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Effect of Enzymatic Degumming on the Properties of Silk Fabric Arijit Chakraborty*, Netai Mahato, Pintu Rajak & Josodanandan Ghosh Department of Textile Technology, Govt. College of Engineering and Textile Technology Abstract The silk fabric samples were degummed by using proteolytic enzymes; viz. cellulase, papain, pepsin, trypsin and compared with traditional soap-soda method. The efficiency of degumming process was assessed using percent gum loss, tensile strength, wetting time and scanning electron microscope (SEM) measurements and dyeability with acid dye. Insignificant difference in gum loss was observed in between papain enzymatic and soap-soda degummed fabrics. The tensile strength loss in both warp and weft in case of papain were found to be as 18.55% and 14.20% whereas they were 27.95% and 26.37% for soap-soda. The characterization through SEM showed distinct morphological changes in silk. FTIR study showed no change in the molecular conformation of silk even after degumming which confirmed degumming as surface phenomena. High colour yield (K/S value) with good colour fastness to washing and light was obtained when silk fabric degummed with papain was dyed with acid dye. Keywords Silk, Degumming, Soap-soda, Proteolytic enzymes, Gum loss, SEM
*All correspondence should be addressed to, Dr. Arijit Chakraborty Department of Textile Technology, Govt. College of Engineering and Textile Technology, Serampore-712201, India E-mail: Profarijit@rediffmail.com November - December 2014
compensate the acidity of sericin hydrolysis products accumulating in the bath, thus limiting the use of bath for weekly degumming cycles [9]. But the traditional processes are not only energy and time consuming but tends to degrade silk leading to undesirable aesthetic and physical properties such as dull appearance, surface fibrillation and strength loss [10]. Moreover, the presence of soap and alkali in the waste water makes this method a non eco-friendly process [11]. The increasing awareness of legislators and citizens for the ecological sustainability of industrial processes has recently stimulated the interest of scientists and technologists for the application of biotechnology to textile processing [12]. Enzymes are biological catalyst which accelerates the rates of wide variety of chemical reactions. Different enzymes may cause hydrolysis, reduction, oxidation, coagulation and decomposition reaction. Proteolytic enzymes or proteolases are those enzymes which hydrolytically cleave the peptide bond that links amino acids together in the polypeptide chains forming the proteins degrading the protein into small molecules such as peptones, peptides and amino acids. With biotechnological processes involving proteolytic enzymes finding wider applications in medicines and industries, the use of various proteolytic enzymes has increased enormously in recent years [13]. However, the usage of enzymes in textile industries is increasing day by day but the use of enzymes in silk industry is relatively unexplored 265
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1. Introduction Silk fibre is one of the most familiar, as well as a very useful biopolymer and is universally acclaimed for most of the desirable properties of textile fibre: fineness, strength, elasticity, dye ability, softness, flexibility, smooth feeling, luster, elegancy, grace and high rating [1-2]. Raw silk is composed of 30% sericin, 70% of fibroin, water and mineral salts. Fibroin is the single protein that does not dissolve in water and that has a fibrillar structure. As for sericin, it is available on the fibre and has an amorphous structure and this gummy protein dissolve in the water much more than fibroin [3-5]. Thus it is easy to remove this gum through various processes without causing any serious harm to the fibre [6-7]. Sericin hides the brightness and whiteness of the silk as well as causing it to have a hard handle. It also prevents its dyeability. Therefore, sericin existing on the silk fibre is made to dissolve by being hydrolyzed through different methods and with degumming agents [4, 8]. Traditionally, degumming of silk has been carried out by soap-soda method and is considered as the best sericin removal method of silk. Recently, soap is replaced by synthetic detergents in continuous degumming systems, because it cannot
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Journal of the TEXTILE Association
and has generated a lot of interest and much research is carried out internationally [14]. Several acidic, neutral and alkaline proteases have been used on silk yarn as degumming agents. Alkaline proteases performed better than acidic and neutral ones in terms of complete and uniform sericin removal, retention of tensile properties and improvement of surface smoothness, handle and luster of silk [15-17]. Enzyme degummed silk fabric displayed a higher degree of surface whiteness, but higher shear and bending rigidity, lower fullness and softness of handle than soap and alkali degummed fabric, owing to residual sericin remaining at the cross over points between warp and weft yarns [18]. Freddi et al. [19] applied acidic, neutral and alkaline proteases to silk degumming and found that alkaline and neutral performed better than acidic proteases in terms of complete sericin removal. After complete sericin removal with proteolytic methods, the quality of appearance and retention of tensile properties is expected to be superior to those silks degummed through traditional methods due to less chemical and physical stress applied to silk during enzymatic processing. Nakpathom et al., [20] degummed Thai Bombyx mori silk fibres with papain enzyme and alkaline/soap and reported that the former exhibited less tensile strength drop and gave higher colour depth after natural lac dyeing, especially when degumming occurred at room temperature condition. Alcalase, savinase (two commercial proteolytic preparations) and their mixtures also proved to be feasible for degumming applications [21]. Gulrajani et al. [14] degummed silk with combination of protease and lipase enzymes and obtained efficient dewaxing and degumming effects, while maintaining favorable wettability of silk fibres. Gulrajani and Gupta [22] treated silk with protease and cellulase and reported that the treatment with cellulase improved wettability and also removed the impurities. Process for degumming of silk has been standardized and found to be economically viable without chemical hazardous. Only alkali stable proteases found suitable for degumming of silk and already patented includes Degummase, Thermodegummase, Esperase, Sausinase, Proteinase, Proteolytic enzyme S114, Lypase, Alcalase, Cellulase, Protosol, Protease A.N.M., Pepsin etc. [23]. But a study of the literature over the past decade revealed no information dealing with comparative study of different enzyme degumming on the properties of silk fabric.
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The present work was therefore undertaken to study the functional degumming of silk fabric using different enzymes like cellulase, papain, pepsin and trypsin in order to evaluate the best suited enzyme for degumming in terms of gum loss, strength, K/S value and wetting time. Finally, the performance of the best enzyme has been compared with the conventional degumming of silk using soap-soda. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Fabric Raw Murshidabad silk fabric (1/1 plain, 62 ends/cm, warp count 22d, 54 picks/cm, weft count 34d, 60 g/ m2) was used. 2.2 Chemical reagents Conventional degumming agents used were liquid soap and sodium carbonate kindly supplied by Merck Specialties Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India. Enzymes used were cellulase, papain, pepsin and trypsin kindly supplied by Aumgene Biosciences Pvt. Ltd., Gujarat, India. 2.3 Dye Palatine Fast Orange GEN (C. I. Acid Orange 74, formula: C16H11CrN5NaO8S, formula weight 508.34, ?max: 455 nm) kindly supplied by BASF, Germany. 2.4 Conventional degumming Soap Soda Sodium silicate pH Time Temperature MLR
(with soap - soda) [24] 6 gpl 2 gpl 1 gpl 10路5 2h 980C 1:20
Sodium silicate is commonly used as stabilizer in the silk industry where the use of soft water is strongly advocated in order to avoid the harsh feel, formation of marks on the materials during degumming with hard water due to the possibility of deposition of calcium and/or magnesium silicates on silk fabric. Though, silicate free stabilizers have been developed and available in the market but, on comparison with silicate containing stabilizers it has been observed that the desired effects in regard to degumming including whiteness are not obtained with these silicate free stabilizers [25].
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PROCESSING 2.4 Enzymatic degumming [24] Enzyme degumming involves the proteolytic degradation of sericin using the specific proteins with minimum effect on fibroin. Before enzymatic degumming the material should be pre-wetted or pretreated. The object of pre-wetting is to soften and swell the sericin and ensure its easy removal from substrate in the subsequent stage [24]. The recipes used for pre-wetting and treatment of the fabric with cellulase, papain, pepsin and trypsin are given below:
2.6 Selection of best suited enzyme The silk fabric samples were treated separately with different enzymes viz. cellulase, papain, pepsin and trypsin at varying concentrations like 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 gpl. The effectiveness of different enzymes was estimated and compared by measuring the weight loss, strength loss, elongation, wetting time and K/S value. The best suited enzyme was selected as per the comparative performance in terms of above parameters.
Pre-wetting process Wetting agent Sodium carbonate pH Temperature Time MLR
-
Degumming (with cellulase) Cellulase Sodium bicarbonate pH Temperature Time MLR -
20, 40, 60, 80, 100 gpl 75 gpl 8.5 600C 2h 1:20
2.7 Dyeing (with Acid dye) [26] 2* Palatine Fast Orange GEN (C. I. Acid Orange 74) 1* Glauber's salt 1* Acetic acid pH Temperature Time MLR
Degumming (with papain) Papain Sodium Phosphate Formic acid pH Temperature Time MLR -
20, 40, 60, 80, 100 gpl 10 gpl 10 gpl 5.2- 6 700C 1h 1: 20
Degumming (with pepsin) Pepsin Formic acid Hydrochloric acid (dil.) pH Temperature Time MLR -
20, 40, 60, 80, 100 gpl 10 gpl 10 gpl 2 600C 1h 1:20
Degumming (with trypsin) Trypsin Sodium phosphate Sodium Carbonate pH Temperature Time MLR -
20, 40, 60, 80, 100 gpl 10 gpl 10 gpl 7.8-8 500C 1h 1:20
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- 30 gpl -
75 gpl 30 gpl 4 1000C 90 min 1:20
Commercial acid dye namely Palatine Fast Orange GEN was used for the present study. After degumming process, silk fabric samples were dyed according to the recipe as mentioned above. The time-temperature profile for acid dyeing of silk fabric is shown in Figure 2.1. In the after treatments step, dyed samples were treated with 2 gpl acid buffer (citric acid- disodium hydrogen phosphate buffer, pH 4.5-5.5) at 500C and rinsed with warm water for 15 min and soaped with 2 gpl detergent at 500C for 15 min and again washed with cold water and dried.
Figure 2.1: Time- temperature profile of acid dyeing of silk fabric
2.8 Testing Gum loss of the silk fabric after degumming process was calculated as follows:
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10 gpl 10 gpl 8-9 600C 30 min 1:20
PROCESSING where, W1 and W2 are the weight of the silk fabric samples before and after degumming respectively. Tensile strength of the fabric (both warp and weft directions) was measured on an Instron Tensile Tester. The data of each sample was averaged using 10 measurements. For evaluating the wettability of the untreated and treated samples, samples of 1 in. Ă— 3 in. were cut from both warp and weft directions. On each sample, two lines were drawn 1 in. apart with an ink marker. With the help of a clamp stand the samples were immersed in distilled water till the lower line. The spreading of colour showed the rise of water. The time taken by water to travel from lower mark to upper mark was recorded.
3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Effect of concentration of different enzymes on gum loss of silk fabric Figure 3.1 shows the effect of different enzymatic treatments under different concentrations (20-100 gpl) on efficiency of degumming process in terms of gum loss. It is observed from the figure that for all the proteolytic enzymes, with the increase in concentration, the gum loss increases
The extent of degumming was qualitatively assessed by viewing the degummed samples under Scanning Electron Microscope (Zeiss EVO 50). The infrared spectra of the samples were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer RX FT-IR spectrophotometer with KBr discs in the region of 4000-400 cm-1. Surface colour strength (K/S value indicating dye shade depth on surface) was calculated from diffuse reflectance of the samples using UV-Vis spectrophotometer, Color iQC (Version 6) at 503 nm. The K/S values of dyed samples were determined using the Kubelka Munk equation [27]: K/S = (1-R)2 /2R
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
where, K is the coefficient of absorption, S is the scattering coefficient, and R is the reflectance value of the dyed sample. To compensate for the colour of the undyed material, the reflectance of the undyed material was subtracted from the reflectance of the dyed sample before the calculation of K/S. The K/S values were calculated from the four repetitive measurements. Wash and light fastness of the dyed samples were measured using Atlas Launderometer as per ISO: 9002 recommended and assessed as per the IS: 3361(1979) and Microsol light fastness tester MBTF fading lamp and assessed as per the IS: 2454 (1967). For evaluating the handle and lustre of the differentially treated samples, the same of equal size (2 in. Ă— 2 in.) were mounted on black sheet and ten people were asked to evaluate these samples on the basis of handle and lustre. Mean ranking was taken. 268
Figure 3.1: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on gum loss of silk fabric
significantly and slowly and thereafter the changes remain insignificant. In the pre-wetting stage, the gum loss is found to be negligible (1.23 %) owing to the low treatment temperature and less time [19]. The optimum gum loss percentage are found to 16.92 % for 60 gpl cellulase, 25.29 % for 80 gpl papain, 18.90 % for 80 gpl trypsin and 17.11 % for 80 gpl pepsin concentration whereas for conventional soap-soda process, it is found to be as 26.25 %. This is due to the specificity of the particular enzyme at particular concentration. At higher concentration (> 60 gpl for cellulose, > 80 gpl for papain, pepsin and trypsin), the gum loss does not increase significantly owing to the deactivation of enzymes at particular concentration [18]. The gum loss level at 80 gpl papain concentration is found to be at par (25.29 %) with conventional soap-soda process (26.25 %). Also the high temperature (at 980C) and alkaline pH (10.5) used in conventional soap-soda process might caused degradation of fibroin. The enzymatic treatments, on the other hand are milder (temperature 50-700C and pH 2-8) and gives fairly good gum loss [28].
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PROCESSING 3.2 Effect of concentration of different enzymes on strength and elongation of silk fabric The results of strength and elongation (both warp and weft directions) of silk fabric after different degumming processes using proteolytic enzymes at different concentrations (20-100 gpl) are shown in Figures 3.23.5. It appears from figures that with the increase in the concentration of the enzymes, the strength of silk fabric decreases significantly up to 80 gpl concentration in case of papain, pepsin and trypsin whereas the strength diminishes significantly up to 60 gpl concentration of cellulase thereafter it remain more or less constant. Among the different enzymes used cellulase shows lowest strength loss both in warp and weft directions (14.32 % and 9.70 %) and trypsin shows highest strength loss (22.75 % in warp and 10.13 % in weft directions) against conventional soap-soda process in which the strength loss in warp and weft directions are 27.95 % and 26.37 %.
There is no degradation of fibroin takes place during enzymatic degumming. The variation in the performance of strength loss for different enzyme is due to variation in their activity profile. The lowest strength loss in case of cellulase is due to its poor intensity of proteolysis activity owing to the less density of linker peptides present within the modules of endo- or exoglucanases [29]. On the other hand, the high proteolytic activity and degree of hydrolysis of trypsin results in highest strength loss of silk fabric during degumming as compared to papain and pepsin [30]. Though all the enzymes show improvement in elongation in both warp and weft directions but
Figure 3.4: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on warp elongation of silk fabric
Figure 3.5: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on weft elongation of silk fabric Figure 3.3: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on weft strength of silk fabric November - December 2014
there is a decline in the elongation of enzymatically degummed silk fabric sample over soap-soda degummed sample. 269
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Figure 3.2: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on warp strength of silk fabric
PROCESSING 3.3 Effect of concentration of different enzymatic treatment on wetting time From Figure 3.6, it is observed that the wetting time of silk fabric treated with different enzymatic treatments decreases significantly up to a concentration (60 gpl for cellulase and 80 gpl for papain, trypsin and pepsin). The wetting time of control silk fabric is found to be 92 s which decreases to 7.2 s for the conventional soap-soda process as against 33 s for cellulase, 6.4s for papain, 9.7 s for trypsin and 8.8 s for pepsin enzymes. The improvement in wetting time is due to the better formation of capillaries during degumming which result in an increase in the absorptivity. The performance variation for different enzymes is due to the variation in their activity at particular concentration. Among the enzymes, papain shows the best result and cellulase shows the worst in respect to the wetting time of silk fabric.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Cellulase is an enzymatic hydrolytic system which consists of four different component parts like endoglucanases, exo-glucanases, b-glucosidase and linker peptide. Endo-glucanases randomly hydrolyse the 1, 4- b glycocidyl linkages within the water soluble cellulose chains. Exo-glucanases hydrolyse the 1, 4- b glycocidyl linkages at either the reducing or non-reducing ends of cellulose chains to form cellobiose (glucose dimer). b- glucosidase converts the water soluble cellobiose into two glucose residues. In a modular organized endo- or exo-glucanases, the modules are connected via linker peptide which is particularly sensitive to proteolysis. Probably this sensitivity is caused by the fact that these linkages are exposed to the water phase.
Figure 3.6: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on wetting time 270
These fungal linker peptides are rich in proline, threonine and serine and are smaller in size than bacterial ones. When cellulase is used to cleave internal glucosidic bonds of cellulose polymer chain and convert into soluble glucose monomers, the first three components (endo-glucanases, exo-glucanases and b- glucosidase) work synergistically and for this the linker peptides are protected against proteolysis by oglycosilation. Thus it behaves like a cellulolytic enzyme. When cellulase is not protected against linker peptides, the linker peptides become active and under this situation it behaves like a proteolytic enzyme. Therefore, cellulase can act also as a proteolytic enzyme [29]. But the degree of proteolysis (DP) is less than degree of cellulolysis (DC) as the linker peptides are only responsible for proteolysis whereas for cellulolysis the first three components work synergistically resulting higher intensity. For this reason only, cellulase when acts as proteolytic enzyme shows poor result. Among various enzymes tested, papain is the fastest and the most efficient enzymes for proteolysis followed by pepsin and trypsin. Basically, the activity of enzyme to cleave peptide bonds depends on the enzyme/substrate ratio and accessibility of the enzyme to the substrate cleavage sites. Furthermore, the difference in degree of hydrolysis (DH) is a result of the difference in the total number of cleavage sites of the substrate. Therefore, it can be concluded that although silk is degradable by all proteases, the number of available cleavage sites for papain is much higher than other proteases used. Being an endo-proteinase, the efficiency of papain also is in line within its broad specificity towords a protein substrate [30]. On the other hand, digestion with pepsin and trypsin always left room for further extensive action of papain. Papain digests proteins approximately three times faster than trypsin and pepsin without much strength loss [31, 26]. This makes papain more suitable for degumming than trypsin and pepsin. 3.4 Effect of concentration of different enzymatic treatment on K/S value and fastness properties The silk fabric degummed with different enzymes at different concentrations shows increase in K/S value (Figure 3.7) upto a certain concentration (60 gpl for cellulase and 80 gpl for papain, pepsin and trypsin) and thereafter remains more or less constant. Among the different enzymes used for degumming, papain shows the highest K/S value (8.7534) with wash and light fastness November - December 2014
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Figure 3.8a: SEM photograph of silk fabric degummed with soap-soda Figure 3.7: Effect of concentration of different enzymes on K/S value Table 3.1: Effect of different degumming agents on K/ S value and fastness properties
Degumming agents
K/S value
Wash fastness
Light fastness
Soap-soda
9.5417
4
6
Cellulase
6.1924
3
3-4
Papain
8.7534
4
6
Pepsin
7.1161
3
4
Trypsin
6.8124
3
3-4
to the tune of 4 and 6 which is nearer and equal to the K/S value, wash and light fastness of silk fabric sample degummed with soap-soda method (Table 3.1). This is due to higher frequency of formation of capillary and resulting increase in the absorptivity owing to the removal of gum like protein (sericin) from the surface of the substrate which is clearly visible from the surface morphology study carried out through SEM.
Figure 3.8b: SEM photograph of silk fabric degummed with cellulase
Figure 3.8c: SEM photograph of silk fabric degummed with papain
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
3.5 Surface morphology of silk fabric The scanning electron micrograph of raw silk fabric, silk fabric treated with soap-soda and silk fabric treated with different proteolytic enzymes like cellulase, papain, pepsin and trypsin are
Figure 3.8d: SEM photograph of silk fabric degummed with pepsin Figure 3.8: SEM photograph of raw silk fabric November - December 2014
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Figure 3.8e: SEM photograph of silk fabric degummed with trypsin
3.7 FTIR analysis of degummed silk fabric FTIR investigates the changes in secondary structure in silk filament present within the fabric when treated with different chemical agents. Figure 3.9 shows FTIR spectra of silk fabric degummed with different degumming agents. Mulberry silk is characterized by the transmittance band at 1540.10 cm-1 (amide I) assigned to random coil formation and 1422.16 cm-1 (amide II) attributed to the ?-sheet structure. After treatment, there is no shift or stretching of band or peak observed. Moreover, finger-print regions remain unchanged. Thus, the molecular conformation of silk does not show any change even after different treatments of degumming.
shown in Figures 3.8 and 3.8a-3.8e. In the control sample (raw silk fabric) sericin appears as a non-uniform coating on the surface of filaments and various granules deposits are visible in the interstices between filaments within the fabric. However, photographs of degummed samples show smooth surface due to perfect degumming without any damage to the surface of silk filament. It is observed that the surface of papain treated sample is to some extent cleaner than the samples obtained on soap-soda treatment. But in case of cellulase large remnants of sericin are noticed which is comparatively less in case of pepsin and trypsin. 3.6 Effect of different degumming agents on handle and lustre The data in Table 3.2 shows that soap-soda treated sample has been ranked first in case of handle and fourth in case of lustre. Good handle could be due to uniform dissolution of sericin by the action of alkali, resulting in a smooth surface. Excess of alkali present in soap-soda liquor diminishes the lustre. Best result in terms of lustre is obtained for the samples treated with papain but the sample ranked second in terms of handle as compared to soap-soda treated samples.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Table 3.2: Effect of different degumming agents on fabric handle and lustre
Degumming agents
Silk fabric Handle
Lustre
Soap- Soda
1
4
Cellulase
3
2
Papain
2
1
Pepsin
3
3
Trypsin
2
2
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Figure 3.9: FTIR spectra of silk fabric degummed with soap- soda and papain
4. Conclusion Papain enzyme can be used to improve the degumming of silk fabric. The papain enzyme treatment gives at par gum loss with a sacrifice of reasonable strength loss, better wettability and cleaner longitudinal surface as compared to soap-soda treatment. The characterization through SEM shows distinct morphological changes in silk. FTIR study reveals no change in the molecular conformation of silk even after degumming which confirms degumming as surface phenomena. High colour yield (K/S value) with good colour fastness to washing and light is obtained when silk fabric degummed with papain is dyed with acid dye. The treatment with papain gives better results in terms of lustre but samples are ranked lower in terms of handle as compared to soap soda treated samples. References 1.
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FINISHING
Study on Properties of Cotton Fabric Incorporated with Diammonium Phosphate Flame Retardant through Cyclodextrin and Citric Acid Binding System V. Sivak Kumar*a, G. Nalankillib & O. L. Shanmugasundaramc a IIHT-Kannur bSriram Engg.college, c Dept. of Textile K.S.R.C.T, Abstract The ability to form an inclusion complex by cyclodextrin (CD) with various compounds like fragrant, aroma, etc. in textile processing and the grafting of cyclodextrin to improve the functional property of cotton fabric was tried in this research work. Among different CDs, mono chlorotriazinyl b-cyclodextrin (MCTb-CD) was grafted effectively on cotton fabric and optimization of grafting recipe was determined by altering various parameters to attain maximum grafting yield. The durability of temporary flame retardant Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) finishing in combination with Citric acid (CA) also was studied. The resultant finished fabrics were compared with untreated and differently treated samples for the functional property and its durability towards different washing cycles (up to 40 washing cycles). The result reveals that the flame retardant property of cyclodextrin treated finished samples enhance the durability when compared to only DAP finished sample. The aesthetic properties like whiteness, hand value and physical properties were also analysed for the untreated and differently treated samples. The whiteness loss and strength loss were more by the CA and DAP treatment than individual treatment like CA and DAP. The flexural rigidity changes after treating with CA/DAP on CD grafted fabric was remarkable changes and there was a considerable increase in crease recovery angle and its durability towards washing.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Key Words Citric acid, Cyclodextrin, Diammonium phosphate, Flame Retardant finish, Grafting
1 Introduction Cyclodextrin plays an important role in textile research area and also a significant role in the textile processing industry to substitute various auxiliaries or to prepare textile materials containing molecular capsules which can hold perfumes, trap unpleasant smells, antimicrobial reagents and various functional properties. A rather novel idea of using cyclodextrin in textile processing is the provision of textile finishing with Cyclodextrins for improving the functional finishes. Cotton fabric is more suitable for wearing purpose, but the flame retardant property is poor compared to other fibres like wool, Nomex due to the chemical nature of the fibre. In order to use cellulosic material under hostile conditions, it is important to undergo flame retardant finishing process [1]. Nevertheless, textiles differ widely in construction (knitted, woven, and nonwovens) and in the chemical nature of the *All the correspondence should address, Prof. V. Sivak Kumar Textile Processing IIHT-Kannur, Kerala Email : sivaiihtkannur@gmail.com 274
textile fibers. Because of this reason, the flammability of textiles varies noticeably from very flammable to intrinsically flame retardant textiles. Clothing worn by children's may ignite easily results in very high rate of dead (almost one of every four such accidents) or disfiguring burns, especially with nightwears [2]. The flame spread rate of textiles after ignition, mainly depends on fabric density, usually the lighter fabrics are more dangerous than heavy weight fabric [3]. So, it is essential to undergo the flame retardant finishing process, especially to the cellulosic material fabric to withstand more washing cycles. Flame retardant finishing causes reduction in strength, yellowing and loss of flame retardancy during the laundering process and un-due stiffness to the fabric [4-5]. The ability of cyclodextrin to serve as a host in the formation of solid or liquid phases of compound by inclusion complex with a large variety of non-covalent or covalent bonding, it is widely used in various finishes like fragrant, drug release [6]. In this study, the use of mono chloro triazinyl -b-cyclodextrin was used for producing covalent bonding mechanism [7]. This November - December 2014
FINISHING new type modification of cyclodextrin and bonding is a permanent cyclodextrin property of the treated material [8-9]. The cyclodextrin is converted into mono chlorotriazine (MCT-CD) [10] and it was fixed on cotton fabric through covalent bonding (Figure1.1) and the Citric acid and temporary flame retardant finishing (DAP) was treated on CD/CA grafted cotton fabric resulting which the durability of the flame retardant finishing effect was improved through cross linking between CA/CD (Figure 1.2) and Intumescent formulations among CD/CA/DAP.
