The influence of chemistry teaching on its image From primary school to university: main obstacles to apprehending chemistry
SUMMARY From its discovery at school to its professional practice, be it chemistry or music, apprehending a subject matter lies on four recurring and essential poles: the painfulness of the learnings, the pleasure of the practice, the interest of the acquired knowledge and the personal dynamics of the pupil. We will show that between “coded theoretical subject matter”, “disembodied magical show”, “irrelevant field of study” and “career out of reach”, the image of chemistry can only suffer from a wobble between the attentions that its teaching grants to these poles. Through this analysis grid, studying school programs allows us to have a better understanding of the influence that chemistry teaching may have had on its image for the past two decades, for those who approached it by this sole angle. Complex and paradoxical, there lies in chemistry specific hurdles, that cause all kinds of impediments (didactical, epistemological, cognitive, affective…) regarding its learning. Understanding this set of data allows us to imagine inventive threads capable of halting the negative effects produced, by teaching, in the relationship between students and “future citizens former pupils” with chemistry. KEY WORDS Image, loss of interest, teaching, hurdles, pleasure, questioning, links, meaning, sol-fa, love of music, calling
By Richard-Emmanuel Eastes Ecole normale supérieure (Paris) Laboratoire de didactique et d’épistémologie des sciences (Genève) Commission Chimie & Société (Paris)
INTRODUCTION Every child has always dreamt of laying his hands on a “chemist starter kit”, or of having a real chemist paying a visit at his school. Everybody, as a child, has tried, in the isolation offered by the sudden and momentary absence of the parents, to mix food and household cleaners, just to watch the transformations at work. Sometimes, even wishing for an explosion to happen (figure 1)… There is only one source to these early cravings and conduct, innate and impulsive: “carrying out tests”, playing with matter to understand how it behaves.
Figure 1: Young chemists “playing”.
Youngsters have no biased opinion either when it comes to the image of chemistry. Go and ask children or teenagers and you’ll almost immediately find it out. Even if they sometimes link words like chemistry and pollution, acting as mere echoes of media or family discussions, they are perfectly aware that chemistry is useful for producing household cleaners and medicine, for instance. Still, talking to their parents or with neighbors is less uplifting. Just tell them you are a chemist and you will be astonished by the recurrence of the reaction: “Oh, chemistry… I always hated it. I never understood anything! Too unclear, too mysterious, and not explicit enough…”. If you test their knowledge on the subject, then again, you will be amazed to see that absolutely nothing remains from what they were taught at school. They don’t have the slightest consistent recollection, they don’t remember the easiest formalisms, they can’t even tell the difference between an atom and a molecule… So what went wrong between these two extremes, from childhood to adulthood? How can we interpret the fact that what was exhilaration for chemistry as an experimental science in the beginning, has faded away because of a rebuff for its language and its laws? And this, despite the repeated efforts of conceivers of school programs, and even chemists themselves, to try to make the subject more appealing. How can we understand this dislike that disheartens us, us chemists that are stimulated by transformations of matter, regardless of the difficulties that we had to go through, learning symbolic notations and the models describing them? Could it be that scientific education, provided from school system and professionals of scientific culture alike, would have a role to play – or at least a responsibility – when it comes to building and safeguarding the image of chemistry?
All along this article, we will try to dig out some clues for later consideration and to put some drafts forward on these crucial questions. Indeed, they have to do with the image of our subject matter to the public, but they also deal with the students’ loss of interest for chemistry university studies.
APPREHENDING A SUBJECT MATTER: A FOUR-POLES PROCESS From its discovery at school to its professional practice, apprehending a subject matter lies on very similar fundamentals. Here, taking music as an analogy (figure 2) will allow us to have better comprehension of what is at stake in the discovery of chemistry and the act of getting closer to its language, for a pupil that has never had any particular preparation before having his first lesson on the subject. In this metaphor, we single out four major recurring points, which can be completed with a fifth one, somehow special, that we will only comment in passing. Their respective importances will lead us to consider them as “poles”. Effort (the sol-fa) The first pole that cannot be ignored and which is specific to any subject matter is the effort and the painfulness of the basic teachings. To be sure, chemistry is not the only subject matter where one has to go through daunting or even tiresome teachings: it is the same whether the score is scientific, literary or artistic (and one can even think of sports): one must study some sol-fa in order to become a good musician.
