurotics to 30 million. Whenever a group of people show their unhappiness, for reasons beyond psychiatry, such as absence of meaning for their existence or spiritual vacuum or sheer boredom with the stress of modern life psychiatrists are quick to invent a new type of anxiety related disorder with a new name tag and new methods of psychological and drugs therapy. In spite of all the new drugs and the new techniques in counseling, psychotherapy and stress management the percentage of neurotics, drug addicts, divorces, suicides, crime, sexual deviations and all the disorders classified in abnormal psychology textbook is one of the few variables that increases faster than inflation! The main reason for this should now be clear to us. It is the distorted secularized nature of man on which the whole Western society has built its civilization on. All the main schools of psychotherapeutic thought espouse this antireligious secularization of the Western man and his society. Freudian psychoanalysis asserts that man’s nature is aggressive and selfish. This is in fact a reversal of the Christian dogma of original sin. In Catholicism, man has inherited the original sin of Adam (P.B.U.H.). To achieve salvation, he should repent, do good and avoid evil. He is fully responsible for his actions and inner thoughts and he will be accountable for all his deeds in the Hereafter. In Freudianism, religion is an illusion; a universal obsessional neurosis and a narcotic which man should get rid of (Ellinburger, 1970). Thus, since man is naturally selfish and evil, and since there is no accountability or Hereafter, man should be free to pursue his
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and now. With respect to this issue, professor al- Attas writes: “Both the ancient and the modern agree that happiness is an end in itself, but whereas for the former the end considered in terms of a standard for proper conduct, the later consider it to be terminal psychological states having no relation with the moral codes. In reality, however the so called modern conception of happiness, apart from the sophistication with which it is formulated and pursued, is not much different in essence from the ones known and practiced in ancient times by pagan societies” (al-Attas, 1993). Attaining happiness through Western techniques of Counseling and psychotherapy: We have now developed a clear conception of happiness from the Western point of view. Let us very briefly discuss how the different approaches in counseling and psychotherapy used this secular thought to bring about lost happiness to patients and clients and why they largely failed to achieve their goal. In general, all the various psychotherapeutic orientations, in spite of their grave differences, seem to agree on a few misconceptions about the nature of man and the nature of happiness, even in its distorted conception. They all seem to equate unhappiness with psychiatric and psychological disorders and to equate happiness with mental health and the absence of such symptoms. Though there is a grain of truth in this conception, it is definitely quite a constricted view of happiness. It is true that physical and mental disorder can cause unhappiness, but to reverse the statement would be a serious misinterpretation. Many ‘normal’ people are in fact quite unhappy though they seem to possess all the wealth they need to buy all their worldly pleasure, while many so called neurotic persons experience much happiness between the bouts of their anxiety. This misconception of equating unhappiness with psychological and 17
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reported well-being could be due to a common tendency to give socially desirable answers”… (1989). It was also found that subjects will report satisfaction or otherwise depending on their mood at the time of the test. For example, a man who had just had a fight with his wife will report marital and life dissatisfaction, while a person who received a promotion may report extreme elation and happiness. So since “happiness” to experimentally minded psychologists had been operationalized, all kinds of tests can be invented to measure it. Other than oral or written reports psychologists have developed all sorts of projective and drawing tests. Andrews and Whithey (1976) for example have devised a pictorial test of seven cartoon faces gradually changing from a very broad smile, to less happier faces till they reach a neutral face in the fourth drawing. Then the pictures begin to look gradually more dejected and unhappy reaching their climax in drawing number seven. The question posed to subjects is, “Here are some faces expressing various feelings. Which face comes closest to expressing how you feel about your life as a whole?” This shows how modern psychology can dwarf and oversimplify complex psycho-spiritual phenomena like happiness in order to look ‘scientific’. Thus happiness which blends this world and the Hereafter, combines the body and the soul and fuses pleasures and ethical values in eternal tranquility is ‘measured’ by smiling or sad faces of cartoons! I hope that by now the reader will appreciate the fact that the conception of happiness in any culture depends primarily on its world view and the image of man which that culture upholds. Whether it is ancient or modern, a materialistic culture which does not honor and revere the spiritual and moral aspects of man will sooner or later view happiness in terms of the immediate physical and psychological pleasures of the here
