NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS: THE ILLUSION OF AUTHORSHIP IN ARCHITECTURE AN EXPLORATION OF ARCHITECTURAL LEGACY AND IDENTITY BY EVAN PARISH
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“Notre-Dame de Paris: the Illusion of Authorship in Architecture an Exploration of Architectural Legacy and Identity�
an Undergraduate Honors Thesis by Evan Parish
Chair: Marc Neveu, PhD
6 May 2020
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ARCHITECTURE
has the distinct quality of creating a legacy both physical as well as intangible;
the qualities of which influence, and are influenced by, the great diversity of human culture.
How can we best retain the cultural content of architectural works against the passage of time, social change, environmental transformation, and disaster?
This is the challenge of historic conservation. Veneration of the past and of historic structures has existed beyond record, manifesting itself in different ways across cultures. However, historic conservation as it is known today is a product of several movements of the nineteenth century.
The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, a compelling vestige of culture, religion, and architectural form, was physically compromised by the fire of the 15th of April 2019, which destroyed its spire and much of the roof. The cathedral’s planned restoration has been the subject of impassioned debate, controversy, and conjecture.
In this thesis project, I will evaluate different approaches to retaining the cultural content present in architectural works and apply them specifically to the case of Notre-Dame de Paris. 4
Avignon, France
While material and structure yield to the passage of time, our collective understanding of the work will change just as significantly, yet less discernibly. 5
HISTORIC CONSERVATION in the European tradition was a product of the early nineteenth century. The notion of ‘saving’ important structures from impending danger from social change or modernity reflects the circumstances of that time and place. However, this certainly does not mean that historic structures did not interest scholars and architects greatly prior to this. Prior to the age of Enlightenment, ancient monuments were the primary focus, and from a more theoretical view that emphasized technology and aesthetics. A more scientific approach to the architecture of classical Greece and Rome was developed by Julien-David LeRoy, alongside an architectural approach which employed precise measurements, atypical for the time. LeRoy stressed historical context and the necessity for innovation, rather than a linear evolution of architectural form1. This understanding of architectural history was critical for the development of historic conservation movements, as well as the social changes of the Industrialization of Europe. These movements often represented a “discontent with industrialization – its dislocations and transformations”2. As with anything concerning the assessment of values, efforts of historic conservation typically have a political context or subtext.
Herein, I will use the term ‘historic conservation’ as defined in the Burra Charter of 1979: “all the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its cultural significance”. ‘Preservation’ will be used to refer to more specific practices of maintaining the existing state of a structure, and ‘restoration’ for efforts that seek to improve the condition through intervention. The historic conservation movement in France began during the Bourbon Restoration and was motivated by a desire to reduce or reverse the damage caused during the Revolution to many important structures4. This may be why historic conservation in France tended toward restoration; whereas the English movement, exemplified by John Ruskin, was more inclined to preservation (against industrialization and modernity) – though there are also many worthy examples of the former. In further contrast to the historic preservation societies of England, which were non-governmental organizations of interested individuals, historic conservation in France was the jurisdiction of the Commission des Monuments Historiques5.
1 - Kisacky, Jeanne. “History and Science: Julien-David Leroys ‘Dualistic Method of Architectural History.’” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 60, no. 3 (2001): 260–89. 2 - Barthel, Diane. “Historic Preservation: A Comparative Analyses.” Sociological Forum 4, no. 1 (1989): 87–105 3 - Chelazzi, D., R. Giorgi, and P. Baglioni. “Materials and Methods for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage.” Conserving Cultural Heritage, 2018, 3–6. https://doi. org/10.1201/9781315158648-1. 4 - Murphy, Kevin D. Memory and Modernity: Viollet-Le-Duc at Vézelay. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. 5 - Jokilehto, Jukka. “Questions of Authenticity Concerning Different Cultures and Preservation.” Preserving Transcultural Heritage: Your Way or My Way?, 2017, 27–36.