Figure 2: A score hard to decipher…
Therein lies the right question: what are the main obstacles in this study of sol-fa, which, troubling the youngsters’ understanding of chemistry, ends up driving them away from our subject matter and gets them to forget the pleasure of the experiment that stirred them in an almost inborn manner? As early as secondary school, and although he hasn’t chosen a career orientation, a pupil has to be able to recognize a chemical reaction. He must also have learned to operate the concepts that rule it. He must have figured out how to illustrate such a phenomenon, and finally he must have become familiar with the language that makes it possible to communicate one’s knowledge of it. Still, the reaction equation, which allows the passage from experimental observation to modeling thanks to the atomic and molecular scale, is indeed an awfully difficult concept. The scientific community hasn’t made it up just out of the blue, and mastering it requires a great deal of abstraction. As such, significant work into reflection, repetition and memorization are needed and cannot be overlooked. Chemistry suffers also from an overwhelming number of startling implicits, and to make this point, I’d like to use as an example something that happened to me at the University of Geneva. I was there giving a seminar called “Teaching environment” to future teachers of primary school. After having written on the black board a really plain catalytic cycle describing the destruction of the ozone layer by CFCs, I was simplifying the summary equation, taking off a chlorine atom on both sides (figure 3). When all of a sudden, a student got the nerve to ask me something that later made me deeply consider our implicits. She said: “Isn’t the chlorine always there?”1.
Cl + O3 ClO + O3
ClO + O2 Cl + 2 O2
--------------------------------------------------
Cl + 2 O3
3 O2 + Cl
Figure 3: Plain catalytic cycle of ozone destruction.
In the sol-fa of chemistry more than in any other, hurdles are abundant… Is it that obvious that the formula H2O shows that the water molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one of oxygen? Wouldn’t it be possible to think, instinctively, that “H2O” means “1H + 2O”? Is the concept of mole that intuitive for it to be used as easily by the pupils as the concept of angles in mathematics? Does anybody know all the specifics, as a matter of fact? For instance, does anyone here know why we use the letters K, L and M, to designate the layers of the hydrogen atom emission spectrum? A very restricted number of pupils really seem to enjoy these basic learnings. You were probably one of them, but I can’t take you as an example since you probably became a chemist. The issue here concerns the ones that never chose this career…In most cases, pleasure has to come from somewhere else in order to make up for the painfulness of the effort made. 1
It is worth noting that this implicit is also present in mathematics.
Pleasure (the interpretation and the writing of music) The concept of pleasure, in fact, forms the second pole of apprehending a subject matter. In the beginning, with secondary school students, it is essentially linked to the practice of chemistry. Since the practicals as well as the mere act of solving problems cannot be seen as potentially delightful to the pupil who isn’t already passionate, the teacher can use the playful and spectacular characteristics of lab works (figure 4).
Figure 4: A classical “spectacular” experiment, the combustion of potassium in water. Photography: S. Querbes and Les Atomes Crochus for Lancôme International
In music, this pole is linked to the interpretation of tuneful, pleasant or virtuosic passages. But beyond the interpretation, writing music can also be a source of great pleasure. And in fact, concerning the university student, the practice of chemistry is improved with the pleasure of adding one’s creativity, from early research trainings to the preparation of his lessons as lecturer (or even during secret manipulations in his basement!). Interpreting and writing in chemistry are capable of making up for the effort made by the pupil, at least in part, and thus plays a part in his drive to learn the subject matter, to try to understand its meanings and commit to it. Now for the future non-chemist citizen, beyond the memory of a funny and pleasant chemistry, this understanding is without question the definite requirement to be able to have a fair and balanced image of it. But we still need to find out if the joy of playing an instrument is always able to make up for the hassle of sight-reading the score. And still before that, the difficulties of the teachings of sol-fa, distinguishing a major seventh chord or spotting the movement from a major to a minor mood… Interest (the love of music) It would be very naive to focus only on pleasure to find motivations to commit to a subject matter. Soon enough, the young musician finds a personal interest in playing his instrument and studying sol-fa. Either because his new skills allow him to perform before friends, either because he receives awards and honors from school or the academy of music. He even begins to listen to recordings of well-known performers and gets inspiration from them. He becomes a music lover. Even if the expression doesn’t always exist in the different fields, this love of music has its counterparts and it is related to the interest that the pupil displays for the culture of the subject. This interest forms the third of the four poles that ultimately are involved in the image of the subject matter.
In the field of chemistry, music love guides the pupil to conference rooms, and eventually to reading related popularized books. Through the links that he shapes between the theoretical knowledge and its use, between chemistry and other fields, between his own life and what he is asked for, he starts to incorporate meaning in this science, of which he nevertheless fails to grasp the extent. He starts to understand little by little where the laws and concepts which he becomes familiar with come from. He also learns that the dreadful consequences of chemistry have remedies that can be found in chemistry itself. It comes as no surprise that this perfect pupil, even if he doesn’t end up as a chemist, will be able to have a clear opinion on big issues related to chemistry. He’ll know his way through scientism and “anti-chemistry” misinformation. Personal dynamics (the calling) Hence, is this pupil going to choose to study chemistry at university, whereas he is likely to have reached the same maturity in other subjects, be them scientific or not? And if he does choose chemistry, what are the reasons? This is where the fourth pole comes about. I like to call it the personal dynamics of the pupil. More than love of music or pleasure, it is more a question of harmony between the subject matter as a whole and what the youngster wants to do with his life. Conformity between his aspirations, his ideals, his ambitions, his competence to work and what chemistry can bring to him. In other words, the music lover will chose to make a career out of his passion only when he knows that he has a musician soul, that is, when he discovers a genuine calling for music (figure 5).