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person in his community. Think, in this respect, of the prophets and messengers of God who are not only dissatisfied and refuse to adjust, but they devote their holy lives to a complete ethical revision of their societies. Because of this dissatisfaction with the concepts of adjustment and satisfaction, a few Western psychologist interested in “happiness” have sought new ‘measurable’ factors. They claim to have empirically found a single measurable dimension for happiness which is expressed by subjects either as the emotional side of feeling happy, e.g. a good mood or having fun, or the cognitive reflective side like reporting satisfaction with life. In following its “scientific” tradition of atomizing constructs, satisfaction has also been divided and sub-divided into small bits such as satisfaction with work, health, marriage, self fulfillment ..etc. The emotional side of happiness has also been studied in terms of reporting specific emotions. And following the tradition of measurability, so that their researches on happiness will be respected in ‘scientific’ circles, these few psychologists have constructed a number of questionnaires and other measurement techniques to make happiness an ‘observable variable’. To them, if people report they are happy, then they are really happy. Even if we disregard the triviality of this conception of happiness, these measurements suffer from grave shortcomings. As is well known, people answering such questionnaires generally try to give a good impression about themselves. Argyle, one of these few scholars interested in the subject of happiness has this to say about this issue: “There does seem to be a tendency to exaggerate reported happiness….while most people claim to be satisfied or very satisfied, not so many admit to being depressed or anxious, or to be in poor health. Similarly most married couples claim to be very happily married, though nearly half of them will later get divorced. The tendency to exaggerate
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sign of a healthy moral adjustment and internal happiness.
، Western
psychology is a biased social science; a progeny of the American way of life and the American middle class mores. As Sarason beautifully puts it: “Psychology put itself in the course of affecting the social order without examining how that social order caused the substance and practices of psychology. That social order became part of the substance of psychological theory no less effectively than the air we breathe enters our bloodstream. Just as we have learned that the air we breathe may be inimical to our health, psychology has to learn that the social order from which it derives and with which it has a symbiotic relationship may contain features inimical to its health” (1981, pp. x & xi ). In a different part of his valuable book, Psychology misdirected, Sarason goes on to state: ”…in a society like ours-based approvingly as it has been and is on the free marketplace (however regulated), competition, individual initiative and individual responsibility, entrepreneurship, and accumulation of money and material resources-it is inconceivable that significant sectors or groups will not have absorbed and manifested those features, individually and/ or collectively. Those features are as American (United Stated) as apple pie, the raising of the flag in July 4, the Super Bowl and the World Series. To assume that in their socialization psychologists have managed somehow to exempt from the influence of these features is selfrighteousness bordering in delusion “ (p.179). Thus to an average American psychologist, the individual should either accept these standards and adjust to them or else he may run the risk of being branded as an unhappy misfit or even a neurotic or psychotic. However, a person may utterly refuse to adjust to the social and ethical norms of his morally sick society, and by so doing he may be the happiest
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If a Muslim psychologist accepts the view that happiness is simply worldly satisfactions or freedom from psychological symptoms or any such secularized conception, then indeed he has turned his back to the spiritual dimension of Islam and offered his allegiance to a materialistic world view, at least in these specific issues. More about the secularization and measurement Of “happiness” in Western psychology: As we have stated, happiness in its colossal deep psycho-spiritual dimensions has been greatly distorted and dwarfed by Western psychology’s secularization and reductionism. Earlier studies have perceived happiness in terms of adjustment and satisfaction and unhappiness as maladjustment or dissatisfaction. This vague concept is further divided and subdivided into smaller “bits” of behavior. Thus we have to study one’s happiness or satisfaction in his marital adjustment, social adjustment, vocational adjustment, parental adjustment,.....,etc. This is obviously a cumbersome and fruitless approach. First, psychology itself is defined as the science of adjustment. So to study one’s adjustment in all the areas of his life we will be, as it were studying a total gestalt of his psychology. Secondly, adjustment and satisfaction themselves are nebulous constructs which may have little harmony between their external “measurable” responses and their internal subjective cognition. Many “hypocrites” and people who are obliged to live under abhorrent condition may show very good external “happy” satisfaction and conceal their unhappiness and misery. On the other hand, many very happy introverts who are totally engrossed in their lonely hobbies of gardening, cooking and reading may be judged as unhappy and socially maladjusted individuals by their external behavior. Thirdly, maladjustment may be a symptom of a psychological disorder, and the afflicted person is really unhappy, but it may also be a 13