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EUGENE VIOLLET-LE-DUC began his career during the July Monarchy, which was largely supportive of such efforts. Viollet-le-Duc, who is often said to have taken more license in his work on historic structures than would now be considered proper, was nonetheless fastidious in his approach. He stressed the importance of a physical legacy of the past for modernity: which was likely agreeable to the Louis-Phillipe regime, in establishing a perceived link between history and the new monarchy1. Restoration, in his view “is not to preserve, to repair, or to rebuild it – it is to reinstate in it a condition of completeness which could never have existed at any given time”2. Viollet-le-Duc has never lacked reasoned criticism for these views. John Ruskin wrote of restoration in ‘The Lamp of Memory’ within The Seven Lamps of Architecture: “Neither by the public, nor by those who have the care of public monuments, is the true meaning of the word restoration understood. It means the most total destruction which a building can suffer: a destruction out of which no remnants can be gathered; a destruction accompanied with false description of the thing destroyed. Do not let us deceive ourselves in this important matter; it is impossible, as impossible as to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever been great or beautiful in architecture.”3
However, in contemporary France, several notable officials held views in accord with Viollet-le-Duc: Inspector General M. Vitet wrote that in understanding a work of art “it is necessary to trace its progress in all the localities in which it has appeared, to indicate the varieties of form it has successively assumed, and to present a comparative sketch of all its varieties”. Viollet-le-Duc also had the support of the leader of the Commission des Monuments Historiques, Prosper Mérimée, who had advocated for his direction of the restoration of Vezelay Abbey1. In 1844, Viollet-le-Duc and Jean-Baptiste Lassus (with whom he had collaborated on the Sainte-Chapelle restoration) won a competition for the restoration of Notre-Dame de Paris. The two would begin work the following year, with a budget of 2.6 million Francs, and continue until the latter’s death in 1857, at which point Viollet-le-Duc became the sole architect of the endeavor. While some of his plans were not approved by the Commission des Monuments Historiques, it was Viollet-le-Duc who rejected the construction of two smaller spires atop the cathedral’s towers, stating that it “would be remarkable but would not be Notre-Dame de Paris”. The restoration, by the time of its completion in 1864, had cost over 12 million Francs.
1 - Murphy, Kevin D. Memory and Modernity: Viollet-Le-Duc at Vézelay 2 - Viollet-Le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. The Architectural Theory of Viollet-Le-Duc: Readings and Commentary. Edited by Millard Fillmore. Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press, 1995. 3 - Ruskin, John. The Seven Lamps of Architecture; Lectures on Architecture and Painting. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1885. 4 - Temko, Allan. Notre Dame of Paris: the Biography of a Cathedral, 1955.
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THE CATHEDRAL OF PARIS also known as Notre-Dame de Paris (‘Our Lady of Paris’), is believed to occupy the site of a former temple of Jupiter, which was constructed when Paris was a colony of Ancient Rome. A basilica was later constructed in roughly the same location in the fourth century and was renovated during the Frankish Merovingian dynasty. It was rebuilt as a cathedral in the ninth century, and finally reconstructed in the Romanesque style. It was declared by the Bishop of Paris, Maurice de Sully, in 1160 that the existing Romanesque structure would be dismantled, its materials reused, and a cathedral in the nascent Gothic style would be constructed. In contemporary accounts, the cornerstone was laid on the 25th of April 1163, in the presence of the King Louis VII and the Pope. The traditional chronology of construction holds that the choir and ambulatory were constructed during the first phase, followed by the nave and clerestories, and then the façade and the completion of the transepts1. This timeline has since become a source of debate among architectural historians. A structural examination of the cathedral was conducted in order to revise the traditional timeline put forth by Marcel Aubert, which was published in 1987 2.
In summary, the construction was far less linear than had been believed, with different parts occurring simultaneously by different groups of craftsmen. In many cases, work on certain pieces was paused for a significant period of time, and other elements were replaced before the structure had even been completed, leading to stylistic differences throughout the cathedral. The completion, if the term is even applicable, of the original structure is widely accepted as being around 1245 2. The cathedral features an early use of flying buttresses, though the exact date of their construction is unknown. Upon its completion, it was the largest cathedral ever constructed. Many of the original elements were replaced in the next few centuries. The flying buttresses were enlarged in the 14th century, in order to better support the weight of the roof. Much of the Gothic-era decorations were removed or obscured during the Renaissance, and the choir and ambulatory were substantially renovated in the time of Louis XIV. The original stained-glass windows were removed in 1756, as it was thought the interior was overly dark, and replaced with clear glass. The original spire was dismantled in 1786, as it was structurally compromised so far as to be unstable in the wind1.