Figure 1.1: Attachment of MCT-CD on to cotton fabric by covalent formation
2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Preparation of Monochlorotriazinyl-bCyclodextrin The MCT-b-CD was prepared by condensation process. In which, the cyanuric chloride was condensed with CD in an aqueous medium at 0-50C in the presence of sodium hydroxide to give 4-chloro-6-hydroxys-triazin-2-yl-b-cyclodextrin sodium salt with a degree of substitution of active Cl. This product is a reactive derivative and can be covalently fixed on cellulose. This modified CD can be applied by standard methods like reactive dyeing due to the resemblance in reactive dye structure. 2.2.2 Grafting of CD on to Cotton The grafting of cotton fabric with different CDs was carried out, namely a, b, g and modified-b-cyclodextrin by optimizing the variables such as temperature, concentration, pH, time and material to liquor ratio for producing a higher grafting yield. The grafting percentage was calculated from the weight difference between the before and after grafting, the following equation was used to calculate the grafting percentage.
Figure 1.2: Cyclodextrin cross linked via Polycarboxylic acid
In this research work, Citric acid (CA) has been chosen in grafting of b-CD onto cotton, instead of butane tetra carboxylic acid (BTCA), because it is less expensive, nontoxic, and eco-friendly compound. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials 100 % cotton grey woven fabric was purchased and it was pretreated as per industrial practice, the resultant whiteness index was 122 and finally it was weighing 140 gsm. In order to find out the suitability of CDs for grafting, four different types of CDs were selected, namely a, b, g and modified b-CD. The polycarboxylic acid (Citric acid) also tried as a binding agent along with sodium hypo phosphate (SHP) as catalyst to study its effect on CD grafted FR cotton fabric. The temporary flame retardant diammonium phosphate (P2O553%, NH3-25%, N-20.8%) was used along with urea to produce the flame retardant finishing on pretreated fabric, CD grafted sample, CA bound sample, CA/ CD grafted sample. November - December 2014
W1- Weight of fabric before grafting; W2- Weight of fabric after grafting The grafting's reproducibility was checked in triplicate method. In order to compare the effect of CD grafting for flame retardant finishing, various treatments were done on CD grafted / un-grafted samples as described in Table 2.1. The binding agent and DAP were applied through two bowl padding mangle with 90% expression and curing was done at 1600C for 2 min. The various tests and analysis were taken place to find out the effect of the cyclodextrin treatment on flammability and other properties. The flame retardant behaviour of differently treated samples towards washing was determined as per AATCC 124 test method for 1, 5, 10, 20 and 40 washing cycles.
Textsmile Once a chemistry professor thought of teaching some philosophy to the class, 'If you're not part of the solution, you're part of the precipitate! 275
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Diammonium phosphate (DAP), which contains nitrogen and phosphorous, is a non-durable FR chemical and it is widely used as a flame retardant for cotton and cotton-blended materials [11].
FINISHING Table 2.1: Details of differently treated samples Sample Code
Description
S1
Control sample (Untreated)
S2
CA treatment on un-grafted sample
S3
MCT-b-CD grafted sample
S4
DAP treatment on un-grafted sample
S5
CA treated on MCT-b-CD grafted sample
S6
CA & DAP treated on un-grafted sample
S7
DAP treated on MCT-b-CD grafted sample
S8
CA and DAP treated on MCT-b-CD grafted sample
done using thermogravimetry analyzer (TGA V5.1A DUPONT 2000 model). For every 10% weight loss, the decomposition temperature was measured and analysed accordingly. 3. Results and Discussion The grafting yield of different cyclodextrin was analysed with various parameters. The grafting yield increase linearly with increase in CD concentration but beyond 1.6%, the grafting yield was limited and further increase plays no significant role.
2.2.3 Physical Properties The weight of fabric was measured according to ASTM D3776-96 and reported in grams per square meter (GSM); the crease recovery angles (CRA) were determined according to ISO 2313:1972 test method and reported in degree angle (0); Tensile strength testing of samples was determined by using Grab method as per ISO 13934-2-1999 test method. 2.2.4 Aesthetic Properties The whiteness index was measured with the help of spectrophotometer using premier colorscan software according to AATCC 110-2000 test method; The flexural rigidity was tested by using KES-FB2-AUTO-A Pure bending tester and Surface roughness were tested by using KES-FB4-AUTO-A Surface performance tester
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
2.2.5 Morphological and chemical analysis The surface morphological structures of samples were identified by a Cold Field Emission scanning electron microscope (Hitachi S-4700 FE-SEM); Fourier transform infrared analysis was performed on a Bio-Rad FTS-40 FTIR spectrophotometer 2.2.6 Flammability and Thermogravimetry analysis Testing Limiting oxygen index (LOI) is a method to determine the minimum oxygen concentration in an oxygen/nitrogen mixture that will sustain the flame. It is a convenient, reproducible, and inexpensive way of determining the tendency of a material to sustain a flame. LOI testing was carried out according to ASTM 2863 test method and reported in Percentage (%); Vertical flammability test was conducted according to ISO 6940: 2004 test method and the char length, status of burning was reported in order to analyse the flame retardant behaviour; Thermal analysis of the samples was 276
Figure 3.1: Different CDs Percentage grafting under optimised condition
The result proves that, in Figure 3.1, a-CD and modified b-cyclodextrin gives maximum grafting yield than other types under normal conditions (a-2.7%, b,-0.3%, g -0.3% and MCT-b-CD-2.7%). The maximum percentage of grafting was achieved by using modified CD under normal processing conditions of cotton fabric (Concentration 1.6 %, pH-11, MLR-1:10, Temp. 900C, Time: 40 min); this modified CD is analogous to those of reactive dyes; that may be the reason for the higher grafting yield under normal conditions used for cotton. The experimental results presented in the Figures 3.2 to 3.6, which are indicating that there is a remarkable effect on the physical properties of the treated samples. In the Figure 3.2, the reduction in the tensile strength of the fabrics (S2, S5, S6 & S8) is a result of crosslinking of cellulose molecules [12].
Texttreasure "Only those who will risk going too far can possibly find out how far one can go." - T.S. Eliot November - December 2014
FINISHING
Figure 3.2: Tensile strength of differently treated samples
Figure 3.4: Crease recovery angle of differently treated samples
However, the sample S4 and S7 also lose its strength due to the two factors: acid-catalysed cellulose depolymerisation and cross linking [13]. The grafted sample shows only negligible fabric strength loss. The maximum strength loss about 11% is takes place in cross linked sample and flame retardant sample. Observing lower strength loss values in cross linked fabrics are in accordance with Xu & Li [14] who have used a crosslinking model to explain the reasons for the strength loss values as the formation of intermolecular and intramolecular crosslinks reduces the possibility of equalizing the stress distribution which causes a reduction in the capacity to withstand load.
Formation of ester crosslinks between cellulosic chains imparts crease resistance in cotton fabrics [17]. The crease recovery angle of the samples considerably increased for the fabrics S6 about 11% due to the formation cross linking by CA with hydroxyl group of cellulose [18] and DAP. This observation is in tune with the findings of Welch & Peters [19] and Yang et. al [20] saying that presence of hydroxyl groups hinders the crosslinking ability.
Figure 3.5: Flexural rigidity of differently treated samples
In the Figure 3.3, the CD grafted sample (S3) shows less changes in whiteness after grafting, but the samples S6 and S8 shows maximum whiteness loss about 7% and 6%, respectively, this whiteness reduction is due to the presence of the hydroxyl group, which is able to form >C=C< structure by dehydration during a curing process [15-16]. The whiteness reduction was taking place as expected for the DAP treated sample and CA treated samples. November - December 2014
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Figure 3.3: Whiteness of differently treated samples
Figure 3.6: Surface roughness of differently treated samples 277
FINISHING The hand value of the samples was measured in terms of flexural rigidity and surface roughness as explained in Figures 3.5 and 3.6. The hand value of the CD grafted sample (S3) was not affected, but the flame retardant finishing and CA treated samples (S6, S7) roughness increase about 13% which made the handle of the finished sample becomes little stiffer. The results prove that CD treatment is not affecting the hand value of the treated sample.
In sample S8, the phosphorylation of -OH group of cotton/CD was taking place, this system cause Intumescent formulations contain three active ingredients i) Acid source (e.g. Phosphate from DAP), ii) a carbonization compound (e.g., Starch derivative-CD) and iii) a blowing agent (Bonding agent-CA). CA is able to esterify the hydroxyl groups of both cellulose and CD, however, cross linked network is formed among CA/CD/DAP on cellulose.
3.1 Flammability and Thermogravimetry Analysis of the samples In Table 3.1, the LOI value of the differently treated sample was provided. The controlled cotton fabric (S1) does not have flame retardant property and the LOI value lies as 17.5 %.
Table 3.2: Char length of differently treated samples
Char Length (mm) After Washing 0
1
5
10
20
40
S1
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
S2
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
S3
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
S4
46
48
53
63
84
CB
LOI (%) Value After No.of Washing Cycles
S5
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
CB
0
1
5
10
20
40
S6
46
49
53
59
63
CB
S1
17.5
17.5
17
17
17
17
S7
44
42
44
46
48
68
S2
18
18
17.5
17.5
17.5
17
S8
44
44
45
49
53
58
S3
19
19
19
18.5
18.5
18.5
S4
32
31
28.5
25
22.5
18.5
S5
18
18
18.5
18
18
17.5
S6
31
31
29
27
24
21
S7
34
33
30.5
29
27
23
S8
34.5
34.5
34
33
31
29
Table 3.1: Limiting oxygen index of differently treated samples Code
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Code
After treating the fabric with MCT-b-CD, the LOI values slightly increased since the CD act as carbon source and act as charring agent [21]. In the result, it is observed that the LOI value of fabric S8 shows maximum than DAP alone finished sample (S4). The reasons for increasing this flame retardant behaviour is due to the combination of CD with acid resource DAP and/or blowing agent CA exhibited outstanding char-forming ability. The flame retardant finished sample shows more LOI value initially and it was decreases beyond increasing the washing cycles due to non-permanency in nature [22]. However, the retaining of flame retardant on the fabric is increased by forming a cross linking with polycarboxylic acid [23]. The huge difference between the samples (S4 and S8) shows the retaining of FR on the fabric even after 40 washing cycles. The difference in LOI value and retaining capacity may be explained as follows. 278
Table 3.3: Burning Time of differently treated samples
Code Time of Burning (Sec) After Washing 0
1
5
10
20
40
S1
23
23
22
22
21
21
S2
26
26
25
23
21
21
S3
24
23
24
22
23
22
S4
875
868
870
356
162
32
S5
26
26
25
24
24
22
S6
888
889
872
790
149
65
S7
879
875
871
860
452
235
S8
886
885
883
880
673
451
The char length and burning time test results reveals that the flame retardancy behaviour of differently treated samples as in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 respectively. As discussed for the LOI value, the burning characteristics also differ among samples S1 to S8 due to differences in flammability nature. The result's status showed as "completely burned" denotes that the fabric does not having flame retardancy and the CD treated sample along with DAP (S7) and cross linked sample along with DAP (S6) showed the status of suppressed combustion even after 40 washing cycles, but the November - December 2014
FINISHING sample (S8) shows the excellent flame retardant property due to the intumescent formulations among CD/ DAP/CA. Nevertheless, the thermal stability of the differently treated samples was highly evidenced with the help of TGA analysis (Figure 3.7). The flame retardant behaviour of cotton fabrics can be evaluated through the degrading nature of control and treated samples using thermogravimetry technique (24-25). The control sample (1) and b-CD grafted sample (2) loses its weight drastically by evaporating the moisture content and after 3500C it starts to decompose; Nevertheless, the flame retardant finished sample (3) decrease its weight gradually then later beyond heating above 4000C the weight loss is minimum than the control sample.
companion formation after the elimination of water molecules. The DAP compounds ability to suppress the so-called "afterglow" i.e. the slow combustion of the carbonaceous residue after the initial pyrolysis of cellulose. FT-IR Spectroscopic studies were made to confirm the crosslinking reaction and inclusion formation. FTIR analysis spectrum (Figure 3.8) of control fabric (1) shows peaks at 3300cm-1 (intermolecular H-bonding), 2900cm -1 (CH2str.), 1840cm -1 (CH2 bending), and 985cm-1 (anti-symmetric bridge C-O-C). b-CD grafted cotton fabric (2) produces a broad peak between 2800 and 3200 cm-1 characteristic of -OH is stretching of cellulose and -OH in plane bending is shifted from 1450-1400 cm-1 to 900-1000 cm-1 since the -OH group of cellulose linked with cyclodextrin. Flame retardant cotton fabric (3) shows peaks due to >C=O (980 1100-1) and -N-H (1500-1956 cm-1) and this evident in the formation of ester groups as described by Huang et al [26].
Figure 3.7: TGA of differently treated samples
The thermogram shows that the presence of the DAP affects both temperature and the rate at which the fibre decomposes. In all cases it has been observed that the thermal decomposition of the DAP treated fibres begins at a lower temperature than the control. However, when DAP treated fabric subjected to heat, it can be easily observed that the onset of decomposition takes place suddenly at a definite temperature and involves a reaction between DAP and cellulose, the flame retardant undergoes a chemical change at approximately the same temperature and the mechanism involving a November - December 2014
Figure 3.8: FTIR of differently treated samples
The presence of specific peaks of a particular group in the finished cotton fabric confirms the availability of flame retardant on the fibre. The cross linked with CA and inclusion complex compound formed CD treated cotton fabric (4) bands at 2550 cm-1 and 3200 caused due to the inclusion of FR into b-CD and peaks characteristic of -OH bending. The peaks at 2245cm-1 corresponds to C-H stretching of cyclodextrin. The stretching vibration (C=C) of aromatic moiety at 1606 cm-1 proved the inclusion of FR into cyclodextrin moiety. The band peak at 1200-1400cm-1 vibrations depicts for phosphates as descripted by Ferraro & Krishnan [27]. 279
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The thermogravimetry graph reveals that the cross linking and grafting onto cotton fabric followed by treatment with flame retardant chemical (4) increases the thermal stability of the fabric and hence imparts flame retarding property.
FINISHING In the case of CD treated cotton support, the significant difference was that the characteristic band of triazinyl appeared with significantly higher intensity. This was attributed to the triazinyl nucleus (C=N), the ranges between 1500 and 1600 cm-1, which was successfully introduced and attached to the cotton fibre. The triazinyl group (C=N) could react with the hydroxyl group (OH) of cotton and forms covalent bonding. The attained FTIR spectra confirmed the grafting through qualitative point of view. The absorption peak about at 1700 cm-1 is attributable to the stretching vibrations of the carbonyl group and the band in the range of 1500 to 1600 cm-1 shall be recognized to the compound C = O in aldehydes and carboxylic groups available in PCAs systems. And since the C = C valence vibration is weak and often it sis not visible in the spectra. The 1335-1316 cm-1 doublet is assigned to the cellulose component. There was an absorption bands in the range 1200 cm-1, which is assigned to the vibration of C-O.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
The use of the FT-IR technique permits the detection of chemical amalgams and types of responses qualitatively. It also makes it possible to point out the implication of the different functional groups of guest and host molecules in the inclusion process by analysing the significant changes in the shape and position of the absorbance bands of the differently treated samples. Scanning electron micrographs (Figure 3.9) were envisaged on differently treated fabrics and a deposition of unevenly distributed particles through grafting, cross linking and inclusion complex formation with flame retardant on the cotton fabric surface was observed. The comparative SEM images of controlled sample and treated samples allows the visualization of presence of CD, FR and formed inclusion compound. The inclusion formation modifies the microscopic aspect of the treated samples. Thus, the inclusion complex and FR deposition combines chemically with the fibre to modify its intrinsic burning behaviour as described by Chauhan (28). The comparative SEM images of controlled samples (SEM-1) and CD grafted sample (SEM 2), Flame retardant chemical treated sample (SEM 3) and formed cross linked and inclusion compound sample (SEM 4) allows the visualization of modified cellulosic fabrics.
SEM 1-Control sample
SEM-2 CD grafted sample
SEM-3 FR treated sample
SEM-4 CA & FR treated sample Figure 3.9: SEM of differently treated samples 280
November - December 2014
FINISHING
The comparative SEM images of controlled sample and differently treated samples (allow the visualization of presence of CD, CA, BTCA, DAP and formed inclusion compound. The inclusion modifies the microscopic aspect of the treated samples. Thus, the inclusion complex and FR deposition combine chemically with the fibre to modify its intrinsic burning behaviour. 4. Conclusion The bonding formation between CD and FR through Citric acid was achieved. The durability of the flame retardant finishing effect was studied up to 40 washing cycles and the results reveal that the durability of the cyclodextrin/CA treated sample was good compare to regular finished samples. The modified-b-CD grafting condition is resemblance to normal processing conditions used for cotton fabric and it is not affecting the inherent characteristics of cotton fibre. The flammability, physical properties and aesthetic properties of differently treated fabrics (S1 to S8) were analysed, the results show that newly formulated technique changing the hand value for acceptable quantity only. Ungrafted DAP applied fabric (S4) exhibit the flame retardancy up to 10 washing cycles effectively, but DAP applied on CD grafted fabric (S7) showed the durability up to 20 washing cycles. The CA treatment also influences in the durability of the DAP finish on CD grafted fabric (S8) and it exhibits the better flame retardancy than the fabric S7 and withstands up to 40 washing cycles. In this study, a semi-durable flame retardant finishing was produced through inclusion compound formation between CD and DAP (Fabric S7) and the durable flame retardant finishing was achieved with the help of CA on CD grafted fabric using DAP (Fabric S8), as it was confirmed through LOI and FTIR analysis. The changes of aesthetic value like whiteness, the hand value and physical properties by the newly formulated technique is negligible quantity only when compared to regular FR finishing. The result reveals that the CD can be effectively used in FR finishing without affecting the hand and physical properties of fabric. November - December 2014
References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8.
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13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
18. 19.
Kaur I., Sharma, R., & Sharma R., Indian J. Fibre Textile Res, 32, 312-318. (2007). Weil E. D., & Levchik S. V., Journal of Fire Sciences, 26(3), 243-281. (2008). Hirschler, M. M. & Piansay T, Fire and materials, 31(6), 373-386. (2007). Wu W., & Yang C..Journal of applied polymer science, 90(7), 1885-1890. (2003). Yang, C.; Wu, W, Fire and Materials, 27, 223237.(2003). Martel, B., Weltrowski, M., Ruffin, D., & Morcellet M., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 83(7), 1449-1456. (2002). Reuscher.H, Hirsenkon.R, Hass.W.German Patent. DE 19520967.(1996) Moldenhauer JP, Reuscher H. Textile finishing with MCT-beta-cyclodextrin. In: Torres Labandeira JJ, Vila-Jato JL. (eds.) Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Cyclodextrins, 31 May - 3 June 1998, Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 161 (1999) Agrawal P. B., & Warmoeskerken M. M. C. G., Journal of applied polymer science, 124(5), 40904097. (2012). Grechin, A. G., Buschmann, H. J., & Schollmeyer, Textile Research Journal, 77(3), 161-164. (2007). Horrocks, A. R., Kandola, B. K., Davies, P. J., Zhang, S., & Padbury,. Polymer Degradation and stability, 88(1), 3-12. (2005). Kang, I. S., Yang, C. Q., Wei, W., & Lickfield, G. C. Textile Research Journal, 68(11), 865-870. (1998). Yang, C. Q., Wei, W., & Lickfield, G. C. Textile Research Journal, 70(10), 910-915. (2000). Xu, W., & Li, Y, Textile Research Journal, 70(7), 588-592. (2000). Lu, Y., & Yang, C. Q., Textile research journal, 69(9), 685-690. (1999). Andrews, B. K., Blanchard, E. J., & Reinhardt, R. M., Textile Chemist & Colorist, 25(3). (1993). Qiu X and Yang CQ.Wrinkle recovery angle and wrinkle recovery appearance rating for durable press finished cotton fabric. AATCC Review, 5: 34-38.(2005). Hashem, M., Hauser, P., & Smith, B., Textile Research Journal, 73(9), 762-766, (2003). Welch, C. M., & Peters, Textile Chemist & Colorist & American Dyestuff Reporter, 32(10). (2000). 281
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Examination by scanning electron microscopy showed conspicuous differences between the two samples (SEM-1 and SEM2) due to the deposition of CD at 5000X magnification, the fabric shows more evidence for the presence of the CD; SEM observations on the inclusion complex formed samples (SEM-4) indicated inclusion build-up on fabric surfaces. Deposits of inclusion compound between fibers were usually more around the periphery of the yarn.
FINISHING 20. Yang, C. Q., Xu, L., Li, S., & Jiang, Y., Textile Research Journal, 68(6), 457-464. (1998). 21. Feng, J. X., Su, S. P., & Zhu, J.An intumescent flame retardant system using ??cyclodextrin as a carbon source in polylactic acid (PLA). Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 22(7), 1115-1122. (2011). 22. Hendrix, J. E., Drake, G. L., & Reeves, W., Textile Research Journal, 41(4), 360-360. (1971). 23. Zhou, X., Chen, K., & Yi, H., Textile Research Journal, 0040517514525877. (2014). 24. Abidi, N., Hequet, E., & Ethridge, D. Journal of
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applied polymer science, 103(6), 3476-3482. (2007). Dahiya JB, Rana S., Polym. Int; 53:9951002.(2004). Huang, K. S., Hwang, M. C., Chen, J. S., Lin, S. J., & Wang, S. P., Journal of the Textile Institute, 98(2), 169-176. (2007). Ferraro F, Krishnan K. Practical Fourier Infrared Spectroscopy, Academic Press Inc., New York,203 (1990) Chauhan, R.S.,Bhavsar, R.B & Bhagwat, M. M., Textile Research Journal, 51(7),477-480, (1981). ❑ ❑ ❑
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Website: www.textileassociationindia.org 282
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TECHNICAL TEXTILES
PEER REVIEWED
Role of Nonwovens in Sustainable Products M. D. Teli1 & A. Shukla*2 Department of Fibers and Textile Processing Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology. 2 Department of Textile Science and Apparel Designing, S.N.D.T. Women's University.