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which is in itself an atheistic point of view. It is a “psychology without a soul” studying a man without a soul (Badri, 1978, p.5). If one believes that psychology as a science is really value-free, and psychology neglects happiness and other spiritually -laden concepts, then these concepts are not worthy of being part of psychology. Furthermore, without even being conscious of it, Muslim psychologists studying such a spiritually laden concept as happiness, may find themselves entangled in a secular trap. Such psychologists are generally greatly obsessed with direct experience, measurement, verifiability and the methodology of science. Impressed with the great achievements of the scientific method in physics and other exact science, some psychologists revere direct empirical observation and measurement to the extent that anything that does not lend itself to this methodology is viewed with skepticism or uninhibited rejection. If a Muslim psychologist develops this attitude of brushing off what cannot be observed and measured, he may gradually slip into a belief that what cannot be measured is not true and that there are no facts or realities of “scientific beyondism”. I have known a number of Muslim psychologists who support such secular claims within their role as academic psychologists. In their evenings at home, they reform their prayers and behave like pious worshiper; in the mornings in their university offices or psychology labs they offer their humble devotion to the secular aspects of scientific methodology. In describing such Muslim psychologist I have stated in my above mentioned book “At times I feel as though these scholars have separated their emotional and mental lives into two water-tight compartments or they have succeeded in creating an apparently non-pathological form of double personalities” (Badri, 1978, p.56).
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more complex concepts such as happiness. This same kind of delusion is seen with greater intensity with regard to ’fanatic‘ students of psychoanalysis who believe that they can explain all kinds of complex human experiences such as happiness by outmoded Freudian theory. I have spoken to many young graduates of psychology in Arab and Muslim countries who talk about the “id” or the “superego” as if they are real physical components which they have observed in the laboratory. Even many more mature psychologists, especially those who strongly subscribe to a particular psychological approach, seem to forget by their enthusiastic continuous repetition of terminology, that such reductionism or overgeneralization is only arbitrary. The other more serious danger concerns the distorted world view which modern science upholds as a secular religion and its claim that it is value free and nonjudgmental. Professor Attas has drawn attention to this in his early works (1978). I have also clearly delineated this issue of the pseudo-neutrality of the science in my paper titled Muslim psychologists in the lizard’s hole, which I read in the Annual Conference of the Association of Muslim Social Scientists in the U.S. in 1976 and which I later unabbreviated in my book, The dilemma of Muslim psychologists : Laboratory-minded Western psychologists, in their endeavor to be scientific, will deny that they have major beliefs or dogmas influencing their conceptualization of man. They will claim that their theories about human behavior are based purely on empirical, unbiased observation. They will even claim to take a neutral stand with respect to the existence of God and the place of religion and to apply objective non-biased “scientific” approach in studying spiritual phenomena. Nevertheless, they will treat man as s materialistic animal with the sole motivation for adjustment with his physical social environment of the “here and now”,
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followers of different approaches. Reductionism
ofpersonality
by
Stimulus-Response
(S-R)
psychologists into fragmented bits of behavior is even more distorting to this complex general psychological concept than the personality trait or dimension approach. That is so because Skinnarians explain all human simple and complex activities by their single conception, or should I say “their dogma of reinforcement”. As I mentioned in an earlier publication (Badri, 1977), the over-use of the reinforcement paradigm can lead us into a vicious circle. The hardworking student works hard because he is reinforced by grades and praise, the stutterer is reinforced by the reward of the feeling of relaxation he gets after finishing his stuttered sentence, the neurotic patient improves because of the reinforcement he gets from the therapist when he behaves in a healthy manner, the baby starts talking and forming complex sentences for being reinforced by his parents, the cold murderer because he is reinforced by the thrill of the murder…and so on and on, until they come to personality and explain it in no other terms but the simplistic picture of a series of reinforcement contingencies and conditioned responses to environmental stimuli. The same approach is also applied to all sorts of complex
spiritual
and
religious
behavior.