Figure 5: Birth of love of chemistry... Photography: S. Querbes and Les Atomes Crochus for Lancôme International
How does the aforementioned bright student eventually feel that he has a “chemist soul”? There are several and varied reasons: practical (length of studies, way of life), financial (hopes of a good salary), but very often philosophical and ethical as well (will to play a role in the advancement of knowledge, search of an absolute through the creation of new molecules, desire to commit oneself in a field that unlocks prospects of regulation in great social and environmental issues). Maybe the loss of interest for science studies in general, and chemistry in particular, could be interpreted later on in terms of unsuitability with youngsters’ personal dynamics. A lead that would be interesting to follow… (Assessment) Having submitted these ideas to a colleague of mine, a didactician, she immediately mentioned the gap that remained in this four-pole structure of apprehending subject matters. This idea is vital, and it could very well form a fifth pole: the pole of assessment in class. This may be the most sensitive topic to be handled by academics, and we shall not discuss it here. But in any case, we cannot forget that an ill considered assessment can actually crush a pupil’s will to learn even if in some cases, unfortunately very rare, trying to please the teacher in a next exam can be a source of motivation.
MANAGING POLES, IMAGE, AND LOSS OF INTEREST As we just saw, each of these poles is vital when it comes to building a fair and balanced image of chemistry in our society, or to incite professional calling. Without music notation there is no musician, without pleasure, no commitment on the long term, without love of music and a culture of the subject matter, no interest for the field of study, and without suitability with personal dynamics, no calling. A crucial balance From the point of view of teaching, there needs to be a fair balance between attentions given by the educational system to each of the poles. If stress is put on music notation, then chemistry might appear as a coded and daunting subject matter. On the other hand, representing it only in a playful and spectacular fashion, there is a risk of turning it into a disembodied magical show. If we do not try to develop a real chemistry culture, supplying meaning to it, then pupils might end up remembering it as a subject with no interest whatsoever. Last but not least, we must bear in mind their yearnings and values, or else, we condemn chemistry to becoming a career out of reach, or “fit for others”. First of all, let us focus on the pupil who will not end up as a chemist. Regarding the image he will have of chemistry, a balance has to be found mainly between the first three poles. That is, the pleasure taken in the practice of chemistry, the painfulness of the effort required to become familiar with it, and the construction of a real meaning. Seen from this point of view, our community’s desire to relate to daily life, to show its benefits, to turn it into a fascinating, even playful and dramatic science, is genuine… but it’s not enough. On two accounts, actually. On the one hand, we must mention the strain of music notation and not try to make pupils think that it is simpler than it is. On the other hand, we cannot cover up the dreadful consequences tied to the advancement of chemistry. This last pole seems to me of the utmost importance. We often hear about the need to give a “positive image of chemistry”. Yet an image cannot be forced from the outside, or maybe only in totalitarian regimes. An image has to be built from within, in due knowledge and in due responsibility. Then again, we cannot avoid the unpleasant facts or the ones that give chemistry a
bad name. Only thus we can keep up-to-date, fix the mistakes that appear and most of all remain believable. In other words, making chemistry an attractive subject matter without all together trying to ease the basic teachings and developing a clear view of the world, is like putting a cast on a wooden leg. And even worse, it is the certainty of preparing the pupil to a severe disillusionment when, after having been attracted by the lights of a flashy chemistry, he’ll notice the hard truth: it is impossible to escape to the rigorous rules of stereochemistry, or to the strenuous chemical thermodynamics. He will also learn soon enough through media, that between doping, drugs, environmental and industrial disasters, chemical weapon… chemistry can also kill. Beyond the question of image, in order to stir calling, considering these three poles has to be completed with a special attention to the fourth, the pupils’ yearnings, their values, and their personal dynamics. Then again, it is deceptive to “charm” students with the benefits of chemistry or the shiny attires of a magical show. Alluring them is not sufficient to train, to orient them towards scientific studies, to turn them into professionals. In order to attract youngsters to chemistry, we need to understand them, and then try to show them that it has a part to play in their future and in the world’s. Role of the school and the chemists’ community Easing basic teachings, stirring the pleasure to learn, helping develop an analytical view on the world, arouse callings… these are, in an ideal world, the roles that should play school and teaching in general. The task being immensely demanding, we should be able to relate to informal scientific education to assist school, not necessarily with basic instruction, but at least regarding the three other poles. And I’m thinking here about museums, centers for scientific technical and industrial culture, societies, corporations, media, commitment of the scientific communities themselves (figure 6)…
Figure 6: An example of action led by chemists, the American Chemical Society Large Event guide.