1 - “Construction History | Notre-Dame De Paris.” Notre-Dame de Paris. Accessed May 16, 2019. https://www.notredamedeparis.fr/en/la-cathedrale/histoire/historique-de-la-construction/. 2 - Bruzelius, Caroline. “The Construction of Notre-Dame in Paris.” The Art Bulletin 69, no. 4 (1987): 540-569.
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4th century – basilica constructed near location of current cathedral 8th century – renovation 9th century – conversion to cathedral 1160 – Bishop of Paris declares new cathedral to be constructed from existing basilica 1163 – cornerstone placed 1245 – traditional date for completion of Notre-Dame de Paris 14th century – buttresses enlarged 1756 – stained glass replaced 1786 – original spire dismantled 1844 – restoration by Viollet-le-Duc 1864 – restoration completed
The French Revolution resulted in the destruction of all the statues of the Gallery of Kings, which were mistaken for representing Kings of France, rather than biblical kings, as well as many of the other statues. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Notre-Dame was considered for demolition due to the extent of its disrepair1.
1 - “Construction History” https://www.notredamedeparis.fr/en/la-cathedrale/histoire/historique-de-la-construction/.
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NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991, thus being deemed to be of ‘outstanding universal value’ to all of humankind. The cathedral is of indisputable importance to European history and Western Catholicism. The Third Crusade began at the cathedral in 1185, prior to its completion. Prominent Christian relics were deposited in the Cathedral in the twelfth century, including the Crown of Thorns, which remain to this day. In 1302, the first Estates General, an advisory assembly under the king, was established by Philip IV inside Notre-Dame. After the French Revolution, Notre-Dame was dedicated briefly to the Cult of Reason, an atheistic ideology supported by the state, before becoming, effectively, a rather grandiose warehouse. Emperor Napoleon I formally re-dedicated it to the Catholic Church in 1802, having the exterior whitewashed and the decorations updated1. These events, in themselves, do not qualify the cathedral as being of ‘outstanding universal value’ to all of humanity. According to a World Heritage strategy meeting of 1998, “…outstanding universal value characterizing cultural and natural heritage should be interpreted as an outstanding response to issues of universal nature common to or addressed by all human cultures”2.
1 - “Construction History” Notre-Dame de Paris 2 - Jokilehto, Jukka. “Questions of Authenticity” 2006.
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What universal themes does Notre-Dame de Paris seek to address? Most obviously, the cathedral attests to the human fascination with reaching to the sky. The experience of entering the cathedral is particularly eloquent: there is a tangible sense of your own minuteness in the scale of the universe expressed through the dimension of the nave illuminated by the clerestory. The dim interior, with colored light emanating softly from magnificent stained-glass windows creates a space contemplative and solemn even on a bright afternoon. These were my own impressions; but it can be experienced and interpreted variously by all, even though it reflects a worldview that is specifically Western, Christian, and French. Great works of architecture may be thought of as great literature on the human condition, but without the barrier of language. Admittedly, the characterization of ‘outstanding universal value’ is based in a very European understanding of art and cultural heritage, which ascribes value to the act of composition. While a more updated definition to account for different understandings of cultural heritage is doubtless needed, this does not pose a particular problem for our case in the context of historical France.
As stated elegantly in the UNESCO Declaration of the Cultural Diversity: “Creation draws on the roots of cultural tradition, but flourishes in contact with other cultures. For this reason, heritage in all its forms must be preserved, enhanced and handed on to future generations as a record of human experience and aspirations, so as to foster creativity in all its diversity and to inspire genuine dialogue among cultures.”1
1 - Jokilehto, “Authenticty”
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THE NOTION OF IDENTITY is crucial to historic conservation efforts, and how it can be best preserved against the physical decay of the structure. A popular paradox of identity is quite relevant here: that of the Ship of Theseus. The earliest known account of this philosophical query is from Plutarch: “The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place, insomuch that this ship became a standing example among the philosophers, for the logical question of things that grow; one side holding that the ship remained the same, and the other contending that it was not the same.”1
image from Wikimedia Commons
The Barcelona Pavilion, which was demolished and later rebuilt exactly as it had been, is an architectural example of the Ship of Theseus problem
An earlier problem of identity is attributed to Heraclitus: can one ever step into the same river more than once, since the composition and path of the river are in constant change?