1
Abstract Nonwovens are the oldest and simplest textile fabrics, felt being a classic example. Today nonwovens are considered unique, high tech, engineered fabrics. They have shown a tremendous growth spurt and are poised to further increase by 6.8% per year to 9.3 million tons in 2015. Nonwoven industry sustainability is a need driven by both consumers and governments. They are chiefly made from renewable resources, require little or no water, have shorter manufacturing time spans and even encourage use of recycled products. The production process involves web formation, web consolidation and finishing. Coatings, laminations, embossing, corona or plasma treatments are given to impart special properties to these fabrics. The nonwoven fabrics are applied for various purposes such as, filtration, barrier fabrics, medical textiles, personal hygiene products, geotechnical engineering, automobile and garment industry. Several life cycle analyses of nonwoven products have rested concerns of disposability of single use, shortlived nonwoven products to a great extent. Keywords Batt, Bonding, Felt, Nonwovens, Web
*All the correspondence must be addressed to, Ms. A. Shukla, Dept of Textiles and Apparel designing, S.V.T. College of Home Science, S.N.D.T. Womens Univesity, Santacruz (West), Mumbai. Email: armaitishukla@yahoo.com November - December 2014
recycling manufacturing waste [4]. The process is also called 'rag tearing' or 'rag grinding' [5]. The Garnett machine, though greatly modified, today still retains his name and is a major component in the nonwoven industry. Nonwoven production processes have experienced several changes since. Thermal and resin bonded nonwovens which accounted for over 40% of the carded technologies in early 1990's have faced a slow growth profile due to spunlaid technologies which have shown a remarkable improvement in quality of nonwovens. This trend will continue further since hygiene producers continue to switch from the thermal bonded cover stock to the lower cost spunlaced materials (INDA, 2004) [6]. 2. Current Scenario Between 2005 and 2010 global production of nonwovens increased by 6.1% from 5 million tons to 6.7 million tons, and will further increase by 6.8% per year to 9.3 million tons in 2015 [7]. The revenue generated by nonwoven materials and products market was USD 28,783.3 million in 2012 and is expected to reach USD 45,363.7 million by 2019 according to the Transparency Market Research report [8]. However, there is a great deal of variation in this growth spurt among different regions and countries. Countries having population with relatively high personal incomes such as the US, Japan, and West European countries 283
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1. History of nonwovens Nonwovens are one of the oldest and simplest textile fabrics. The art of making felt by rolling, beating and pressing animal hair or flocks of wool into a compact mass of even consistency is assuredly older than the art of spinning and weaving. Thus making felt fabric a classic example of nonwovens. Felting was practiced in times of great antiquity both in Asia and Europe [1].The most popular natural fibres being animal hair, jute, coir, cotton, wool and sisal. The origins of modern day nonwoven are traced back by some to the needle punch industry in England, while others trace it to Germany. The most likely theory is that first needle punching in its crudest form was practiced in Germany around 1860. However the first commercially built needle punching loom was designed in 1866 and used largely at Lancashire or Dundee townships in England for producing fairly high quality wool products [2]. Then in 1957, James Hunter produced the first high speed needle loom, called the Hunter Model 8 which is still used today [3]. Later in the 19th century when England was the leading textile producing country the Garnett carding machine was used to shred textile waste material back to fibrous form thereby
TECHNICAL TEXTILES will have well established, steady growth in nonwovens markets [9]. But further boom is anticipated in the countries where disposable hygiene products are still on a growth spurt. 3. Defining Nonwovens Today the simple felt has travelled a long way. Now nonwovens are considered unique, high- tech, engineered fabrics made from fibers which are used across a wide range of applications and products. Modern life would be quite different without these innovative, versatile and indispensable products. Nonwovens are defined by ISO Standard 9092 and CEN EN 29092 as "A nonwoven is a sheet of fibres, continuous filaments, or chopped yarns of any nature or origin, that have been formed into a web by any means, and bonded together by any means, with the exception of weaving or knitting [10].
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Nonwovens are probably the only products to have a negative definition. It does not give a positive definition of what it is but instead states that it is not woven. With such a description it is not surprising that most people are not aware of nonwovens despite the fact that most of them may be directly or indirectly using or coming across it several times each day [11]. 4. Raw Materials used in Nonwovens These raw materials fall in three large categories. 4.1. Fibers Fibers are the basic units of a nonwoven structure. Every fiber known to mankind both natural and manmade has been used for nonwoven fabrics at one time or another. Consequently, much of the utility, properties and performance of a nonwoven is due to fibers used [12]. Natural fibers remain of interest because they have valuable properties for specialized enduses [13]. Manufacturers sensitive to consumer's demand, favor cotton/ cellulosic fibers for feminine hygiene products [14]. But they suffer from unstable pricing and supply due to variations in climate, worldwide demand, and availability of competing fibers. Synthetic fibers provide specialized properties, uniformity, and constancy of supply which cannot be achieved by natural fibers. For commercially important nonwoven fabrics the dominant fibers include polypropylene, polyester and rayon [12]. Synthetic specialty fibers are more expensive, and their total production is too small to allow economies of scale to be fully realized. For example, bicomponent fibers, which simultaneously provide both a structural element and a 284
thermobonding capability, have been used in specialized materials despite their high cost [13]. Some recent innovations in fibres leading to specialized products are, Polyether ketone ketone fiber nonwoven mats that have been developed at the place of traditional polymers for end use applications such as filters for chemical processes and pollution control. They are capable of withstanding relatively harsh environmental conditions, such as high temperatures, organic solvents, corrosive or reactive chemicals, and/ or acidic or basic substances without significant deterioration in their performance or their structural integrity [15]. Experimental studies by blending of stainless steel/ polyester and normal polyester fibres at specified ratios have been done on electromagnetic shielding of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics for the automotive industry. Satisfactory electromagnetic shielding values were obtained at wide bandwidths [16]. On the other hand, metals are now being increasingly replaced by thermoplastics for housing commercial equipment, due to flexibility, light weight, and low cost for electromagnetic shielding purposes [17]. Flexible carbon fiber nonwoven fabrics have been used as fuel cell electrodes, chemical-resistant and heat-resistant filters, heat conductors, heat sinks, thermal insulation fillers, adsorbents and acoustic materials [18]. It shows great potential in military applications as radar camouflage material or in non-defense application as electromagnetic shielding material [19]. Nonwoven fabrics of jute- polypropylene offer maximum sound reduction and are used successfully for sound proofing purposes [20]. 4.2. Binders Binding agents bind the fibers of a nonwoven by form fit. A nonwoven reaches its maximum strength when all fiber crossing points are bonded in a point shaped form fit [21]. In the early stages of manufacturing nonwovens, natural resins and glues were used to provide structural integrity, followed by synthetic binders which also met some performance requirements of the fabric. For example a latex binder can be a cost effective way of consolidating a fiber web and achieving specific properties instead of a binder fiber [12, 22]. The binder system also helps in adding colour to nonwoven fabrics by accepting pigments and dyes. 4.3. Additives Many non-fibrous materials are used in the manufacture, bonding and finishing of nonwoven webs as a secondary process. These include thermally active powders and absorbents. November - December 2014
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The production process of nonwovens involves web formation, web consolidation or web bonding and finishing stages. 5.1 Web Formation The method for web formation depends chiefly on fiber used and the expected properties of the final product. Based on fibers they are classified as staple fiber webs and continuous filament webs. The staple fiber webs are further prepared either as wet- laid or dry- laid webs in parallel, cross or randomly laid fashion. The continuous filament webs are either spun laid or melt blown webs. 5.1.1 Staple Fiber webs 5.1.1.1 Wet-laid webs: This technique is similar to modified paper making technique. The fibers are dispersed in sufficient space and volume of water or fluid medium around it to keep it suspended apart from other fibers [23]. This dispersion is then laid on a wire mesh, and dehydrated with squeezing machines as it is cheaper to remove the water mechanically rather than thermally. The "inclined wire fourdrinier" and the "cylinder" machine have been in use for many years, providing acceptable wet-laid nonwovens [13].These randomly laid webs are then superimposed to form required end mass which is heat cured as a continuous process. The advantages of low cost and high production rates are offset by limitations of short fiber length and papery handle of the web. 5.1.1.2 Dry-laid webs: The initial process consists of steps similar to manufacturing of woven fabrics such as opening and cleaning, mixing or blending and finally the carding of staple fibers. The carding action is carried out on machines known as cards which are mainly of two types i.e. roller and clearer card (for medium and long staple fibers) and revolving flat card ( for short staple fibers up to 5-6 mm) [24]. These are then laid as webs. There are three techniques used for web -laying: â&#x2014;&#x2020; Parallel laid webs: The production line contains a series of cards which deposit multiple webs on November - December 2014
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a conveyor belt superimposing each other until a fleece of the correct mass per unit area is achieved [10]. The fibers in the web lie predominantly in the machine direction making the web five to six times stronger length wise than across its width. The mass per unit area of the fleece is also limited as it is not economical to use more than 12 cards. Cross laid webs: Here the webs are deposited as cross layers on lattices which are at a right angle to the original direction of laying. This cross layering enables increase in stretch and strength. To increase the batts dimensional stability scrims or yarns may also be introduced during cross- lapping [25]. The mass per unit area of the fabric can also be controlled by increasing or decreasing the take up speed [26]. Randomly laid webs or air laid webs: In this process the machines are equipped with aerodynamic feed which deposits fibers on a moving belt or perforated drum that enables air to move out and the fiber to form a web. The web is deposited as a single layer on a conveyor belt [27].A wide range of mass per unit area can be produced and short fibers or textile waste materials can be used more efficiently.
5.1.2 Continuous Filament Webs 5.1.2.1 Spun laid webs In this one step web forming technique molten polymer is extruded in the presence high pressure air through a pneumatic gun. For increasing their strength they are further drawn by mechanical force, aerodynamic force or electrostatic charges prior to web formation [28]. The fibers are then deposited on a conveyor belt, a condenser cage or an open weave fabric called scrim and taken to the bonding stage where consolidation of the web occurs. Today successful use of bicomponent fiber technology in spunbonding process provides fabrics with unique properties and better performance for numerous industrial applications such as protective clothing, filters, packaging and geotextiles [29]. 5.1.2.2 Melt Blown Webs The initial process is similar to the spun-laid web process. However the difference is in the increased force in the current of air or gas which breaks the filaments rather than just drawing or orienting the filaments. Thus these fabrics cannot be called truly continuous filament webs [30]. 285
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5. Manufacturing Process of nonwoven fabrics The three general nonwoven categories are dry laid, wet laid and polymer laid nonwovens. The dry laid process originated from the textile industry while the wet laid processes originated from papermaking and the polymer laid processes originated from polymer extrusion and plastics [5].
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5.2 Nonwoven web bonding techniques Fibrous webs have little mechanical strength and thus further processing with mechanical, chemical or thermal bonding is required to accomplish this. 5.2.1. Mechanical Bonding The fibres are bonded by various methods such as felting or fulling by pressure in the form of heat and moisture or mechanically by using needles and jets of air or water. ◆ Needle punching technique: The needle punching system is used to bond dry as well as spun laid webs.The needles are normally triangular with three bards at each corner [31].These needles displace fiber plugs or tufts at the speed of around 2000 strokes per minute. The punching could be done on one or both sides of the fabric.Needling creates web shrinkage along the fiber direction and stretch at right angles to the fiber direction[32]. ◆ Stitch bonding technology:A modified warp knitting machine binds the cross laid webs by knitting columns of stitches down their length. An additional web- nipping mechanism in front of the stitch bonding point aids transport of the web right upto the knitting point of the machine [5]. Also to enable easy unrolling of the web sometimes a light needling operation (known as Tacking) is also performed. Different stitch types and coloration of yarn can provide a degree of design and pattern in the resulting products. The gsm range of these nonwovens is also little higher [33]. ◆ Hydroentanglement:Hydro- entangling or spunlacing is the process of using fluid forces which vigorously agitate the web to further deflect the fibers [34]. This is achieved by using high- velocity three nozzle water jet assembly with an entangling pressure of 150 bars and linear speed of 35 yards per minute. Sometimes further measures such as polymeric adhesive bonding is needed to fully bond the web [33].
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5.2.2. Chemical bonding or adhesive bonding The fibres are bound together by an agent consisting of the same polymer as the fibres, or which can create a bond between fibers of the same polymer. Typical adhesives are polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetate and acrylic binders, other binders can be used depending on the end product. ◆ Saturation adhesive bonding:The simplest technique is the complete immersion of light weight webs into the adhesive bath and controlling its
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concentration by regulating the degree of roller pressure applied to the impregnated materialand forming a stiff highly compressed fabric [21]. Screen saturation, dip/ squeeze and size-press are variations of saturation bonding [35]. Spray bonding:On the other hand spray bonding saturates only the surface layers of webs. The binder is atomized by air pressure, hydraulic pressure or centrifugal force and applied as fine droplets through a system of nozzles arranged above the moving web and results in uniform binder distribution and soft fabric handle for thick webs [36]. Foam bonding: Spray bonding is now replaced byfoam bonding process for impregnation of light weight webs. In foam binders part of the diluting water is replaced by air and foamability is achieved by addition of foaming agents and foam stabilizers. Depending on desired effect the mixture is beaten into foam of 5, 10 or 20 times its volume and applied in measured quantities over the full width of the fabric [21]. Application of powders:Here fine layer of thermoplastic polymer bonding powder is distributed on the web[35].For open lightly compacted products webs are softened either by hot air or steam ovens. In case of more compact materials heated rollers are used. This layer is further cooled or chilled with embossed rollers to resolidify the adhesive bond layer. Print bonding: In this bonding process the binder is in the form of a paste and applied by the screen roller as miniature designs such as the common cross- hatch design found on disposable cloth [25].For high speed manufacturing the fabric is usually wetted before hand to prevent the fibers from sticking to the roller or the web from splitting. Sometimes the 20% binders usually used can be reduced by printing the cloth with cellulose xanthenes solution[37]. Increased pattern versatility can be achieved with the use of rotary screen rolls [35]. Discontinuous bonding: For fabrics to have adequate strength and good draping characteristics the binder as powder, granules or rods are printed and than fused under conditions of high temperatures and low pressures, resulting in a fabric with innumerous anchor points.
5.2.3. Thermal bonding Thermal bonded fabrics are produced by using heat in a variety of ways, often in addition to other bonding November - December 2014
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5.2.4. Bonding of spunlaid webs: There are several possibilities for bonding spun-laid webssuch as heat, pressure, needle punching or spraying with adhesive. The filaments are normally able to self bond and sometimes bicomponent filaments can be used to produce a bonded fabric with one of the components being thermoplastic to facilitate heat bonding [37]. 6. Finishing Finishing or converting includes coating, laminating, calendaring and embossing. Finishing imparts specific surface properties, such as corona and plasma treatments to change wetting properties, wet chemical treatments to impart anti-static, antimicrobial or flame retardant properties etc [45]. For example PET nonwoven fabrics coated with acrylic resin mixed with bamboo activated charcoal effectively decomposes and deodorizes several harmful chemicals such as ammonia, methanol, sulphide, benzene, phenol etc [46]. The finished fabric is then cut to width based on customer specifics, rewound and made ready for shipment [45]. 7. Uses The high rate of growth in nonwovens has led to a substantial increase in research aimed at establishing links between their structure and desired macroscopic properties thus creating a vast array of end uses [47]. For example due to their excellent tensile, hydraulic and air permeability properties in geotechnical engineering alone, more than 100 specific application areas have been developed [48]. Around 66% of geo textiles are dominated by polypropylene nonwoven products [49]. The automobile industry has been one of the oldest users of nonwovens for noise damping or sound insulation[50]. Today they have also replaced traditional fabrics or plastic composites in vehicles for enhanced decorative purposes. Similarly 70% of filter media today is nonwoven as they have improved temperature resistance, cake separation, lower pressure drop at a fixed efficiency etc [51]. This provides favourable conditions for the trapping and precipitation of particles than the same quantity of tightly bundled fibres made into weft and warp yarn [52]. Highloft nonwovens which are soft, bulky and permeable are suitable for bedspreads, quilts, mattresses, pillows, roofing and building insulation pads etc [53]. In the medical sector apart from staples such as masks, wipes, and other disposables nonwovens barrier fabrics which comprises both organic and inorganic fibrous components play a large role in wound management[54]. Recent trends have come up with composite 287
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techniques. The low energy consumption, better web formation technologies, higher production speeds and low production cost has enhanced viability of the process [37, 38]. Both single component and bi component fibers can be used in thermal bonding of nonwovens [39]. ◆ Hot calendaring:This process involves calendaring with two to four hot metal rolls which may be plain or embossed opposed by a wool felt, cotton or special composition roller. Hot calendaring can be further classified as area, point bond and embossing hot calendaring [40].Plain calendaring rollers give stiffer webs compared to embossed rollerswith sculptured three dimensional textures [41]. ◆ Belt calendaring:It is a modified form of hot calendaring with the main difference being the time of nip ie 1- 10 seconds and pressure applied which is about 1/10 that of the hot calendaring process. Here the batt is passed between heated roller and heat resistant silicone coated blanket. Patterned bonding can be obtained by patterned blankets [42]. This process also facilitates use of binders with sharp melting points. The products produced are much less dense and papery compared to hot roll calendaring. ◆ Through -air thermal bonding:The batt made out of normal and a small percentage of low melt fiber is passed over a slotted traversing lattice which is taken through a hot air chamber [42]. Negative pressure or suction pulls the air through the batt promoting rapid and even transmission of heat and minimizes fabric distortion.The molten binder droplets spread throughout the webs cross- section. This may or may not be followed by cold calendaring. ◆ Ultrasonic bonding:The ultrasonic process is very versatile.Here thermoplastic fibers are bonded by thermal energy which occurs as a result of pressure and ultrasonic vibration. The stress thus created softens and fuses the fibers which later on cool and solidify at the bonding points. This makes the stitch area thinner and glossier than the surrounding web.[43,44]. ◆ Radiant- heat bonding:The web in this process is exposed to radiant energy in the infrared range. This increase in temperature melts the binder which resolidifies upon cooling. The process consumes low energy and is a favoured method for powder- bonded nonwovens. The product is usually soft, open and absorbent with low - to medium strength [40].
TECHNICAL TEXTILES membranes where the textile material provides strength, air and water permeability and the polymeric matrix acts as a drug loaded dressing that may offer precise control over the release behaviour of the drug [55]. These nonwovens could be fabricated by nanoporous materials such as biodegradable polymers including poly lactic -co- glycolic acid, ( PLGA) using electrospinning technology [56]. They could be further microencapsulated with various compounds to enhance their properties etc. [57].
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Personal hygiene products such as disposable wet wipes, make- up removal pads, swads, diapers, tampons and other feminine hygiene products have an immense market [14]. Innovativecleansing mitts have been developed of natural and polymeric fibers where the high loft batting material carries a releasable personal care component [58].
9. Conclusion Nonwovens have made forays into almost all fields where conventional textiles reigned supreme. Their manufacturing technologies have progressed tremendously in the last decade. Further growth spurt in use of articles containing nonwovens is expected as apart for technical and hygiene products the fashion industry too has accepted the unique texture and handle of nonwovens. Simultaneously several life cycle analysis of nonwoven textiles have put to rest the mounting concerns over the disposability of products. Thus nonwovens made chiefly from renewable resources with cleaner, less energy consuming manufacturing techniques offer a sustainable choice for the future. References 1.
Nonwoven fabrics with better drape, hand, durability, stretch and recovery have encouraged the fashion industry to rethink on usage of nonwovens as interlining and paddings in dresses. The concept of apparel design and manufacturing has also gained importance [59].
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8. Sustainability concerns In the nonwovens industry sustainability is a need driven by both consumers and governments. Nonwovens use a significant percentage of wood pulp, which is renewable and relatively inexpensive [60]. Less than 1 percent of all commercial wood production ends up as woodpulp in absorbent hygiene products [61]. As oil is expected to increase in both demand and price until 2017, use of regenerated fibers for nonwovens in the place of petroleum-based material is favourable. Water is also becoming a scarce resource as industries and populations compete for supplies. Woven cotton textiles require a great deal of freshwater irrigation, as well as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The replacement of woven cotton textiles with wood pulp and/or rayon-based nonwovens therefore not only saves money, but valuable resources [60]. Needlepunch, carded and airlaid nonwovens use little or no water, while spunlace uses almost no chemicals and recycles 99% of the water it uses [62].Amidst mounting concerns over the disposability of single use, short- lived disposable nonwovens composting of engineered biodegradable nonwovens would ensure that the polymeric carbon is recycled back to nature via the carbon cycle of the ecosystem, nature's recycling system [63].
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40. Gordon S., & Hsieh Y., Cotton, Woodhead Publication, Cambridge, 511, (2007). 41. Desai A., & Balasubramanian N., Indian Journal of Fiber & Textile Research, 19, 209, (1994). 42. Balasubramanian N., The Indian Textile Journal, 9 (2012). 43. http://www.textileworld.com/Issues/2005/NovemberDecember. 44. Kayar M., Journal Of Engineered Fibres And Fabrics, 9 (3), 8, (2014). 45. http://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/51/ 5001/nonwoven-manufacturing1.asp 46. Ming Y., African Journal Of Biotechnology, 11 (50), (2012). 47. Das A., & Raghav R., Indian Journal Of Fiber And Textile Research, 34, 258, (2009). 48. Bhattacharjee D., Ray A., & Kothari V., Indian Journal Of Fiber And Textile Research, 29, 122, (2004). 49. Wojtasik D., Annals Of Warsaw University Of Life Sciences, 40(1), (2008). 50. Teli M., Pal A., & Dipankar R., Indian Journal Of Fibre And Textile Research, 32, 202, (2007). 51. Kothari V., Das A., & Sarkar A., Indian Journal Of Fibre And Textile Research, 32, 196, (2007). 52. Landage M., Wasif A., & Therwal P., International Journal Of Advanced Research In IT And Engineering, 2(6), 71, (2013). 53. Das D., & Pourdeyhimi B., Indian Journal Of Fiber &Textile Research, 35, 303, (2010). 54. Huang C., Lin J., Lou C., & Tsai Y., Fibers And Polymers,14(8), 1378(2013). 55. Gupta B., Indian Journal Of Fiber And Textile Research, 35, 174, (2001). 56. Wang L., Liu Y., Mo L., Liu F., & Xu L., Advances In Materials Science And Engineering, 1, (2011). 57. Alay S., Alkan C., & Göde F., Journal Of The Textile Institute, 103(7), 757, (2012). 58. Benjamin J., Thomas S., & Fenske W., US20050220847 http://www.google.st/patents/ US20050220847 (2005) 59. Chaudhari S., Mandot A., Milin P., & Karansingh M., Fibre2fashion.com. (2008). 60. http://www.nonwovens-industry.com/contents/ view_online-exclusives/2013-10-24/nonwovens-market-shows-no-signs-of-slowing-down/ #sthash.GfjTyUGj.dpuf 61. Horrocks A., & Anand S., Handbook of technical textiles, Woodhead Pub, Florida, 135 (2000). 62. http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2010/02/24/textiles-and-water-use/ 63. Narayan R., Journal Of Nonwovens Research, 3(1), 2,(1991).
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Overall Clothing Comfort of Textile Fabrics and the Various Factors at Play -A Comprehensive Review Ashis Mitra* Visva-Bharati University, Department of Silpa-Sadana, Textile Section Abstract Choosing right fabrics for a product is of great importance to the textile and garment manufacturing, and retailing industries. The choice depends on the quality and the performance characteristics of the fabric and how they are related to the end-use of the product. Comfort is one of the vital functional properties of textile fabrics meant for apparel purpose. There are broadly two aspects of wear comfort namely thermophysiological wear comfort and skin sensorial wear comfort. This overall clothing comfort is predictable, and can be engineered in the final textile fabrics by using various modeling techniques such as hard computing and soft computing tools. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the mechanics of overall clothing comfort of textile fabrics and the various factors determining clothing comfort, hitherto reported by various researchers. Keywords Clothing comfort, Sensorial comfort, Non-sensorial comfort, Fabric transmission properties
1. Introduction The demands from fabrics have been changed with developments in textile technology and the rise of people's living standards. Now the requirement is not only style and durability, but also clothing comfort [1] In order to survive in the rapidly changing, highly competitive clothing market, the companies in textile and clothing industries are searching for competitive advantage by understanding and meeting consumer needs and desires.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Various consumer research groups have reported that modern consumers consider comfort one of the most important attributes in their purchase of textile and apparel products [2] so there is a need to develop a sound scientific understanding of the perception of the clothing comfort sensation and the various factors affecting the comfort functional property of the clothing textile materials. The state of comfort can only be achieved when the most complex interactions between a range of physiological, psychological, neurophysiological and physical factors have taken place in a satisfactory manner. Comfort is perceived by integration of impulses passed *All the correspondence should be addressed to, Dr. Ashis Mitra, Visva-Bharati University, Department of Silpa-Sadana, Textile Section, P.O. - Sriniketan, Dist. - Birbhum, W.B. - 731236, E-mail: mitra.ashis1@gmail.com 290
through the nerves from a variety of peripheral receptors like visual, auditory, smell, taste and touch in the brain. Out of which, clothing comfort is basically associated with skin sensory systems. 2. Comfort Up to now, there has been no one clear definition of comfort, since this subjective feeling differs from person to person [2]. The term comfort is defined as "the absence of unpleasantness or discomfort" or "a neutral state compared to the more active state of pleasure" [1]. LaMotte (1977) stated that physical comfort might be greatly influenced by tactile and thermal sensations arising from contact between skin and the immediate environment [3]. Slater (1986) defined comfort as "a pleasant state of physiological, psychological and physical harmony between a human being and the environment" [4-5]. Li (1986) defined comfort as a holistic concept, which is a state of multiple interactions of physical, physiological, and psychological factors [6]. The processes involved in human comfort are physical, thermo-physiological, neuro-physiological and psychological. Thermo-physiological comfort is associated with the thermal balance of the human body, which strives to maintain a constant body core temperature of about 370C and a rise or fall of about Âą 50C can be fatal [7]. Hypothermia and hyperthermia may result, respectively, due to the deficiency or excess of heat in the body, which is considered to be a significant factor in limiting work performance [5, 7-8]. November - December 2014
OTHERS According to a literature, clothing comfort can be divided into three groups, namely psychological, tactile and thermal comfort. The total comfort of a garment comprises not only the sensorial, thermal and physiological component, but also includes size, fit, colour, luster, style, fashion compatibility, etc., which make up the so-called psychological comfort. Hence, psychological comfort is mainly related to the aesthetic appeal. Tactile comfort is associated with fabric surface and fabric mechanical properties whereas thermal comfort is related to the ability of the fabric to maintain the temperature of the skin through transfer of heat and perspiration generated within the human body. When buying a piece of clothing for daily wear, the psychological point of view may well play an important role. Nevertheless it is the thermal and physiological components which have historically been the primary functional component of clothes, since they must protect us from cold and heat and, simultaneously, have to allow an appropriate moisture and heat transfer through the different layers [9]. Saville [7] reported two aspects of wear comfort of clothing: 1) thermo-physiological wear comfort which involves heat and moisture transport properties of clothing, and the way that clothing helps to maintain heat balance of the body during various levels of activity, and 2) skin sensational wear comfort which is based on the mechanical contact of the fabric with the skin. It is softness, pliability in movement, and its lack of prickle, irritation and clings when damp. Based on the results achieved by various researchers (Li and Holcombe, 1992; Hollies, 1997; Umbach and Mecheels, 1997), the following equation for the total comfort was achieved [9]:
thermal comfort [10]. Today comfort is considered as a fundamental property when a textile product is valued. Basically, clothing comfort can be categorized under two broad components: sensorial comfort, and non-sensorial comfort. 2.1.1 Sensorial comfort It is a perception of clothing comfort which is sensory responses of nerves ending to external stimuli including thermal, pressure, pain, etc. producing neurophysiological impulses which are sent to the brain. It involves various sensory signals which can be clustered as follows: ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆
Tactile sensations: prickly, tickling, rough, raggy, scratchy, itchy, picky, staticky. Moisture sensations: clammy, damp, wet, sticky, sultry, nonabsorbent, clingy. Pressure (body fit) sensations: snug, loose, lightweight, heavy, soft, stiff. Thermal sensations: cold, chill, cool, warm, hot.