So what are the facts? At this stage, we need to add a point: people tend to put all ills on teaching, and as a result, to scoff all flip-flops of the school programs of the past years. Deductive or inductive approach, an overwhelming acido-basicity, or even “the great outdoors chemistry”... It is useless to feed this polemic, it only serves to hinder the main topic. To make things simpler, we can consider two tendencies over the past two decades, at least in France. Focusing on sol-fa as a starting point, chemistry at school improved little by little. It started to relate more an more with daily life. As a matter of fact, until the nineteen-nineties, it was seen as an equal of mathematics, a theoretical, abstract and coded subject matter. Of course lessons were livened up with demonstrations and experiments, but they were unconvincing and vaguely practical at best, and its teaching was getting further and further from its natural condition of experimental science. Then, approach became inductive. Probably thanks to a real pedagogical will as well as broader means, programs changed. They related to experimentation to teach theory and they related to daily life as a basis for experimentation. We mentioned four poles earlier. And indeed, two of them were then taken into account. Nowadays, a third one is starting to be taken into consideration: pleasure. In order to turn chemistry into an attractive, fun and spectacular subject, experiments finally seem useful. Teachers’ gatherings are held so that they can trade their latest brainwaves. Finally, popularization of chemistry is called upon and there is no doubt that it can be full of surprises and cheerfulness. Safeguarding a frail balance All would be well, then, in the best possible world? The only thing to do would be to listen very carefully to pupils so as to hear their hidden yearnings and help them find their chemist’s calling? Not quite, as drifts are a real threat. Even though chemistry teaching went through long years of theoretical and abstract programs, as well as a boring and deductive approach, we must not turn our lessons into sessions of propaganda to advocate our subject matter. Most of all, even if we focus mainly on the pleasure of practice, we cannot abandon sol-fa. In other words, it is not through thinning the painfulness of the basic teachings that the pleasure element has to be developed. Quite the reverse, pleasure has to come on top of it, to make up for the effort, or even from it, from the painfulness and the effort… See what happened to the Yamaha method in the nineteen-seventies. It claimed that any child could learn the piano only through memorization and without the need for music notation. It failed, of course. A chemistry teaching that would be too appealing or only based on fascination would never allow us to reach our targets. It would hinder the real difficulties that would pop up sooner or later on the path of the pupil.
CONCLUSION It is difficult to reach a balance between these four (five) poles, but it is even more tricky to maintain it. We should always bear in mind the importance of each and every one of them, and try to find solutions to take them more into consideration. In order to do so, the approaches are plentiful and many of them have already been depicted. As far as we are concerned, we think that scientific popularization is full of tools and methods and it represents an inextinguishable source to enliven chemistry teaching. On a small scale, even though it is impossible to wipe sol-fa out of our teachings, there is something that can be done to ease its learning. It seems that it has never been tried. For there is something where we can find school programs at fault (and it goes for all subject matters), they have been conceived by gifted teachers… that is, former gifted students, fascinated by their field of study and
fit for school. These talented pupils never had clashes with authority since schooling never really challenged their references, this is why they never had problems “studying sol-fa” either. Among possible solutions, it is worth mentioning the expansion of “pedagogical models” (figure 7), “phenomenological approaches”, uplifting effort and personal work, as well as the expansion of non-summative and non-devastating assessment methods…
Figure 7: An example of pedagogical model, the mass spectrometer. (A. Gassener in J. Deferne, Le monde etrange des atomes, La Nacelle, Paris, 1994).
On a broader scale, in order to build and maintain a fair image of chemistry, it must become inevitable for the pupil that will one day become a citizen. Teaching it has to become a landmark to understand the stakes of this subject matter in our society. How can this be achieved? Through commitment in his learning, showing him that he needs a scientific culture, and thus a chemist one, to have answers to crucial questioning. Only then he will accept to study sol-fa. The infant, when he wants to walk, agrees to fall sometimes.
Richard-Emmanuel Eastes Ecole normale supérieure 45, rue d'Ulm - 75005 Paris - France Laboratoire de didactique et d’épistémologie des sciences Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Education Université de Genève – Suisse Commission Chimie & Société (Paris) Tel : 33 1 47 40 74 30 - Fax : 33 1 47 40 74 31 E-mail: emmanuel.eastes@ens.fr Personnal page: http://eastes.free.fr/reeastes.htm