1 - Cohen, S. M. “Identity, Persistence, and the Ship of Theseus.” Department of Philosophy, University of Washington (2004). 2 - Jokilehto
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Structures which undergo repair or restoration may be deemed as retaining identity through spatio-temporal continuity, which essentially states that identity persists through continuity of the account of the object1. However, structures which are destroyed completely, and then rebuilt, would not retain their identity according to this theory (which is a view held by many). Within architecture, identity is typically accounted more subjectively. Form, program, intent, and various other qualities may be said to be necessary and sufficient to establish identity. A work of art or of architecture can thus be said to have an identity that is more dynamic.
Historic structures are also evaluated by their ‘integrity’. As per the World Heritage Operational Guidelines, “Integrity is a measure of the wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or cultural heritage and its attributes” and is determined by the following criteria: “a) includes all elements necessary to express its outstanding universal value; b) is of adequate size to ensure the complete representation of the features and processes which convey the property’s significance; c) suffers from adverse effects of development and/or neglect.”3
Cesare Brandi stated in his Theory of Restoration that a work of art is fully in control of the artist until its completion: “Once created, such a work has an independent existence; however, its appreciation and therefore also its conservation depend on the recognition of its art significance every time the work is contemplated”2. Rome, Italy
1 - Jokilehto, “Questions of Authenticity” 2 - summary by Jokilehto 3 - ibid.
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AUTHENTICITY has become the prevailing concept in the discussion of historic conservation efforts since the 1960s. Prior to this, it was not featured in any meaningful way in the discourse of earlier movements. Authenticity is accounted as being ‘true to itself’, and is used to express a perceived faithfulness to the identity of a structure1. A common notion of authenticity as applies to works of art, authenticity by creation, as expressed by art Historian Paul Phillipot, is “internal unity of the mental process and of the material realization of the work”2. Prior to 2005, the UNESCO World Heritage Operational Guidelines contained a four-part ‘test of authenticity’, being: design, material, workmanship, and setting. This was greatly revised (and expanded) by inclusion of the Nara Document on Authenticity of 1994. Several new metrics, such as spirit and feeling, were added to facilitate the recognition of intangible pieces of cultural heritage, crucial to many non-Western traditions2. If we accept that the identity of architecture can be dynamic, as per Brandi, then the definition of authenticity becomes rather more complex.
THE VENICE CHARTER was adopted in 1964, and remains the guiding set of principles for historic conservation of world monuments. While it lacks binding legal status, it is the basis for the conservation codes of numerous countries. Based on the Athens Charter of 1931, it is remarkable for its widespread approbation and longevity. This, however, does not present a serious problem for the specific case of Notre-Dame de Paris. The articles regarding restoration actively deny the main premise of Viollet-le-Duc’s philosophy of restoration: that of recreating a complete state that never existed at any one time. The end of restoration, it states, is not to reinstate a “unity of style”, but to portray the “valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument”3. However, it does allow for “any modern technique for conservation and construction the efficacy of which has been shown by scientific data and proven by experience”, which are “least invasive and most compatible with heritage values, bearing in mind safety and durability requirements” 4. It has been alleged that the Charter represents largely European views on monuments and history; which would not be of surprise, as the committee was largely formed of Europeans 3.
1 - Starn, Randolph. “Authenticity and Historic Preservation: towards an Authentic History.” History of the Human Sciences 15, no. 1 (2002): 1–16. 2 - Jokilehto 3 - Cevat, Erder. “The Venice Charter under Review.” Journal of Faculty of Architecture, 1977. 4 - Bandarin, Francesco. “Notre Dame Should Be Rebuilt as It Was.” The Art Newspaper. The Art Newspaper, April 30, 2019.
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In the following discussion, I will make the distinction between three main qualities of historic conservation efforts:
GENUINE
ACCURATE
AUTHENTIC
Retaining the existing material
Correct to physicality
Reflects identity
Experiential qualities of the structure
Attempts to restore the experience
Interpretively engages with
are not engaged with
to that of an earlier state
experiential qualities
Additionally, within these, two other considerations will be addressed:
INVASIVENESS the degree to which the existing physicality of the structure must be altered
ICONOGRAPHY the extent to which it retains its distinct exterior appearance
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CASE STUDY: ANNO MUSEUM HAMARDOMEN HAMAR, NORWAY Hamar Cathedral, completed around 1200, has been in ruins since 1567 as a result of a fire. In 1987, a glass structure was designed by Kjell Lund to protect the remains of the cathedral, and also provide an acoustically sound space for worship and other events1. image from Wikimedia Commons
ICONIC
If we were to apply this strategy to Notre-Dame, a large glass structure would be constructed to encapsulate the cathedral and protect it in its current state, while allowing for its use for both tourism and worship.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
1 - “Medieval Ruins - Anno Museum.” Domkirkeodden. Accessed February 17, 2020. https://domkirkeodden.no/en/medieval-ruins.