Sensorial properties describe performance of a fabric on skin contact, and depend on the fibre material, the fabric construction (surface structure), and the fabric finishing treatments. 2.1.2 Non-sensorial comfort It basically deals with physical processes which generate the stimuli like heat transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation, moisture transfer by diffusion, sorption, wicking, and evaporation. It also includes mechanical interactions in the form of pressure, friction and dynamic irregular contact. Non-sensorial comfort is not only comprised of thermal and moisture transmission but also includes air permeability, water repellency and water resistance. Thermal properties and water vapour permeability of the fabrics are very important for body comfort [11].
2.1 Clothing Comfort Comfort is a psychological feeling or judgment of a wearer, depending on subjective perceptions of visual, thermal, and tactile sensations, psychological processes, body and apparel interactions, and external environmental effects. It involves several independent sensory factors: psychological comfort, tactile comfort and November - December 2014
3.1 Fabric hand Fabric hand has been defined as '…… the subjective assessment of a textile obtained from the sense of touch. It is concerned with the subjective judgment of roughness, smoothness, harshness, pliability, thickness, etc.'. Peirce described hand as being the judgment of the buyer, which depends on time, place, season, fashion, and personal predictions. Schwartz defined hand of a fabric as a property judged as a function of the feel of the material, and explained that the sensation of stiff291
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
3. Fabric properties contributing to overall clothing comfort
OTHERS ness, or limpness, hardness or softness, and roughness or smoothness constitutes hand [12]. Hence, a fabric hand or handle depicts the way a fabric feels when it is touched by human hand, and gives an indication of texture of the fabric. It is a subjective sensory complex sensation obtained by manipulation of neural sagaciousness of our hands. Different types of 'touch' in differentiating the 'fabric handle' between wearing a garment and handling a fabric have been reported in the literature like 'active touch' or 'passive touch' and 'synthetic touch' or 'analytic touch'. Katz classified 'active touch' into four categories: gliding touch, sweeping touch, grasping touch, and kinematic grasping touch. Owen suggested the following eight physical properties as the important factors involved in hand: stiffness, smoothness, weight, thickness, compressibility, liveliness, ease of skewing or shearing, and cold feel [12].
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
3.2 Thermal comfort Thermal properties are among the most important features of textiles. For instance, thermal insulation determines the elementary function of garments. Thermal insulation is a very important factor for estimating apparel comfort for the user. Thermal properties are determined not only by the physical parameters of fabrics but also by structural parameters such as weave and drape [13]. Thermal comfort of clothing is associated with the thermal balance of the human body and its thermal responses to the dynamic interactions with the clothing and environment systems [5]. It is expected from a garment to help to protect thermal balance of the body, and to maintain the body temperature and humidity. Garments work as a tampon to conserve body temperature of a human being in different atmospheric conditions. The fabric itself, the air it encloses and the still air on its surface act as insulators preventing heat transfer by conduction and radiation. Since the volume of air enclosed is much higher than the volume of fibres, the insulation is dependent more on the thickness of the materials than on the fibre type. So the main function of the garments is to constitute a regulation system for keeping body temperature at the mean value even if outer atmospheric conditions and physical activities change. Clothing comfort is closely related to thermal comfort [11]. Thermal comfort is characterized by three important properties: thermal resistance, thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity [9]. 292
Kawabata & Yonda pointed out the importance of the so-called 'warm-cool feeling'. This property tells us whether a user feels 'warm' or 'cool' at the first brief contact of the fabric with human skin [13]. When the human touches a garment having different temperature than the skin, heat exchange occurs between the hand and the fabric, and the warm-cool feeling is the first sensation. Which feeling is better depends on the customer; for hot summer garment, a cooler feeling is demanded, whereas in winter warmer feeling is preferred [11]. Thermophysiological comfort can be defined in both static and dynamic state. The thermo-physiological comfort for a non-active permanent state is defined when the average temperature of the skin is between 31.50C and 32.50C, and the relative humidity of the air near the skin surface is not higher than 60% (Hes, 1987). Dynamic thermophysiological comfort is defined as a situation in permanent work conditions when relative humidity of the air near the skin does not exceed 70% and average temperature is between 35.50C and 34.50C (Hes, 1987) [9]. The human body is a complicated thermodynamic system in which energy is constantly produced by its metabolic activity. It is rarely in a thermal steady state, but is continuously exposed to transients in physical activity and environmental conditions [5]. 3.2.1 Processes involved and the factors at play Thermo-physiological comfort is characterized by two important concepts, namely, heat transfer and mass transfer [9]. Both the heat and moisture transmission behaviour of a fabric play a vital role in maintaining thermophysiological comfort. The fabric should allow moisture in the form of sensible and insensible perspiration to be transmitted from the body to the environment in order to cool the body and reduce the degradation of thermal insulation of the fabric caused by moisture build-up. The fabric which is in contact with the skin should be dry to touch; otherwise heat, which flow from body, will increase, causing unwanted loss in body heat and a clammy feeling [14, 15]. The thermophysiological comfort entails both thermoregulation and moisture management. Fibre type, yarn properties, fabric structure, finishing treatments, and clothing conditions are the main factors affecting thermophysiological comfort. Milenkovic et al. proved that fabric thickness, enclosed still air, and external air movement are the major factors that affect heat transfer through fabrics [1]. November - December 2014
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3.2.1.1 Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity is an intensive property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct heat. It is defined by the following equation [1, 13],
Thermal conductivity is a function of fabric thickness. That is magnitude of thermal insulation of clothing materials is proportional to their thickness. Therefore, compression of clothing materials will increase the thermal conductivity as a result of thickness drop. Other variables related to thermal properties include fabric mass per unit area, compactness of yarn structure, and fibre content. Bulk density, which is expressed as, bulk density = volume/weight, is an index of how much air is entrapped in a fabric. The higher the bulk density, the more air entrapped in the fabric, and hence the worse the thermal conductivity since air is a very good thermal insulator. The nature of fibre used is also important in terms of the fabric's thermal property. According to Table 1 which lists the thermal conductivity value of different fibre types, it is clear that thermal conductivity of cotton fabric is the best while wool, polyester and silk are all good thermal insulation materials. However, when assessing thermal property of a fabric, the environmental conditions like relative humidity must be taken into account [10].
Textsmile
Table 1: Relative thermal conductivity of textile fibres (Baxter, S., 1946)
Material Air
Thermal conductivity 1.0
Wool
8
Cotton
17.5
Viscose rayon
11.0
Polyester
7.3
Silk
7
Acrylic
8
Nylon
10
PVC
6.4
Cellulose acetate (transparent)
8.6
3.2.1.2 Specific heat resistance (r) and heat resistance (Rh) It is a characteristic inverse to the heat conductivity factor or thermal conductivity (l), i.e., r =1/l and its unit is mK/W. Heat resistance, Rh, on the other hand is a characteristic inverse to the heat transfer coefficient, Kt (which expresses the heat flow passing during 1 h through 1 m2 of fabric with actual thickness s at a temperature difference of 10K. Specific heat resistance r and the heat resistance R, characterize the fabrics' heat capacity to impede transfer of heat through them [16]. 3.2.1.3 Thermal resistance (R) Thermal resistance is a measure of the body's ability to prevent heat from flowing through it. Under a certain condition of climate, if the thermal resistance of clothing is small, the heat energy will gradually reduce with a sense of coolness. For idealized conditions, R = s/l m2KW-1, where s - fabric thickness and l thermal conductivity [1, 13]. Thermal resistance is a very important parameter from the point of view of thermal insulation, and is proportional to fabric structure [13]. 3.2.1.4 Thermal absorptivity (b) Thermal absorption can be expressed as:
Two men walk into a bar, One man orders H2O Another man says I will have H2O too... and he died November - December 2014
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Heat energy can be transferred through the textile fabrics by conduction, convection and radiation, as well as easily explainable phenomena such as heat exchange in porous medium. The basic concepts of heat transfer through fabrics are explained as follows [16]:
OTHERS Thermal absorption is a surface property, and therefore the finishing process can change it. This parameter allows assessment of the fabric's character in the aspect of its 'warm-cool feeling'. Fabrics with a low value of thermal absorption give us a 'warm feeling' at the first brief contact with skin [13]. 3.2.1.5 Thermal diffusion Thermal diffusion is an ability related to the heat flow through the fabric structure, and it is defined by the following relationship [13]:
Where r- fabric density, c - specific heat of fabric, and l - heat or thermal conductivity. 3.2.1.6 Thermal insulation value (TIV) TIV represents efficiency of the textile fabric as an insulator. It is defined as the percentage reduction in heat loss from a hot surface maintained at a given temperature. The TIV increases to 100% when a 'perfect' insulator is obtained. The TIV of textile fabric depends upon the thermal conductivity of the fabric, the thickness of the assembly, and the thermal emission characteristics of the surface fabric [16]. It also depends on fibre type, bulk density, fibre arrangement and the compressibility of the fabric structure [17]. It is expressed as a percentage which represents the reduction in the state of heat loss due to the insulation, relative to the heat loss from the surface [16]:
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
where e0 and e1 are the emissivity of one and the other surface of the insulator (textile fabric) respectively. The conversion of TIV to the tog unit can be written as: (TIV)% = 100[1 - (l0/l1)], where l0 and l1 are the tog values of unclothed and clothed bodies respectively, where 1 tog = 0.418 m2s0C/cal [16]. 4. Other fabric transmission properties governing clothing comfort 4.1 Mass or moisture transfer property In regular atmospheric condition and during normal activity levels, heat produced by the metabolism is liberated to the atmosphere by conduction, convection and radiation, and the body perspires in vapour form to maintain body temperature. However, at higher activity levels and/or at higher atmospheric temperatures, production of heat is very high, and for the heat transmission from the skin to the atmosphere to de294
crease, the sweat glands are activated to produce liquid perspiration as well. The vapour form of perspiration is known as insensible perspiration and the liquid form as sensible perspiration [14]. When the perspiration is transferred to the atmosphere, it carries heat (latent as well as sensible) thus reducing body temperature. The fabric being worn should allow the perspiration to pass through; otherwise it will result in discomfort. The perception of discomfort in the active case depends on the degree of skin wetness [15]. Therefore, both in hot and cold weather and during normal and high activity levels, moisture transmission through fabrics plays a major role in maintaining wearer's body at comfort [18]. Factors that affect moisture transfer property include weave structure, cover factor, fabric weave, weight, thickness, the porosity, the finishing, and so on. When assessing moisture transfer property of a clothing material, the effect of fibre property becomes very outstanding since diffusion of moisture through a fabric occurs not only through the interstices but also to a great extent through fibres themselves. Fabrics made of hydrophilic fibres are comfortable under all conditions of fabric densities (compact or open structure). While for hydrophobic fibre fabrics, the wearer is only comfortable when the fabric is very open since the moisture can transfer through the fabric interstices. Although the moisture transfer property bears some relationship to air permeability, it is possible to produce a fabric that has a high moisture permeability and good wind resistance. Moisture regain of the constituent fibres is a measure of the amount of moisture a fibre will hold without feeling wet, and used to understand the comfort level of the fibre. The more moisture a fibre will hold, the more comfortable it is to wear. However, moisture regain also has an adverse effect on vapour moisture transmission because the more moisture a fabric absorbs, the more it expands, creating an even tighter weave that reduces further moisture penetration [10]. 4.1.1 Processes involved in mass or moisture transmission through textiles Moisture transport through clothing under transient humidity conditions is an important factor influencing dynamic comfort of the wearer in practical use. Moisture may transfer through textile materials in vapour as well as in liquid form. 4.1.1.1 Water vapour transmission Water vapour transmission is essential in determining November - December 2014
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Water vapour can pass through textile layers by the following mechanisms: ◆ Diffusion of water vapour through the layers, ◆ Absorption, transmission and desorption of the water vapour by the fibres, ◆ Adsorption and migration of the water vapour along the fibre surface, ◆ Transmission of water vapour by forced convection. Diffusion is the main mechanism for transferring moisture in low moisture content conditions. Water vapour diffusion is mainly dependent on the porosity of the fabrics and also on the water vapour diffusivity of the fibre. Diffusion co-efficient of water vapour through air is 0.239 cm2/sec and through cotton fabric is around 10-7 cm2/sec. So moisture diffusion through air portion of the fabric is almost instantaneous whereas through a fabric system is limited by the rate at which moisture can diffuse into and out of the fibres, due to the lower moisture diffusivity of the textile material [8]. The moisture diffusivity of a textile material is influenced by a number of factors. It decreases with an increase in fibre volume fraction of the material, decreases with an increase in flatness of fibre cross section. With an increase in fabric thickness, porosity of the material is reduced, thus reducing the diffusion rate. Water vapour diffusion is highly dependent on the air permeability of the fabric. Air permeability increases as the porosity of the fabric increases. The type of finish applied (hydrophilic or hydrophobic) to a fabric has no great effect on the diffusion process [19-21]. Sorption-desorption is an important process to maintain the microclimate during transient conditions. A hygroscopic fabric absorbs water vapour from humid air close to the sweating skin and releases it in dry air. This enhances flow of water vapour from the skin to the environment comparatively to a fabric which does not absorb and reduces the moisture built up in the microclimate [18]. In the absorption-desorption process an absorbing fabric works as a moisture source to the atmosphere. It also works as a buffer by maintaining a constant vapour concentration in the air immeNovember - December 2014
diately surrounding it. Adsorption of water molecules takes place below a critical temperature, due to Van der Waal's forces between the vapour molecules and the solid surface of the structure. The higher the vapour pressure and the lower the temperature, the higher is the amount absorbed. During swelling, the fibre macromolecules or micro-fibrills are pushed apart by the absorbed water molecules, reducing pore size between the fibres as well as the yarns, thus reducing water vapour transmission through the fabric. As swelling increases blockages of capillaries between the fibres, resulting in lower wicking [18]. Convection is a mode of moisture transfer that takes place while air is flowing over a moisture layer. The mass transfer in this process, known as forced convection, is controlled by the difference in moisture concentration between the surrounding atmosphere and the moisture source. Evaporation and condensation also have noteworthy effect on moisture transmission. During the evaporation of liquid perspiration, latent heat is taken from the body, cooling it down. Wind enhances evaporative heat transfer and results in additional cooling that is desirable in periods of peak performance. Water vapour transfer rate increases with an increase in the moisture content and condensation in the inner layer of the fabric. With an increase in the amount of condensation in the fabric layer, its thermal insulation properties are reduced, as the thermal conductivity of water is 23 times larger than that of air [22-23]. 4.1.1.2 Liquid water transmission The flow of liquid moisture through textiles is caused by fibre-liquid molecular attraction at the surface of the fibre materials, which is mainly determined by the surface tension and the effective capillary pore distribution and pathways. This involves two sequential processes - wetting and wicking. Wetting is the initial process involved in fluid spreading. Wettability of the material is influenced by several factors. The contact angle is a direct measurement of the fabric Wettability. A low contact angle between the fibre and the liquid means high Wettability. Wettability also increases with increase in liquid temperature, and hence decrease in surface tension between the solid and the liquid interface. With an increase in surface roughness, spreading of water along the surface becomes faster due to the troughs offered by rough surfaces as the apparent wetting angle is decreased [24]. Wicking plays an important role in moisture transmis295
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
breathability of clothing and textiles in outdoor wear as well as indoor wear. A breathable textile allows extra heat loss by evaporation of moisture through the clothing layers
OTHERS sion, when the moisture content of clothing is very high, and the body is producing large quantities of liquid perspiration. In the case of clothing with high wicking properties, moisture coming from the skin is spread throughout the fabric by capillary pressure, offering a dry feeling and the spreading of the liquid enables moisture to evaporate easily. Capillary pressure and permeability are the two fundamental properties used to predict the overall wicking performance of a fabric. Fabrics to be worn as work wear in tropical climates, or as sport swear, should possess very high wicking properties. Therefore a fabric should be designed according to the area of application, e.g. best comfort for the level of perspiration generated.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
The dynamic surface wetness of fabrics is an important parameter influencing the skin contact comfort in actual wear, as it is influenced by both the collection and the passage of moisture along the fabric. Under normal condition unstressed perspiration of a resting person amounts to about 15 g/m2.h and under conditions of exertion or in hot environment, the perspiration increases to a value exceeding 100 g/m2.h. moisture collection by clothing, after exercise, in cold weather, may exceed 10% of the weight of the added water. It creates a surprisingly discomfort sensation due to presence of a certain amount of water in the skin-clothing interface. Even as little as 3 - 5% moisture content in the garment creates ample discomfort. Clothing thermal insulation also decreases due to the moisture accumulation, and the amount of reduction varies from 2 - 8%. Thus in case of those activities where production of sensible perspiration is very high, dynamic surface wetness is a very important factor [25-27]. In case of a cotton fabric, even though the moisture uptake from the skin is high due to high Wettability, the dynamic surface wetness is not very good, as due to low capillarity, the passage of moisture is not spontaneous. It collects moisture in spite of flowing it out. Hence, it creates a clammy feeling in high sweating condition. In case of normal polyester fibre fabrics, capillarity is good. But due to poor Wettability they are not comfortable to wear. Whereas for polyester microdenier fibre fabrics, water uptake is high, and due to high number of capillaries a large amount of moisture can pass very quickly through them to the atmosphere, thus providing a dry and comfortable feeling to the wearer [18].
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4.1.1.3 Combined vapour and liquid transmission In a humid transient condition, moisture is transported through textiles both in liquid and vapour form. Combined liquid water and water vapour transmission along the fabric is very important in case of sweat. The liquid transport (i.e. liquid diffusion or capillary wicking) is very small compared with vapour diffusion at low moisture content, whereas at saturation, capillary wicking is the major mechanism of moisture transport [28-30]. 4.1.1.4 Combined heat and mass transmission Heat and moisture absorption in hygroscopic materials are inseparably interrelated. Absorption of water is followed by liberation of heat, known as heat of absorption, amount of which is dependent on the absorption capacity of the material. Due to production of heat, as temperature is increased on the surface of the material, rate of moisture vapour transmission is reduced. Heat transfer process also comes into play during moisture transportation, under dynamic conditions, due to phase change of the water molecules. Two transient phenomena, buffering and chilling, are associated with the combined heat and mass (i.e. moisture vapour) transport through fibre assemblies. The cooling effect or buffering effect is experienced due perspiration in hot climates, and the chilling effect is associated with the after exercise sweating in cool climates [25, 31] 4.1.1.5 Air permeability The air permeability of a fabric, defined as the volume flow rate per unit area of a fabric when there is a specified pressure differential across two faces of the fabrics, can influence its comfort behaviours in several ways. In the first case, a material that is permeable to air is in general, likely to be permeable to water in either the vapour or the liquid phase. Thus moisture vapour permeability and liquid moisture transmission are normally closely related to air permeability. Secondly, the thermal resistance of a fabric is strongly dependent on the enclosed still air, and this factor is in turn is influenced by the fabric structure. Air permeability is a hygienic property of textiles which influences flow of gas from the human body to the environment and flow of fresh air to the body [13]. Air permeability, an index of a fabric's ability to resist wind penetration, is a measure of the initial warm/cool feeling when the garment is worn. The higher the air flow value, the greater the intensity of the warm/cool feeling will be. The effect of air permeability on comfort properties is much greater when speed of air is November - December 2014
high [10, 17]. This property is largely governed by fabric porosity. Other variables are constructional parameters like twist level and count of yarn, fabric density, etc. [10]. 5. Conclusion Modern consumers consider comfort as one of the most important attributes of clothing textile material and apparel products. Clothing comfort is a very complex criterion which involves the most complex interactions between a range of physiological, psychological, neurophysiological and physical factors. Until recently, comfort was considered as purely a subjective criterion. But this overall clothing comfort is predictable, and can be engineered in the final textile fabrics by using various modeling techniques such as hard computing and soft computing tools like artificial neural network (ANN), fuzzy logic and their hybrid paradigm. The comfort characteristics of fabrics depend on a gamut of factors namely yarn and fabric structure, types of raw materials used, weight, various transmission characteristics such as liquid and vapour moisture transmission, heat transmission, air permeability, porosity, and skin perception and fabric hand etc. Satisfactory thermal equilibrium and efficient moisture management are the most important comfort criteria of the apparel of the present century. References 1.