Skinnarians
define
a
reinforcement as that which increases the frequency of a response, thus we find ourselves in a closed circuit which takes us round and round like a person driving in a ring road. We repeat a certain response because it is reinforced and reinforcement is that which makes us repeat the response! Though this reductionistic and atomic approach may have some benefits in psychological researches dealing with simple habit acquisition and extinction and their learning applications in behavior therapy, it has given many psychologists a highly false conviction about the reality of
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physics and chemistry or the gene in genetics, it continues to mimic the same reductionistic approach of these sciences. In chemistry, for example, to identify an unknown compound by qualitative analysis, a number of chemical procedures are followed to find out the elements from which it is formed. Different colors and other qualities of an element will be observed in these chemical reactions until the unknown compound completely reveals its hidden building blocks. The same process is artificially mimicked in trying to identify the ‘building blocks’ of complex psychological phenomena like happiness by statistical factor analysis or by reducing them to tiny responses to specific stimuli. This is, of course done after secularizing such concepts and evacuating them from any religious or spiritual components. Let us take the concept of personality, which is much related to happiness, as a clear example in this respect. Personality theory is a general nebulous area which does not easily fit into a stimulus-response paradigm of behavioral reductionism. For this reason, the whole area of personality study is considered a dissident field with respect to modern academic psychology. Some staunch behaviorists have even completely denied its existence as a separate psychological construct. More reasonable psychologists engage in the reductionistic process of tearing down “personality” into different traits, constructs, dimensions or types depending on the proponent of the specific personality theory. Allport, for example, atomizes personality into many traits such as friendliness, cleanliness, ambition, enthusiasm, etc. Eyseck, on the other hand, sees personality in terms of two pairs of opposed dimensions, namely, extroversion as opposed to introversion, and neuroticism as opposed to emotional stability plus a fifth dimension of psychoticism. Freud’s structure of personality is his trio of the id, the ego and the superego. As expected, there is a lot of disagreements and arguments among the 9
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process is repeated under the same or similar condition. What are the behaviors that greatly lend themselves to this constricted tunnel-vision-view of psychology? These are, of course, the observed measurable responses to specific stimuli such as the conditioned reflexes, the reaction times and the experiments performed on human perception, psychophysics, the influence of certain drugs, electrical stimulation of the brain and similar studies. Many other areas of human behavior which do not lend themselves to such a limited model, particularly in fields like social psychology and personality, are either artificially remolded to fit this scientific paradigm or explained with far fetched extrapolation from limited laboratory studies or animal experiments. If it is not possible to do that, they may be completely neglected. Happiness is one of these very greatly neglected concepts. Happy persons do not change color, become taller or more beautiful or grow feathers. Changes associated with relaxation, serenity and joyfulness which are associated with happiness are not accurate observable indices. Beauty, sense of humor, and apparent liveliness and vivacity can fool many observers to ascribe happiness to many internally sad and dejected individuals. This is why psychology preferred to operationalize a dwarfed conception of happiness by sorting people into adjusted or maladjusted, psychologically healthy or unhealthy, satisfied or unsatisfied with their lives, normal or abnormal. Adjustment, though itself a very vague term, can be more easily seen in the person’s external social interaction and measured by specially designed paper and pencil tests. Neurosis, personality disorder and similar classified reactions are also ‘measurable’ by special personality and biofeedback tests. And though psychology does not possess and is not expected to possess any units of behavior such as the cell in biology, the atom in
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"The idolatry of science that is characteristic of our age". He goes on to state that psychology in general and behaviorism in particular have depended on: "philosophies of science which had begun to crumble even before the psychologists borrowed their authority, and which are now seen as shallow and defective by all save the borrowers...Whether a 'science' or any kind of coherent discipline devoted to the empirical study of man, psychology has been misconceived.