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CASE STUDY: COLOSSEUM ROME, ITALY In the words of Lord Byron, “a noble wreck in ruinous perfection”, the Colosseum reflects a very nineteenth-century view of historic preservation. Much of the structural interventions were undocumented, and no distinction was made in the addition of new material. The intent was to maintain its (then) current state of ruin, with as little visual alteration as possible1.
ICONIC
Applied to Notre-Dame, this would take the form of structural reinforcement of the upper stone vaults, with as little visual alteration as possible. The opening near the apse of the cathedral would be preserved, where the stone vaults had fallen. The cathedral would then exist as a beautiful ruin, rather than a functional space for worship.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
1 - Szegedy-Maszak, Andrew. “A Perfect Ruin: Nineteenth-Century Views of the Colosseum.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, Third Series, 2, no. 1 (1992): 115-42. Accessed February 12, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/20163509.
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CASE STUDY: MARAYA CONCERT HALL AL-ULA, SAUDI ARABIA In near proximity to the historic Mada’in Salih tombs, a World Heritage Site, the Maraya Concert Hall is clad in mirrors to minimize its visual presence1. It is not a conservation project, but rather an addition of program while taking a novel approach to respect its surroundings. image from Wikimedia Commons
ICONIC
If one was to adopt this strategy for Notre-Dame, it would entail the addition of program on the site while retaining its former appearance.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
In this diagram, a large rectangular volume is added in the place of the former spire, depicting it on its four sides.
AUTHENTIC
1 - “Maraya Concert Hall, Al-Ula, Saudi Arabia / Gio Forma.” urdesignmag, November 21, 2019. https://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2019/03/12/maraya-concert-hall-gio-forma/.
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CASE STUDY: VILLA SAVOYE POISSY, FRANCE Villa Savoye was restored in a manner that reflects a contemporary understanding of historic structures. Substantial efforts were undertaken to reinstate its former appearance as accurately as possible. The original program of the building had long been absent, and some of its notable characteristics (such as a propensity to leak) were removed. The restoration reflects that, while the Villa Savoye had been intended to frame the landscape (now a schoolyard), it has now itself become the object of focus1.
ICONIC
The philosophy of the restoration of Villa Savoye is the most compatible with the principles of the Venice Charter. Applied to the cathedral, it would reflect the desire of many to restore Notre-Dame “as it was”. The roof and spire would be restored as accurately as possible, in materials as close as possible to those of the previous restoration.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
image from Wikimedia Commons
AUTHENTIC
1 - Murphy, Kevin D. “The Villa Savoye and the Modernist Historic Monument.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 61, no. 1 (2002): 68–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/991812.
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CASE STUDY: CASTELVECCHIO MUSEUM VERONA, ITALY
ICONIC
The Castelvecchio Museum is not exactly a historic conservation project, yet it does reflect a particular attitude to historic structures. The main body of the structure was left largely untouched, and new pathways and exhibitions were added within. The additions are anchored at the floor and do not touch the walls, as a kind of separate “layer” from the rest of the structure. The new elements respond to the new program of a museum, and are not attempting to appear as a part of the prior composition1.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
Carlo Scarpa’s understanding of historic structures has interesting ramifications for the cathedral. If the same approach is taken, rather than rebuilding the elements destroyed in the fire, a new roof would be constructed in its place, without regard to the appearance of the former roof and with as little impact to the existing structure as possible. The interior would be converted into a museum of the cathedral, preserving its existing state while adding pathways to serve the new program. A new cathedral would be constructed elsewhere.
1 - Goffi-Hamilton, Federica. “Carlo Scarpa and the Eternal Canvas of Silence.” Architectural Research Quarterly 10, no. 3-4 (2006): 291–300. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1359135506000406.