Oglakcioglu N. and Maramarali A., FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe, 15(5-6), 94 (2007). 2. Wong A.S.W., Li Y., and Yeung P.K.W., Textile Res. J., 73(1), 31-37 (2003). 3. LaMotte R.H., Hollies N.R.S., and Goldman R.F., 'Clothing comfort', Ann Arbor Science, MI, 85105 (1977). 4. Slater K., Journal of Textile Institute, 77, 157171 (1986). 5. Li Y., Textile Progress, 1(2), 31 (2001). 6. Li Y., Textile Asia, 29(7), 29-33 (1998). 7. Saville B.P., "Physical Testing of Textiles", Woodhead Publishing Ltd., (1999). 8. Kothari V.K., "Quality control: fabric comfort", Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India, (2000). 9. Geralds M.J., Lubos H., Araujo M, Belino N.J.R., and Nunes M.F., AUTEX Research Journal, 8(1), 30-34 (2008). 10. Chan C.K., Jiang X.Y., Chan L.K., Liew K., Wong W.K., and Lau M.P., Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, 9(4), 38-48 (2005). November - December 2014
11. Ozdil N., Maramarali A., and Kretzschmar S.D., International Journal of Thermal Science, 46, 1318-1322 (2007). 12. Behery H.M., "Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand", Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, UK, (2005) 13. Frydrych I., DziworskaG., and Bilska J., FIBRES & TEXTILES in Eastern Europe, October/December, 40-44 (2002). 14. Parsons K.C., "Human thermal environments", Taylor & Francis Publishers, United Kingdom, (1993). 15. Zhang P., Watanabe Y., Kim S.H., Tokura H., and Gong R.H., Journal of Textile Institute, 92(1), 372378 (2001). 16. Abdel-Rehim, Z.S., Saad M.M., El-Shankankery M., and Hanafy I., AUTEX Research Journal, 6(3), 148-161 (2006). 17. Behera B.K., AUTEX Research Journal, 7(1), 3347 (2007). 18. Das B., Das A., Kothari V.K., Fanguiero R., and de Araujo M., AUTEX Research Journal, 7(2), 100-110 (2007). 19. Woo S.S., Shaleb I., and Barker L., Textile Research Journal, 64(4), 190-197 (1994). 20. Li Y., Zhu Q., and Yeung K.W., Textile Research Journal, 72(5), 435-446 (2002). 21. Yasuda T., Miyama M., and Yasuda H., Textile Research Journal, 61(10), 10-20 (1991). 22. Schneider A.M., and Hoschke B.N., Textile research journal, 62(2), 61-66, (1992). 23. Ren Y.J., and Ruckman J.E., Journal of Coated Fabrics, 1(29), 20-26 (1999). 24. Chatterjee P.K., "Absorbency", Elsevier Science Publishing Company, New Jersy, (1985). 25. Chen Y.S., Fan J., and Zhang W., Textilke Research Journal, 73(2), 152-157 (2003). 26. Scheurell D.M., Spivak S., and Hollies N.R.S., Textile Research Journal, 6, 394-399 (1985). 27. Tsubouchi K., Textile Research Journal, 2, 86-90 (1988). 28. Adler M.M., and Walsh W.K., Textile Research Journal, 5, 334-343 (1984). 29. Li Y., and Zhu Q., Textile Research Journal, 73(6), 515-524 (2003). 30. Goldstein B., Smith H., and Herbert W., Textile Chem. Color., 12, 49-54 (1980). 31. Li Y., and Luo Z.X., Journal of Textile Institute, 91(2), 302-316 (2006). ❑ ❑ ❑
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PEER REVIEWED
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Dimensions and Determinants of Apparel Retail Store Patronage in India Ram Mohan A*a, Krishnaraj R.a, Harindranath R. M.a a School of Management, SRM University & Vijayaragavan Mb b Accenture Services Pvt. Ltd., Abstract The purpose of this research is to identify the dimensions (factors) and determinants (variables) that strongly influence the retail store patronage behavior of apparel consumers. Factor analysis was carried out to identify the strongly influencing dimensions and determinants. It revealed that merchandise credibility, fashion and styles, store attributes, congeniality, customer perceived value, communication strategy and locational convenience are the seven dimensions that strongly influence the retail store patronage behavior of apparel consumers. This research is based on the responses of 400 apparel shoppers at leading apparel retail outlets in Erode city, Tamilnadu, India. The present study identifies the key dimensions and determinants that influence the apparel retail consumers strongly for retail marketers, academicians, and learners of apparel retail marketing. The findings would help to understand the complex patronage behavior of retail apparel consumers. This research would help, especially apparel retail marketers to focus their resources on these key dimensions and determinants and market more effectively.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Key words Dimensions, Determinants, Apparel retail store, Consumer patronage behavior
1. Introduction As per the survey conducted by Retailers Association of India (RAI) and Ernst & Yong LLB in March, 2014, India's retail market, which in 2013 was estimated at US$520 billion is expected to grow at a CAGR of 13% to reach around US$950 billion by 2018. Organized retail penetration, currently estimated at 7.5%, is expected to clock a 19-20% p.a. growth to reach 10% by 2018. Penetration in tier-II and III cities, improvement in business models and operations, coupled with movement from unorganized to organized trade are expected to play an integral role in driving this growth [22]. Furthermore, the liberalization of FDI policy is expected to propel foray of global retailers, which will further fuel the growth of organized retailing in India [22]. Liberalization of FDI policies in retail coupled with the expected roll-out of the Goods and Service Tax, rapid real estate and infrastructural development, easy availability of credit, innovative physical and online channels, increased service orientation, rising disposable income, increasing urbanization, highly aware and affluent young population, growing number *All correspondence should be addressed to, Ram Mohan. A., Research Scholar, School of Management, SRM University, Kattankulathur, and Assistant Professor, MBA Department, K.S. Rangasamy College of Arts and Science, Tiruchengode, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu. Email: rammohan.sa@gmail.com 298
of working women and changing consumer preferences are the factors driving growth in the Indian retail sector currently [22]. In 2007, the worldwide apparel market was worth 345 billion US $ and during the last decade the market grew at an average of 8% per annum [20]. Moreover according to NSS Report on Household Consumption of Various Goods and Services in India, 2007 between 1993-94 and 2004-05, the proportion of households purchasing readymade garments has increased in both rural and urban areas by about 75%, while the proportion purchasing hosiery articles shows a three-fold increase [20]. Apparel Export Promotion Council (AEPC) estimated that in value terms, the size of the Indian textile market was Rs.1692 billion in 2007 recording a growth of 8.8% [20]. India has the potential to become a rapidly growing market for high quality apparel, particularly branded fashion goods. India's total apparel and textile industry size (domestic and exports) was estimated to be Rs.4.180 trillion (USD 89 billion) in 2011 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 9.5% to reach Rs.10.500 trillion (USD 223 billion) by 2021.The current domestic apparel market is worth Rs.2.73350 trillion (USD 58 billion) and is expected to grow at 9% annually to reach Rs.6.63800 trillion (USD 141 billion) by 2021. The Indian apparel industry is also expected to grow at a CAGR of 9% [20]. November - December 2014
Apparel industry has been making a major contribution to the economy of India in terms of direct and indirect employment generation and net foreign exchange earnings. The sector contributes about 14% to industrial production, 4% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 17% to the country's export earnings. It provides direct employment to over 35 million people. The textiles sector is the second largest provider of employment after agriculture. Thus, the growth and all round development of apparel industry has a direct bearing on the improvement of the economy of India [20]. 2. Objectives Understanding the patronage behavior of apparel consumers is a vital insight for apparel retail marketers and managers, because it enables them to allocate their valuable resources targeting the key factors that influence the patronage behavior of customers. The purpose of this research is to identify the key factors and the associated set of variables that influence the store patronage behavior of apparel consumers. 3. Literature review Hansen, Robert and Terry Deutscher [8] investigated the importance of attributes in selection of retail store for purchase of goods. Malhotra N.K., [19] analyzed a threshold model of choice of retail store by consumers. Korgaonkar, Pradeep. K., Daulat Lund and Barbara Price, [17] examined the relationship between store attitude and store patronage behavior using structural equation method. James K. Lumpkin and James B. Hunt [15] studied store design aspects to determine the effect of lack of transportation mobility on various patronage behaviors. Lumpkin, James. R., John J. Burnett, [18] identified the determinants of store type choice of the mature customers. Dodds, William. K., Kent. B., and Dhruv Grewal, [5] analyzed the influence of price, brand, and store information on the buyers' evaluation. Soyeon Shim and Antigone Kotsiopulos [23] examined the comprehensive relationships among key variables such as patronage behavior, apparel store attributes, shopping orientations, information sources and personal characteristics, using multiple regression analysis. The same two authors [23] identified direct linkages between shopping orientations, store attributes and patronage behavior, and linkages between information sources, shopping orientations and store attributes. A price-quality-value perception of consumers and store shopping experience was studied by Kerin, Roger, Ambuj Jain, and Daniel Howard, [16]. Woodside and Trappey [26] November - December 2014
analyzed factors such as, service, product quality, education, and fast checkout in their research work on retail patronage behavior. Darley and Lim [3] did research on store attitude, store image, product quality, selection, store atmosphere and service, relating the factors to retail buying behavior. Julie Baker, Dhruv Grewal, and A. Parasuraman [11] examined how combinations of specific elements in the retail store environmental influence consumers' inferences about merchandise and service quality. Their research shows that store environment, merchandise quality and service quality were the antecedents of store image, with latter two serving as mediators. The impact of store atmospherics on consumers' buying behavior was analyzed by Donovan, Robert. J., John Rossiter, G. Marcoolyn, and A. Nesdale, [6]. In the study done by Finn and Louviere [7], they highlighted how price, service, product quality and selection affect the patronage behavior of consumers. Thelen and woodside [25] found out that price, service, product quality, selection, fast checkout, friendly atmosphere, opening hours, parking facilities are the most important determinants of patronage behavior of consumers. Dhruv Grewal, Julie Baker, Michael Levy, and Glenn B.Voss [4] studied the effects of wait expectations and store atmosphere evaluations on patronage intentions. K. Sudhir and Debabrate Talukdar [24] examined whether store brands contribute to greater store differentiation or to greater price sensitivity in the market. Jennifer Paff Ogle, Karen H. Hyllegard, and Brian Dunbar [12]suggested, to predict consumer patronage behaviors, the classic belief-attitude-behavior intention model should be extended to include retail characteristics, notably store atmospherics, and merchandise assortment; a social context or social identity variable such as consumer lifestyle orientation and demographics. Yue Pan and George M. Zinkhan [27] have found a relatively strong relationship between shoppers' store patronage behavior and several important predictors. Of the three categories of predictor variables, selection has the highest average correlation with the choice of store, followed by service quality, store atmosphere, low price levels, convenient location, fast checkout, convenient opening hours, friendliness of sales people and convenient parking facilities. The findings of the retail patronage intention study by Jean C. Darian, Alan R. Wiman and Louis A. Tucci [13] was regardless of price, aretailer should avoid poor service levels on any attribute, and a retailer who charges higher than average price does not need to offer highest service levels on all attributes.Findings of the research of Jaishankar Ganesh, Kristy E. Reynolds, and Michael G. Luckett 299
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OTHERS
OTHERS [14] provide a comparable and generalizable typology of shoppers profile the existence of various shopper sub-groups. Arjun Chandhuri and Mark Lighs [1] established the effect of merchandise value, store affect, store familiarity and store convenience on customer loyalty and willingness to pay a premium price for the merchandise. Using factor analysis, Isita Lahiri and Pradip Kumar Samanta [10] found out those seven factors namely appeal, price, variety, brand name, quality, referral group and style, out of 19 variables contributed to the major variations in retail patronage behavior of apparel consumers. Y. Ramakrishna Prasad [21] came out with findings that seven dimensions such as- demand, value, diversity, credibility, concern, referral groups and style, out of 19 determinants contributed to the major variations in consumer behavior regarding retail apparel store patronage.
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4. Data collection and methodology After exhaustive literature review, we have chosen 27 variables for our research. We have considered factors such as, locational convenience, congeniality, merchandise style, merchandise variety, merchandise quality, value for price, store services, communication efforts and post-transaction satisfaction and tried to identify the key variables influencing the store patronage behavior [2]. The variables representing locational convenience considered in this study are access route, travelling time, and parking facilities. Family shopping under one roof, store matching with self-concept, social recognition, store layout, dĂŠcor, merchandise display, lesser store traffic, fast checkout, suitability for all class of buyers and convenient payment options are the variables measured by us as the factor namely congeniality. The factor, merchandise style comprises variables such as, latest fashion and style and availability of latest designs and patterns. Variables such as, depth and width of merchandise, availability of colors and sizes, availability of accessories are covered under the factor, merchandise variety. Merchandise quality is measured using variables such as, store image, durability of clothing, quality of stitching, fitness of apparels, ease of washability, and consistency of clothing quality. Cheaper pricing and attractive promotional offers represent the factor, value for money. Store services are measured using variables such as, courtesy and helpfulness of sales staff, and customer service. Choice of many people, attractiveness of advertisements and topof-the mind recall are being measured for the factor, communication efforts. Satisfaction with the goods, 300
price, accessibility and return policy arrangement are the items covered in the factor, post-transaction satisfaction. In order to bring in novelty to our research, we have designed our questionnaire with the following nine new variables, namely, stitching quality, ease of washablity, merchandise designs and patterns, merchandise colors and sizes, availability of accessories, fitness of apparels, consistency in quality, top-of-mind recall and posttransaction satisfaction. The influence of these variables was not analyzed adequately by previous researchers. Respondents in this research work were apparel buyers of Erode city in Tamilnadu state. Mall intercept technique was adopted by the researcher to collect data from the respondents. The sample size considered was 400. Judgment sampling technique has been adopted for this research work. Questionnaire with closed-end and open-end questions is used as the research instrument to collect the primary data. Five point Likert scale was adopted widely in the questionnaire to measure the consumer responses, with an objective to apply multivariate analytical techniques such as factor analysis. Factor analysis was carried out using SPSS 10 software to identify the strongly influencing dimensions and determinants of retail store patronage behavior. 5. Results and Discussion Factor Analysis: Using factor analysis it is possible to reduce a large number of variables, to reach a few factors that explain the significance of the original data more effectively [9]. Factor analysis is a widely used multivariate technique in marketing research that reduces data complexity. The marketing decision makers are often perplexed with what exactly influences a customer to buy a product and are always struggling to figure out what really drives buyer behavior from a large number of possible variables. So, factor analysis is an important tool available for resolving this complexity and identifying the key factors from an array of seemingly important variables. Table 5.1: KMO and Bartlett's Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square df Sig.
.881 2877.950 351 .000
November - December 2014
OTHERS The KMO measure of sampling adequacy is 0.881 (Table 5.1), which is greater than 0.5, indicates the present set of data is suitable for factor analysis. Bartlett's test of sphericity testing the significance of the correlation matrix of the variables indicates that the correlation coefficient matrix is significant as indicated by the p value corresponding to the Chi-square statistic. The p value is, 0.000 (Table 5.1), which is less than 0.05, the assumed level of significance, accepting that the correlation matrix of the variables is significant. The sample size of 400 is more than 5 times the number of variables (twenty seven). All these justify the use of factor analysis for this research problem.
Cartell's Scree Test involves plotting each of the eigenvalues of the factors and inspecting the plot to find a point at which the shape of the curve changes direction and becomes horizontal. This test recommends retaining all factors above the elbow or break in the plot as these factors contribute the most to the explanation of the variance in the data set (Figure 5.1). Communality is a measure of the percentage of the variable's variation that is explained by the factors. A relatively high communality shows that not much of the variable is left over, after whatever the factors represent is taken into consideration.All the extracted communalities are acceptable and all variables are fit for the factor solution as their extraction values are high (Table 6, Annexure I ). A factor is a linear combination of the various variables. Eigenvalue for each of the factor is computed and only those factors that have an eigenvalue at least 1 are accepted as per Kaiser Guttman method. All those factors having eigenvalues less than 1 are rejected. This is because each of the variables has a variance of 1 and therefore, a linear combination of these variables called factor should not have an eigenvalue less than 1.
Figure 5.1: Cartell's Scree Test using Eigen Values
The first seven components (factors) in the initial
ANNOUNCEMENT THE TEXTILE ASSOCIATION (INDIA) Mumbai Unit organises
INDIA TEX 2016 INDIATEX International Exhibition for Textile Industry
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Date: 16, 17 & 18th March, 2016 Venue: Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre, Goregaon (East), Mumbai - 400 063, INDIA For more information & Stall booking please contact:
The Textile Association (India), Mumbai Unit Amar Villa, Behind Villa Diana, Flat No. 3, 3rd Floor, 86 College Lane, Off Gokhale Road, Near Portuguese Church / Maher Hall, Dadar (W), Mumbai - 400 028 INDIA Tel : 022- 2432 8044 / 2430 7702 Fax : 91-22-2430 7708 E-mail : taimumbaiunit@gmail.com / taimu@mtnl.net.in / taimu@net9online.in Website:www.indiatex.co.in / www.textileassociationindia.com Haresh B. Parekh : Exhibition Convenor: +91-9167515676 Anil G. Mahajan : Exhibition Co-ordinator: +91-9324904271 November - December 2014
301
OTHERS TABLE - 3: Total variance Explained Initial Eigenvalues Component
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Total
6.872 1.745 1.446 1.405 1.262 1.090 1.051 .937 .881 .859 .803 .751 .735 .715 .667 .634 .608 .571 .543 .532 .511 .482 .462 .419 .377 .356 .286
% of Variance
25.452 6.461 5.536 5.205 4.675 4.036 3.893 3.471 3.263 3.181 2.974 2.780 2.722 2.650 2.472 2.349 2.251 2.114 2.011 1.972 1.891 1.784 1.709 1.552 1.398 1.317 1.061
Extraction Sums Of Squared Loadings Cumulative%
25.452 31.914 37.270 42.475 47.150 51.186 55.079 58.550 61.813 64.994 67.968 70.748 73.471 76.121 78.592 80.941 83.192 85.306 87.316 89.288 91.179 92.963 94.672 96.225 97.622 98.939 100.000
Total
6.872 1.745 1.446 1.405 1.262 1.090 1.051
Extraction Method : Principal Component Analysis
solution have an Eigenvalues over 1 and they account for about 55% of the observed variation in the consumers' store patronage behavior (Table 5.2). According to Kaiser Guttman Criterion, only the first seven factors are the most significant factors, because the eigenvalues of subsequent factors are less than 1.
% of Variance
25.452 6.461 5.356 5.205 4.675 4.036 3.893
Cumulative%
25.452 31.914 37.270 42.475 47.150 51.186 55.079
Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total
2.909 2.629 2.289 2.098 1.887 1.821 1.239
% of Variance Cumulative%
10.772 9.736 8.477 7.771 6.988 6.744 4.590
10.772 20.509 28.986 36.757 43.745 50.490 55.079
Factor loadings are used to measure correlation between variables and the factors. A loading close to 1 indicates strong correlation between a variable and the factor, while a loading closer to zero indicates weak correlation (Table - 7, Annexure I). Factor loadings play a critical role in the computations of eigenvalues of each factor and also in computing the communalities of each variable.
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New Book Published - Functional Finishes for Textiles Editor: Dr. Roshan Paul Dr. Roshan Paul is an alumnus of the Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai and currently the Head of European Research of the Function and Care Department at the Hohenstein Institute in Germany. He is a Life Member of the Textile Association (India) and serves as a Member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of the Textile Association. The book reviews the most important fabric finishes in the textile industry. It discusses finishes designed to improve the comfort and other properties of fabrics, as well as finishes which protect the fabric or the wearer. Each chapter reviews the role of a finish, the mechanisms and chemistry behind the finish, types of finish and their methods of ap302
plication, application to particular textiles, testing and future trends. This book will be an excellent resource for both R&D managers in the textile industry and academic researchers. ISBN: 9780857098399 e-ISBN: 9780857098450 Pages: 678 Published by: Woodhead Publishing Book your order with Dr. Roshan Paul E-mail: paulrosh@yahoo.com More details available at: http://store.elsevier.com/Functional-Finishes-for-Textiles/isbn9780857098399/ http://www.amazon.com/Functional-Finishes-Textiles-Performance-Protection/dp/085709839X November - December 2014
OTHERS TABLE - 5: Rotated Component Matrix Component 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.109 -7.05E-02 .160 .102 8.944E-02 .143 .197 .225 .130 .163 9.914E-03 .322 .248 .132 .611 .682 .602 .701 .480 .434 .100 .123 .336 3.620E-02 8.011E-02 .244 .442
.111 .221 .536 .429 .255 .106 7.334E-02 -1.27E-02 .836 .786 .294 .433 -1.06E-02 .137 .192 .131 .194 -3.79E-02 .325 .257 1.410E-02 7.390E-02 .243 -1.92E-02 2.846E-02 .191 .193
9.009E-02 .493 .289 .294 .663 .226 .315 .630 6.103E-02 .137 .148 .105 .549 .551 1.734E-02 .207 .276 .123 8.073E-03 -4.91E-02 -2.39E-02 -5.70E-03 .262 2.734E-02 .120 -6.72E-03 8.690E-03
6.549E-02 .247 .249 -4.29E-02 8.804E-02 .650 .610 .157 6.565E-02 1.397E-02 .304 .230 -9.94E-02 .127 .280 1.368E-02 -9.60E-02 .220 .157 .488 .648 .237 2.841E-02 .249 -1.03E-03 .117 .122
.110 .144 .184 .435 -.178 .265 -2.08E-02 4.895E-02 2.899E-02 5.746E-02 2.974E-02 .227 5.782E-02 .207 3404E-02 .159 .271 5.852E-02 -1.03E-02 -8.71E-02 .343 1.954E-02 -.102 .728 .341 .646 .346
1.722E-02 .137 -3.41E-02 3.896E-03 .107 2.508E-02 .116 1.276E-02 .147 .151 .489 -9.42E-03 .457 -4.34E-02 8.251E-02 3.382E-02 -1.39E-02 7.108E-02 .343 .214 .267 .670 .266 .183 .616 6.949E-02 .307
.720 .237 -.131 -.214 -6.08E-02 -2.86E-02 .104 -.280 7.248E-02 8.641E-02 .108 .185 .268 .264 .135 .122 -.188 -.122 .165 5.290E-02 6.832E-03 -.129 -.375 .134 -3.05E-03 .116 7.697E-02
Extraction Method : Principal Component Analyasis. Rotation Method : Varimax with kaiser Normalization a. Rotation coverged in 11 iterations.
We have used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method for factor extraction. The initial solution is rotated so as to yield a solution that can be interpreted easily. Generally the Varimax rotation method is used because this results in independent factors. The Varimax rotation maximizes the variance of the loadings within each factor. The basic idea of rotation is to get a few variables that correlate high with the factor and some that correlate poorly with that factor. The factors are rotated using Varimax with Kaiser Normalization rotation method (Table 5.3), identifying only those variables whose values are greater than 0.5 for the purpose of interpretation. All those variables attached to a factor, that are above 0.5 value are used for naming the factor[9]. From Table 5.3 (Rotated Component Matrix) we find variables like durable, stitching, fitnessand washable November - December 2014
have loading of 0.611, 0.682, 0.602 and 0.701, respectively on factor-1. This infers that factor-1 is a combination of these variables. This factor can be interpreted and named as 'merchandise credibility' effect that independently contributed to 25.452% of the variations in consumers' patronage behavior. In a similar way we have interpreted and named the other six factors, and listed in Table - 5.4. SPSS softwarehas been used to perform factor analysis, and seven factors namely, 'merchandise credibility', 'Fashion and styles', 'Store attributes', 'Congeniality', 'Customer perceived value', 'Communication strategy', and 'Locational convenience'have been extracted from 19 variables.All these factors contributed to about 55% of the variations in apparel consumers' store patronage behavior.After performing "Factor Analysis" we have arrived at the following dimensions and determinants as listed in Table - 5.4. We find that amongst the nine new variables analyzed by us, five variables are found to be contributing sig303
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location family shopping self concept social recogintion displays delivery time all class payment options fashion and style designs depth and width colours and sizes accessories store image durable stitching fitness washable quality value price promotional offers sales staffs many people adevertisement top of mind return
OTHERS TABLE - 6:RESULTS OF FACTOR ANALYSIS - DIMENSIONS AND DETERMINANTS S.No
Dimensions (Factors)
Determinants (Variables)
Factor loading
Contribution to variations in patronage behavior (%)
1
Merchandise credibility
◆ ◆ ◆ ◆
Durability of merchandise. Durability of stitching. Apparel fitness Washability of clothing.
0.611 0.682 0.602 0.701
25.452
2
Fashion and styles
◆ Self-concept of customers. ◆ Fashion andstyles ◆ Designs
0.536 0.836 0.780
6.461
3
Store attributes
◆ ◆ ◆ ◆
Store display. Payment options. Accessories availability. Store image.
0.663 0.630 0.549 0.551
5.356
4
Congeniality
◆ Fast delivery. ◆ Satisfying all class buyers. ◆ Fair price.
0.650 0.610 0.648
5.205
5
Customer perceived value
◆ Popularity of store. ◆ Top-of-mind recall.
0.728 0.646
4.675
6
Communication strategy
◆ Promotional offers. ◆ Advertisement effectiveness.
0.670 0.616
4.036
7
Locational convenience
◆ Access route, traffic,
0.720
3.893
travelling time and parking availability of the store.
Out of the seven factors identified in our research, six factors namely, 'merchandise credibility', 'Fashion and styles', 'Store attributes', 'Congeniality', 'Customer perceived value', and 'Communication strategy' are found to be similar to the factors identified by previous researchers, Isita Lahiri and Pradip Kumar Samanta [10] and Ramakrishna Prasad. Y.,[21]. 'Locational convenience' has emerged as a new found factor in our research.
retail store patronage behavior of apparel consumers. The research enlightens clearly the 19 key variables (determinants) that influence the apparel retail consumers. This research would help, especially apparel retail marketers to determine the value propositions to be offered to the consumers more effectively. Retailers can also prioritize the variables and factors to be concentrated.Understanding the complex patronage behavior of apparel consumers is a vital insight for apparel retail marketers and managers, because it enables them to allocate their valuable resources targeting the key dimensions and determinants that influence the patronage behavior of customers and market more successfully.
6. Conclusion Apparel market in India is expected to grow rapidly in the forthcoming years. The research has focused on apparel sector alone. Factor analysis has revealed that merchandise credibility, fashion and styles, store attibutes, congeniality, customer perceived value, communication strategy and locational convenience are the seven dimensions (factors) that strongly influence the
7. Limitations of the Research and Future Research The research is limited to retail stores, marketing apparels and garments, and does not cover any other products. The study was carried out in Erode city of Tamilnadu state in India. The geographical area may be a limitation for this research. The variables considered in this research are also in line with the lifestyle of Indian apparel consumers. There could be many
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nificantly to the variations in the store patronage behavior. Those five variables are, stitching quality, ease of washablity, merchandise designs and patterns, availability of accessories, and top-of-mind recall.