Though a massive hundred-year
effort to erect a discipline given to the positive study of man has here and there turned up a germane fact, or thrown off a spark of insight,...their sum-total over time is overwhelmingly counterbalanced by the harvest of pseudo-knowledge... I should like to ask what is the meaning of the one hundred-year history of that endeavor since its formal institutionalization as 'science' " (in Brown, 1979, pp. 4-6). Within this constricted frame of reference, and in order for psychology to be a ‘rigorous’ science, it had to make certain assumptions about the human person which lend themselves to scientific investigation. The first and most important assumption is that the human phenomenon studied must be observable or perceived by one or more of the ‘unbiased’ observer’s senses. The second assumption is that there must be some way of measuring or quantifying this ‘scientifically’ studied human variable. And the third assumption is verifiability. That stands for the notion that more than one observer should agree on the operational nature of the phenomenon, its quantification, its control and prediction, and that consequently the same results should be expected if the “experimental” 7
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same way a healthy vaccinated body reacts to a microbe; so new terms such as “well adjusted”, “mentally healthy”, “satisfied” and “normal” were invented by Western psychologists and psychiatrists to describe behavior which was only recently used to portray happiness. On the other hand, more religiously oriented terms such as evil, sin, and salvation completely disappeared from the literature of the social sciences. But ”happiness“ as a generic concept cannot be eliminated from everyday language of any culture. However its use, through the powerful influence of secularization, was limited to hardly anything beyond the physical and aesthetic non-Christian pleasures and their consequent psychological feelings. But once we move to the serious scholarly sphere “happiness”, as we have stated, is totally repressed; repression in the Freudian sense of the term! In the same vein, “adultery” became promiscuity and later extra-marital relations, which reminds me of extracurricular activities; “sodomy”, was first changed to homosexuality and now to the less offensive term of “variant sexual behavior” or different “sexual orientation”. Scientific psychology and the operationalization of “happiness”: Another very important reason for the disappearance of “happiness” from Western psychological literature is the fact that modern mainstream psychology has patterned itself along the lines of modern sciences with its emphasis on ‘objective’ evidences derived from ‘unbiased’ empirical observations and its obsession with opertionalizations. Psychology, in general, and the dominant behavioristic approach in particular have strongly subscribed to the contemporary embracing of psychology to the methods and underlining philosophy of the physical sciences which have its roots in the outmoded classical mechanistic Newtonian physics. Sigmund Koch calls this aping of psychology to Newtonian physics as
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than abnormal psychology and psychopathology. Why this great neglect of “happiness” if I may ask and why is modern psychology ‘fixated’ on the negative, evil or pathological nature of man? The answer will certainly take us to historical, philosophical, psychological, religious and cultural aspects beyond the scope, space and time of this paper. However a very brief mention of some salient points may be of benefit. “Happiness” and Catholicism : “Happiness” was a significant term in the early literature of the Catholic Church. It was strongly associated with doing good and avoiding sins and evil. The Christian conception of worldly pleasures, particularly sexual pleasure, the main core of modernity’s happiness, are frowned upon; and if immorally practiced, is severely punished, at times by publicly burning the victim. Many Europeans were burned alive for alleged sexual relations with the devil (Sarason & Sarason, 1987). The secular antireligious upheaval of the European Enlightenment of the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries erupted with unprecedented fervor to dethrone religion and to rid the Western societies from its antagonism and dogmatic conflicts with scientific progress and liberalism. The consequent emergence of the scientific and technological revolutions convinced the Western mind that religion is obsolete, reactionary and backward and that the only way out of its benighted influence is to do away with it. Thus secularization governed Western culture, rational thought dominated philosophy, empiricism amplified scientific progress and art and literature mirrored this new liberated trend. Terms like “happiness”, ”evil“, ”sinfulness” ,“salvation”, “adultery” and “sodomy” reminds the Westerners about the ugly past of their religion and its cruel sanctions and inquisitions against scientists and free thinkers. The very mention of these terms may trigger off emotional rejection in the 5
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recipes on show. After a while, one may oneself not remember what one had come for in the first place. It is good to remind oneself again and again that one reaches one's destination not when one can spout endless wisdom, but when one is happy. (http://harmanjit.blogspot.com/2008/04/philosophy-andhappiness.html Saturday, April 05, 2008 The author then laments that modern Westerners seeking happiness and peace of mind in a rational way fail to find it in Western philosophy and when they turn to eastern philosophy of Buddhism and Hinduism they find that such philosophical approaches can only give happiness to those who abandon rationality and suppress their coherent thinking. “Happiness” in modern Western psychology: Though happiness should have been the ultimate goal of all modern psychological therapies, it is even more neglected in the textbooks of psychology than what we said about its disregard in modern philosophy. Icould not find the word “happiness” in all the appendices of all the references that I examined including Corsini’s Encyclopedia of psychology (1984). By looking up words that start with the letter “H” from appendixes of all the references I examined, I find that they generally start with “hallucination”, “hallucinogens”, and “halo effect” then they jump to “hardness” and “Hawthorn’s effect” bypassing happiness as if it has nothing to do with our psychological wellbeing. However, when one turns, to the negative side of man such as depression, aggression, suicide, sexual deviation, anxiety disorders and similar abnormalities, this happiness-mute approach suddenly switches to verbal fluency of long chapters and many pages, even in textbooks other