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image from Wikimedia Commons
CASE STUDY: OPERA NOUVEL LYON, FRANCE The renovation of the Lyon Opera House preserved the facade of the previous theater, but expanded upwards and underground to accomodate a larger program. The experience of the previous structure was selectively interpreted by the architect, in order to reflect the unique identity of the renovated structure. image from Wikimedia Commons
ICONIC
Applying a similar strategy to the cathedral, the structure would be expanded above and below in order to better serve its program. The remaining structure would be preserved, at least visually, and selected elements of the experience of Notre-Dame would be emphasized, such as light or material. This would prove fairly invasive to the existing structure.
INVASIVE
ACCURATE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
1 - “Lyon Opera House.� Ateliers Jean Nouvel. Accessed February 4, 2020. http://www.jeannouvel.com/en/projects/opera-3/.
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HOW SHOULD WE RESTORE NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS?
“Rebuild it as it was”
“Preserve the ruin”
GENUINE
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AUTHENTIC
INVASIVE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
ICONIC
ACCURATE
ICONIC
ACCURATE
ICONIC
ACCURATE
“Make it look like Notre-Dame”
INVASIVE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
INVASIVE
“Rebuild the skeleton”
“Reinvent Notre-Dame”
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
INVASIVE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
ICONIC
ACCURATE
ICONIC
ACCURATE
ICONIC
ACCURATE
“Rebuild in the spirit of the old”
INVASIVE
GENUINE
AUTHENTIC
INVASIVE
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floor plan
1/64” = 1’
based on a drawing by Marcel Aubert 24
transverse section
1/64” = 1’
longitudinal section (single bay)
1/32” = 1’
based on drawings by Marcel Aubert 25
NOTRE-DAME DE PARIS is a living structure, subject to change. There has been no period in time where the cathedral was unequivocally ‘finished’ or ‘perfect’. Its construction was non-linear and had no exact beginning or completion, only those ascribed to it. The cathedral was not the masterful design of one great architect, but the collective creation of eleven or more master builders, and the work of innumerable stonemasons and craftsmen. It is impossible to know what the exact artistic intent was for any one of these men, most of whose names are lost to history. But a testament to the collective vision exists in stone. Through the centuries, Notre-Dame has been renovated, vandalized, restored, neglected, venerated, and nearly destroyed. These events attest not only to the resiliency of the cathedral, but of the French people, who have built and rebuilt on the site for rather more than a thousand years; therein lies the authenticity of NotreDame. In reconstructing its roof and spire, we should reflect Notre-Dame de Paris as it is and always was; in doing so, not to design but to reiterate. Rather than attempting to replicate that which was lost, in pursuit of accuracy over authenticity, we should continue the living legacy of Notre-Dame. We should not seek to embalm Our Lady of Paris before her demise.
Viollet-le-Duc wrote against the use of modern materials in restoration work, citing the risk of chemical or mechanic reactions between components of different materials1. However, the wooden roofs of several other cathedrals, notably that of Notre-Dame de Chartres, have been replaced with iron framing; in the case of Chartres, it was also due to a fire. Since our knowledge of materials has since greatly advanced, the use of lighter, stronger materials holds no disadvantages (other than philosophic concerns) and considerable advantage. The degree of soundness of the stone buttresses of the Cathedral of Paris will not be known until the scaffolding has been carefully removed, and their ability to bear weight may be compromised2. Steel framing for the roof and spire presents the best solution for reducing the load on the existing structure, as well as effectively eliminating the risk of fire, and will likely be significantly less costly than attempting to replicate the ‘forest’ of timbers. The leaden cladding of the roof cannot be duplicated without a disregard for health, and thus ceramic tiles of the correct color seem most suitable, or perhaps treated metal. The aforementioned materials must, however, be employed in a manner that is consistent with the rest of the cathedral’s construction.
1 - Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. The Architectural Theory of Viollet-Le-Duc: Readings and Commentary. Edited by Millard Fillmore. Hearn. Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press, 1995.