304
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OTHERS
References: 1. 2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7. 8. 9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Arjun Chandhuri and Mark Lighs, Journal of Retailing, 85 (3), 406, (2009). Chtan Bajaj, Rajnish Tuli, and Nidhi Varma Srivatsava, Retail Management, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 200, (2011). Darley, William. K., and Jeen-Su Lim, Journal of Business Research, 27, 17, (1993). Dhruv Grewal, Julie Baker, Michael Levy, and Glenn B.Voss, Journal of Retailing, 79 (11), 259, (2003). Dodds, William. K., Kent. B., and Dhruv Grewal, Journal of Marketing Research, 28 (8), 307, (1991). Donovan, Robert. J., John R. Rossiter, G. Marcoolyn, and A. Nesdale, Journal of Retailing, 70 (3), 283, (1994). Finn and Louviere, Journal of Business Research, 35, 241, (1996). Hansen, Robert, and Terry Deutscher, Journal of Retailing, 53 (4), 59, (1977). Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, and Tatham, Multivariate Data Analysis, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 125, (2008). Isita Lahiri, and Pradip Kumar Samanta, The IUP Journal of Marketing Management, 9(1&2), 73, (2010). Julie Baker, Dhruv Grewal, and A. Parasuraman, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 22 (4), 328, (1994) Jennifer Paff Ogle, Karen H. Hyllegard, and Brian Dunbar, Environment and Behavior, 36 (5), 717, (2004). Jean C. Darian, Alan R. Wiman and Louis A. Tucci, Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 12, 15, (2005). Jaishankar Ganesh, Kristy E. Reynolds, and Michael G. Luckett, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 35 (5), 369, (2007). James K. Lumpkin and James B. Hunt, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 17 (1), 1, (1989). Kerin, Roger, Ambuj Jain, and Daniel Howard,
November - December 2014
Journal of Retailing, 68 (4), 376, (1992). 17. Korgaonkar, Pradeep. K., Daulat Lund, and Barbara Price, Journal of Retailing, 61 (2), 39, (1985). 18. Lumpkin, James. R., John J. Burnett, Journal of Applied Business Research, 8 (1), 89, (1991). 19. Malhotra. N.K., Journal of Retailing, 59 (2), 3, (1983). 20. Namrata Anand and Vandana Khetarpal, SCHOLARS WORLD - IRMJCR, 2 (1), 64, (2014). 21. Ramakrishna Prasad. Y., African Journal of Business Management, 6 (11), 11294, (2012). 22. Retailers Association of India, Pulse of Indian Retail Market, March, (2014). 23. Soyeon Shim and Antigone Kotsiopulos, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10 (1), 48 and 58, (1992). 24. Sudhir. K., and Debabrate Talukdar, Review of Industrial Organization, 24, 143, (2004). 25. Thelen Eva. M., and Woodside Arch . G., International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14, 125, (1997). 26. WoodsideArch. G., and Randolph J. Trappey, Journal of Advertising Research, 32 (6), 59, (1992). 27. Yue Pan, and George M. Zinkhan, Journal of Retailing, 82(3), 229, (2006). 28. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/ 2012-10-10/news/34363404_1_apparel-exportstextile-and-apparel-cent-of-world-tradeaccessed on 16th June, 2014. ❑ ❑ ❑
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more variables other than the variables covered in this study, which may influence store patronage behavior. Future research could be directed towards developing scales, studying the constructs influencing store patronage behavior and building a conceptual model of store patronage behavior of apparel consumers.
305
OTHERS ANNEXURE - I: Tables Showing the Results of Factor Analysis Table - 6: Acceptability of Communities
Communalities location family shopping self concept social recognition displays delivery time all class payment options fashion and style designs depth and width colour and size accessories store image durable stiching fitness washale quality value price promotional sales many people many people advertisement top of mind` return
Initial
Extraction
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
.567 .453 .510 .518 .567 .577 .541 .554 .752 .697 .452 .441 .657 .471 .516 .566 .594 .580 .506 .551 .620 .543 .463 .646 .518 .545 .545 .467
Extraction Method : Principle Component Analysis
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OTHERS Component Matrix Component
location family shopping self concept social recogintion displays delivery time all class payment options fashion and style designs depth and width colours and sizes accessories store image durable stitching fitness washable quality value price promotional offers sales staffs many people adevertisement top of mind return
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
.271 .460 .573 .467 .429 .549 .533 .410 .569 .584 .494 .583 .490 .466 .575 .576 .540 .515 .591 .564 .493 .403 .425 .414 .406 .493 .588
.196 -5.27E-02 -.223 -.200 -.486 .241 .111 -.322 -.274 -.300 .109 8.555E-02 -.120 -.126 6.282E-02 -8.91E-02 -.239 6.657E-04 2.403E-02 .128 .517 .208 -.338 .536 .235 .321 .201
.329 .268 .184 .210 -1.10E-03 -4.67E-02 -.117 -.284 .444 .411 .154 .175 -5.95E-02 .146 -.227 -.252 -.258 -.520 -697E-02 -.176 -5.43E-02 -.155 -.273 .164 5.696E-03 .159 -7.00E-02
1.142E-02 .394 -2.39E-02 -2.09E-02 .369 .234 .289 .393 -.316 -.269 .137 -.182 .334 .320 -.259 -.206 -.189 -.155 -.254 -.180 .147 6.493E-02 -3.24E-02 .117 .128 -.143 -.195
.135 -9.107E-02 3.043E-02 .259 -8.86E-02 1.160E-02 -.155 .148 -.222 -.154 -.378 9.842E-02 1.435E-02 .273 1.124E-03 .262 .347 .111 -.200 -.295 -.125 -.457 -.185 .307 -.104 .353 6.768E-02
-.345 -9.56E-02 -2.76E-02 -.294 -4.84E-02 -.207 -.331 4.605E-02 8.479E-03 3.607E-02 8.078E-02 -.163 .156 -.155 -.237 -8.57E-02 .152 -9.27E-02 -4.17E-02 -249 -4.63E-02 .311 .223 .213 .482 .159 .153
.457 5.466E-02 -.308 -.248 2.757E-02 -.343 -.113 -.150 -7.72E-02 -2.00E-02 6.084E-02 -4.12E-02 .512 .122 8.296E-02 .210 -1.141E-02 8.469E-03 .211 -6.27E-02 .258 5.89E-02 -9.72E-02 -8.74E-02 .195 -6.30E-02 .104
Extraction Method : Principal Component Analyasis. a. 7 components extracted
THE TEXTILE ASSOCIATION (INDIA) Central Office
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From Pathare House, 2nd Floor, Next to State Bank of India, Ranade Road, Dadar (W), Mumbai - 400 028 Tel.: +91-22-24461145 Fax: +91-22-24474971 E-mail: taicnt@gmail.com
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TEXPERIENCE
Emulating Colors of Animal Kingdom in Textiles Human being is the only animal known to wear cloths. The use of textile material for apparel wear by primitive man originated in prehistoric times, probably started in Palaeolithic era, has evolved from mere protection from climatic conditions, providing comfort and maintaining decency to the modern day fashions.
Ashok R. Athalye
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Dr. Ashok Athalye is currently a GM (Technical services) in Atul Ltd. He is heading the technical team in the area of textile dyes and chemicals for both domestic and international market. He has an experience of working in many renowned companies like ICI (India), ltd., Croda Chemicals, Jaysynth Dyechem Ltd., Serene Dyestuff Ltd., Ciba Geigy Ltd. And Indokem Ltd. He has an experience of around 20 years in Technical services of dyestuffs and chemicals. He has a vast knowledge in the field of dyes and chemicals. He did his Ph.D. (Tech.) Textile Chemistry, M.Sc. (Tech.) and B.Sc. (Tech.) from ICT (formerly UDCT ) Mumbai. He also did Diploma (DIM), Advanced Diploma (ADM) and specialization in Marketing Management (DMM) from I.G.N.O.U. New Delhi. He is also a Fellow of Society of Dyers and Colorists, SDC, UK. He has many research and review publications to his credit
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The primitive man initially used material available in nature - animal hides and plant leaves for clothing, to cover and drape his body and gradually developed textile garments made from the natural resources like plant fibres - cotton, jute, flax, etc. and from animal hair - wool and silk. With the industrial revolution of the 20th century development of various man made fibres including synthetic substrates evolved, however, even then almost half of the textile clothing material used worldwide comes from natural fibres. Further, with the growing awareness about environmental concerns, sustainability, impact on carbon footprint and global warming owing to the manufacturing processes of such synthetic fibres the search for development of natural fibres from other renewable resources like polyester based PLA fibres developed from Corn, could gain momentum and it is expected to shift the trend in favour of more use of natural fibres - going back to the Nature! The textile substrates are converted into the garment form by process of weaving and knitting and are further processed to make it colorful by adding a colorant - a dye or pigment which imparts color. The coloring compounds generally absorb and reflect light in the visible spectrum and the combinations of which can provide countless numbers of color hues and print patterns and make the garments attractive and appealing. Textile dyeing is an ancient art which predates written records. The method of coloration has also evolved from simple pot dyeing and hand printing to the sophisticated continuous dyeing and computerised digital printing. Initially, natural coloring compounds extracted from various parts of plants - root, bark, leaves, fruits, etc. and from animals or insects was in vogue, however, post 1856 with the development of synthetic dyestuff by Perkin a new era of low cost dyestuff industry and new coloration technique of textiles began. Today, the global synthetic colorant industry is estimated to have reached a level of about 6 bn USD comprising of about 10,000 different synthetic colorants with annual production of over 10 mn MT. With the invention of consistent quality synthetic dyes and simple dyeing methods providing optimum fastness levels, the use of natural dyes declined to an extent of becoming obsolete. However, owing to the growing awareness about the health hazards due to toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of many synthetic dyes as well as the non bio-degradable polluting nature of these synthetic colorants and their impact on environmental emission, effluent and the waste, the exploration of natural dyes from renewable resources and environment friendly industrially viable application process has gained momentum. Again trend is going back to the Nature! November - December 2014
TEXPERIENCE
Gleaning from the literature available on this topic from various sources and selecting pictures from the web gallery, an attempt is made to provide an overview of this subject in brief. Animal coloration is considered to be the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces and there are several reasons why animals have evolved such colors. Animals produce color in different ways and their coloration may be the result of any combination of pigments, chromatophores, bioluminescence and structural coloration. The major factors related to coloration in animal kingdom are considered to be ◆ To look attractive ◆ To differentiate from others ◆ To enhance self satisfaction - feel good factor ◆ To warrant specific occasion like group | herd gathering ◆ To ensure suitability for work | climate convenience ◆ To provide protection ◆ To signal or advertising presence ◆ To generate structural colors or patterns On the planet earth "light is life" for existence of all animals and a narrow band of this light consists of visible range for human beings. The psychological properties of the colors - VIBGYOR range of this spectrum, relates to the body, mind and emotions and its essential balance between these three. Researchers like Max Luscher have studied and developed correlation between color and its effect. Given below are major colors observed in animals and their psychological association in humans.
Red Color - has the longest wavelength and is a powerful color having property of appearing to be nearer than it is and grabs attention first. It tends to stimulate and raise the pulse rate and relates to the "fight or flight" instinct. It is perceived as demanding and aggressive.
Orange Color - it is a combination of red and yellow, it stimulates physical comfort - food, warmth, shelter. It energises mind and renews interest in life. It is antidepressant and helps lift mood.
Yellow Color - has relatively long wavelength and provides emotional stimulation for sharing and caring. It also contributes to the expression of thoughts, self confidence and encourages optimism.
Texttreasure "Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail." - Ralph Waldo Emerson November - December 2014
Green Color - is in the centre of the visible spectrum and is considered to be the color of balance, reassur309
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Color is one of the basic elements of nature that made human living more aesthetic. Colors are closely associated with emotions, festivals and passions of human life. Observing the colors and patterns from the surrounding plants and animals, man began ornamenting his clothing as the civilization progressed and the associated psychological impact of color has evolved the color sense of human being. This probably led to the basic concept of emulating color schemes and patterns of animal kingdom.
TEXPERIENCE ance and comfort. Has a strong affinity with nature, and helps us connect with others. It reduces stress and steadies emotions.
Blue Color - is soothing and considered to be the color of the mind which calms the mind and aids concentration. It is the color of peace, clear communication, self-expression and honesty.
Grey Color - it is an achromatic color with varying intensity of white and black. It is associated with independence, self-reliance and self-control. Grey is a color of evasion and non-commitment. It also relates to isolation and self-criticism.
Indigo Color - is considered to stimulate intuition and imagination and is a strong sedative which can reduce pain. It is also the color of divine knowledge.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Violet Color - has the shortest wavelength, relates to introvertiveness and meditation. It helps transform obsessions and combat fears. It has associations with royalty and communicates the finest quality.
Brown Color - is considered to be the color of Mother Earth and most of the grassland animals have varying degree of hues of this color with different patterns.
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To look attractive, some animals including many butterflies and birds have microscopic structures in scales, bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colors. Other animals including squid and some deepsea fish can produce light, sometimes of different colors. Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colors and effects they need. Such different color combinations are emulated by human beings to look attractive. Colors and their pattern enable animals to differentiate from others on a special occasion or provide signals for certain behavioural aspects or to communicate information such as warning of its ability to defend itself. Observing such color effects, man has also evolved sense of differentiation through the textile clothing that he or she wears. Some animals develop camouflage designs and patterns for protection, hiding from the predators or enemy and remain undetected which is classified as protective coloration. Camouflage enables an animal to remain hidden from view and thereby protect itself from predators. While some animals use color to diNovember - December 2014
TEXPERIENCE vert attacks by startling, surprising a predator e.g. with eyespots or other flashes of color, confusing a predator's attack by moving a bold pattern (such as zebra stripes) rapidly. Some animals are colored for physical protection, such as having pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn, while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation. Animals colored in these ways can have striking natural patterns. Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation - includes special protective resemblance called mimesis, where the whole animal looks like some other object, for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping, while the protective resemblance, called crypsis, is where the animal's texture blends with the background, for example when a moth's color and pattern blend in with tree bark. In variable protective resemblance, an animal such as a chameleon, flatfish, squid or octopus changes its skin pattern and color using special chromatophore cells to resemble whatever background it is currently resting on. The main mechanisms to create the resemblances blending into the background so as to become hard to see; disruptive patterning, using color and pattern to break up the animal's outline, which relates mainly to general resemblance; mimesis, resembling other objects of no special interest to the observer and counter shading, using graded color to create the illusion of flatness.
Color is widely used for signalling and advertising by animals as diverse as birds and shrimps. Signalling encompasses at least three purposes: â&#x2014;&#x2020; To signal a capability or service to other animals, â&#x2014;&#x2020; To warn that an animal is harmful, â&#x2014;&#x2020; To advertising its presence. Signalling enables an animal to communicate information such as warning of its ability to defend itself (aposematism). Animals also use color in advertising signalling services such as cleaning to animals of other species and to signal sexual status to other members of the same species. Warning coloration is effectively the "opposite" of camouflage. Its function is to make the animal, for example a wasp or a coral snake, highly conspicuous to potential predators, so that it is noticed, remembered, and then avoided. Human warning signs employ the concept that the nature uses to signal or advertise particular function for example Khakhi dress of Indian Police, Black or dark navy Blue of commandos and high visible | fluorescent vests of construction workers.
School uniforms and workwear of industrial workman. November - December 2014
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Similar camouflage coloration by dyeing and printing is used by human beings in military wear for protective clothing to avoid detection from enemy.
TEXPERIENCE
Structural colors - also called as schemochromes, are based on physical and geometrical properties of optics in terms of interference, reflection, refraction and diffraction of light. The phenomenon of structural colors was first reported by Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton. It is based on production of color by microscopically structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with the visible light, sometimes in combination with pigments: for example, peacock tail feathers are pigmented brown, but their structure makes them appear blue, turquoise, and green, and often they appear iridescent.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
For protection from harsh climate or weather conditions - we wear thick, warm clothes with dark colors in winter or thin garments with cool, light pastel shades in summer. Many animals have dark pigments such as melanin in their skin, eyes and fur to protect themselves against sunburn (damage to living tissues caused by ultraviolet light). Brightly colored and patterned animals are more characteristic of tropical areas. This holds true across a wide range of animal groups including insects, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
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It is the result of interference between reflections from two (or more) surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and leaves such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces adds (interferes constructively), while at other angles, the light subtracts. Different colors therefore appear at different angles. When light falls on a thin film, the waves reflected from the upper and lower surfaces travel different distances depending on the angle, so they interfere.
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TEXPERIENCE
In animals such as on the feathers of birds and the scales of butterflies, interference is created by a range of photonic mechanisms, including diffraction gratings, selective mirrors, photonic crystals, crystal fibres, matrices of nano-channels and proteins that can vary their configuration. Many of these mechanisms correspond to elaborate structures visible by electron microscopy.
Iridescence, is created when extremely thin films reflect part of the light falling on them from their top surfaces. The rest of the light goes through the films, and a further part of it is reflected from their bottom surfaces. The two sets of reflected waves travel back upwards in the same direction. But since the bottomreflected waves travelled a little further - controlled by the thickness and refractive index of the film, and the angle at which the light fell - the two sets of waves are out of phase. When the waves are one or more whole wavelength apart - in other words at certain specific angles, they add (interfere constructively), giving a strong reflection. At other angles and phase differences, they can subtract, giving weak reflections. The thin film therefore selectively reflects just one wavelength - a pure color - at any given angle, but other wavelengths - different colors - at different angles. So, as a thin-film structure like a butterfly's wing or bird's feather moves, it seems to change color.
Thus, structural colors are developed by microscopically-structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with visible light, sometimes in combination with pigments: for example, peacock tail feathers are pigmented brown, but their structure makes them appear blue, turquoise and green. Structural coloration can produce the most brilliant colors, often iridescent.
Recently, with the growing awareness of environment sustainability aspects and the considerable contribution of dyestuff and pigment industry towards alarming pollution issues, the researchers are working on the development of such structural colors to produce effects and patterns in textile without using coloring compounds.
New Book Published - Textile Technology Dr. Mahapatra is a B.Sc (Tech) in Textile Chemistry from UDCT, Mumbai. He also holds aM.Sc and Doctorate in Applied Chemistry from Utkal University, Orissa. He did his M.B.A. from I.M.M., Kolkata. Dr. Mahapatra is having 29 years of experience in textile industries in India and Abroad. He has worked in all big textile houses like Birlas (both Aditya Birla and K.K. Birla group), Reliance, Raymond (Kenya), Churchgate Group (Nigeria), GSL (formerly Gujarat Spinners Ltd.), LNJ Bhilwara (RSWM) Group and HindprakashLonsen Industries, Ahmedabad in various senior capacities. This book is written based on the 30 years practical experience of the author working in various textile mills (Dye House) in India and abroad. His wide experience on modern topics which he had shares with the textile audiences in many textile conferences in India and Abroad. This book will be very useful to textile students, textile scientists, textile research scholars, textile designers November - December 2014
who are the thinkers and future of Indian Textile Industries. They can also try to implement various processes in the textile industries. It will be also helpful to senior executives of textile mills to know what are the latest developments in the textiles been taken place. The book deals with many new and latest developments taking place in the textile industries. It will help the Research & Development departments of Textile Mills to take up a few modern topics as a project and work on it. Some of the Technologies are already being used in Textile Industries and some are on pilot stage. After a few years the rest of the technologies will come into use. ISBN: 978-93-313-2449-8 Pages: 254 Rs. 1495/Published by: APH publishing Corporation Book your order with Dr. K.B. Nangia E-mail: aphbooks@gmail.com
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Author Dr. N. N. Mahapatra
TEXNOTE
Chapter 3: Bio-polymers for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds Pallavi Madiwale, Rachana Shukla & Ravindra Adivarekar The series of chapters under the title, 'Textile scaffolds in Tissue Engineering' are being published in the Journal of Textile Association which cover the role of textiles for various scaffolds, the type and form materials used for making scaffolds, application of these scaffolds for recovery of various organs and the scope of textile technology in tissue engineering scaffold in future. The series of chapters under the title, 'Textile scaffolds in Tissue Engineering' are being published in the Journal of Textile Association which cover the role of textiles for various scaffolds, the type and form materials used for making scaffolds, application of these scaffolds for recovery of various organs and the scope of textile technology in tissue engineering scaffold in future. This series is written primarily as an introductory text for an audience comprised of those interested or already working in, textile related areas, who wish to acquire broad knowledge of tissue engineering scaffolds and the application of textiles in it. In the previous chapter we tried to put forth the role of textile technology in the field of tissue engineering scaffolds and the use of textile in the form of fibres, fabric or non-wovens in the scaffolding area.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
In the present chapter the various bio-polymers used for the manufacturing of scaffolds are discussed along with the role that they play in tissue engineering. 3. Bio-polymers for Tissue Engineering Scaffolds As seen from the last two chapters, tissue engineering scaffolds are the support structures that are required for the growth of tissue which is damaged or is to be replaced. The scaffold can be made from different materials and the material to be used is decided primarily on the end use application of the scaffold. The inclination of the scaffolding materials towards the use of bio-polymers is seen over the past decade due to the ease of modification of their properties as per requirements. Hence the exploration of bio-polymers is on upsurge in the field of scaffolding for tissue regeneration. Definition of bio polymers The word bio-polymer states that the polymer that is being referred is related to biology, i.e. living organism. The bio-polymer by definition refers to the polymers that are manufactured by a living organism, for example proteins or polysaccharides. The polymers which are synthesized for biological application are 314
also referred as biopolymers. These synthesized biopolymers also have similar characteristics as that of naturally occurring bio-polymers. The bio-polymers that are to be used as scaffolds for tissue engineering need a host of properties to suit the need. As a material, the polymers should have mechanical properties, surface properties, moldability and shapability, and degradation behavior. From biology point of view the non-toxicity, attachment of cells and bioactivity are important properties that are considered while selecting a bio-polymer for scaffold application. The bio-polymers that meet the requirements of the scaffolds and their detailed classification is described in the following text. Classification of Bio-polymers The bio-polymers can be classified broadly on the basis of the nature of their origin. a. Naturally derived bio-polymers i. Polysaccharides i. Celluloses ii. Chitin & Chitosan iii. Hyaluronic acid iv. Alginate and derivatives b. Proteins i. Collagen ii. Silk fibroin iii. Elastin iv. Wool keratin c. Synthetic bio-polymers i. Polyester i. Poly-(glycolic acid) ii. Poly-(lactic acid) iii. Poly-propylene fumarates ii. Poly(caprolactone) (PCL) iii. Poly-anhydrides iv. Poly-urethanes v. Poly-phosphazenes vi. Poly-(vinyl alcohol)
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TEXNOTE Polysaccharides Polysaccharides, also known as glycans, consist of monosaccharides (aldoses or ketoses) linked together by O-glycosidic linkages. The carbon (C) atoms are bonded to hydrogen atoms (H), hydroxyl groups, and carbonyl groups (CO), whose combinations, order, and geometric arrangement lead to a large number of isomers. The importance of polysaccharides is due to their water solubility, which give polysaccharides the properties of thickening, gelling, emulsifying, hydrating and suspending polymers and can be modified by changing the conditions of pH and temperature. Along with the gelling behavior polysaccharides also show good film forming properties due to the cooperative intraand inter-chain hydrogen bonds formed by the presence of-OH groups in the polymer molecules. The biological activity of polysaccharides is also favorable for the tissue engineering scaffolds. Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant bio-polymer and is widely used in the field of tissue engineering. It consists of a linear chain of approximately 100 - 100000 b D-glucose units. The structure of cellulose is shown in figure 1.
the process by which these forms are obtained is given in the table below. Table 1: Different forms of cellulose Type of celluloses
Sources
Formation process
Micro-fibrillated Wood, Sugar beet, cellulose & potato tuber, hemp, nano-fibrillated flax cellulose
Delamination of wood pulp by mechanical pressure before and/ or after chemical or enzymatic treatment
Nano-crystalline Wood, cotton, hemp, cellulose flax, cellulose
Acid hydrolysis of cellulose
Bacterial nanocellulose
Low molecular weight Bacterial synthesis sugars and alcohols
Chitin & Chitosan Chitin (poly (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine)) represents the second most abundant polysaccharide after cellulose (Figure 2). It is found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects and in the cell wall of fungi and microorganisms. Arthropod shells (exoskeletons), the most easily accessible sources of chitin, contain 2050% of chitin on a dry basis. Wastes of seafood processing industries are used for the commercial production of chitin. The structure of chitin is essentially the structure of cellulose, with the hydroxyl group at C-2 of the D-glucopyranose residue substituted with an Nacetylamino group. However, the application of chitin in its original form is very rare for tissue engineering.
Figure 1: Chemical structure of Cellulose
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Figure 2: Chemical structure of Chitin
Chitosan is the derivative of chitin and is obtained by deacetylation of chitin. It is a linear polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed b-(1-4)-linked Dglucosamine (deacetylated unit) and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine. It is explored widely for the application in tissue engineering. It is used mostly in the nano form and also along with combination with other bio-polymers. Chitosan is used for bone, blood vessels, heart valves, myocardium, liver, pancreas, kidney, urinary bladder, skin or the central and peripheral nervous system. Thus it covers almost all the applications of tissue regeneration requirements. 315
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It is synthesized by herbs woody plants, many forms of algae, fungi and some species of bacteria, namely Acetobacter xylinum. Cellulose in various forms is used in the tissue engineering of vascular tissues i.e. arteries and veins, bone, cartilage, skin, skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles and heart valves. Researchers have also successfully designed its application for liver cell regeneration, peripheral nerves, neural tissue regeneration, bio-artificial renal tubule, urinary bladder reconstruction and urinary reconstruction and diversion. Cellulose as a material is used in the form of nano or micro-celluloses. The classification of these forms is mainly done on the basis of the source from which it is obtained. The brief description of the sources and
TEXNOTE Hyaluronan Hyaluronan, also known as hyaluronic acid, is a natural and highly hydrophilic polysaccharide. It is found to be the key component of extracellular matrix and tissues. Hyaluronan is synthesized as a large, negatively charged and linear polysaccharide of varying chain length (2225 mm) composed of repeating disaccharide units. Structure of hyaluronan, is composed of a repeating disaccharide of (1/3) and (1/4)-linked b-Dglucuronic acid and N-acetyl b-D-glucosamine units as seen in figure 4.