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and pain are the twin standards for determining the rightness or wrongness of a certain action. Accordingly, philosophy has added very little towards a better understanding of happiness beyond the experiencing of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. In fact, modern Western philosophy has now become just a university subject divorced from the real problems of modern life and its incapacitating problems, a major aspect of which is the prevailing unhappiness that leads to the epidemics of psychological and mental disorders and drug addictions. This issue is beautifully delineated in a wellwritten article titled, “Philosophy and happiness”, based on the eulogy of the renowned French philosopher Jacques Derrida. The following is a long quotation from it: Philosophy is no longer a personal passion, it is just another subject, another specialization for one's arts degree. No doubt, one can find passionate academic philosophers, who become red in the face while arguing for or against a certain position. But that passion has nothing to do with their real lives. When they have won an argument, nobody has gained an insight which will enable them to be freer or happier. It probably will result in a published paper, at best. Unfortunately, philosophy has become divorced from real life. It is a remarkable state of affairs that one can study philosophy and even teach it while all one does study and does teach is the history of western philosophical thought……The pursuit of wisdom and the pursuit of happiness are two of the deepest passions of a human being. One must never forget one's goal that one had when one started studying philosophy or started seeking happiness. It is as if one came into the kitchen to get a glass of water but forgot all about it as one became engrossed in appreciating the various dishes and 3
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Happiness is thus a highly personal and ‘subjective’ human experience which is inherently difficult to define. So I am not going to venture a definition for happiness. I will simply say that happiness is a deeper and much more complex phenomenon than the definitions given for it in Western dictionaries and academic references. All of these sources speak about the happy-go-lucky kind of momentary joy or gladness because of a fortunate or lucky incident. Thus, happiness in its deep meaning is a much more complex concept which is intertwined with one’s conception about human nature and his or her worldview. For happiness to outshine these momentary pleasure and to become, more or less, a permanent attribute of a person, irrespective of sickness or health, poverty or richness, fame or obscurity it must transcend the secular materialistic self-imposed imprisonment of this world. Such a spiritually laden conception of happiness would obviously be a forgotten notion in modern Western secular social sciences and philosophy. “Happiness” in modern Western philosophy: Happiness in modern Western scholarly literature is a ‘miserably’ neglected concept. It is an ‘orphan’ which neither of his parents, philosophy and psychology, give any real concern. Out of more than 2000 pages printed in the well known reference, Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Edwards, ed., 1967), the editors decided that happiness does not deserve more than one and one half of a page. In this limited space, they summarized the utilitarian ethical point of view in which John Stuart Mill states his Greatest Happiness Principle that actions are ethical in proportion to the greatest happiness they bring to the largest number of people. This is considered an improvement on Bentham’s ideas in which he limited happiness to a purely hedonistic conception of pleasure. To him, pleasure
2
HAPPINESS A repressed concept in Western psychological thought Pro.Malik B. Badri (Ph.D.)* What do we mean by the term “happiness”? Happiness is like “love”; it is an experience everybody knows too well but non can come up with crystal clear precise definitions for them. When positively experienced, the happy person is overwhelmed with highly pleasurable feelings of tranquility, ecstasy and delightful euphoria. These feelings are projected onto the whole environment and the entire world looks beautiful and flowery. But when unhappiness and hate dominate one’s psyche, the picture is reversed. Jubilation becomes discouraged dejection, tranquility becomes threatening anxiety, euphoria becomes unbearable depression and friendliness becomes anger and dangerous aggression. These negative thoughts and feelings are also projected onto the external environment causing the afflicted person to suffer from various psychological and psychiatric disorders and to lose any meaning for his existence. The world is seen as a very dreary and boring place or a highly treacherous concern. When these thoughts and feelings reach their logical extreme, the unhappy individual may take his own life or that of the abhorred person. From this, I believe that one of the best measures of happiness, or for that matter, unhappiness in a given society, may be the rate of suicide and that of emotional disorders in this society. Besides social problems such as the prevalence of divorce and drug and alcohol addiction can also point to the degree of unhappiness in a society.
*
Professor of psychology, International Islamic University of Malaysia.
1
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