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AD QUADRATUM as well as ad triangulum, are names given to a system of geometry and design used in the building of large medieval structures. The technique was a closely-guarded secret of the free (not guild affiliated) masons, with which one can derive an elevation from the plan view1. It was not then common practice to draw to a certain scale, as there was no universal system of measures at the time, meaning that each region would have its own set of units. Thus, drawings of the time were more often proportionate than scaled; and calipers, rather than the yardstick, was the tool of the architect2. By employing this system, various schemes may be derived that all satisfy the same parameters, and so are consistent with the rest of the cathedral. These all have the potential to be authentic iterations of the elements of the cathedral, despite being different than any previous constructions. Following this, I have derived two elementary schemes for a reconstructed spire (the form of the roof is constrained by the other geometry), which could be further developed into authentic iterations. Lund, Frederick Macody. Ad Quadratum: a Study of the Geometrical Bases of Classic and Medieval Religious Architecture, 1921. Plate VI. 1 - Frankl, Paul. “The Secret of the Mediaeval Masons.” The Art Bulletin 27, no. 1 (1945): 46. https://doi.org/10.2307/3046979. 2 - Bucher, François. “Medieval Architectural Design Methods, 800-1560.” Gesta 11, no. 2 (1972): 37–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/766593.
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plan view at base of spire (based on a drawing by Viollet-le-Duc)
2
2
octagon rotated 45 degrees and inset 1
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1
plan view at base of spire 2
2
1
vesica piscis overlayed 1
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bandarin, Francesco. “Notre Dame Should Be Rebuilt as It Was.” The Art Newspaper. The Art Newspaper, April 30, 2019. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/comment/notre-dame-should-be-rebuilt-as-it-was-says-a-former-director-of-unesco-s-world-heritage-centre. Bandarin, Francesco. “Inside Notre Dame: a Blow-by-Blow Account of the Restoration Process.” The Art Newspaper. The Art Newspaper, September 30, 2019. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/analysis/inside-notre-dame-a-blow-by-blow-account-of-work-on-the-fire-ravaged-cathedral. Bandarin, Francesco. “New Law Regarding Notre Dame Says Restoration Must Preserve Its ‘Historic, Artistic and Architectural Interest’.” The Art Newspaper. The Art Newspaper, August 7, 2019. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/analysis/it-s-official-the-new-notre-dame-will-look-like-theold-notre-dame. Barthel, Diane. “Historic Preservation: A Comparative Analyses.” Sociological Forum 4, no. 1 (1989): 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/ bf01112618. Bony, Jean. French Gothic Architecture of the 12th and 13th Centuries. Berkeley u.a.: Univ. of California Pr., 1983. Bruzelius, Caroline. “The Construction of Notre-Dame in Paris.” The Art Bulletin 69, no. 4 (1987): 540-569. Bucher, François. “Medieval Architectural Design Methods, 800-1560.” Gesta 11, no. 2 (1972): 37–51. https://doi.org/10.2307/766593. Byrne, J. Peter. “Historic Preservation and Its Cultured Despisers: Reflections on the Contemporary Role of Preservation Law in Urban Development.” SSRN Electronic Journal, 2012. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2013278. Cevat, Erder. “The Venice Charter under Review.” Journal of Faculty of Architecture, 1977. Chelazzi, D., R. Giorgi, and P. Baglioni. “Materials and Methods for the Conservation of Cultural Heritage.” Conserving Cultural Heritage, 2018, 3–6. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315158648-1. Cloonan, Michèle Valerie. “The Paradox of Preservation.” Library Trends 56, no. 1 (2007): 133–47. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2007.0047. Cohen, S. M. “Identity, Persistence, and the Ship of Theseus.” Department of Philosophy, University of Washington (http://faculty. washington. edu/smcohen/320/theseus.html) (2004). Frankl, Paul. “The Secret of the Mediaeval Masons.” The Art Bulletin 27, no. 1 (1945): 46. https://doi.org/10.2307/3046979. Goffi-Hamilton, Federica. “Carlo Scarpa and the Eternal Canvas of Silence.” Architectural Research Quarterly 10, no. 3-4 (2006): 291–300. https:// doi.org/10.1017/s1359135506000406. Jokilehto, Jukka. “Questions of Authenticity Concerning Different Cultures and Preservation.” Preserving Transcultural Heritage: Your Way or My Way?, 2017, 27–36. https://doi.org/10.30618/978-989-658-467-2_02.