Figure 4: Chemical structure of Hyaluronan
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
The important areas of tissue engineering that has proven an important role of hyaluronan in tissue engineering is the articular cartilage, bone and osteochondral tissue regeneration, aortic heart valves, vascular tissue engineering and also the soft tissue like skin, cartilage, trachea, and others. Alginate and derivatives Alginate is a bio-polymer derived from sea algae. It is composed of linear block copolymers of 1-4 linked b-D-mannuronic acid (M) and a-L-guluronic acid (G) as shown in figure 4. The important feature of this bio-polymer is that the polymer form cross-links between the divalent ions, inducing a sol-gel transition in the material. Thus, along with its biocompatibility, the ability of alginate to cross-link has made it popular as a thickener and emulsifying agent. Alginate is ionically cross-linked by the addition of divalent cations (like Ca++) in aqueous solution. This ability to cross-link is utilized to immobilize and later recover cells from the culture matrix which is very important and crucial in cell-laden tissue engineering scaffolds. This bio-polymer is used for tissue regeneration of bone and cartilage. The limit of mechanical properties of the polymer is covered by complexing with polycations. Alginate has also been widely researched for engineering liver tissue. 316
Proteins Proteins are bio-polymer composed of amino acids linked by amide (or peptide) bonds, which consist of a central carbon linked to an amine group, carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain (R groups). R groups can be classified as non-polar groups, uncharged polar groups or charged polar groups, in which their distribution along the protein backbone renders proteins with distinct characteristics. Biologically, proteins are the most abundant organic molecules within the extracellular and intracellular medium of the living organism, where they ensure multiple biological functions, such as transport, regulation of pathways, protection against foreign molecules, structural support, protein storage, as well as being the catalyst for a great diversity of reactions, acting as biocatalysts. The growth of proteins as bio-polymers in the field of tissue engineering is significantly increasing. Proteins have excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, especially because their degradation products, amino acids, are the basic components of life and can be reabsorbed as nutrients. Thus the inflammatory responses are also minimal. Also majority of proteins are available on large scale at low costs. Collagen Collagen is a long and fibrous structural protein that contains three peptide chains, which form a triple helical structure by intra-molecular hydrogen bonds between Glycine (Gly) and Hydroxyproline (Hyp) in adjacent chains [19]. In the biological system, collagen is present as the main protein in the connective tissue. It consists of 25% to 35% of whole-body protein content in mammals. It has excellent biocompatibility, negligible immunogenicity, and high bio-absorbability. It is a well-established bio-polymer manufactured industrially and obtained from various sources like animal tissues (porcine and calf skin, bovine tendon, rat tail, etc.) which is purified by enzyme treatment and salt/acid extraction. The drawback of its use is that there can be a possibility of transmission of infectious agents such as viruses. Hence marine sources (jelly fish collagen) are been explored for possible sources. The protein collagen, is also combined with different other bio-polymers and ceramic to give a host of applications in orthopedics, cardiovascular, dermatology, otorhinolaryngology (ear, nose and throat), urology, dentistry, ophthalmology, and plastic and reconstructive tissue engineering.
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TEXNOTE
Elastin Elastin similar to collagen is another key structural protein found in the ECMs of connective tissues (e.g., blood vessels, esophagus, skin) that need to stretch and retract following mechanical loading and release. The protein consists of several repetitive amino acid sequences, including VPGVG, APGVGV, VPGF GVGAG, and VPGG. It is found predominantly in the walls of arteries, lungs, intestines, and skin, as well as other elastic tissues. However, unlike collagen, elastin has found little use as a biomaterial, mainly due to complex purification process and also the protein has a strong tendency to calcify upon implantation. The applications are mainly in the vascular and cartilage tissue engineering. Keratin Keratin unlike collagen or elastin is a tough, insoluble and structural protein that is a major component in skin, hair, nail, hooves and horns. The protein molecules are fibrous, twisting around each other to form strands called intermediate filaments. Amino acid analyNovember - December 2014
sis of keratin showed its extraordinary high content of sulfur-containing amino acids, largely cysteine (7 - 20% of total amino acid residues), which forms inter- and intra-molecular disulfide bonds to provide the tissue with flexible and tenacious properties. Keratin has good biocompatibility and been used in tissue engineering, owing to its cell adhesion sequences, such as arginineglycine-aspartic acid (RGD) and leucine-aspartic acidvaline (LDV). Synthetic Bio-polymers Synthetic bio-polymers are also used in tissue engineering scaffolds. They have a number of advantages over bio-polymers from other sources. The key advantages include the ability to tailor mechanical properties and degradation kinetics to suit various applications. Synthetic polymers are also attractive because they can be fabricated into various shapes with desired pore morphology which facilitates tissue in-growth. Furthermore, polymers can be designed with chemical functional groups that can also induce tissue in-growth. Polyesters A large number of bio-polymers belong to the polyester family. Among these, poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and a range of their copolymers have historically comprised the bulk of published material on biodegradable polyesters and have a long history of use as synthetic biodegradable materials in a number of clinical applications. These polymers have been used as sutures, fixtures for fracture fixation devices and scaffolds for cell transplantation. Poly (glycolic acid) (PGA) Poly (glycolic acid) (PGA) is a rigid thermoplastic material with high crystallinity (46-50%). The glass transition and melting temperatures of PGA is 36 and 225 C respectively. Because of high crystallinity, PGA is not soluble in most organic solvents; the exceptions are highly fluorinated organic solvents such as hexafluoro isopropanol. Porous scaffolds and foams can also be fabricated from PGA, but the properties and degradation characteristics are affected by the type of processing technique. The attractiveness of PGA as a biodegradable polymer in medical application is that its degradation product glycolic acid is a natural metabolite. A major application of PGA is in resorbable sutures. Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) is a semi-crystalline solid, with similar rates of hydrolytic degradation as PGA. It 317
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Silk fibroin Silk fibroin is the protein in the form of repetitive protein sequences obtained by removing the serecin gum from silk fibres produced by domestic silk worms (Bombyx mori). The fibroin protein constitutes 70-80 % of the silk fibres. The protein is made up of 14 amino acids of which 90% are glycine, alanine, and serine leading to anti-parallel b-pleated sheet formation in the fibers. The characteristics of the fibroin that make it a popular upcoming bio-polymer are, ease of processing, high mechanical strength, environmental stability, biocompatibility and controllable proteolytic biodegradability, morphologic flexibility and ability to undergo amino acid side chain modification to immobilize growth factors. The properties that are suitable for scaffolding are highly homogeneous and interconnected pores, controllable pore sizes (100 1,000 mm), suitable porosities (> 90%), degradability, better biocompatibility and useful mechanical properties (from several KPa to several MPa). The field of Tissue engineering has seen a rapid increase in the number of publications on the use of silk based scaffolds for tissue engineering in the last few decades. The various areas of application of silk fibroin include hard tissue like bone, cartilage, inter-vertebral disc, soft tissues like ligaments, vascular and nervous tissue and organ like skin, liver, breast, cardiac, bladder and ear tissue are also engineered using silk fibroin scaffold or composite of silk fibroin.
TEXNOTE is more hydrophobic than PGA, and is more resistant to hydrolytic attack. Poly (lactic-glycolic acid) (PLGA) copolymer and PGA have got Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for human clinical use. The full range of copolymers of lactic acid and glycolic acid has been investigated. However, it is generally accepted that intermediate copolymers are much more unstable than the homo-polymers. The first commercial use of this copolymer range was the suture material Vicryl (Ethicon Inc, Sommerville, NJ, USA), which is composed of 8% Lactic Acid and 92% Glycolic Acid. The main application of PLGA copolymer has been in the field of controlled drug release.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Poly (propylene fumarates) Recently, polyesters based on fumaric acid have received most attention in the development of degradable polymers. The degradation of this co-polymer leads to fumaric acid, a naturally occurring substance and 1, 2-propanediol, which is a commonly used diluent in drug formulations. The copolymer also has unsaturated sites in its backbone, which could be used in subsequent cross-linking reactions. Accordingly, incorporation of fillers, or further reactions to form crosslinked networks would be required to achieve good mechanical strength. The mechanical properties vary greatly depending on the method of synthesis and the cross-linking agent used. Mechanical properties could be improved by incorporating ceramic materials such as tricalcium phosphate (TCP), calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate. TCP was particularly useful for reinforcement and compositions without TCP reinforcement disintegrated very early in the implant. Poly ( caprolactones) (PCL) Poly (caprolactone) (PCL) is the most widely studied synthetic biodegradable polymer. PCL is a semi-crystalline polymer with a glass transition temperature of about -600C. The polymer has a low melting temperature (590to 640C) and is compatible with a range of other polymers. PCL degrades at a much lower rate than PLA and is a useful base polymer for developing long term, implantable drug delivery systems. Poly (caprolactone) is prepared by the ring-opening polymerization of the cyclic monomer e-caprolactone. Catalysts such as stannous octoate are used to catalyse the polymerization and low molecular weights alcohols can be used as initiator which also can be used to control the molecular weight of the polymer. PCL is considered a non-toxic and a tissue compatible material. Blends with other polymers and block copolymers based on caprolactone backbone are a few of the 318
possible strategies to explore this class of polymers for various applications. Poly-anhydrides Poly-anhydrides is one of the most extensively studied class of biodegradable polymers which demonstrate biocompatibility and excellent controlled release characteristics. Poly-anhydrides degrade by surface erosion and their main applications are in controlled drug delivery. Poly-anhydrides are synthesized by dehydration of the di-acid or a mixture of di-acids by melt poly-condensation. Poly-anhydrides have limited mechanical properties that restrict their use in load-bearing applications such as in orthopedics. Polyurethanes Polyurethanes (PU) represent a major class of synthetic elastomers that have been evaluated for a variety of medical implants, particularly for long-term implants. They have excellent mechanical properties and good biocompatibility. They are used in the fabrication of medical implants such as cardiac pace makers and vascular grafts. Siloxane-based polyurethanes have greater in-vivo stability than conventional poly-ether-urethanes. Polyurethanes can also be designed to have chemical linkages that are degradable in the biological environment. Since polyurethanes can be tailored to have a broad range of mechanical properties and good biocompatibility, there has been some interest to develop degradable polyurethanes for medical applications such as scaffolds for tissue engineering. Poly-phosphazenes The poly-phosphazenes consist of several hundred different polymers with a general structure. Different poly-phosphazenes are made by means of macromolecular substitution reactions carried out on a reactive polymeric intermediate, poly-(dichlorophosphazene). Although most poly-phosphazenes are bio-stable, incorporation of specific side groups such as amino acid esters, glucosyl, glyceyl, lactate, or imidazolyl units can render poly-phosphazenes biodegradable. Hydrolysis of the polymer leads to free side group units, phosphate and ammonia due to backbone degradation. Polyvinyl alcohol Poly (vinyl alcohol) is a non-toxic, water-soluble synthetic polymer that has good film forming ability. It has a large number of hydroxyl groups which allows it to react with many types of functional groups. This advantage makes it suitable for biocompatible materials. PVA is produced by the polymerization of vinyl November - December 2014
TEXNOTE
Mrs. Rachana Shukla is currently pursuing Ph.D.(Tech.) in Fibres and Textile Processing Technology in the department of Fibres and Textiles Processing Technology, under Prof. (Dr.) Ravindra V. Adivarekar, at Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT), Mumbai, India. Her research areas of interest are Textile colouration, Polymer science, Conservation of resources in textile wet processing, recycling of process water and Effluent treatment. Dr. Ravindra Adivarekar is currently Professor and Head of the Department of Fibres and Textiles Processing Technology at the Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT), Mumbai, India. His research areas of interest are Textile colouration, Green processing of textiles, Medical textiles, Enzyme manufacturing and application, Natural dyes for textiles and cosmetics, Novel textile processing techniques and Textile composites. He has around 5 years of Industrial Experience mainly of Processing and Dyestuff manufacturing companies prior to being faculty for last 13 years. He has filed 2 patents and published more than 100 papers in journals of national and International repute. November - December 2014
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
About the Authors Miss. Pallavi Madiwale is currently pursuing Ph.D. (Tech.) in Fibres and Textile Processing Technology in the department of Fibres and Textiles Processing Technology, under Prof. (Dr.) Ravindra V. Adivarekar, at Institute of Chemical Technology (ICT), Mumbai, India. Her research areas of interest are Functional finishes, Encapsulation of speciality chemicals, Biomaterials and tissue engineering.
www.textileassociationindia.org
The use of bio-polymers for tissue engineering scaffolds is wide spread and has lead to the discovery of new materials and techniques for the engineering. The bio-polymers are not only used in their original form but the use of the polymers along with other materials like ceramic or metallic implants or carbon nano-tubes has increased the success rate of both the bio-polymers and the other materials . The use of bio-polymers in preparation of scaffolds has given the world of tissue engineering, a thrust to design the scaffold according to the need or requirement. Since the advent of biomedical science 60 to 70 years ago, the polymer materials used in this science is evolved and evolved phenomenally in last decade or two.
Connecting you with right audience for strengthening business promotion
acetate to poly vinyl acetate followed by hydrolysis of poly vinyl acetate to poly vinyl alcohol. PVA has been widely used in biomaterial applications.
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UNIT ACTIVITY
The Textile Association (India) TAI - Hinganghat
Program on Road Safety The TextileAssociation (India) - Hinganghat Unit, in association with RTO Office andMaharashtra Police has organized a program on Road Safety Program at the sideof National Highway no 7 neighboring Gimatex Industries Pvt. Ltd., surroundingN.H. No. 7.Around 350 people passing through highway everyday attendedthe program which is inclusive of various categories of employee of Gimatex&Shaguna Foods. Objective of the program wasto make awareness of all in regards to the safety rules and how to prevent accidentwhile moving through highway. A leaflet containing latest safety rules in locallanguage has been distributed to everybody along with reflective stickers forputting in their vehicles.
Mr. A K Barik -President of TAI, Hinganghat Unit in his speech has highlighted threefactors which usually cause majority ofthe accident Those three are driving while speaking on mobile, drunken driving & teenage driving. He also spoke about theimportance of safety rules & various safety aspects to be taken care offwhile working on Industry. Mr. G.K. Dhang - Vice President of TAI, HinganghatUnit has appealed to the traffic police to strictly implement safety rules& punish those who violate traffic rules as per law. Mr.P.L. Pole, HighwayPolice, Jam spoke in length about various safety rules & latest guidelinesreleased by RTO. He also drove all ofthem to take an oath stating that "I will follow all safety rules while movingon road and help preventing accident." Mr. S.K. Thaokar - Hon' Secretary ofTAI, Hinganghat talked about the various activities of Textile association& need to take such type of program which has a social relevance. Hethanked RTO for taking initiatives. Various officials of RTO Office andMaharashtra Police were present on the occasion. Program ended with proposingVote of Thanks.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
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November - December 2014
NEWS
Custom AATCC Wash Cycle Machines Available Testing labs and other interested parties can now purchase washing machines programmed specifically to perform the wash cycle described in AATCC Monograph 6, Standardization of Home Laundry Test Conditions (M6). Several test methods and procedures call for standardized home laundering. In 1984, AATCC Research Committee RA88, Home Laundering Technology, developed M6 to establish a consistent set of test conditions for all test methods involving home laundering. Although laundering technology and model numbers change regularly, it is not practical or desirable for labs to replace washing machines every year. The committee worked with a major washing machine manufacturer to introduce machines with a speciallyprogrammed cycle. This cycle will allow labs to purchase available machines in subsequent years, while maintaining the same laundering conditions. The AATCC Wash Cycle-sometime referred to as the "key dance" cycle-is programmed in several commercially-available washing machine models.A list of these
models and instructions for accessing the AATCC Wash Cycle are available a twww.aatcc.org/testing/supplies/ washers.htm. Both traditional and high efficiency top-load, 120V/60 Hz washing machine models are equipped with the AATCC Wash Cycle. Front load and 220V models with the custom cycle are being developed. Currently, the AATCC Wash Cycle is limited to Normal Cycle with Warm Wash. Delicate Cycle and alternate wash temperatures may be accessed through normal machine settings. Visit the AATCC website for machine settings and updates. AATCC provides a list of models meeting monograph parameters as a service to users of the monograph and related test methods. The Association does not verify the parameters of washing machines or dryers. The published lists include machines reported by the manufacturer to meet the most recent parameters listed in the monograph.
Global Textile Technology & Engineering Show organised from 20-22nd January 2015 at Mumbai was a single window access to textile technology, new markets & customers, engineering solutions & International trade. GTTES-2015 focused to post spinning segments and provided once stop solution for every business in the textile segments. This event was supported by Heavy Industry Ministry (Government of India) & Textile Department (Government of Maharashtra). GTTES-2015, organized by India ITME Society is set to be the trend setter and catalyst for the Textile and Textile engineering industry in India as well as globally. A very unique opportunity given to the exhibitors of GTTES-2015 was a facility to promote their company brand and product/services online worldwide for 3 months apart from 3 day live demo & one to one interaction with customers on 20th, 21st& 22nd January 2015 at Mumbai. This Textile Technology event was the correct platform to start the year of 2015 for all the businesses in: November - December 2014
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Spinning accessories and spare parts sector Weaving Machinery sector Processing Machinery Pavilion sector Nonwoven & Technical Textiles sector Digital Printing Machinery sector Garment, Knitting, & Embroidery Machinery sector Textile Chemical & Dyes sector Fibre & Yarn sector Jute Machinery sector Accessories /Spare Parts/Component Waste Water Management & Green Technology
As on date, with total exhibitors of 255 and exhibition area of 11,500 sqm., this event is said to be the largest textile technology event in India after India ITME series. A very strong participation from China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, USA, Germany and UK apart from India gave a mix platter display of modern technology, price competitiveness, customized services, expanded network and new market members for both exhibitors and visitors. 321
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GTTES-2015 - A BUSINESS EVENT WITH A DIFFERENCE
NEWS This event was promoted worldwide through media partners and various other channels & have attracted group buyers in spinning accessories and spare parts from overseas, weaving machinery from domestic weaving hubs, delegations from Ethiopia, Sudan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Korea, Mozambique, Egypt, China, Taiwan, Srilanka, Iran etc.etc giving rise to an excitement and anticipation for textile industry in India. GTTES-2015 also had a special session on government procurement process and government subsidies giving information to small & medium enterprises on how they can avail these opportunities despite the size
and financial limitations. All in all GTTES-2015 has created new chain of events for all the exhibitors pushing the business to a new level for the year 2015. It was an appropriate platform to start the year and enhance brand image for the exhibitors. This 3 day event to be held on 20th, 21st, and 22nd of January 2015 at Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre, Mumbai, organized by India ITME Society was beneficial for textile and textile engineering industry.
Premiere Edition of ITMACH India: A Winner for Exhibitors and Visitors Huge crowds and on-the-spot signing of purchase contracts were the order of the day at ITMACH India 2014, in Ahmedabad. The four-day event, from 10-13 December, 2014 was the first focused textile machinery exhibition in Ahmedabad region at a brand-new, state-of-the-art exhibition centre in Gandhinagar.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
The international textile machinery exhibition hosted around 200 exhibitors and 21,487 visitors during the four days of the show. Exhibitors are satisfied with the quality of visitors and investment enquiries. ITMACH India 2014 attracted serious visitors and decision makers from the textile industry, from across the country. International visitors were from Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Nigeria, and Pakistan. The success of the ITMACH India 2014 establishes the need of a large textile machinery exhibition beyond Mumbai and presence of the country's largest exhibition centre. During the inauguration of the show and the concurrently held international textile conference, 'India' Opportunities for Global Textile Investments, Saurabh bhai Patel, Minister of Finance, Energy & Petrochemicals, Government of Gujarat, said, "Gujarat is moving towards becoming the textile manufacturing hub of the country. At such a time, an exhibition like ITMACH, India is very much the need of the hour. We hope that ITMACH India will be an annual event in Gandhinagar's Exhibition Centre, which is a world class exhibition facility. I hope to see ITMACH India show grows from one hall today to several in the next one year, with full support of the state government."
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Gujarat is fast becoming the textile manufacturing hub of the country, with several prestigious projects coming up in the state. This makes Ahmedabad the preferred location for an international machinery exhibition like ITMACH India.
November - December 2014
NEWS processing in this facility," he said, adding Sintex Industries has already been into textile business in Gujarat with one of their plants located in Kalol town near Gandhinagar.
Exhibitors and visitors have evinced satisfaction with the show. According to Ramesh Brahmbhatt, Yamuna Machine Works Ltd, "ITMACH India 2014 was a very well organised show. We were happy to be a part of it, and to meet our existing customers, and some new customers too."
The upcoming Pipavav unit will be the 10th plant of Sintex Industries in the country, and will be set up in phase-wise manner. Patel also said that Pipavav plant will have one million spindles, 2,400 weaving machines and a capacity to churn out 600 tonnes of knits.
A similar feedback was received from Sagar Group. The company represents a large number of international and Indian machinery makers. Varishen sagar Shah said, "We were happy to participate in ITMACH India 2014. We got a lot of leads at the show, while also meeting with our existing clients. With the industry in investment mode, this is the right time and place to organise a machinery show."
Says Natascha R Meier, Head, Sales & Marketing, Graf Group, "We are very happy to be at the show. The response is beyond expectations. We had not expected an international class show when we decided to participate in ITMACH India 2014. We were able to meet new, serious clients during the four day event." While some exhibitors were able to clinch business deals at the show, almost all the exhibitors were confident of bagging orders as a result of the show. Textile investments on the rise Gujarat-based Sintex Industries has announced plans of setting up a Greenfield textile composite mill near Pipavav port with an investment of Rs 5,500 crore. "We would be investing Rs 5,500 crore to set up this project, which is located 6 kms away from Pipavav port in Amreli district," Sintex Industries MD Amit Patel said. "We intend to complete this project by 2017-18. We will be focusing on spinning, weaving, knitting and November - December 2014
"Phase-one of Pipavav textile manufacturing plant will be operationalized by March 2015 and we will be adding one lakh spindles every two months and then finish the project till 2017-18," he said. Patel said the plant will generate employment opportunities for around 8,000 persons and around 40-50% of the employees will be women. "We expect a turnover of Rs 9,000-10,000 crore for the company after the Pipavav plant will run at its full capacity," Patel said, adding that the company's turnover was Rs 6,400 crore during the last fiscal with the growth rate of 20%. "Products will not only range up to cotton but will also include multiple products like polyester yarns, viscose yarn, Lycra, etc," Patel said, adding that 60-80% of the products will be exported. "Besides, there is a huge opportunity globally in this sector, especially as the space is being vacated by China. Meanwhile, Welspun has also announced its expansion plans at its Anjar facility. 323
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Another exhibitor Hemant Shah of Manisha Overseas stated, "ITMACH India 2014 did not attract visitors, the show attracted buyers. Those visiting the show were serious about doing business at the show, and were able to meet not just their existing suppliers, but also new suppliers. This was a win-win show for both exhibitors and visitors."
NEWS Manmade fiber producers rely on energy-efficient Oerlikon technology
Supporting the growing bottling market With the drastic increase in world population, drinking water is a scarce resource. Optimum conservation and an efficient transport are all the more important for these precious resources. The light, unbreakable PET bottle is in this case the first choice. Investment in production facilities for the synthetic granulates out of which the bottles are made, is particularly high in the emerging nations. With its high level of technological expertise in the production and handling of synthetic materials such as man-made fibers, Oerlikon Barmag has enabled a customer in Egypt to establish himself in the growing market for bottle-grade granulate by constructing a plant from the planning to the commissioning.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Worldwide, water is becoming increasingly scarce. The best way to keep it fresh and easy to transport, is to bottle it. Global consumption of bottled water has more than doubled in the past few years. Today, over 200 billion bottles of water are drunk every year. "Bottles made of synthetic materials have virtually replaced glass as a packaging material for water and other drinks," says Michael Scholz, Project Manager at Oerlikon Barmag in Remscheid. Bottles made of synthetic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are not only practical and unbreakable: because of their low weight, transporting them, also consumes less energy. A further advantage is that the material can be easily recycled. Beverage bottles are probably the best-known use for PET, but certainly not the only one: more than half of the annual production of 45 million tons is processed to manmade fibers. These are wrinkle-free and tearresistant and absorb very little water. They are therefore also ideal for clothing that needs to dry quickly. Such fibers are also used in so-called geotextiles for stabilizing roads and dams. Oerlikon Barmag, a division of the Oerlikon Group's Manmade Fibers Segment, has unique know-how in the manufacturing of equipment for the production of these manmade fibers. Worldwide demand for synthetic materials continues to rise "As this practical material is very much in demand for textiles as also for packaging, many companies are investing in the expansion of production capacities," 324
says Scholz. A consortium of Indian and Egyptian investors decided to establish them in this growth market. The target of the Egyptian Indian Polyester Company (EIPET) was, to set up a facility manufacturing granulate for synthetic bottles in Egypt, with a capacity of 1500 tons per day. Based on their experience for the requirements necessary for the production of man-made fibers, Oerlikon Barmag was able to optimally cover EIPET's needs: The proven Oerlikon technology led to significant energy savings and a sustainable reduction in operating costs. Oerlikon, as a contractor, was also able to offer the construction of the plant from the planning stage through to commissioning from one source. Worldwide, the Manmade Fibers Segment has completed three polycondensation facilities with a total of seven production lines. In two of these projects, the segment acted as general contractor. Successfully transferring expertise from the manmade fiber industry PET is obtained from organic raw materials using a multistep chemical process. Here, terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol are mixed with certain additives to generate a reaction. "The high temperatures and vacuum generated within these so-called polycondensation plants, transform the raw materials into polymers," explains Scholz. As the technology used in the manufacturing of bottle granulates is largely identical with that used for manmade fibers, Oerlikon benefited from their know-how from this sector when engineering the plant. During the filament production, polymer melt in liquid form is led to the spinnerets. For bottle-grade granulate, the melt is cooled in a water bath, and the strands produced are chopped up into small chips. Another difference is the higher viscosity of the melt. The plant therefore has an additional process step, during which the viscosity of the synthetic material is increased. The most important requirement is low energy consumption Synthetic materials production is a growing market. Nevertheless, the manufacturers are locked in an intense worldwide competition and constantly searching for ways of increasing their profitability. Their greatNovember - December 2014
NEWS est priority is cutting operating costs, mainly by reducing energy consumption. With a special technology developed by Oerlikon Barmag, the hot steam, generated during the manufacturing process, can be used to produce cold water. "This so-called vapor absorption distiller significantly reduces the plant's energy consumption," explains Scholz. On top of this, Oerlikon Barmag's technology has a high conversion rate and creates relatively little waste. Operators thus attain a substantially higher margin and are more competitive. In addition, the plant technology enables manufacturers to use a certain amount of recycled synthetic material in the production process, resulting in a reduced need for raw materials. Oerlikon Barmag assumed overall responsibility for planning and construction A second requirement from customers, particularly in the emerging countries, is the competence, to, as a general contractor, be able to offer such a plant from planning to commissioning. The customers themselves do not have the necessary know-how. At the same time, they wish to minimize the risks inevitably involved with large-scale projects. EIPET, also only wanted to negotiate the investment with a single partner. "That is why, we planned the complete facility, procured the parts and supervised the building of the plant" sums up Scholz.