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Kisacky, Jeanne. “History and Science: Julien-David Leroys ‘Dualistic Method of Architectural History.’” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 60, no. 3 (2001): 260–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/991756. Labadi, Sophia. “Representations of the nation and cultural diversity in discourses on World Heritage.” Journal of Social Archaeology 7, no. 2 (2007): 147-170. Lund, Frederick Macody. Ad Quadratum: a Study of the Geometrical Bases of Classic and Medieval Religious Architecture, with Special Reference to Their Application in the Restoration of the Cathedral of Nidaros (Throndhjem), Norway. London: Batsford, 1921. Munoz-Vinas, Salvador. “Contemporary Theory of Conservation,” 2012. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080476834. Murphy, Kevin D. Memory and Modernity: Viollet-Le-Duc at Vézelay. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000. Murphy, Kevin D. “The Villa Savoye and the Modernist Historic Monument.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 61, no. 1 (2002): 68–89. https://doi.org/10.2307/991812. O’Reilly, Elizabeth Boyle. How France Built Her Cathedrals: a Study in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. New York: Harper, 1921. Ruskin, John. The Seven Lamps of Architecture; Lectures on Architecture and Painting. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1885. Schaeffer, Jeffrey. “Notre Dame Rector: Fragile Cathedral Might Not Be Saved.” AP NEWS. Associated Press, December 25, 2019. https://apnews.com/48fee6c01627bca5f212c0f2e35d81cf. Starn, Randolph. “Authenticity and Historic Preservation: towards an Authentic History.” History of the Human Sciences 15, no. 1 (2002): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695102015001070. Szegedy-Maszak, Andrew. “A Perfect Ruin: Nineteenth-Century Views of the Colosseum.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, Third Series, 2, no. 1 (1992): 115-42. Accessed February 12, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/20163509. Temko, Allan. Notre Dame of Paris: the Biography of a Cathedral, 1955. Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. The Architectural Theory of Viollet-Le-Duc: Readings and Commentary. Edited by Millard Fillmore. Hearn. Cambridge Mass.: The MIT Press, 1995. Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. Dictionnaire raisonné De Larchitecture française Du XIe Au XVIe siècle. Vol. V. Paris: Ve A. Morel & Cie, 1875. Wu, Nancy Y. Ad Quadratum: the Practical Application of Geometry in Medieval Architecture. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2016. “Construction History | Notre-Dame De Paris.” Notre-Dame de Paris. Accessed May 16, 2019. https://www.notredamedeparis.fr/en/la-cathedrale/histoire/historique-de-la-construction/. “Lyon Opera House.” Ateliers Jean Nouvel. Accessed February 4, 2020. http://www.jeannouvel.com/en/projects/opera-3/.
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“Maraya Concert Hall, Al-Ula, Saudi Arabia / Gio Forma.” urdesignmag, November 21, 2019. https://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2019/03/12/maraya-concert-hall-gio-forma/. “Medieval Ruins - Anno Museum.” Domkirkeodden. Accessed February 17, 2020. https://domkirkeodden.no/en/medieval-ruins. “Notre-Dame Fire: Macron Says New Cathedral Will Be ‘more Beautiful’.” BBC News. April 17, 2019. Accessed May 17, 2019. https://www.bbc. com/news/world-europe-47957400.
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IMAGES (in order of appearance)
12. “Barcelona Pavilion.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, December 29, 2019. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona_Pavilion. File:BarcelonaPavilion.jpg by Ashley Pomeroy at English Wikipedia, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12138750 16. “Anno Museum.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, April 13, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Museum. File:Annomuseum.jpg by Torstein Frogner - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=24536731 18. “Maraya Concert Hall.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 24, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maraya_Concert_Hall. File:maraya_al-ula.jpg by Pteropus conspicillatus - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=76456681 19. “Villa Savoye.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 24, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Savoye. File:VillaSavoye.jpg by valueyou’ - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=65111146 20. “Castelvecchio Museum.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 31, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CastelVecchio_Museum. File:Verona,castelvecchio,museo1.jpg by Sailko - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=43368562 21. “Opera Nouvel.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, April 13, 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Museum. File:Lyon Opera 2.jpg by Chabe01 - Own work, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=85233912 24-25. Drawings based on the work of Marcel Aubert, as depicted in: Temko, Allan. Notre Dame of Paris: the Biography of a Cathedral, 1955. 27. Lund, Frederick Macody. Ad Quadratum: a Study of the Geometrical Bases of Classic and Medieval Religious Architecture, 1921. Plate VI 28-29. Drawing based on a depiction of the base of the spire of Notre-Dame de Paris, under ‘Fleche’ Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel. Dictionnaire raisonné De Larchitecture française Du XIe Au XVIe siècle. Vol. V. Paris: Ve A. Morel & Cie, 1875. All other images are my own work.
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