At Oerlikon Barmag, a team of 30 engineers was responsible for the project. The detailed planning was carried out together with an engineering company in India. All the components, such as reactors, filters, heating elements, vacuum systems, piping, valves, sensors and control units, were procured from suppliers in various countries. During the subsequent building phase, up to 700 specialists worked on the site. The turnkey plant was handed over to EIPET at the beginning of 2014. "The successful completion of such a complex planning and construction project within a defined budget, not only calls for reliable and proven plant technology, but also a highly professional project management," summarizes Scholz. Thanks to their technological expertise and experience from numerous similar projects worldwide, Oerlikon Barmag enabled EIPET to successfully enter the bottle-grade granulates market. For further information please contact: AndrĂŠ Wissenberg Head of Marketing, Corporate Communications and Public Affairs Oerlikon Manmade Fibers Segment T +49 2191 67 2331, F +49 2191 67 1294 E-mail: andre.wissenberg@oerlikon.com Website: www.oerlikon.com/manmade-fibers
Release of new HimsonScragg Texturing Machine
Mr. Devendra Bachkaniwala, Mr. Pannalal Bachkaniwala and Mr. Malcolm Hinchcliffe were delighted to announce the formal release of the first November - December 2014
machine developed under this partnership. The new machine, The Himson-Scragg Drawset, was released formally at a Customer day at the company's new customer service centre at Mota Borsara-Kim on November 12th, 2014. The new Draw-Set Machine is not only a new design, but is the product of a completely reengineered company, with the application of world class engineering to all aspects of design and manufacturing. The result is a truly innovative machine with a range of unique features including: Hiset Primary Heaters. Apex Take Up, Positorq Twisting, Optima Threadline, Introl Control and Monitoring. The combination of these features together with attention to detail in all aspects of design and manufactur325
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Himson Textile Engineering Industry Pvt. Ltd. of Surat, India and T-marc of Macclesfield England had agreed on a partnership for the development and manufacturing of world class DTY machines under the HimsonScragg brand. Himson's Chairman Mr. Pannalal Bachkaniwala, Managing Director Mr. Devendra Bachkaniwala and T-Marc's Mr. Malcolm Hinchcliffe had announced the partnership of the two companies in ITMA 2012.This partnership reestablished the extremely successful relationship between Himson and Scrag, when Mr. Malcolm Hinchcliffe was Technical Director of Scragg. The new Himson-Scragg range of machines is focus on producing yarn of the highest standard while improving cost effectiveness.
NEWS ing results in the Himson Scragg Drawset being a true world class machines providing substantial benefits over both current Indian and International Machines with:
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Yarn Quality, Package Build, Process Efficiency and Overall Reliability matching the highest international standards. Energy Consumption at least 30% better than the leading International Machines The Drawset is the first of a Family of Himson
Scragg Drawset machines. World class machines under development include: Jetexan Air Jet Texturing Drawset- a Single Heater machine for Nylon processes Auto Draw-set - a completely new version of the Drawset machine with automatic doffing
Modern and upto date R& D centre at Mota Borsara, Kim is available for support and assistance to customers.
National Energy Conservation Award -2014 National Energy Conservation Award recognize innovation & achievements in Energy conservation by the industries, buildings, railways, state designated agencies, aviation, manufacturers of BEE star labeled appliances and municipalities and raise awareness that energy conservation plays a big part in India's response to global warming through energy savings. The awards were given away for the first time in December 14th, 1991 which is celebrated as 'National Energy conservation Day" throughout the country.
The award committee this year has selected 41 units for First prize, 37 units for Second prize and 44 units for certificate of Merit. The awards are recognition of their demonstrated commitment to energy conservation and efficiency.
The participation level from the Industrial & commercial units have been very encouraging from 123 in 1999 to 1010 in 2014.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
The progressive industrial units and other establishments have already realized the cost effectiveness of energy conservation measures and honoring their efforts on National Energy conservation day, gives a message to thousands of other Industrial units and establishments who may have not yet fully utilized their cost effective potential through energy conservation. "In the Textile sector M/s Aarti International has been awarded the Second prizeby Ministry of Power (Bureau of Energy Efficiency) for their contribution to the Energy conservation. The award was presented by Sh. Piyush Goyal, Hon'ble Minister of State (I/C) for Power, Coal and New & Renewable Energy, Government of India and received by Sh. Rajeev Mittal, Director Aarti International limited." 326
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NEWS
The new J 20 - the world's most productive air-jet spinning machine The new J20 is another milestone in the development of Rieter air-jet spinning. With 200 spinning units per machine, the J20 is twice as long as conventional airjet spinning machines. The unique machine design and innovative automation make this leap in productivity possible. The main advantage of the new J20 is the reduction in piecing cycle time by one-half. This is achieved by means of the new, automated piecing preparation process, which significantly reduces the robots' workload. The spinning unit itself removes the yarn defect and injects the yarn end through the spinning tip.
The new spinning unit, developed for high winding speeds, produces heavyweight packages in unique quality. The J 20 combines this with a space-saving machine design coupled with high flexibility and very easy operation. 200 spinning units with innovative automation
The world's most productive air-jet spinning machine the new J 20 with 200 spinning positions
The significant reduction in piecing cycle time now enables the J 20's efficient robots to serve up to 200 spinning units without any compromises on machine efficiency. Automated piecing preparation makes the piecing process more independent of the robot. In the event of a quality cut - and this account for approx. 85% of all November - December 2014
Automated piecing preparation at each spinning position reduces piecing time by one-half
The winding unit rotates the package backwards and the yarn defect is fed securely into the new suction device. The yarn defect is cut and the yarn end held in place. As soon as the robot has centered itself on the spinning unit, the new unit injects the yarn end through the spinning tip. The robot takes hold of the end and immediately starts the piecing process. High productivity in mill conditions 200 highly productive spinning units per machine, two machine sides which can adjust independ-ently of each other, each with 100 spinning units - this is where the J?20 sets new standards. Innovative technology components enable productivity to be increased to 450?m/ min in practice. The handle, i.e. characteristics of the yarn, can also be adjusted according to the sphere of application of the yarn. Whether maximum tenacity, minimum hairiness or soft hands are required, the J20 produces the optimal yarn for the required end use. Cans with a diameter of 500?mm arranged in two rows under the machine make long production times possible without manual intervention. Optimal package build with a new winding concept The J20 enables packages 300 mm in diameter and now up to 4.5 kg in weight to be produced, so that higher efficiencies can be achieved in subsequent pro327
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Marc Schnell
stoppages on an air-jet spinning machine - the spinning process on this spinning unit is interrupted under controlled conditions. A newly integrated suction and cutting device on each spinning unit draws in the yarn end.
NEWS cesses. This has been made possible by the further development of the winding unit, for which the millproven individual drive concept has been retained. Package drive and yarn displacement are new.
The new winding unit produces packages 300 mm in diameter and up to 4.5 kg in weight
The drive motor for the package is now integrated in the winding cylinder, thus saving space. Designed for high winding speeds, the package is now driven consistently and reliably.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
Yarn displacement is via a ceramic yarn guide operating linearly. In front of the package the thread guide is mounted on an apron and is moved to the left and right by a high-performance motor. The crossing angle, and thus the speed of the yarn guide, can be entered on the machine panel. Together with the adjustment of the package contact pressure, cylindrical packages of all kinds can therefore be produced. Yarn displacement is automatically adjusted over package build-up. Higher density means longer yarn lengths or a higher weight per package. The result is a package with optimal take-off behavior in downstream processing. A convincing machine concept The J 20 impresses with its clean-lined, space-saving concept appropriate to mill operations. Individual drive technology enables the spinning units on both sides of the machine to be set independently of each other. High-capacity cans are arranged in two rows under the machine, thus saving space. The feed sliver covers a short, direct path to the drafting system. False draft of the sensitive sliver caused by a long distance from can to spin unit is eliminated. Machine operators have an overall view of the cans, the spinning units and the winding heads. They can 328
remedy malfunctions efficiently and replace empty cans rapidly and promptly. The patented traversing system in the spinning unit prolongs the service life of aprons and top roller covers. The sliver funnel, the spinning nozzle housing and the yarn clearer are mounted on the traversing unit. The feed sliver in the drafting system and the finally spun yarn are thus moved continuously over 3-4 mm. Wear is therefore distributed over a larger surface area, and the service life and thus the productive cycles of the machine without maintenance downtimes are considerably prolonged.
The patented traversing system in the spinning unit significantly prolongs the service lives of aprons and top roller covers
Com4速jet yarn - the convincing end product Com4速jet yarn is the convincing end product of the J20 air-jet spinning machine. Depending on the sphere of application, the yarn is optimized within a short time by means of machine settings and easy replacement of technology components. A newly developed spinning tip enables higher productivity to be achieved in all applications. The J?20 therefore sets new benchmarks in terms of economy and competitiveness. Together with other newly developed components, the nature of the yarn is influenced. For example, the tenacity of combed cotton yarns can be selectively optimized by the choice of spinning top shape. However, yarns with a pleasantly soft hand can also be spun for use in knitting. Customers who opt for the J20 produce economically and flexibly. If we've aroused your curiosity, get to know the new J20, for example on Rieter's exhibition booth D 01 in Hall 4 at the ITMA Asia + CITME in Shanghai, China. Author: Marc Schnell Head Product Management Air-jet Spinning marc.schnell@rieter.com November - December 2014
NEWS
Bräcker, Graf, Novibra and Suessen: Perfect presentation of premium quality at ITMACH 2014 With an impressive appearance at ITMACH INDIA 2014, the four companies Bräcker,Graf, Novibra and Suessen exhibited their premium products to numerous visitors. Bräcker presented in amazing animation the RAPID inserting tool for time and costsaving of traveller insertion and received great interest from numerous visitors. Ofcourse the Benchmark TITAN spinning ring is well acknowledged for bestperformance ratio.
card clothings like Camel and Hipro as model, inrespective showcases. Novibra, the leader in spindle technology and the only 100% in-house spindle makerpresented their wide range of spindles. The new Novibra cutting crown CROCOdoffpresented in innovative 3D animation got lot of attention during the exhibition.
CROCOdoff enables perfect doffing without underwinding. Graf, the leading manufacturer of card clothing and combing components displayeddifferent clothing specifications. Visitors were impressed to have a close look of differentproducts of card clothing presented through magnifier and screen. Additionally Grafdisplayed circular combs PRIMACOMB 9030 and COMB-PRO H15 as well as topcombs along with range of metallic
D.K.T.E. COE in Nonwovens partner with Yamuna Machine Works Ltd. for finishing of Needle Punched Nonwovens
To facilitate the growth of Technical Textiles industry in India, the office of Textile Commissioner, Ministry of Textiles, Government of India has announced different schemes to promote Technical Textiles in India as a part of Technology Mission for Technical Textiles. D.K.T.E. is selected for establishing the COE in Nonwovens during the year 2011-12. The one of the objectives of COE is to set up state of the art R and D facilities for product development to enable the Indian industry to accomplish international quality norms. Their intensive study and research in nonwoven products and processes resulted into the decision to buy minimum possible industrial width lines for different bonding techniques to create a facility for the Indian nonwoven industry to conduct trials, sample November - December 2014
production for seed marketing & train their personnel etc.,. He believes their decision will just not stimulate the investment and growth in the sector but also will help to evolve and develop nonwoven products made in India for India."
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Suessen presented the new compact spinning system EliTe®Advancedwithoutstanding features for improved yarn quality parameters. Visitors were extremelyinterested in the possible savings in energy, consumables and maintenance provided bythe new system.
NEWS D.K.T.E. COE in Nonwovens has already commissioned Truetzschler universal needle punch line in 2 meters. To utilize capabilities of Truetzschler Cross Lapper, D.K.T.E. has planned to add finishing machines for needle punched nonwovens with Thermofusion capabilities and Heat Setting Calendering. For this phase, DTKE COE for NonWOvens has partnered with YAMUNA for supplying the thermo fusion finishing and heatsettingcaleendering machines. Prof. C. A. Patil, Director, D.K.T.E. CoE in Nonwovens is extremely happy with the Yamuna Machine Works Ltd being their partner in their prestigious project. Yamuna Machine Works is active in the field of Nonwovens for many years and have strong references in Indian Nonwoven Industry. Prof. Patil further added that, they prefer to work with strong Indian Machinery Makers for Nonwovens and only in case, they are unable to find such suppliers, they will prefer strong European supplier.
Mr. PrashantMangukia, Director of M/s Yamuna Machine Works Ltd is delighted with their association with D.K.T.E. CoE in Nonwovens and promised that his company will make everything possible for the success of the lines to be supplied and confident that, the association will be beneficial for all the stake holders and for the R&D of nonwovens for the Indian technical textile industry. Yamuna Machine Works will deliver Thermo-fusion line and Heat Setting Calender by April 2015 and confident that the lines will be commissioned by June 2015. DKTE COE in Nonwovens also has plans to buy Spunlace, Chemical, SMS, Coating and Lamination line, fiber retrieving lines in industrial width to complete their infrastructure for prototyping and incubation.
F&A & HOMTEX Trade Shows Return to Bangalore ◆ Innovation driven apparel fabrics, garment trims will be on display at F&A Show ◆ Exhibitors at HOMTEX to showcase entire range of home textiles & décor products
In to its 12th edition, the 2015 edition of the Fabrics & Accessories Trade Show (F&A Show) returns from March 12-14, 2015 to the Trade Centre, Whitefield, Bangalore and is set to offer an enhanced all-round sourcing experience with a large number of exhibitors showcasing a wide range of yarns, fabrics, accessories and services.
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
HOMTEX, the India International Home Textiles Exhibition will also run concurrently with the F&A Show and will see an improved participation from exhibitors in the home textiles, home décor, gifts and house ware segments in the 2015 edition. This 12th edition of F&A Show will see over 100 exhibitors exhibiting their Spring/Summer 2016 product lines and visitors can expect to see innovation driven trends and products in apparel fabrics, trimmings, embellishments and also services. There will be a strong representation of suppliers displaying apparel fabrics from across the fiber segments, and also varied garment trims and accessories from India and overseas.
plush, flannel, coral velvet, micro veboa, faux fur, 100% organic cotton (GOTS & OE), cotton Lycra, 100% Modal, 100% linen, Fair Trade organic fabrics, BCI cotton fabrics, soya bean fabrics, x-static fabrics, 100% Sorona fabrics, Bemberg fabrics, water soluble nonwoven fabric, water soluble PVA fabric and many more. A few of the innovative yarns, with end-application in garmenting fabrics, will be on display at the F&A Show and include water soluble PVA yarn, water soluble PVA sewing thread, instant soluble PVA yarn, colour zero twist yarn, zero twist yarn, hollow yarn, water soluble filament, covering yarn, insoluble PVA Yarn, PVA high strength and high modulus fibres, etc. Within the accessories segment, cotton fusible & nonfusible interlinings with Azo-free dyes, neck laces/ patches (Y/D), dori embroideries, croatia/crochet laces, banarasi lace, maharani lace, needle, jalar, crochet, satin lace (Y/D), sequin embroideries, jacquard tapes/webbing, cut-work embroideries, laser cut & pasting, 9colour embroideries, crochet fabrics, real mother of pearl buttons, etc, will be on display.
In fabric innovations, buyers will be able to see PV 330
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NEWS
Among those offering services to the apparel industry include; suppliers of CAD systems & software, design studios, testing and QC equipments, consultants, trade media, etc. Software service providers will showcase ERP solutions tailor-made for buying houses, sourcing houses, exporters and importers. Various types of garment and fabric testing instruments, button snap pull tester, quality control lab accessories and consumables, Pantone products, swatch cutting machines, fabric inspection machine and fabric inspection software, color matching cabinets, new GSM cutter, shrinkage tester, pick glasses/magnifiers with LED lites, digital thickness gauge and digital rubbing fastness tester will also be displayed. The 2014 edition of the F&A Show saw over 3,500 quality trade visitors attending the trade show and for the 2015 too, the organisers, S S Textile Media expect a higher number. The F&A 2015 Show will see visitors streaming in from across India, particularly from neighbouring states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Besides which, a Sri Lankan delegation will visit the fair apart from visitors from the Middle East, Thailand, Turkey, France, Switzerland, etc. Trade buyers to the F&A Show comprise decision makers and merchandising personnel from buying houses, garment exporters retail chains, apparel brands, wholesalers and distributors, importers, fashion labels and fashion designers, etc. The visit of buyers to the previous editions was made extremely rewarding due to the vast range of products from across fibre-groups displayed at the shows. Buyers who were surveyed at the previous edition of the F&A Show had expressed very high levels of satisfaction with the product-mix, innovation and quality displayed by the suppliers.
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With over 3,000 trade buyers from India and abroad visiting the 2015 edition, HOMTEX too is a significant platform for wholesalers, buying houses, buying agents, interior designers, retailers and ecommerce companies. At HOMTEX, buyers will be able to see cushion covers, bed covers, table covers, wall hangings, quilts, mats, napkins, bags, geometric items, handloom bed spreads, embroidered curtains, upholstery fabrics made from a wide range of woven fabrics like chambray, canvas, twill, drill, poplin, jacquard, seer sucker, double cloth in hand block printing, screen printing, embroidery, applique work, etc. Since the F&A Show and Homtex are restricted strictly for 'Trade Only', both offer a professional and conducive environment for networking and doing business and the 2015 shows are bigger in terms of both exhibitor numbers and will be so, in visitor numbers also. Textile & Accessories Sourcing Summit 2015 (TASS) A major side event at the F&A Show will be a panel discussion on "What should India do to increase its share in the global textile & apparel markets. Leading professionals of the textile value chain will speak on the subject and later be involved in an interactive session with the audience. The Textile & Accessories Sourcing Summit is governed by an Advisory Board comprising professionals from across the textile and apparel spectrum. A list of companies, along with brief profiles and product information, who will be exhibiting at the F&A Show 2015, can be accessed at http://www.fnashow.in/ news-letter.php Related web sites: www.fnashow.in | www.homtex.in PR Contact: ArunRao Taurus Communications Cell: +91 9825038518 Email: arun@tauruscomm.net
Textsmile Teacher: Which is faster, hot or cold? Pupil: Hot, because you can always catch cold 331
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Other accessories on show include; labels, paper tags, anti-theft tags, polybags, tapes, heat transfers, badges, stickers barcodes, hangers, kids light patches, direct PVC and reflective welding on garment, sublimation, puff & glitter heat transfers, image printing on t-shirt, P.V.C. label, rubber label, P.U. night glowing, metal label, towel patches and stuff toy patch for kids tshirts.
FORTHCOMING EVENTS
International Convention on Colorants 2015 Date : 3rd-4th March, 2015 Venue : The Club, Andheri, Mumbai Contact : The Dyestuffs Manufacturers Association of India A-317, Antop Hill Warehousing Co.Ltd. Vidhyalnkar College Road, Wadala (E), Mumbai - 400 037 India Tel. : +91-22-2415 8156/57 Fax : +91-22-2415 7374 E-mail : dmai@vsnl.com, dmai_1950@yahoo.co.in Website : www.dmail.org
Non Woven Tech Asia 2015 - 2nd International Exhibition & Conference of Non Woven Industry Date : 4th-6th June, 2015 Venue : Mahatma Mandir, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Contact : Radeecal Communications 402, 4th Floor, Optionz Complex, Opp. Nest Hotel, Off C.G. Road, Navarangpura, Ahmedabad - 380 009 India Tel. : +91-79-26401101, M. : +91-9173440725 E-mail : sales@nonwoventechasia.com Website : www.nonwoventechasia.com
India International Home Textile Exhibition 2015 (HOMTEX) Date : 12-14th March, 2015 Venue : Trade Centre, KTPO, Bangalore Contact : S.S. Textile Media Pvt. Ltd. # 1336, 11th Main, 6th Cross, H.A.L. 3rd Stage, Bangalore - 560 008 Karnataka, India, Tel. : +91-80-2554 4711, 4115 1841, Fax : +91-80-2554 4711 Mobile : +9198454 46570, 93425 66532 E-mail : ssm@homtex.in, ssm@textilefairindia.com Website : www.homtex.in, textilefairindia.com
Techtextil India (Trade Fair for Technical Textiles and Nonwoven) Date : 24th to 26th September, 2015 Venue : Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre, Goregaon (E), Mumbai, India Contact : Messe Frankfurt Trade Fairs India Pvt. Ltd., 215, Atrium, 2nd Floor, B Wing, Andheri Kurla Road, Andheri, Mumbai - 400 093 India Tel. : +91 (0)22-61445900 Fax : +91 0)22-61445999 Website : www.messefranfurtindia.in
InFashion 2015 Design, Trends & Sourcing Exhibition Date : 18th to 20th March, 2015 Venue : Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre, Goregaon (E), Mumbai, India Contact : Mr. Adarsh Verma Inages Multimedia Pvt. Ltd. S-21, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi - 110 020 India Tel. : +91-11-49525000 Fax : +91-11-40525001 M. : +91-9999251621 E-mail : info@imagesgroup.in, adarshverma@imagesgroup.in Website : http://www.imagesgroup.in
INDIATEX 2016 International Textile Exhibition Date : 16-18th March, 2016 Venue : Bombay Convention & Exhibition Centre, Goregaon (E), Mumbai, India Contact : Mr. Haresh B. Parekh, Exhibition Convenor The Textile Association (India) - Mumbai Unit Amar Villa, Behind Villa Diana, 86, College Road, Near Portuguese Church, Meher Hall, Dadar (W), Mumbai - 400 028 India Tel. : +91-22-2432 8044, 2430 7702, Fax : +91-22-2430 7708 Mobile : +91-9167515676, +91-9324904271 E-mail : taimumbaiunit@gmail.com, taimu@mtni.net.in, Website : www.textileassociationindia.com, www.indiatex.co.in
Journal of the TEXTILE Association
INDIA
Homtex Tech - Expo 2015 Home Textile Machinery Equipments and Accessories Exhibition Date : 20th-22nd March, 2015 Venue : Huda Ground, Near Mittal Mall, Panipat (Haryana), India Contact : Essential Events & Trade Fairs Anmol Plaza, Plot No.7, Shop No. 7, Sector 8, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai - 410 210. India Tel. : 09324077881, 09768119994, 08727133520 E-mail : mktg.essential@gmail.com, info@essentialmedia.biz Website : www.essentialmedia.biz
ABROAD ITMA 2015 The Integrated Textile & Garment Manufacturing Technologies Showcase Date : 12th to 19th November, 2015 Venue : Fiera, Milano Rho, Milan, Italy Contact : MP Expositions Pte Ltd. 20, Kallang Avenue, 2nd Floor, Pico Creative Centre, Singapore 339411 Tel. : +65 6393 0241, Fax: +65 6296 2670 E-mail : info@itma.com, Website : http://www.itma.com
Every effort is made to ensure that the information given is correct. You are however, advised to re-check the dates with the organizers, for any change in schedule, venue etc., before finalizing your travel plans.. 332
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